UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES GIFT OF Chula Vista Public Library 10124 THE AR: NTENNI" 'T PICTORIAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. THE DISCOVERT OF THE AMERICAN CONTINENT 10 THE PRESENT TIME. EMBRACING ' <\ Account of the Mound Builders; the American Indians; the Discoveries and Fxplorations of the Norsemen. Spaniards, English and French; the Settlement of the New World ; the Gradual Growth of the Colonies; The French and Indian Wars ; the Struggle of the Revolution ; the Establishment of the American Republic; the Second War with England; the Mexican War; the Long Period of Peace; the History of the Great Civil War; the Reconstruction of the Union ; the Centennial of our Independence; the Assassination and Death of President Garfield ; the Inauguration of President Arthur, and down to the Present Time. BY JAMES D. MCCABE, AtTHOR OF "\ MANUAL OF GENERAL HISTORY," "PATHWAYS OF THF. HOLY LAND," "THE GRF.AT REPVBLtr," "THE PICTORIAL HISTORY OF THE WORLD," ETC., ETC. EMBELLISHED WITH OVER 500 FINE HISTORICAL ENGRAVINGS AND PORTRAITS. sued by subscript!' >n only, and not for sale in the book stores. Residents of any State desiring a copy should address the Publishers, and an Agent will call upon them. PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL PUBLISHING CO., PHILADELPHIA, PA , CHICAGO, ILL, ST. LOUS, Ml) . AND ATLANTA, GA. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1ST', by J. R. JONES, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. Copyrighted by J. R. JONES. 1877. S5 O i s 1*7? PREFACE. HERE is nothing more worthy of a man's study than the history of his country. In our own land, however, the means of pursuing such a study are limited. Our great cities contain large and valuable public libraries, and }he collections of our historical societies are rich and very com- plete ; but these-are accessible only to the communities in which hey are located, and are practically useless to the majority of the American people. The great works of Bancroft and Hildreth cover but a portion of our history, and are removed from the reach of the masses by reason of their costliness. Besides these, the larger number of the works treating of Ameri- can history are compendiums, or outlines intended for the use irf schools, and are therefore unsatisfactory to the adult reader. The demand for a popular History of the United States which shall fill a place between these greater and smaller works has led the author to the preparation of this volume. He has endeavored to popularize the story of the nation, and at the same time to negJect nothing that could in the least contribute to a clear and comprehensive understanding of the subject. He has sought to trace the history of the Republic from the dis- covery of the American continent to the present day, and has endeavored especially to fix the attention of the reader upon the various influences which have aided in moulding our national character, and have produced those distinctive political and moral national traits which we call " American Institu- 462979 4 PREFACE. tions." He has endeavored to write from a broad national standpoint, and to cultivate in the minds of his readers that feeling of national patriotism which must ever be the safeguard of our country. It is a fitting time to consider the story of the past, to learn the lessons which it touches, and to ponder the warnings which it conveys for the future. On the 4th of July, 187G, the United States of America completed the first century of their national existence. The people of this country can look hack upon this period with pride, and in this feeling may justly embrace the whole course of our history. Less than four hundred years ago America was an unknown wilderness. Less than three centuries ago it passed into the hands of England, and was thus secured for the language and the free influences of the all-conquering Anglo-Saxon race. It was a precious heritage which was thus secured for liberty; a land stretching from the frozen regions of the north to the sunny skies of the tropics, from the stormy Atlantic to the calm Pacific ; a land embracing every variety of climate, and a soil capable of producing almost every product of the earth, from the stunted herbage of the frozen regions to the luxuriant fruits of the tropics. The earth is rich in mineral deposits, from the homely, but invaluable, veins of coal, to beds of the most brilliant and precious minerals. It pours out in streams, oil for burning, gas that may be used fresh from the natural springs, salt that requires but the heat of the sun for its perfection, and beds of pure soda that cover the earth like the dust in the highways. In short, all that is needed for the preservation and comfort of animal and human life exists in this favored land in the greatest profusion. Such is the land designed by God for the home of liberty. The people to whom He has intrusted it have not abused His PREFACE. f, goodness. In the short space of two centuries, the American people have grown from a small handful of hardy adventurers to a "mighty continental nation," increasing with a rapidity that is almost marvellous. They have built up their countr, on a scale of magnificence of which they are justly proud. They have covered it with powerful and free States, and splen- did cities, connected by a network of railways, telegraphs, navigable rivers, and canals, which bind all the scattered parts into one solid whole. They have made a commerce and a system of manufactures before which the fabled wealth of Tyre sinks into insignificance. The}'' have created a literature which commands the respect of the world ; they have illus- trated their history with deeds of arms not less splendid than their more peaceful achievements, and have given to the world names in every walk of life that will never die. They have shown that liberty and power can go hand in hand ; they have made themselves a nation in which God is feared, and of which Christianity is the basis, in which ignorance and vice are despised, and in which the great lesson that liberty is possible only to an educated and virtuous people is being practically demonstrated. This is a grand history a record of the highest achievements of humanity the noblest, most thrilling, and glorious story ever penned on earth. Yet the fact remains that the great masa of the American people are but imperfectly acquainted with it. There is a real need that we should know better than we do what we have done. It is only by a thoughtful study of our past that we can safely provide for the perils of the future. We have triumphed over adversity, and we are now called upon to bear the test of success. He can be no good citizen who is ignorant of his country's history. In the preparation of this volume no authority of importance PREPACK lias been overlooked ; the author has carefully searched every source of information open to him; and has availed himself of every fact that could throw new light upon, or impart addi- tional interest to, the subject under consideration. In the narration of military events, he has preferred to give each campaign as a whole rather than to mingle several by presenting the events in chronological order. At the same tiiris he has sought to preserve the inter-relation of events in one field of operations to those in the others. An honest effort has been made to do justice to both sections in the relation of the events of the civil war, and it is believed that each will admit the fairness and accuracy of the narrative. The author has made no attempt to intrude his own political views upon the reader, and has constantly kept in mind the purpose which has guided his labors to write a national history free from sectional or partisan bias, which shall be acceptable to the whole country. The book is offered to the public in the sincere hope that it may induce its readers to take to heart the lessons which our history teaches, and to set a higher value upon the precious heritage of constitutional liberty which our fathers won for us with their blood, and handed down to us in trust for our children's children. In order that the work may present a complete account of the achievements of the century, a detailed description of the International Centennial Exhibition is given in the form of an Appendix. It is believed that this will materially increase the value of the book, since it offers \o the reader, in a convenient and compact form, a memorial of the great crowning event of our first century of national existence. July Uth, 1879. '/}/ L/L'U 4is-e-v ^"2/^^^^^^i y ^~*^^^A^ SIGNATURES OF THE SIGNERS Or THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS. Earliest Inhabitants of the United States The Mound Builders Remarkable Works constructed by them Evidences of a Primitive Civilization Indications of the An- tiquity of this Period The American Indians Divisions of the Country- among the Tribes Names and Location of the various Tribes Organization and Goverr ment of the Indians Their Dress, Manners, and Customs Villages Indian In- ventions The War Dance Legends of the Norsemen respecting the Discovery of America ** CHAPTER II. THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. Maritime Enterprise in the Fifteenth Century Theories respecting the Earth's Surface Christopher Columbus His early Life His Theory of a Western Pas- sage to India His Struggles to obtain the means of making a Voyage Is aided by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain His first Voyage Discovery of America- Reception in Spain His second Voyage Settlement of Hayti Third Voyage of Columbus He reaches the Mainland Discovery of Gold in Hayti Troubles in the Colony Columbus sent to Spain in Irons Indignation of the Queen- --Last Voyage of Columbus His Shipwreck Returns to Spain Refusal of Ferdinand to comply with his Promises Death of Columbus Amerigo Vespucci Origin of the name AMERICA ^ CHAPTER III. ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCOVERIES. Discovery of the North American Continent by John Cabot Voyages of Sebastian Cabot The English fail to follow up these Discoveries Efforts of the French to explore America Voyage and Discoveries of Verfazzani Cartier explores the St Lawrence Reaches Montreal Efforts to found a Colony on the St. Lawrence- Failure Roberval's Colony Trading Voyages Explorations of Champlain Colonization of Nova Scotia Founding of Quebec Discovery of Lake Champlain Arrival of the Jesuits in Canada Death of Champlain - 57 g CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. Settlement of the West Indies Discovery of the Pacific Ocean Voyage of Magellan Discovery of Florida Ponce de Leon's Search for the Fountain of Youth Vazquez de Ayllon Kidnaps a Cargo of Indians Effort of Paraphilo de Narvaez to Conquer Florida A Terrible March The Voyage on the Gulf of Mexico Fate of the Fleet Escape of Cabeza de Vaca and his Comrades Discovery of New Mexico Ferdinand de Soto Obtains leave to Conquer Florida Sails from Spain Arrival in Cuba Departure for Florida Landing at Tampa Bay Events o f the first Year De Soto enters Georgia Descends the Alabama Battle of Mavilla Destruction of Chickasaw Sufferings of the Spaniards Discovery of the Mississippi The Spaniards Cross the Great River De Soto in Arkansas Reaches the Missi:-- sippi again Sickness and Death of De Soto His Burial Escape of his Followers to Mexico The Huguenot Colony in Carolina Its Failure The French Settle in Florida Wrath of Philip II. Melendez ordered to Exterminate the Huguenots- Foundation of St. Augustine Massacre of the French at Fort Carolina The Ven- geance of De Gourges. CHAPTER V. THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONY. The English Claim to America Voyages of Frobisher Exploits of Sir Francis Drake Sir Humphrey Gilbert Intends to found a Colony in America Is lost at Sea Sir Walter Raleigh obtains a Patent of Colonization Discoveries of Amidas and Barlow Raleigh sends out a Colony to Virginia Settlement on Roanoke Island Its Failure Arrival of Grenville Second Effort of Raleigh to Colonize V'rginia Roanoke Island again Settled The "City of Raleigh" Vir- ginia Dare Fate of the Colony Death of Raleigh Other Voyages of the English.. CHAPTER VI. THE SETTLEMENT OP VIRGINIA. Formation of the London Company Conditions of its Charter Departure of the first Colony Quarrels during the Voyage Arrival in the Chesapeake Settlement of Jamestown Formation of the Government 'Character of Captain John Smith- Exploration of the James River Newport and Smith visit Powhatan Smith Admitted to the Government Explores the Chickahominy Is Captured and Sen- tenced to Death Is Saved by Pocahontas Gains the Friendship of Powhatan for the Colony Returns to Jamestown His Decisive Measures Return of Newport Smith Explores the Chesapeake Bay The new Emigrants Smith compels them to Labor Smith is Wounded and compelled to return to England Disasters to the Colony Arrival of Sir Thomas Gates Jamestown Abandoned Arrival of Lord Delaware The Return to Jamestown A Change for the Better New Settlements Sir Thomas Gates arrives with Reinforcements Capture of Poca- hontas by Captain Argall She is Baptized Marries John Rolfe Sir Thomas Dale's Administration Yeardley Governor The first Legislative Assembly Representative Government established in America The Colonists obtain Wives Changes in the Government CHAPTER VII. PROGRESS OP THE VIRGINIA COLONY. Introduction of Negro Slavery into Virginia Efforts of the Assembly to Restrict Shivery The Indians Attempt the Destruction of the Colony Terrible Sufferings of the Whites Aid from England The Indian War Begun King James Revokes the Charter of the London Company Charles I. Desires a Monopoly of the Tubacco Trade Action of the Assembly Sir William Berkeley's First Adminis- tration Severe Measures against Dissenters Close of the Indian War Death of Opechancanough Emigration of Royalists to Virginia Virginia and the Common- wealth Treaty vrith England The Assembly Asserts its Independence of the Governor The Restoration Berkeley Chosen Governor by the Assembly His Hypocrisy 113 CHAPTER VIII. VIRGINIA AFTER THE RESTORATION. Characteristics of the Virginians Causes of the Success of the Royalists Growth of the Aristocratic Class Berkeley decides against the People The Aristocratic Assembly Claims the Right to sit Perpetually Deprives the Common People of their Liberties Revival of the Navigation Act by Charles II. The King bestows Virginia as a Gift upon his Favorites Protests of the Assembly Growing Hostility of the Virginians to the Colonial Government The Indian War The Governor Refuses to allow the Colonists to Defend themselves Nathaniel Bacon He Marches against the Indians Rebellion of the People against Berkeley and the Assembly The Convention Repeal of the Obnoxious Laws Berkeley's Duplicity The People take up Arms Flight of Berkeley Destruction of Jamestown Death of Bacon Causes of the Failure of the Rebellion Berkeley's Triumph Execution of the Patriot Leaders Berkeley's Course Condemned by the King Death of Berkeley The Unjust Laws Re-enacted Lord Culpepper Governor His Extortions James II. and Virginia Effects upon Virginia of the Revolution of 1688 William and Mary College Founded 121 CHAPTER IX, THE COLONIZATION OP MARYLAND. Extent of the Territory of Virginia Clayborne'a Trading-Posts established Sir George Calvert, Lord Baltimore Becomes interested in American Colonization- Obtains a Grant of Maryland Terms of the Charter A Colony sent out Arrival in the Chesapeake St. Mary's Founded Character of the Colony Friendly Rela- tions established with the Indians First Legislature of Maryland Trouble with Clayborne Rapid Growth of the Colony Progress of Popular Liberty Policy respecting the Treatment of the Indians Clay home's Rebellion Law granting Religious Toleration enacted Condition of Maryland under the Commonwealth The People declared Supreme Lord Baltimore recovers his Proprietary Rights Characteristics cf the Colony Ripid Increase in Population Charles Calvert, Governor Death of t' l ie second Lord Baltimore Roman Catholics disfranchised Maryland becomes a Royal Province Triumph of the Protestants Annapolis made the Seat of Government Restoration of the Proprietary Government Con- tinued Prosperity of Maryland 1C8 10 CONTENTS. CHAPTER X. THE PILGRIM FATHERS. Ki^o of the Puritans Their Increase in England They are Persecuted by the English Church and Government Conduct of James I. His Hatred of Puritan- ismPuritans take Refuge in Holland The Congregation of John Robinson They Escape to Holland The Pilgrims Their Sojourn at Leyden They wish to Emi- graj to Virginia Failure of their Negotiations with the London Company They form a Partnership in England A Hard Bargain Departure of the Pilgrims from Holland Voyage of the " Mayflower " Arrival in New England The Agreement on board the " Mayflower "Carver chosen Governor Settlement of Plymouth The first Winter in New England Sufferings of the Pilgrims Arrival of new Emigrants Continued Suffering Assignment of Lands Friendly Intercourse with Indians Samoset and Squanto Visit of Massasoit A Threat of War Bradford's Defiance Weston's Men A Narrow Escape The Colonists Purchase the Interests of their English Partners Lands Assigned in Fee Simple The Colony Benefited by the Change Government of Plymouth Steady Growth of the Colony 14? CHAPTER XI. SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. Settlement of New Hampshire The English Puritans determine to form a new Colony in America The Plymouth Council A Colony sent out to Salem under Endicott Colonization of Massachusetts Bay begun A Charter obtained Conces- sions of the King Progress of the Salem Colony The Charter and Government of the Colony removed to New England Arrival of Governor Winthrop Settle- ment of Boston Sufferings of the Colonists Roger Williams His Opinions give offence to the Authorities The Success of the Bay Colony established Growth oi Popular Liberty The Ballot Box Banishment of Roger Williams, He goes into the Wilderness Founds Providence Growth of Williams's Colony Continued growth of Massachusetts Arrival of Sir Henry Vane Is elected Governor Mrs. Anne Hutch inson The Antinomian Controversy Mrs. Hutchinson banished s Settlement of Rhode Island Murder of Mrs. Hutchinson 166 CHAPTER XII. COLONIZATION OF CONNECTICUT. The Dutch Claim the Connecticut Valley They build a Fort at Hartford (Werryr* Winslow makes a Lodgment in Connecticut for the English Withdrawal of the Dutch The First Efforts of the English to Settle Connecticut Emigration of Hooker and his Congregation They Settle at Hartford Winthrop builds a Fort at Saybrooke Hostility of the Indians Visit of Roger Williams to Miantonomoh A Brave Deed The Pequod War Capture of the Indian Fort Destruction of the Pequod Tribe Effect of this War upon the other Tribes Connecticut Adopts a institution Its Peculiar Features Settlement of New Haven.. ISC CONTESTS. 11 CHAPTER Kill. THE UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. Feeling of the Colonies towards England Hostility of the English Government to New England Efforts to Introduce Episcopacy Massachusetts Threatens Resist- ance The Revolution in England Establishment of Free Schools in New Eng- landHarvard College The Printing Press The Long Parliament Friendly to New England The United Colonies of New England Rhode Island obtains a Charter .Maine Annexed to Massachusetts The Quakers are Persecuted Efforts to Christianize the Indians John Eliot, the Apostle to the Indians 188 CHAPTER XIV. NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. Arrival of the News of the Restoration of Charles II. The Regicides in New England They are Protected Revival of the Navigation Acts Effect of this measure upon the New England Colonies Massachusetts delays the Proclamation of the King Connecticut obtains a Charter Union of New Haven with the Connecticut Colony Rhode Island given a new Charter Massachusetts settles her difficulties with the Crown Changes in the Government High-handed acts of the Royal Commis- sioners Troubles with the Indians Injustice of the Whites King Philip's War A Forest Hero An Incident in the Attack upon Hadley Sufferings of the Colo- nies Destruction of the Narragansetts Death of Philip Close of the War Eng- land asserts her right to Tax the Colonies Massachusetts buys Gorges' claims to Maine New Hampshire made a separate Province James II. revokes the Charter of Massachusetts Dudley and Randolph in New England Androa appointed Governor-General His Tyranny He demands the Charter of Connecticut It is carried away and Hidden The Charter Oak Fall of James II. The people of Massachusetts take up Arms Andros arrested Effects of the Revolution upon New England 198 CHAPTER XV. WITCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS. .lesults of the Failure of Massachusetts to Resume her Charter The New Charter Loss of the Liberties of the Colony Union of Plymouth with Massachusetts Bay Belief in Witchcraft The History of Witchcraft in Massachusetts The Case of the Goodwin Children Cotton Mather espouses the Cause of the Witches ^Samuel Parris -He Originates the 8alem Delusion A Strange History- A Special Court Appointed for the Trial of the Witches The Victims Execution of the Rev. George Burroughs Cotton Mather's Part in the Tragedies The General Court takes Action in behalf of the People End of the Persecution Failure of Cotton Mather's Attempt to Save his Credit 216 2 CONTEXTS. CHAPTER XVI. THE 8ETTLKMKNT OF NEW YOKK. Voyages of Heiry Hudson He is Employed by the Dutch Discovery of the Hud- son River Karly Dutch Voyages Adrian Block Fate of Hudson The Dutch build a Fort on Manhattan Island Settlement of New Amsterdam The Province named New Netherlands Fort Nassau Peter Minims Governor The Dutch Set- tlement of Delaware Wouter Van Tvviller Kieft Governor His Unjust Treat- ment of the Indians Massacre of the Indians at lloboken The Indian War Stuy- vesant Appointed Governor Disputes with the English in Connecticut The Swede* Settle Delaware Stuyvesant Captures the Swedish Forts Growth of New Amster- dam Disputes between the People and Governor Growing Spirit of Popular Lib- erty The People Appeal to the States General Capture of New Netherlands by the English The Name of the Province changed to New York Results of the English Conquest Progress of New Jersey Andros Governor of New York He Fails to Establish his Authority over Connecticut New York allowed an Assem- bly Discontent of the People Leister's Rebellion Execution cf Leisler and Milbourne Fletcher Govern ir His Attempt to obtain Command of the Connect- icut Militia Episcopacy Established in New York The Freedom of the Press Sustained New Jersey a R< yal Province 228 CHAPTER XVII. COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA. The Quakers Their Origin and Doctrines William Penn Becomes a Quaker Is Persecuted for his Religious Opinions Becomes Interested in American Coloniza- tion Purchases West Jersey from the Proprietor Conceives the Idea of Founding a Free State in America Purchases Pennsylvania from Charles II. Conditions of his Charter Sends out a Colony Arrival of Penn in America Philadelphia Pounded Penn's Treaty with the Indians Religious Toleration Guaranteed Penn's Relations with his Colonists Rapid Growth of Pennsylvania in Popula- tion and Prosperity William Penn and James II. Renewal of Penn's Troubles William III. Declares Pennsylvania a Royal Province Penn is Vindicated and Restored to his Proprietary Rights His Return to Pennsylvania- -Character of the Settlers of the Province Penn Goes Back to England Efforts to deprive him of his Possessions His Death 255 CHAPTER XVIII. SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS. Gradual Settlement of North Carolina from Virginia Charles II. grants Carolina to Clarendon and others The "Grand Model" An Ideal Aristocracy Proposed for Carolina The Authority of the Proprietaries Established in North Carolina- Continued Settlement of that Region Characteristics of the Early Settlers of North Carolina The People Reject the Grand Model Hostility of England to the Colonial Commerce Insurrection in North Carolina Slothel Governor Settle- ment of South Carolina Charleston Founded The Proprietary Constitutions Rejected by South Carolina Rapid Growth of the Colony Introduction of Slavery Characteristics of the Early Settlers of South Carolina Effor>- o Enforce the coy TEXTS. 13 Navigation Acts Resistance of the People The Proprietaries Abandon their Con- stitutions Archdale's Reforms Religious Intolerance Establishment of the Church of England in South Carolina Action of the Crown Continued Pros- perity of South Carolina Governor Moore Attacks St. Augustine Failure of the Effort The Spaniards are Repulsed in an Attempt to Capture Charleston Indian War in North Carolina The Tuscaroras Driven Northward War with the Yem- massees Destruction of their Power Separation of the Carolinas 270 CHAPTER XIX. SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. General James Edward Oglethorpe His Efforts to Reform Prison Discipline of Eng- land Proposes to Found a Colony in America for the Poor and for Prisoners for Debt A Charter Obtained from the King Colonization of Georgia Savannah Settled First Years of the Colony Labors of Oglethorpe Arrival of New Emi- grants Augusta Founded The Moravian Settlements The Wesleys in America George \Vhitefield War between England and Spain Ogle horpe Invades Florida Failure of the Attack upon St. Augustine The Spaniards Invade Georgia Ogle- thorpe's Stratagem Its Success Battle of "Bloody Marsh"- Close of the War Charges against Oglethorpe His Vindication His Return to Europe Changes in the Colonial Government Introduction of Slavery into Georgia Prosperity of the Colony 286 CHAPTER XX. THE FRENCH IN THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. Origin of the Hostility of the Iroquois to the French Settlement of Canada Plans of the French respecting the Indians The Jesuits Their Work in America Success of their Missions The Early Missionaries Foundation of a College at Quebec Efforts of the Jesuits to Convert the Iroquois Father Jogues Death of Ahasistari Father Alloiiez The Missions on the Upper Lakes Father Marquette His Exploration of the Upper Mississippi Death of Marquette La Salle Efforts of France to Secure the Valley of the Mississippi La Salle Descends the Mississippi to its Mouth His Effort to Colonize the Lower Mississippi The First Colony in Texas Its Failure Death of La Salle Lemoine d'Ibberville Settle- ment of Louisiana Colony of Biloxi Settlement of Mobile Crozat's Monopoly Founding of New Orleans Detroit Founded Slow Growth of the French Colo- nies Occupation of the Ohio Valley by the French Wars with the Indians Ex- termination of the Natchez Tribe War with the Chickasaws 2&8 CHAPTER XXI. THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH COME IN CONFLICT. Relations between the English and the Five Nations The Hostility of the Latter to the French King William's War Destruction of Dover The Jesuit Missionaries incite the Indians to attack the English Expedition arrai-nst Quebec Attack on Dustin's Farm Peace of Ryswick Hostility of the English to Roman Catholics Quec-;i Anne's War Burning of Deerfield Eunice Williams Cruelties of the French Kfii>rt of New England to Conquer Acadia .Capture of Port Royal 14 CONTENTS. Failure of the Expedition against Quebec King George's War Expedition against Louisburg Ita Composition Arrival of the Fleet at Cape Breton Good Conduct of the Provincials Capture of Louisburg Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle i'lijint Treatment of the Colonies by England Sentiment of the Americana toward* England 318 CHAPTER XXII. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. England Claims the Valley of the Ohio Organization of the Ohio Company The French extend their Posts into the Ohio Country Washington's Mission to the French at Fort Duquesne His Journey Reception by the French His Journey Home A Perilous Undertaking Organization of the Virginia Forces Washing- ton made Second in Command The French Drive the English from the Head of the Ohio Fort Duquesne Built by them Washington Crosses the Mountains The Fight at Great Meadows Beginning of the French and Indian War Sur- render of Fort Necessity to the French Unjust Treatment of the Colonial Officers Congress of the Colonies at New York Franklin's Plan of a Union of the Colo- niesIts Failure Keasons of the British Government for Rejecting it England assumes the Direction of the War Arrival of General Braddock Plan of Cam- paignObstinacy of Braddock He Passes the Mountains Defeat of Braddock Heroism of Washington Retreat of Dunbar beyond the Mountains Vigorous action of Pennsylvania Armstrong defeats the Indians and burns the town of K manning 331 CHAPTER XXIII. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR CONTINUED. Expedition against Acadia Brutal Treatment of the Acadians They are Expelled from their Country A Sad Story Fate of the Acadians Johnson at Lake George March of Dieskau Battle of Lake George Failure of Shirley's Expedition Arrival of the Earl of Loudon Montcalm in Canada Capture of Oswego by the French Outrages of the Earl of Loudon upon New York and Philadelphia Ex- pedition against Louisburg How the Earl of Loudon Beat the French Capture of Fort William Henry by Montcalm Massacre of the Prisoners by the Indians Efforts of Montcalm to save them The Royal Officers attempt to cover their Fail- ures by outraging the Colonies 353 CHAPTER XXIV. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR CONCLUDED. A Chang- 'cr the Better William Pitt Prime Minister Vigorous Measures Adopted Recall of the Earl of Loudon Capture of Louisburg Abercrombie on Lake Georye Advances against Ticonderoga Death of Lord Howe Failure of the English attack upon Ticonderoga Disgraceful conduct of Abercrombie His Retreat. Capture of Fort Frontenac Advance of General Forbes Grant's Defeat The Virginians again save the Regulars Capture of Fort Duquesne Washington retires from the Army Ticonderoga and Crown Point occupied by the English Capture of Fort Niagara The Expedition against Quebec Failure of the first Opera- CONTENTS. 15 tions Despondency of Wolfe He Discovers a Landing-place The Army scales the Heights of Abraham Montcalm's Surprise Battle of the Plains of Abraham Death of Wolfe Defeat of the French Death of Montcalm Surrender of Quebec Capture of Montreal Treaty of Paris Canada ceded to England France loses all her American Possessions The Cherokee War Hostility of the Indians to the English Pontiac's War Death of Pontiac Bouquet relieves Fort Duquesne Results of the War 369 CHAPTER XXV. CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Injustice of Great Britain towards her Colonies The Navigation Acts Effects of these Laws upon the Colonies Great Britain seeks to destroy the Manufactures of America Writs of Assistance They are Opposed Home Manufactures En- couraged by the Americans Ignorance of Englishmen concerning America Great Britain claims the Right to Tax America Resistance of the Colonists Samuel Adams The Parsons' Cause Patrick Henry England persists in her Determina- tion to Tax America Passage of the Stamp Act Resistance of the Colonies Meet- ing of the First Colonial Congress Its Action William Pitt Repeal of the Stamp Act Franklin before the House of Commons New Taxes imposed upon America Increased Resistance of the Colonies Troops quartered in Boston The " Mas- sacre" The Non-Importation Associations Growth of Hostility to England Burning of the "Gaspe"" The Tax on Tea retained by the King Destruction of Tea at Boston Wrath of the British Government Boston Harbor Closed Troops Quartered in Boston The Colonies come to the Assistance of Boston Action of the Virginia Assembly General Gage in Boston The Regulating Act Its Failure Gage seizes the Massachusetts Powder Uprising of the Colony Meeting of the Continental Congress Its Action Addresses to the King and People of England The Earl of Chatham's Indorsement of Congress The King remains Stubborn 390 CHAPTER XXVI. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Gage fortifies Boston Neck He summons the General Court Recalls his Proclama- tion The Provincial Congress of Massachusetts It takes Measures for Defence Tiie Militia Organized The- Minute Men Friends of America in England Gage resolves to seize the Scores at Concord Midnight March of the British Troops The Alarm given Skirmishes at Lexington and Concord Retreat of the British A terrible March Uprising of New England Boston Invested Dunmore seizes the Virginia Powder Is mado to pay for it Uprising of the Middle and Southern Colonies The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point Meeting of the Second Continental Congress Congress resolves , to sustain Massachusetts Renewed Efforts for Peace Congress assumes the General Government of the Colonies A Federal Union Organized Its Character A Con- : tinental Army formed George Washington appointed Commander-in-chief Gen- eral Officers appointed Condition of the Army before Boston Inaction of Gage Battle of Breed's Hill A glorious Defence The Battle equivalent to a Victory in its effects upon the Country Arrival of Washington at Cambridge He takes Com- mand of the Army He reorganizes the Army Difficulties bf the undertaking The Invasion of Canada resolved upon March of Montgomery and Arnold Rapid Succenet of Monlgomery He capture* Montreal March of Arnold through the Wilderne* Arrival l>rforr (Jiu-lH-c Forms a Junction with Montgomery The Siege i.f ijii.-ln-< The Ice Forts Failure of the Attack Death of Montgomery- Retreat of i In- American* from Canada Lord Dunmore's War in Virginia Destruction of Norfolk The Thirteen United Colonies Burning of Falmouth Naval Matter* Action of Great Britain The War to be carried on The Hessians. 421 CHAPTER XXVII. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. The Siege of Boston Difficulties of the American Army Activity of the Privateers Clinton's Expedition Colonel Knox arrives from Ticonderoga with Cannon Seizure of IWeliester Heights by Washington The British Evacuate Boston Koyalist Plots in New York Paper Money Issued by Congress Gates sent to the North -The British Attack Charleston Battle of Fort Moultrie The Howes in New York Bay Change in the Character of the War Growing Sentiment in Favor of Independence Virginia Proposes that the Colonies Assert their Independence Action of Congress The Declaration of Independence Articles of Confederation Adopted by Congress Lord Howe's Efforts at Conciliation Addresses a Letter to Washington Battle of Long Island Defeat of the Americans Retreat from Long Island Evacuation of New York by the Americans Loss of Fort Washington NV ishington Retreats through New Jersey He Crosses the Delaware Darkest Period of the War Washington's Determination to Continue the War Lord Howe's Proclamation Its Effect Congress at Baltimore Carleton Invades New York Defeats Arnold on Lake Champlain Carleton Retires into Canada Battle of Trenton Happy Effects of the Victory Congress confers Dictatorial Powers upon Washington Commissioners sent to France.... / ,0 CHAPTER XXVIII. THE YEAR 1777. Howe attempts to Crush Washington Battle of Princeton The British Confined to the Seaboard Recovery of New Jersey The American Army in Winter Quarters at Morristown Effects of the American Successes Difficulty of Procuring Troops Washington Refuses to Exchange Prisoners His Course Approved by Congress Measures of Congress Naval Affairs Tryon Burns Danbury Gallantry of Arnold Troubles in the Northern Departments-Congress Adopts a National Flag" The Stars and Stripes" Course of France towards the United States France decides to Assist the Americans Lafayette His arrival in America Capture of the British General Prescott Howe threatens Philadelphia Washington moves Southward- Battle of the Brandy wiiu Washington Retreats to the Schuylkill Wayne's Defeat at Paoli Philadelphia Evacuated by the Americans It is Occupied by the British -Battle of Germantown The British Attack the Forts on the Delaware They arc Ah-indum-d l,y the Americans Burgoyne's Army in Canada Advance of Bur- goyne into N,-w York Investment of Ticonderoga It is Abandoned by the Ameri- Thc Retreat to Fort Edward Bnrgoyne reaches the Hudson Murder of a McCrea Siege of Fort Schuyler Battle of Bennington Critical Situation of Burpoyiie Gates in Command of the American Army Battles of Behmus' Heights and Stillwater-^Surrender of Burgoyne's Army Clinton in the Highlands 483 CONTEXTS. t 1 7 CHAPTER XXIX. AID FROM ABROAD. Sufferings of the Army at Valley Forge Appeals of Washington to Congress The British in Philadelphia The Conway Cabal Its Disgraceful Failure Efforts to Improve the Army Worthlessness of Continental Bills General Lee Exchanged Effect of Burgoyne's Surrender upon England The King is Forced to Agree to Measures of Conciliation Action of France Louis XVI. Recognizes the Inde- pendence of the United States Alliance Between the United States and France Failure of the British Measures of Conciliation Clinton Evacuates Philadelphia Battle of Monmouth General Lee Dismissed from the Army Attack upon New- port Its Failure Withdrawal of the French Fleet to the West Indies Outrage* of the British on Long Island Sound Massacre of Wyoming The Winter of 1779-80 The Army in Winter Quarters Robert Morris Condition of Congress Georgia Subdued by the British Prevost Attempts to take Charleston Siege of Savannah Its Failure Capture of Stony Point Capture of Paulus Hook The Indians Punished Naval Affairs Exploits of John Paul Jones Evacuation of Newport Settlement of Kentucky Conquest of the Illinois Country by George Rogers Clarke Settlement of Tennessee 512> CHAPTER XXX. THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. Severity of the Winter of 1779-80 Sufferings of the American Army Clinton Sails for the Carolinas Colonel Tarleton Capture of Charleston Conquest of South Carolina Gates in Command of the Southern Army Battle of Camden Exploits of Marion and Sumter Advance of Cornwallis Battle of King's Mountain Gates Succeeded by General Greene Knyphausen's Expeditions into New Jersey Arrival of the French Fleet and Army Arnold's Treason The Plot for the Be- trayal of West Point Arrest of Major Andre" Flight of Arnold Execution of Andre" Mutiny of the Pennsylvania and New Jersey Troops Measures of Con- gress Arnold Captures Richmond, Virginia Battle of the Cowpens Masterly Re- treat of General Greene Cornwallis Baffled Battle of Guilford Court House Cornwallis at Wilmington Battle of Hobkirk's Hill Siege of Ninety-Six Execu- tion of Colonel Ha\ ne Battle of Eutaw Springs Washington Decides to Attack New York The French Army on the Hudson Financial Affairs Resumption of Specie Payments Message from the Count De Grasse Cornwallis at Yorktown The American Army Moves Southward Siege of Yorktown Surrender of Corn- wallis Effect of the News in England Indian Troubles Efforts in England for Peace Negotiations Opened Treaty of Paris End of -the War The Army Dis- banded Washington Resigns his Commission 536 CHAPTER XXXI. THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION WASHINGTON'S ADMINIS- TRATION. Unsettled Condition of the Country Failure of the Articles of Confederation Desire for Reform Meeting of the Federal Convention at Philadelphia The Constitution of the United States Adoption of a Decimal Currency The Northwest Territory' 1 CONTENTS. Wwhlngton Elected President Hi Journey to New York Establishment of the New Government The First Cabinet Finahcial Measures Removal of the Capi- tal agreed upon The Government at Philadelphia The First Census The In- dian* of th<. Nortliwi-st < onquered Re-election of Washington Division of Par- lie*- Tin I >, ,,< U Involution The United States Neutral Citizen Genet Efforts to Commit the rnii.-d States to the Frencli Alliance Genet's Recall Demanded The " Whiskey Insurrection" Jay's Treaty with England Opposition to it Ne- gotiations with Algiers Political Disputes Hostility to Washington His Fare- well Addrew Ite Effect upon the Country Election of John Adams to the Presi- dencyAdmission of Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee Retirement of Wash- ington Results of his Administration 570 CHAPTER XXXII. THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF JOHN ADAMS AND THOMAS JEFFERSON. Inauguration of John Adams Aggressions of France upon the United States The American Commissioners Insulted by the French Government The Alien and Se- dition Laws The United States Prepare for War with France France Signifies her Willingness to Treat New Commissioners appointed Settlement of the Dis- pute Hostilities at Sea Capture of the " Insurgente" and " Vengeance" Death of Washington Removal of the Capital to Washington City The Second Census Inauguration of Thomas Jefferson The President's Message His First Measures Admission of Ohio Louisiana Purchased by the United States War with the Barbary Powers Burning of the " Philadelphia" Re-election of Mr. Jefferson Aaron Burr Kills Alexander Hamilton in a Duel Burr's Subsequent Career Fulton's Steamboat Outrages of England and France upon American Commerce American Vessels Searched and American Seamen Impressed by England Efforts to Settle these Questions Affair of the " Chesapeake " and " Leopard " The Embargo Results of this Measure Losses of the Eastern States Election of James Madison to the Presidency Repeal of the Embargo Retirement of Mr. Jefferson 5pez against Cuba The Search for Sir John Franklin The Grinnell Expedition Dr. Kane's Voyages Inauguration of Cheap Postage Laying the Corner-stone of the new Capitol Death of Daniel Webster Arrival of Kossuth The President Rejects the Tripartite Treaty Franklin Pierce elected President Death of William R. King 736 CHAPTER XXXIX. THE ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE. Dispute with Mexico The Gadsden Purchase Surveys for a Pacific Railway The Japan Expedition Treaty with Japan The Koszta Affair The " Black Warrior" seized by the Cuban Officials The " Ostend Conference " Dismissal of the British Minister The Kansas-Nebraska Bill History of the Bill Its Passage by Congress History of the Struggle in Kansas Conflict between the Pro-Slavery and Free Soil Settlers Lawrence Sacked Civil War The Presidential Campaign of 1856 James Buchanan elected President of the United States Rapid increase of the Republican Party 749 CHAPTER XL. THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN. Inauguration of Mr. Buchanan The Mormon Rebellion The Financial Crisis of 1857 Laying of the Atlantic Telegraphic Cable Minnesota admitted into the Union The San Juan Affair Admission of Oregon into the Union The Kansas question The Leconapton Constitution Its defeat The Wyandotte Constitution Admis- sion of Kansas into the Union The John Brown Raid Prompt action of the Gov- ernment Brown and his Companions surrendered to the State of Virginia Their Trial and Execution Presidential Campaign of 1860 Rupture of the Democratic party Abraham Lincoln elected President of the United States Secession of South Carolina Reasons for this Act Secession of the other Cotton States Major Ander- son occupies Fort Sumter Trying position of the General Government Course of Mr. Buchanan The " Star of the West " fired upon by the South Carolina Bat- teries Organization of the Confederate Sta'es of America Jefferson Davis elected President of the Southern Republic The Peace Congress Its Failure. 761 CHAPTER XL/. THE ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN THE CIVIL WAR, Inauguration of President Lincoln His History The Confederate Commissioners at Washington Attack upon Fort Sumter by the Confederates The President calls for Troops Response of the North and West Secession of the Border States Opening Events of the "War in Virginia Withdrawal of West Virginia Admitted into the Union as a sepnrnte State Meeting of Congress The West Virginia Cam- paign Battle of Bull Run The "War in Missouri Kentucky Occupied The Blockade Capture of Port Royal The "Trent" Affair -Insurrection in East Ten- 22 CONTENTS. pgaec State of Affaire at the Opening of the Year 1862-Edwin M. Stanton made Secretary of War Capture of Fort* Henry and Donelson The Confederates fall back from Kentucky Battle of fcjhiloh Cupture of Island No. 10 Evacuation of Corinth Capture of "Memphis Bragg's Kentucky Cami>aign His Retreat into Tcnnemee ButtU-s of lnk:i and Corinth Battle of Murfreesboro', or Stone River Grant's Campaign against Vicksburg Its Failure The War beyond the Missis- sippiBattle of Pea Ridge Capture of Roanoke Island Capture of New Orleans Surrender of Fort Pulaski The War in Virginia Johnston s Retreat from Cen- treTille Battle between the " Monitor'' and " Virginia" The Move to the Peninsula Johnston Retreats to the Chickahominy Battle of Seven Pines Jackson's Suc- eenes in the Valley of Virginia The Seven Days' Battles before Richmond Battle of Cedar Mountain Defeat of General Pope's Army Lee Invades Maryland Capture of Harper's Ferry Battles of South Mountain and A ntietam Retreat of Lee into Virginia McClellan Removed Battle of Fredericksburg- 77V CHAPTER XL//. THE ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN THE CIVIL WAR CONCLUDED. The Emancipation Proclamation Battle of Chancellorsville Death of Stonewall Jackson Invasion of the North by Lee's Army Battle of Gettysburg Retreat of Lee into Virginia Grant's Army crosses the Mississippi Battle of Champion Hills Investment of Vicksburg Surrender of Vicksburg and Port Hudson Battle of Chickamauga Rosecrans shut up in Chattanooga Grant in command of the Western Armies Battles of Lookout Mountain and Mission Ridge Defeat of Bragg's Army The Campaign in East Tennessee Retreat of Longstreet Capture of Galveston Attack on Charleston Capture of Fort Wagner Charleston Bom- barded State of Affairs in the Spring of 1864 The Red River Expedition Grant made Lieutenant-General Advance of the Army of the Potomac Battles of the Wilderness, Spottsylvania, and Cold Harbor Sheridan's Raid Death of General J. E. B. Stuart Battle of New Market Early sent into the Valley of Virginia Butler's Army at Bermuda Hundreds Grant crosses the James River The Siege of Petersburg begun Early's Raid upon Washington Sheridan defeats Early at Winchester and Fisher's Hill Battle of Cedar Creek The final Defeat of Early's Army Sherman's Advance to Atlanta Johnston removed Defeat of Hood before Atlanta Evacuation of Atlanta Hood's Invasion of Tennessee Battle of Franklin Siese of Nashville Hood defeated at Nashville His Retreat Sherman's "March to the Sea" Capture of Savannah Battle of Mobile Bay Attack on Fort Fisher The Confederate Cruisers Sinking of the "Alabama " by the " Kear- sarge " Re-election of President Lincoln Admission of Nevada into the Union The Hampton Roads Peace Conference Capture of Fort Fisher Occupation of Wilmington Sherman advances through South Carolina Evacuation of Charles- ton Battles of Averasboro' and Bentonville Sherman at Goldsboro' Critical situation of Lee's Army Attack on Fort Steadman Sheridan joins Grant Advance of Grant's Army Battle of Five Forks Attack on Petersburg Evacua- tion of Richmond and Petersburg Retreat of Lee's Army Richmond occupied SURRENDER of General Lee's Army Rejoicings in the North Assassination of President Lincoln Death of Booth Execution of the Conspirators Johnston Sur- renders Surrender of the other Confederate Forces Capture of Jefferson Davis Close of the War CONTENTS. 2% CHAPTER XL///. THE ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSON. The New President Keturn of the Army to Civil Life The Public Debt The Reconstruction Question Action of the President He declares the Southern States Readmitted into the Union The Fifteenth Amendment Meeting of Congress The President's Acts Annulled Reconstruction Policy of Congress The Four- teenth Amendment The Freedman's Bureau and Civil Rights Bills Tha Tenure of Office Act Admission of Nebraska into the Union The Southern States Organ- ized as Military Districts Admission of Southern States into the Union The Fourteenth Amendment Ratified President Johnson's Quarrel with Secretary Stanton Impeachment of the President His Acquittal Release of Jefferson Davis Indian War The French in Mexico Fall of the Mexican Empire Laying of the Atlantic Telegraph Purchase of Alaska Naturalization Treaty with Germany Treaty with China Death of General Scott Death of ex-President Buchanan General Grant Elected President The Fifteenth Amendment 865 " CHAPTER XLIV. THE ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. Early Life of President Grant Completion of the Pacific Railway Death of ex-Presi- dent Pierce : The Fifteenth Amendment 'Ratified Prosperity of the Country The Enforcement Act The Test-oath Abolished The Constitutionality of the Legal- Tender Act Affirmed Death of Adrniral Farragut Death of General Lee The Income Tax Repealed The Alabama Claims Treaty of Washington The Geneva Conference Award in favor of the United States The' San Juan Boundary Ques- tion settled Efforts to annex St. Domingo Burning of Chicago Forest Fires ' The Civil Disabilities removed from" the Southern People Re-election of General Grant Death of Horace Greeley Great Fire at Boston The Modoc War Mur- der of General Canby and the Peace Commissioners Execution of the Modoc Chiefs The Cuban Revolution Capture of the "Virginius" Execution of the Prisoners Action of the Federal Government The Panic of 1873 Bill for the Resumption of Specie Payments The Centennial Exhibition The Sioux War Death of General Custer-- Presidential Election Controversy dver it The Elec- toral Commission Count of the Vote Hayes declared elected 879 CHAPTER XLV. THE ADMINISTRATION OF RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. Inauguration of President Hayes A Sketch of the new President Civil Service Re- form Settlement of the troubles in South Carolina and Louisiana Withdrawal of the Troops 920 CHAPTER XLV/. CONCLUSION 927 APPENDIX. THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION ~ 935 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. Steel Portrait of George Washington Frontitpita 2. The Declaration of Independence 3. Front View of the Capitol at Washington, D. C 4. Signatures of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence 5. Memorial Hall or Art Gallery International Centennial Exhibition 6. Main Building of the International Exhibition 7. The United States Treasury, Washington, D. C 8. The new Department of State, Washington, D. C 9. Signing the Declaration of Independence by the Continental Congress, July 4th, 1776 10. Birdseye View of New York city 11. Indian Village in Winter -. 35 12. Navajo Boy 36 13. Pueblo Indian at Prayer 38 14. Converted Indian Woman 39 15. A Dead Town of the Moquis Indians 40 16. Indian of the Plains 41 17. Group of Indians of New Mexico 43 18. Lower Falls of the Yellowstone, Wyoming (350 feet in height) 44 19. Christopher Columbus 46 20. Bronze Door commemorating the Deeds of Christopher Columbus 49 21. The Landing of Columbus 51 22. General View of the Yosemite Valley, California 58 23. Bridal Veil Fall, Yosemite Valley 59 24. Sentinel Rock, Yosemite Valley 61 25. First Winter of the French in Canada 64 26. Rock Pinnacles above Tower Falls, Yellowstone River 66 27. Scene on the St. Lawrence 67 28. The Coast of Florida 69 '29. Spaniards enslaving the Indians. 73 39. Spanish Exploring Party Discovering New Mexico 73 31. The Spaniards exploring the Valley of the Colorado 74 32. Ferdinand de Soto 75 33. Natchez in 1875 79 34. The Spaniards descending the Mississippi after the Death of De Soto 80 35. Sir Walter Raleigh 87 36. The Coast of North Carolina. 89 37. Coat of Arms of Virginia, 95 38. Captain John Smith 98 V. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 25 39. Pocahontas rescuing Captain Smith 100 40. Pocahontas 102 41. Building of Jamestown 104 42. Wife of a Chief 107 43. Destruction of the Virginia Settlements by the Indians 123 44. Ruined Church Tower on the Site of Jamestown 130 4-5. Coat of Arms of Maryland 137 46. Lord Baltimore 138 47. Missionary Preaching to the Indians 139 48. A Converted Indian 141 49. The " Mayflower" in Plymouth Harbor 154 50. Landing of the Pilgrims 158 51. The first Church in New England 160 52. A New England Homestead 165 53. Coat of Arms of Massachusetts 1 67 54. A primitive New England Village 168 55. Roger Williams 172 56. Coat of Arms of Rhode Island 175 57. Landing of Roger Williams at Providence 176 58. Coat of Arms of Connecticut 181 59. Yale College 185 60. Valley of the Connecticut 187 61. Harvard College 190 62. An American Free School 191 63. Newport, R. 1 197 64. King Philip 204 65. Attack upon Brookfield by the Indians 207 66. Coat of Arms of New Hampshire 210 67. Wadsworth hiding the Charter 212 68. The Charter Oak 213 69. Coat of Arms of New York 229 70. First Settlement cf New York '. 232 71. Coat of Arms of Delaware 233 72. The Battery and Castle Garden, New York, in 1875 242 73. The City Hall Park, New York, in 1875 243 74. Coat of Arms of New Jersey 244 75. Broadway, New York, in 1875 246 76. Nassau Street, New York, in 1875 251 77. The Post Office, New York, in 1875 , 253 78. Coat of Arms of Pennsylvania 256 79. William Penn 258 80. Perm's Treaty with the Indians 261 81. Penn laying out the Plan of Philadelphia 262 82. Settlement of Philadelphia 263 83. Penn's Treaty Monument 264 84. Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, in 1875 265 85. University of Pennsylvania 266 86. Masonic Temple, Philadelphia, in 1875 268 87. Coat of Arms of North Carolina 271 88. A Settler's Cabin 275 89. Coat of Arms of South Carolina 276 90. Attack of the Spaniards on Charleston in 1706 282 ..,; LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 91. Torture of Lawson by th 92. Coat of Arms of Georgia O 1 91. Torture of Lawson by the Tuacaroras ..................................... 93. Oglethorpe ............................................................. J 94. A Southern Plantation ............................................. . itlit-ring Sugar-cane .................................................. 96. The Great Canon and Lower Falls of the Yellowstone ............ . .......... - !)(J ;i7. 1 >iiluth, at the head of Lake Superior ........................... .......... 3 98. Dubuque, Iowa ........................................................ 3 99. Alton, Illinois ......................................................... 3 100. Falls of SU Anthony .................................................... 312 !:. 1 1 umboldt Palisades, Pacific Railway ...................................... 315 102. Burning of Dover ....................................................... 319 1 03. Burning of Deerfield, Massachusetts ....................................... S23 134. Return of the Daughter of Eunice Williams to the Indians ................... 325 105. The Bronze Door in the National Capitol commemorating the Events of the Life of George Washington ............................................... 334 106. The Washington Statue in Union Square, New York ........................ 337 107. Washington's Journey to the Ohio ........................................ 338 108. The Half King ......................................................... 340 109. Washington and Gist crossing the Alleghany ............................... 341 110. Benjamin Franklin ...................................................... 345 111. Wills' Creek Narrows, Maryland ......................................... 348 112. Braddock's Defeat. ...................................................... 351 1 1 3. Retreat of Braddock'a Army ................ . .................. ........... 352 114. Burning of Kittanning by General Armstrong ............................. 354 1 15. Scene on the Colorado ................................................. 360 116. Site of Fort William Henry on Lake George .............................. 365 117. Wolfe's Attack on Louisburg ...................................... ...... 371 118. Abercrombie's Expedition on Lake George ......................... ..... 372 119. Attack on Ticonderoga ................................................. 373 120. Investment of Fort Frontenac ............................................ 374 121. Birdseye View of Pittsburgh ................. ........................... 377 122. Ruins of Fort Ticonderoga ......................................... ---- 379 123. General James Wolfe ................................................... 381 124. Death of General Wolfe before Quebec .................................... 383 125. Pontiac ................................................................ 387 126. Samuel Adams .............................................. .' ....... , , - 394 127. Patrick Henry ......................................................... 396 128. George the Third ....................................................... 399 129. Stamp Act Official beaten by the People .................................... 40? 130. Faneuil Hall in 1775 ............ .... ..................................... 400 131. The Boston Massacre .................................................... 407 132. Destruction of Tea in Boston Harbor. ....V(4.W.i ........................... 412 133. John Hancock ................... ........ .......................... . 414 134. Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia ..... ...................................... 417 135. Harbor of New York in 1875 ............................................. 419 t36. The Minute Man ...................... ........................ . 42?? 137. The Battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775 ................................... 424 138. British Troops on Concord Common ....................................... 425 139. The Fight at Concord Bridge ............................................. 427 140. Retreat of the British from Lexington ..................................... 428 141. Capture of Ticonderoga by Allen .......................... . 425 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 27 J 42. Independence Hall in 1776 431 143. Washington 434 144. General Israel Putnam 435 145. Bunker Hill Monument 437 146. Battle of Bunker Hill 441 147. Arnold's March to Quebec 445 148. General Richard Montgomery ' 446 149. General Henry Knox 451 150. Siege of Boston 452 151. Washington watching the British evacuate Boston , 453 152. Medal struck by Congress in Honor of the Recapture of Boston 455 153. Attack on Fort Moultrie 457 154. Sergeant Jasper at Fort Moultrie 458 155. Independence Hall, Philadelphia, in 1875 460 156. Interior of Independence Hall 461 157. View in the Grand Canon of the Colorado river 463 158. Old Bell of Independence Hall 464 159. Declaration of Independence proclaimed in Philadelphia 465 160. General John Sullivan 470 161. The Retreat from Long Island 471 162. Retreat of Washington across New Jersey 475 163. General Charles Lee 476 164. Washington Crossing the Delaware 480 165. Battle of Trenton 481 166. College of New Jersey, at Princeton 484 167. Battle of Princeton 485 168. United States Navy Yard, Brooklyn 488 169. General Philip Schuyler 491 170. Lafayette 493 171. Lafayette offering his Services to Dr. Franklin 494 172. Scene on the Wissahickon 495 173. Battle of the Brandywine 496 174. The Sclmylkill, at Philadelphia 497 175. The Battle of Germantown Chew's House. 499 176. Attack on Red Bank 500 177. Albany, New York, in 1875 501 178. Siege of Fort Schuyler 503 179. Bnrgoyne's Encampment on the Hudson 504 180. General John Stark 505 181. Battle of Bennington 506 182. General Horatio Gates 508 183. Burgoyne's Retreat ' 510 1 84. Surrender of BurgoAie 511 185. Sufferings of the Troops at Valley Forge 514 186. Sir Henry Clinton 520 1 87. Surrender of Savannah 524 188. General Benjamin Lincoln 526 189. General Anthony Wayne 528 190L Storming of Stony Point 529 1 Q 1. Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Lee 530 192. John Paul Jones 531 193. Coat of Arms of Kentucky 531 2 g LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 194. Daniel Boone. " 5 195. General George Rogers Clarke, 196. Frankfort, Kentucky , 197. Coat of Arms of Tennessee 53 198. Charleston, Soutli Carolina, in 1876 37 199. General Francis Marion 200. Battle of K ing's Moun tain M2 '201. G em-nil Nathaniel Greene. ^44 202. Arnold 546 203. Amlrf * 204. Capture of Major Andre* 54{ /Oo. West Point in 1 875 5 f 8 206. Battle of the Cowpens. 55 / 2 207. General Daniel Morgan 5 53 208. Battle of Eutaw Springs. 556 209. Continental Bills. 559 210. Scene in the Highlands of the Hudson 560 21 1. Burning of New London, Connecticut, by Arnold 562 212. Lafayette storming the Redoubt at Yorktown 563 213. Surrender of Cornwallis 564 214. The Bowery, New York, in 1875 567 215. Washington resigning his Commission 5G8 216. Great Seal of the United States 572 217. Washington receiving the Intelligence of his Election , 573 218. President Washington 574 219. Battle of the Maumee 576 220. Coat of Arms of Vermont 580 221. Mount Vernon 581 222. John Adams 584 223. Boston in 1875 586 224. The Susquehanna above Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 588 225. Thomas Jefferson . 589 226. The White House, Washington City 590 227. Coat of Arms of Ohio ... 592 228. Lafayette Square, New Orleans , . . . . 593 229. A New Jersey Fruit Farm 597 230. James Madison 601 231. Falls of the Genesee, at Rochester, New York 602 232. Superior Street, Cleveland, Ohio 603 233. Oswego, Nr-w York, in 1875 606 234. Coat of Arms of Louisiana 607 235. Canon of the Lodore and Greene Rivers, Wyoming T-rritory 608 236. Woodward Avenue, Detroit, Michigan f 611 237. Commodore Hull 614 238. Commodore Bainbridge 615 239. Defence of Fort Meigs 617 240. Defence of Fort Stephenson 618 241. Death of Tecumseh 6:9 242. Death of General Pike ... 620 243. Attack upon Sackett's Harbor . 621 244. Niagara Falls Q25 240. General Winfield Scott in 1814 ,623 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 29 246. Battle of Lundy's Lane 627 247. Siege of Fort Erie 628 248. Scene of the Battle of Lake Champlain 629 249. Macdonough's Victory on Lake Champlain 630 250. View on the Greene River at the Crossing of the Union Pacific Railroad 632 251. The General Post-office, Washington City 634 252. Battle Monument. Baltimore, erected in Memory of those who fell at North Point . 63- 1 : 253. Jackson Square, New Orleans. 637 254. The Plain of Chalmette Scene of the Battle of New Orlorcis 63iJ 255. Rattle of New Orleans 640 256. The " Hornet " and the " Penguin " 642 257. Commodore Decatur 643 258. Coat of Arms of Indiana. ... 645 259. James Monroe 646 260. Coat of Arms of Mississippi , . , 647 261. Coat of Arms of Illinois ...... 648 262. Coat of Arms jf Alabama . , 649 263. Coat of Arms of Maine 649 264. Cotton Plantation 650 265. Coat of Arms of Missouri. 654 266. John Quincy Adams . , 656 267. Daniel Webster 659 268. Andrew Jackson 661 269. State House at Raleigh, North Carolina 662 270. State House, Concord, New Hampshire 663 271. Scene in the Mammoth -Jave, Kentucky . . , - ' 6C4 272. General Atkinson's Defeat of Black Hawk 665 273. John C. Calhoun 667 274. Henry Clay 68 275. Great Fire in New York 670 276. Coat of Arms of Arkansas <..... 671 277. Coat of Arms of Michigan 672 278. Martin Van Buren 672 279. Milwaukee, "Wisconsin, in 1875 673 280. Easton, Pennsylvania 675 281. Rafting Lumber in Maine 677 282. Battle of Okeechobee 678 283. William Henry Harrison 681 284. John Tyler 682 285. Davenport, Iowa 683 286. Evansville, Indiana 685 287. Madison, Wisconsin 687 288. Old Fort Bentnn, Montana 689 .289. Fort Alamo San Antonio, Texas. 691 290. Coat of Arms of Texas 682 201. Coat of Arms of Iowa 694 292. Coat of Arms of Florida 694 293. James K. Polk 696 '^94. Portland, Oregon, in 1875 From east side of Willamette 697 '^95. Street in Olympia, Washington Territory 698 296. Battle of Palo Alto 701 297. Death of Major Ringgold , 702 30 LIST 01 I LH'.-T RATIONS. 29& StJoneph, Missouri .................................................... ft Defeat of the Mexican Eight Wing at Buena Vista .......................... < 12 300. General Taylor tlianking Captain Bragg at Buena Vista. ..................... 713 301. Fremont ............................................................... J 14 802. Point Arena Lighthouse Coast of California. . ............................ 715 803. Southwest from Santa Fe" ................................................. 717 804. East Side of Plaza Santa F& ............................................ 718 :>.->. Doniphan making a Treaty with the Navajoefl .............................. 719 306, " The Journey of Death " Crossed by Doniphan's Command .............. ... 721 807. Sacramento, California, in 1876 ........................................... 722 808. General Winfield Scott ................................................... 723 809. Battle of Cerro Gordo .................................................... 724 810. American Army entering Puebla, ......................................... 725 31 1. Storming of Chapultepec ................................................. 729 .SI J. iptureof the Belen Gate ................................................ 731 813. Hydraulic Mining ...................................................... 732 81 4. The Emigrant*' Camp on the Plains en route to California ................... 733 315. Coat of Arms of Wisconsin ............................................... 734 316. Zachary Taylor .......................................................... 737 31 7. Shoshonee Falls, Idaho. . ................................................ 739 318. Birdseye View of San Francisco .......................................... 742 31 9. Millard Fillmore ..................................................... ... 743 320. Coat of Arms of California ............................................... 744 321. Brigham Young ........................................................ 745 322. Franklin Pierce. ........................................................ 749 323. First Hotel in Lawrence ................................................. 756 324. The People of Lawrence determined to resist .................. ............. 757 325. James Buchanan ........................................................ 762 326. Mormon Tabernacfe : Endowment House in the Distance, .................... 763 827. Salt Lake City (from the north) ........................................... 764 828. Brigham Young's Residences, Salt Lake City ............................... 765 829. Coat of Arms of Minnesota ............................................... 766 830. Coat of Arms of Oregon .................................................. 767 83L Coat of Arms of Kansas .................................................. 768 832. Capitol at Montgomery, Alabama, Place of Meetingof the first Confederate Congress 776 833. Jefferson Davis ......................................................... 777 834. Alexander H. Stephens .................................................. 773 835. Abraham Lincoln .................................. 780 836. Arrival of President Lincoln at the Capitol ................................. 781 837. State House, Springfield, Illinois ................................. 782 838. Fort Sumter ................................... 783 339. Harper's Ferry ..................... !...........]...!.!...!.... 785 S40. Coat of Arms of West Virginia ............................. .786 841. State House, Columbus, Ohio ........................... 788 342. General P. G. T. Beauregard .................. 7 90 343. St Louis, 1875 ................................... 792 344. General Sterling Price ............................. 705 845. Major-General F. Sigel .......................... 793 346. Major-General N. Lyon ............................... 794 (47. State House, Indinnapoli*, Indiana ..................... 795 848. Lientenant-General Polk ........................... 79^ 149. James M. Mascn LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 31 402. Major-General O. O. Howard 850 403. Admiral Porter 850 404. The Landing at Mobile, Alabama. 851 405; Admiral Winalow. 852 406. Brigadier-General A. Terry 853 407. Brigadier-General Schofield 854 408. Lieutenant-General W. Hardee . 854 409. Major-General H. G. Wright 855 410. Major-General Warren 855 411. Lieutenant-General A. P. Hill. 856 412. Major-General E. O. Ord 857 413. Surrender of General Lee - 859 414. Monument to Abraham Lincoln in Fnirmount Park, Philadelphia. 861 41 5. Hon. W, H. Seward 862 416. Lieutenant-General E. Kirby Smith 862 417. Interview between Generals Sherman and Johnsion 863 418. Judah P. Benjamin 864 419. Andrew Johnson 866 420. City Hall, Portland, Maine 867 421. Chestnut Street Bridge over the Schuylkill, Philadelphia. 870 422. The Patent Office, Washington City 872 423. Lake Street, Chicago 873 424. Major-General George W. Custer 875 425. Ulysses S. Grant 880 426. President Grant leaving the White House to be inaugurated 881 427. Cheyennes reconnoitring the first Train on the Pacific Railroad 882 428. The Bureau of Agriculture, Washington, D. C 884 429. The Burning of Chicago 887 430. Horace Greeley 888 431. President Grant passing through the Rotunda to take the Oath of Office 891 432. The Lava Beds 893 433. Scene in the New \ork Stock Exchange during the Panic of 1873 895 434. New York Stock Exchange.. 896 435. Coat of Arms of Colorado - 897 436. Opening Ceremonies International Centennial Exhibition 898 437. View of the Intersection of Ninth and Chestnut Streets, Philadelphia 905 438. Scene on the Hudson River in 1875 439. St. Paul, Minnesota 440. View on the Colorado River 441. Bird's-eye View of the Centennial Buildings, Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. . . 442. Centennial Depot. Pennsylvania Railroad, Opposite Machinery Hall 443. Centennial Medal Obverse. . . 444. Centennial Medal Reverse i 445. Transcontinental Hotel, Opposite Main Building 446. The Globe Hotel, Opposite Entrance to the Main Building 447. Grand Exposition Hotel 448. The Total Abstinence Centennial Fountain 449. The United States Hotel, Near the Main Exhibition Building 450. Girard Avenue Bridge ... 451. View of the Schuylkill from Laurel Hill, showing the Falls Bridge 452. Connecticut State Building 453. Ohio State Building LIST OF JLLUSTRATfONS. . . V. 454. The Book Trade Exhibit 455. Maiwachusetto State Building 456. New York Sute Building 457. Studio of the National Photographic Company 458. New Jewey State Building 459. Arkanww Slate Building. 4i.ii. Interior of the Main Building. 41. Eastern Entrance to the Swedish Court 4o-J. Kntrance to the Spanish Court n i ranee to the Egyptian Court. 4iU. Knimnce to the Brazilian Court 4<;:>. The Spanish Building 466 The Carriage Building 467. Interior of a Parlor Car Exhibited in the Carriage Building , 468. Machinery Hall, International Exhibition 469. The Corliss Engine in Machinery Hall 470. Agricultural Building International Exhibition 471. Interior of Agricultural Hall 472. The Wisconsin State Building 473. Horticultural Hall International Exhibition 474. Stairway in Horticultural Hall 475. The Forcing-House, Horticultural Hall 476. Eagle used in Ornamentation of Memorial Hall : 477. Italian Statuary in the Annex to the Art Gallery 478. Photographic Art Gallery ; 479. United States Government Building 480. Main Entrance to the Exhibition Grounds 481. The Grangers' Centennial Encampment 482. Post Hospital of the United States Army 483. Maryland State Building 484. Cook's World's Ticket Offices, Centennial Grounds 485. Delaware State Building 486. Pennsylvania State Building 487. Colorado and Kansas State Building 488. The British Buildings '. 489. The German Restaurant 490. Building of the German Empire 491 . Swedish School-House 4li:i. The Japanese Dwelling 493. lu-stmirant of the Trois Freres Proven9^aux 4!>1. Grand American Restaurant 4 '.)">. Judges' Hall International Exhibition Hill. The Southern Restaurant 4!7 Building of the Department of Public Comfort The Singer Sewing Machine Building 499. The American Newspaper Building 600. Building of the Campbell Press Company 601. View in the Main Exhibition Building, showing the Spanish, Egyptian and Danish Courts 602. View in Agricultural Hall, showing the Brazilian Exhibits 603. Scene in Agricultural Hall, showing the Tobacco Exhibit THE PICTORIAL' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER I. PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS. Earliest Inhabitants of the United States The Mound Builders Remarkable Works constructed by them Evidences of a Primitive Civilization Indications of the Antiq- uity of this Period The American Indians Divisions of the Country among the Tribes Names and Location of the various Tribes Organization and Government of the Indians Their Dress, Manners, and Customs Villages Indian Inventions The AVar Dance Legends of the Norsemen respecting the Discovery of America. iE do not know who were the inhabitants, or what was the history of North America previous to its discovery and settlement by the Europeans. That it was at some remote period occupied by a more civilized and powerful race than the Indians found by the first explorers, is very certain ; but who they were, what was their history, or what the cause of their extinction, are among the profoundest mysteries of the past. Traces as distinct as those which mark the various physical changes which the continent has undergone, exist to show that these primitive inhabitants were both numerous and far advanced in civilization ; but this is all that we know concerning them. In various parts of the country, and especially in the valley of the Mississippi, large mounds and other structures of earth and stone, but chiefly of earth, remain to show the magnitude of the works constructed by these people, to whom the name " Mound Builders " is generally applied. Some of these earth-works embrace as much as fifteen or sixteen miles of embankment. As no domestic animals existed in this country 3 33 34 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. At this period, these works must have been constructed by bringing the rarth ued for them by hand ; a fact which shows that the primitive population was a large one. The construction of the works proves that they had considerable engineering skill. The square, the circle, tho ellipse, and the octagon are all used in these structures; being ah combined in a single system of works in some places. The proportions are alwavs , rfect. The square is always a true square, and the circle a true circle. Many implements and ornaments of copper, silver, and precious stones such as axes, chisels, knives, bracelets, beads, and pieces of thread and of cloth, and well-shaped vases of pottery have been found in these mounds, and show the extent of the civilization of the "Mound Builders." In the region of Lake Superior are found old copper mines worked by these ancient people. In one of these mines there was discovered an immense block of copper weighing nearly six tons. It had been left in the process of removal to the top of the mine, nearly thirty feet, ' ve, and Avas supported on logs of wood which were partly petrified. The stone and copper tools used by the miners were disco .red lying about as they had been left by their owners ages before. At the mouth of this mine are piles of earth thrown out in digging it, and out of these embankments trees are growing which are nearly four hundred years old. At Marietta, Ohio, there is a mound bearing trees eight hundred years old. The age of the mounds is necessarily equal to that of the trees. How much older they are is unknown. This mysterious race had perished long before the discovery of the continent by Columbus. Whether the "Mound Builders" were the ancestors of the American Indians is uncertain ; but it is not likely that they were. The two races were unlike in habits, and the Indians neither constructed such works as the mounds, nor gave any evidence of the skill or industry necessary to their construction. The Indians themselves had no recollection of any previous race in this country, although they preserved their traditions with care. Various conjectures have been made as to the origin and character of the " Mound Builders," but it is useless to give them here. We have no means of arriving at a definite or satisfactory conclusion concerning this lost race. We only know that they existed and erected the great works which alone attest their presence in this country, perhaps more than a thousand years ago. At the time of its discovery by the whites the Indians were the sole human occupants of the continent, which was covered with vast woods and plains abounding with game of every description, the pursuit of which formed the principal occupation of the natives, and furnished them with food and clothing. 36 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Though nominally divided into tribes and "nations," the Indians were really one great family in physical appearance, manners, customs, religion, ami in tin- observance of their social and political systems. The division into tribes was the result of their difference in language. Each tribe had n dialect peculiar to itself and distinct from those of the others. The tribes were for the most part hostile to, and were constantly engaged in war with, each other. They were generally divided into eight nations, >jx aking eight radically distinct languages. These were: I. Tlie Algonquins, who inhabited the territory now comprised in the six New England States, the eastern part of New York and Pennsyl- vaniujXew Jersey, Del- aware, Maryland, Vir- ginia, North Carolina as far south as Cape Fear, a large part of Kentucky and Tennes- see, and nearly all of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. This nation was subdivided into the following tribes: the Kniste- naux, Ottawas, Chip- pewas, Sacs and Foxes, Menomohees, Miamis, Piankeshaws, Pota- watomies, Kickapoos, Illinois, Shawnees, Powhatans, Corees, Nanticokes, Lenni-Lenapes or Delawares, Mohegans, Narragansetts, Pequods and Abenakis. II. The Iroquois, who occupied almost all of that part of Canada south of the Ottawa, and between Lakes Ontario, Erie, and Huron, the greater part of New York, and the country lying along the south shore Erie, now included in the States of Ohio and Pennsylvania. This territory, it will be seen, was completely surrounded by the domains of their powerful and bitter enemies, the Algonquins. The nation was subdivided into the following tribes: the Senecas, Cayugas, Ouondaras f Sneidas, and Mohawks. These five were afterwards called by the English the "Five Nations." In 1722, they admitted the Tuscaroras NAVAJO BOY. PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS. 37 into their confederation, and were afterwards called the " Six Nations." The nation called itself collectively the Konoskioni, or " Cabin Builders." The Algonquins termed them Mingoes ; the French, Iroquois ; and the English, Mohawks, or Mingoes. III. The Catawbas, who dwelt along the banks of the Yadkin and Catawba rivers, near the line which at present separates the States of North and South Carolina. IV. The Cherokees, whose lands were bounded on the east by the Broad river of the Carolinas, including all of northern Georgia. V. The Uchees, who dwelt south of the Cherokees, along the Savannah, the Oconee, and the head-waters of the Ogeechee and Chattahoochee. They spoke a harsh and singular language, and are believed to have been the remnant of a once powerful nation. VI. The Mobilian Nation, who inhabited all of Georgia and South Carolina not mentioned in the above statements, a part of Kentucky and Tennessee, and all of Florida, Alabama and Mississippi. Their territory was next in extent to that of the Algonquins, and extended along the Gulf of Mexico from the Atlantic ocean to the Mississippi river. The nation was divided into three great confederations the Creeks or Musco- gees, the Choctaws, and the Chickasaws and was subdivided into a number of smaller tribes, the principal of which were the Seminoles and Yemassees, who were members of the Creek Confederation. VII. The Natchez, who dwelt in a small territory east of the Missis- sippi, and along the banks of the Pearl river. They were surrounded on all sides by the tribes of the Mobilian language, yet remained until their extinction a separate nation, speaking a distinct language peculiar to themselves, and worshipping the sun as their God. They are believed to have been the most civilized of all the savage tribes of North America. VIII. The Dacotahs or Sioux, whose territory was bounded on the north by Lake Winnipeg, on the south by the Arkansas river, on the east by the Mississippi, and on the west by the Rocky mountains. The nation was divided into the following branches : the Winnebagoes, living between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi; the Assiniboins, living in the extreme north ; the Southern Sioux, living between the Arkansas and the Platte ; and the Mintarees, Mandans, and Crows, who lived west of the Assiniboins. The great plains, the Rocky mountains, and the Pacific coast were held by the powerful tribes of the Pawnees, Comanches, Apaches, Utahs, Black Feet, Snakes, Nezperces, Flatheads, and California Indians. Each tribe was divided into classes or clans, which were distinguished by a mark tattooed on the breast. This mark was called the totem, and 3g HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. was generally the representation of an animal or bird. The Indians believed that all animals had protecting spirits, and each class was opposed to be protected by the spirit of the animal it chose for its totem. ( K. -r each class was a chief, and the head of the tribe was a chief or achem, who was usually a man, but sometimes a woman. The Indians had in. written laws, but the customs and traditions of the tribe took the place of these. The religious belief of the Indians was simple. They adored a Great Spirit some tribes had many gods and believed in a future state. The brave were admitted to the happy hunting-grounds of the spirit world, but cowards were excluded from them. The weapons of a warrior were buried with him that he might use them in his spirit home. Their heaven lay far beyond the mountains of the setting sun. It was a land rich in game, and abound- ing in fertile meadows and sparkling streams. There the warrior, released from the cares and hardships of life, passed the ages of eternity in the chase; and there parting from friends, suffer- ing, fatigue, hunger, and thirst were un- known. The Indian heard voices of spirits in the wind, and saw them in the stars. The shades of his ancestors were constantly hovering over him, stimulating him to brave deeds, and keeping fresh in his mind the duty of avenging them upon the enemies they had left behind. The dress of the savages consisted of the skins of animals, which were prepared by smoking them. After the settlement of the colonies they added a blanket to this dress. Their garments were decorated with skins and feathers, and on special occasions they painted their faces with various bright colors. In the warm weather they wore scarcely any clothing. Their houses or wigwams were formed of poles set firmly in the ground and bent toward each other at the top. These were covered with chestnut or birch bark. Some of the tribes had large houses, often thirty feet high and over two hundred feet long, which accommodated a number of families. Some of the Indian villages were laid off regularly and were permanent; others were broken up with each migration of the tribe. Pl.'KBLO INDIAN AT PBAYER. PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS. 39 All the Indians, however, pursued a roving life, passing from point to point in search of game and the means of subsistence. Some of the tribes lived by hunting only ; others added to this pursuit the cultivation of maize or Indian corn, beans, tobacco, hemp, and pumpkins. The food of the Indians was coarser and less nourishing than that of the Europeans; and they were consequently inferior to the latter in bodily strength.' They surpassed them in endurance, however, and could bear tests which the whites could not. They were swift runners, and could accomplish long distances in this way. It was a common thing for a good runner to run seventy or eighty miles in a single day. They were thoroughly proficient in the craft of the woodsman. Sounds and sights which had no meaning to the white man were eloquent to them ; and they surpassed the latter in keenness of hearing and of vision. They communi- cated with each other by signs or marks on rocks and trees. For money they used wampum beads ; ^ and belts made of this wampum were used to record treaties and other important events. They had no intoxicating drinks before the arrival of the whites; but used tobacco, which they smoked in pipes made of clay. They were expert marksmen with the bow until they learned the use of fire- arms from the whites, when they lost much of their ancient skill with this weapon. "The most ingenious inventions of the Indians," says Colonel Higginson, " were the snow-shoe and the birch canoe. The snow-shoe was made of a maple-wood frame, three or four feet long, curved and tapering, and filled in with a network of deer's hide. This network was fastened to the foot by thongs, only a light, elastic moccasin being worn. Thus the foot was supported on the surface of the snow ; and an Indian could travel forty miles a day upon snow- shoes, and could easily overtake the deer and moose, whose pointed hoofs cut through the crust. The peculiar pattern varied with almost every tribe, as did also that of the birch canoe. This was made of the bark of the white birch, stretched over a very light frame of white cedar. The whole bark of a birch tree was stripped off and put round the frame CONVERTED INDIAN WOMAN. 40 A DEAD TOWS OF THE MOQUIS INDIAK8- PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS. 41 without being torn. The edges were sewed with thongs cut from the roots of the cedar, and were then covered with pitch made from the gum of trees. If torn, the canoe could be mended with pieces of bark, fastened in the same way. The largest of these canoes was thirty feet long, and would carry ten or twelve Indians. They were very light, and could be paddled with ease. They were often very gracefully shaped, and drew very little water " The Indians had great courage, self-control, and patience. They were grave and dignified in their manners on important occasions ; in their councils they were courteous to one another, and discussed all impor- tant questions at great length. They were often kind and generous, and sometimes even forgiving ; but they generally held sternness to be a virtue, and forgiveness a weakness. They were especially cruel to captives, putting them to death with all manner of tortures, in which women took an active part. It was the custom among them for women to do most of the hard work, in order that the bodies of the men might be kept supple and active for the pur- suits of the chase and war. When employed on these pur- suits, the Indian men seemed incapable of fatigue ; but in the camp or in travelling the women carried the burdens ; and when a hunter had carried a slain deer on his shoulders for a long dis- tance, he would throw it down within sight of the village,that his squaw might go and bring it in. " Most of the Indian tribes lived in a state of constant warfare with one another. When there was a quarrel between tribes, and war seemed ready to break out, strange ceremonies were used. Some leading chief would paint his body black from head to foot, and would hide himself in the woods or in a cavern. There he would fast and pray, and call upon the Great Spirit ; and would observe his dreams to see if they promised good or evil. If he could dream of a great war-eagle hovering before him it would be a sign of triumph. After a time he would come forth' from the woods and return among his people. Then he would address them, summon them to war, and assure them that the Great Spirit was on their side. Then he would bid the warriors to a feast at his wigwam. There they would find him no longer painted m black, but in bright and INDIAK OF THE PLAINS. 42 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. gaudy colors, called \var paint.' The guests would also be dressed in paint and leathers, and would seat themselves in a circle. Then wooden tn ndicrs, containing the flesh of dogs, would be placed before them, while the chief would sit smoking his pipe, and would not yet break his long and exhausting fast. "After the feast, the war-dance would follow, perhaps at night, amid the blaze of fires and lighted pine knots. A painted post would be driven into the ground, and the crowd would form a wide circle round it. The war chief would leap into the open space, brandishing his hatchet, and would chant his own deeds and those of his fathers, acting out all that he described and striking at the post as if it were an enemy. Warrior after warrior would follow, till at last the whole band would be dancing, shouting, and brandishing their weapons, striking and stabbing nt the air, and filling the forest with their yells. " Much of the night would pass in this way. In the morning the warriors would leave the camp in single file, still decorated with paint and feathers and ornaments ; and, as they entered the woods, the chief would fire his gun, and each in turn would do the same. Then they would halt near the village, would take off their ornaments and their finery, and would give all these to the women, who had followed them for this purpose. Then the warriors would go silently and stealthily through the forest to the appointed place of attack. Much of their skill consisted in these silent approaches, and in surprises and stratagems, and long and patient watchings. They attached no shame to killing an unarmed enemy, or to private deceit and treachery, though to their public treaties they were always faithful. They were desperately brave, and yet they saw no disgrace in running away when there was no chance of success." At the time of the discovery of America the Indians were rapidly. disappearing. Their relentless wars and frequent pestilences were sweeping them away. Contact with the white race has hastened the work of destruction. Many of the tribes exist now but in name, and those which remain are growing smaller in numbers with each generation ; and it would seem that the time is not far distant when the last trace left of the red man in America will be his memory. Whether any white men ever trod the shores of America previous tc die coming of Columbus is a disputed question. It would seem, however, that, several centuries previous to his discovery, a Norwegian vessel from Iceland to Greenland was driven out of her course by storms to the coast of Labrador or Newfoundland. The national pride of the Icelanders and the Danes has led them to accept as literal history the 44 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. traditions of their race concerning this voyage, and they have given it a ,1, finite date. According to them this voyage took place in A. D. 986, Mini WM followed in 1001 by a voyage of Lief Erickson, an Icelandic iKivi-ator, wh( is said to have discovered America, reaching Labrador first, and then sailing southward to Newport and New York harbors.- This voyage is said to have led the way to the further exploration cf the LOWER FALLS OP THE YELLOWSTONE, WYOMING, (350 FEET IN HEIGHT.) coast as far south as the capes of Virginia, and to the planting of colonies, which soon perished, in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. That some Icelandic voyagers visited the American continent previous to the expedi- tion of Columbus is most likely; but we cannot accept the definite and explicit statements of the writers in question j at least in the present state of our knowledge upon this subject. CHAPTER II. THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. Ma' Itime Enterprise in the Fifteenth Century Theories respecting the Earth's Surface- Christopher Columbus His early Life His Theory of a Western Passage to India His Struggles to obtain the means of making a Voyage Is aided by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain His first Voyage Discovery of America Reception in Spain His second Voyage Settlement of Hayti Third Voyage of Columbus He reaches the Mainland Discovery of Gold in Hayti Troubles in the Colony Columbus sent to Spain in Irons Indignation of the Queen Last Voyage of Columbus His Shipwreck Returns to Spain Refusal of Ferdinand to comply with his Promises Death of Columbus Amerigo Vespucci Origin of the name AMERICA. HE fifteenth century witnessed a remarkable awakening of human thought and enterprise, one of the most important features of which was the activity in maritime undertakings which led to the discovery of lands until then unknown to the civilized world. The invention, and the application to navigation, of the mariner's compass, had enabled the seamen of Europe to undertake long and distant voyages. The Portuguese took the lead in the maritime enterprises of this period, the chief object of which was to find a route by water from Europe to the Indies. The equator had been passed ; Bartholomew Diaz had even doubled the Cape of Storms, and had established the course of the eastern coast of Africa ; and it was hoped by some of the most daring thinkers that the distant ports of India could be reached by sailing around this cape. Others, still bolder, believed that although the earth was really a sphere, it was much smaller than it is, and that the central portion of its surface was occupied by a vast ocean which washed the shores of what they regarded as its solitary continent, on either side, and that by sailing due west from Europe, the shores of India, China, or Japan would be reached. Among those who held this opinion was Christopher Columbus. He was a native of Genoa, in Italy, was born about the year 1435, and was the son of a weaver of cloth. His ancestors had been sailors, for which calling he at an early age evinced a preference. He received a common- school education, and afterwards went to the University of Pavia, where be studied geometry, astronomy, geography, and navigation. He stayed 45 46 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. at Pavia bnt a short time; only long enough to gain a decided relish for tin- inutlM-inatical studies in which he afterwards excelled. At the age of fourteen he went to sea with a relative, and followed the calling of a sailor until he had completed his thirtieth year. During this period h? had married, and by this marriage he had become possessed of the papers of the former husband of his wife, who had been a distinguished Portu- guese navigator. He had learned but little at school, but he had been a close student all his life, and had stored his mind with a valuable fund of information. This habit of study he never abandoned, and his extensive knowledge, added to his years of practical experience, made him one of the most learned naviga- tors of his day. In 1470, being then about thirty years old, Columbus took up his residence in Portugal, which was then the centre of maritime en- terprise in Europe. He continued to make voy- ages to the then known parts of the world, and while on shore engaged in the work of making and selling maps and charts. The papers given him by his wife were now of the greatest service to him. He entered eagerly into the speculations of the day concerning .the shortest passage to the Indies, and his studies, fortified by his experience, induced him to believe that there was land beyond the western seas, which could be reached by sailing in that direction. This land he believed to be the eastern shores of Asia. He was confirmed in his belief by his correspondence with the learned Italian Toscanelli, who sent him a map of his own projection, in which the eastern coast of Asia was laid down opposite the western coast of Europe, with only the broad Atlantic between them. Other things also confirmed him in what had now become the profoundest conviction of his life. Sailors who had been to the Canary islands told him they had seen CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. 47 land far to the westward of those islands. A piece of wood strangely carved had been thrown by the waves upon the Portuguese coast after a long westerly gale, and had been seen by the brother-in-law of Columbus. An old pilot related to him the finding of a carved paddle at sea, a thousand miles to the westward of Europe. Pine trees had been cast ashore at Madeira, and at the Azores he learned that the bodies of two men, whose features and dress showed that they belonged to no nation of Europe, had been thrown on the land by the waves. Having settled it in his own mind that there was land to the westward, Columbus was eager to go in search of it. He was not possessed of suffi- cient means to accomplish this at his own expense, and began his efforts to interest some European state in the enterprise. His first application was addressed to his native country, the Republic of Genoa. He met with a refusal, and then turned to Venice, with a like result. His next effort was to enlist the Portuguese king, John II., in his scheme. Here he was subjected to delays and vexations innumerable, and once the Portuguese sovereign attempted to make a dishonorable use of the information given by Columbus in support of his theory. Disgusted with the conduct of this sovereign, Columbus, after years of waiting, abandoned the hope of obtaining his assistance, and applied to Henry VII. of England, from whom he received a decided refusal. Quitting Lisbon in 1484, Columbus went to Spain, intending to lay his plans before Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of that country. He could scarcely have chosen a more unpropitious time. The Spanish nation was engaged in the Moorish war, which had exhausted the treasury, and which absorbed the attention of the sovereigns to the exclusion of every other matter. He spent seven years in endeavoring to interest the government in his plans. "During this time Columbus appears to have remained in attendance on the court, bearing arms occasionally in the campaigns, and experiencing from the sovereigns an unusual degree of deference and personal attention." At last, wearied with the long delay to which he had been subjected, he pressed the court for an answer, and was told by the sovereigns that, " although they were too much occupied at present to embark in his undertaking, yet, at the conclusion of the war, they should find both time and inclination to treat with him." He accepted this answer as a final refusal, and prepared to go to France to ask the assistance of the king of that country, from whom he had received a friendly letter. Travelling on foot, he stopped at the monastery of Santa Maria de Rabida, near Palos, to visit the Prior Juan Perez de Marchena, who had befriended him when he first came to Spain. The prior, learning his 4g HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. infntion to quit Spain, persuaded him to remain until one more effort could be made to enlist the government in his plans. Leaving Columbus at the convent, Juan Perez, who had formerly been the queen's confessor, mounted his mule and set off for the Spanish camp before Granada. He was readily granted an interview by Queen Isabella, and he urged the suit of Columbus with all the force of eloquence and reasoning of which he was master. His appeal was supported by several eminent persons whom Columbus, during his residence at the court, had interested in his project, and these represented to the queen the impolicy of allowing Columbus to secure the aid of a foreign power which would reap the benefits of his discoveries, if he were successful. The result was that the sovereigns consented to reopen the negotiation, and Columbus was invited to return to the court, and was furnished with a sum of money to enable him to do so. Columbus promptly complied with the royal mandate, and reached the camp in time to witness the surrender of Granada. Amidst the rejoicings which attended this event, he was admitted to an audience with the king and queen, and submitted to them the arguments upon which he based his theory. Isabella was favorably disposed toward the undertaking, but Ferdinand looked coldly upon it. Columbus demanded, as the reward of his success, the title and authority of admiral and viceroy over all lands discovered by him, with one-tenth of the profits, and that this dig- nity should be hereditary in his family. The archbishop of Granada Advised the king to reject the demands of Columbus, which he said u savored of the highest degree of arrogance, and would be unbecoming in their highnesses to grant to a needy foreign adventurer." Columbus firmly refused to abate his pretensions, and abruptly left the court, "resolved rather to forego his splendid anticipations of discovery, at the very moment when the career so long sought was thrown open to him, than surrender one of the honorable distinctions due to his services." His friends, however, remonstrated with the queen, and reminded her that if his claims were high, they were at least contingent on success. By representing to her the certainty of his being employed by some other potentate, and his peculiar qualifications for success, and by reminding her of her past generous support of great and daring enterprises, the;- roused her to listen to the impulses of her own noble heart. " I will assume the undertaking," she exclaimed, " for my own crown of Castile, and am ready to pawn my jewels to defray the expenses of it, if the funds in the treasury shall be found inadequate." Louis de St. Angel, the receiver who had been chiefly instrumental in bringing about this deci- sion of the queen, offered to advance the necessary funds from the SHE BRONZE DOOB IN THE NATIONAL CAPITOL, COMMEMORATING THE EVENTS OF THE LIFE OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. 4 49 50 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. revenues of Aragon. That kingdom, however, was indemnified againsf loss, and all the charges and profits of the expedition were reserved ex- clusively for Castile. A messenger was despatched in haste after Columbus. He overtook him a few leagues from Granada, and delivered the royal order to return. On the 17th of April, 1492, a formal agreement was signed between Columbus and the Spanish sovereigns. Ferdinand and Isabella, "as lords of the ocean-seas, constituted Christopher Columbus their admiral, viceroy, and governor-general of all such islands and continents as he should discover in the Western ocean, with the privilege of nominating three candidates, for the selection of one by the crown, for the govern- ment of each of these territories. He was to be vested with the exclusive right of jurisdiction over all commercial transactions within his admiralty. He was to be entitled to one-tenth of all the products and profits within the limits of his discoveries, and an additional eighth, provided he should contribute one-eighth part of the expense. By a subsequent ordinance, the official dignities above enumerated were settled on him and his heirs forever, with the privilege of prefixing the title of Don to their names, which had not then degenerated into an appellation of mere courtesy." A fleet of three vessels was assembled in the little harbor of Palos in Andalusia. Two of these Avere furnished by the government, and one by Columbus, aided by his friend, the Prior of La Rabida, and the Pinzons, " a family in Palos, long distinguished for its enterprise among the mari- ners of that active community." The admiral had some difficulty in equipping his vessels, for his voyage Avas regarded by the sailors of the country as rash and perilous in the extreme. At length, however, a -sufficierit crew Avas obtained. One hundred and twenty persons were en- listed in the expedition. The three vessels Avere all small. The " Santa Maria," the largest, Avas ninety feet long, was decked all over, had four masts, and carried a crew of sixty-six seamen. The "Pinta" and :< Xina" were smaller, and Avere Avithout decks. All the vessels were provisioned for a year. The admiral was instructed to keep clear of the African coast, and other maritime possessions of Portugal. At length all things were in readiness, and, Columbus and his whole crew having confessed themselves and received the sacrament, the fleet sailed from Palos on the morning of Friday, the 3d of August, 1492. A month later the Canary islands Avere reached. A brief delay was made there to refit, and then the vessels turned their prows to the west- Avard, and sailed out into the unknown seas. As the night came on, the sailors, imagining they had seen the land for the last time, gave Avay to tears. Columbus soothed their fears, and held his course. At length he THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. 51 fell in with the trade winds, which wafted him steadily toward the west. The sailors were greatly alarmed at this, and declared that if the wind did not change it would be impossible for them to reach home again. The variation of the compass also alarmed them, and their murmurs in- creased to almost open mutiny. It required all the firmness of the admiral to restrain them, and to keep them from abandoning the enter- prise and returning to Europe. Ten weeks of anxiety and disappointment had passed since the depar- ture of the fleet from Palos ; but still no land was seen. There were un- mistakable signs that laud was near, such as the flight of land birds THE LANDING OF COLUMBUS. around the ship, the finding of a bush floating on the waters with fresh berries upon it, and the frequent discovery o( land weeds upon the waves. Often the lookout would startle the fleet by the cry of land, but as often the supposed shore would prove to be only a bank of clouds low do\vn upon the western horizon. Still the ships held their westward course, and at length the sailors broke into open mutiny, and demanded that the fleet should return home. They were even ready to throw the admira) overboard if he refused to grant their demands. Columbus alone had been calm and hopeful throughout the voyage He was resolved to succeed or perish in the attempt to find the land 52 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The success of the mutiny would have destroyed all his hopes, and as the events of earh Mi.vrrdinjr day strengthened him in his conviction that they were rapidly approaching land, he condescended to plead with his men, and obtained from them a promise to obey him for a few days longer. The next night the land breeze, laden with the rich perfumes of tropical flowers, convinced the wear)' crews that the admiral was right, and that the long wishcd-for shore was indeed near. The ships were nnlcivd to lie to for the night lest they should go ashore in the darkness. No one slept on board that night. About ten o'clock, Columbus saw a light moving along the shore, as if it were a torch carried in a man's hand. He called Martin Alonzo Pinzon, one of his captains, and pointed it out to him. Pinzon confirmed the admiral's opinion, and all waited in the most intense eagerness for the approach of the morning. With the first light, on the morning of Friday, the 12th of October, 1492, a gun from one of the vessels announced that land was indeed in sight, and the rising sun revealed to the delighted seamen a large island, luxuriant in foliage and of very beautiful appearance, lying about six miles away, with crowds of natives running along the beach. As the great admiral stood with folded arms, and heaving breast, gazing upon the world which his genius had discovered, the penitent sailors crowded about him, and, kissing his garments, implored his pardon for their re- bellious conduct during the voyage. The fleet stood in and anchored near the shore. The boats were manned, and the admiral, clad in rich scarlet, and bearing the royal banner of Spain, and accompanied by his captains, each of whom bore a green banner inscribed with a cross, went ashore. As he set foot on the land, Columbus knelt reverently and kissed the ground, and then rising and drawing his sword, took possession of the island in the name of Ferdinand and Isabella, King and Queen of Spain. The island was one of the Bahama group, and was called by the natives Guanahani. Colum- bus named it San Salvador. He explored the island, and then sailing on discovered Cuba, Hayti, and other West India islands. He believed these islands to lie off the coast of Asia and to form a part of the Indies. F.r this reason he called the natives Indians, a name which they have since l>rne. I laving built and garrisoned a small fort called La Navidad, in Hayti, ilumliw took on board seven of the natives, and laid in a stock 'of Iniifc, plants, and a number of animals, as proofs of his success and -miens of the products of the country, and then set sail on his return A storm compelled him to seek refuge in the Tagus. He u- received with distinguished courtesy by John II., who was now not THE VOYAGES OF CO L I'M It US. 50 a little mortified at having thrown away so glorious an opportunity in rejecting the application of the admiral years before. Leaving Lisbon, Columbus sailed to Palos, where he arrived on the 15th of March, 1493, seven months and eleven days after his departure, from that port. His arrival was greeted with enthusiasm. From Palos he set out for the 3ourt at Barcelona. Every step of the journey to Barcelona was a triumphal progress. Multitudes thronged the way, eager to gaze upon him. He was received with the most distinguished honors by the sovereigns, and the whole court joined in a Te Deuni of thankfulness for the success of his voyage. The king and queen confirmed his appointment of viceroy or governor- general of all the countries he had discovered, or should discover, and conferred titles of nobility upon his family, with permission to use a coat of arms. These honors, though conferred with a lavish hand, had all been fairly won ; but they aroused the jealousy of the Spanish nobility, and made for Columbus enemies who filled the remainder of his life with sorrow and care. A second expedition, consisting of seventeen ships and fifteen hundred men, was now fitted out, and sailed from Cadiz, under the command of Columbus, on the 25th of September, 1493. On this voyage he discov- ered Jamaica and many of the Caribbee islands. He found that his colony in Hayti had been destroyed by the savages in revenge for their outrages; but, undismayed by this, he planted a new town, whi^h he called Isabella, in honor of the queen. From this time the permanent settlement of the island continued without interruption. In 1498 Columbus made a third voyage, and in this expedition discov- ered the mainland of the American continent near the mouth of Orinoco, and explored the coast of the provinces since called Para and Cumana. He was not aware of the true nature of his discovery, however, but sup- posed that the South American coast was a part of a large island belong- ing to Cathay or Farther India. In the meantime gold had been discovered in Hayti, which island the Spaniards had named Hispaniola, or Little Spain. The colonists neglect- ing all the more useful avocations, applied themselves to the search for gold, and crowds of worthless adventurers were drawn over from Spain by the hope of acquiring sudden wealth. They inflicted the greatest hardships upon the natives, and when Columbus arrived at Hispaniola from the South American coast, he found the affairs of the colony in the most deplorable state. The w r hole settlement rebelled against him, and the rebels, not content with refusing to acknowledge his authority, sent numerous complaints to Spain, charging him with tyranny and misgov- 54 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. muncnt. The sovereigns at length sent over a commissioner named Bobttdilla, to investigate the affairs of the colony. He was a narrow- minded and incompetent man, and instead of investigating the charges against the admiral, arrested him, and sent him back to Spain in irons. When the officers of the ship which bore him back home wished to re- rnova his fetters, he refused to allow them to do so, saying, " I will wear them as a memento of the gratitude of princes." The news of this out- rage filled the people of Spain with honest indignation. "All seemed to feel it as a national dishonor," says Prescott, " that such indignities should be heaped upon the man, who, whatever might be his indiscretions, had done so much for Spain, and for the whole civilized world." Queen Isa- bella at once ordered his fetters to be struck off, and he was summoned to court, reinstated in all his honors, and treated with the highest considera- tion. Isabella gained from the king a promise to aid her in doing justice to the admiral, and in punishing his enemies; but Ferdinand, who could never bear to do a generous or noble act, evaded his promise, and the admiral failed to receive the recompense he was justly entitled to. In 1504 Columbus sailed on his fourth voyage; his object this time being to find a passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, by which he might reach India. He explored the Gulf of Honduras, and saw the continent of North America, but was compelled by a mutiny of his cre\* and by severe storms to abandon his attempt and return to the northward. He was shipwrecked on the coast of Jamaica, where he remained more than a year. Returning to Spain in November, 1505, he found his best friend, Queen Isabella, on her death-bed. The enemies whom his great success had raised up for him were numerous and powerful, while he was now old and broken in health. He vainly sought from Ferdinand a faith- ful execution of the original compact between them ; but though he re- ceived fair words and promises in abundance from the king, Ferdinand steadily refused to comply with the just demands of the admiral. At last, worn cut with care and disappointments, Columbus died at Vallaclolid, on the 20th of May, 1506, being about seventy years old. He was buried with great pomp in the convent of St. Francis, at Valiadolid. In 1513 his remains were removed to the monastery of Las Cuevas, at Seville, and Ferdinand caused this inscription, which cost him nothing and expressed his excuse for his conduct towards the dead man, to be placed upon his tomb : "To Castile and Leon Columbus gave a New World !" In 1536 the body of the great admiral was conveyed with appropriate honors to St. Domingo. Upon the cession of that island to France in 1795, the l>ody was removed to Cuba, and buried in the cathedral of Havana. Not yet have the ashes of the Discoverer of America found their true res< - THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. 55 ing place. That place is under the great dome of the Capitol of the Republic, for whose existence he prepared the way. Though Columbus reached the continent of South America on his third voyage, he was not the first European who beheld the mainland of the , western world. In the winter of 1497-98, Amerigo Vespucci, or Aineri- cus Vespucius, a Florentine navigator, made a voyage to the West Indies and the South American coast, thus reaching the mainland of the conti- nent nearly a year before Columbus. Returning to Europe he published an account of his discoveries. This was the first account of the new world published in Europe, and some years later a German geographer gave to the continent the name of "Ameriti Terra ,". or the land discovered by Americus. From this time the name AMERICA was applied to the western continent.* * In the Atlantic Monthly for March, 1875, Mr. Jules Marcou gives some very striking reasons for regarding the name America as derived from an indigenous word originally applied to a range of mountains in Central America. "Americ, Amerrique, or Amerique," he says, "is the name in Nicaragua for the highland or mountain range that lies between Juigalpa and Libertad, in the province of Chontales, and which reaches on the one side into the country of the Carcas Indians, and on the other into that of the Ramas Indians. . . . The names of places in the Indian dialects of Central America often terminate in ique, or ic, which seems to mean 'great,' 'elevated,' 'prominent,' and is always applied to dividing ridges, or to elevated mountainous countries, but not to volcanic regions. . . . " The question to be decided is, whether the word Americ or Amerrique, designating a part of the terra fa-ma discovered by Cristoforo Colombo, on his fourth and last voyage to the new world, was known to the great navigator, and consequently could have been repeated by him or by the companions of his voyage. There is no certainty of this ; for the word is not found in the very brief account he has left us. But as the origin of the word Americ has been until now an enigma, in spite of the different interpretations of it that have been given, and as Vespuchy had nothing to do with this name, entirely unknown to him the inventor of the word Americi or America being a printer and bookseller in a email town in the Vosges mountains it is perhaps well to review the facts, and to show where lies the greatest probability for a true solution of the origin of this word America " There is the strongest evidence that this word, denoting the range and the rocks of Amerrique, Amerique, or Americ, is an indigenous word, the terminal ique or ic being com- mon for the names of locality, in the language of the Lenca Indians of Central America, a part of Mexico ; and that this name has been perpetuated without alteration since the dis- covery of the new world, by the complete isolation of the Indians who live in this part of the continent, who call their mountains by the same word to-day as they did in 1502, when (Colombo visited them, Amerrique, Amerique, or Americ. These mountains are auriferous; at their foot lie the gold mines of Libertad and Santo Domingo, and further, the gold of the alluvium or the placers is entirely exhausted, which can only be explained by a previ- ous washing by the Indians themselves ; at present the gold is to be found only in the veins of the quartz rock. " Colombo says the Indians named several localities rich in gold, but he does not give the names in his very curtailed account, contenting himself with citing the name of the Ciamba ; but it is highly probable that this name Americ or Amerrique was 5( j. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. often pronounced by the Indians in answer to the pressing demands of the Europeans of the *-xi>edition. The eagerness for gold was such among the first navigators that it formed their t-nief preoccupation everywhere; and it is almost certain that to their continual questions 08 to the place where the gold was found that the Indians wore as ornaments, the icply would be from Americ, this won! signifying the most elevated and conspicuous part of the interior, the upper country, the distinguishing feature of the province of Ciamba " Wr niav Mippoae that Colombo and his companions on their return to Europe, when re- Juting their adventures, would boast of the rich gold mines they had discovered through the Indians of Nicaragua, and say they lay in the direction of Americ. This would make jKipular the word Americ, as the common designation of that part of the Indies in which the richest mines of gold in the new world were situated. "The word Americ, a synonym for this golden country, would become known in the H*':i[Krts of the West Indies and then in those of Europe, and would gradually penetrate into the interior of the continent, so that a printer and bookseller in St. Die", at the foot of the Vosges, would have heard the word Americ without understanding its true meaning as an indigenous Indian word, but would become acquainted with it in conversations about these famous discoveries, as designating a country in the New Indies very rich in mines of gold. " Ilylacomylusof St. Die", ignorant of any printed account of these voyages but those of Albericus Vespncius published in Latin in 1505, and in German in 1506 thought he saw in the Christian name Albericus the origin of this, for him, altered and corrupted word, Americ or Amerique,and renewing the fable of the monkey and the dolphin who took the Pineus for a man, called this country by the only name among those of the navigators that had reached him, and which resembled the word Americ or Amerique. " In order to accomplish this it was necessary to change considerably the Christian name of Vespucius, and from Albericus, Alberico, Amerigo, and Morigo which are the differ- ent ways of spelling the first name of Vespuzio, or Vespuchy, or Vespucci he made Americus! thus, according to my view, it is owing to a grave mistake of Hylacomylus that the aboriginal name of the new world, Americ or Anierique, has been Europesnized and connected with the son of Anastasio Vespuzio." The reader is referred to the article in question for the arguments by which the writer sustains his very ingenious theory, wliich we have given in substance in his owo words in the above extract. CHAPTER III. ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCOVERIES. Discovery of the North American Continent by John Cabot Voyages of Sebastian Cabot The English fail to follow up these Discoveries Efforts of the French to explore America Voyage and Discoveries of Verrazzani Cartier explores the St. Lawrence Reaches Montreal Efforts to found a Colony on the St. Lawrence Failure Roberval's Colony Trading Voyages Explorations of Champlain Colonization of Nova Scotia Founding of Quebec Discovery of Lake Chaiuplain Arrival of the Jesuits in Canada Peath of Champlain. ) [N the meantime the success of the first voyage of Columbus had stimulated other nations to similar exertions. The English court had experienced a feeling of keen regret that the petition of Columbus had been refused, and when John Cabot, a native of Venice, then residing at Bristol, applied for leave to under- take a voyage of exploration his request was readily granted. On the 5th of March, 1496, a patent or commission was granted to him and his three sons by Henry VII., authorizing either of them, their heirs or their agents, to undertake with a fleet of five ships, at their own expense, a voyage of discovery in the eastern, western, or northern seas. Though they were to make the attempt at their own cost, they were to take pos- session of the countries they should discover for the king of England. They were to have the exclusive privilege of trading to these countries, but were bound to return to the port of Bristol, and to pay to the king one-fifth el' thy profits of their trade. Early in 1407 Cabot sailed from Bristol, accompanied by his son, Sebastian. The object of his voyage was not only the discovery of new lands, but the finding of a northwest passage to Asia. He sailed due west, and on the 24th of June, 1497, reached the coast of Labrador, He thus discovered the mainland of the North American continent, fully fourteen months before Columbus reached the coast of South America, and nearly a year before Amerigo Vespucci made his discovery. He explored the coast to the southward for over a thousand miles, made frequent landings, and took possession of the country in the name of the English king. Returning home, he was received with many marks of honor by Henry VII., and was called the "Great Admiral" by the people. 57 ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCOVERIES. 59 Towards the close of the year 1497, the Cabots undertook a new voy- age, and the king, pleased with the success of the first venture, became a partner in the enterprise, and assumed a portion of the expense. The object of this voyage was to trade with the natives, and to ascertain if the country was suited to colonization. The expedition sailed from Bristol in May, 1498, and was commanded by Sebastian Cabot, who reached the Labrador coast about four hundred miles north of the point discovered by his father. He found the country cold and barren, though it was but the beginning of the summer, and sailed southward. "The coast to which he was now borne was unobstructed by frost. He saw there stags larger than those of England, and bears that plunged into the water to take fish with their claws. The fish swarmed innumerably in such shoals they seemed to affect even the speed of his vessels, so that he gave to the country the name of Bacallaos, which still linger, on the east side of Newfoundland, and has passed into the language of the Germans and the Italians, as well as the Portuguese and Spanish, to designate the cod. Continuing his voyage, according to the line of the 'shore, he found the natives of those regions clad in skins of beasts, but they were not without the faculty of reason, and in many places were acquainted with the use of copper. In the early part of his voyage he had been so far to the north that in the month of July the light of day was almost continuous; before he turned homewards, in the late autumn, he believed he had attained the latitude of the Straits of Gibraltar and the longitude of Cuba."* On his homeward voyage he noticed the Gulf Stream. This was the last voyage from England made by Sebastian Cabot. On the death of Henry VII., he took service with Ferdinand of Spain, and under him and his grandson, Charles V., he made many voyages, and was for nearly sixty years the foremost man in Europe in maritime enterprises. He explored the eastern coast of South America, and in his efforts to find the northwest passage sailed within twenty degrees of the North Pole, and explored the eastern coast of North America from Hud- son's straits to Albemarle sound. He was in many things one of the most remarkable men of his day, and besides his own discoveries con- tributed generously by his advice and encouragement to those of others. " He gave England a continent, and no one knows his burial place." The English made no effort to take advantage of the discoveries of the Cabots. They sent a few vessels every year to fish on the banks of Newfoundland, but pursued even this industry without vigor. The other nations were more energetic and showed a keener appreciation of the value of the new lands. The French were especially active in this * Bancroft. ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCOVERIES. 61 rospect. Their vessels engaged in the fisheries far outnumbered those of the English, and many plans were proposed in France for the coloniz- ation of these regions. In 1523, Francis I. employed a Florentine named John Verrazzani, an experienced navigator, to undertake the dis- covery of a northwest passage to India. Verrazzani sailed on the "! ?th of January, 1524, and, after a stormy voyage of fifty days, reached the American coast in the latitude of Wilmington, North Carolina. Failing to find a good harbor, he sailed southward for 150 miles, and then turned northward, examining the coast as he proceeded. Verrazzani was sur- prised and delimited by the appearance of the new country and it inhabitants. The latter welcomed with hospitality the strangers whom they had not yet learned to fear, and the Europeans, on their part, re- garded with wonder the "russet "-colored natives in their dress of skins 'ornamented with feathers. Judging from the accounts which they carried to Europe, the voyagers regarded the country as a sort of terres- trial paradise. "Their imagination could not conceive of more delightful fields and forests ; the groves spreading perfumes far from the shore, gave promise of the spices of the East ; and the color of the earth argued un abundance of gold." The harbors of New York and Newport were carefully explored, and in the latter the voyagers remained fifteen days. They then proceeded along the New England const to Nova Scotia, and Btill farther to the north. They found the natives here less friendly than those farthe* 1 south. A Portuguese commander, Gaspar Cortereal, had ^isited their coast a few years before, and had carried away some of i-i.^Jw MiimKnr. oi->,1 vt\\A +Jinm infrv do irnr-tr 52 HISTORY OF THE V SITED STATES. Returning to France, Vcmu/ani published an account of his voyage. Thi- narrative forms the earliest original description now in existence of the American coast, and added very much to the knowledge of the Euro- ,>ean 9 concerning this country. France at a subsequent period based up,,,, Verrazzani's discoveries her claim to the whole coast of America from Newfoundland to South Carolina. The struggle in which Francis I. was engaged with the Emperor Charles V. prevented him from taking advantage of these discoveries, and nothing was done with regard to them by the French until ten years later, when Chabot, Admiral of France, induced King Francis to make another effort to explore and colonize America. An expedition was fitted out, placed under the command of James Cartier, a mariner of St. Malo, and despatched in April, 1534, for the purpose of exploring the American coast with a view to colonizing it. A quick voyage of twenty days carried Carder to Newfoundland. Having passed through the Straits of Belleisle, he crossed the gulf and entered a bay which he named Des Chaleurs, from the extreme heats he experienced there. He pro- ceeded along the coast as far as the small inlet called Gaspe", where he landed and took formal possession of the country in the name of the king of France. Leaving Gaspd bay, Cartier discovered the great river of Canada, and sailed up the stream until he could see the land on either bide. His explorations consumed the months of May, June and July. Being unprepared tc pass the winter in America, the fleet sailed for Europe early in August, and reached St. Malo in safety in about thirty days. The reports of Cartier concerning America aroused the deepest interest in France, and it was determined by the government to proceed at once to the founding of a colony in the new world. A fleet of three well- equipped ships was fitted out, and volunteers from some of the noblest families in France were not lacking. The whole company repaired to the cathedral, where they received the bishop's blessing, and on the 19th of May, 1535, the expedition sailed from St. Malo. The -voyage was long and stormy, but Newfoundland was reached at length. Passing through the Straits of Belleisle, they entered the gulf lying west of New- foundland on the 10th of August, the festival of St. Lawrence the Martyr, and gave to the gulf the name of that saint, which was subse- quently applied to the great river emptying into it. The voyagers ascended the stream to the island since called Orleans. There the fleet anchored, while Cartier proceeded farther up the river to the chief Indian settlement on the island of Hochelega. It was the delightful season of Slepternber, and the country was beautiful and inviting, Cartier "sccnded ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCOVERIES. 6C a hill at the foot of which the Indian settlement lay, and gazed with admiration at the magnificent region which spread out before him. He named the hill Mont Real, or Royal mount, a name which is now borns by the island and by the great city which marks the site of Indian village. The balminess of the autumn induced Cartier to hope that the climate would prove as mild as that of France ; but a rigorous winter, which was rendered horrible by the prevalence of scurvy among the ships' crews, disheartened the whole expedition. The winter was spent at the Isle of Orleans, and in the early spring Cartier erected a cross on the shore, to which was affixed a shield inscribed with the arms of France and a legend declaring Francis I. the true and rightful king of the country. The fleet then sailed for France, and arrived at St. Malo on the 6th of July, 1536. Cartier published a truthful account of his voyage, setting forth the severity of the Canadian climate and the absence of mines of precious metals. His report checked for the time the enthu- siasm with which the French had regarded America, and for four years the plan of colonizing the new country was laid aside. Some ardent spirits, however, still believed in the possibility of plant- ing successful colonies in the new world and bringing that vast region under the dominion of France. Among these was Francis de la Roque, lord of Roberval, a nobleman of Picardy. He was appointed, by King Francis, Viceroy of the territories on or near the gulf and river of St. Lawrence, to which the high-sounding name of Norimbega was given, and was empowered to colonize it. The assistance of Cartier was neces- sary to such an undertaking, and he had the additional advantage of possessing the entire confidence of the king. Roberval was forced to employ him, and Cartier was given authority by the king to search the prisons and take from them such persons as he needed for the expedition. Roberval and Cartier, however, failed to agree, and their dissensions defeated the object of the undertaking. Cartier sailed from St. Malo in May, 1541, and ascended the St. Lawrence to a point near the present city of Quebec, where he built a fort. The winter was passed in idleness and discord, and in the spring of 1542 Cartier abandoned the attempt, and sailed away for France with his ships just as Roberval arrived with a large reinforcement. Roberval was unable to accomplish more than Cartier. His nev subjects had been largely drawn from the prisons, and they gave him considerable trouble, if we may judge from the efforts resorted to to keep them quiet. One of them was hanged for theft during the winter, several vvere put in irons, and a number of men and women were whipped 64 ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCOVERIES. G5 After remaining in Canada for a year, Roberval became disheartened, and re-embarked his subjects and returned to France. Nearly thirty years passed away, during vhich the French made no effort to secure to themselves the region of the St. Lawrence. Their fishermen, however, continued to frequent the American waters. By the .lose of the sixteenth century one hundred and fifty vessels were engaged in the fisheries of Newfoundland, and voyages for the purpose of trading with the Indians had become common. In 1598, the Marquis de la Roche, a nobleman of Brittany, attempted to plant a colony on the Isle of Sable. The colonists consisted of criminals from the prisons of France, and the effort proved a failure. In 1600, Chauvin obtained a patent from the crown, conferring upon him a monopoly of the fur trade, and Pontgravd, a merchant of St. Malo, became his partner in the enterprise. Two successful voyages were made to Canada, and Chauvin intended founding a colony there. His death, in 1602, prevented the execution of this plan. In 1603, a company of merchants of Rouen was organized, and Samuel Champlain, an able and experienced officer of the French navy, w*a placed in charge of an expedition, and sent to Canada to explore the country. He was in every way qualified for the task committed to him, and after making a thorough and systematic examination of the region of the St. Lawrence, and fixing upon Quebec as the proper site for a fort, returned to France and laid before his employers his report, which is still valuable for its accurate description of the country and the manners cf the natives. Soon after Champlain's return to France a patent was issued to Des Monts, conferring upon him the sole right to colonize the vast region lying between the fortieth and forty-sixth parallels of latitude. As this territory embraced the St. Lawrence region, the Rouen company were unable for the present to accomplish anything. Des Monts proceeded with his preparations, and in March, 1604, an expedition consisting of two ships was sent out to Acadie or Nova Scotia. The summer was passed in trading with the Indians and cxplorirg the coast, and in the autumn tha colonists made a settlement on the island of St. Croix, at the mouth of the river of the same name. In the spring of 1605, they abandoned this settlement and removed to Port Royal, now known as Annapolis. Efforts were made to find a more southern location in the latter part of 1605 and 1603, but the expeditions sent out for this purpose were driven back by storms or wrecked among the shoals of Cape Cod, and the colonists decided to remain at Port Royal. Thus the perma- nency of the colony was established. Some years later a number of Jesuit 5 ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCOVERIES. 67 missionaries were sent out to Port Royal. These labored diligently among the tribes between the Penobscot and the Kennebec, and not only spread the Christian faith among them, but won for the French the constant affection of the savages. During all her contests with the English in America, these tribes remained the faithful and unwavering allies of France. In 1613, a French colony was planted on the eastern shore of Mount Desert. The settlement was named St. Sauveur, and be- came another centre of missionary enterprise among the savages of Maine, In the meantime the French merchants had succeeded in obtaining a revocation of the impolitic monopoly of DCS Monts. A company of merchants of St. Malo and Dieppe was formed, and an expedition was SCENE ON THE ST. LAWRENCE. sent out to Canada under Champlain, who " aimed not at the profits of trade, but at the glory of founding a state." On the 3d of July, 1608, the city of Quebec was begun by the erection of one or two cottages, In 1609, Champlain, with but two Europeans, joined a party of Hurons from Montreal, and Algonquins from Quebec, in an expedition agairst the Five Nations. He ascended the Sorel, explored tlie lake which is now called by his name, and examined a considerable part of northern New York. The religious disputes of France spread to the colony, and Champlain was obliged to use all his energy and authority to overcome the evils which these inflicted upon the infant settlement. He succeeded in overcoming them, and by his energy and perseverance the fortunes of Quebec were placed beyond the reach of failure. Champlain died in 1635, and was buried in "New France/' of which he is justly called " the father. CJU F1 ER IV. THt SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. Settlenrr* of 'Jie West Indies Discovery of the Pacific Ocean Voyage of Magellan- Discovery of Florida Ponce de Leon's Search for the Fountain of Youth Vasqaez de Ayllon Kidnai* a Cargo of Indians-Effort of Painphilo de Narvaez to Conquer Florida A Terrible March The Voyage on the Gulf of Mexico Fate of the Fleet Escape cf Cabeza n of Chickasaw Sufferings of the Spaniards Discovery of the Mississippi The Spaniards Cross the Gn Xiver De Soto in Arkansas Reaches the Mississippi again Sickness and Death of De Soto His Burial Escape of his Followers to Mexico The Huguenot Colony in Carolina Its Failure The French Settle in Florida Wrath of Philip II Melendez ordered to nninate the Huguenots Foundation of St. Augustine Massacre of the French at Fort Carolina The Vengeance of De Gourges. |HILE the French were seeking to obtain a footing in the north, the Spaniards were busy in the south. In the first years of the sixteenth century the more important of the West India islands were subdued and colonized, and from these expeditions were from time to time sent out to explore the .shores of the Gulf of Mexico. The southern part of the peninsula of Yucatan was explored, and a colony was established on the Isthmus of Darien. One of the governors of this colony was Vasco Nunez de Balboa. In 1513, while searching the isthmus for gold, he discovered the Pacific ocean, and took possession of it in the name of the king of Spain. In 1520, a Portu- guese navigator named Magellan, employed by the king of Spain, passed through the straits south of Cape Horn, which bear his name, and entered the Western ocean, which he named the Pacific because it was so calm and free from storms. He died on the voyage, but his ship reached the coast of Asia, and leturmxl thence to Spain by the Cape of Good Hope, thus making th >, first vo; age around the world, and establishing its spherical form beyond dispute. In 1513, Juan Ponce de Leon, who had been a companion of Columbus on his second voyage, and had been governor of Porto Rico, fitted out three ships at his own expense to make a voyage of discovery. He had 08 THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. 69 heard the reports which were then commonly believed by his country- men, that somewhere in the new world was a fountain flowing in the midst of a country sparkling with gold and gems, whose waters would give perpetual youth to the man who should drink of and bathe in them. Ponce de Leon was an old man, and he longed to taste again the pleasures and the dreams of youth. He gave a willing ear to the stories of this wonderful fountain, and in March, 1513, set sail from Porto Rico in search of it. He sailed among the Bahamas, but failed to find it, and on Easter Sunday, which the Spaniards call Pascua Florida, land was dis- covered. It was supposed to be an island, but was in reality the long THE COAST OF FLORIDA southern peninsula of the United States. De Leon gave it the name cf . Florida which it has since borne partly in honor of the day, and partly because of the beauty of its flowers and foliage. The weather was very bad, and it was some days before he could go ashore. He landed near the site of St. Augustine, and took possession of the country for Spain on the 8th of April, 1513. He remained many weeks on the coast, exploring it, and sailing southward, doubled Cape Florida and cruised among the Tortngas. He failed to find the fountain of youth, 70 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and returned in despair to Porto Rico. The king of Spain rewarded his discovery by appointing him governor of Florida, on condition that he should colonize the country. A few years later he attempted to plant a colony in Florida, but was attacked by the Indians, who were very hostile, and driven to his ships with the loss of a number of his men. Ponce de Leon himself received a painful wound, and returned to Cuba to die. He had staked his life upon the search for perpetual youth ; he found only a grave. Between the years 1518 and 1521, the expeditions of Hernando Cortez against Mexico, and of Francesco Pizarro against Peru, were despatched from Cuba. They resulted in the conquest of those countries and their colonization by Spain. These expeditions, however, form no part of this narrative, and we cannot dwell upon them. The native population of the West Indies died out rapidly under the cruel rule of the Spaniards, and it soon became necessary to look else- where for a supply of laborers for the plantations and the mines. In 1520, Lucas Vasquez de Ay lion, at the head of a company of seven Spaniards, fitted out a fleet of two slave-ships from St. Domingo or His- paniola, for the deliberate purpose of seizing the natives of the mainland and selling them as slaves. The vessels went first to the Bahamas, from which they sailed to the Xorth American coast, reaching it at or near St. Helena sound, in the present State of South Carolina. The Indians had not yet learned to fear the whites, and were utterly unsuspicious of the fate which awaited them. They were timid at first, but this feeling was soon overcome by the distribution of presents among them. Their confi- dence being won, they received the Spaniards with kindness, and at their request visited the ships in great numbers. When the decks of the ves- sels were covered with the unsuspecting natives Vasquez made sail, and standing out to sea steered for the West Indies, regardless of the entreaties of the natives who were thus torn from their friends and relatives on the shore. A retributive justice speedily avenged this crime. A violent storm arose and one of the ships foundered with all on board. A pesti- lence broke out in the remaining vessel, and swept away many of the captives. Returning to Spain, Vasquez boasted of his infamous deed,, and even claimed a reward for it at the hands of the Emperor Charles V., who acknowledged his claim, and appointed him governor of Chicora, as South Carolina was called, with authority to conquer that country Vasquez spent his entire fortune in fitting out an expedition, and reached the coast of Chicora in 1525. There he met with nothing: but misfortune. o His largest ship was stranded in the Combahee river, then called by the whites the River Jordan, and so many of his men were killed by the THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. 71 Indians that he was obliged to abandon the undertaking. He returned to Europe to die of grief and mortification for his failure. "It maybe," says Bancroft, "that ships sailing under his authority made the discovery of the Chesapeake and named it the Bay of St. Mary ; and perhaps even entered the Bay of Delaware, which in Spanish geography was called Saint Christopher's." In 1526, Pamphilo de Narvaez obtained from the Emperor Charles V. authority to explore and conquer all the country between the Atlantic and the River of Palms. He was very wealthy, and spent his entire estate in preparations for the expedition. There was no lack of volun- teers, and many younger sons of nobles joined him, hoping to find fame and fortune in the new world. Among the adventurers was Cabeza do Vaca, the historian of the expedition, who held the second place in it as treasurer. Narva* 1 ', sailed from the Guadalquivir in June, 1527, touched at St. Domingo, and passed the winter in Cuba. In the spring of 1528, he was driven by a strong south wind to the American coast, and on the 14th of April his fleet cast anchor in Tampa bay. A week later, he landed and took possession of the peninsula of Florida in the name of Spain. The natives showed unmistakable signs of hostility, but they exhibited to the governor samples of gold, which he believed, from their signs, came from the north. In spite of the earnest advice of Cabeza de Vaca> he determined to go in search of the precious metal. He directed his ships to meet him at a harbor with which his pilot pretended to be ac- quainted, and then, at the head of three hundred men, forty of whom were mounted, set off into the interior of the country. No one knew whither he was going, but all believed that each step led them nearer to the land of gold. The beauty of the forest, the richness of its vegetation, and the size of its gigantic live-oaks, filled them with wonder and admira- tion, and the variety and abundance of the birds and wild beasts of the country excited their surprise ; but they found neither the gold nor the splendid cities they had fondly believed they were about to discover. The forest grew denser and more intricate at every step, and the rivers were broad and deep, with swift currents, and could be crossed only by means of rafts, which were constructed with great difficulty. The march lay through swamps, in which the Indian warriors harassed the strangers painfully, and, their provisions becoming exhausted, they began to suffer with hunger. Late in June they reached Appalachee, whicli they had supposed was a large and wealthy city. They found it only a hamlet of some forty poor wigwams; but remained there twenty-five days, search- ing the neighboring country for gold and silver, and finding none; suffer- ing all the while from hunger, and the attacks of the Indians. 72 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. It was plain now even to the governor that there was no gold to be found in this region, and every nerve was strained to hasten the march to the harbor where they had appointed to meet the ships. There was but one impulse now in the whole expedition to escape from the terrible country which was proving so fatal to them. After a painful march they reached a l>ay which they called the Baia de Caballos, now the har- lx>r of St. Marks. The ships could not be seen, and it was resolved at once to build boats and attempt to reach some of the Spanish possessions 'v sea. The horses were slain to furnish food, and several hundred bushels of corn were seized from the Indians. Subsisting upon these supplies, the Spaniards beat their spurs, stirrups, cross-bows, and other implements into saws and axes and nails, and in sixteen days built five boats, each more than thirty feet long. Pitch for the calking of the boats was made from the pine trees, and the fibre of the palmetto served as oakum. Ropes were made of twisted horse-hair and palmetto fibres, and the shirts of the men were pieced together for sails. Fifty men had been lost on the march, and on the 22d of September the survivors, two hundred and fifty in number, began their perilous voyage. They followed the shore, encountering many dangers, and suffering greatly from hunger and thirst. On the 30th of October they discovered one of the mouths of the Mississippi, and on the 5th of November a storm scattered the lit- tle fleet. Cabeza de Vaca's boat was wrecked upon an island which is believed to be that of Galveston. Castillo's boat was driven ashore farther 10 the cast, but he and his crew were saved alive. Of the fate of the other boats nothing is known with certainty. Of those who were cast ashore, all but Cabeza de Vaca, Dorantes, Castillo, and Estevanico, a negro, died of exposure and hardship. These four were detained cap- tives among the Indians for nearly six years. At the end of this period, Cabeza induced his companions to join him in an attempt to escape. In September, 1534, they set out, naked, igno- rant of the way, and without any means of sustaining life. In this con- dition these men accomplished the wonderful feat of traversing the conti- nent. The journey occupied upwards of twenty months, and extended from the coast cf Texas to the Canadian river, and thence into New Mexico, from which they 'continued their way to the village of San Miguel, in Sonora, near the Pacific ocean. They reached this village in May, 1536, and found themselves again among their countrymen. They were escorted to Compostella by Spanish soldiers, and from that place were forwarded to the City of Mexico by the authorities. The reports of Cabeza and his companions made the viceroy Memloxa anxious to send on* an expedition to explore New Mexico, which waa ^^^rvHBif I ' Vif* - - ^HBENt K W$M SPANIARDS ENSLAVING THE INDIANS. SPANISH EXPLORING PARTY DISCOVERING NEW MEXICO. 73 T4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED aTATES. believeo m be richer in wealth and splendid cities than Mexico it- self. A Fran- ciscan f r i a r boasted that he had vis- ited a region in the interior named Cibola, the Land of Buffaloes, in which were seven splendid cities. He de- clared that the laud was rich in silver and gold, and that his In- dian guides had described to him a region still wealthier. The friar's story was religiously believed, and an expedition set out in 153P, un- der command of Francisco Vasquez Coronado, the governor of New Ga- licia. The expedition explored the region of the Colorado, examined the country now known 03 New Mexico, and penetrated as far east as the present State of Kansas, Corouado found neither gold nor precious stones, and the only cities he discovered were the towns of the Zuni Indians of New Mexico. He reported to the viceroy on his return to Mexico that the region was not fit to be colonized, and his descrip- tion of the country through which he marched is so accurate as to chal- lenge the admiration of every suc- ceeding traveller. Still the Spaniards refused to abandon the belief that fabulous wealth was to be found in the interior of the continent ; and even those who had borne a part in the conquest of Mexico end Peru rave credit to the THE SPAXIAHD8 EXPLORING THE VALLEY OF THE COLORADO. THE SPANIARDS 1A AMERICA. 75 wild stories that were told concerning the undiscovered regions. Among those who gave such implicit faith to these stories was Ferdinand de Soto, of Xeres, a veteran soldier, who had served with distinction with Pizarro in the conquest of Peru, and had amassed a considerable fortune from the spoils of that province. The fame and wealth acquired by him in this expedition opened the way to other successes in Europe. He was honored with the favor of the Emperor Charles V., and received UK- hand of a noble lady in marriage. Eager to distinguish himself still further, he determined to attempt the conquest of Florida. He de- manded and received from the emperor permission to undertake this at his own cost, and was also made governor of Cuba and of all the terri- tories he should conquer. As soon as he made known his intentions applications for leave to serve in the expedition poured in upon him. Many of the volunteers were of noble birth, and sold their lands and other property to equip themselves for the undertaking. De Soto selected six hundred well-equipped men from the number who had volunteered, and in 1538 sailed from Spain to Cuba, where he was welcomed with great rejoicings. A vessel was despatched from Cuba to find a harbor in Florida suitable for the land- ing of the expedition. On its return it brought two Indian captives, who perceiving what was wanted of them, told by signs such stories of the wealth of the country as greatly delighted the FKUWNAND DE SOT0 . governor and his companions. Volunteers in Cubt. swelled the ranks of the expedition to nearly one thousand men, of whom three hundred were horsemen. In May, 1539, leaving his wife to govern the island, De Soto sailed with his fleet for Florida, and a fortnight later landed at Espiritu Santo, now Tampa bay. Everything had been provided which the foresight of an experienced commander deemed necessary, and De Soto, in order to remove any temptation to retreat, sent his ships back to Cuba. He never dreamed of failure, for he believed that at the most the task before him would not be more difficult than those which had been accom- plished by Cortez and Pizarro. After a brief halt at Tampa bay the march into the interior was begun. It was long and tedious, and was full of danger. The Indians were hostile, and the guides con- stantly led the Spaniards astray, and plunged them into difficult swamps. The guides were instantly given to the bloodhounds, and torn in pieces by the ferocious animals ; but not even thi dreadful pun' ?6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. M.mcnt was sufficient to prevent a renewal of such acts. Before the cJoee of tlie first season the whole company, save the governor, had become convinced that (heir hope of finding gold was vain, and they besought De Soto to return to Cuba. He sternly refused to abandon the effort and pushed on to the country of the Appalachians, east of the Flint river, and not fur from the Bay of Appalachee. The winter was pa>M-d in this region, and a scouting party during this season discovered Pensacola. In the sprino- of 1540 the march was resumed. An Indian guide promised to conduct the Spaniards to a country abounding in gold and governed by a woman, and he described the process of refining gold so accurately that De Soto believed his story. It is possible that the Indian may have referred to the gold region of North Carolina. One of the iruidcs told the governor plainly that he knew of no such country as his companion had described, and De Soto had him burned for what he sup- posed was his falsehood. The Indians, terrified by his fate, from this time invented all manner of fabulous stcries to excite the cupidity of the Spaniards. De Soto, with a singular perversity, held to his belief that he would yet realize his hopes, and continued to push on long after his men had become disheartene 1 ; and so great was his influence over them that in their deepest despondency he mauaged to inspire them with some- thing of his own courage and hopefulness. Instead of conciliating the Indians, the- Spaniards seized their pro- visions, and provoked their hostility in numberless ways. They treated their captives with the greatest cruelty. They cut off the hands of the poor Indians, burned them at the stake, or turned them over to the blood- hounds, who tore them in pieces. They were chained together by the neck, and forced to carry the baggage and provisions of the troops. The march was now into the interior of Georgia, as far as the headwaters of the Chattahoochee, from which the Spaniards passed to the headwaters of the Coosa. Here they turned to the southwest, and marched through Alabama to the junction of the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers. At this point there was a large and strongly fortified town called Mavilla, or .M<>lilc, a name which has since been given to the river and bay. The town consisted of "eighty handsome houses, each sufficiently capacious to contain a thousand men. They were encompassed by a high wall, made of immense trunks of trees, set deep in the ground and close thcr, strengthened with cross-timbers and interwoven with large vines." It was the middle of October when Mavilla was reached, and the Spaniards, tired of living in the open country so long, wished to occupy the town. The Indians resisted them, and a desperate battle THE SPANIARDS IX AMERICA. 77 ensued, which was won by the Spanish cavalry. The victory cost the whites dear, however, for the town was burned during the battle, and with it all the baggage of the Spaniards was consumed. The Indians fought with a desperate bravery, and numbers of them were slain and burned to death in the town. The Spaniards had 18 killed and 150 .wounded; 12 horses were killed, and 72 wounded. Ships had arrived in the meantime, according to appointment, at Pensacola, and by them De Soto received letters from his wife. He would send no news home, however. He had not yet realized the objects of the expedition, and he determined to send no news of himself to his countrymen until he had found or conquered some rich country. Turn- ing his back resolutely upon the ships, the governor resumed his march to the northwest. By the middle of December he reached the north- western part of the State of Mississippi, and finding a deserted village in the country of the Chickasaws, occupied it as the" winter quarters of the expedition. December, 1540, the winter was severe, and the ground was covered with snow, but the corn was still standing in the fields, and this furnished the Spaniards with food. Their force was now reduced to five hundred men, and it was evident to all, except the governor, that they would never find the cities or the wealth they had set out to seek. With the opening of the spring of 1541 a new disaster befell the Spaniards. De Soto, as had been his custom with the other tribes, demanded of the Chickasaw chief two hundred men to carry the baggage of the troops. The demand was refused, and that night the Indians, deceiving the sentinels, set fire to the village. The bewildered Spaniards were aroused from their slumbers to meet a fierce attack of the savages. The latter were repulsed after a hard fight, but the whites were left in an almost helpless condition. The little they had saved from the flames at Mavilla was destroyed in the burning village. Armor and weapons were rendered worthless, and scarcely any clothing was saved. The troops were forced to resort to dresses of skins and of the long moss of the country woven into mats. In this condition, they suffered greatly from the cold. To supply the weapons destroyed forges were erected, and tho swords were retempered, and new lances made. Renewing their march the Spaniards pushed on still farther west, and about the 2d of May reached the banks of the Mississippi, at a point a short distance below the present city of Memphis. They were the first white men to gaze upon the mighty flood of this noble river, but De Soto had no admiration to express for it. It was only an obstacle in his west- ward march, and would require greater eiforts for its passage than any stream he had yet encountered. A month was passed on the banks of 7 g HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the river in constructing Urges large enongli to hold three horsemen each. At length they were completed, and the Spaniards were trans- ported in safety to the opposite shore. The natives received them kindly, and presented them with food, and regarding them as the children of their god, the sun, brought to them their sick to be healed, and their blind to be restored to sight. The blunt soldier, cruel as he had been to the savages, shrank from claiming the power of heaven. "Pray only to God, who is in heaven, for whatsoever ye need," he answered. De Soto remained forty days on the western bank of the Mississippi, and during this time an exploring party was sent to examine the country to the north. They reported that this region was thinly inhabited by hunters, who lived by chasing the bison, which abounded in this region. The governor then turned to the west and northwest, and advanced 200 miles farther into the interior of the continent, probably to the highlands of the White river. Then turning southward, he passed through a succession of Indian tribes who lived by cultivating the soil, and who enjoyed n civilization superior to that of their nomadic brethren. The winter wns passed near the Hot Springs of Arkansas. The Indians west of the Mississippi were treated with the same cruelties that had marked the conduct of the Spaniards towards the savages east of that stream. "Any trifling consideration of safety would induce the governor to set fire to a hamlet. He did not delight in cruelty, but the happiness, the life, and the rights of the Indians were held of no account." In the spring of 1542, De Soto determined to descend the Washita to its mouth, and endeavor to reach the sea. At last, after a most arduous march, in which he frequently lost his way amid the swamps and bayous of the region, he reached the Mississippi. The chieftain of this region could not tell him the distance to th" sea, but informed him that the country along the lower river was a vast and uninhabited swamp. An exploring party was sent to descend the banks of the river, and returned, after penetrating about thirty miles in eight days, to confirm the Indian's report. Reaching the vicinity of Natchez, the governor found the Indians prepared to contest his occupation of that town. He attempted to overawe them by claiming to be the child of the sun, their chief deity. The chieftain answered him scornfully: "You say you are the child of the sun. Dry up the river, and I will believe you. Do you desire tc see me? Visit the town where I dwell. If you come in peace, I will receive you with special good will ; if in war, I will not shrink one foot oack/' The savages were becoming more dangerous every day, and the Spaniards less able to resist their assaults. De Soto was no-y conquered. It was at last as plain to him as it had THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. 79 been all along to his followers that the expedition was a failure. He had spent three years in roaming over the continent, and he had found neither the cities nor the wealth he had hoped for. His magnificent anticipations had disappeared ; his little army was reduced to a mere handful of the splendid force that had left Cuba ; and he was in the midst of a region from which he could see no escape. A deep melancholy took the place of the stern pride that had hitherto marked his demeanor, and his heart was torn by a conflict of emotions. His health gave way rapidly, and he was seized with a violent fever. When informed by his medical attendant that his end was at hand, he expressed his resignation to the will of God, and at the request of his men appointed Louis de Mocoso his successor, and advised him to continue the expedition. He NATCHEZ IN 1875. died on the ach of June, 1542. In order to conceal his death from the savages, who had come to regard him as immortal, his body was wrapped in a mantle, and in the silence of midnight was rowed out into the middle of the Mississippi. There, amid the darkness and the wailing requiems of the priests, the mortal remains of Ferdinand dc Soto were committed to the great river he had discovered. The Spaniards at once prepared to disregard the advice of their dead leader, and resolved to set out across the country for Mexico, believing it less dangerous to go by land than by sea. They roused the whole country against them by their barbarous treatment of the people, and, having proceeded upwards of 300 miles west of the Mississippi, were driven back to that stream by the savages. It now became necessary tc build vessels and descend the river. Seven of these were constructed THE 8PAXLiRJ)S L\ AMKnK'A. 81 with great difficulty, and amidst the constant hostility of the Indians. They were frail barks, without decks, and in order to construct them the Spaniards were obliged to beat their weapons, and even their stirrups, spurs and bridles into saws, axes and nails. During this period they suffered greatly from the lack of clothing, for it was the winter season. They obtained provisions by plundering the granaries of the neighboring tribes, and thus dooming many of the savages to death by starvation. On the 1st of July, 1543, they embarked in their vessels, their number being now reduced to about 250, and began the descent of the river. Their progress was harassed at every mile by the Indians, who covered the stream with their canoes and kept up an almost constant assault upon the fleet. On the 18th of July, the vessels entered the Gulf of Mexico, and by the 10th of September the Mexican coast was reached. The vessels succeeded in gaining the Spanish settlement of Panuco, where the survivors were hospitably received by their countrymen. The failure of Narvaez and De Soto prevented the Spaniards from making any further attempt for many years to colonize the Florida coast. The next effort to found a settlement in that region was by the French. The religious wars which had distracted France for so many years made the great Huguenot leader, Coligny, Admiral of France, anxious to provide in the new world a refuge to which his persecuted brethren of the faith might fly in times of danger, and be free to worship God after the dictates of their own conscience. He succeeded in obtaining authority for this undertaking from Charles IX., and in 1562 an expedition was despatched to America under the command of Jean Ribault, a Protestant. Ribault was instructed to avoid the more rigorous climate of Canada, and to select a southern location for the colony. Land was made in May, 1562, in the vicinity of St. Augustine, Florida, and the fleet pro- ceeded along the coast and anchored in what is now Port Royal harbor, in the State of South Carolina. Ribault was de! ; ghted with the noble harbor, which he believed to be the outlet of a large river, and with the beauty and richness of the country. A fort was built on an island, in the harbor, and called Carolina, which name was also applied to the country, in honor of Charles IX. of France. A force of twenty-five men was left to garrison the fort, and Ribault returned to France to report his success and bring out reinforcements for the colony. He reached France in the midst of the civil war, which prevented any atten- tion being paid to the colony. The garrison of Fort Carolina waited in vain for the promised reinforcements and supplies, and at last, becoming disheartened, built a brigantine and set sail for their own country. Their provisions soon gave out, and they began to suffer the hor rocs of famine.. 6 82 HISTORY 01- THE UNITED STATES. When they were nearly exhausted, they were rescued by an English vessel, which set the most feeble upon the coast of France, but carried the remainder to England. In both countries the colonists spread their accounts of the beauty and fertility of Carolina. In 1564, there was a lull in the struggle between the contending parties in France, and Coligny took advantage of it to renew his efforts to colonize America. Three ships were furnished by the king, and were placed in command of Laudonniere, who had accompanied Eibault in the first expedition. Emigrants volunteered readily, and the required number was soon completed. In order to obtain reliable information concerning the country, Coligny sent out with the expedition a skilful painter, James le Moyne, called Des Morgues, with orders to make accurate colored sketches of the region. The fleet sailed on the 22d of April, 1564, and on the 22d of June reached the coast of Florida. Avoiding Port Royal, the site of the first colony, the colonists chose a location in Florida, on the banks of the St. John's, then called the River May. A fort was built, and called, like the first, Carolina. The colony was begun with prayers and songs of thanksgiving, but the bulk of the colonists were by no means religious men. Their true character soon began to appear. They wasted the supplies they had brought with them, as well as those they succeeded in extorting from the Indians, whom they alienated by their cruelties. Mutinies were frequent. The majority of the men had joined the enterprise in the hope of acquiring sudden wealth, and, finding their hopes vain, resolved to abandon the colony. They compelled Laudonniere to sign an order flowing them to embark for New Spain, under the pretext of wishing to avoid a famine, and at once equipped two vessels and began a career of piracy against the Spaniards. Their vessels were soon captured, and the pirates were sold as slaves. A few escaped in a boat and took refuge at Fort Carolina. Laudonniere caused them to be hanged ; but their outrages had already drawn upon the colony the bitter hostility of the Spaniards. Famine now began to be felt by the little settlement, and as month after month passed by the sufferings of the colonists increased. The natives, who were at first friendly, had been rendered hostile by the rruel treatment they had received from the French, and no provisionc- could be obtained from them. On the 3d of August, 1565, Sir John Hawkins, an English commander, arrived with several ships from the West Indies, where he had just sold a cargo of negro slaves whom he bad kidnapped in their native Africa. He is said to have been the first Englishman who engaged in this infamous traffic. Ho proved himself a THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. 8 O generous friend to the suffering colonists, however, and supplied them with provisions and gave them one of his own ships. They had suffered too much to be content with this, and were resolved to abandon the settlement. They were on the point of embarking in the ship furnished them by Sir John, when a fleet of several vessels was discovered standing into the river. It was the squadron of Ribault, with reinforcements and all the supplies necessary for founding a permanent settlement. The despair of the colonists was changed to rejoicing, and all were now willing to remain in the colony. When the news of the planting of the French colony in Florida reached Philip II. of Spain, he was greatly incensed. Florida was a part of his dominions, and he rot only resented the intrusion of the French, but could not tolerate the idea of allowing a Protestant colony to enjoy its settlement in peace. He determined at once to exterminate the heretics, and for this purpose employed Pedro Melendez de Avil&s, an officer who had rendered himself notorious for his cruelty when en- gaged against the pirates and in the wars of Spanish America. His son and heir having been shipwrecked among the Bermudas, Melendez desired to return to America to search for him. Philip, who knew his desperate character, suggested to him the conquest of Florida, and an agreement was entered into between the king and Melendez, by which the latter was to invade and conquer Florida within three years, and establish in that region a colony of not less than 500 persons, of whom 100 should be married men, twelve priests of the Catholic Church and four members of the order of the Jesuits. Melendez also agreed to transport to Florida all kinds of domestic animals, and 500 negro slaves. All this was to be done by Melendez at his own cost, and he was secured by the king in the government of the province for life with the privilege of naming his successor, and was granted large estates in the province and a comfortable salary. Though the destruction of the French colony was not named in the agreement, Philip and Melendez understood each other on that point. The cry was at once raised in Spain that the heretics must be exterminated, and Melendez had no trouble in obtaining recruits. Twenty-five hundred persons gathered under his orders, "soldiers, sailors, priests, Jesuits, married men with their families, laborers and mechanics, and, with the exception of 300 soldiers, all at the cost of Melendez." The expedition sailed in June, 1565, but the vessels were parted by a storm, and Melendez reached Porto Rico in August with but a third of his force. Unwilling to lose time, however, he sailed at once to the mainland, and arrived off the coast of Florida on the 28th of August g4 HISTORY OF ME UNITED STATES. On the 2d of September he discovered a fine harbor and river, and M.-lected this place as the site of his colony. He named the river and buy in honor of St. Augustine, on whose festival he had arrived off the Florida eoi^t. A.-fertaiiiing from the Indians the position of the French, he sailed to the northward, and on the 4th of September arrival oil' Fort Carolina, where a portion of Ribault's fleet lay anchored in the it>;ul>t:ad. The French commander demanded his name and the object of his visit. He was answered: "I am Meletulcx of Spain, sent with strict orders from my king to gibbet and behead all the Protestants in these regions. The Frenchman who is a Catholic I will spare; every heretic shall die." The French fleet being unprepared for battle, cut its cables and stood out to sea. Melendez gave chase, but failed to overtake it. Returning to the harbor of St. Augustine, he went on shore on the 8th of September, and took possession of the country in the name of Philip II. of Spain, who was proclaimed monarch of all North America, A solemn mass was said, and the foundations of the town of St. Augustine were laid. Thus was established the first permanent town within the limits of the United States. This task accomplished, Melendez prepared to attack Fort Carolina by land. Ribault had returned with his ships to Fort Carolina after escaping from the Spaniards. A council of war was held, and it was debated among the French whether they should strengthen their works and await the approach of the enemy, or proceed to St. Augustine and attack them with the fleet. Ribault supposed that Melendez would attack the fort by sea, and favored the latter plan, but his officers opposed his design. Dis- regarding their advice Ribault put to sea, but had scarcely cleared the harbor when a violent storm wrecked his entire fleet on the Florida coast. Nearly all the men reached the shore unharmed, about one hundred and fifty miles south of Fort Carolina. The wreck of the French fleet was known to Melendez, and he resolved to strike a blow at once at the fort, which he knew to be in a defenceless state. Leading his men through the forests and swamps which lay l>etween the two settlements, he surprised and captured the fort on the 21st of September. Every soul within the walls, including the aged, the women and children, was put to death. A few escaped to the woods before the capture of the fort, among whom were Laudonniere, Challus, and Le Moyne. Their condition was pitiable. They could expect no mercy from the Spaniards, and death awaited them in the forest. A few g-.ive themselves up to the Spaniards, and were at once murdered ; the remainder succeeded in gaining the sea-shore, where they were rescued by two French vessels which had remained in the harbor, and escaped the These immediately stilled for France. ZXE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. 85 The number of persons massacred by the Spaniards at Fort Carolina H^iounted to nearly two hundred. When the victims were all dead, SIPSS was said, a cross raised, and a site selected for a church. Then Meleadez set out to find the survivors of the shipwrecked fleet. They were dis- covered in a helpless condition, worn out with fatigue, hunger, and thirst. Melendez promised to treat them with kindness if they would surrender to him, and trusting to his plighted word, they placed themselves in his hands. They were at once seized and bound, and marched towards St Augustine. As they approached the settlement a signal was given, and the Spaniards fell upon them and massacred all but a few Catholics and some mechanics, who were reserved as slaves. French writers place the number of those who perished in the two massacres at nine hundred. The Spaniards give a smaller number. On the scene of his barbarity Melendez set up this inscription : " I do not this as unto Frenchmen, but as unto Lutherans." In 1566 Melendez attempted to plant a colony on the shores of the Chesapeake bay, but the vessel despatched for this purpose met such con- trary winds that the crew abandoned the effort to reach the bay, and sailed for Spain. Melendez the next year returned to Spain, having spent his fortune in establishing the colony of St. Augustine, from which he had derived no benefit. The massacre of the French and the destruction of the colony at Fort Carolina excited not even a remonstrance from the French court, which Was blinded to its true interests by its religious bigotry. The Huguenots and the better part of the nation felt keenly the wrong the country ha^ suffered, and Dominic de Gourges, a gallant gentleman of Gaseony, determined to avenge it. Selling his ancestral estate, he equipped three vessels, and with one hundred and fifty men sailed for Florida, in August, 1567. He surprised and captured a Spanish fort near the site of Fort Carolina, and took the garrison prisoners. He spent the winter here, and finding himself too weak to maintain his position sailed for J ranee in May, 1568. Before doing so, however, he hanged his pris- oners, and set up over them the inscription : " I do not this us untc Spaniards or mariners, but as unto traitors, robbers, and nmrderers."( His expedition .was disavowed by the French government, and he was obliged to conceal himself to escape arrest after his return to France. France now abandoned her efforts to colonize the southern part of North America, and relinquished her pretensions to Florida. Spain, on the other hand, gave more attention to this region, and emigrants from her dominions were encouraged to settle, and new colonies were formed within its limits. In the West Indies, and in Mexico, Central and South America, Spain during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was supreme. CHAPTER V. THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONY.- The English Claim to America Voyages of Frobisher Exploits of Sir Francis Drake-- Sir Humphrey Gilbert Intends to found a Colony in America Is lost at Sea Sir Walter lialeigh obtains a Patent of Colonization Discoveries of Amidas and Barlow Raleigh sends out a Colony to Virginia Settlement c,n Roanoke Island Its Failure Arrival of Grenville Second Effort of Raleigh to Colonize Virginia Roanoke Island again Settled The " City of Raleigh " Virginia Dare Fate of the Colony Death of Raleigh Other Voyages of the English. HOUGH England had made no effort to colonize America during the long period we have been considering, she never abandoned her claims to that region, claims which were based upon the dis- coveries and explorations of John and Sebastian Cabot. The voyages of her fishermen to Newfoundland kept the country fresh in the minds of the seafaring Englishmen, and from time to time voyages were made to the American coast for the purpose of trading with the savages. Under Elizabeth, who pursued the wise policy of fostering her navy, a race of hardy and daring sailors grew up in England, and carried the flag of their country into every sea. In this reign Martin Frobisher with two small ships made a voyage to the frozen regions of Labrador in search of the northwest passage. He failed to find it, bm penetrated farther north than any European had yet gone, A. D. 1576. His second voyage was made the next year, and was undertaken in the hope of finding gold, a*; one of the stones he had brought home on his first cruise had been pronounced by the refiners of London to contain the precious metal. The fleet did not advance as far north as Frobisher had done on his first attempt, as a large mass of yellow earth was found which was believed to contain gold. The ships were loaded with this, and all sail was made for home, only to find on reaching England that their cargo was but a heap of worthless dirt. A third voyage with fifteen ships was attempted in 1578, but no gold was found, and the extreme northern latitudes were ascertained to be too bleak for colo- uization. Uetween the years 1577 to 1580 Sir Francis Drake sailed to the Pacific, and by levying exactions upon the Spanish settlements on the 86 THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONY. 87 western coast of America acquired an immense treasure. As Bancroft well observes, this part of Drake's career " was but a splendid piracy against a nation with which his sovereign and his country professed fa be at peace." Having acquired this enormous wealth Drake applied himself to the more useful task of discovery. Crossing the equator he sailed northward, as far as the southern part of Oregon, in the hope of findino- a northern passage between the oceans. The cold seemed very great to voyagers just from the tropics, and he abandoned his attempt and returned southward to a harbor on the coast, of Mexico. Here he refitted his ship, and then returned to England through the seas of Asia, having circumnavigated the globe, a feat which had been accomplished only by the ship of Magellan. It was not the splendid but demoralizing achievements of Drake, which led the way to the establishment of the English power in America. That was the work of the humble fishermen who sailed on their yearh voyages to the banks of Newfoundland. The progress of this valuable industry was closely watched by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who believed that a lucrative trade might be opened with the new world by the planting of a colony within its limits. He obtained authority from Queen Eliza- beth to establish such a colony in the vicinity of the fisheries. In 1578 he sailed to America on a voyage of discovery, and in August of that year landed at St. Johns, Newfoundland, and took formal possession of the country for Eng- land. He then sailed to the southward, explor- S i B WALTER RALEIGH. ing the coast, but lost his largest ship with all on board. This made it necessary for him to return home, as the two vessels which remained to him were too small to attempt a protracted voyage. One of them, called the "Squirrel," was a mere boat of ten tons. Unwilling to expose his men to a danger which he would not face, Sir Humphrey took passage in the "Squirrel" instead of in the larger and safer vessel. On the homeward voyage the ships encountered a ter- rific storm. In the midst of the gale the people on the " Hind," the larger ship, saw Sir Humphrey sitting at the stern of his little vessel, which was laboring painfully in the heavy seas. He was calmly reading a book, perhaps that sublimest of books, from which he had drawn th& pure principles which guided his whole life. As the "Hind" passed him he called out to those on board of her, " We are as near to heaven by sea as by land." That night the lights of the "Squirrel" suddenly gg HISTORY OF TUE CXITED STATES. disappeared, and the good Sir Humphrey was seen no more. The "Hind" continued her voyage, and reached Falmouth in safety. Sir Walter Uali-igh, Gilbert's half brother, had been interested in this , -\pi -ditiou, but its ill success did not dishearten him. He was one of the noblot spirits of his age, and lias laid the world under heavy obligations to him by his many noble services in the cause of humanity. He liad served in the army of the Huguenots of France under Coligni, and had heard from the voyagers sent out by that leader of the richness and beauty of Carolina. Undaunted by the sad fate of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Kalcigh determined to plant a colony in the region from which the Hu- guenots had been driven. He had no difficulty in obtaining from the queen a patent as liberal as that which had been granted Sir Humphrey Gilbert. He was given ample powers over the region he proposed to col- onize, as its feudal lord, and was bound to maintain the authority of the queen and church of England in his possessions. He fitted out two vessels commanded respectively oy Philip Amidas and Arthur Barlow, and sent them to explore the region granted to him, and to obtain accurate infor- mation concerning it. They reached the coast of North Carolina at Ocracock inlet, and took formal possession of the country. They par- tially explored Albemarle and Pamlico sounds, together with the neigh- boring coast and islands. It was the month of July, and the climate was delightful, the sea was calm, the atmosphere clear, and the heat was tem- pered by the delicious sea-breeze. The woods abounded with birds and echoed with their carols, and wild grapes were found in the greatest pro- fusion. The explorers were enchanted with this delightful region, and returning to England, published glowing accounts of it. They took with them two Indians, named Wanchese and Manteo, the latter of whom afterwards did good service to the colonists as an interpreter. Queen Elizabeth deemed her reign honored by the discoveries of Amidas and Barlow, and gave to the new region the name of Virginia in honor of England's virgin queen. Raleigh at once set to work to organize a colony. Emigrants volun- teered readily, and in a short time a fleet of seven vessels, containing one hundred and eight persons, apart from the crews, was in readiness. Sir Richard Grenville, a friend of Raleigh, and a man of tried skill and bravery, was given the command of the fleet, and Ralph Lane, who was also a man of considerable distinction, was made governor of the colony. The fleet sailed from Plymouth on the 9th of April, 1585, and after a long and try ing voyage reached Ocracock inlet in June. Passing through the inlet, a settlement was established on Roanoke island, lying between Albemarle and Pamlico sounds. Expeditions ware sent out to explore the THE FIHST ENGLISH COLONY. 89 surrounding country, and in one of these a silver cup was stolen by an Indian, and its restoration was delayed. With thoughtless cruelty Grwi- ville punished this fault by the destruction .of the village to which the culprit belonged, and also of all the standing corn. This inconsiderate revenge made the Indians the enemies of the whites, and brought great future suffering upon the colony. A little later, having seen the colonists successfully established on Roanoke island, Grenville returned to Eng- land with the fleet, capturing a rich Spanish prize on the voyage home. Left to themselves the colonists began k> explore the country, and to THE COAST OF NORTH CAROLINA. observe the productions of the soil, and the character of the inhabitants. Many of the plants were strange to them. Among these were the Indian corn, tobacco, and the sweet potato. Hariot, "the inventor of the system -jf notation in modern algebra, the historian of the expedition," ob- served these plants and their culture with great minuteness, and became a firm believer in the healing virtues of tobacco. He has left an interest- ing account of the natives of che country and their manr.ei-s and customs. The Indians, alarmed r ,y the superiority of the whites, began to plot \heir destruction, as thu -rjuewa their entire cour.try would be overrun 90 HISTORY OF TjfE UNITED STATES. by the new-corners. Lane on his part became suspicious of the savages, and this feeling of mutual distrust had the most unhappy consequences. Being informed by the savages that there was a splendid city, whose walls glittrrnl with gold and pearls, on the upper waters of the Roanoke, liovrrnor Lane made a boat voyage up that stream, but failed to find anything. He returned to the colony just in time to disconcert the plan of the savages for attacking the whites during the absence of the explor- ing party. Lane now determined to outrival the savages in perfidy. Pie visited Wingina, one of the most active of the neighboring chiefs, and, professing to come as a friend, was received with confidence by the Indians. At a given signal from the governor the whites fell upon the chief and his warriors, and put them to death. Lane proved himself utterly unfit to govern such a colony, and his people soon lost confidence in him. Their discontent was increased by the failure of their provisions, and they regan to entertain the idea of abandoning the colony and returning home. On the 8th of June, 1586, Sir Francis Drake, with a fleet of twenty- *ree ships, anchored in the roadstead off Roanoke island. He had been cruising in the West Indies, and had called on his homeward voyage to visit the plantation of his friend Raleigh. He at once set to work to remedy the wants of the colony, and supplied the settlers with such things as they needed. They were thoroughly disheartened, however, with their year's experience, and begged Drake so earnestly to take them back to England that he received them on board his ships and put to sea. Thus the first effort of the English to settle America resulted in failure. Drake's fleet had scarcely disappeared when a ship loaded with supplies, which had 'been despatched by Raleigh, reached the island. Finding the place deserted, the commander returned to England. A fortnight later, Grenville arrived with three ships. Finding the colonists had gone, he too returned to England, leaving fifteen men to hold the island. Raleigh was greatly disappointed by the failure of his colony, but he did not despair of success; for, notwithstanding the gloomy stories of Lane and his followers, the conclusive testimony of Hariot convinced him that the countiy could be made to yield a rich return for the trouble and expense of its settlement ; and he set to work to form another colony. With the hope of giving the settlers a permanent interest in the planta- tion, he selected emigrants with wives and families, who should regard the new world as their future home, and endeavor to found a permanent state in that region. Everything was provided which could contribute to the success of the colony, and agricultural implements were furnished for %he proper cultivation of the soil. All the expense of the undertaking was borne by Raleigh, fox though Queen Elizabetii greatly favored the FIEST ENGLISH COLONY. 91 venture, she declined to contribute anything toward it. John White was appointed governor of the colony. A fleet of transport vessels was equipped, also at Raleigh's expense, and on the 26th of April, 1587, the ^expedition sailed from England. The coast of North Carolina was reached in July. The approach to Roanoke island was both difficult and dangerous, and Raleigh ordered the new settlers to select a site for their colony on the shores of the Chesapeake bay. The expedition proceeded first, however, to Roanoke island to search for the men left there by Grenville. They could not be found. The island was deserted, the fort was in ruins, and the human bones which lay scattered over the field told plainly that the unfortunate garrison left by Grenville had been murdered by the Indians. Governor White was now anxious to sail to the Chesapeake, but Fernando, the commander of the fleet, refused to proceed any farther, as he wished to go to the West Indies for purposes of trade. The instructions of Raleigh were thus disregarded, and the colonists were compelled, to go ashore on Roanoke island. The old settlement of Governor Lane was rebuilt, and another effort was made to establish the " city of Raleigh." The Indians were bitterly hostile to the settlers, and a friendly tribe was offended by an unfortunate attack upon them, made upon the supposition that they were hostile Indians. The settlers becoming alarmed, implored the governor to return to England and exert himself to hasten the send- ing out of reinforcements and supplies to them. He was unwilling to do this, as he deemed it his duty to remain among them, but at length yielded to their unanimous appeal. Just before his departure his daughter, Mrs. . Dare, the wife of one of his lieutenants, gave birth to a daughter, the first child born of English parents within the limits of the United States, and the little one was named Virginia from the j^ace of its birth. White sailed for England in August, 1587. He found the mothei- country greatly excited over the threatened invasion of the Spaniards. Raleigh, who was energetically engaged in the efforts for the defence of the country, did not neglect his colony. He fitted out two ships with the needed supplies, and despatched them under White's orders in April, 1588. The commanders, instead of proceeding direct to the colony, undertook to make prizes. At last one of them fell in with a man-of-war from Rochelle, and after a sharp fight was plundered of her stores. Both ships were obliged to return to England, to the anger and disgust of Raleigh. The approach of the Invincible Armada and the exertions demanded of the nation for its defeat, made it impossible for anything more to be done for the colonists at Roanoke until after the Spanish fleet had been destroyed. Even then Raleigh, who had spent over forty thousand 92 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. pounds without return, was unable to send aid at once to the colony, and a year elapsed before a vessel could be sent out under White. In 1590, the governor reached Rounoke, but no trace of the colony could be found. The settlers had either died, or been massacred, or had been taken prisoners and carried by the Indians into the interior of the continent. "The con- jecture has been hazarded," says Bancroft, "that the deserted colony neglected by their own countrymen, were hospitably adopted "into the tribe of Hatteras Indians, and became amalgamated with the sons of the forest. This was the tradition of the natives at a later day. and was thought to be confirmed by the physical character of the tribe, in which the English and the Indian race seemed to have been blended." The gen- erous heart of Raleigh could not bear to leave his countrymen unaided while a single hope of finding them remained, and he is said to have sent to America as many as five expeditions at his own cost, to search for them. With the failure of the settlement at Roanoke Raleigh relinquished his hope of colonizing Virginia. He had expended nearly his entire fortune in the undertaking, and the remainder of his life was passed under the cloud of undeserved misfortune. His career as a statesman was honorable to himself and to his country, and he proved himself in all his acts a loyal subject and a devoted patriot. His zeal in behalf of knowledge made him a generous friend of the learned, and he merits the gratitude of the America npeople, not only for his efforts to colonize our chores with his countrymen, but for the liberality with which he spread a knowledge of America throughout England by his publication of the reports of Hariot and Hakluyt. He opened the way for the dominion of the English in the new world, and his memory is preserved in the name of the capital city of the great State which he sought to make the seat of an English empire. Upon the accession of James I., Raleigh, broken in health and fortune, but still the most illustrious Englishman of his day, was arraigned on a charge of high treason, of which not even his enemies believed him guilty, and was sentenced to the Tower, as the king did not yet dare to order his execution. During this period Sir Walter beguiled the weari- ness of his imprisonment by composing his " History of the World." He remained a prisoner for thirteen years, and was then released on condition of making a voyage to Guiana in search of gold. His failure to accomplish the object of the voyage sealed his doom, and on his return to England he was beheaded, not upon any fresh charge, but on his old sentence. His real fault was that he was too true an Englishman to O Bustain the sacrifice of the national honor by King James to the demands t>f Spain, and he was generally regarded by the nation as the victim of THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONY. 93 the king's cowardice. He met his fate with the calm bravery which had marked his whole life. Until now the voyage from England to America had been made by way of the Canary islands and the West Indies. In 1602, Bartholomew Gosnold conceived the idea of proceeding direct from England to Vir- ginia, as the whole region north of Florida was called by the English. Sailing directly across the Atlantic, he reached Cape Elizabeth, on the coast of Maine, after a voyage of seven weeks. Proceeding southward along the coast he reached Cape Cod, lo which lie gave the name on the 15th of May, and went ashore there. He wai thus the first Englishman to set foot in New England. He continued ins voyage along the coast and entered Buzzard's bay. To the westernmost of the islands cf this stately sound he gave the name of Elizabeth a name which has since been applied to the entire group. Loading his ship with sassafras root, which was then highly esteemed for its medicinal virtues, Gosnold sailed for England, and arrived home safely after a voyage of less than four weeks. He gave the most favorable accounts of the region he had visited, and other adventurers wore induced by his reports to undertake voyages for the purpose of trading with the natives. Among these was George Waymouth, who reached and explored the coast of Maine in 1605. On his return voyage Waymouth kidnapped five Indians and carried them to England, " to be instructed in English, and.to serve as guides to some future expedition." The voyages of Gosnold and Waymouth to the coast of New England were followed by those of numerous other English adventurers. In 1614, Captain John Smith, who had already distinguished himself by his services in Virginia, made a voyage to America with two ships, furnished at the expense of himself and four merchants of London. The voyage was for the purpose of trading with the natives, and was very fciccessful. Smith took advantage of the opportunity to explore the toast from the Penobscot to Cape Cod. He prepared a map of the coast, and named the country Nev. England a title which was confirmed by the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles I. After Smith's return to England, Hunt, the commander .of the other vessel, succeeded in inducing twenty of the natives, with their chief Squanto, to visit his ship, and as soon as they were on board put to sea. He sold the savages as slaves in Spain. A few of them, Squanto among the number, were purchased bv some kind-hearted monks, who instructed them in the Christian faith ir. order to send them back to their own people as missionaries of the cross. Squanto escaped to England in 1619, and there learned Oie language, and was afterward an interpreter between the English settlers and hi* people. CHAPTER VI. THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. Formation of the London Company Conditions of its Charter Departure of the fir.M Colony Quarrels during the Voyage Arrival in the Chesapeake Settlement of Jamestown Formation of the Government Character of Captain John Smith Explor- ation of the James River Newport and Smith visit Powhatan Smith Admitted to the Government Explores the Chickahominy Is Captured and Sentenced to Death la Saved by Pocahontas Gains the Friendship of Powhatan for the Colony Returns to Jamestown His Decisive Measures Return of Newport Smith Explores the Chesa- peake Bay The new Emigrants Smith compels them to Labor Smith is Wounded and compelled to return to England Disasters to the Colony Arrival of Sir Thomas Gates Jamestown Abandoned Arrival of Lord Delaware The Return to Jamestown A Change for the Better New Settlements Sir Thomas Gates arrives with Rein- forcements Capture of Pocahontas by Captain Argall She is Baptized Marries John Uolfe Sir Thomas Dale's Administration Yeardley Governor The h'rst Legislative Assembly Representative Government established in America The Colonists obtain Wives Changes in the Governmen*. HE favorable reports which had been brought back to England by the voyagers to the new world had prevented the interest of Englishmen in America from entirely .dying out, and some ardent spirits still believed it possible to make that continent the seat of a prosperous dominion dependent upon England. The former assistants of Raleigh, in particular, held to the convictions which their chief had entertained to the Jay of his death. The selfish and timid policy of King James having made it impossible for men to acquire distinction by naval exploits, as in th^ days of Elizabeth, the more adven- turous classes lent a willing ear to the plans for colonizing America, which were discussed in various parts of the kingdom. Bartholomew Gosnold, who had explored the New England coast, was especially active in seeking to induce capitalists to send out a colony to it. Sir Ferdinand Gorges, a wealthy gentleman and Governor of Plymouth, had been greatly interested in America by the accounts of "Waymouth, who had given him two of the Indians he had brought to England. These succeeded in interesting others in their plans, and the result was, that early in the reign of King Jamos two companies were formed in England for the colonization of America. One of these was the "London N THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. {-ft Company," composed chiefly of noblemen and merchants residing in London. The other was the "Plymouth Company," composed of " knights, gentlemen, and merchants," residing in the west of England. King James divided Virginia into two parts. To the London Company he granted "South Virginia," extending from Cape Fear, in North Carolina, to the Potomac. To the Plymouth Company he gave " North Virginia," stretching from the Hudson to Newfoundland. The region between the Potomac and the Hudson he left as a broad belt of neutral land to keep the companies from encroaching upon each other's domains. Either was at liberty to form settlements in this region within fifty miles of its own border. The London Company was the first to settle the country assigned it. A liberal charter was granted the company : the lands in the new world were to be held by it on the simple conditions of homage and the payment to the crown of one-fifth of the gold and silver and one-fifteenth of the copper that should be discovered. A general council, residing in England, was to have authority over the whole province, and the members of this council were to be appointed and removed by the king at his good pleasure. Each separate colony was to be under the control of a colonial council residing within ... ill- t C * 1 OF AfiM8 OP VIRGINIA. its own limits, and the king retained the right to direct the appointment or removal of the members of these councils at his pleasure. The king also reserved the supreme legislative authority over the colonies, and framed for their government a code of laws "an exercise of royal legislation which has been pronounced in itself illegal." The colonists were placed by this code under the rule of the superior and local councils we have named, in the choice of which they had no voice. The religion of the Church of England was estab- lished as that of the colony, and conformity to it was secured by severe pen- alties. Death was the punishment for murder, manslaughter, adultery, :angerous seditions and tumults. In all cases not affecting life and limb ./tfenders might be tried by a magistrate, but for capital offences trial by , jury was secured. In the former cases the punishment of the offender y<\s at the discretion of the president and council. The Indians were to be treated with kindness, and efforts were to be made for their conversion to Christianity. For five years at least the affairs of the colonists were to be conducted in a joint stock. The right to impose future legislation upon the province was reserved by the king. Such was the form cf o,; WSTnRY OF THE UNITED STATES. govemment &-*i prescribed for Virginia by England, in which, as Bancroft tru'. - iy>, there was " not an element of popular liberty." " To the emigrant." tJ'fcineelves it conceded not one elective franchise, not one of the rights of self-government. They were to be subjected to the Ordinances of a commercial corporation, of which they could not be members ; to the dominion of a domestic council, in appointing which they had no voice ; to the control of a superior council in England, which had no sympathy with their rights; and finally, to the arbitrary legisla- tion of the sovereign." Under this charter the London Company prepared to send out a colony to Virginia. It was to be a commercial settlement, and the emigrants were composed altogether of men. One hundred and five persons, exclusive of the crews of the vessels, joined the expedition. Of these not twenty were farmers or mechanics. The remainder were " gentlemen," or men who had ruined themselves at home by idleness and dissipation. A fleet of three small ships, under command of Captain Newport, was assembled, and on the 19th of December, 1606, sailed for America. The emigrants sailed without having perfected any organization. Thf king had foolishly placed the names of those who were to constitute th government in a sealed box, which the adventurers were ordered not to open until they had selected a site for their settlement and were ready to form a government. This was most unfortunate, for during the long voyage dissensions arose, and there was no one in the expedition who possessed the authority requisite for controlling the unruly spirits. These quarrels grew more intense with the lapse of time, and when the shores of Virginia were reached the seeds of many of the evils from which the colony afterwards suffered severely had been thoroughly sown. There were among the number several who were well qualified to direct the affairs of the expedition, but they were without the proper authority to do so, and there was no such thing as voluntary submission to be seen among the adventurers. The merits of the deserving merely excited the jealous) of thev companions, and the great master spirit of the enterprise found from the first Lis disinterested efforts for the good of the expedi- tion met by a jealous ind determined opposition. Newport was not acquainted with the direct route, and made the old passage by way of the Canaries and the West Indies. He thus consume <' the whole of the winter, and while searching for the island of Roauokc ^wi scene of Raleigh's colony, his fleet was driven northward by a severe ytorm, and forced to take refuge in the Chesapeake bay on the 26th of April, 1607. He named the headlands of this bay Cape Henry and Cape Charles, in honor of the two sons of James I., and because of the THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 97 comfortable anchorage which he obtained in the splendid roadstead which enters the bay opposite its mouth, he gave to the northern point the name of Point Comfort, which it has since borne. Passing this, a noble river was discovered coming from the westward, and was named the James, in honor of the English king. The country was explored with energy, anc 1 though one small tribe of Indians was found to be hostile, a treaty of peace and friendship was made with another at Hampton. The floct ascended the river, and explored it for fifty miles. A pleasant peninsula, on the left bank of the stream, was selected as the site of the colony, and on the 13th of May, 1607, the settlement was definitely begun, and was named Jamestown, in honor of the king. The leading spirit of the enterprise was John Smith, one of the truest heroes of history, who has been deservedly called "the father of Vir- ginia." He was still a young man, being but thirty years of age, but he was old in experience and knightly deeds. While yet a youth he had served in Holland in the ranks of the army of freedom, and had travelled through France, Egypt, and Italy. Burning to distinguish himself, he had repaired to Hungary, and had won a brilliant reputation by his ex- ploits in the ranks of the Christian army engaged in the defence of that country against the Mohammedans. He repeatedly defeated the chosen champions of the Turks in single combat, but being at length captured was sent to Constantinople and sold as a slave. The wife of his master, pitying his misfortunes, sent him to a relative in the Crimea, with a re- quest to treat him with kindness, but contrary to her wishes he was sub- jected to the greatest harshness. Rendered desperate by this experience, he rose against his task-master, slew him, and seizing his horse, escaped to the border of the Russian territory, where he was kindly received. He wandered across the country to Transylvania, and rejoined his old companions in arms. Then filled with a longing to see his "own sweet country " once more, he returned to England. He arrived just as the plans for the colonization of Virginia were being matured. He readily engaged in the expedition organized by the London Company, and exerted himself in a marked degree to make it a success. He was in all respects the most capable man in the whole colony, for his natural abilities were fully equal to his experience. He had studied human nature under many forms in many lands, and in adversity and danger had learned patience and fortitude. His calm, cool courage, his resolute will, and his intuitive perception of the necessities of a new settlement, were destined to make him the main stay of the colony of Virginia, but as yet these high qualities had only excited the malicious envy of his associates* and 7 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the efforts he had made to heal the dissensions which had broken out during the voyage had made him many enemies. When the box containing the names of those who were to constitute the colonial government was opened, it was found that the king had ap- pointed John Smith one of the council. Smith was at this time in con- finement, having been arrested on the voyage upon the frivolous charges of sedition and treason against the crown, and his enemies, notwithstand- ing the royal appointment, excluded him from the council. Edward Wingfield, " a grovelling merchant of the west of England," was chosen president of the council and gover- nor of the colony. The services of Smith could not be dispensed with, however, and he was released from his confinement, and sent with Newport and twenty others to explore the river. They ascended the James to the falls, where the city of Richmond now stands, and visited P o w h a t a n , the principal chief of the Indian nation holding the country into which they had come. He was then dwelling at his favorite seat on the left bank of the river, a few miles below the falls. Powhatan received them kindly, and silenced the remonstrances of his people by saying : " They hurt you not ; they only want a little land." The chief was a man of powerful stature, " tall, sour and athletic." He was sixty years of age, and had under him i popula- tion of six or eight thousand souls, two thousand being warriors. Hav- ing carefully observed the river, Smith and Newport returned to James- town. Their presence there was needed, for Wingfield had proved himself CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 99 utterly unfit to govern the colony. He would not allow the colonists to build either houses for themselves or a fortification for the common de- fence against the savages. While they were in this helpless condition, they were suddenly attacked by a force of four hundred Indians, and were saved from destruction only by the fire of the shipping, which filled the savages with terror and put them to flight. It is believed that tlie cause of Wingfield's singular conduct was his jealousy of Smith, whose talents he feared would attract the support of the settlers. The fort was now built without delay, cannon were mounted, and the men trained in the exercise of arms. When the ships were in readiness to sail to Eng- land, it was intimated to Smith that he would consult his own interests by returning in them, but he refused to do so, and boldly demanded a trial upon the charges which had been preferred against him. The coun- cil did not dare to refuse him this trial, and the result was his triumphant acquittal. More than this, he succeeded so well in exposing the malice of his enemies that the president, as the originator of the charges against him, was compelled to pay him two hundred pounds damages, which sum Smith generously applied to the needs of the colony. His seat in the council could no longer be denied him, and he took his place at the board to the great gain of the colony. Newport sailed for England about the middle of June, leaving the settlement in a most pitiable condition. The provisions sent out from England had been spoiled on the voyage, and the colonists were too indolent to cultivate the land, or to seek to obtain supplies from the Indians. Sickness broke out among them, owing to the malarious character of their location, and by the beginning of the winter more than half their number had died. Among these was Bartholomew Gosnold, the originator of the London Company, who had come out to Virginia to risk his life in the effort to settle the country. He was a man of rare merits, and, together with Mr. Hunt, " the preacher," who was also one of the projectors of the company, had contributed successfully to the preservation of harmony in the colony. In the midst of these sufferings it was found that Wingfield was preparing to load the pinnace with the remainder of the stores and escape to the West Indies. He was deposed by the council, who appointed John Rutcliffe in his place. The new president was not much better than his predecessor. He was incapable of discharging the duties of his office, and was perfectly 1 satisfied that Smith should direct the affairs of the settlement for him. From this time Smith was the actual head of the government. Food was the prime necessity of the colony, and as it was now too late to raise it, Smith exerted himself to obtain it from the Indians. He purchased^ Ml HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. supply, and towards the close of the autumn the wild fowl which frequent the region furnished an additional means of subsistence. The danger of a famine thus removed, Smith proceeded to explore the country. In one of these expeditions he ascended the Chickahominy as far as he could penetrate in his boat, and then leaving it in charge of two men, struck into the interior with an Indian guide. His men disobeyed his instructions, and were surprised and put to death by the Indians. Smith himself was taken prisoner, and deeply impressed his captors l;y his cool courage and self-possession. Instead of begging for his life, he- set to work to convince them of his superiority over them, and succeeded POCAHONTAS RESCUING CAPTAIN SMITH. 80 well that they regarded him with a sort of awe. He astonished them by showing them his pocket compass and explaining to them its uses, and excited their admiration by writing a letter to his friends at Jamestown informing them of his situation, and of the danger to which they were exposed from a contemplated attack of the Indians. One of the savages bore the letter to its destination. Smith had been captured by Opechancanough, a powerful chieftain of the Pamunkey Indians; but as the curiosity of the neighboring tribes was greatly aroused by his presence, he was led in triumph from the Chickahominy to the villages on the Rappahannock and the Potomac THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 101 and then taken through other towns to the residence of Opechancanough, on the Pamunkey. Here the medicine men of the tribe held a three days' incantation over him to ascertain his character and design. All this while his demeanor was calm and fearless, as if he entertained no apprehension for his safety. He was regarded by the savages as a superior being, and was treated with kindness, though kept a close prisoner. His fate was referred to Powhatan for decision, as the other tribes feared to bring the blood of such an extraordinary being upon their heads. Powhatan was then residing at Werowocomoco. which lay on the north side of Fork river, in what is now Gloucester county, Virginia. He received the captive in great state, surrounded by his warriors. " He wore," says Smith, " such a grave and majestical counte- nance as drove me into admiration to see." Brought into the presence of Powhatan, Smith was received with a shout from the assembled warriors. A handsome young squaw brought him water to wash his hands, and another gave him a bunch of feathers to dry them. Food was then set before him, and while he applied himself to the repast a consultation was held by the savages as to his fate. Smith watched the proceedings closely, and was aware from the gestures of the council that his death had been determined upon. Two great stones were then brought into the assembly and laid before the king. The captive was seized and dragged to the stones, forced down, and his head laid upon them. Two brawny savages stood by to beat out his brains with their clubs. During these proceedings, Pocahontas, a child of ten or twelve years, " dearly loved daughter " of Powhatan, touched with pity for the unfortunate stranger, had been earnestly pleading with her father to spare his life. Failing in this, she sprang forward at the moment the executioners were about to despatch their victim, and throwing herself by his side, clasped her arms about his neck and laid her head upon his to protect him from the impending stroke. This remarkable action in a child so young moved the savages with profound astonishment. They regarded it as a manifestation of the will of heaven in favor of the captive, and it was determined to spare his life and seek his friendship. Smith was released from his bonds, and was given to Pocahontas to make beads and bells for her, and to weave for her ornaments of copper. The friendship which the innocent child of the forest conceived for him grew stronger every day, and ceased only with her life. Powhatan took him into his favor, and endeavored to induce him to abandon the English and cast his lot with him. He even sought to obtain his aid in an attack upon the colony. Smith declined these offers, and by his decision of 10 2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. sucnrded in averting the hostility of the savages from hi| U at .Iamr,to\vn, and in winning their good-will for the English. In a short while the Indians allowed him to return to Jamestown, upon his promise to send to King Powhatan two cannon and a grindstone. Upon arriving at Jamestown he showed the Indians who had accoin* panied him two of the largest cannon, and asked them to lift them. This was impossible; nor could they succeed any better with the grindstone. Smith then discharged the cannon in their presence, which so frightened them that they refused to have anything to do with them. Having evaded his promise in this manner, Smith bestowed more suitable presents upon his guides, and sent them home with gifts for Powhatan and Pocahontas. The savage king was doubtless well satisfied to let the " great guns " alone after hearing the report of his messengers concerning them, and was greatly pleased with the gifts sent him. Smith found the colony at James- town reduced to forty men and affairs in great confusion. His companions had believed that he had fallen a victim to the hostility of the Indians, and he was greeted with delight, as the need of his firm hand had been sadly felt. He found that a party of malcontents were preparing to run away from the colony with the pin- nace, and he at once rallied his sup- porters and trained the guns of the fort upon the little vessel, and avowed his determination to fire upon the mutineers if they sought to depart. His firmness put an end to this danger, and the friendly relations which he had managed to establish with the Indians now enabled him to buy from the savages the food necessary to sustain the colonists through the winter. In many ways \\\t- captivity proved a great blessing to the settlement. He had not oi:l> explored the country between the James and Potomac, and gained con siderable knowledge of the language and customs of the natives, but had disposed the Indian tribes subject to Powhatan to regard the colony with friendship at the most critical per: xl of its existence. Had the savages. been hostile during this winter the Jamestov/n colony must have perished POCAHONTAS. THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 103 of starvation ; but now, every few days throughout this season, Poca- hontas came to the fort accompanied by a number of her countrymen bearing baskets of corn for the whites. In the spring of 1698, Newport arrived from England, bringing with him a reinforcement of one hundred and twenty emigrants. The new- comers were joyfully welcomed by the colonists, but they proved of no real advantage to the settlement. They were either idlers or goldsmiths who had come out to America in the hope of finding gold. The refiners of the party believed they had found the precious metal in a heap of glittering earth, of which there was an abundance near Jamestown, and in spite of the remonstrances of Smith, would do nothing but dig gold. Newport, who shared the delusion, loaded his ships with the worthless earth, and sailed for England after a sojourn in the colony of fourteen weeks. , While these fruitless labors were in progress, Smith, thoroughly disgusted with the folly of the emigrants, undertook the exploration of the Chesapeake bay. He spent the summer of 1608 in visiting the shores of the bay and ascending its tributaries in an open boat, accompanied by a few men. He explored the Chesapeake to the Susquehanna, ascended the Potomac to the falls, and explored the Patapsco. This voyage embraced a total distance of nearly three thousand miles, and resulted not only in the gaining of accurate information respecting the country border- ing the Chesapeake, but also in establishing friendly relations with the tribes along its shores, and preparing the way for future friendly inter- course with them. The energetic explorer prepared a map of the Chesapeake and its tributaries, and sent it to his employers in England, by whom it was published. It is yet in existence, and its accuracy and minuteness have often elicited the praise of subsequent topographers. Smith returned to Jamestown on the 7th of September, and three days later was made president of the council. The good effects of his admin- istration were soon felt. In the autumn, however, another reinforcement of idle and useless men arrived. Smith, indignant at the continual arrival of such worthless persons, wrote to the company : " When you send again, I entreat you rather send but thirty carpenters, husbandmen, gardeners, fishermen, blacksmiths, masons, and diggers up of trees' roots, well provided, than a thousand of such as we have." Upon the return of the fleet to England the governor exerted his authority to compel the idlers to go to work. It was ordered that six hours in each day should be spent in useful labor by each person, and that " he who would not work might not eat." In a short while the settlement began to assume the appearance of a regular habitation ; but still so little laud had bee I04 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. motivated only about thirty or forty acres in all that during the u intrr of 1608-'9, the settlers were compelled to depend upon the Indians for food. Yet the prudent management of Smith kept the colony in ..rood health, and during the winter not more than seven men died out of wo hundred. In the spring of 1609, great changed were made in the London BUILDING OF JAMESTOWN. Company, and a more earnest interest was manifested in the colony by ail classes of the English people. Subscriptions were made to the stock of the company by many noblemen as well as merchants, and a new charter was obtained. By this charter the stockholders had the power to appoint the supreme council in England, and to this council were confided the powers of legislation and government, which were relinquished by the THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA, 105 king. The council appointed the governor of the colony, who was to rule the settlement with absolute authority according to the instructions of the council. He was made master of the lives and liberties of the settlers by being authorized to declare martial law whenever in his judgment the necessity for that measure should arise, and was made the sole executive officer in its administration. Thus the emigrants were deprived of every civil right, and were placed at the mercy of a governor appointed by a corporation whose only object was to make money. The company, however, defeated this object by the manner in which it selected emigrants. Instead of sending out honest and industrious laborers who were capable of building up a state, they sent only idlers and vagabonds, men who were neither willing nor fit to work. The common stock feature was maintained, and thus the greatest obstacle to industry that could be devised was placed in the way of the success of the colony. Still there were many who were willing to seek the new world even under these conditions, and many others whose friends desired to get them out of the country. The company was soon able to equip a fleet of nine vessels containing more than five hundred emigrants, and a stock of domestic animals and fowls was included in the outfit of the expedition. Lord Delaware, a nobleman whose character commanded the confidence of his countrymen, was made governor of the colony for life. As he was not able to sail with the expedition, he delegated his authority during his absence to Newport, who was admiral of the fleet, Sir Thomas Gates, and Sir George Somers, who were to govern the colony until his arrival. The fleet sailed in the spring of 1609, but when off the American coast was overtaken by a severe storm, and two vessels on one of which the admiral and the commissioners had sailed were wrecked on one of the Bermuda islands. Seven ships reached Virginia, and brought the worst lot of emigrants that had yet been sent out to the colony. Smith was still acting presi- dent, and as the commissioners had not arrived, was determined to hold his position until relieved by his lawful successors. The new emigrants at first refused to recognize his authority, but he compelled them to sub- mit, and in order to lessen the evil of their presence, divided them into bodies sufficiently numerous for safety, and sent them to make settlements in other parts of Virginia. These settlements proved so many failures; and, unfortunately for the colony, Smith was so severely wounded by an accidental explosion of gunpowder, in the autumn of 1609, that he was obliged to relinquish the government and return to England for surgical treatment. He delegated his authority to George Percy, and sailed for England, never to return to Virginia again. It was to him alone that 106 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the company owed the success of the colony, but he received in return nothing but ingratitude. The departure of Smith was followed by the mast disastrous conse- quences. There was no longer an acknowledged government in Virginia, and tin; > -t tiers gave themselves up to the most reckless idleness. Their provisions were quickly consumed, and the Indians refused to furnfsh them with any more. The friendship of the savages had been due to their personal regard for Smith, who had compelled the colonists to respect their rights and to refrain fro.u maltreating them. Now that Smith was no longer at the head of affairs, the Indians regarded the settlers with the contempt they fully merited, and hostilities soon began. Stragglers from the town were cut off, and parties who went out to seek food among the savages were deliberately murdered. On one occasion a, plan was laid to surprise the town and massacre the colonists. The danger was averted by Pocahontas, who stole from her father's camp, through night and storm, to give warning to the settlers. Failing in this effort the Indians resolved to starve the colony, and soon the whites began to experience the sufferings of a famine. Thirty of them seized one of the ships, escaped to sea, and began a course of piracy. In six months the four hundred and ninety persons left by Smith in the colony at his depar- ture had dwindled down to sixty; and this wretched remnant would have perished speedily had not aid reached them. On the 24th of May, 1610, Sir Thomas Gates and the members of the expedition who had been wrecked on the Bermudas reached Jamestown after a stay of nine months on those islands, during which time they had built two vessels from the wreck of their ship and the wood found on the island. In these they managed to reach Virginia, expecting to find the colony in a prosperous condition. They found instead the sixty men already mentioned, so feeble and full of despair as to be helpless. In the general despondency it was determined to abandon the colony, sail to Newfoundland, a :vd join the fishing vessels which came annually from England to that island. Some of the emigrants wished to burn the town, but this was prevented by the resolute conduct of Sir Thomas Gates. On the 7th of June the settlers embarked, ajid that night dropped down the James with the tide. The next morning they were astonished to meet a fleet of vessels entering the river. It was Lord Delaware, who had arrived with fresh emigrants and supplies. The fugitives hailed the arrival of the governor with delight, and put about and ascended the stream with him. A fair wind enabled them to reach Jamestown the same night. On the 10th of June, 1610, the foundations of the colony were solemnly THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. 107 relaid with prayer and supplication to Almighty God for success in the otfort to establish a state. The authority of Lord Delaware silenced all dissensions, and his equitable but firm administration soon placed the settlement on a more successful basis than it had yet occupied. The labors of each day \vere opened with prayer in the little church, after jyhich, from six in the morning till ten, and from two in the afternoon until four, all engaged in the tasks demanded of them. The good efieccs of the new system were soon manifest in the increased comfort and pros- perity of the colony. In about a year the health of Lord Delaware gave way, and In delegated his authority to George Percy, whom Smith liad chosen as his successor, and returned to England. Fortunately for the colony, the company, before the arrival of Lord Delaware in England, had sent out Sir Thomas Dale with supplies. He reached Jamestown in May, 1611, and finding Lord Delaware gone, assumed the government. He brought with him a code of laws, prepared and sent out by Sir Thomas Smith, the treasurer of the company, without the order or sanction of the council, and which established mar- tial law as the rule of the colony. Though he ruled with such a stern hand, Dale rendered good service to Virginia bv recommending to the O v company to maintain the settlement at all hazards as certain of yielding them a rich reward in the end. This energetic appeal so greatly enco^r- aged the council, which had been considerably disheartened by Lord Delaware's return, that in the -ummer of 1611 Sir Thomas Gates was sent out to Virginia with six ships and three hundred emigrants. He carried also a stock of cattle and abundant supplies. The emigrants sent out with him were of a better character and more industrious than any that had yet left England fo: Virginia, Gates assumed the government, and matters began to prosper again. The solony now numbered seven hundred persons, and was deem-.-d so pros- perous that Dale, with the approval of the govomor, led a number of the men to the vicinity of the falls of the James, and there establisld another settlement, which was called Henrico in honor of the Prince of Wales. Among the changes for the better was the assignment to each settler of a few acres of land for his own cultivation. This "incipient establishment WIFE OF A CHIEF 108 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of private property" produced the happiest results, and from this time there was no scarcity of provisions in the colony, which became so power- ful and prosperous as to be no longer exposed to the mercy of the savages. The Indian* th -nisei ves were quick to notice this change, and some of he neighboring tribes by formal treaty acknowledged themselves subjects f King James. The whites, however, did not always respect the rights of the Indians. Late in 1613, Pocahontas was betrayed into the hands of a foraging party under Captain Argall. Argall kept her a prisoner, and demanded of Powhatan a ransom. For three months Powhatan did not deign to reply to this demand, but prepared for \var. In the meantime Pocahontas was instructed in the faith of the Christians, and at length openly embraced it, and was baptized. Her conversion was hastened by a powerful senti- ment, which had taken possession of her heart. She had always regarded the English as superior to her own race, and now her affections were Avon by a young Englishman of good character, named John Rolfe. Rolfe, with the approval of the governor, asked her hand of her father in marriage. Powhatan consented to the union, but refused to be present at the marriage, as he was too shrewd to place his person in the hands of the English. He sent his brother Opachisco and two of his sons to witness the marriage, which was solemnized in the little church at Jamestown, in the presence of Sir Thomas Dale, the acting governor. The marriage conciliated Powhatan and his tribe, who continued their peaceful rela- tions with the colony. King James, however, was greatly displeased at what he deemed the presumption of a subject in wedding a princess. Pocahontas was soon after taken to England by her husband, and was received there with great attention and kindness. She remained in Eng- land for a little more than a year, and then prepared to return to her own country. As she was about to sail, she died, at the age of twenty- two, A. D. 1616. She left a son, who subsequently became a man of distinction in Virginia, and the ancestor of some of the proudest families of the Old Dominion. In the meantime the settlements of the French on the coast of Maine had attracted the attention and excited the jealousy of the English. In 1613, Captain Samuel Argall, who was cruising on the banks of New- Vindland to protect the English fishermen, discovered the French : -:-Hlcment of Saint Sauveur on the island of Mount Desert, and captured it. He treated the colonists with inexcusable harshness, and compelled them to leave the country. In the same year he destroyed the fortifica- tions which Des Monts had erected on the isle of St. Croix and burned the deserted settlement of Port Royal. THE SETTLEMENT Of VIRGINIA. 109 At Jamestown and the other settlements that had been formed in Virginia private industry was fast placing the colony on an assured basis of success. " The condition of private property in lands, among the colonists, depended, in some measure, on the circumstances under which they had emigrated. Some had been sent and maintained at the exclu- sive cost of the company, and were its servants. One month of their time and three acres of land were set apart for them, besides a small allowance of two bushels of corn from the public store ; the rest of their labor belonged to their employers. This number had gradually de- creased; and in 1617 there were of them all, men, women and children, but fifty-four. Others, especially the favorite settlement near the mouth of the Appomattox, were tenants, paying two and a half bushels of corn as a yearly tribute to the store, and giving to the public service one month's labor, which was to be required neither at seed time nor harvest. He who came himself, or had sent others at his own expense, had been entitled to a hundred acres of land for each person : now that die colony was well established, the bounty on emigration was fixed at fifty acres, of which the actual occupation and culture gave a further right to as many more, to be assigned at leisure. Besides this, lands were granted as rewards of merit ; yet not more than two thousand acres could be sc appropriated to one person. A payment to the company's treasury oi twelve pounds and ten shillings likewise obtained a title to any hundred acres of land not yet granted or possessed, with a reserved claim to as much more. Such were the earliest land laws of Virginia: though im- perfect and unequal, they gave the cultivator the means of becoming a proprietor of the soil. These valuable changes were established by Sir Thomas Dale." * The survivors of Raleigh's colony at Roanoke had introduced into England the use of tobacco which they had learned from the Indians, and there was now a steady demand for that article from the mother country. Encouraged by this demand, and stimulated by the acquisition of property of their own, the Virginia colonists devoted themselves with cuxlor to the culture of tobacco, and soon all the available land about the settlements, and even the streets and public squares of Jamestown, were planted with it. Tobacco soon became the currency of the colony, and GO much attention was given to it, to the exclusion of other agricultural interests, that there was danger that not enough corn would be raised tc supply the needs of the settlers. In 1616, Sir Thomas Dale, who had been governor of the colony foi two years, delegated his authority to George Yeardley, and sailed foi * History of the Unit"! St'iles. By George Bancroft, tol. i, p. 150. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. England. Under Yeardley's admirable administration the colony con- tinued to increase in prosperity. A faction of the settlers, however, succeeded in removing him from his position, and replaced him with Argall, who was a selfish and brutal tyrant. He held office for two years, and governed according to the most rigid forms of martial law. He swindled the company, and extorted their hard earnings from the settlers, who were driven to desperation by his brutalities. In their distress they appealed to the company for redress, and, as Argall had robbed the corporation also, their prayer was heard. Argall was re- moved from office, and the bloody code of Sir Thomas Smith was abolished. Sir George Yeardley was appointed governor, Lord Delaware having died, and reached Jamestown in April, 1619. He was greatly beloved by the Virginians, and his arrival was looked upon as the begin- ning of new life for the province, as indeed it was. Among the changes which Yeardley was empowered by the company to inaugurate was one which exercised the greatest influence upon the subsequent history of Virginia. After years of blundering and arbitrary rule, the London Company had become convinced that the best way to promote the welfare of Virginia was to give the settlers a share in the management of their own affairs. "That the planters might have a hande in the governing of themselves, yt was graunted that a generall assemblie shoulde be helde yearly once, whereat were to be present the governor and consell with two burgesses from each plantation, freely to be elected by the inhabitantes thereof, this assemblie to have power to make and ordaine whatsoever lawes and orders shoulde by them be thought good and profitable for their subsistence." In accordance with this authorization, Governor Yeardley issued his writs for the election of representatives from the various colonies, and on the 10th day of July, 1619, two delegates from each of the eleven settlements of the colony met at Jamestown, and organized the House of Burgesses of the Colony of Virginia, the first representative assembly ever convened in America. In this assembly the governor and council sat with the burgesses, and engaged in the debates and motions. John Pory, a member of the council and the secretary of the colony, was chosen speaker, although he was not a member of the house. Sensible of their dependence upon the Supreme Ruler of the world, the burgesses opened their deliberations with prayer, and thus established the practice. " The assembly exercised fully the right of judging of the proper dootion of its members; and they would not suffer any patent, conocdin lanorial jurisdiction, to bar the obligation of obedience to their decision. ' Laws were enacted against idleness and vice, and for the encouragement of in- THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. Ill dustry and order. He who refused to labor was to be " sold to a master for wages till he shewc apparent signs of amendment." The playing of dice and cards, and drunkenness and profane swearing were prohibited under severe penalties. Inducements were held out to increase the planting of corn, mulberry trees, hemp and the vine. The price of tobacco was fixed by law at three shillings a pound for the best grade and half that price for the inferior grade. Provision was also made fox "the erecting of a university and college" for the proper education of the children who should be born to the planters. It was designed to extend to the Indians the benefit of these institutions, and it was ordered that the " most towardly (Indian) boys in wit and graces of nature should be brought up in the first elements of literature, and sent from college to the work of converting the natives to Christianity." The measures of the assembly were put in force without waiting the approval of the London Company, and the good effects of them were quickly visible in the colony. The principles of free government having been planted in the community, the settlers, who had been thereby trans- formed from the mere creatures of the governor into free-born English- men oiice more, began to regard Virginia as their permanent home, and set to work with a will to build houses and plant fields. One thing only was lacking to give the settlers homes in the truest sense of the word ; and to supply that need Sir Edwin Sandys induced ninety young and virtuous women to emigrate to America, that the colonists might be able to marry and form domestic ties which alone could permanently attach them to America. The young women were sent over to the colony in 1619, at the expense of the company, and were married to the tenants of the corporation or to men who were well enough to do to support them. The next year sixty more were sent over, and quickly found husbands. In all cases the husbands were required to repay to the company the cost of the passage of their wives from England. This was paid in tobacco, and was regarded as a debt of honor, to be discharged at any sacrifice. In order to aid the husbands in these payments, as well as in their general matters, the company, in employing labor, gave the preference to the married men. The colony now increased in a marked degree, emigrants coming out so rapidly from England that by 1621 there were 4000 persons in Virginia. It having become understood that the colony had passed the stage at which failure was possible, and had become a permanent state, the new emigrants were largely men of family, who brought their households with them. In July, 1621, the London Company, which was now controlled by the patriot party in England, granted to Virginia a written constitution, HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. which gave to the colony a form of government similai- tc that of Eng- land herself. A governor and permanent council were to be appointed by the company. The house of burgesses was to have the power of enacting such laws as should be needed for the general good, but no law so enacted was to l>c valid unless approved by the company. On the other hand, no orders of the court in Lo.idon were to be binding in Virginia unless ratified by the house of burgesses. Courts of justice were established and ordered to be administered according to the law-' and forms of trial in use in England. Thus the common law of England was firmly established in Virginia, aud under its beneficent protection the colony advanced steadily in prjsperity. The colonists were to be no longer merely the subjects of a commercial corporation, and as such to hold their liberties and property at the pleasure of their masters; but W2re definitely accorded the right to govern themselves, and to take such measures for their safety .ind prosperity as in their judgment should seem best, " On this ordinance," says Bancroft, " Virginia erected the superstructure of her libjrcies. Its influences were wide and enduring, and can be traced through all her history. It constituted the plantation, in its infancy, a nursei y of freemen ; and succeeding generations learned to cherish institutions which were as old as the first period of the pros- perity of their fyiheir. The privileges then conceded could never be wrested from the Virginians; and as new colonies arose at the South their proprietaries could hope to win emigrants only by bestowing franchises as large as those enjoyed by their elder rival. The London Company merits the praise of having auspi^ted liberty in America. It may be doubted whether any public act during the reign of King James was, uf more permanent or pervading influence ; and it reflects glory on Sir Edwin Sandys, the Earl of Southampton, and the patriot party of England, that, though they were unable to establish guarantees of a liberal administration at home, they were careful to connect popular freedom inseparably with the life, prosperity and state of society ir tr* M Virginia. CHAPTER VII. PROGRESS OF THE VIRGINIA COLONY. Introduction of Negro Slavery into Virginia Efforts of the Assembly to Restrict Slarwy The Indians Attempt the Destruction of the Colony Terrible Sufferings of the Whites Aid from England The Indian War Begun King James Revokes eople to subjection to them. The people of Maryland had become involved in a war with the Sus- quehannah Indians and their confederates, and the struggle was so serious that the savages extended their depredations to the Potomac, and even to the limits of Virginia. To guard against this danger the border militia were set to watch the line of the river, and in 1675 a body of them, under Colonel John Washington, crossed over into Maryland to help the people of that colony. This John Washington had emigrated from the north of England about eighteen years before, and had settled in Westmore- land county. He became the great-grandfather of George Washington, The war was conducted with great fury on both sides. Six of the chiefs of the Susquehannah tribe at length came into the camp of the Vir- ginians to treat for peace, and were treacherously murdered. This bar- barous act aroused the indignation of Governor Berkeley. " If they had killed my father and my mother, and all my friends," said he, "yet if they had come to treat of peace, they ought to have gone in peace." The massacre was bloodily avenged by the Indians. The Susquehannahs im- mediately crossed the Potomac and waged a relentless warfare along the borders of Virginia until they had slain ten whites for each one of their chiefs, a sacrifice required of them by the customs of their tribe, in order that the spirits of their braves might rest in peace. The people appealed to the governor for protection, but Berkeley refused to grant them aid. It is said that he was too deeply interested in the fur trade to be willing to offend the Indians by aiding his people. The colonists then demanded permission to defend themselves, to invade the Indian country, and drive the savages farther into the interior. This was also refused, and during all this time the frontier was suffering fearfully from the outrages of Berkeley's Indian friends. At last the patience of the people was exhausted. A leader was at hand in the person of Nathaniel Bacon. He was a young planter of the county of Henrico, a native of England, and a lawyer by profession. He was ardent in temper, eloquent and persuasive in speech, winning in manner, a true patriot, and possessed of the firmness and decision neces- sary in a leader of a popular movement. He had been reared in Eng- 128 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. . laud amid the struggles which ushered in the establishment of the commonwealth, and had learned the lesso* of freedom too well to forget it in a home where every incident of his daily life required the exercise of the best qualities of his nature. His love of republicanism had triiiu-d him the dislike of Governor Berkeley, who hated any man thai laix-d to criticise his tyranny. The same principles which made him obnoxious to the governor won him the affectionate confidence of the people of Virginia, who were quick to recognize their true friend. When volunteers began to offer themselves for the war against the Indians they petitioned the governor to commission Bacon their commander-in-chief. This Berkeley refused, declaring that he would not countenance such pre- sumption on the part of the " common people." In the meantime the murders continued, and Bacon, who shared the indignation of the people, determined that if another man was slain he would march the militia against the Indians without a commission. Almost immediately several of his own men were murdered on his own plantation near the falls of the James. He at once gave the signal. Five hundred men were soon under arms, and Bacon was made their leader. About the 20th of April 1676, he set out on his march against the savages, whom he chastised and drove back into the interior. The people were in arms, and they were not disposed to lay down their weapons until their grievances were redressed. The quarrel was not with the Indians, but with the government. As soon as Bacon had begun his march into the Indian country, Berkeley denounced him as a traitor, and his followers as rebels, and ordered them to disperse. He was obeyed by some who feared the loss of their property, but the populous counties bor- dering the bay answered him by joining the insurrection. The people of the colony with one voice demanded the dissolution of the assembly, which had unlawfully maintained its existence for fourteen years. Opposed by the entire people the governor was compelled to yield. The assembly had fairly earned the universal hatred with which it was regarded by its selfishness and its hostility to popular liberty. It was dissolved, and writs were issued for a new election. Among the new members elected was Bacon, who was returned from the county of Henrico. The new assembly was naturally favorable to the rights of the people, and it at once proceeded to rectify many of the abuses which had pro- duced the insurrection. Taxes were adjusted more equitably ; the right 1 of suffrage was restored to the people ; the monopoly of the Indian trade, in which it was believed the governor was deeply interested, was sus- pended ; many of the evils connected with the expenditure of the public funds were corrected; the power of the parish vestries was broken by VIRGINIA AFTER THE RESTORATION. 129 limiting their term of office to three years, and giving the election of these officials to the freemen of the parish ; a general amnesty was pro- claimed for all past offences; and Bacon, amid the rejoicings of the people, was elected commander of the army destined to act against the Indians. These measures were utterly distasteful to the haughty old governor. He refused to give them his sanction, or to sign the commission ordered for Bacon by the assembly. Fearful of treachery Bacon withdrew from the capital. The people quickly rallied to his support, and in a few days he entered Jamestown at the head of five hundred men. Berkeley, who was as courageous as he was obstinate, met him, and baring his breast said, haughtily, "A fair mark ; shoot ! " Bacon answered him calmly, " I will not hurt a hair of your head, or of any man's ; we are come for the commission to save our lives from the Indians." The governor was at length obliged to yield. The commission was issued, the acts of the assembly were ratified, and Berkeley joined the assembly and council in sending to England an indorsement of the loyalty, patriotism, and energy of Bacon. This consent was given on the 24th of June, or, according to the new style of calculation, at present in use, on the 4th of July, 1676. just one hundred years before the Declaration of Independence. Bacon at once marched against the Indians, and in a brilliant and suc- cessful campaign broke their power, and gave peace and security to the frontier. In the midst of these honorable labors he was again assailed by Berkeley, who had only consented to the reconciliation to gain time. The governor withdrew from Jamestown to Gloucester, which was the most populous and the most loyal county of Virginia. He summoned a convention of the inhabitants, and renewed his efforts against Bacon. The people of Gloucester, justly regarding Bacon as the defender of the colony, opposed the governor's proposals, but he persisted in spite of their advice, and again proclaimed Bacon a traitor. This inexcusable pursuit of a man who had rendered nothing but good: service to the colony aroused the indignation of the troops. "It vexev me to the heart," said Bacon, "that while I am hunting the wolves and tigers that destroy our lambs I. should myself be pursued as a savage^ Shall persons wholly devoted to their king and country men hazarding- their lives against the public enemy deserve the appellation of rebels and traitors ? The whole country is witness to our peaceable behavior. But those in authority, how have they obtained their estates? Have they not devoured the common treasury ? What arts, what sciences, wnat schools of learning, have they promoted? I appeal to the king and; Parliament, where the cause of the people will be heard impartially." 9 13 f HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Bacon appealed to the people of Virginia to unite for the defence of their liberties against the tyranny of the governor. They responded to this call with enthusiasm, and a convention of the most eminent men in the colony assembled at Middle Plantations, now \Villiamsburg, on the 3d of August, 167G. It was resolved by the convention to sustain Bacon with the whole power of the colony in the campaign against the Indians. If the governor persisted in his attempt to hunt him as a traitor, the members of the convention pledged themselves to defend Bacon with miw, even against the royal troops, until an appeal could be made to the RUINED CHURCH TOWER ON THE SITE OF JAMESTOWN. king in person. The people of Virginia were fully resolved to protect themselves against the tyranny of Berkeley, and Bacon, strengthened by their indorsement of -his course, finished his campaign against the In- dians. Governor Berkeley withdrew across the bay to the eastern shore, and there collected a force of sailors belonging to some English vessels and a band of worthless Indians. With this force, " men of a base and cowardly disposition, allured by the passion for plunder," he prepared to return to Jamestown. The people decided to regard the retreat of the governor as an abdi- \ VIRGINIA AFTER THE RESTORATION. 131 nation on his part of his office. The ten years for which he had been appointed had expired, and the colonial records afforded a precedent for his removal. Bacon and four others, who had been members of the council, issued writs for the election of a representative convention to which the management of the affairs of the colony was to be committed. With the exception of a few royalists the whole people of Virginia indorsed the movement ; the women were enthusiastic, and urged their husbands to risk everything, even life, in defence of their liberties. Early in September Sir William Berkeley reached Jamestown with the rabble which he called his army. He took possession of the town with- out resistance, and was joined by a number of royalists. He offered freedom to the slaves of the Virginians who were opposed to him on the condition of their joining his ranks. Bacon and his party were again proclaimed traitors and rebels. The people at once flew to arms, and Bacon soon found himself at the head of the little army that had been so successful against the Indians, Without delay they marched to Jamestown. The resistance attempted by Berkeley's cowardly followers was feeble, and the whole force, includ- ing their leader, retreated to their ships, and dropped down the river by night. The next morning the r.rmy of the people entered Jamestown. It was rumored that a party of royalisto was marching from the northern counties to the support of Berkeley, and a council was held to decide upon the fate of the capital. It was agreed that it should be burned to prevent it from being used as a stronghold for their enemies. The torch was applied ; Drummond and Lawrence, leaders of the popular party, set fiiv to thc>ir dwellings with their ovn hands; and in a few hours only a heap ol' .smouldering ruins marked the site of the first capital of Virginia, its destruction left the col "Ly without u single town within its limits. From the ruins of Jamestown Bacon marched promptly to meet the royalist force advancing A'cm tlio Rappahannock region. The latter in a body joined the army f tlie people, and even the county of Gloucester, the stronghold of royalty, gave its r.dhesion to the patriotic movement. With the exception of tha eastern shore the entire colony was united in suppc rt of the cause of popular liberty. Unhappily, at this critical junc- ture, Bacon was seized with a fatal fever, of which he died on the 1st of October, 1676. His followers grieved for him with passionate sorrow, and with good cause. It has been the good fortune of Virginia to give many great namec to the cause of liberty, but in all the immortal roll there are none who surpassed Nathaniel Bacon in pure and disinterested patriotism. Others wer^ permitted to accomplish more, but none cherished loftier a ims v r de?* 1 'd more earnestly the good of their fellow -citizens. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The death of Bacon left the popular party without a head ; and now began to be seen for the first time in Virginia the evils which the neglect of education must produce in a community. The Virginians were not lacking in courage, determination, or devotion to their liberties, and their cause was one calculated to succeed without leaders. In an educator community there would have been no lack of union or perseverance because of the death of one man, and the people would have found the means to continue their struggle until successful. In the uneducated Virginian community of 1676 the presence of a bold, capable, and reso- lute leader was a necessity, and his sudden removal left the popular party helpless. The grand struggle degenerated into a series of petty insur- rections; the royalists took heart, and Robert Beverley, their most competent leader, was able to destroy in detail the resistance of the patriots and to restore the supremacy of Berkeley. The governor now proceeded to take a summary vengeance upon the patriots, and more than twenty of the best men of the colony gave their lives on the scaffold for the liberties of their country. The first of these martyrs for freedom the first American to die for the right of the people to govern themselves was Thomas Hansford, a Virginian born, and a noble specimen of the chivalrous sons of the Old Dominion. The wife of Edmund Cheesman, upon the capture of her husband, flung her- self at the governor's feet, and declaring that her exhortations had induced her husband to join Bacon, begged to be allowed to die in his place. The brutal Berkeley repelled the heroic woman with a gross insult. When Drummond was taken and brought before him the gov- ernor received him with mock courtesy. " I am more glad to see you," he said, " than any man in Virginia ; you shall be hanged in half an hour." The royalist assembly, horrified at the cruelty of the governor, appealed to him to " spill no more blood." The property of the victims was confiscated, and their helpless families were turned out upon the charities of the people for whom the martyrs had died. Not content with these cruelties Berkeley attempted to silence the people, and prevent them from either censuring him or vindicating the memory of their dead heroes. Whoever should speak ill of Berkeley or his friends was to be whipped. At last the end came, and Berkeley returned to England. His de- partur ^ was celebrated with rejoicings throughout the colony ; bells were rung, guns were fired, and bonfires blazed. Berkeley hoped to be able to justify his conduct in England, but upon his arrival in that country he found his course sternly condemned by the voice of public opinion. Even Charles II. censured him with all the energy that soulless monarch VIRGINIA AFTER THE RESTORATION. 133 was master of. " The old fool," said the king, " has taken away more lives in that naked land than I for the murder of my father." His dis- appointment and mortification were too much for the proud man, and he died soon after his arrival in England. The failure of Bacon's rebellion brought many serious misfortunes to Virginia. The insurrection was made the excuse by the king for refusing a liberal charter, and the colony was made dependent for its rights and privileges entirely upon the royal will. The assembly was composed almost exclusively of royalists, and at once proceeded to undo the work of the popular party. All the laws of Bacon's assembly were repealed ; the right of suffrage was restricted to freeholders, and the iniquitous taxes were reimposed. All the abuses that had led to the rebellion were revived. In 1677 Lord Culpepper, one of the favorites to whom Charles II. had granted Virginia, was appointed governor of the colony for life. The new governor regarded his office as a sinecure, and while receiving its emoluments desired to remain in England to enjoy them. In 1680, however, the king compelled him to repair to his government in person. He brought with him authority from the sovereign to settle all past grievances, but he used this power for his own profit. He extorted money from all parties, and when he had acquired a considerable sum returned to England, having spent less than a year in Virginia. He left the colony in the greatest distress. The Virginians, robbed of the profits of their labors for the enrichment of their rulers, were reduced to despair. Riots took place in various places, and the whole colony was on the verge of insurrection. Rumors of these disturbances having reached England the king ordered Culpepper to return and reduce the colony to obedience. He did so, and caused several influential men to be hanged as traitors, and used the power intrusted to him to wrest from the council the last remnant of its authority to control his outrages upon the people. This accomplished he proceeded to force the settlers of the Northern Neck to surrender their plantations to him, or pay him the sums he demanded for the privilege of retaining them. He found his residence among a people he had come to plunder very disagreeable, and in the course of a few months returned to England amid the bitter curses of the Virginians. The council reported the distress of the province to the king, and appealed to him to recall the grant to Culpepper and Arlington. Arlington surrendered his rights to Culpepper, whose patent was rendered void by a process of law, and in July, 1684, Virginia became once more a royal province. Lord Howard, of Effingham, was appointed to succeed Culpepper, but he was a poorer 134 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and more grasping man than his predecessor, and the change afforded no relief to Virginia. In 1685 James II. came to the throne of England, and in the same year occurred the insurrection in England known as Monmouth's rebel- lion. A number of prisoners were taken in this struggle by the royal forces, and many of these were sent out to the colonies of Virginia and Maryland to be sold as servants for a term of ten years. Many of them were men of education and family. The general assembly of Virginia refused to sanction this infamous measure, and, in spite of the prohibition of King James, passed a law declaring all such persons free. Indeed at this time the practice of selling white servants in America had become so profitable that quite a thriving business was carried on between the west of England and Virginia and Maryland. Not only persons con- demned for crime, but innocent people were kidnapped and sold in the colonies for a term of years for money. "At Bristol," says Bancroft, " the mayor and justices would intimidate small rogues and pilferers, who, under the terror of being hanged, prayed for transportation as the only avenue to safety, and were then divided among the members of the court. The trade was exceedingly profitable far more so than the slave-trade and had been conducted for years." One of the last acts of Charles II. with reference to Virginia was to forbid the setting up of a printing press within the limits of the colony. James II. continued this prohibition. Effingham endeavored to take from the colony the few privileges left to it. The result was that the party of freedom increased rapidly. Many of the aristocratic party see- ing that the king and the governor menaced every right and privilege they possessed went over to the popular side. The assembly began to assert the popular demand for self-government, and became so unman- ageable that in November, 1686, it was dissolved by royal proclamation. A new assembly was convened, which met in April, 1688, a few months before the British revolution. The governor and council found this body more indisposed to submit to the aggressions of the crown than its pre- decessor had been. The people sustained their delegates, and a new insurrection was threatened. Eifingham was in the midst of a hostile population, without troops to enforce his will, and was obliged to conduct himself with moderation. The royal authority was never stronger in Virginia than during this reign, but it was found impossible to establish it upon the ruins of the liberties of the colony. The result of all the long years of oppression we have been considering was simply to confirm the Virginians in their attachment to their liberties, and in their deter- mination to maintain them at any cost. Virginia remained to the end an aristocratic colony, but it was none the less " a land of liberty." VIRGINIA AFTER THE RESTORATION. 135 The revolution of 1688 in England did not change affairs in Virginia materially as regarded the forms of the colonial government. The lib- erties of the colony were established by law too securely to be any longer at the mercy of an individual, but the power of the governor was still very great. Every department of the colonial administration, the finances, and even the management of the church, was made subject to his control. He had the power to dissolve the assembly at pleasure, and was sure to exercise it if that body manifested too great a spirit of inde- pendence. He also appointed the clerk of the assembly, who was for this reason a check upon its freedom of debate. The only means of resistance to the measures of the government which the assembly retained was to refuse to vote supplies in excess of the permanent revenue. This right was sometimes exercised, and the governor was prevented from carrying out unpopular measures by the lack of the necessary funds. Soon after the accession of William and Mary to the throne an effort was made to establish a college in Virginia, although the printing press was still forbidden. Donations were made by a number of persons in England, and the king bestowed several liberal grants upon the proposed institution. The measure was carried through to success by the energy of the Rev. James Blair, who was sent out by the Bishop of London as commissary, " to supply the office and jurisdiction of the bishop in the outplaccs of the diocese." The college was established in 1691, and was named William and Mary, in honor of the king and queen Mr. Blair was its first president, and held that office for fifty years. The ministry did not approve the action of the king in granting even the very moderate endowments which he bestowed upon the college. They regarded Virginia merely as a place in which to raise tobacco for the English market, and cared nothing for the interests of the people. They treated the colony with injustice and neglect in everything. The ttlanters could sell their tobacco only to an English purchaser, who regu- lated the price to suit himself, and supplied the planters in return with the wares they needed at his own prices. CHAPTER IX. THE COLONIZATION OF MARYLAND. Extent of the Territory of Virginia Clayborne's Trading Poets established Sir George Calvert, Lord Baltimore Becomes interested in American Colonization Obtains a Grant of Maryland Terras of the Charter A Colony sent out Arrival in the Chesa- peake St. Mary's Founded Character of the Colony Friendly Relations established with the Indians First Legislature of Maryland Trouble with Clayborne Rapid Growth of the Colony Progress of Popular Liberty Policy respecting the Treatment of the Indians Clayborne's Rebellion Law granting Religious Toleration enacted Condition of Maryland under the Commonwealth The People declared Supreme Lord Baltimore recovers his Proprietary Rights Characteristics of the Colony Rapid Increase in Population Charles Calvert, Governor Death of the second Lord Balti- more Roman Catholics disfranchised Maryland becomes a Royal Province Triumph of the Protestants Annapolis made the Seat of Government Restoration of the Pro- prietary Government Continued Prosperity of Maryland. HE second charter of Virginia granted to that province the country north of the Potomac as far as the headwaters of the Chesapeake bay. This grant included the territory of the pres- ent State of Maryland. The discoveries of Captain John Smith had brought the region along the head of the bay into notice, and other explorers had confirmed his statements as to its value. A very profit- able trade was established with the Indians of this section, and, in order to develop its advantages, William Clayborne, a man of great resolution and oi no mean abilities, a surveyor by profession, was employed by the Governor of Virginia to explore the region of the upper Chesapeake. His report was so favorable that a company was formed in England for the purpose of trading with the Indians. Under authority from this company, Clayborne obtained a license from the colonial government of Virginia, and established two trading stations on the bay ; one on Kent island, opposite the present city of Annapolis, and one at the mouth of the Susqtiehanna. These posts were established in the spring of 1631. In the meantime efforts were being made in England to secure the settlement of the same region. Sir George Calvert, a man of noble char- acter, liberal education and great political experience, had become at an early day deeply interested in the question of colonizing America. Having embraced the Roman Catholic faith, he relinquished his office of 136 THE COLONIZATION OF MARYLAND. 137 Secretary of State, and made a public acknowledgment of his conversion. His noble character commanded the confidence of King James, and he was retained as a member of the Privy Council, and was made Lord Baltimore in the Irish peerage. He was anxious to found a colony in America, which might serve as a place of refuge for persons of the Catholic faith, and obtained a patent for the southern part of Newfound- land. That region was too bleak and rugged to admit of the success of the enterprise, and the attempt to settle it was soon abandoned. Lord Baltimore next contemplated a settlement in some portion of Virginia, and in October, 1629, visited that colony with a view to making arrangements for his plantation. The laws of Virginia against Roman Catholics were very severe, and immediately upon the arrival of so distinguished a Catholic the assembly ordered the oaths of allegiance and supremacy to be tendered him. Lord Baltimore proposed a form which he was willing to subscribe, but the colonial government insisted upon that which had been ordered by the English Parliament, and which was of such a character that no Cath- olic could accept it. There was nothing left for Calvert but to withdraw from Virginia, and his reception there convinced him that that province was not the place for the plantation he wished to establish. The region north of the Potomac ivas still uninhabited, and seemed to promise advantages equal to Virginia. Calvert applied to Charles I. for a patent for this region, and was given a territory corresponding very nearly to the present State of Maryland in extent. Tlje king granted him a liberal charter, which, while it provided for his interests as pro- prietor, secured the liberties of the colonists. In this it was simply the expression of the wishes of Lord Baltimore, who desired to establish a settlement of freemen. The country embraced in the grant was given to Lord Baltimore, his heirs and assigns, in absolute possession. They were required to pay an annual tribute to the crown of two Indian arrows and one-fifth of all the gold and silver which might be found. The colonists were to have a voice in making their own laws, and they were to be entitled to all the rights and privileges of Englishmen. No taxes were to be imposed upon them without their consent, nor was the authority of the proprietor to extend to their lives or property. It was enjoined that the exercise of the faith and worship of the established Church of England should be protected in the colony, but no uniform COAT OF ARMS OF MARYLAND. HIS10RY OF THE UNITED STATES. *::mdard of faith or worship was imposed by the charter. The new province was carefully separated from Virginia and made independent of it. The colony was left free from the supervision of the crown, and the proprietor was not obliged to obtain the royal assent to the appoint- m3nts or legislation of his province. The king also renounced for himself, his heirs and his successors, the right to tax the colony, thus leaving it entirely free from English taxation. These were vast powers to intrust to one man ; but they were placed in safe hands. The first Lord Baltimore was a man who hated tyranny of all kinds, and who had carefully observed the effects of intolerance and arbitrary rule upon the efforts that had already been made to estab- lish successful colonies in America. He designed his colony as an asylum in which men of all creeds could meet upon a common basis of a faith in Jesus Christ, and his conviction that religious freedom is neces- sary to the success of a state confirmed in him his attachment to the principles of civil liberty. He invited both Protestants and Catholics to join him in his enterprise, and adopted a form of government, based upon popular representation, well calcu- lated to secure them in the possession of all their privileges. In honor of the queen of Charles I., he named the region granted to him Maryland. Before the patent was issued, Lord Baltimore died, on the 15th of April, 163%, leaving his son, Cecil, heir to his designs as LORD BALTIMORE. we n as to ^ fafa ^hc charter granted to his father was issued to him, and he proceeded at once to collect a colony for the settlement of Maryland. Lord Baltimore delegated the task of conducting the emigrants to Maryland to his brother, Leonard Calvert. On Friday, November 22d. 1632, a company of 200, chiefly Roman Catholics of good birth, with their families and servants, sailed from England in the "Ark" and the " Dove," the former a ship of large burthen, the latter a small pinnace. The voyage was made by way of the West Indies, and the Chesapeake was not reached until the 24th of February, 1634. The ships anchored off Old Point Comfort, and were visited by Sir John Harvey, Governor of Virginia, who had been commanded by the king to welcome the new colony with kindness. Resting in Hampton roads for a few days, the emigrants ascended the bay and entered the stately Potomac. Deeming it unsafe to plant his first settlement high up the river, Calvert chose a site on a small THE COLONIZATION OF MARYLAND. 139 tributary of the Potomac, not far from its mouth. This stream, now known as the St. Mary's, he named the St. George's. An Indian village, called Yoacomoco, was selected as the site of the colony. The place was being deserted by tlie natives, who had suffered severely from the superior power of the Susquehannahs, and were removing farther into the interior for greater security. They readily sold their town and the surrounding lands to the English, and made with them a treaty of peace and friendship; and on the 27th of March, 1634, the colonists landed and laid the foundations of tli2 town of St. Mary's. A few days later, Sir John Harvey arrived from Virginia on a friendly visit. His orders from the king were to treat the settlers with frieud- MISSIONAKY PREACHING TO THE INDIANS. ship, and to aid them as far as lay in his power. About the same time the native chiefs came in to visit the colony, and were so well received that they established friendly relations with the settlers. The Indian women taught their English sisters how to make bread from the mea! of the Indian corn, and the warriors instructed the Englishmen in the - simple arts of the chase. The colonists obtained provisions and cattk for a while from Virginia ; but, as they went to work at once and with energy to cultivate their land, the first year's harvest gave them an abundance of supplies. The proprietor sent out from England such things as were necessary to the success and comfort of the colony, treating the new settlement with a wise liberality. Thus were the foundations 140 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of Maryland laid amid peace and prosperity. The colony was successful from the first. Roman Catholic settlers followed the first emigrants in considerable numbers, and even Protestants sought the shores of Mary- land, which the liberality of Lord Baltimore had made a refuge to them from the persecutions of their own brethren. New settlements were formed, and within six months the colony " had advanced more than Virginia had done in as many years." In February, 1635, the first legislative assembly of Maryland met. Legislation had become necessary by this time. Clayborne, who had established trading posts in the upper Chesapeake, had met the first settlers under Leonard Calvert at their anchorage at Old Point Comfort, and had endeavored to dissuade them from settling along the bay by exaggerating the dangers to be apprehended from the hostility of the Indians. Failing in this effort, he became the evil genius of Maryland, as the grant to Lord Baltimore made void his license to trade with the Indians along the bay. He refused to acknowledge the authority of the proprietor of Maryland, and attempted to retain his trading posts by force of arms. Within a year or two after the settlement of the colony, a bloody skirmish occurred in one of the rivers of the eastern shore, in which Clayborne's men were defeated. In 1638, Leonard Calvert took forcible possession of Kent island, and hanged one or two of Clayborne's people on a charge of piracy and murder. Clayborne was in England at the time prosecuting his claims before the king. Governor Harvey of Virginia had given the weight of his influence in this contest to the cause of Lord Baltimore, but the people of Virginia, who resented the grant of Maryland as an invasion of their rights, sympathized with Clayborne, and caused Harvey to be impeached and sent to England for trial. The English courts decided that Clayborne's license was not valid against the' charter granted to Lord Baltimore, and Harvey was sent back to Virginia as governor, in April, 1639. In the meantime the colony continued to grow and prosper. The assembly, while acknowledging the allegiance of the people of Maryland to the king, and making ample provision for the rights of Lord Balti- more as proprietor, took care to secure the liberties of the people, and claimed for itself the exercise in the province of all the powers belonging to the British House of Commons. Representative government was definitely established, and the colonists were secured in all the liberties granted to the people of England by the common law of that country. Tobacco became, as in Virginia, the staple of the colony. In 1642, in gratitude for the great expense which Lord Baltimore had voluntarily incurred for them, the people of Maryland granted him " such a subsidy THE COLONIZATION OF MARYLAND. 141 as the young and poor estate of the colony could bear." As far as the people themselves were concerned, the condition of Maryland was one of marked happiness and contentment. Harmony prevailed between all classes of the people and the government ; the settlers were blessed with complete toleration in religion ; emigration was rapidly increasing, and the commerce of the colony was growing in extent and value. Maryland had its troubles, however. The Indians, alarmed by its rapid growth, began in 1642 a series of aggressions which led to a frontier war. This struggle continued for some time, but was product' sft of no decisive results, and in 1644 peace was restored. The Indians promised sub- mission, and the whites, on their part, agreed to treat them with friendship and justice. Laws were enacted compelling the settlers to re- frain from injustice toward the savages, and humanity to the red man was made the policy of the colony. The kidnapping of an Indian was punishable with death, and the sale of arms to the sav- ages was constituted a felony. Efforts were also made to convert the natives to Chris- tianity. Four missions were established among them by the priests of the Catholic Church, and the effects of their devoted labors were soon manifest. A chief, named Tayac, and his wife were baptized, he taking the name of Charles and she that of Mary. About 130 other converts were afterwards added to the Christian fold among the Indians, and many of these sent their children to receive in- struction at the hands of the priests. Though the effort to Christianize the savages failed, as it has ever done, the good effects of these endeavors were not lost, as the friendship for the whites aroused by them continued to influence these tribes in their policy toward the colony. Clayborne, who had certainly cause for thinking himself wronged in being deprived of his property without just compensation, returned to A CONVERTED INDIAN. 142 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Maryland to revenge himself upon the colonists, The civil war in England furnished him with an admirable opportunity for his attempt. He was able to secure a number of followers in Maryland, and in 1644 began an insurrection, The next year the governor was driven out of the colony and obliged to take refuge in Virginia, and Clayborne was triumphant. For more than a year the rebels held possession of the government, and this whole time was a period of disorder and misrule, during which the greater part of the colonial records were lost or stolen, At the end of this time, the better classes of the people of Maryland drove out the rebels, and recalled the proprietary government. A general amnesty was proclaimed to all offenders, and peace was restored *o the colony. The year 1649 was marked in England by the execution of Charles I., and the complete establishment of the authority of the Parliament. It seemed to the people of Maryland that this triumph of the popular, party was to usher in a new war upon the Roman Catholic faith, which wasyjro- fessed by a large majority of the colonists. Dreading a war of religion as the greatest of evils, they determined to secure the colony from it, by plac- ing the freedom of conscience within their limits upon as secure a basis as possible. On the 21st of April, 1649, the assembly of Maryland adopted the following act: "And whereas the enforcing of conscience in jnatters of religion hath frequently fallen out to be of dangerous conse- quence in those commonwealths where it has been practised, and for the nore quiet and peaceable government of this province, and the better to preserve mutual love and amity among the inhabitants, no person within this province, professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall be anyways troubled, molested, or discountenanced for his or her religion, or in the free exercise thereof, or be compelled to the belief or practice of any other religion against their consent." This statute, noble as it was, applied only to Christians. It was pro- vided that " Whatsoever person shall blaspheme God, or shall deny or reproach the Holy Trinity, or any of the three persons thereof, shall be punished with death." Maryland had taken a great stride in advance in making her soil a sanctuary for Christians of all beliefs, but she had not yet accorded to her people a toleration equal to that of Rhode Island, which colony, in 1647, granted liberty to all opinions, infidel as well as Christian. During the existence of the commonwealth, the colony was troubled with an unsettled government. It submitted to the authority of Crom- well, and the Puritans, regardless of the example of their brethren of the Catholic faith, attempted by an act of assembly, in 1654, to disfranchise THE COLONIZATION OF MARYLAND. 143 the whole Roman Catholic population on the ground of their religious belief. Cromwell disapproved this action, and bluntly ordered his com- missioners " not to busy themselves about religion, but to settle the civil government." In 1660, without waiting to hear the issue of matters in England, the assembly repudiated the authority of both the common- wealth and the proprietor, and asserted the sovereignty of the people as the supreme authority in Maryland. Upon the restoration of Charles II., Lord Baltimore made his peace with the king for having yielded to the power of Cromwell, and received back all the rights he had enjoyed in Maryland. He at once proceeded to re-establish his authority in the province, but being a man of humanity and of liberal views, he made a generous use of his power. A general pardon was granted to all offenders' against him, his rule. was once more submitted to, and for thirty years the colony was at peace. "Like Virginia, Maryland was a colony of planters; its staple was tobacco, and its prosperity was equally checked by the pressure of the navigation acts. Like Virginia, it possessed no considerable village; its inhabitants were scattered among the woods and along the rivers ; each plantation was a little world within itself, and legislation vainly attempted the creation of towns by statute. Like Virginia, its laborers were in part indentured servants, whose term of service was limited by persever- ing legislation; in part negro slaves, who were employed in the colony from an early period, and whose importation was favored both by English cupidity and provincial statutes. As in Virginia, the appointing power to nearly every office in the counties as well as in the province was not with the people; and the judiciary was placed beyond their control. As in Virginia, the party of the proprietary, which possessed the govern- ment, was animated by a jealous regard for prerogative, and by the royalist principles, which derive the sanction of authority from the will of heaven. As in Virginia, the taxes levied by the county officers were not conceded by the direct vote of the people, and were, therefore, bur- densome alike from their excessive amount and the manner of their levy. But though the administration of Maryland did not favor the increasing spirit of popular liberty, it was marked by conciliation and humanity. To foster industry, to promote union, to cherish religious peaoo, . . , these were the honest purposes of Lord Baltimore during his long su- premacy."* Yet the colony continued to prosper. Emigrants oame to it from almost every country of western Europe, and even from Sweden and Fin- * Hitlory of the United States. By George Bancroft, vol. ii., p. 235. 144 , HISTORY OF THE US1TED STATES. land. The only persons who had cause for complaint in Maryland were the Quakers, who were treated with considerable harshness for their /efusal to perform military duty ; but no effort was made to interfere with the exercise of their religion. In 1662, Charles Calvert, the son and heir of Lord Baltimore, came to reside in the colony. Money was coined at a colonial mint, a tonnage duty was imposed upon all vessels trading with the colony, and a state house was b-lit in 1674, at a cost of forty thousand pounds of tobacco, or about five thousand dollars. By numerous acts of compromise between Lord Baltimore and the assembly the question of taxation was adjusted upon a satisfactory basis. The people assumed the expense of the pro- vincial government, and agreed to the imposition of an export duty of two shillings per hogshead upon all the tobacco sent out of the colony. One-half of this duty was appropriated to the support of the government, and the remainder was assigned unconditionally to the uses of Lord Baltimore, as " an act of gratitude " for his care of the colony. On the 30th of November, 1675, Cecil Calvert, second Lord Balti- more, died. He had been for fourteen years the earnest and devoted friend, as well as the generous lord of the province, and had lived long enough to enjoy the gratitude with which the colony sought to repay his judicious care. His memory is perpetuated by the chief city of Mary- land, which bears his name, and which is already the largest city on the Atlantic coast, south of the Susquehanna, and the fifth in population in the United States. Charles Calvert, who had been for fourteen years governor of Alar} land, succeeded to his father's titles and possessions, and in 1676 returned to England. Previous to his departure from Maryland he gave his sanction to the colonial code of laws, which had been thoroughly revised. One of these laws prohibited the " importation of convicted persons " into the colony without regard to the will of the king or Parliament of England. Notwithstanding the mild and equitable government of the third Lord Baltimore, the spirit of popular liberty was becoming too strong in the colony for the rule of the proprietor to be cheerfully acquiesced in much longer. The rebellion of Bacon in Virginia affected the Maryland colony profoundly, and when Lord Baltimore returned to the province in 1681, lie found a large part of the people hostile to him. An attempt at insur- rection was suppressed, but the seeds of trouble were too deeply sown not to spring up again. The increase of the population had left the Roman Catholics in a small minority, so that Maryland was now to all intents and purposes a Protestant colony. During the latter part of the reign of Charles II. THE COLONIZATION OF MARYLAND. 145 the Protestants, regardless of the wise policy of toleration which had hitherto marked the history of the province, endeavored to secure the establishment by law of the Church of England in Maryland. Lord Baltimore steadfastly resisted this unwise course, and maintained the freedom of conscience as the right of the people. He thus added to the existing opposition to his proprietary rule the hostility of the Protestant bigots. A little later, the English ministry struck the first blow at his proprietary rights and at the religious freedom of Maryland by ordering that all the offices of the colonial government should be bestowed upon Protestants alone. " Roman Catholics were disfranchised in the province which they had planted." Lord Baltimore hoped that the succession of James II., a Catholic sovereign, would restore him the rights of which U had been deprived in his province; but he was soon undeceived, for the king, who intended to bring all the American colonies directly under the control of the crown, would make no exception in favor of Maryland, and measures wers put in force for the abolition of the proprietary government. The revolution which placed William and Mary on the throne prevented the execution of these plans. The troubles of Lord Baltimore were increased by the failure of the deputy-governor, whom he had left in Maryland, to acknowledge William and Mary promptly. In August, 1689, occurred an insurrection led by " The association in arms for the defence of the Protestant religion." The deputy-governor was driven from office, the proprietary government was overturned, and William and Mary were proclaimed sovereigns of Mary- land. The party in power appealed to the king to annul the proprietary charter, and governed the colony by means of a convention until the royal pleasure should be known. Lord Baltimore endeavored to defend his rights, but in spite of his struggles, William III., in June, 1691, annulled the charter of Maryland, and by the exercise of his own power constituted that colony a royal province. In 1692, the king appointed Sir Lionel Copley governor of Maryland. Upon his arrival in the colony he dissolved the convention and assumed the government. He at once summoned an assembly, which, recognizing William and Mary as the lawful sovereigns of Maryland, established the Church of England r the religion of the colony, and imposed taxes for its support. The capital was removed from St. Mary's to Annapolis, both because the old seat of government had become inconvenient and because it was desired to remove the government to the centre of Protestant influence. The disfranchisement of the Catholics advanced step by step. At first the dissenters from the established church were granted toleration and pro- 10 146 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. tection, but in 1704 the triumph of bigotry was complete. All the dissenting bodies were tolerated, but Roman Catholics were forbidden the exercise of their faith. Mass was not allowed to be said in public, nor was any bishop or clergyman of the Roman Catholic Church to be permitted to seek to make converts for his faith. Other severe measures were enacted, and in the land which Catholics had settled, the members of that com- munion alone were denied the rights which in the day of their power they had offered to others. Nor did the royalist assembly manifest any care for the true interests of the province. Education was neglected; the establishment of printing was prohibited; and the domestic manu- factures which the necessities of the colony had brought into existence were discouraged. In 1710 the population numbered over 30,000, free and slave. In 1715 Benedict Charles Calvert, the fourth Lord Baltimore, suc- ceeded in obtaining the restoration of his rights in Maryland, and the province passed into his hands. The people had been so disgusted with the rule of the royal governors that no opposition was mads to this change. The new Lord Baltimore, unlike the rest of his family, was a Protestant, which was the cause of his restoration to his hereditary rights. After his restoration the colony increased with still greater rapidity. The establishment of a post route, in 1695, between the Potomac and Philadelphia, had brought it into communication with the Northern colonies. In 1729 the toAvn of Baltimore was founded. Frederick City was settled in 1745, and in 1751 was followed by Georgetown, now in the District of Columbia. In 1756 the population of the colony had increased to 154,188 souls, of whom over 40,000 were negroes. The increase in material prosperity was equally marked. By the last-men- tioned year the annual export of tobacco was 30,000 hogsheads, and, in spite of the efforts of the home government to prevent it, there were eight furnaces and nine forges for smelting copper in operation in the province. CHAPTER X. THE PILGRIM FATHERS. Rise of the Puritans Their Increase in England They are Persecuted by the English Church and Government Conduct of James I. His Hatred of Puritanism Puritans take Refuge in Holland The Congregation of John Robinson They Escape to Holland The Pilgrims Their Sojourn at Leyden They wish to Emigrate to Virginia Failure of their Negotiations with the London Company They form a Partnership in England A Hard Bargain Departure of the Pilgrims from Holland Voyage of the "Mayflower" Arrival in New England The Agreement on board the " Mayflower" Carver chosen Governor Settlement of Plymouth The first Winter in New England Sufferings of the Pilgrims Arrival of new Emigrants Continued Suffering Assign- ment of Lands Friendly Intercourse with Indians Samoset and Squanto Visit of Massasoit A Threat of War Bradford's Defiance Weston's Men A Narrow Escape The Colonists Purchase the Interests of their English Partners Lands Assigned in Fee Simple The Colony Benefited by the Change Government of Plymouth Steady Growth of the Colony. - HE persecutions with which Queen Mary afflicted the reformers of England in her bloody effort to restore the Roman Catholic faith in that country caused many of the most eminent men of the English Church to seek safety on the continent of Europe. Upon the accession of Elizabeth the Church of England became once more the religion of the state, and the reformers were free to return to their own country. They came back with broader and more liberal views than they had carried away with them, and there sprang up in the English Church a party which demanded a purer and more spiritual form of worship than that of the church. These persons were called in derision Puritans. They adopted the name without hesitation, and soon made it an honorable distinction. The queen, however, was determined to compel her subjects to conform to the established church, and was especially resolved to make them acknowledge her supremacy over the church. To the Puritan the worship of the Church of England wa.- only less sinful than that of Rome, and to acknowledge the queen as the head of the church was to commit blasphemy. He claimed that the queen had no control over him in matters of religion, and that it was his right to worship God in his own way, without interference. The Puritans gradually came to embrace in their number some of the best 148 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. men in the English Church. These sincerely deprecated a separation from the church, and earnestly desired to carry the reformation to the extent of remedying the abuses of which they complained, and to remain in communion with the church. One of the reforms which they wished to inaugurate was the abolition of Episcopacy. Failing in their efforts, they desired to be let alone to form their own organizations and to worship God according to their own ideas, without the pale of the Church af England. The queen and the bishops were not content to allow them this freedom. England had not yet learned the lesson of toleration, and severe measures were inaugurated to compel the dissenters to conform to the established church. All persons in the kingdom were required to conform to the ceremonies of the church. A refusal to do so was pun- ished with banishment. Should any person so banished return to the kingdom without permission he was to be put to death. Accused persons were obliged to answer upon oath all questions concerning themselves and their acquaintance, respecting their attendance upon public worship. Ministers refusing to conform to the established usage were deprived of their parishes ; and if they persisted in preaching to their congregations, or if the congregations were detected in listening to their deposed pastors, the offenders were fined or subjected to some severer punishment. Absence from the services of the church for a certain length of time was also punished. The persecution thus inaugurated drove many of the nonconformists, as they were termed, into exile from England. They fled to Holland and Switzerland, where alone they found " freedom to worship God." In spite of the severe measures and determined efforts of Elizabeth, the Puritans increased steadily in numbers and importance in England. They were hopeful that James I. would prove a more lenient sovereign to them than Elizabeth had been, and they had good ground for this hope. The real character of James was unknown in England, and while King of Scotland he had shown great favor to the Presbyterians of that kingdom, whom it was his interest to conciliate. He had once publiclv thanked God "that he was king of such i: kirk the purest kirk in ail the world. As for the Kirk of England," he added, " its service is an svil-said mass." This most contemptible of monarc! had scarcely become King of England when he uttered the famous maxim, "No bishop, no king ! " which pithily states the policy of his reign. Interest had made him the foe of episcopacy in Scotland ; the same motive made him its champion in England. Upon his entrance into his new kingdom, the Puritans met him with an humble petition for a redrew of their THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 149 grievances. James quickly saw that the majority of the English people favored a support of the church as it was, and had no sympathy with the Puritans, and he at once constituted himself the enemy of the petitioners. Still, in order to cover his desertion of the party to which he had belonged in Scotland, he appointed a conference at Hampton Court. The conference was held in January, 1604, and the king, silencing all real debate, made the meeting merely the occasion of displaying what he regarded as his talents for theological controversy, and for announcing the decision he had resolved upon from the first. He demanded entire obedience to the church in matters of faith and worship. " I will have none of that liberty as to ceremonies," he declared. " I will have one doctrine, one discipline, one religion in substance and in ceremony. Never speak more to that point, how far you are bound to obey." The Puritans then demanded permission to hold occasional ceremonies of their own, with the right of free discussions in them ; but James, who could never tolerate the expression of any opinion adverse to his own, replied : " You are aiming at a Scot's presbytery, which agrees with monarchy as well as God and the devil. Then Jack and Tom and Will and Dick shall meet, and at their pleasure censure me and my council and all our proceedings. Then Will shall stand up and say, It must be thus. Then Dick shall reply and say, Nay, marry, but we will have it thus. And therefore here I must once more reiterate my former speech, and say, The king forbids." Then turning to the bishops, he added : "I will make them conform, or I will harry them out of the land, or else worse ; only hang them ; that's all." The king kept his word. The severe laws against the nonconformists were enforced that year with such energy that three hundred Puritan ministers are said to have been silenced, impris- oned, or exiled. The church party proceeded in the next few years to still more rigorous measures, and were willing even to place the liberties of the nation at the mercy of the crown in order to compel the submis- sion of the Puritans. The introduction of foreign publications into the kingdom was greatly restricted, and the press was placed under a severe censorship. The Puritans were thus forced to become the champions of popular liberty against the tyranny of the crown and the ecclesiastical party, and the issue which was to be fought out by the next generation was distinctly joined. There was a congregation of Puritans in the north of England, com- jio.H'd of people of Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire, with some from i' >rkshire. The pastor was John Robinson, "a man not easily to be v.iralleled," who possessed in an unusual degree the love and confidence af his people. They were greatly harassed by the agents of the king and 15C HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the bishops; and were subjected to such serious annoyances that it wns with difficulty that they could hold their meetings. Finding it impns- i I >le to live in peace at home without doing violence to their consciences, they determined to leave England and seek refuge from persecution in Holland. That country was friendly to the English, and the Dutch had learned from their own sufferings to respect the rights of conscience in others. It was not an easy matter to leave England, however, for it was held by the government to be almost a crime to attempt to escape from persecution. A vessel was hired to convey the refugees to Holland ; but the roval officers were informed of the intended voyage, and seized the whole company as they were about to embark. Their persons were searched, their small possessions seized, and the whole church men, women, and children thrown into prison. In a short while all but seven were released. These were brought to trial, but it was found impossible to prove any crime against them, and they also were discharged. This action of the government, so far from intimidating the sufferers, but increased their resolve to leave England, and in the spring of 1608 the effort was renewed. A Dutch captain consented to convey them to Holland, and it was agreed that the refugees should assemble upon a lonely heath in Lincolnshire, near the mouth of the Humber. and be taken on board by the Dutch skipper. The men of the party went to the rendezvous by land, and got safely on board the ship ; but the boat conveying the women and children was stranded and captured by a party of horsemen sent in pursuit. The Dutch skipper, fearful of becoming involved in trouble with the English authorities, at once put to sea, and the exiles were separated from their families, who were left helpless in the hands of their oppressors. The women and children were treated with great harshness by their captors, and were taken before the magis- trates, who found it impossible to punish them for an attempt to follow the fortunes of their husbands and fathers. They were at a loss to know what to do with the prisoners, who no longer had homes in England, and at last released them unconditionally, and permitted them to rejoin their natural protectors in Holland. The exiles reached Amsterdam in the spring of 1608. They were well pleased to be safe in this peaceful refuge, but they did not deceive them- 3elves with the hope that it could ever be a home to them. "They knew they were PILGRIMS, and looked not much on those things, but lifted up their eyes to heaven, their dearest country, and quieted their spirits." They found it hard to earn a support in Amsterdam, and in 3609 removed to Leyden, where, by their industry and frugality, they managed to live in comparative comfort. Their piety and exemplary THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 151 i conduct won for them the respect of the Dutch, who would have openly shown them marked favor but for their fear of offending the King of England. The magistrates of Leyden bore ready witness to their purity of life. "Never," said they, "did we have any suit or accusation against any of them." In the course of time the Pilgrims were joined by a number of theii- brethren from England. They were nearly all accustomed to agricul- tural pursuits, and in Holland they were obliged to earn their bread by mechanical labors. It was with difficulty that they could do this, and they never formed any attachment to the place of their exile. They preserved, through all their trials, their affection for their native land, and cherished the hope that they might continue Englishmen to the close of their lives. They viewed with alarm the prospect of raising their children in Holland, where they would necessarily be thrown in constant contact with, and be influenced by, the manners and customs of the country. Above all they dreaded the effect upon their children of the dissolute example of the disbanded soldiers and sailors who filled the country. These and other things made them unwilling to look upon Holland as their permanent home. But whither should they go in case of their departure from Holland? Their own country was closed against them, and the nations of continental Europe could offer them no asylum. As their conviction, that it was their duty to seek some other home, deepened, their thoughts became more irresistibly directed towards the new world. In the vast solitudes of the American continent, and there alone, they could establish a home in which they could worship God without fear or molestation, and rear their children in the ways that seemed to them good. Thither would they go. They were anxious to make their venture under the protection of England, and declined the offers made them by the Dutch, who wished them to establish their colony as a dependency of Holland. They had heard of the excellent climate and fertile soil of Virginia, and it seemed best to them to choose that promising region as the scene of their experi- ment. It was necessary to obtain the consent of the London Company to their settlement, as Virginia had been granted to that body by the King of England; and in 1617 two of the leading members of the con- gregation John Carver and Robert Cushman went to England to lay their application before the company. They were kindly received by Sir Edwin Sandys, the secretary of the company. They laid before the directors the request for permission to form a settlement in Virginia, with which they had been charged by their brethren. The application '.vas signed by the greater part of the congregation, and contained a state- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. merit of their principles, and their reasons for desiring to emigrate to America. " We verily believe that God is with us," said the petitioners, "and will prosper us in our endeavors; we are weaned from our mother country, and have learned patience in a hard and strange land. We are industrious and frugal; we are bound together by a sacred bond of the Lord, whereof wo make great conscience, holding ourselves to each other's good. We do not wish ourselves home again ; we have nothing to hope from England or Holland; we are men who will not be easily dis- couraged." The appeal of the Pilgrims was received with such favor by the London Company that Carver and Cushman ventured to petition the king to grant them liberty to exercise their religion unmolested in the wilds of America. The most that James would consent to grant them, however, was a half promise to pay no attention to them in their new home. The London Company agreed to grant them permission to settle in Virginia, but the dissensions of that body prevented anything from being done in their behalf. The Pilgrims were too poor to defray the cost of their emigration, and they set to work to find persons of means willing to assist them. At length they were successful, and a company was formed consisting of themselves and several merchants of London. The latter were to advance the funds necessary for the enterprise, while the former were to contribute their entire services for a period of seven years, as their share of the stock of the company. At the end of seven years the profits of the enterprise were to be divided according to the amount of each one's investment ; and it was agreed that a contribution of ten pounds in money by a merchant should be entitled to as great a share of the profits as seven years of labor on the part of the emigrant. These were hard terms for the Pilgrims, but they were the best they could obtain, and they were accepted, as the exiles were willing to suffer any sacrifice in order to be able to found a community of their own in which they could bring up their children in the fear of God. The main thing with them was to reach the shores of America. Once there these men who had learned the lessons of self-denial and endurance did not doubt their ability to succeed even in the face of the heavy disadvantages they were obliged to assume. With the funds thus obtained the Pilgrims began to prepare for theii departure. A ship of sixty tons, called the " Speedwell," was purchased, and another, of one hundred and eighty tons, called the " Mayflower," was chartered. These, however, could transport but a part of the congre- gation, and it was resolved to send out at first only "such of the youngest and strongest as freely offered themselves." The pastor, Robinson, and THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 153 the aged and infirm were to remain at Leyden until their brethren could send for them, and the colony was placed under the guidance of William Brewster, the governing elder, who was an able teacher and much re- spected and beloved for his noble character. When all was in readiness, a day of fasting and prayer was held, in order that at the very beginning of their enterprise the Pilgrims might invoke the guidance and protection of God. " Let us seek of God," they said, " a right way for us, and for our little ones, and for all our sub- stance!" The venerable pastor made this solemn season the occasion of delivering a tender farewell to the members of his charge who were about to depart, and of appealing to them to be true to the principles of their religion in their new home. " I charge you before God and his blessed angels," he said, in tones of deep emotion, "that you follow me no further than you have seen me follow the Lord Jesus Christ. If God reveal anything to you, be rea'dy to receive it; for I am verily persuaded that the Lord has more truth yet to break out of his holy word. I beseech you, remember that it is an article of your church covenant, that you be ready to receive whatever truth shall be made known to you from the written word of God. Take heed what ye receive as truth ; examine it, consider it, and compare it with other scriptures of truth before you receive it ; the Christian world has not yet come to the perfection of knowledge." From Leyden a number of the brethren accompanied the emigrants to Delft Haven, from which port they were to sail. The night before their departure, they all assembled in prayer and religious exercises, which were continued until the dawn, when they prepared to go on board the ship. Arrived at the shore, they knelt again, and the pastor, Robinson, led them in prayer the emigrants listening to his voice for the last time on earth. "And so," says Edward Winslow, " lifting up our hands to each other, and our hearts to the Lord our God, we departed." Southampton was soon reached, and the voyagers were transferred to the "Mayflower" and the " Speedwell." On the 5th of August, 1620, those vessels sailed from Southampton for America. Soon after getting to sea, it was discovered that the "Speedwell" was in need of repairs, and that they must return to England. They put about and reached the port of Dartmouth, where the smaller vessel was repaired. Eight days were consumed in this undertaking, and the voyage was resumed. They were scarcely out of sight of land when the commander of fhe " Speedwell," alarmed by the dangers of the voyage, declared that his ship was not strong enough to cross the ocean. The vessels at once put back to Plymouth, where the smaller ship was discharged. At the same 154 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. time those who had grown fainthearted were permitted to withdraw from the expedition. The remainder of the company, to the number of one hundred and one, sailed from Plymouth in the " Mayflower," on the 6th of September, 1620. Some of these were women well advanced in preg- nancy, and some were children. Their little vessel was but a frail barque compared with the ships that now navigate the sea ; but a band of braver THE " MAYFLOWER " IN PLYMOUTH HARBOR. and more resolute souls never trusted themselves to the mercies of the stormy Atlantic. The leading man in the little band of Pilgrims was the ruling elder, William Brewster, who was to be their preacher until the arrival of a regularly chosen pastor. He was a man of fine education, refined and THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 155 scholarly tastes, and of pure and lofty Christian character. " He laid his hand/' says Elliott, "to the daily tasks of life, as we)l as spent his soul in trying to benefit his fellows so bringing himself as near as possible to the early Christian practices; he was worthy of being the first minister of New England." He was well advanced in life, ami was looked up to with affectionate regard by his associates. Another was John Carver, also a man of years and ripe experience, who had sacrificed his fortune to the cause, and whose dignified and benevolent character won him the honor of being chosen the first chief magistrate of the colony. Prominent among the leaders was William Bradford. He was only thirty-two, but was a man of earnest and resolute character, firm and true, "a man of nerve and public spirit." He had begun life as a farmer's boy in England, and in Holland had supported himself by practising the art of dyeing ; but, in spite of his constant labors, he had educated himself and had managed to accumulate books of his own. He systematically devoted a large part of his time to study, and thus care- fully trained his natural abilities, which were very great. Edward Winslow, a man of sweet and amiable disposition, was twenty-six years old. He was a gentleman by birth, and had been well educated, and had acquired considerable information and experience by travel. Miles Standish had attained the mature age of thirty-six, and was a veteran soldier. He had seen service in the wars of the continent of Europe, and had gained an honorable distinction in them. He was not a member of the church, but was strongly attached to its institutions. " With the people of God lie hud chosen to suffer affliction, .... In return for his zeal, they .... made him Captain of Plymouth; He was a man of honor, of noble and generous nature ; Though he was rough, he was kindly .... Somewhat hasty and hot .... and headstrong, Stern as a soldier might be, but hearty and placable always, Not to be laughed at and scorned, because he was little of stature ; For he was great of heart, magnanimous, courtly, courageous." ( The voyage of the " Mayflower " was long and stormy. The Pilgrims had selected the country near the mouth of the Hudson as the best region for their settlement, but a severe storm drove them northward to the coast of New England. Sixty-three days were consumed in the passage, during which one of their number had died, and at length land was made, and on the 9th of November, two days later, the " Mayflower " cast anchor in the harbor of Cape Cod. 156 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The Pilgrims had come to America at their own risk and without the sanction of, or a charter from, the king or any lawful organization in England. They were thrown upon their own resources, and could look to no quarter for protection or support. Appreciating the necessity of an organized government, their first acts after anchoring in Cape Cod bay were to organize themselves into a body politic and to form a govern- IIK nt. The following compact was drawn up in the cabin of the " May- flower," and was signed by all the men of the colony, to the number of forty-one : " In the name of God, amen ; we whose names are under- written, the loyal subjects of our dread sovereign King James, having undertaken, for the glory of God and advancement of the Christian faith, and honor of our king and country, a voyage to plant the first colony in the northern parts of Virginia, do, by these presents, solemnly and mutually, in the presence of God and of one another, covenant and combine ourselves together, into a civil body politic, for our better order- ing and preservation, and furtherance of the ends aforesaid ; and by virtue hereof, to enact, constitute and frame such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions and offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most convenient for the general good of the colony, unto which sve promise all due submission and obedience." This was the first constitution of New England, democratic in form, And resting upon the consent of the governed. It at once established the new commonwealth upon the basis- of constitutional liberty, and secured to the people "just and equal laws" for the "general good." In virtue of the compact, John Carver was chosen governor of the colony for the ensuing year. The prospect which presented itself to the Pilgrims upon their arrival at Cape Cod might well have daunted even their resolute souls. It was the opening of the winter, and they had come to a barren and rugged coast. The climate was severe, and the land was a wilderness. The English colony in Virginia was five hundred miles distant, and to the north of them the nearest white settlement was the French colony at Port Royal. The " Mayflower " was only chartered to convey them to A.merica, and must return to England as soon as they had chosen a site and established a settlement. Yet no one faltered. The new land was reached, the difficulties and dangers were such as could be overcome by patience and fortitude, and the Pilgrims without hesitation addressed themselves to the task before them. The first thing to be done was to explore the coast and choose a site *>r the colony, for it was important to begin their settlement before the -verity of the winter should render such an effort impossible. The THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 157 shallop was gotten out, but unfortunately it was found to need repairs. The ship's carpenter worked so slowly that nearly three weeks were spent in this task. This dejay was a great misfortune at this advanced season of the year, and, some of the party becoming impatient, it was resolved to go ashore in the ship's boat and explore the country by land. A party of sixteen men was detailed for this purpose, and placed under the com- mand of Captain Miles Standish. William Bradford, Stephen Hopkins and Edward Tilly were included in the party as a council of war. The explorers were given numerous instructions, and were rather permitted than ordered to go upon their journey, which was regarded as perilous, and the time of their absence was limited to two days. Upon reaching the shore they followed it for about a mile, when they discovered several Indians watching them from a distance. The savages fled as soon as they saw they were observed, and the whites followed in pursuit. They struck the trail of the retreating Indians, and followed it until nightfall, but being encumbered by the weight of their armor and impeded by the tangled thickets through which they had to pass, they were unable to overtake the Indians. The explorers bivouacked that night by a clear spring, whose waters refreshed them after their fatiguing march. They made few discoveries, but the expedition was not entirely unprofitable. In one place they found a deer-trap, made by bending a young tree to the earth, with a noose under-ground covered with acorns. Mr. Bradford was caught by the foot in this snare, which occasioned much merriment. An Indian graveyard was discovered in another place, and in one of the graves there was an earthen pot, a mortar, a bow and some arrows, and other rude implements. These were carefully replaced by the whites, who respected the resting-place of the dead. The most important discovery was the finding of a cellar or pit carefully lined with bark, and covered over with a heap of sand, and containing about four bushels of seed corn in ears. As much of this as the men could carry was secured, and it was determined to pay the owners of the corn for it as soon as they could be found. On the third day the explorers returned to the ship, and delivered their corn, which was kept for seed. The shallop being finished at length, a party, consisting of Carver, Bradford, Winslow, Standish and others, with eight or ten seamen, was sent out on a second expedition on the 6th of December. The weather was very cold, and their clothing, drenched with spray, froze as stiff as iron armor. They reached the bottom of Cape Cod bay that day, and landed, instructing the people in the shallop to follow them along the shore. The next day they divided, and searched ths neighborhood. They found a number of Indian graves, and some deserted v/igwams, but 158 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. saw no signs of the inhabitants of the country. That night they en- '.aniped near Namtasket, or Great Meadow Creek. On the morning of the 8th of December, just as they had finished their prayers, the explorers were startled by a war-whoop and a flight of arrows. The Indians, who were of the tribe of the Nausites, were put to flight by the discharge of a-few guns. Some of their people had been kidnapped by the English a years before, and hence they regarded the new-comers as bent on the same errand. The day was spent in searching for a safe harbor for the ship, and at nightfall a violent storm of rain and snow drove them through the breakers into a small cove sheltered from the gale by a hill. They were so wet and chilled that they landed at once, and, regardless of the danger of drawing the savages upon them, built a fire with great diffi- culty, in order to keep from perishing with the cold. When the morn- ing dawned, they found that they were on an island at the entrance to a harbor. The day was spent in rest and pre- parations. The next day, December 10th, was the Sabbath, and notwith- standing the need of prompt action, they spent it in rest and religious exercises. The next lay, December llth, 1620, old style, or December 22d, according to our present system, the exploring party of the Pilgrims landed at the head of the harbor they had discovered. The rock upon which their footsteps were first planted is still preserved by their descendants. The place was explored, and chosen as the site of the settlement, and was named Plymouth, in memory of the last English town from which the Pilgrim* had sailed. LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS. THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 159 The adventurers hastened back to the ship, which stood across the bay, and four days later cast anchor in Plymouth harbor. No time was to be lost; the "Mayflower" must soon return to England, and the emigrants must have some shelter over their heads before her departure. To save time each man was allowed to build his own house. This was a most arduous task. Many of the men were almost broken down by their exposure to the cold, and some had already contracted the fatal diseases which were to carry them to the grave before the close of the winter. Still they persevered, working bravely when the absence of rain and snow would permit them to do so. As the winter deepened, the sickness and mortality of the colony increased. At one time there were but seven well men in the company. More than forty of the settlers died during the winter. John Carver, the good governor of the colony, buried his son, and himself soon succumbed to the hardships from which he had never shrunk, though never able to endure them. He was followed by his heart-broken widow. The wives of Bradford -and Winslow, and Rose Standish, the sweet young bride of " the Captain of Plymouth " were also among the victims. They were all buried on the shore near the rock on which they had landed, and lest their graves should tell the Indians of the sufferings and weakness of the settlement, their resting- place was levelled and sown with grass. "William Bradford was chosen governor in the place of Carver, and the work went on with firmness and without repining. At last the long winter drew to a close, and the balmy spring came to cheer the settlers with its bright skies and warm breezes. The sick began to recover, and the building of the settlement was completed. In course of time a large shod was erected for the public stores, and a small hos- pital for the sick. A church was also built. It was made stronger than the other buildings, as it was to serve as a fortress as w r ell as a place of worship, and four cannon were mounted on top of it for defence against the savages. Here they assembled on the Sabbath for religious worship, and to hear the word of God from the lips of their pastor, the good Elder Brewster. In the spring the ground was prepared for cultivation, but until the harvest was grown the colonists lived by fishing and hunting. In March, 1621, the "Mayflower" sailed for England. Not one of the Pilgrims wished to return in her. They had their trials, and these were sore and heavy, but they had also made a home and a government for themselves, where they could enjoy the benefits and protection of their own laws, and worship God in safety and in peace. They did not floubt that they would some day triumph over their difficulties, and that 160 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. God would in His own good time crown their labors and their patience with success. In the autumn of 1621, a reinforcement of new emigrants arrived. They brought no provisions, and were dependent upon the scanty stock of the colony, and the increased demand upon this soon brought the settlers face to face with the danger of famine. For six months no one received more than half allowance, and this was frequently reduced. " I have seen men," says Winslow, "stagger by reason of faintness for want of food." On one occasion the whole company would have perished but for the kindness of some fishermen, who relieved their wants. This THE FIRST CHURCH IN NEW ENGLAND. scarcity of provisions continued for several years, and it was not until the end of the fourth year of the settlement that the colonists had any- thing like a proper supply of food. In that year neat cattle were intro- duced into Plymouth. None of the colonies were called upon to endure such privations as were suffered by the Pilgrims. Yet they bore them with unshaken fortitude, still trusting that God would give them a pleasanter lot in the end. The conditions of the contract with the English merchants had required the labor of the colonists to be thrown into the common stock. This was found to be an unprofitable arrangement, and in 1623 it was agreed that THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 161 each settler should plant for himself, and each family was assigned a parcel of land in proportion to its numbers, to cultivate, but " not for an inheritance." This arrangement gave great satisfaction and the colonists went to work with such a will that after this season there was no scarcity of food. In the spring of 1624 each colonist was given a little land in fee. The very existence of the colony demanded this departure from the hard bargain with the English merchants, and the result justified the measure. Abundant harvests rewarded the labors of the settlers, and corn soon became so plentiful that the colonists were able to supply the savages with it. These, preferring the chase to the labor of the field, brought in game and skins to Plymouth and received corn in return. In the meantime a friendly intercourse had sprung up between the settlers and the Indians. In the first year of the settlement the red men were seen hovering upon the outskirts of the village, but they fled upon the approach of the whites. Distant columns of smoke, rising beyond the woods, told that the savages were close at hand, and it was deemed best to organize the settlers into a military company, the command of which was given to Miles Standish. One day, in March, 1621, the whole village was startled by the appearance of an Indian, who boldly entered the settlement, and greeted the whites with the friendly words, "Welcome, Englishmen ! Welcome, Englishmen ! " He was kindly received, and it was found that he was Samoset, and had learned a little English of the fishermen at Penobscot. He belonged to the Wampanoags, a tribe occu- pying the country north of Narragansett bay and between the rivers of Providence and Taunton. He told them that they might possess the lands they had taken in peace, as the tribe to which they had belonged had been swept away by a pestilence the year before the arrival of the Pilgrims. He remained one night with the settlers, who gave him a knife, a ring, and a bracelet, and then went back to his people, promising to return soon and bring other Indians to trade with them. In a few days he came back, bringing with him Squanto, the Indian who had been kidnapped by Hunt and sold in Spain. From that country Squanto had escaped to England, where he had learned the language. He had man- aged to return to his own country, and now appeared to act as interpreter to the English in their intercourse with his people. They announced that Massasoit, the sachem of the Wampanoags, desired to visit the colony. The chieftain was received with all the ceremony the little settlement could afford. Squanto acted as interpreter, and a treaty of friendship was arranged between Massasoit on behalf of his people and the English. The parties to the agreement promised to treat each other with kindness and justice, to deliver up offenders, and to assist each other when attacked 11 |(J2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. by their enemies. This treaty was faithfully observed by both partita for fifty years. The Pilgrims expressed their willingness to pay for the baskets of corn that had been taken by their first exploring party, and this they did six months later, when the rightful owners presented them- selves. A trade with the Indians was established, and furs were brought into Plymouth by them and sold for articles of European manufacture. Squanto was the faithful friend of the colony to the end of his life, and was regarded by the Pilgrims as " a special instrument sent of God for their good beyond their expectation." He taught them the Indian method of planting corn and putting fish with it to fertilize the ground, and where to find and how to catch fish and game. He showed them his friendship in many ways, and was during his lifetime the interpreter of the colony. The Pilgrims on their part were not ungrateful to him. On one occasion it was rumored in Plymouth that Squanto had been seized by the Narragansetts, and had been put to death. A party of ten men at once marched into the forest, and surprised the hut where the chief of the Narragansetts was. Although the tribe could bring five thousand warriors into the field, the chief was overawed by the deter- mined action of the English, whose firearms gave them a great superi- ority, and Squanto was released unharmed. On his death-bed Squauto, who had been carefully nursed by his white friends, asked the governor to pray that he might go to " the Englishman's God in heaven." His death was regarded as a serious misfortune to the colony. Massasoit, whose tribe had been greatly reduced by pestilence, desired the alliance of the English as a protection against the Narragansetts, who had escaped the scourge, and whose chief, Canonicus, was hostile to him. The Narragansetts lived upon the shores of the beautiful bay to which they have given their name, and were a powerful and warlike race. Canonicus regarded the English with hostility, and in 1622 sent them as defiance a bundle of arrows wrapped in the skin of a rattlesnake. Governor Bradford received the challenge from the hands cf the chief- tain's messenger, and stuffing the skin with powder and ball returned it :o him, and sternly bade him bear it back to his master. The Indians regarded the mysterious contents of the skin with terror and dread, and passed it from tribe to tribe. None dared either keep or destroy it, as it was regarded as possessed of some mysterious but powerful influence for harm. It was finally returned to the colony, and in a short while Canonicus, who had been cowed by the spirited answer of Bradford, offered to make a treaty of peace and alliance with the colony. The Pilgrims endeavored to treat the Indians with justice. Severe penalties were denounced against those who should deprive the savages THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 163 of their property without paying for it, or should treat them with vio- lence. Yet the colonists were to have trouble with the red men, ami that through no fault of their own. Among the merchants of London who had invested money in the planting of the Plymouth colony was Thomas Weston. Envious of the advance made by the colony in the fur-trade, he desired to secure all the profits of that traffic by establishing a trading-post of his own. He obtained a patent for a small tract on Boston harbor, near Weymouth, and settled there a colony of sixty men, the greater number of whom were indentured servants. These men, disregarding the warnings of the people of Plymouth, gave themselves up to a dissolute life, and drew upon themselves the wrath of the Indians by maltreating them, and stealing their corn. The Indians, unable to distinguish between the guilty and the innocent, resolved to avenge the misconduct of Weston's men by a massacre of every white settler in the country. Before the plot could be put in execution Massasoit fell sick. Wins- low visited him, and found his lodge full of medicine-men and jugglers, who were killing him with the noise they made to drive away the disease. The kind-hearted Englishman turned the Indian doctors out of the lodge, and by giving Massasoit rest, and administering such remedies as his case required, restored him to health. The grateful chief revealed the plot of his people for the extermination of the English. The Plymouth settlers were greatly alarmed, and measures were promptly taken to avert the danger. Standish, with eight armed men, was sent to the assistance of the settlement at Weymouth. They arrived in time to prevent the attack. The Indians, who had begun to collect for the massacre, were surprised and defeated in a brief engagement, and the chief, who was the leader of the conspiracy, was slain, with a number of his men. This gallant exploit established the supremacy of the English in New Eng- land, and many of the native tribes sought their friendship and alliance. The Weymouth men were unwilling to continue their colony after their narrow escape. Some went to Plymouth where they became a source of trouble, and others returned to England. The spring of 1623 saw the last of this settlement. In the autumn of 1623 the best harvest was gathered in that had yet blessed the labors of the Pilgrims. It was an abundant yield, anu put an end to all fears of a renewal of the danger of famine. When the labors of the harvest were over Governor Bradford sent out men to collect game, in order that the people might enjoy r\ thanksgiving feast On the appointed day the people " met together and thanked God with all their hearts for the good world and the good things in it." Thus was 164 HISTORY OF THE UNITED .ST. 17 AX established the custom of an annual thanksgiving to God for the bless- ings of the year, which though at first a celebration peculiar to New England has at length become a national festival. The colonists themselves were satisfied with the progress they had made, but their merchant partners in England were greatly displeased with the smallness of the profits they had received from their invest- ments, and in many ways made the colony feel their dissatisfaction. Robinson and his congregation at Leyden were anxious to join their friends in America, but the merchant partners refused to send them across the Atlantic, and not content; with this endeavored to force upon the Plymouth people a pastor friendly to the Church of England. They soon got rid of this individual, however, whose conduct quickly enabled them to expel him from Plymouth as an evil liver. The merchants also sent a vessel to New England to oppose the colonists in the fur-trade ; and demanded exorbitant prices for the goods they sold the settlers, charging them the enormous profit of seventy per cent. It was not possible, however, to destroy the results of the industry and self-denial of the Pilgrims. Seeing that their association with their English partners would continue to operate merely as a drag upon the advance of the colony, they managed in 1627, at considerable sacrifice, to purchase the entire interest of their partners. The stock and the land of the colony were then divided equitably among the settlers, and the share of each man became his own private property. Each settler was thus made the owner of a piece of land which it was to his interest to improve to the highest degree possible. Freed from the burdens under which it had labored for so long, the colony began to increase in prosperity and in population. The government of the Pilgrims was simple, but effective. They had no charter, and Avere from t!ie first driven upon their own resources. They had a governor who was chosen by the votes of all the settlers. In 1624 a council of five was given him, and in 1633 this number was in- creased to seven. The council assisted the governor in the exercise of his duties, and imposed a check upon his authority, as in its meetings he had merely a double vote. The whole number of male settlers for eighteen years constituted the legislative body. They met at stated times, and enacted such laws as were necessary for the welfare of the colony. The people were frequently convened by the governor, in the earlier years of the settlement, to aid him with their advice upon difficult questions brought before them. When the colony increased in population, and a number of towns were included within its limits, each town sent repre- sentatives to a general court at Plymouth. THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 165 If the colony grew slowly, it gre,w steadily, and at length the Pilgrims had their reward in seeing their little settlement expand into a flourishing province, in which the principles of civil freedom were cherished, religion honored, and industry and economy made the basis of the growing wealth of the little state. They had "been instruments to break the ice for others ;" and " the honor shall be theirs to the world's end." Adversity could not daunt tham, and prosperity had no power to move them from the sure foundation upon which they had anchored their hopes. From the first they had cherished the design of founding a state, which in the A NEW ENGLAND HOMESTEAD. hnnds of their children and their children's children would grow great, and even at this early day they began to see the realization of this hope. "Out of small beginnings," wrote Governor Bradford, the historian of the colony, almost in the spirit of prophecy, "great things have been produced by His hand that made all things out of nothing; and as one small candle will light a thousand, so the light here kindled hath shown, to many, yea, to our whole nation." CHAPTER XI. SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. ^tilement of New Hampshire The English Puritans determine to form a new Colony in America The Plymouth Council A Colony sent out to Salem under Endicott Colonization of Massachusetts Bay begun A Charter obtained Concessions of the King Progress of the Salem Colony The Charter and Government of the Colony removed to New England Arrival of Governor Winthrop Settlement of Boston Sufferings of the Colonists Roger Williams His Opinr .3 give offence to the Authorities The Success of the Bay Colony established Growth of Popular Liberty The Ballot Box Banishment of Roger Williams He goes into the Wilderness Founds Providence Growth of Williams's Colony Continued growth of Massachu- setts Arrival of Sir Henry Vane Is elected Governor Mrs. Anne Hutchimson The Antinomian Controversy Mrs. Hutchinson banished Settlement of Rhode Island Murder of Mrs. Hutchinson. HE success of the Pilgrims in establishing the Plymouth colony aroused a feeling of deep interest in England, and some of those who had watched the eifort were encouraged to attempt ventures of their own. Sir Ferdinand Gorges, who had taken a deep interest in the schemes to settle the new world, and John Mason, the secretary of the council of Plymouth, obtained a patent for the region called Laconia, which comprised the whole country between the sea, the St. Lawrence, the Merrimac and the Kennebec, and now embraced partly in Maine and partly in New Hampshire. A company of English mer- chants was formed, and in 1623 permanent colonies were established at Portsmouth, Dover and one or two other places near the mouth of the Piscataqua. These were small, feeble settlements, and were more trading-posts than towns. For many years their growth wns slow, and it was not until other parts of New England were well peopled and advanced far beyond their early trials that they began to show signs of prosperity. In 1653, thirty years after its settlement, Portsmouth con- tained only " between fifty and sixty families." The settlers of these towns were not all Puritans, and their colonies had not the religious character of those of the rest of New England. In 1641, they were annexed at their own request to the province of Massachusetts, the general e church members. 166 SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 167 In the meantime the news of the successful planting of Plymouth was producing other and more important results in England. The persecu- vions of the Non-conformists, which marked the entire reign of James I., were continued through that of his son and successor, Charles I. The ?uritans, sorely distressed by the tyranny to which they were subjected, listened with eagerness to the accounts of America which were sent over }>y the members of the Plymouth colony, and published from time to time in England. The descriptions of the Pilgrims were not exaggerated. They did not promise either fame or sudden wealth to settlers in their province, but clearly set forth the cares and labors which were to be the price of success in America. They dwelt with especial emphasis, how- ever, upon that which was in their eyes the chief reward of all their toil and suffering the ability to exercise their religion without restraint. Their brethren in England heard their accounts with a longing to be vith them to enjoy the freedom with which they were blessed, and it was not long before a number of English Non-conformists began to concert measures for making New Eng- land a place of refuge for the persecuted members of their faith. The leading spirit in these enter- prises was the Rev. Mr. White, a minister of Dorsetshire, a Puritan, but not a Separatist. Regarding the vicinity of the present town of Salem as the most suitable place for colonization, he exerted himself with energy to secure it for his brethren. In the meantime the Plymouth Company had ceased to exist, and its place had been taken by the council of Plymouth. That body cared for New England only as a source of profit, and sold the territory of that region to a number of purchasers, assigning the same district to different people, and thus paving the way for vexatious litigation. In 1628, it sold to a company of gentlemen of Dorchester, which White's energy had succeeded in bringing into existence, a district extending from three miles south of Massachusetts bay to three miles north of the Merrimac river. As was usual in all grants of the day, the Pacific was made the western boundary of this region. This company at once prepared to send out a colony, and in the early summer of that year one hundred persons under John Endicott, as governor, were despatched to New England. Endi- cott took his family with him, and in September, 1628, reached New England, and established the settlement of Salem, the site of which was? already occupied by a few men whom White had placed there to hold it COAT OF ARMS OF MASSACHUSETTS. 168 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Endieott, who was a man of undaunted courage and acknowledged integrity of character, soon established his authority over the few settle- ments that had sprung up along the shores of the bay. At this time the site of Charlestown was occupied by an Englishman named Thomas Walford, a blacksmith, who had fortified his cabin with a palisade. The :>nly dweller on the trimountain peninsula of Shawmut was the Rev. William Blackstone, a clergyman of the Church of England ; the island now known as East Boston was occupied by Samuel Maverick. At Nantasket and a few places farther south some Englishmen had located themselves, and lived by fishing and trading inskius; and on the site A PRIMITIVE NEW ENGLAND VILLAGE. of Qnincy was the wreck of a colony which had nearly perished in con- sequence of its evil ways. These, with the settlement at Saiem, consti- tuted the colony of Massachusetts Bay. Soon after the departure of Enditt's colony from England, the company, acting upon the advice of their counsel, obtained from the king a confirmation of their grant. In March, 1629, the king granted to the colony of Massachusetts Bay a charter under which it conducted its affairs for more than fifty years. By the terms of this charter the governor was to be elected by the freemen for the term of one year, pro- vision was made for the assembling at stated times of a general court, which was to have the power to make all the needed laws for the colony, nd it was not necessary that these laws should receive t ? ie royal SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODK ISLAND. 169 signature in order to be valid. This was conceding practical inde- pendence to the colony. In the spring of 1629, a second company of emigrants sailed from England for Massachusetts. They were, like the first, all Puritans, and took with them, as their minister, the Rev. Francis Higginson, formerly of Jesus College, Cambridge, a man of learning and deep piety. The colonists were instructed to do no violence to the Indians. " If any of the salvages," so read the company's orders, " pretend right of inheritance to all or any part of the lands granted in our patent, endeavor to pur- chase their tytle, that we may avoid the least scruple of intrusion." Six shipwrights were sent over for the use of the colony, an experienced engineer to lay out a fortified town, and a master gunner, who was to teach the men of the colony the use of arms and military exercises. Cattle and horses and goats were sent out also. The voyage was prosperous, and the new settlers reached Salem about the last of June. They found the settlement in a feeble condition, and greatly in need of their assistance. The old and the new colonists num- bered about three hundred. The majority of these remained at Salem, and the rest were sent by Endicott to establish a colony at Charlestown, in order to secure that place from occupation by the partisans of Sir Ferdinand Gorges, who claimed the region. The emigrants were scrupulous to acquire from the Indians the right to the lands they oc- cupied. The 12lh of July was observed as a day of fasting and prayer " for the choice of a pastor and teacher at Salem." No one advanced any claim founded on his ordination in England ; personal fitness was the only qualification recognized by the Puritans. Samuel Skelton was chosen pastor, and Francis Higginson teacher. Three or four of the gravest members of the church laid their hands upon the heads of these men, with prayer, and solemnly appointed them to their respective offices. " Thus the church, like that of Plymouth, was self-constituted, on the principle of the independence of each religious community. It did not ask the assent of the king, or recognize him as its head ; its officers were set apart and ordained among themselves; it used no liturgy ; it rejected unnecessary ceremonies, and reduced the simplicity of Calvin to a still plainer standard. The motives which controlled its decisions were so deeply seated that its practices were repeated spon- taneously by Puritan New England." An opposition to the organization of the church was attempted by a party led by John and Samuel Browne, men of ability ; but this was treated as a mutiny and put down, and the Brownes were sent back to England. The charter of Massachusetts, though it made liberal concessions to the 17 () HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. colony, contained no provision for the rights of the people, who were left at the mercy of the company. For the proper government of the colony, it was necessary to remove the charter to Massachusetts, and such a re- moval was advisable on another ground. The charter contained no guarantee for the religious freedom of the colony, and the king might at any moment seek to interfere with this, the most precious right of the Puritans. The only way to escape the evils which the company had reason to dread was for the governing council to change its place, of meeting from England to Massachusetts, which the charter gave it authority to do. Oa the 26th of August, 1629, John Winthrop, Isaac Johnson, Thomas Dudley, Richard Saltonstall and eight others, men of fortune and education, met at Cambridge and bound themselves by a solemn agreement to settle in New England if the whole government of the colony, together with the patent, should be legally transferred to that region before the end of September. On the 29th of the month, the court took the decisive step and ordered that "the government and patent should be settled in New England." This was a bold step, but its legality was not contested by any one, and it made the government of the colony independent of control by any power in England. The officers of the colony were to be a governor and eighteen assist- ants. On the 20th of October, a meeting of the court was held to choose them, and John Winthrop was elected governor for one year. It was a fortunate selection, for Winthrop proved himself for many years the very mainstay of the colony, sustaining his companions by his calm courage, and setting them a noble example in his patience, his quiet heroism and his devotion to the welfare of others. He seemed to find his greatest pleasure in doing good, and his liberality acted as a check upon the bigotry of his associates and kept them in paths of greater moderation. Efforts were made to send over new settlers to Massachusetts, and about a thousand emigrants, with cattle, horses and goats, were trans- ported thither in the season of 1630. Early in April, Governor Win- throp and about seven hundred emigrants sailed from England in a fleet of eleven ships. Many of them were " men of high endowments and large fortune; scholars, well versed in the learning of the times; clergy- men who ranked among the best educated and most pious in the realm.^ They reached Salem on the 12th of June, after a voyage of sixty-one days, and were gladly welcomed by the settlers, whom they found in great distress from sickness and a scarcity of provisions. .About eighty had died during the winter, and many were sick. There was scarcely a fortnight's supply of food in the settlement, and it was necessary SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 171 to send one of the ships back to England at once for a supply of provisions. Salem did not please the new-comers, and settlements were made at Lynn, Charlestown, Newtown, Dorchester, Roxbury, Maiden, and Water- town. The governor and a large part of the emigrants settled first at Charlestown, but at length, in order to obtain better water, crossed over and occupied the little tri-mountain peninsula of Shawmut. To this settlement was given the name of Boston, in honor of the town in Lin- colnshire in England, which had been the home of the Rev. John Wilson, who became the pastor of the first church of Boston. The location was central to the whole province, and Boston became the seat of government. When the year for which the first colonial officers had been chosen ex- pired a new election was held, and Governor Winthrop and all the old officials were reflected. The colonists now began to feel the effects of their new life. The change of climate was very trying to them, and many of them fell victims to its rigors, and to the hardships of their position. A large number of them had been brought up in ease and refinement, and were unaccustomed to privation or exposure. They sank beneath the severe trials to which they were subjected. By December, 1630, at least two hundred had died. Among these were the Lady Arbella, Johnson and her husband, among the most liberal and devoted supporters of the colony, and a son of Governor Winthrop, who left a widow and children in England. Others became disheartened, and more than a hundred re- turned to England, where they endeavored to excuse their desertion of their companions by grossly exaggerated accounts of the hardships of the colony. Yet among the colonists themselves there was no repining. They exhibited in their deep distress a fortitude and heroism worthy of their lofty character. " Honor is due," says Bancroft, " not less to those who perished than to those who survived ; to the martyrs the hour of death was the hour of triumph; such as is never witnessed in moie tranquil seasons Even children caught the spirit of the place ; awaited the impending change in the tranquil confidence of faith, and went to the grave full of immortality. The survivors bore all things meekly, 'remembering the end of their coming hither.'" Winthrop wrote to his wife, who had been detained in England by sickness : " We enjoy here God and Jesus Christ, and is not this enough? I thank God I like so well to be here, as I do not repent my coming. I would not have altered my course though I had foreseen all these afflictions. I never had more content of mind." Another danger which threatened the colony arose from the scarcity of 172 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. provisions, but this was removed on the 5th of February, 1631, by the timely arrival of the "Lyon" from England, laden with provisions. This relief was greeted with public thanksgivings in all the settlements. The " Lyon," however, brought only twenty passengers, and in 1631 only ninety persons came out from England. The number of arrivals in 1632 was only two hundred and fifty. Thus the colony grew very slowly. By the close of the latter year the total population of Massachusetts was only a little over one thousand souls. Among the passengers of the "Lyon" was a young minister, described in the old records as " lovely in his carriage, godly and zealous, having precious gifts," Roger Williams by name. He had been a favorite pupil of the great Sir Edward Coke, and had learned from him precious lessons of liberty and toleration. He had been carefully educated at Pembroke College, in the University of Cambridge, and had entered the ministry. His opposition to the laws requiring conformity to the established church had drawn upon him the wrath of Archbishop Laud, and he had been driven out of England. The great doc- trine which he had embraced as the result of his studies and experience was the freedom of conscience from secular control. "The civil magistrate should restrain crime, but never control opinion ; should punish guilt, but never violate inward freedom." He would place all forms of religion upon an equality, and would BOGEE WILLIAMS. refuse to the government the power to compel conformity to, or attendance upon, any of them leaving such matters to the conscience of the individual. He also favored the abolition of tithes, and the enforced contribution to the support of the church. Such views were far in advance of the age, and when Wil- liams landed in Boston, he found himself unable to join the church in that place because of its adoption of principles the opposite of his own. Upon his arrival the church had intended engaging him to fill Mr. Wil- son's place, while that minister returned to England to bring over his wife, but upon learning his views the idea was abandoned. A little later the church in Salem, which had been deprived of its teacher by the death of the Rev. Francis Higginson, called Williams to be his successor. Williams accepted the call ; but Governor Winthrop and the assistants warned the people of Salem to beware how they placed in so important a position a man already at such variance with the established order of things. The warning had the desired effect upon the people of Salem, SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE JSLAXD. 173 who withdrew their invitation. Williams then went to Plymouth, where he lived for two years in peace. But though unwilling to accord to Williams the liberty he desired, the colonial government was careful to take every precaution against the anticipated efforts of the Church of England to extend its authority over- Massachusetts. A general court held in May, 1631, ordered an oath of fidelity to be tendered to the freemen of the colony, which bound them " to be obedient and conformable to the laws and constitutions of this commonwealth, to advance its peace, and not to suffer any attempt at making any change or alteration of the government contrary to its laws. ' The same general court took a still more decided stand by the adoption of a law, which limited the citizenship of the colony to "such as are members of some of the churches within the limits of the same." This was practically making the state a theocracy. Yet the people were not prepared to surrender their political rights, even when alarmed by the danger which seemed to threaten their religious establishment. Until now the assistants could hold office for life, and they also possessed the power of electing the governor. They were thus independent of the people. The right of the freemen to choose their magistrates was now distinctly asserted, 'and in May, 1632, was conceded. The governor and assistants were to be elected annually, and by the votes of the freemen ; none but church-members being entitled to the privileges of freemen. Another important change was brought about at the same time by the hostility of the people to levying of taxes by the board of assistants. Each town was ordered to send two of its best men to represent it at a general court " to concert a plan for a public treasury." This was the foundation of representative government in Massachusetts. The colonists had faithfully obeyed their instructions to treat the Indians with fairness, and to seek to cultivate their friendship. Many of the native tribes sought their alliance, and the sachem of the Mohegans came from the banks of the Connecticut to make a treaty with the colony, and to urge the English to settle in his country, which he described as exceedingly fertile and inviting. In the autumn of 1632 a pleasant in- tercourse was opened with the Plymouth colony ; and in the same year a trade in corn was begun with Virginia, and commercial relations were established with the Dutch, who had settled along the Hudson river. The colony of Massachusetts Bay was slowly emerging from its early trials, and entering upon a more prosperous period. Emigrants now began to come over in greater numbers, and among them were John Haynes, " the acute and subtile Cotton," and Thomas 174 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Hooker, who has been called the " Light of the Western Churches." The freemen by the middle of the year 1634 numbered between three and four hundred, and these were bent upon establishing their political |>ower in the state. Great advances were made in the direction of repre- sentative government, and the ballot-box was introduced in elections which had been formerly conducted by an erection of hands. As a guard against arbitrary taxation by magistrates it was enacted that none but the properly chosen representatives of the people might dispose of lands, or raise money. In the spring of 1635 the people went a step further, and demanded a written constitution for the purpose of still more per- fectly securing their liberties. This demand opened a controversy which continued for ten years. The general court was composed of assistants and deputies. The first were elected by the people of the whole colony ; the latter by the towns. The two bodies acted together in meetings of the assembly, but the assistants claimed the exclusive privilege of meet- ing and exercising a separate negative upon the proceedings of the court. This claim was energetically denied by the deputies, who were sustained by the body of the people; while the magistrates and the ministers up- held the pretensions of the assistants. In 1644 the matter was compro- mised by the division of the general court into two branches, each of which was given a negative upon the proceedings of the other. All parties were agreed, however, in the work of connecting the religion and the government of the colony so closely that they should mutually sustain each other against the attacks of the Church of England. While these measures were in course of adjustment other matters were engaging the attention of the colony. After Roger Williams had been a little more than two years in Plymouth, he was called again to Salem, and accepted the invitation. This gave offence to many persons, and in January, 1634, complaints were made against Williams because of a paper he had written while at Plymouth, denying that the king had any power to grant lands in America to his subjects, since the lands were the property of the Indians. In this Williams was wrong, as the settlers in New England had been careful to obtain the consent of the natives to their occupation of the lands they had possessed. He made a proper explanation of his paper, when he understood the true state of the case, and consented that it should be burned. Still the jealousy and dislike of the Puritans was aroused by the radical opposition of Williams to their system, although he conducted himself with a forbearance and amiableness that should have won him the love of those with whom he was thrown. Williams strongly condemned the law enforcing the attendance of the people upon religious services, de- SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 175 claring that a man had a right to stay away if he wished to do so. He also censured the practice of selecting the colonial officials exclusively from the members of the church, and said that a physician or a pilot might with equal propriety be chosen because of his piety, his skill in theology, or his standing in the church. These and other similar views were drawn from him in a series of controversies, held with him by a committee of ministers, for the purpose of inducing him to retract his radical sentiments. He remained firm in them, however, and his oppo- nents declared that his principles were calculated not only to destroy religion, but also to subvert all forms of civil government. It was resolved to banish him from the colony, and as the people of Salem warmly supported Williams, they were admonished by the court, and a tract of land, which was rightfully theirs, was withheld from them as a punishment. Williams and the church at Salem appealed to the people against the injustice of the magistrates, and asked the other churches of the colony to "admonish the magistrates of their injustice." This was regarded as treason by the colonial government, and at the next gen- eral court Salem was disfranchised until the town should make ample apology for its offence. Williams was summoned before the genera) court in October, 1635, and main- tained his opinions with firmness, though with moderation. He was sentenced to banishment from the colony, not, as it was declared, because of his religious views, but because the magistrates averred his principles, if carried out, would destroy all civil government. The season was so far advanced that it would have been barbarous to drive any one out of the colony at that time, and Williams obtained leave to remain in the province until the spring, when he intended form- ing a settlement on Narragansett bay. The affection of his people at Salem, which had seemed to grow cold when the town began to feel the weight of the punishment inflicted by the general court, now revived, and they thronged to his house in great numbers to hear him, and his opinions spread rapidly. The magistrates were alarmed; and it was resolved to send him at once to England in a ship that was just about to sail from Boston. He was ordered to come to Boston and embark there, but refused to obey the summons. A boat's crew was then sent to arrest him and bring him to Boston by force; but when the officers reached Salem he had disappeared. COAT OF ARMS OF RHODE ISLAND. 176 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Three days before their arrival Roger Williams had left Salem, a wan- derer for conscience sake. It wi* the depth of winter, the snow lay thickly over the country, and tho weat' er was cold and inclement. . For fourteen weeks, he says, he "-was sorely tost in ^ bitter season, not know- ing what bread or bed did mean." Banished from the settlements of his ,own race the exile went out into the wilderness, am 1 sought the country of the Indians, whose friendship he had won during his stay in the colony. He had acquired their language during his residence at Ply- mouth, and could speak it fluently. He went from lodge to lodge, kindly LANDING OP ROGER WILLIAMS AT PROVIDENCE. welcomed by the savages, and lodging sometimes in a hollow tree, until he reached Mount Hope, the residence of Massasoit, who was his friend. Cauonicus, the great chieftain of the Narragansetts, loved him with a strong affection, which ceased only with his life ; and in the country of these friendly chiefs Williams passed the winter in peace and safety. He never ceased to be grateful for their aid in his distress, and during his whole life he was the especial friend and champion of the Indians in New England. It was the intention of Williams to settle at Seekonk, on the Paw- tucket river ; but that place was found to be within the limits of the Plymouth colony. Governor Winslow wrote to Williams advising him to remove to the region of Narragansett bay, which was beyond the juris- diction of the English, and would render any v rn ; sundertan ling between SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 177 the Plymouth and Bay colonies on his account impossible. "I took his prudent motion/' says Williams, "as a voice from God." Being joined by five companions, Williams embarked in a canoe in June, 1635, and passing <>y^' to the west arm of Narragansett bay, landed at an attractive spot, where he found a spring of pure water. He chose the place as the site of a new settlement, and in gratitude for his deliverance from the many dangers through which he had passed, named it PROVIDENCE. He sought to purchase enough land for a settlement, but Canonicus refused to sell the land, and gave it to his friend " to enjoy forever." This grant was made to Williams alone, and constituted him absolute owner of the lands included in it. He might have sold them to settlers on terms advantageous to himself; but he declined to do so. In the next two years he was joined by a number of his old followers from Massa- chusetts, and by others who fled to his asylum. He gave a share of land to all who came to settle, and admitted them to an equality with himself in the political administration of the colony. The government was administered by the whole people. The voice of the majority decided all public measures; but in matters of conscience every man was left answer- able to God alone. All forms of religious belief were tolerated and protected. Even infidelity was safe here from punishment by the civil or ecclesiastical power. Williams was anxious to establish friendly rela- tions with the Massachusetts colony; for though he felt keenly tne injustice of his persecutors, he cherished no bitterness or resentment towards them. He condemned only what he considered the delusions of the magistrates of Massachusetts, but ever attacked his persecutors. "I did ever from my soul," he wrote witi. simple magnanimity, " honor and love them, even when their judgme it led them to afflict me." Winslow, touched with his true Christian forbearance, came from Plymouth to visit him, and left with his wife some money for their support ; and some of the leaders of the Bay colony began to bear tardy witness to his virtues. The settlement at Providence continu xl to grow slowly, and was blessed with peace and an increasing prosperity. Massachusetts in the meantime continued to receive numerous addi- tions to her population by emigration from England. In the autumn of 1635, twelve families left Boston, and journeying into the interior, founded the town of Concord. They had a hard struggle to establish their little settlement, but persevered, and at length their labors were crowned with success. Three thousand people came over to Massachu- setts this year. Among them were Hugh Peters, a man of great eloquence and ability and a devoted republican, who had been pastor to a church of exiles at Rotterdam, and Henry Vane the younger, "a man of the 12 j 7 g HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. purest mind ; a statesman of spotless integrity ; whose name the progress of intelligence and liberty will erase from the rubric of fanatics and traitors, and insert high among the aspirants after truth and the martyrs for liberty." * In the following spring (1636) Vane was elected governor of the colony. The people were dazzled by his high birth and pleasing qual- ities, and committed an error in choosing him, for neither his age nor his experience fitted him for the distinguished position conferred upon him. The arrival of Vane seemed to promise an emigration of a number of the English nobility, and an effort was made by several of them in England to procure the division of the general court into two branches, and the establishment of an hereditary nobility in the colony which should possess a right to seats in the upper branch of the court. The magis- trates of the colony were anxious to conciliate these valuable friends, but they firmly refused to establish hereditary nobility in their new state. Religious discussions formed a large part of the life of the colony. Meetings were held by the men, and passages of Scripture were discussed, and the sermons of the ministers made the subject of searching criticism. The women might attend these meetings, but were not allowed to take part in the discussions. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, a woman of talent and eloouence, claimed for her sex the right to participate equally with the men in these meetings ; but as this was not possible, she began to hold meetings for the benefit of the women at her own house. At these religious doctrines were discussed and advocated which were at variance with the principles of the magistrates. Mrs. Hutchinson and her followers held that the authority of private judgment was superior to that of the church, and condemned the efforts of the colony to enforce conformity to the established system as violative of the inherent rights of Christians. She was encouraged by John Wheelwright, a silenced minister, who had married her sister, and by Governor Vane, and her opinions were adopted by a large number of the people, and by members of the general court and some of the magistrates. The ministers saw their authority menaced by the new belief, and made common cause against Mrs. Hutchinson and her protector, Governor Vane. The colony was divided into two parties, and the religious ques- tion became a matter of great political importance. Under the established system Jie ministers formed almost a distinct estate of the government, and political privileges were entirely dependent upon theological con- formity. The success of Mrs. Hutchinson's views would revolutionize the government and destroy the power of the church to control secular * Bancroft. SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 179 affairs. Such a change was not yet to be attempted. Governor Vane was too far in advance of the age, and Mrs. Hutchinson was denounced as " weakening the hands and hearts of the people towards the ministers," and as being as bad " as Roger Williams, or worse." Some went so far as to hint that she was a witch. Feeling sure that they would not receive justice at the hands of their opponents, the friends of Mrs. Hutchinson declared their intention to appeal to the king. This aroused a storm of indignation in the colony, and " it was accounted perjury and treason to speak of appeals to the king." This threat changed the whole character of the question, and was fatal to the party which made it. The .Puritans had conic to Massachusetts to escape the interference of the crown with their religious belief, and to appeal to the king in this case would be simply to place the liberties of the colony at his mercy. When the elections were held, in the spring of 1637, Governor Winthrop and the old magistrates were chosen by a large majority. Vane soon after returned to England. The church party being now in power resolved to silence Mrs. Hutch- inson. She was admonished to cease her teachings, and upon her refusal to obey this order, she and her followers were exiled from the colony. Wheelwright and a number of his friends went to New Hampshire, and founded the town of Exeter, at the head of tide-water on the Piscataqua. Mrs. Hutchinson and the majority of her followers removed, in the spring of 1638, to the southward, intending to settle on Long Island or on the Delaware. Roger Williams induced them to remain near his plantation, and obtained for them from Miantonomoh, the chief of the Xarragansett tribe, the gift of the beautiful island in the lower part of Xarragansett bay, which they called the island of Rhodes, or Rhode Island. The number of settlers was scarcely more than twenty, but they proceeded to form a government upon a plan agreeable to the principles they professed. It was a pure democracy, founded upon the universal consent of the people, who signed a social compact pledging themselves to obey the laws made by the majority, and to respect the rights of con^ science. William Coddington, who had been a magistrate in the Bay colony, was elected judge or ruler, and three elders were chosen as his assistants. The settlement grew rapidly, and by 1641 the population had become so numerous as to require a written constitution. Mrs. Hutchinson remained in Rhode Island for several years; but fearing that the hostility of the magistrates of Massachusetts would reach her even there, removed beyond New Haven into the territory of the Dutch, where, in 1643, she and all her family who were with her, except one child, who was taken prisoner, were murdered by the Indians. CHAPTER XII. COLONIZATION OF CONNECTICUT. The Dutch Claim the Connecticut Valley They build a Fort at Hartford Governor Winslow makes a Lodgment in Connecticut for the English Withdrawal of the Dutch The First Efforts of the English to Settle Connecticut Emigration of Hooker and his Congregation They Settle at Hartford Winthrop builds a Fort at Saybrooke Hos- tility of the Indians Visit of Roger Williams to Miantonomoh A Brave Deed The Pequod War Capture of the Indian Fort Destruction of the Pequod Tribe Effect of this War upon the other Tribes Connecticut Adopts a Constitution Its Peculiar Features Settlement of New Haven. HE fertile region of' the Connecticut had attracted the attention of the English at an early day ; but before they could make any effort to occupy it the Dutch sent an exploring party from Man- hattan island, in 1614, and examined the river and the country through which it flowed. They built and fortified a trading- post on the site of the present city of Hartford, but soon excited the ill- will of the Indians by their cruel treatment of them. The Dutch found themselves unable to occupy the country, and being unwilling to lose it, endeavored, but without success, to induce the Pilgrims to remove from Plymouth to the Connecticut, and settle in that region tinder their pro- tection. In 1630, the council of Plymouth granted the Connecticut region to the Earl of Warwick, who, in 1631, assigned his claim to Lords Say and Brooke, John Hampdeu, and others. As soon as this grant was known to the Dutch they sent a party to the site of Hartford and re-established their trading-post, and began a profitable trade with the Indians. They mounted two cannon on their fort for the purpose of preventing the English from ascending the river. Towards the latter part of the year 1633, Governor Winslow, of Plymouth, in order to secure a foothold for the English in this valuable region, sent Captain William Holmes to the Connecticut with a sloop and a number of men to make a settlement. Upon ascending the river to the site of Hartford, Holmes found his progress barred by the Dutch fort, the commander of which threatened to fire upon him if he attempted to continue his voyage. Undaunted by this threat, Holmes passed .by the fort without harm, and ascended the aao COLONIZATION OF CONNECTICUT. 181 stream to Windsor, where he erected a fortified post. In 1634, the Dutch made an unsuccessful attempt to drive him away. Failing in this, and seeing that it was the deliberate purpose of the English to occupy the Connecticut valley, the Dutch relinquished all claim to that . region, and a boundary line was arranged between their possessions and those of the English, corresponding very nearly to that between the States of Connecticut and New York. In 1635, the Pilgrims determined to make settlements in this inviting region, and late in the fall of that year a company of sixty persons, men, women, and children, set out from Plymouth by land, sending a sloop laden with provisions and their household goods around by sea, with orders to join them upon the Connecticut river. They began their journey too late in the season, and their sufferings were very great in consequence. Upon reaching the river they found the ground covered with snow, and their sloop was delayed by storms and ice. Their cattle died from cold and exposure, and but for a little corn which they obtained from the Indians, and such acorns as they could gather, the whole company must have starved to death. Many of them abandoned their new home and returned by land to the settlements on the coast. _.. _. . , COAT OF ABM8 OF CONNECTICUT. Ihe Puritans were resolved to continue the effort to settle Connecticut, and in the spring of 1636 several companies emigrated to that region. The principal party set out in June, led by the Rev. Thomas Hooker. It comprised about one hun- dred persons, and consisted principally of Hooker's congregation, who followed their pastor with enthusiasm. They drove before them a considerable number of cattle, which furnished them with milk on the march. The emigrants were largely made up of persons of refinement and culture, and comprised many of the oldest and most valued citizens of the Bay colony. They were attracted to the valley of the Connecticut by the superior advantages which it offered for the prosecution of the fur trade, and by the great fertility of its soil. They had no guide but a compass, and their route lay through an unbroken wilderness. The journey was long and fatiguing. The emigrants accomplished scarcely more than ten miles a day, carrying their sick on litters, and making the forests ring with their holy hymns. At length the site of Hartford, where it was proposed to establish the settlement, was reached by the 1st of July. The greater number remained there ; some went higher up the HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. river and founded Springfield, and the rest went to Wethersfield, where there was already a small settlement. In the same year the younger John Winthrop arrived from England, with orders from Lords Say and Brooke to establish a fort at the mouth of the Connecticut river. This he accomplished, naming the new settle- ment Saybrooke in honor of the proprietors. The settlements in Connect- icut grew rapidly, the excellent soil and pleasant climate attracting many emigrants to them. The existence of these settlements was precarious, however. The region in which they had been planted was the country of the Pequods, who inhabited it in large numbers. They were the most powerful and warlike tribe in New England, and could bring nearly two thousand warriors into the field. They occupied the southeastern part of Connect- icut, and their territory extended almost to the Hudson on the west, where it joined that of the Mohegans. On the east their territory bordered that of the Narragansetts. Both of these tribes were the enemies of the Pequods and the friends of the English. This friendship was resented by the Pequods, who were already jealous of the English because of their occupation of the lands along the Connecticut. The tribe bore a bad name, and had already manifested their hostility by murdering, a few years before, a Virginia trader named Stone, together with the crew of his vessel, who were engaged in a trading expedition on the Connecticut river. Somewhat later Captain Oklham and his crew, while exploring the river, were also murdered by Indians living on Block island. The Pequods justified the murder of Stone by alleging that he had attacked them. Wishing to make a treaty with the English, they sent their chiefs to Boston for that purpose, and promised as the magis- trates understood them to deliver up the two men who had killed Stone. Captain John Endicott was sent with a vessel, in 1636, to punish the Block Island Indians for the murder of Oldham, and was ordered to call on his return at the Pequod town, and demand the surrender of the murderers of Stone. The Pequods declined to surrender these men, but offered to ransom them. This was in accordance with their customs. But Endicott refused to accept any compensation for the crime that had been committed, and to punish the Indians destroyed their corn and burned two of their villages. This made open hostilities inevitable. The Pequods began to hang around the Connecticut settlements and cut otf stragglers from them. By the close of the winter more than thirty persons had fallen victims to their vengeance. The settlements in the Connecticut valley were now greatly alarmed. They could not muster over two hundred fighting men, and the Indians COLONIZATION OF CONNECTICUT. 183 in their immediate vicinity could bring into the field at least seven hun- dred warriors. War was certain, and it was not known at what moment the savages would attack the settlements in. overwhelming force. Con- necticut called upon Massachusetts for aid, but only twenty men, under Captain Underbill, were sent to their aid. The energies and attention of the Bay colony were engrossed by the Hutchinson quarrel. The Pequods, notwithstanding their immense numerical superiority, were unwilling to make war upon the English without the support of another tribe. They accordingly sent envoys to Miantonomoh, the chief of the Narragansetts, to endeavor to engage that tribe in the effort against the whites. Such a union would have menaced all New England, and as soon as the news of the negotiation reached Boston the government of the Bay colony prepared to prevent the alliance. Governor Vane at once wrote to Roger Williams, the friend of Miantonomoh, urging him to seek that chieftain and prevent him from joining the Pequods. It was a dangerous mission, and certainly a great service for the magistrates of Massachusetts to ask of the man whom they had driven into exile. They did not ask in vain, however. All of Williams' generous nature was aroused by the danger which threatened his brethren, and he embarked in a frail canoe, and braving the danger of a severe gale, sought the quarters of Miantoaomoh. He found the Pequod chiefs already there, and the Narragansetts wavering. Knowing the errand on which he had come, the hostile chieftains were ready at any moment to despatch him, and had Miantonomoh shown the least favor to the project, Williams would have paid for his boldness with his life. He spent three days and nights in the company of the savages, and succeeded in inducing Miantonomoh not only to refuse to join the war against the English, but to promise the colonists his assistance against the Pequods. In the meantime he sent a messenger to Boston to inform the governor of the designs of the Indians. The Pequods, left to continue the struggle alone, flattered themselves that their superiority in numbers would give them the victory, and con- tinued their aggressions upon the Connecticut settlements to such an extent that in May, 1G37, the general court of that province resolved to begin the war at once. A force of eighty men, including those sent from Massachusetts, was assembled at Hartford, and the command was conferred by Hooker upon Captain John Mason. The night previous to their departure was spent in prayer, and on the 20th of May the little force embarked in boats and descended the river to the sound, and passed around to Narragansett bay, intending to approach the Pequod town from that quarter. As the boats sailed by the mouth of the 134 HISTORY OF THE V SITED STATES. Thames, the savages supposed the English were abandoning the Con- necticut valley. The day after the arrival of the English in Narragansett bay was the Sabbath, and was scrupulously observed. On the following day they repaired to the quarters of Canonicus, the old chief and principal ruler )f the Narragansett tribe, and asked his assistance against the Pequods. Miantonomoh, the nephew and prospective successor of Canonicus, hesi- tated to join in the doubtful enterprise, but two hundred warriors agreed to accompany the English, who could not, however, count upon th<- fidelity of these reinforcements. Seventy Mohegans, under Uncas, their chief, also joined Mason. With this force the English commander marched across the country toward the Pequod towns on the Thames, and halted on the night of the 25th of May, within hearing of them. In the meantime the Pequods, convinced that the English had fled from the Connecticut region, and never dreading an attack in their fort, winch they considered infpregnable, had given themselves up to rejoicing. The night, passed by the English in waiting the signal for the attack, was spent by the Pequods in revelry and songs, which could be plainly heard in the English camp. Two hours before dawn, on the morning Df the 26th of May, the order was given to the little band under Mason to advance. They knew they would have to decide the battle by their own efforts, and were by no means certain that their Indian allies would not turn against them. The Pequods were posted in two strong forts made of palisades driven into the ground and strengthened with rush- work, an excellent defence against a foe of their own race, but worthless when assailed by Europeans. The principal fort stood on the summit of a considerable hill, and was regarded by Sassacus, the Pequod chief, as impregnable. The tramp of the advancing force aroused a dog, whose fierce bark awoke the Indian sentinel. The keen eye of the savage detected the enemy in the gloom of the morning, and he rushed into the fort, shouting, " The English ! the English ! " The next moment the English were through the palisades. On all sides they beheld the Indians pouring out of their lodges to take part in the hand-to-hand fight. The odds were too great. " We must burn them," cried Mason, and, suiting the action to the word, he applied a torch to a wigwam con- structed of dry reeds. The flames sprang up instantly and spread with the rapidity of lightning. The Indians vainly endeavored to extinguish the fire, and the English, withdrawing to a greater distance, began to pick off the savages, who were doubly exposed by the light of the blazing fort. Wherever a Pequod appeared, he was shot down. The Narragan- setts and Mohegans now joined in the conflict, and the victory was COLONIZATION OF 185 complete. More than six hundred Pequods, men, women and children, perished, the majority of them in the flames. The English lost only two and the battle was over in an hour. men As the sun rose, a body of three hundred Pequod warriors were seen advancing from their second fort. They came expecting to rejoice with their comrades in the destruction of the English. When they beheld ilis ruined fort and the remains of its defenders, they screamed, stamped on the ground and tore their hair with rage and despair. Mason held YALE COLLEGE. them in check with twenty men, while the rest of the English embarked in their boats, Avhich had come round from Narragansett bay, and hastened home to protect the settlements against a sudden attack. Mason, with the party mentioned, marched across the country to the fort at Saybrooke, where he was received with the honors due to his success- ful exploit. In a few days a body of one hundred men arrived from Massachusetts, under Captain Stoughton, and the campaign against the Fcquods was HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. resumed. Their pride was crushed, and they made but a feeble re*..x- ance. They fled to the west, closely pursued by the English, who destroyed their corn-fields, burned their villages and put their women and children to death without mercy. They made a last desperate effort at resistance in the fastnesses of a swamp, but were defeated with great slaughter. Sassacus, their chief, with a few of his men took refuge with the Mohawks, where he was soon after put to death by one of his own people. The remainder of the tribe, about two hundred in number, surrendered to the English, and were reduced to slavery. Some were given to their enemies, the Narragansetts and Mohegans ; others were sent to the West Indies and sold as slaves. The Pequod nation was utterly destroyed. The thoroughness and remorselcssness of the work struck terror to the neighboring tribes. If the Pequods, the most powerful of all their race, had been exterminated by a mere handful of Englishmen, what could they expect in a contest with them but a similar fate? For forty years the horror of this fearful deed remained fresh in the savage mind, and protected the young settlements more effectually than the most vi^ilar.t watchfulness on the part of the whites could have done. Relieved from the fear of the Indians, the people of Connecticut pre- pared to establish a civil government for the colony, and in January, 1639, a constitution was adopted. It was more liberal, and therefore more lasting, than that framed by any of the other colonies. It pro- vided for the government of the colony by a governor, a legislature and the usual magistrates of an English province, who were to be chosen annually by ballot. Every settler who should take the oath of allegiance to the commonwealth was to have the right of suffrage. The members of the legislature were apportioned among the towns according to the population. The colony was held to be supreme within its own limits, and no recognition was made of the sovereignty of the king or Parlia- ment. When Connecticut took her place among the States of the American Union, at the opening of the war of the Revolution, her con- stitution needed no change to adapt her to her new position. It remained in force for one hundred and fifty years. In the year of the Pequod war (1637), John Davenport, a celebrated clergyman of London, and Theophilus Eaton, a merchant, of wealth, and a number of their associates, who had been exiled from England for their religious opinions, reached Boston. They were warmly welcomed, and were urged to stay in the Bay colony, but the theological disputes were so high there that they preferred to go into the wilderneas and found a settlement where they could be at peace. Eaton with a few men COLONIZATION OF CONNECTICUT. 187 was sent to explore the region west of the Connecticut, which had been discovered by the pursusrs of the Pequods. He examined the coast of .Long Island sound, and spent the winter at a place which he selected a. a settlement. In April, 1638, Davenport and the rest of the company sailed from Boston and 'established a settlement on the spot chosen by Eaton. The settlers obtained a title to their lands from the natives, and agreed in return to protect them against the Mohawks. They named their settlement New Haven. In 1639, a form of government was adopted, and Eaton was elected governor. He was annually chosen to VALLEY OF THE CONNECTICUT. this position until his death, twenty years later. The colonists pledged themselves " to be governed in all things by the rules which the Scrip- tures held forth to them." The right of suffrage was restricted to ohurch members. " Thus New Haven made the Bible its statute book, and the elect its freemen." In the next ten years settlements spread along the sound and extended to the opposite shores of Long island. The colony was distinct from and independent of the Connecticut colony, with which friendly relations were soon established. CHAPTER XIII. THE UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. Feeing of the Colonies towards England Hostility of the English Government to New England Efforts to Introduce Episcopacy Massacnuaetts Threatens Resistance The Revolution in England Establishment of Free Schools in New England Harvard College The Printing Press The Long Parliament Friendly to New England The United Colonies of New England Rhode Island Obtains a Charter Maine Annexed to Massachusetts The Quakers are Persecuted Efforts to Christianize the Indians John Eliot, the Apostle to the Indians. HE sentiments with which the people of the New England colonies regarded the mother country may be briefly stated. They were proud of the name of Englishmen, and took a deep interest in the welfare of their old home. They regarded the British con- stitution as the supreme law of their new states, and claimed to be true and loyal subjects of the King of England. Nevertheless, they looked upon the success of their colonies as their own work, accomplished by their own patience and heroism, and they were fully aware that they owed nothing to the mother country. They had been driven forth from her shores by persecution, and left in neglect to struggle up to the suc- cessful position they now occupied. They owed nothing to England ; in their deepest distress they had never asked aid of 'her, and they were willing to undergo any hardship rather than do so. They had made laws and established institutions under which they had surmounted their early trials, and they regarded their paramount allegiance as due to their respective provinces. They acknowledged the right of no power beyond the Atlantic to interfere with or change their work. They would acknowledge their allegiance to the king as long as he respected the system they had built up at such great cost, and without assistance from him, but would resist any effort from him, or any one else, to interfere with it. They had made New England what she was, and they meant to retain the possession and control of their new home at any cost. They had made themselves a free people, and they meant to preserve their liberties as a precious heritage for their children. This was the general sentiment of New England. There were some discontented persons, however, in the midst of these determined people. 188 THE UNION Cl< THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 189 They had found the stern discipline of the Massachusetts colony too oppressive, and some had been severely punished by the fiery Endicott. Upon returning to England they endeavored to induce the king to exert his power and remedy what they termed the distraction and disorder of the province of Massachusetts. Their complaints were echoed by a strong party in England. Burdett wrote to Archbishop Laud that "The colonists aimed not at a new discipline, but at sovereignty; that it was accounted treason in their general court to speak of appeals to the king;" in which assertion he was right. The English archbishop began to regard the departure of so many " faithful and free-born Englishmen and good Christians" to join a new communion as a serious matter, and impediments were thrown in the way of emigration. In February, 1634, a requisition was addressed to the colony of Massachusetts ordering the colonial officials to produce the patent of the company in England. The colony took no notice of this demand. A little later the king appointed the Archbishop of Canterbury and some others a special commission, with full power over the American colonies. They were authorized to make such changes in church and state as they deemed necessary ; to enforce them with heavy penalties ; and even to revoke all charters that contained privileges inconsistent with the royal prerogative. The news of the appointment of this commission reached Boston in September, 1G34, and it was also rumored that a governor-general for the colonies had been appointed, and had sailed from England. All Massachu- setts burned with indignation, and the colony resolved to resist the attempt upon its liberties. It was very poor, but in a short space of time the large sum of six hundred pounds was rr.ised for the public defence, and fortifi- cations were begun and pushed forward with energy. In January, 1635, the ministers were assembled at Boston and their opinion was asked upon the question whether the colony should receive a governor-general. They answered boldly : " We ought to defend our lawful possessions if we are able ; if not, to avoid and protract." In 'April, 1638, the privy council demanded the surrender of the charter of Massachusetts, threatening in case of refusal that the king would take the management of the colony into his own hands. The colonial authorities were firmly resolved to give the king no pretext for interference with their affairs, and instead of complying with the order of the privy council, they addressed a remonstrance to that body against the surrender required of them, thus seeking to gain timo. They were fully determined not to give up their charter; but before their remonstrance could reach England the troubles which encompassed Charles at home made it impossible for him to carry out his designs against Massachusetts. 190 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The breaking out of the civil war in England put a stop to the emi- gration to New England. At the opening of the year 1640 the popu- lation of Xe\v England numbered 20,000. Some fifty towns and between thirty and forty churches had been built, and the most desponding could no longer doubt the ultimate success and prosperity of the country. The wretched cabins of the first settlers were rapidly giving way to fair and comfortable houses, and the colonists were beginning to gather about them many of the comforts and much of the refinement they had been accustomed to in England. Nor were the Puritans mindful of material success only. Many of HARVARD COLLEGE. them were persons of education, and they were anxious that their children should have the opportunity of enjoying the blessings of knowledge in their new homes. In 1636 the general court made provision for the establishment at Newtown of a high school. The name of the town wcs o changed to Cambridge as a token that the people meant that it should yet be the seat of a university. In 1637 the school was formally opened. The next year the Rev. John Harvard, of Charlestown, bequeathed to the infant institution his library and the half of his fortune, and in gratitude for this assistance the school took the name of Harvard College. In 1647 THE UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 191 the general court ordered that in every town or district of fifty families liierc should be a common school; and that in every town or district of one hundred families there should be a grammar school, conducted by teachers competent to prepare young men for college. This system rapidly found its way into the other New England colonies, with the exception of Rhode Island. Thus was founded the American system of common schools. Until now education had been the task of the church, or had been confided to private individuals ; but now, for the first time in the history of the AN AMERICAN FREE SCHOOL. world, the state took the task of educating its young citizens into its own hands, and established the schools in which it was to be conducted. Henceforth knowledge was to be restricted to no favored class : education O ' was made free to every child, and every parent being taxed for the sup- port of the public schools was made to feel interested in their proper con- duct. Fro::i the little beginning thus made a vast and noble system has been developed, the beneficial results of which must be felt to the latest oeriod of our national existence. Had the fathers of New England done r-othing more for posterity than this, they would still deserve to be held in grateful remembrance as the founders of our public schools. Genera- HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. tioii.s yet unlxmi shall rise up to call them blessed, and to acknowledge the truth of their conviction that ignorant men cannot make good citizen?. In 1639 a printing press, presented to the colony by some friends in Holland, was set up in Massachusetts. Stephen Daye was the printer, and in that year printed an almanac calculated for Ne\v England, and in 1640 a metrical version of the Psalms, made "by Thomas Welde and John Eliot, ministers of Roxbury, assisted by Richard Mather, minister of Dorchester." It was the first book printed in the English language in America, and continued to be used for a long time in the worship of the New England churches. Many of the settlers went back to England at the outset of the civil war to take part in the struggle, among whom were Governor Henry Vane and Hugh Peters, and very few emigrants arrived in New England during the existence of the commonwealth. Yet the colonies continued to prosper. Ship-building, which had been introduced by the first settlers of Salem, was carried on with activity, and vessels of four hundred tons were constructed. A little later the manufacture of woollen and linen cloth was begun by order of the general court in consequence of the diffi- culty of obtaining supplies from England. The colonial churches were invited to send their representatives to the assembly of divines at Westminster, but they wisely neglected to do so, judging it better to remain in their obscurity than to give the English people a pretext for future interference by joining in their affairs. The Long Parliament was friendly to New England, and granted to the colonies an exemption from all duties upon their commerce " until the House of Commons should take order to the contrary." Massachu- setts took advantage of the security afforded by the friendship of the Long Parliament to establish a written constitution, or " body of liber- ties," which placed the rights and privileges of her people upon a more stable basis. It contained some of the severest laws of the Mosaic code, such as those against witchcraft, blasphemy, acd sins against nature, but secured the freedom of the citizen, the right of representative govern- ment, and the independence of the state and the municipality. The rights of property, the freedom of inheritance, and the independence of each church from control by the others were also placed beyond dispute. " This constitution," says Bancroft, " for its liberality and comprehensive- ness may vie with any similar record from the days of Magna Charta." In April, 1642, the towns on the Piscataqua, now embraced within the limits of the State of New Hampshire, were annexed at their own request to Massachusetts. As the people of this region were not Puri- tans, and many of them were attached to the forms and faith of the THE UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 193 Church of England, the general court in September adopted a measure providing that neither the freemen nor the deputies of New Hampshire should be required to be church members. This act of justice removed ill danger of political discord. In the same year Massachusetts made a loss creditable and an unsuccessful effort to annex Rhode Island to her dominions. Though relieved of the interference of the mother country, the dangers of New England were not yet at an end. The Indians were still powerful upon their narrow border, the French were beginning to threaten them from the direction of Canada, and the Dutch from the Hudson. The colonies had so many interests in common that it was of vital importance that they should act in concert for their defence. After several ineffectual attempts, a league was formed in 1643 between the colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven, under the title of "The United Colonies of New England" Each colony was to retain its freedom in the management of its own affairs; the authority of the union, which was intmsted to a commission of two members from each province, being limited to objects which concerned the general welfare of the colonies. Provision was made for the preser- vation of the purity of the gospel, the commissioners were required to be church members, and the expenses of the confederacy were to be assessed upon the colonies according to population. This union lasted for forty years. The colony of Rhode Island desired to be admitted into the union, but its petition was refused, as it would not acknowledge the jurisdiction of Plymouth. The people of the two settlements on Narragansett bay, dreading an attempt to absorb them into some of the other colonies, now determined to apply to Parliament for an independent charter. Roger Williams was despatched to England for that purpose in 1643, and reached that country soon after the death of Hampden. The fame of his labors among the Indians had preceded him, and secured for him a cordial welcome in his native land. Assisted by Sir Henry Vane, a charter was obtained in March, 1644, organizing the settlements on Narragansett bay as an independent colony under the name of " The Providence Plantations," " with full power and authority to rule them- selves." The executive council of state in England, in 1651, made some grants to Coddington which would have dismembered the little state, and Williams was obliged to make a second voyage to England to have these grants vacated. He succeeded in his efforts and the charter was confirmed. He received in this, as in his former mission, the cordial co-operation of Sir Henry Vane, whose name should be ever dear to the 13 194 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. people of Rhode Island, since but for him her territory would have been divided among the neighboring colonies. In the interval between his first and second voyages Roger Williams became a convert to the Baptist faith, and founded the first church of that denomination in America. The country between the Piscataqua and the Kennebec was assigned to Sir Ferdinand Gorges, who, in 1639, was confirmed in his possession by a formal charter from Charles I., who called the territory the Province of Maine. In 1640, Gorges sent his son Thomas to Maine as his representative. Thomas Gorges took up his residence at the settle- ment of Agamenticus, now the town of York, and in 1642 changed the name of the place to Gorgeana. Since the settlement of the colony the French had claimed the region between the St. Croix and the Penobscot, which they had settled under the name of Acadia, as has been stated elsewhere. After the death of Sir Ferdinand Gorges Maine was divided among his heirs. These cut it up into four weak communities, whose helplessness laid them open to the encroachments of the French in Canada. Apprehensive of the results of this, Massachusetts, to whom many of the inhabitants of the province had appealed to take such a course, in 1651 claimed the province of Maine as a part of the territory which had been granted to the colony by the original charter of Massachusetts. Commissioners were sent to establish the authority of the Bay colony over the province, but the magistrates of Maine resisted them, and appealed to the English govern- i. *nt for protection. The people of Maine were the adherents of the king and the established church, and England was now ruled by the Puritans; consequently Massachusetts won her cause, and Maine was declared a part of that province. Massachusetts made a generous use of her power, and allowed the towns of Maine very much the same govern- ment and privileges they now enjoy, and in religious matters treated them with the same leniency she had shown to New Hampshire. In 1646, a dispute in the Bay colony induced one of the parties to it to appeal to Parliament to sustain his claims, and an order was sent out to Boston in his behalf " couched in terms which involved the right of Parliament to reverse the decisions and control the government of Massachusetts." In plainer terms, Parliament claimed the right tc revoke the charter of the colony, as the king had done at the outset of the civil war. The danger was great, and Massachusetts met it with firmness. The general court met on the 4th of November, and sat with closed doors to discuss the claim of the English government. It was resolved " that Massachusetts owed to England the same allegiance as the free Hanse towns had rendered to the empire; as Normandy, when THE UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 195 > its dukes were kings of England, paid to the monarchs of France." The court also refused to accept a new charter from Parliament, as that action might imply a surrender of the original instrument, or to allow Parliament to control in any way the independence of the colony. Great as this claim was it was admitted by the English Parliament, in which the rights of the colony were stoutly maintained by Sir Henry Vane and others ; and in reply to a respectful address of the general court setting forth the views of that body, a committee of Parliament declared : " We encourage no appeals from your justice. We leave you with all the free- dom and latitude that may, in any respect, be duly claimed by you." Later on, upon the establishment of the commonwealth, Parliament invited the people of Massachusetts to receive a new patent from that body ; but the colonial authorities wisely declined to do this, or to allow the home government any hold upon the administration of the affairs of the province. In 1651, Cromwell, who had subdued Ireland, offered that island to the Puritans of New England as a new home ; but they declined to leave America. Cromwell proved himself in many ways a judicious friend of New England, and the people of that country treasured his memory with the gratitude and respect it so richly deserved. Though so successful in asserting her own liberties, Massachusetts had not yet learned the lesson of religious tolerance. When the Baptists began to appear in the colony severe measures were inaugurated to crush them, and one of their number Holmes a resident of Lynn, was whipped unmercifully. Still greater were the severities practised towards the Quakers. This sect had grown out of the Protestant Reformation, and constituted at this day the most advanced thinkers upon religious matters to be found in England. They claimed a perfect freedom in matters of faith and worship, and regarded all laws for enforcing religious systems as works of the devil. They were persons of pure lives, and even their most inveterate enemies could not charge them with wrong- doing. Previous to their appearance in Massachusetts exaggerated reports reached the colony concerning them. They were represented as Halving war upon all forms of religion and government. The first of this creed who came to New England were Mary Fisher and Ann Austin, who reached Boston in July, 1656. In the absence of. i special law against Quakers, they were arrested under the provisions of the general statute against heresy ; their trunks were searched and their books burned by the hangman. Their persons were examined for marks of witchcraft, but nothing could be found against them, and after being kept close prisoners for five weeks, they were sent back to England. 196 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. During the year eight others were also sent back to England. Laws which were a disgrace to an enlightened community were now passed prohibiting the Quakers from entering the colony. Such as came wero imprisoned, cruelly whipped, and sent away. In IG.oT, a woman was whipped with twenty stripes for this offence. In 1C58, a law was enacted that if any Quaker should return after being banished, his or her offence should be punished with death. It was hoped that this barbarous measure would rid the colony of their presence ; but they came in still greater numbers, to reprove the magistrates for their persecuting spirit, and to call them to repentance. In 1659, Marmaduke Stephenson, William Robinson, Mary Dyar, and William Leddro were hanged on Boston Common for returning to the colony after being banished. These cruelties were regarded with great discontent by the people of the colony, whose humanity was shocked by the barbarity of the magis- trates. Their opposition grew stronger every day, and at last it became evident to the magistrates themselves that their severities were of no avail. When William Leddro was being sentenced to death the magis- trates were startled by the entrance into the court room of Wenlock Christison, a Quaker who had been banished and forbidden to return on pain of death. Christison was arrested, but the complaints of the people became so loud that the magistrates were obliged to pause in their bloody work. Christison and twenty-seven of his companions were released from custody, the persecution of the Quakers was discontinued, and the general court, in obedience to the will of the people, repealed the bar- barous laws against that sect. In pleasing contrast with these severities were the efforts of the Puri- tans to spread a knowledge of the gospel among the savages. Chief among those engaged in the good work was John Eliot, the minister of Roxbury, whose labors won him the name of " the apostle Eliot." He went among the red men in the forests, and acquired a knowledge of their language that he might preach to them in their own tongue. When he had become sufficiently proficient in it, he translated the Bible into the Indian language. This translation was printed at Cambridge, and a part of the type was set by an Indian compositor. He spent many years in the preparation of his Bible, and made a good use of it during his life ; but it is now valuable only as a literary curiosity and as the evi- dence of the devotion of the translator to his noble work. The destruction of the race for which it was intended has made it a sealed book. Eliot gathered his savage converts into a settlement at Natick, and taught the men the art of agriculture and the women to spin and to weave cloth. He had to encounter the opposition of thr chiefs and medicine men or THE UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES. 197 priests, who resented his efforts to win their people from the worship and habits of their ancestors, but lie persevered. He was greatly beloved by his disciples, and continued his labors among them far into old age, and to a limited extent to the day of his death, which took place when he had attained the ripe age of eighty-six years. " My memory, my utter- ance fails me," he said near the close of his life ; " but I thank God my charity holds out still." When Walton, a brother minister, visited him on his death-bed, he greeted him with the words : "Brother, you are NEWPORT, B. I. welcome ; but retire to your study and pray that I may be gone." His last words on earth were the triumphal shout with which he entered upon his reward : " Welcome joy ! " Many of the Quakers, after the persecution against them was over, joined Eliot in his labors. He had other fellow- workers. The two Mayhews, father and son, Cotton, and Brainerd thought it a privilege to labor for the souls of the poor savages. Native preachers were ordained, and at last there were thirty churches of " praying Indians " under such preachers. CHAPTER XIV. NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. Arrival of the News of the Restoration of Charles II. The Regicides in New England They are Protected Revival of the Navigation Acts Effect of this measure upon the New England Colonies Massachusetts delays the Proclamation of the King Con- necticut obtains a Charter Union of New Haven with the Connecticut Colony Rhode Island given a new Charter Massachusetts settles her difficulties with the Crown Changes in the Government High-handed acts of the Royal Commissioners Troubles with the Indians Injustice of the Whites King Piiilip's War A Forest Hero An Incident in the Attack rpon Hadley Sufferin -s of the Colonies Destruction of the Narragansetts Death of Philip Clc:e of the \Y T ar England asserts her right to Tax the Colonies Massachusetts buvr, Gorges' claims to Maine New Hampshire made a separate Province James II. revokes the Charter of Massachusetts Dudley and Ran- dolph in New England Andros appointed Governor-Genen 1 His Tyranny He de- mands the Charter of Connecticut It is carried away and Hidden The Charter Oak Fall of James II. The people of Massachusetts take up Arms Andros arrested Effects of the Revolution upon New England. news of the restoration of Charles II. to the English throne was brought to Boston by Edward Whalley and William Goffe, two of the judges of Charles I. They came to seek refuge from the vengeance of the king, having oifended him beyond forgiveness by their share in the death of his father. They re- mained about a year in Massachusetts, protected by the people, and preaching to them. A few months after their arrival, warrants for their arrest and transportation to England for trial arrived from the king, pnd to escape this danger they took refuge in New Haven. The royal officers instituted a diligent search for them, and they were obliged to change their place of conopalment frequently. Great rewards were offered for their betrayal, and even the Indians were urged to search the woods for their hiding-places. The people whom they trusted protected them, and aided them to escape the royal officers until the vigor of the search was exhausted. They then conducted them to a secure refuge in the vicinity of Hadley, where they remained in seclusion and peace until the close of their lives. News was constantly arriving in the colonies of the execution of the Hen who had been the friends of America in the Parliament, and a 198 NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. 199 general sadness was cast over the settlements by the tidings of the death of Hugh Peters and the noble Sir Henry Vane. From the first the people of New England saw plainly that they had little reason to expect justice at the hands of the royal government, and there was little rejoic- ing in that region at the return of the king to " his own again." One of Charles's first acts was to revive in a more odious form the navigation act of the Long Parliament. We have spoken of the effect of this measure upon the colonies of Virginia and Maryland. This act closed the harbors of America against the vessels of every European nation save England, and forbade the exportation of certain American productions to any country but England or her possessions. This was a very serious blow to New England, and was intended as such. The colonies of that region had already built up a growing commerce, and this, together with their activity in ship-building, excited the envy and the hostility of the British merchants, who hoped, by inducing the king to place these restrictions upon the colonies, to compel the Americans to depend upon them for the supply of all their wants. Later on, America was forbidden not only to manufacture any articles which might compete with English manufactures in foreign markets, but to supply her own wants with her own manufactures. At the same time Parliament en- deavored to destroy the trade that had grown up between New England and the southern colonies by imposing upon the articles exported from one colony to another a duty equal to that imposed upon the consumption of these articles in England. Thus did Great Britain lay the foundation of that system of com- mercial injustice toward her colonies which eventually deprived her of them, and which her greatest writer on political economy declared to be "a manifest violation of the rights of mankind." The policy thus established in the reign of Charles II. was never departed from. Each succeeding administration remained true to the principles of the naviga- tion act, and consistently declined to admit the claim of the colonies to just and honorable treatment at the hands of the mother country. Charles II. was promptly proclaimed in the colonies of Plymouth, Connecticut, New Haven and Rhode Island, and those provinces were administered in his name. Massachusetts, distrusting his purposes towards her, held back, and waited until he should show his intentions more plainly. Connecticut had purchased the claims of the assigns of the Earl of Warwick to the region occupied by her, and had bought the territory o f the Mohegans from Uncas, their sachem. The colony sent the younger Winthrop to England in 1661 to obtain a charter from thi 200 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. king. The noble character of Governor Winthrop was well known in England, and impressed even the profligate Charles. His reception was cordial and his mission entirely successful. In 1662, the king granted to the colony a charter incorporating Hartford and New Haven in one province under the name of Connecticut, and extending its limits from Long Island sound westward to the Pacific ocean, thus bestowing upon the colony those rich western lands which were subsequently made the basis of the magnificent school fund of Connecticut, The charter was substantially the same in its provisions as the constitution adopted by the Hartford colony. By it the king conferred upon the colonists the right to elect their own officers and to make and administer their own laws without interference from England in any event whatever. Con- necticut was made independent in all but name, and the charter continual in force as the constitution of the State after the period of independence until 1818. The colony of New Haven was much opposed to the union with Con- necticut, and it required all Governor Winthrop's efforts to induce the people of that colony to accept it. The matter was adjusted in 1665, when the union was finally accomplished. The labors of Governor Winthrop were rewarded by his annual election as governor of Con- necticut for fourteen years. Connecticut was a fortunate colony. Its government was ably and honestly administered ; no persecutions marred its peace, and its course was uniformly prosperous and happy. It was always one of the most peaceful and orderly colonies of New England, and for a century its population doubled once in twenty years, notwith- standing frequent emigrations of its people to other parts of the country. The colony at an early day made a liberal provision for education, and in 1700 Yale College was founded. It was originally located at Say- brooke, but in 1718 was removed to New Haven. Rhode Island was equally fortunate. Through its resident agent at Lon- don, John Clarke, it made application to the king for a new charter, and after some delay, caused by the difficulty of arranging satisfactorily the limits of the province, a charter was granted in 1663, formally establish- ing the colony of "Rhode Island and Providence Plantations." Thif charter continued to be the sole constitution of Rhode Island until the year 1842. 3y its provisions the government of the colony was to con- sist of a governor, deputy-governor, ten assistants, and representatives from the towns. The laws were to be agreeable to those of England, but no oath of allegiance was required of the colony, and in matters of religion the charter declared that " no person within the said colony, at any time hereafter, shall be anywise molested, punished, disquieted, or NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. 201 called in question for any difference in opinion in matters of religion , every person may at all times freely and fully enjoy his own judgment and conscience in matters of religious concernments." Freedom of con- science was not restricted to Christians ; it was extended by the charter to infidels and pagans as well. This charter made the little colony secure against the attempts of Massachusetts to absorb her, and its reception by the people was joyful and enthusiastic. At this period the population of Rhode Island was about twenty-five hundred. It increased rapidly and steadily ; the excellent harbors of the province encouraged commerce, and the little state soon began to rival her larger associates in prosperity. Massachusetts was from the first regarded with disfavor by the royal government. It delayed its acknowledgment of Charles II. for over a year, and the king was not proclaimed at Boston until the 7th of August, 1661. Even then the general court forbade all manifestations of joy. These signs of the independent spirit of the people had been observed in England, and the colony had been watched by the government with any- thing but favor. The enemies of the young state hurried their com- plaints before the king, and Massachusetts at length found it to her interest to send commissioners to London, as, indeed, the express orders of the king required her to do. Among the agents sent over were John Norton and Simon Bradstreet, men of ability and moderation, who com- manded the confidence of all classes of the colonists. Their instructions were to assure the king of the loyalty of Massachusetts, to engage his favor for the colony ; but to agree to " nothing prejudicial to their present standing according to their patent, and to endeavor the establishment of the rights and privileges then enjoyed." The commissioners reached London in January, 1662, and were gra- ciously received by the king, who confirmed the charter, and granted a complete amnesty for all past offences against his majesty. He required, however, that all laws derogatory to his authority should be repealed ; that the colonists should take the oath of allegiance to him ; that justice should be administered in his name; that the right of suffrage should be thrown open to all freeholders of competent estates ; and that all who wicheM to do so should be free to use " the book of common prayer, and perform their devotion in the manner established in England." Those were better terms than the commissioners had reason to expect, and wore not in themselves objectionable, as Massachusetts was growing beyond its early prejudices; but the acceptance of them would have im- plied an acknowledgment by the colony of the king's right to change its fundamental law, and to interfere with its affairs at pleasure. JV'assa- 202 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ehusetts was at once divided into two parties, the larger of which main- tained the independence of the colony of royal control ; the smaller party supported the claims of the king. Under other circumstances no oppo- sition would have been made to the toleration of the practices of the Church of England in the colony; but now that it seemed that episco- pacy was to be introduced as the ally of the royal power, the people of Massachusetts resolved to prevent it from obtaining a foothold in their midst. The general court resolved to maintain their political independ- ence, and their religious establishment as well. As a measure of pre- caution the charter was secretly intrusted for safe-keeping to a committee Df four appointed by the general court; and it was ordered that only small bodies of officers and men should be allowed to land from ships, and should be required to yield a strict obedience to the laws of the province while on shore. These last measures were adopted because of the appointment by the king of commissioners to regulate the affairs of New England. The commissioners reached Boston in July, 1664, escorted by the fleet sent out from England for the reduction of New Amsterdam. They were ordered to investigate the manner in which the charters of the New Eng- land colonies had been exercised, and had " full authority to provide for the peace of the country, according to the royal instructions, and their own discretion" a power which Massachusetts was justified in regarding as dangerous to her liberties. The commissioners cared very little for the prejudices of the people of Massachusetts, and from the first proceeded to outrage their feelings. They introduced the services of the Church of England into Boston to the great disgust of the people. The Puritans had always observed the old Jewish custom of beginning their Sabbath at sunset. The commis- sioners contemptuously disregarded this custom, and spent Saturday evening in merry-making. They soon gave cause for more serious alarm by exercising the powers with which they had been intrusted, and pro- ceeding to redress the grievances of the people. All persons who had complaints against Massachusetts were called upon to lay them before the commissioners, and Rhode Island and the Narragansett chiefs promptly availed themselves of the invitation. The general court now cut the matter short by a decisive step, and sternly ordered the commissioners to discontinue their proceedings, as contrary to the charter. The commis- sioners obeyed the order, and though the firmness of the colony aroused the indignation of the king, he was not abb to shake the determination of a free people. Nor was this the only opposition shown by New England to the hi' NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. 203 justice of the mother country. The navigation acts were generally disregarded ; they could not be enforced ; and Boston and the other New England ports continued to enjoy their growing commerce asfreelv as before the passage of these infamous acts. Vessels from all the other colonies, and from France, Spain, Holland, and Italy, as well as from England, were to be seen at all seasons in the port of Boston. Massa- chusetts owned the greater number of vessels built and operated in America, and was the principal carrier for the other colonies. Its ships sailed to the most distant lands beyond the sea, and the commerce of the colony was rapidly becoming a source of great wealth. So marked indeed was the prosperity of New England, that upon the receipt of the news of the great fire in London, the colonists were able to send large sums to the assistance of the sufferers. The people of New England were industrious and frugal. Villages multiplied rapidly, and wherever a village sprang up a common school accompanied it. The villages began to assume a more tasteful and pleasing appearance, and men gave more care to the adornment and beautifying of their homes. A The population of New England in 1675 has been estimated at about 55,000 souls ; divided among the colonies as follows : Plymouth, about 7000; Connecticut, about 14,000; Massachusetts, about 22,000 ; Maine, about 4000 ; New Hampshire, about 4000 ; Rhode Island, about 4000. The settlements lay principally along the coast, from New Haven to the northeastern border of Maine. Little progress had been made towards penetrating the interior. Haverhill, Deerfield, Northfield, and Westfield were towns on the remote frontier. This rapid growth alarmed the Indians, who had already begun to regard the whites as enemies bent on their destruction. Though there had been peace for forty years in New England, the savages saw that the policy pursued by the settlers was meant to force them back from the lands of their fathers. The whites had gradually absorbed the best lands in New England, and the red men had been as gradually crowded down upon the narrow necks and bays of the southern shores of the Plymouth and Rhode Island colonies. This had been done in pursuance of a settled policy, as the savages could be more carefully watched, and more easily managed in these localities than if left to roam at will over the country. The Indians on their part sul- lenly resented the course of the whites, and they had cause for complaint. They were ignorant of the art of cultivating the soil, and unwilling to practice it, and in their restricted limits it was difficult for them to obtain the means of supporting life. The game had been almost entirely driven from the forests, and the savages were forced to depend upon fish for their food; and these were obtained in scanty and uncertain quantities. 204 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Thus the very success of New England was about to bring upon it the most serious misfortunes it had yet sustained. Massasoit, who had been the early friend of the English, left two sons at his death, Wamsutta and Mctacom, who had long been reckoned among the friends of the Plymouth colony. They were frequent visitors at Plymouth, and had received from the English the names of Alexander and Philip. At the death of Massasoit, Wamsutta or Alexander became chief of the Warupanoags. He and his brother Philip were men of more than ordinary abilities, and felt deeply the wrongs which were be- ginning to fall thickly upon their race. Uncas, the chief of the Mohegans, the determined enemy of Wamsutta, exerted himself, with success, to fill the minds of the English with MIS- picions of the intentions of the Wa:n- panoag chieftain, and it was resolved to arrest him and bring him to Ply- mouth. "NVinslow was sent at the head of an armed force, and succeeded in surprising the chief in his hunting- lodge, together with eighty of his fol- lowers. The proud spirit of "Wam- sutta chafed with such fury at the indignity thus put upon him that he was seized with a dangerous fever, and the English were obliged to per- mit him to return home. " He died on his way," says Elliott. "He was car- ried home on the shoulders of men, and borne to his silent grave near Mount Hope, in the evening of the day, and in the prime of his life, between lines of sad, quick-minded Indians, who well believed him the victim of injustice and ingratitude ; for his father had been the ally, not the subject of Eng- land, and so was he, and the like indignity had not before been put upon any sachem." By the death of his brother, Metacom, or Philip, became chief of the Wampanoags. He kept his own council, but the whites soon had cause to believe that he meditated a desperate vengeance upon them for the death of Wamsutta and the wrongs of his race. To make the sense of injury deeper in his mind the Plymouth authorities treated him with great harshness, and compelled him to give up his arms. A "praying Indian" who lived among his people informed the colonists that the chief meditated harm against them, and his dead body was soon a f "ter KING PHILIP. NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. 205 found. Three of Philip's men were suspected of the murder. They were arrested, tried at Plymouth, and found guilty by a jury composed of whites and Indians, and were put to death. This was early in 1675. The execution of these men awoke a wild thirst for revenge among the tribe to which they belonged, and the young warriors clamored loudly for war against the English. Philip, whose vigorous mind enabled him to judge more clearly of the issue of such a struggle, entered into the contest with reluctance, for he saw that it must end in the destruction of his race. He was powerless to resist the universal sentiment of his people, and like a true hero resolved to make the best of the situation in which he was placed, and to share the fate of his nation. The Indians were tolerably well provided with fire-arms, for, in spite of the severe punishments denounced against the sale of weapons to the savages, the colonists had not been proof against the temptations of gain held out to them by this traffic. Their chief dependence, however, was upon their primitive weapons. The English, on the other hand, were well armed, and were provided with forts and towns which furnished them with secure places of refuge. They might have averted the war by conciliat- ing the savages, but they persisted in their unjust treatment of them, regarding them as " bloody heathen," whom it was their duty to drive back into the wilderness. Philip was able to bring seven hundred desperate warriors into the field. They had no hope of success; and they fought only for vengeance. They knew every nook and hiding-place of the forest, and in these natural defences could hope to continue the struggle as long as the leaves remained on the ^ees to conceal their lurking-places from the white man's search. Immediately after the execution of the three Indians at Plymouth, Philip's men had begun to rob exposed houses and carry off cattle, but the war did not actually begin until the 24th of June, 1675, the day of fasting and prayer appointed by the government as a prepara- tion for the struggle. On that day the people of Swanzey, in Plymouth colony, while returning home from church, were attacked by the Wam- pnnoags, and eight or nine were killed. Philip burst into tears when the news of this attack was brought to him, but he threw himself with tMiorjry into the hopeless struggle, now that it had come. Reinforcements were sent from Massachusetts to the aid of the Plymouth colony, and on the 29th of June the united forces made an attack upon the "VVarapanoags, killed six or seven of their men and drove them to a swamp in which they took refuge. The English surrounded this swamp, determined to starve the Indians into submission, but Philip and his warriors escaped and took refuge among the Nipmucks, a small 2 Qg HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. tribe occupying what is now Worcester county, Masnacbusetts. The English then marched into the territory of the Narragansetts and com- pelled them to agree to remain neutral, and to deliver up the fugitive Indians who should take refuge among them. This accomplished, the colonists hoped they had put an end to the war. Philip succeeded in inducing the Nipmucks to join him in tht struggle, and his warriors began to hang around the English settlements. The whites were murdered wherever they ventured to expose themselves, and a feeling of general terror spread through the colonies. No one knew the extent of the hostility of the savage tribes, or how many allies Philip had gained ; nor was it certain when or where the next great blow of the savages would be struck. Sonic of the colonists began to give wav to superstitious fears. It was asserted that an Indian bow, a sign of impending evil, had been seen clearly defined against the heavens, and that at the eclipse which occurred at this time the moon bore the figure of an Indian scalp on its face. The northern heavens glowed with auroral lights of unusual brilliancy; troops of phantom horsemen were heard to dash through the air; the sighing of the night wind was like the sound of whistling bullets; and the howling of the wolves was fiercer and more constant than usual. These things, the superstitious declared, were warnings that the colonies were about to be severely punished foi their sins, among which they named profane swearing, the neglect of bringing up their children in more rigid observances, the licensing of ale houses, and the wearing of long hair by the men and of gay apparel by the women. The more extreme even declared that they were about to be "judged " for not exterminating the Quakers. In the meantime Philip, with a party of Nipmucks and his own people, carried the war into the valley of the Connecticut, and spread death along the line of settlements from Springfield to Northfield, then the most remote inland town. "With the hope of withdrawing the Nip- mucks, who could muster fifteen hundred warriors, from the confederacy, Captain Hutchinson, with twenty men, was sent to treat with them. His party was ambushed and murdered at Brookfield early in August. The .Indians then attacked Brookfield, and burned the village with the exception of one strong house to which the colonists retreated. After a siege of two days, during which they kept up a constant fire upon the building, they attempted to burn the house, but were prevented by a shower of rain which extinguished the flames. At the same moment a reinforcement of fifty men arrived to the aid of the whites, and the savages were driven off with the loss of several of their number. Philip succeeded in drawing to his support nearly all the tribes of New Eng- NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. 207 .'.and, and it was resolved by the savages to make a general effort for the destruction of the whites. A concerted attack was to be made upon a la>*gc r.uinbcr of settlements at the same day and hour, and the Sabbath was chosen as the day most favorable for the movement. Deerfield in Massachusetts and Hadley in Connecticut were among the places attacked. The former was burned. Hadley was assailed while the congregation were worshipping in the church, and the whites were hard pressed by their antagonists. Suddenly in the midst of the battle ATTACK UPON BKOOKF1ELD BY THE INDIANS. there appeared a tall and venerable man with a flowing beard, and clad in a strange dress. With sword in hand he rallied the settlers, and lei; thsm to a new effort in which the savages were beaten back and put to flight. When the battle was over, the stranger could not be found, ami the wondering people declared that he was an angel sent by God for their deliverance. It was Goffe, the regicide, who had suddenly left his place of concealment to aid his countrymen in their struggle with the savages. He had been lying in concealment at the house of Russell, 208 HISTORY OF Til 1C U SITED STATES. the minister of Hadley, and returned to his place of refuge when the clanger was over. On the whole the Indians, though they succeeded in causing great puttering to the colonies, were unsuccessful in their efforts during the G-immer and autumn of 1675. In October, Philip returned to his old home, but, finding Mount Hope in ruins, took shelter among the Narra- gansetts, who protected him notwithstanding their promise to deliver up all fugitives to the English. The colonial authorities seeing that the tribe had no intention of fulfilling their promise, and being fearful that Philip would succeed in winning them over to his side, resolved to an- ticipate the danger and treat them as enemies. A force was collected and sent into the Narragansett country in December, 1675. This tribe, numbering about three thousand souls, had erected a strong fort of palisades in the midst of a swamp near the pres- ent town of Kingston, Khode Island. It was almost inaccessible, and had but a single entrance, defended by a morass, which could be passed only by means of a fallen tree. The English were led to the fort by an Indian traitor, and attacked it on the 19th of December. After a severe fight of two hours they succeeded in forcing an entrance into the fort. The wigwams were then fired, and the whole place was soon in flames. The defeat of the savages was complete, but it was purchased by the loss of six captains and two hundred and fifty men killed and wounded on the part of the English. About one thousand of the Narragansetts were slain, their provisions were destroyed and numbers were made prisoners, Those who escaped wandered through the frozen woods without shelter, and for food were compelled to dig for nuts and acorns under the snow. Many died during the winter. Canonchet, the Narragansett chief, was among the survivors. "We will fight to the last man rather than become servants to the English," said the undaunted chieftain. He was taken prisoner in April, 1676, near Blackstone, and was offered his life if he would induce the Indians to make peace. He refused the offer with scorn, and, when sentenced to death, answered proudly : " I like it well : I shall die before I speak anything unworthy of myself." In the spring of 1676, Philip, who had been to the west to endeavor to induce the Mohawks to join the war against the English, returne 1 to olace himself at the head of his countrymen in New England. The work of murdering and burning was resumed with renewed fury. The Indians seemed to be everywhere and innumerable, and the whites could find safety only in their forts. The surviving Narragansetts scourged the Rhode Island and Plymouth colonies with fire and axe, and even the aged Roger Williams was obliged to take up arms for the defence of his NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. 209 home. Lancaster, Medford, Weymouth, Groton, Springfield, Sudbury and Marlborough, in Massachusetts, and Providence and Warwick, in Rhode Island, were destroyed either wholly or in part, and numerous other .settlements were attacked and made to suffer more or less severely. As the season advanced the cause of the Indians became more hopeless, und they began to quarrel among themselves. In June the Nipmucks submitted, and the tribes on the Connecticut refused to shelter Philip any longer. He then appealed to the Mohawks to take up the hatchet, but seeing that his cause was hopeless, they refused to join him. In proud despair Philip went back to Mount Hope to die. One of his people urged him to make peafce with the whites, and was struck dead by the hand of the chief for daring to mention such a humiliation. It became known that Philip had returned to his old home, and Captain Church marched against him, dispersed his followers, and took the chief's wife and little son prisoners. Philip, who had borne the reverses and the reproaches of his nation with the firmness of a hero, was conquered by this misfortune. " My heart breaks," he cried, despairingly, "I am ready to die." He was soon attacked by Church in his place of concealment, and in attempting to escape was shot by an Indian who was serving ir. the ranks of his enemies. Philip's little son was sold as a slave in Ber- muda, and the grandson of Massasoit, who had welcomed and befriended the English, was condemned to pass his days in bondage in a foreign clime. The death of Philip was soon followed by the close of hostilities. The power of the Indians was completely broken. Of the Narnigansetts scarcely one hundred men were left alive, and the other tribes had suffered severely. The Mohegans had remained faithful to the English, and Connecticut had been happily spared the sufferings experienced by the other colonies, which were very severe. Twelve or thirteen towns were destroyed, and many others were seriously crippled. Six hundred houses were burned, and the pecuniary losses amounted to the then enormous sum of half a million of dollars. Over six hundred men, chiefly young men, fell in the war, and there was scarcely a family which did not mourn eome loved one who had given his life for the country. In all their distress the colonies received no aid from England. The- mother country left them to fight out their ''truggle of life and death Alone. The English people and government were indifferent to their fate. One generous Non-conformist church in Dublin sent a contribution of five hundred pounds to the sufferers. This relief was gratefully acknowl- edged ; but to the credit of New England it .should be remembered that 14 210 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. her colonies never asked assistance from England. The king was very careful, however, to exact every penny he could wring from the colonies, and towards the close of the Indian war established a royal custom-house at Boston for the collection of duties. Duties were imposed upon the commerce of the colonies, and the royal government endeavored to enforce their payment by threatening to refuse the New England ships the pro- tection which enabled them to escape the outrages of the African pirate* of the Mediterranean. The province of Maine had been restored by Charles II. to the heirs of Sir Ferdinand Gorges, and in 1677 Massachusetts purchased their claims for the sum of twelve hundred and fifty pounds, and thus con- firmed her possession of the region between the Piscataqua and the Kenne- bec. The region between the Kennebec and the Penobscot was held by the Duke of York, and that from the Penobscot to the St. Croix was occupied by the French. In July, 1679, King Charles detached New Hampshire from Massa- chusetts, and organized it as a royal province ; the first ever erected in New England. The province at once asserted its rights, and a controversy was begun with the crown, which was continued for several years. The people re- sisted the effort to force upon them the observances of the English Church, and the collection of taxes assessed by the royal officials, and Cranfield, the royal governor, finding it impossible to continue his arbitrary rule, wrote to the British govern- ment, " I shall esteem it the greatest happiness in the world to remove from these unreasonable people. They cavil at the royal commission, and not at my person. No one will be accepted by them who puts the king's commands in execution." In the last years of his reign Charles II. made a determined effort to destroy the charter of Massachusetts. Commissioners were sent by the colony to England to endeavor to defend its rights, but the royal govern- ment was resolved upon its course, and the people of Massachusetts were equally determined not to consent to the surrender of their liberties. Ai length, in 1684, the general court having in the name of the people distinctly refused to make a surrender of the charter to the king, the English courts declared the charter forfeited. A copy of the judgment ivas sent to Boston, and was received there on the 2d of July, 168o. The colony was full of apprehension. The charter under which it had COAT OF ARMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION, 211 grown and prospered, and which secured its liberties to it without the interference of the crown, had been stricken down by the subservient courts of the mother country, and there was now no defence between the liberties of Massachusetts and the arbitrary will of the king, who had njiven the colony good cause to fear his hostility. James II. came to the English throne in 1685. He was even more hostile to New England than his brother Charles. He was a bigoted Roman Catholic, and was resolved to introduce that faith, not only into ling-land, but also into the colonies. He attempted to accomplish this by proclaiming an indulgence or toleration of all creeds. As he dared not proceed openly to violate his coronation oath he hoped by this under- handed scheme to place his own religion upon such a footing in England that he would soon be in a position to compel its adoption by his sub- jects. He had greatly mistaken the temper of both England and America. Joseph Dudley, who had been sent to England as one of the agents of Massachusetts in the last controversy between the colony and King Charles, now found it to his interest to become as ardent a defender, as he had formerly been an opponent, of the royal prerogative, and James finding him a willing abetter of his designs, appointed him president of Massachusetts until a royal governor should arrive, for the king was resolved to take away the charters of all the colonies and make them royal provinces. At the same time, being determined to curtail the liberty of the press, the king appointed Edward Randolph its censor. Dudley was regarded by the people as the betrayer of the liberties of his country, and both he and Randolph were cordially despised by them. The king in appointing Dudley made no provision for an assembly or general court, as he meant to govern the colonies without reference to the people. He regarded the American provinces as so many possessions of the crown, possessed of no rights, and entitled to no privileges save what he chose to allow them. In pursuance of this plan, Sir Edmund Andros, whom the king had appointed governor of New York, was made governor-general of all New England. He reached Boston in December, 1686. Dudley was made chief justice, and Randolph, colonial secretary. The governor-general was empowered by the king to appoint his own council, impose such taxes as he should think fit, command the militia of the colonies, enforce the navigation acts, prohibit printing, and establish episcopacy in New England; and in order to enable him to enforce his will two companies of soldiers were sent over with him, and quartered in Boston. Thus were the liberties of New England placed at the mercy of a tyrant, and 212 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. thus was inaugurated a despotism the most galling that was ever imposed ujx)n men of Englisl descent. Andros promptly put in force a series of the most arbitrary measures. The public schools, which had been fostered with such care by the colonial governments, were allowed to fall into decay. The support which had been granted to the churches was withdrawn. The people were forbidden to assemble for the discussion of any public matter, though they were allowed the poor privilege of electing their town offi- cers. The form of oath in use in New England was an appeal to heaven with uplifted hand. The governor now ordered the substitution of a form which required the person to place his hand on the Bible. This was particularly repugnant to the Puritans, who regarded it as " Popish prac- tice." Probate fees were increased twenty-fold. The holders of lands were told that their titles were invalid because obtained under a charter which had been de- clared forfeited. No person was allowed to leave the colony with- out a pass signed by the governor. The Puritan magistrates and ministers were re- fused authority to unite persons in marriage. The clergyman of the Church of England, stationed at Boston, was the only person in New England who could perform a legal marriage. Episcopacy was formally established, and the people were required to build a church for its uses. At the command of the king a tax of a penny in the pound, and a poll-tax of twenty pence, was imposed upon every person in the colony without regard to his means, rich and poor being taxed alike. Some of the towns had the boldness to refuse to pay this tax, and John Wise, the minister of Ipswich, advised his fellow-townsmen to resist it. He and a number of others were arrested and fined. When they pleaded their privileges under the laws of England, they were told by one of the council : " You have no privilege left you but not to be sold as slaves." "Do you think," asked one of the judges, "that the laws of England follow you to the ends of the earth ? " The iniquitous exactions of Audros and his WADSWORTH HIDING THE CHARTER. NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION. 213 associates threatened the country with ruin. When the magistrates men- tioned this, they were told, " It is not for his majesty's interest you should thrive." " The governor invaded liberty and property after such a manner," wrote Increase Mather, " as no man could say anything was his own." The other colonies came in for their share of bad treatment. Soon after he reached Boston, Andros demanded of the authorities of Rhode Island the surrender of their charter. Governor Clarke declined to comply with this demand, and Andros went to Providence, broke the seal of the colony, and declared its government dissolved. He appointed a commission irresponsible to the people for the government of Rhode Island, and then had the effrontery to declare that the people of that colony were satisfied with what he had done. In October Andros went to Connecticut with an armed guard t<5 take possession of the government of that colony. He reached Hart- ford on the 31st of the month, and found the legislature in ses- sion, and demanded of that body the surrender of the charter. The discussion was prolonged until evening, and then candles were brought, and the charter was placed on the table. Sud- denly the lights were extin- guished, and when they were re-lighted the charter could not be found. It had been secured by Joseph Wadsworth of Hartford, and carried to the southern part of the city, where it was concealed in a hol- low oak tree, which was afterwards known as the "Charter Oak." Andros, furious at the disappearance of the charter, was not to be balked in his purpose of seizing the colonial government, and taking the record book of tKe assembly, he wrote the word "Finis " at the end of the last day's proceedings. He then declared the colonial government at an end> and proceeded to administer the affairs of the province in the spirit in which he had governed Massachusetts and Rhode Island. The people of New England had borne these outrages with a pafience which no one had expected of them. They were a law-abiding people, and wished to exhaust all legal means of redress before proceeding to extreme measures for their protection ; but the party in favor of driving Andros and his fellow-plunderers out of the country was rapidly growing THE CHARTER OAK. 214 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. stronger, and it was not certain how much longer the policy of forbearance would be continued. Increase Mather was appointed to go to England and endeavor to procure a redress of the grievances of the colonies. It was a dangerous mission, for the king was in full sympathy with tho men whom he had placed over the liberties of New England. It was also difficult to leave America without the knowledge of Andros and his colleagues, but Mather succeeded in escaping their vigilance, and was on his way to the old world when relief arrived from a most unexpected quarter. The efforts of James to bring about the re-establishment of the Roman Catholic religion in England roused the whole English nation against him, and in 1689 the nation invited William, Prince of Orange, the hus- band of James' eldest daughter, Mary, to come over to England and assume the throne. James, left without any adherents, fled to France, and William and Mary were securely seated upon the throne. The news of the landing of William in England and the flight of King James reached Boston on the 4th of April, 1689. The messenger was at once imprisoned by Andros, but his tidings soon became known to the sitizens. On the morning of the 18th the people of Boston took up arms, and having secured the person of the commander of uie royal frigate in the harbor, seized the royalist sheriff. The militia were assem- bled, and Andros and his companions were obliged to take refuge in the fort. Simon Bradstreet, the governor who had held office at the time of the abrogation of the charter, was called upon by the people to resume his post, and the old magistrates were reinstated and organized as a council of safety. Andros and his creatures attempted to escape to the frigate, but were prevented and were compelled to surrender. The next day reinforcements came pouring into Boston from the other settlements, and the fort was taken and the frigate mastered. Town meetings were now held throughout the colony, and it was voted to resume the formei charter. The people were almost unanimous in favor of this course, but the counsels of a more timid minority prevailed, and the council, which had appointed itself to the control of affairs, decided to solicit a new charter from William and Mary. A general court was convened on the 22d of May. The people of the colony were anxious that Andros, Dudley, and Randolph should receive prompt punishment for their offences, but the authorities wisely determined to send them to England for trlfcl. Plymouth, upon the receipt of the news from Boston, seized the agent of Andros, imprisoned him, and re-established the government whicb Andros had overthrown, under the constitution signed on board the "Mayflower." There were none of the old Pilgrim fathers Jiving tVw England, as in other lands, to fight their political enemies with sj>irituul weapons. They now carried this to an extreme which taught the people of New England a lesson that was not soon forgotten. The belief in witchcraft has not been confined to any single nation, and at this time was common to America and Europe. "The people did not rally to the error ; they accepted the superstition only because it had not yet been disengaged from religion." It was believed that as Christians were united with God by a solemn covenant, so were witches leagued with the devil by a tie which, once formed, they could not dis- solve. Those who thus placed themselves in the archfiend's power were used by him as instruments to torment their fellow-men. They were given power to annoy them by pinching them, thrusting invisible pins into them, pulling their hair, afflicting them with disease, killing their cattle and chickens with mysterious ailments, upsetting their wagons and carts; and by practising upon them many other puerile and ludicrous tricks. The witches generally exerted their arts upon those whom they hated, but it was a matter of doubt how many persons were included in their dislikes. One of the most popular superstitions was that of the " Witches' sacrament," a gathering at which the devil, in the form of "a small black man," presided, and required his followers to renounce their Christian baptism and to sign their names in his book. They were then re-baptized by the devil, and the meeting was closed with horrid rites which varied in different narratives according to the imagin- ation of the relators. The belief in the existence of witchcraft was held by some of the leading minds of this period. Sir Matthew Hale, Lord Chief Justice of England, was firmly convinced of the truth of the doctrine, and it was advocated by many of the clergy in England. In New England the clergy held it to be heresy to deny the existence of witches, which they claimed was clearly taught in the Scriptures. It was evidently to their interest to maintain this belief, as it made them the chief authorities in such cases, and furnished them with a powerful weapon against their adversaries. By the early settlers of New England the Indians were supposed tc be worshippers of thft devil, and their medicine-men to be wizards. Governor Hutchinson, in his "History of Massachusetts," thus sums up the casts of supposed witchcraft that had occurred in the colony previous to the time of which we are now writing : " The first suspicion of witchcraft among the English was about the WITCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS. 219 year 1645, at Springfield, upon Connecticut river; several persons wert supposed to bo under an evil hand, and among the rest two of tiif minister's children. Great pains were taken to prove the. facts upon several of the persons charged with the crime, bat either the nature of ;he evidence was not satisfactory, or the fraud was suspected, and so nc person was convicted until the year 1650, when a poor wretch, Mary Oliver, probably weary of her life from the general reputation of being a witch, after long examination, was brought to confession of her guilt, but I do not find that she was executed. Whilst this inquiry was making, Margaret Jones was executed at Charlcstown ; and Mr. Hale mentions a woman at Dorchester, and another at Cambridge about t!.e same time, who all at their death asserted their innocence. Soon alter, Hugh Parsons was tried at Springfield, and escaped death. In 1655 Mrs. Hibbins, the assistant's widow, was hanged at Boston. In 1662, at Hartford in Connecticut, one Ann Cole, a young woman who lived next door to a Dutch family, and no doubt had learned something of tile language, was supposed to be possessed with demons, who sometimes spoke Dutch and sometimes English, and sometimes a language which nobody understood, and who held a conference with one another. Several ministers who were present took down the conference in writing and the names of several persons, mentioned in the course of the con- ference, as actors or bearing parts in it; particularly a woman, then in prison upon suspicion of witchcraft, one Greensmith, who upon examin- ation confessed and appeared to be surprised at the discovery. She owned that she and the others named had been familiar with a demon, who had carnal knowledge of her, and although she had not made a formal covenant, yet she had promised to be ready at his call, and was to have had a high frolic at Christmas, when the agreement was to have been signed. Upon this confession she was executed, and two more of the company were condemned at the same time. In 1669 Susanna Martin, of Salisbury, was bound over to the court upon suspicion of witchcraft, but escaped at that time. "In 1671 Elizabeth Knap, another ventriloqua, alarmed the people :>f Groton in much the same manner as Ann Cole had done those of Hai\, ford; but her demon was not so cunning, for, instead of confining himself to old women, he railed at the good minister of the town and other "people of good character, and the people could not then be prevailed on to believe him, but believed the girl when she confessed that she had been deluded, and that the devil had tormented her in the shape of good persons; so she escaped the punishment due to her fraud an, imposture. 220 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATL'S. " In 1673 Eunice Cole of Hampton was tried, and the jury found her not legally guilty, but that there were strong grounds to suspect her of familiarity with the devil. "In 1679 William Morse's house, at Newbury, was troubled with the throwing of bricks, stones, etc., and a boy of the family was supposed tc be bewitched, who accused one of the neighbors; and in 1682 the house of George Walton, a Quaker, at Portsmouth, and another house at Salmon Falls (both in New Hampshire), were attacked after the same manner. " In 1683 the demons removed to Connecticut river again, where one Desborough's house was molested by an invisible hand, and a fire kindled, nobody knew how, which burnt up a great part of his estate ; and in 1684 Philip Smith, a judge of the court, a military officer and ti representative of the town of Had ley, upon the same river (a hypochon- driac person), fancied himself under an evil hand, and suspected a woman, one of his neighbors, and languished and pined away, and was generally supposed to be bewitched to death. While he lay ill, a number of brisk lads tried an experiment upon the old woman. Having dragged her out of her house, they hung her up until she was near dead, let her down, rolled her some time in the snow, and at last buried her in it and left her there, but it happened that she survived and the melancholy man died." These cases, which were not generally regarded in the enlightened spirit of the writer we have quoted, served to confirm the common belief in witchcraft. Increase Mather published a work in 1684 containing an account of the cases which had already occurred in the colony, and giving detailed descriptions of the manner in which the afflicted persons had exhibited their "deviltry." The publication of this work seemed to revive the trouble and in a more aggravated form, for it is a singular fact that the general discussion of delusions of this kind rarely fails to pro- duce an increase of the evil. In 1688 a case occurred which excited general interest, and was the beginning of one of the saddest periods in the history of New England, The daughter of John Goodwin, a child of thirteen years, accused the daughter of an Irish laundress of stealing some linen. The mother of the laundress, a friendless emigrant, succeeded in disproving the charge, and abused the girl soundly for making a false accusation Soon after this, the accuser was seized with a fit, and pretended to be bewitched in order to be revenged upon the poor Irish woman. Her younger sister and two of her brothers followed her example. They pretended tc be dumb, then deaf, then blind, and then ?!1 three at once. WITCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS. 221 " They were struck dead at the sight of the 'Assembly's Catechism/ " says Governor Hutchinson, dryly, " l Cotton's Milk for Babes' and some other good books, but could read in Oxford jests, popish and Quaker books, and the common prayer without any difficulty." Nevertheless their appetite was good, and they slept soundly at night. The youngest of these little impostors was less than five years old. It was at once given out that the Goodwin children were bewitched, and no one sus- pected or hinted at the fraud. They would bark like dogs and mew like cats, and a physician who was called in to treat them solemnly declared that they were possessed by devils, as he discovered many of the symptoms laid down in Increase Mather's book. A conference of the four ministers of Boston, and one from Charlestown, was held at Goodwin's house, where they observed a day of fasting and prayer. As a result of their efforts, the youngest child, a boy of less than five years, was delivered of his evil spirit. The ministers now had no doubt that the children had been bewitched, and as the little ones accused the Irish woman of their misfortune, she was arrested, tried for witchcraft, convicted and hanged, notwithstanding that many persons thought the poor creature a lunatic. Among the ministers who had investigated this case and had procured the execution of the woman was Cotton Mather, the son of Increase Mather, then president of Harvard college. He was a young man who had but recently entered the ministry, and was regarded as one of the most learned and gifted preachers in the colony. He was withal a man of overweening vanity, and full of ambition. He could not bear con- tradiction, and was devoted to the maintenance of the political power of the clergy. He was superstitious by nature, and was firmly con- vinced of the reality of witchcraft. He had become deeply interested in the case of the Goodwin children, and in order to study it more deeply took the eldest girl to his house, where he could observe and experiment upon her devil at his leisure. She was a cunning creature, and soon found that it was to her interest to humor the young pastor in his views, and she played upon his weakness with a shrewdness and skill which were remarkable in one so young, and exhibit the credulity of the investigator in a most pitiable light. Mather carried on his experiments with a diligence which would have seemed ludicrous had its object been less baneful to the community. He read the Bible, and prayed aloud in the presence of the girl, who would pretend to be thrown into a fit by the pious exercise. At the same time she read the Book of Common Prayer, or Quaker or Popish treatises, without any interruption from her familiar spirits. The minister then 222 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. tested the proficiency of the devil in languages, by reading aloud pas- sages of the Bible in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, which the girl professed to understand. When he tried her with an Indian dialect, however, she could not comprehend him. By other experiments, designed to ascertain if the spirits could read the thoughts of others, Mather came to the sage conclusion that "all devils are not alike sagacious." The girl Mat- tered his vanity, and lulled his suspicion of fraud by telling him that hi* own person was especially protected against the evil spirits by the power of God, and that the devils did not dare to enter his study. The vani' v of Cotton Mather was elated to the highest pitch by what he deemed his successful experiments, and he wrote a book upon witchcraft, in which he endeavored to prove the truth of his theories, and declared that he should esteem it a personal insult if any one should hereafter ven- ture to deny the existence of witchcraft. His book was reprinted in London, with a preface by Richard Baxter, .he well-known author of " The Saints' Rest," warmly indorsing it. It was very generally read in New England, and had a most pernicious effect upon the people by in- ducing them to give credit to the stories of the writer rather than to listen to the promptings of their own good sense. Still there were some in Boston who had the boldness to differ with Mather, and these the indignant divine denounced as "sadducees." Mather supported his views by his sermons. " There are multitudes of sadducees in our day," he declared. "A devil in the apprehension of these mighty acute philoso- phers is no more than a quality or a distemper. . . . Men counted it wis- dom to credit nothing but what they say and feel. They never saw any witches; therefore theie are none." The ministers of Boston and Charlestown gave tlieir young colleague their hearty support, and de- clared that those who doubted the existence of witchcraft were guilty of atheism, and indorsed Mather's book as proving clearly that " there is both a God and a devil, and witchcraft." Thus did the clergy of Mas- sachusetts set themselves to the task of forcing their own narrow views upon the people. It was a needed lesson. New England had passed the time when clerical rule in political affairs could be productive of good, and was now to be taught the danger of permitting it to extend beyond this period. At this juncture Mather's power was greatly strengthened by the appointment of his friend and parishioner, Sir William Phipps, as gov- ernor of the province, and the nomination of his father-in-law and many of his intimate friends to the council. The ambitious Stoughton, the deputy governor, was also subject to his influence. Here was a fine opportunity to endeavor to establish the power of the clergy upon the WITCHCRAFT 7A* MASSACHUSETTS. 223 old foundations which were being destroyed by the growing intelligence and independence of the people. Many of the ministers, under the lead of Cotton Mather, had committed themselves to the doctrine of witchcraft, and the people must accept it upon their simple assertion. No inquiry must be allowed into the matter, the opinions of the ministers must lr> adopted by the laity. And so Mather and his followers resorted to the usual weapons of superstition to accomplish the success of their plans. In 1G92 a ne.v case of witchcraft occurred in Salem village, now the town of Danvers; The minister of this place was Samuel Parris, between whom and a number of his people there had for some time existed dissensions of such a bitter nature that the attention of the gen- eral court had been directed to them. In February, 1692, the daughter and niece of Parris, the former a child of nine years, and the latter of less than twelve, gave signs of being bewitched. Parris at once recog- nized the opportunity which was thus offered him for vengeance upon his enemies, and deliberately availed himself of it. He demanded of the children the names of the persons who had bewitched them, and then proceeded to accuse those whom he succeeded in inducing the girls to denounce. The first victim was Rebecca Nurse. She was known in the community as a woman of exemplary Christian character; but she was one of the most resolute opponents of Parris. Upon his accusation she was arrested and imprisoned. The next Sunday Parris preached a ser- mon from the text, " Have I not chosen you twelve, and one of you is a devil." As it was evident that his remarks were to be directed against Mistress Nurse, Sarah Cloyce, a sister of the accused, at once left the church. This in itself was a serious offence in those days, and Parris took advantage of it to accuse the offender of witchcraft, and she was sent to join her sister in prison. Mather, who deemed his credit at stake, lent his active aid to the persecution of these unfortunate people, and had the vanity to declare that he regarded the efforts of " the evil angels upon the country as a particular defiance unto himself." Parris scattered his accusations right and left, becoming both informer and witness against those whom he meant to destroy for their opposition to him. In a few weeks nearly one hundred persons were in prison upon the charge of witchcraft. Abigail Williams, Parris's niece, aided her uncle with her tales, which the least examination would have shown to be absurd. George Burroughs, one of the ministers of Salem, had long been re- i^arded by Parris as a rival, nnd he now openly expressed his disbelief in witchcraft, and his disapproval of the measures against those charged with that offence. This boldness sealed his doom. He was accused by Parris, and committed to prison " with the rest of the witches." " The 224 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. gallows was to be set up, not for those who professed themselves witches, but for those vho rebuked the delusion." Governor Bnulstreet, who had been chosen by the people, was unwill- ing to procecvl to extreme measures against the accused, as he had no faith in the evidence against them. The arrival of the royal governor and the new charter in Boston in May, 1692, placed Cotton Mather and his fellow-persecutors in a position to carry out their bloody designs. The general court alone had authority to appoint special courts, but Gov- ernor Phipps lid not hesitate to appoint one himself for the trial of the accused persons at Salem, and this illegal tribunal, with Stoughton as its chief judge, met at Salem on the 2d of June. In this court Parris acted as prosecutor, keeping back some witnesses, and pushing others forward as best suited his plans. The first victim of the court was Bridget Bishop, " a poor, friendless old woman." Parris, who had examined her at the time of her commit- ment, was the principal witness against her. Deliverance Hobbs being also accused, a natural infirmity of her body was taken as a proof of her guilt, and she was hanged, protesting her innocence. Rebecca Nurse was at first acquitted of the charges against her, but the court refused to receive the verdict of the jury, and Parris was determined that the woman against whom he had preached and prayed should not escape him, and the jury were induced to convict her, and she was hanged. John Willard, who had been compelled by his duty as a constable to arrest the accused, now refused to serve in this capacity any longer, as he had become convinced of the hypocrisy of the instigators of the persecution. He was immediately denounced, tried, and hanged. When George Burroughs, the minister, was placed on trial the wit- nesses produced against him pretended to be dumb. " Who hinders these witnesses from giving their testimonies?" asked Stoughton, the chief judge. " I suppose the devil," replied Burroughs, contemptuously. "How comes the devil," cried Stoughton, exultingly, "so loath to have any testimony borne against you?" The words of the prisoner were regarded as a confession, and his remarkable bodily strength was made an evidence of his guilt. He was convicted, and sentenced to be hanged. He was executed on the 19th of August with four others. As he ascended the scaffold Burroughs made an appeal to the people assembled to witness the execution, and effectually vindicated himself from the absurd charges against him, and repeated the Lord's prayer, which was regarded a a test of innocence. The spectators were powerfully affected, and seemeci about to interfere in favor of the victim. Cotton Mather, who was pres- ent on horseback, now exerted himself to complete the judicial murder WITCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS. 225 He harangued the people, insisted on the guilt of Burroughs, reminding them that the devil could sometimes assume the form of an angel of light, and even descended to the falsehood of declaring that Burroughs was no true minister, as his ordination was not valid. His appeal was successful, and the execution was completed. Giles Cory, an old man over eighty years of age, seeing that no denial of guilt availed anything, refused to plead, and was pressed to death, ia accordance with an old English law, long obsolete, which was revived to meet his case. Samuel Ward well confessed his guilt, and escaped the gallows. Overcome with shame for his cowardice, he retracted his con- fession, and was hanged for denying witchcraft. A reign of terror pre- vailed in Salem ; the prisons were full ; and no one could feel sure how long he would escape accusation and arrest. Many persons confessed their guilt to save their lives. Children accused their parents, parents their children, and husbands and wives each other of the most impossible offences, in the hope of escaping the persecution themselves. Hale, the minister of Beverley, was P zealous advocate of the persecution until the bitter cup was presented to nis own lips by the accusation of his wife. Many persons were obliged to fly the colony, and the magistrates, con- scious that they were already exceeding their powers, were careful not to demand their surrender. We have mentioned only some of the principal cases to show the char- acter of the persecution, as our limits forbid the relation of all. The total number hanged was twenty; fifty -five were tortured or terrified into confessions of guilt. The accusations were at first lodged against persons of humble station, but at length reached the higher classes. Governor Phipps' wife and two sons of Governor Bradford are said to have been among the accused. " Insanity," says Judge Story, " could hardly devise more refinements in barbarity, or profligacy execute them with more malig- nant coolness/' Every principle of English justice was violated to secure the condemnation of the accused, and people were encouraged by the magis- trates to accuse others as a means of securing the favor of the authorities. These terrible deeds were not the work of the people of Massachusetts, and under a popular government would have been impossible; for though the belief in witchcraft was general, the sentiment of the people was against the barbarity of the court. The Salem tragedies were the work of a few men, not one of whom was responsible in any way to the people. "Of the magistrates at that time, not one held office by the suffrage of the people ; the tribunal, essentially despotic in its origin, as in its character, had no sanction but an extraordinary and an illegal com- mission ; and Stoughton, the chief judge, a partisan of Andros, had been 15 225 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. rejected by the people of Massachusetts. The responsibility of the tragedy, far from attaching to the people of the colony, rests with the very few, hardly five or six, in whose hands the transition state of the government left for a season unlimited influence. Into the interior of the colony the delusion did not spread at all." : Stoughton's court, having hanged twenty of its victims, adjourned about The last of September, 1692, until November, and on the 18th of October the general court met. The indignation of the people had been gathering force, and men were determined to put a stop to the judicial murders and tortures which had disgraced them so long. Remonstrances were at once presented to the assembly against " the doings of the witch tribunals," the people of Andover leading the way in this effort. The assembly abolished the special court, and established a tribunal by public law. It was ordered that this court should not meet until the following January. The governor attempted to undo the work of the assembly by appointing Stoughton chief judge of the new court. When that tribunal met at Salem in January, 1693, it was evident that the public mind had undergone a marked change. The influence of the leaders of the delusion was at an end. The grand jury rejected the majority of the presentments offered to it, and when those who were indicted were put on trial, the jury brought in verdicts of acquittal in all but three cases. The governor, now alive to the force of public sentiment, reprieved all who were under sentence to the great disgust of Stoughton, who left the bench in a rage when informed of this action. The persecutors, anxious to eover their defeat by the execution of one more victim, employed all their irts to procure the conviction of a woman of Charlestown, who was com- monly believed to be a witch. They supported their charge by more important evidence than had been presented in any case at Salem, but the jury at once returned a verdict of " not guilty." Cotton Mather was intensely mortified by the failure of his efforts to force the people into a general acceptance of his views. He got up a case of witchcraft in Boston, but was careful to caution his possessed people to refrain from accusing any one of bewitching them. Robert Calef, an unlettered man, but one whose common sense could not be led astray by Mather, promptly exposed the imposture in a pamphlet, which effectually destroyed Mather's influence for harm. Mather, unable to reply to him, denounced him as an enemy of religion, and complained that Calef 's book was " a libel upon the whole government and ministry of the land," forgetting that only seven or eight ministers, and no magis- trate commanding the confidence of the people, had any share in the * Bancroft's History of the United States, vol. iii., p. 88. WITCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS. 227 tragedies. Calef continued his writings, however, undismayed by the indignation of his adversary, and his book was finally published in Eng- land, where it attracted considerable attention. The danger was now over. It was no longer possible to procure a conviction for witchcraft. The indignant people of Salem village at once drove the wretched Parris and his family from the place. Noyes, the minister of Salem, who had been active in the persecutions, was com- pelled to ask the forgiveness of the people, after a public confession of his error. The devotion of the rest of his life to works of charity won him the pardon he sought. Sewall, one of the judges, struck with horror at the part he had played in the persecution, made an open and frank con- fession of his error, and implored the forgiveness of his fellow-citizens. His sincerity was so evident that he soon regained the favor he had lost. Stoughtoii passed the remainder of his life in proud and haughty disre- gard of the opinion of his fellow-men, scorning to make any acknowl- edgment of error, and evincing no remorse for his cruelties. As for the prime mover of the delusion, the Rev. Cotton Mather, nothing could induce him to admit that he could by any possibility have been in error ; not even the recollection of the sorrow he had brought upon some of the best people in the colony could shake his impenetrable self-conceit, or humble him. When it was plain to him that he was the object of the indignation of all good men in New England, he had the hardihood to endeavor to persuade them that after all he had not been specially active in the sad affair. " Was Cotton Mather honestly credu- lous ? " asks Bancroft. " Ever ready to dupe himself, he limited his credulity only by the probable credulity of others. He changes, or omits to repeat, his statements, without acknowledging error, and with a clear intention of conveying false impressions. He is an example how far selfishness, under the form of vanity and ambition, can blind the higher faculties, stupefy the judgment, and dupe consciousness itself. His self- righteousness was complete till he was resisted." And yet this man was not to die without rendering to the country a genuine service. In 1721, having become satisfied that inoculation was a sure preventive of small-pox, he advocated the introduction of it into the colony. He was opposed by the whole body of the clergy, who de- clared that it was an attempt to defeat the plans of the Almighty, who " sent the small-pox as a punishment for sins, and whose vengeance would thus be only provoked the more." The people of the colony were also bitterly opposed to inoculation, and threatened to hang Mather if he did not cease his advocacy of it. His life was at one time in serious danger, but he persevered, and at length had the satisfaction of seeing the practice of inoculation generally adopted by the people who had so hotly opposed it. CHAPTER XVI. THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. Voyages of Henry Hudson He is Employed by the Dutch Discovery of the Huds* River Early Dutch Voyages Adrian Block Fate of Hudson Th^ Dutch build a Fort on Manhattan Island Settlement of New Amsterdam The Province named New Netherlands Fort Nassau Peter Minuits Governor The Dutch Settlement of Dela- ware Wouter Van Twiller Kieft Governor His Unjust Treatment of the Indians Massacre of the Indians at Hoboken The Indian War Stuy vesant Appointed Governor Disputes with the English in Connecticut The Swedes Settle Delaware Stuyvesant Captures the Swedish Forts Growth of New Amsterdam Disputes between the People and Governor Growing Spirit of Popular Liberty The People Appeal to the States General Capture of New Netherlands by the English The Name of the Province changed to New York Results of the English Conquest Progress of New Jersey Andros Governor of New York He Fails to Establish his Authority over Connecticut New York allowed an Assembly Discontents of the People Leister's Rebellion- Execution of Leisler and Milbourne Fletcher Governor His Attempt to obtain Command of the Connecticut Militia Episcopacy Established in New York The Freedom of the Press Sustained New Jersey a Royal Province. | HEN the hope of finding a northwest passage to India began to die out, a company of " certain worshipful merchants " of London employed Henry Hudson, an Englishman and an experienced navigator, to go in search of a northeast passage to India, around the Arctic shores of Europe, between Lapland and Nova Zembla and frozen Spitzbergen. These worthy gentlemen were convinced that since the effort to find a northwest passage had failed, nothing remained but to search for a northeast passage, and they were sure that if human skill or energy could find it, Hudson would succeed in his mission. They were not mistaken in their man, for in two successive voyages he did all that mortal could do to penetrate the ice-fields beyond the North Cape, but without success. An impassable barrier of ice held him back, and he was forced to return to London to confess his failure. With unconquerable hope, he suggested new means of overcoming the difficul- ties ; but while his employers praised his zeal and skill, they declined tc go to further expense in an undertaking which promised so little, and the "bold Englishman, the expert pilot, and the famous navigator " found himself out of employment. Every effort to secure aid in England 22S SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK. 229 failed him, and, thoroughly disheartened, he passed over to Holland, whither his fame had preceded him. The Dutch, who were more enterprising and more hopeful than his own countrymen, lent a ready ear to his statement of his plans, and the Dutch East India Company at once employed him, and placed him in command of a yacht of ninety tons, called the " Half Moon," manned by a picked crew. On the 25th of March, 1609, Hudson set sail in this vessel from Amsterdam, and steered directly for the coast of Nova Zembla. He succeeded in reaching the meridian of Spitzbergen; but here the ice, the fogs, and the fierce tempests of the north drove him back, and turning to the westward, he sailed past the capes of Greenland, and on the 2d of July was on the banks of Newfoundland. He passed down the coast as far as Charleston harbor, vainly hoping to find the northwest passage, and then in despair turned to the northward, discover- ing Delaware bay on his voyage. On the 3d of September he arrived off a large bay to the north of the Delaware, and passing into it, dropped anchor "at two cables' length from the shore," within Sandy Hook. Devoting some days to rest, and to the exploration of the bay, he passed through The Nar- rows on the llth of September, and then the broad and beautiful "inner bay" burst upon him in all its splendor, and from the deck of his ship he watched the swift cur- rent of the mighty river rolling from the north to the sea. He was full of hope now, and the next day continued his progress up the river, and at nightfall cast anchor at Yonkers. During the night the current of the river turned his ship around, placing her head down stream ; and this fact, coupled with the assurances of the natives who came out to the " Half Moon " in their canoes, that the river came from far beyond the mountains, convinced him that the stream flowed from ocean to ocean, and that by sailing on he would at length reach India the golden land of his dreams. Thus encouraged, he pursued his way up the river, gazing with won- dering delight upon its glorious scenery, and listening with gradually fading hope to the stories of the natives who flocked to the water to greet him. The stream narrowed, and the water grew fresh, and long before he anchored below Albany, Hudson had abandoned the belief that he was in the northwest passage. From the anchorage a boat's crew continued the voyage to the mouth of the Mohawk. Hudson was satisfied that he COAT OF ARMS OF NEW YORK. 230 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. had made a great discovery one that was worth fully as much as finding the new route to India. He was in a region upon which the white man's eye had never rested before, and which offered the richest returns to commercial ventures. He hastened back to New York bay, took pos- session of the country in the name of Holland, and then set sail for Europe. He put into Dartmouth, in England, on his way back, where he told the story of his discovery. King James I. prevented his contin- ling his voyage, hoping to deprive the Dutch of its fruits ; but Hudson took care to send his log-book and all th3 ship's papers over to Holland, and thus placed his employers in full possession of the knowledge he had gained. The English at length released the "Half Moon," and she continued her voyage to the Texel, but without her commander. The discovery of Hudson was particularly acceptable to the Dutch, for the new country was rich in fur-bearing animals, and Russia offered a ready market for all the furs that could be sent there. The East India Company, therefore, refitted the "Half Moon" after her return to Holland, and despatched her to the region discovered by Hudson on a fur trading expedition, which was highly successful. Private persons also embarked in similar enterprises, and within two years a prosperous and important fur trade was established between Holland and the country along the Mauritius, as the great river discovered by Hudson had been named, in honor of the Stadtholder of Holland. No government took any notice of the trade for a while, and all persons were free to engage in it. Among the adventurers employed in this trade was one Adrian Block, noted as one of the boldest navigators of his time. He made a voyage to Manhattan island in 1614, then the site of a Dutch trading-post, and secured a cargo of skins, with which he was about to return to Holland, when a fire consumed both his vessel and her cargo, and obliged him to pass the winter with his crew on the island. They built them log huts on the site of the present Beaver street the first houses erected on the island and during the winter constructed a yacht of sixteen tons, which Block called the " Onrust "the " Restless." In this yacht Block made several voyages of discovery, and explored the coasts of Long Island sound, and gave his name to the small island near the eastern end of the sound. He soon after went back to Europe. In the meantime Hudson had not been permitted by the English king to take service again with the Dutch, and after apprising his employers in Holland of his discoveries, he was engaged by an English company to make further explorations in their behalf. He sailed to the north of his former route, reached the coast of Labrador, and passing through the SETTLEMENT OF NEK FORK. 231 straits, entered the bay which bears his name. He spent the remainder of the season in exploring its coasts, and resolved to winter there, hoping to push his discoveries still farther northward in the spring. In the spring of 1611 he found it impossible to continue his voyage, as his provisions had begun to run low, and with tears turned his vessel's prow homeward. His men now broke out into mutiny, and seizing Hudson and his son and four others, who were sick, they placed them in the shallop and set them adrift. And so the great navigator, whose memory is perpetuated by one of the noblest of the rivers of America, and whose genius gave the region through which it flows to civilization, perished amid the northern seas, "The gloomy waste of waters which bears his name is his tomb and his monument," In 1614 the Dutch built a fort on the lower end of Manhattan island, an<,l in the next few years established forts or trading houses along the river as far as Fort Orange, on the site of Albany. These were merely trading-posts, no effort being yet made to occupy the country with a permanent colony. In 1621 the Dutch West India Company was organ- ized for the purpose of trading with America, and took possession of the country along the Hudson, intending to hold it merely as temporary occupants. The States General of Holland granted them the monopoly of trade from Cape May to Nova Scotia, and named the whole region New Netherland. The Dutch thus extended their claims into regions already claimed by the English and French, and prepared the way for future quarrels and complications. The English, now awake to the importance of Hudson's discoveries, warned the Dutch government to refrain from making further settle- ments on " Hudson's river," as they called the Mauritius ; but the latter, relying upon the justice of their claim, paid no attention to these warnings, and in the spring of 1623 the Dutch West India Company sent over thirty families of Walloons, or one hundred and ten persons in all, to . found a permanent colony. These Walloons were Protestants from the, frontier between France and Flanders, and had fled to Amsterdam to ? escape religious persecution in their own country. They were sound, healthy, vigorous, and pious people, and could be relied upon to make homes in the new world. The majority of them settled around the fort Dn the lower end of Manhattan island, and the colony was named Ne\r Amsterdam. The remainder established themselves on Long island, about where the Brooklyn navy yard now stands, and there Sarah de Rapelje, the first white child born in the province of New Netherlands,., saw the light. Eighteen families ascei>ded the river and settled, around Fort Orange. liISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. In the same year (1623) a party under command of Cornelis Jacobsen May, who gave his name to the southern cape of New Jersey, ascewled [NE of the most remarkable results of the English Reformation was the rise and growth of the Society of Friends, or Quakers, as they came to be called. Discarding what seemed to them superfluous and unnecessary forms in religion, they confined themselves to a simpler and more primitive expression of their faith. Believing that the only evil a Christian should resist is the evil of his own heart, they opposed no resistance to persecution or to ill-treat- ment from their fellow-men ; and as servants of the Prince of Peace were unchangeably opposed to war and bloodshed. They held the doctrine of the Trinity ; that we obtain salvation by the atoning blood of Christ ; that man was created a free and responsible agent, that he forfeited his right to the blessings of the Creator by his fall, and will owe his restora- tion to his lost estate to the mercy of God and the blood of Christ ; that the Holy Scriptures are the work of inspiration, and a good rule of life and faith. With them the test of Christianity was not a man's standing in the church, but the answer of a good conscience ; the sense of true in- ward communion between the soul of the individual and God. They conducted their worship in silence, and regarded all their members as sent by God to preach His gospel ; therefore, any one, even women, was free to speak in their meetings the message which came to him from the Holy Spirit. They denied that the right to preach was restricted to any particular class, and refused to acknowledge the authority of the regular clergy. Oaths were regarded as unlawful for Christian men, and temper- 255 256 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ance and the utmost simplicity in all things were enjoined upon their people. They refused to recognize the social distinctions which prevailed in the world, though they admitted the power of the magistrates to enforce the laws, and regarded all men as equals. Their dress was simple, and in proportion to the means of the wearer, and their lives were blameless. They admitted the right of all men to worship God in their own way, and thus extended to all others the perfect toleration they claimed for themselves. The founder of this sect was the good George Fox, the son of a weaver of Leicestershire, and " by his mother descended from the stock of the martyrs." He began to teach his doctrines about the middle of the seven- teenth century, and at first his converts were people of the humbler classes of England. He was met with a determined opposition from both the established church and the Presbyterians, and was imprisoned, set in the stocks, cruelly beaten, and otherwise persecuted, and driven from place to place. Yet he persevered, and his doctrines began to spread. Distressed by the perse- cutions to which his followers were subjected, he visited America after the restoration of Charles II., in the hope of finding there a place of refuge for his people, but could find none. Puritan New COAT OP ARMS OP PENNSYLVANIA. _, , - - ., , . - England was hostile to his doc- trines, and the power of the Church of England was strong enough in the southern colonies to defeat his object. Among Fox's converts were a few from the higher classes of English society. One of these was destined to be, next to its founder, the greatest benefactor of his faith, and one of the choice instruments of the Almighty in the settlement and Christianization of America. This was William Penn. He was the son and heir of Admiral Sir William Penn, one of the most distinguished naval commanders of England. The admiral desired for his son the advantages which his high position would readily secure to him, but the young man at an early day, happening to converse with a simple-minded Quaker, became so deeply impressed with his principles that he adopted them as his own. This greatly annoyed the father, but supposing that it was a mere boyish notion which his son would outgrow, William was sent to study at the University of Oxford, and after leaving that institution was made to travel through Europe to improve his mind and to remove his tendency to Quakerism. William returned to England, after an absence of two years, greatly COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA. 237 improved in mind, but still true to his religious convictions. In 1666, while travelling in Ireland, Penn met his old friend Thomas Loe, and heard him speak* of the glorious triumph of the faith of a Christian over the adversities of the world. His enthusiasm was once more awakened to such an extent that he from that moment began to seek to draw others into the communion which had given him so much happiness. His course gave offence to the authorities, and he was imprisoned. He addressed a remonstrance to the viceroy of Ireland, in which he declared : " Religion is my crime and rny innocence ; it makes me a prisoner to malice, but my own freeman." Being liberated, he went back home, but only to meet with mockery and persecution. He was ridiculed by his companions of his own rank in life, and it was a common jest in society, says Pepys, that "William Penn was a Quaker again, or some very melancholy thing." His father, disappointed and indignant at the failure of his hopes, turned him out of his house without a penny ; but his mother, truer to her nature, supplied him with sufficient funds to relieve his most pressing wants. Penn now began to defend his doctrines through the press, and thus brought them into greater prominence. This soon made him the victim of the ecclesiastical authorities, and the Bishop of London threatened him with imprisonment for life if he did not recant his doctrines. He answered firmly : " Then my prison shall be my grave." He was com- mitted to the Tower on a charge of heresy, and kept in close confinement. Charles II., naturally kind-hearted, was touched by his firmness, and sent the learned Stillingfleet, himself a man of humanity, to reason with him. " The Tower," said Penn, " is to me the worst argument in the world." At the end of a year his father's friend, the Duke of York, procured his release, for the consistency of the young man had won back for him the affection and sympathy of the stern old admiral. Every effort was now made to draw William Penn away from his faith. A high rank in the royal navy, the favor of the king, and many other inducements were held out to him ; but he refused them all, and remained true to his principles. In less than a year after his release from the Tower he was arrested for having spoken at a Quaker meeting. He protested his right to do this, and declared that no power on earth should prevent him from worshipping the God who made him. He was placed on trial for his offence, and boldly demanded to know on what law the indictment against him was founded. "On the common law," replied the recorder. " Where is that law ? " asked Penn. " The law which is not in being, far from being common, is no law at all." He conducted his own defence, and as he was pleading earnestly for his 17 258 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. rights as an Englishman, was hurried out of court. He appealed to the jury to remember that they were his judges. The jury, in spite of an unfavorable charge from the judge, brought in a verdict of acquittal. The court ordered them back to their room, with the angry declaration : " We will have a verdict, by the help of God, or you shall starve for it." "You are Englishmen," cried Penn to the jurors, as they were retiring: "Mind your privilege; give not away your right." At last, after being kept two days and nights without food, the jury repeated their verdict of "not guilty," and were fined by the court for daring to assert their independence. Penn was fined for contempt of court, and sent back to prison. His fine was soon discharged by his father, who died shortly afterwards. " Son William," said the dying admiral, to whom earthly honors now appeared in their true light, " if you and your friends keep to your plain way of preaching and living, you will make an end of the priests." Peun was now nearly twenty-six years old, and had inherited from his father a handsome estate. He continued to explain and defend his doctrines through the press, and in 1671 was arrested and sentenced to six months' imprisonment in Newgate. From his prison he addressed a noble pica to Parlia- ment and to the nation for toleration. Upon his release from prison, Penn travelled in Hol- land and Germany, and upon his return to Eng- land, in 1673, married a woman of great beauty, whose noble character rendered her a fitting com- panion to him. He took no part in public affairs WILLIAM PENN. * * until the imprisonment 01 George rox, upon his return to England from America, called him once more to the defence oi his brethren. Fox being released, he and Penn and several others travelled through Holland and a part of Germany, seeking to make converts to their faith an effort in which they were very successful among the Dutch and German peasantry. Returning to England, he once more appealed to Parliament, but without success, to do justice to tlie Quakers, and grant them the toleration to which they were entitled. Despairing of success in England, Penn now directed the whole of his energies to securing a home for his persecuted brethren in the new world. A number of Quakers were already settled along the banks of the Dela- ware and in New Jersey, and in 1675 the embarrassments of Edward Byllinge, who had purchased Lord Berkeley's interest in New Jersey, obliged him to sell his share of that province. It was purchased by COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA, 259 "William Penn, Gawen Lourie, and Nicholas Lucas for the benefit of the Quakers. This placed the Friends in possession of an asylum, but it left them more at the mercy of the English government and church than they desired to be, and New Jersey was divided into two equal parts ; Cartaret, Berkeley's former partner, retaining East Jersey, and West Jersey becoming the property of the Quakers. This was accomplished in 1676, and in March of the following year a government resting upon the will of the people, and securing to the inhabitants protection and equality in all their political and religious rights and privileges, was set up in West Jersey. The English Quakers came over to the new province in great numbers, with the good wishes of Charles II., and peaceful relations were established with the Indians. Byllinge, who had retained some interest in the province, now began to be troublesome, and claimed the right to nominate the deputy governor. The people denied his claim, and, at the instigation of William Penn, amended their constitu- tion so as to place the choice of all their officers in their own hands, and then elected a governor. Penn had now become deeply interested in the colonization of America, and wished to secure for his faith a wider domain than West Jersey. He had inherited from his father a claim against the English government amounting to 16,000. He now proposed to exchange this claim for a grant of territory in America. Charles II., who was always in want of money, and who never set much value upon the lands of the new world, readily accepted his offer, as it was urged by Lords North, Halifax, and Sunderland, and the Duke of York, who were firm friends of William Penn. The king, in 1681, granted to Penn a district lying west of the Delaware river, and corresponding very nearly to territory embraced in the present State of Pennsylvania, which name the king bestowed upon it in honor of the proprietor. The Duke of York claimed Delaware as his own property, and Penn, who wished to have free access to the sea, purchased it of him the next year. The territory was granted to Penn as absolute proprietor; the people were secured in the right of self- government; religious equality was guaranteed to all; the acts of the colonial legislature were to be submitted to the king and council, who had the power to annul them if contrary to the law of England ; the power of levying customs was reserved to Parliament; and no taxes wert to be imposed upon the people save by the colonial legislature or by Par- liament. Penn then invited all persons who desired to do so to settle in Penn- sylvania, and in a proclamation daclared his intention to leave the settlers free to make their own laws. " I propose," he said, " to leave myself 260 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and successors no power of doing mischief, that the will of no one man may hinder the good of a whole country." " God," he declared, " has furnished me with a better resolution, and has given me his grace to keep it." His resolution was soon tested. Soon after he obtained his patent a company of traders offered him six thousand pounds and an annual pay- ment of a stipulated sum for the monopoly of the Indian traffic between the Delaware and the Susquehanna. He had already straitened himself very much by his expenditures for his colony, and his family had been obliged to endure some deprivations in consequence. The offer was tempting, but he declined it firmly. What was free to him should be free to every inhabitant of Pennsylvania, and he would derive no advan- tage at the expense of his people. A company was collected and sent out to Pennsylvania, under William Markham, Penn's nephew, and the personal character of the proprietor of the colony was deemed by all a sufficient guarantee for the protection of their liberties. Penn intended following this company as soon as he could, and in the meantime enjoined Markham to continue the establish- ment already existing along the Delaware, and to govern in accordance with the laws of England. In 1682 he prepared to go out to America to superintend the formal establishment of his colony. As he was about to sail, he wrote to his wife, to whom he was devoted with all the ardor of his youth : " Live low and sparingly till my debts be paid ; I desire not riches, but to owe nothing ; be liberal to the poor, and kind to all." With regard to their children, he wrote : " Let their learning be liberal ; spare no cost, for by such parsimony all is lost that is saved." Penn took out with him one hundred emigrants, and reached New- castle on the 27th of October, 1682, after a long and trying voyage. In the presence of the Swedish, Dutch and English settlers, who welcomed him with joy, he took formal possession of the province, which was sur- rendered to him by the agents of the Duke of York. He pledged himself to the people to grant them liberty of conscience and all their civil privileges. From Newcastle Penn went up the river to Chester, where a settlement had been formed by emigrants from the north of England, who had preceded him. Early in November, accompanied by a few friends, Penn ascended the Delaware in an open boat to the mouth of the Schuylkill, and passing a little distance beyond this landed on the beautiful site now occupied by the city of Philadelphia. The place at which he landed was long known as the " Blue Anchor Landing," from a tavern of that name which stood there. A little later, under a spreading elm, Penn met the chiefs of the COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA. 261 neighboring Indian tribes, and entered into a treaty of peace and friend- ship with them. This treaty was confirmed by no oath, but it remained unbroken for fifty years, and as neither side sought to evade its obli- gations, which were simply of peace and good will, the colony of Pennsylvania escaped in its earlier years the horrors of a savage warfare from which the other settlers suffered. ' We will live," said the Indian sachems, " in love with William Penn and his children as long as the moon and the sun shall endure." They kept their word. " Penn came without arms ; he declared his purpose to Abstain from violence ; he had no message but peace ; and -ot a drop cf Quaker blood was ever shed by an Indian." The scene of the treaty was at Shackamaxon, now Ken- sington, in the city of Philadelphia. PENN'S TREATY WITH THE INDIANS. On the pleasant tract lying between the Delaware and the Schuylkill, which was purchased from the Swedes, who had on their part purchased it from the Indians, Penn ii 7683 laid cut the capital of his province, which he named PHIL A DELPHI, the city of Brotherly Love, in token of the principles which he meant should constitute the common law cf his possessions. It was abundantly supplied with streams of pure water t und was admirably situated for purposes of trade. He did not wish it to be built after the manner of European cities, but designed it to be a "greene country town, gardens round each house, that it might never be burned, and always be wholesome." The streets were laid off by mark- ing their course through the primitive forest by blazing the trees, and the 262 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. building of dwellings was begun. In the first year of Penn's arrival in the colony, twenty-three ships with emigrants arrived in Pennsylvania. In three years after its foundation Philadelphia contained upwards of six hundred houses, and the colony had a population of ten thousand. The Indians proved the firm friends of the colonists, and supplied them with wild ibwl and venison in return for articles of European manufacture. Penn from the first refused to retain in his hands the exercise of the vast powers with which the charter granted him by the king invested him. As early as December, 1682, he convened a general convention of the people, and gave them a charter of liberties which Bancroft thus sums up: " God was declared the nly Lord j nscience; the first day of the week was reserved as a day of leisure, for the ease of the creation. The rule of equality was introduced into families by abrogating the privileges of primogeniture. The word of an honest man was evidence without an oath. The mad spirit of speculation was checked by a system of strict accounta- bility, applied to factors and agents. Every man liable to civil burdens pos- sessed the right of PENN LAYING OUT THE PLAN OF PHILADELPHIA. SUIT rage J and, Wltil- out regard to sect, every Christian was eligible to office. No tax or custom could be levied but by law. The Quaker is a spiritualist ; the pleasures of the senses, masks, revels and stage plays, not less than bull-baits and cock-fights, were prohibited. Murder was the only crime punishable by death. Marriage was esteemed a civil contract; adultery a felony. The Quakers had suffered wrong from imprisonment ; the false accuser was liable to double damages. Every prison for convicts was made a workhouse. There were neither poor-rates nor tithes. The Swedes, and Finns, and Dutch were invested with the liberties of Englishmen." * In March, 1683, the first general assembly of Pennsylvania met at Philadelphia. i( I am ready," said Penn to this body, " to settle such foundations as may be for your happiness." Under the guidance of the founder of the * Bancroft's History of the United States, vol. ii., p. 385. COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA. 263 colony, the assembly established a constitution which made Pennsylvania emphatically a free state. A government was established, consisting of o governor, a legislative council and an assembly composed of representa- tives of th3 people. As the charter made the proprietor responsible to the king for the legislation of the colony, no act of legislation was to be valid until it had passed the great seal of the province. With tl;;.- exception the entire power of the province was left in the hands of tiie people. " But for the hereditary office of proprietary, Pennsylvania hud been a representative democracy. In Maryland, the council was named by Lord Baltimore; in Pennsylvania, by the people. In Maryland, the power of appointing magistrates, and all, even the subordinate executive officers, rested solely with the proprietary; in Pennsylvania, William Penn could not appoint a justice or a constable ; every executive officer, except the highest, was elected by the people or their re- presentatives ; and the governor could perform no public act, but with the consent of the council. Lord Bal- timore had a reve- nue derived from the export of to- bacco, the staple of Maryland ; and his colony was burdened with taxes : a similar revenue was offered to William Penn, and declined, and tax-gatherers were unknown in his province." Thus did the "Quaker king" complete one of the sublimest sur- renders of political power in all the annals of history. " I desired," he said, in his grand simplicity, " to show men as free and happy as they can be." The colony improved rapidly. Men were attracted from all parts of Great Britain, from Ireland, the Low countries, from Germany and Sweden, to Pennsylvania. The personal character of William Penn, not less than the advantages afforded them, induced them to settle in the happy colony. Philadelphia especially grew with rapidity, and already gave promise of becoming the principal city of colonial America. Schools were opened, and liberally encouraged, for ignorance had no advocates in SETTLEMENT OF PHILADELPHIA. 264 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. this thrifty community. The printing press was also set up, and put to work. In August, 1684, Penh, having successfully established his colony, took leave of his people, and returned to England. Lord Baltimore claimed Delaware as a part of the country granted to him. Penn sustained his claim to that region by pleading the actual settlement of the Dutch previous to the grant to Lord Baltimore, and his purchase of the rights which the Duke of York had derived from the Dutch. The English courts decided, in 1685, that Delaware did not constitute apart of Maryland, and sustained Penn's claim. The bound- aries of the two colonies were settled by a compromise. During Penn's absence in England the people of Delaware began to be restless. They presen- ted to the proprietary a list of grievances, and were granted by Penn a separate government. The fall of James II., who continued the friend of William Penn, though so widely opposed to him in religion, was the be- ginning of trouble for the proprietor of Pennsylva- nia. Penn did not re- linquish his friendship for the dethroned king, and his enemies made this constancy, which in no way interfered with his loyalty to William and Mary, the means of injuring him in the estimation of the new king. William was in- duced to believe the charges of disloyalty which were brought against Penn, and deprived him of his patent and proprietorship of Penn- sylvania. Penn was also imprisoned several times for disloyalty. During this period the colony was much annoyed by a disturbance led by one George Keith, who pushed the Quaker doctrine of non-resistance to the verge of absurdity. He argued that no Quaker could with con- sistency take part in public affairs as a magistrate or legislator. As the WILLIAM PENN. COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA. 265 liberties of the colony were the work of Quakers the inference was plain. If Keith was right, then Pennsylvania 'had no lawful government, and must apply to the king for one. Keith produced such trouble in the colony that even the tolerant Quakers were at length obliged to ky hands on him. He was tried and fined for using seditious lan- guage ; but lest their action should seem to be a punishment of opinion the Qua- ker magistrates re- mitted the fine. He subsequently be- came a clergyman of the English Church. This disturbance gave the king a pre- text for declaring Pennsylvania a royal province, and in April, 1693, Ben- jamin Fletcher was appointed by Wil- liam and Mary gov- ernor of Pennsyl- vania, to which pro- vince Delaware was reunited. The peo- ple, indignant at this invasion of their rights, attempted no resistance, but re- fused to recognize the royalist gov- ernor. Some of the magistrates resigned their offices upon his arrival Upon the meeting of the assembly the hostility to Fletcher increased. The members of the assembly declared the laws they had made under the charter granted to Pcnn to be valid, and refused to have new ones, or recognize any other authority. A charter granted by King Charles was, they maintained, as valid as one granted by King William, and they re- CHESTNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA, IN 1875. 266 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. fused to re-enact their old laws, as such a course would be to brand them us illegal. Fletcher demanded that the assembly should appropriate a sum for the defence of New York against the Indians. His demand was flatly refused. The assembly was willing, however, to make an appro- priation for the relief of the people of New York who had suffered by this war, but only upon condition that this sum should be disbursed by officers yf its own appointment. Fletcher refused to consent to this condition, as he regarded it as an infringement of the king's prerogative, and the assembly was dissolved, A. D. 1694. In the meantime Penn had been restored to his proprietary rights. The king expressed himself satisfied of his innocence, which was estab- ITNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. lished before the council, and in August, 1694, the patent for his restora- tion was formally issued. Penn was anxious to return to Pennsylvania, but was detained in England by his inability to raise the funds necessary for the voyage. He had spent a large part of his fortune in planting the colony, and the persecutions and annoyances to which he had been sub- jected in England had caused him great loss. Nor was this his only trouble. His wife and eldest son had died during his trials, and some whom he had imagined his friends in his prosperity had in his adversity shown themselves his enemies. He retained his serenity of mind, how- ever, and persevered in the good work to which he had devoted his life. Being unable to go to Pennsylvania he pent his nephew, Markham, as> COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA. 267 his deputy. Markham summoned an assembly, and this body, alarmed at the recent changes in their charter, which had threatened to deprive them of their political rights, endeavored to provide against a recurrence of the danger by assuming the power of framing a constitution for them- selves. The assembly of 1696 made still further changes, and placed the control of the colonial government entirely in the. hands of the people by giving them the election of all the officials of the province. Penn returned to Pennsylvania in November, 1699, and sanctioned the action of the people. One of the members of the council proposed that they should ma'-.e a constitution that should be "firm and lasting" to them and to the; . descendants. " Keep whr.i - good in the charter and frame of governra.nt," said Penn; "and lay aside what is burdensome, and add v.-hat may 'jest suit th common good." It was agreed by all parties that it would be best to surrender the old charter and frame a new constitution. This was attended with considerable diijculty, as Delaware dreaded the loss of its independence. It was conciliated by being given its own legislature, but was under the administration of the governor of Pennsylvania. The two colonies were never again united. The constitution secured to the people all the political privileges they claimed. Peim, whose sole desire was for the welfare of the colony, held back nothing for hiirself. Among the earliest emigrants to Pennsylvania were many Germars, who had been converted to the Quaker doctrines by William Penn dur- ing his missionary labors on the continent of Europe. They settled at Germantown, to which they gave its name. Towards the close of the seventeenth century the severe wars in Europe drove out large numbers of Germans from the Rhaie valley. They sought refuge in England at first, and from that country passed over to Pennsylvania. They were chiefly Lutherans, and members of the German Reformed Jhurch. They settled chiefly in the southern part of Pennsylvania, r.nu clung together instead of separating, thus giving to this part of th State the peculiar characteristics which distinguish it to the present day. They held aloof from the English, and allowed the German language alone to be taught to their children. They attracted other settlers from their native country, and the region occupied by them was soon thickly settled, and was noted as one of the best cultivated sections of the province. About the beginning of tho eighteenth century a large emigration from the north of Ireland and from Scotland began to set in, and continued for some years. These people were nearly all Presbyterians, and located themselves chiefly in the eastern and central sections of the province. They were an energetic, industrious, and intelligent community, and set 268 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. to work with a will to improve their new home. They advanced the frontier of Pennsylvania steadily westward by their new plantations, and proved themselves among the most desirable settlers that had yet come vnto the province. William Penn had come to Pennsylvania with the intention of passing the remainder if his Jife there; but rumors now began to reach the colony that it was the intention rf the crown to deprive Pennsylvania of its charter and make it a royal province. These reports made it necessary for Penn to return to Eng- land, a step to which nothing but the im- portance of being near the home gov- ern mcnt to defend the liberties of his people could have forced him. Ho had done his work in America well, and could go back to his native land with the satisfaction that he had successfully laid the foundations of a great and rapidly- growing state, and had placed the liber- ties of its people upon such a secure basis that they would endure for all time. MASONIC TEMPLE, PHILADELPHIA, IN 1875. He had founded a democracy, and had proved by the most generous sur- render of his truly regal powers that his chief aim in life was the good of his fellow-men. After making such arrangements as he deemed best for the welfare of his "young countrie," he went back to England in 1701. There were not wanting eiforts after his arrival in England to deprive him of his proprietary rights and to convert Pennsylvania into a royal province; but the deep reverence with which the English people had now COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA. 269 come to regard the virtues of William Perm prevented the consummation of these designs, and saved the people of Pennsylvania from the rule of royal governors, such as plundered the sister province of New York. The crown could never be persuaded to rob the man whose pure life was an honor to the nation. In his last years Penn was so poor that he was for a while an inmate of a debtors' prison. He had bought the province of Pennsylvania from Charles II., and had confirmed his claim by pur- chasing the lands from the Indians, so that he was absolute owner of the unoccupied lands of the colony. He thus had it in his power to relieve his distress by selling his claims, but in his deepest poverty he refused to part with Pennsylvania, except upon terms which would secure to his people the full and perfect enjoyment of the liberties he had guaranteed them. He died in 1718, peacefully, and amid the sympathy of his coun- trymen in England, and the sorrow of those whom he had befriended in his beloved Pennsylvania. By his pure life he won for the people of his faith the respect of all candid men, and by his fidelity to the principles he professed he became the benefactor of millions who will ever count it a privilege to honor his name. Penn left three sons, who were all minors at the time of his death. They succeeded to his rights as proprietary of Pennsylvania, and the government of the colony was administered for them by deputies until the Revolution, when their claims were purchased by the State. CHAPTER XVIII. SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS. iradual Settlement of North Carolina from Virginia Charles II. grants Carolina tc Clarendon and others The "Grand Model" An Ideal Aristocracy Proposed for Carolina The Authority of the Proprietaries Established in North Carolina Continued Settlement of that Kegion Characteristics of the Early Settlers of North Carolina The People Eeject the Grand Model Hostility of England to the Colonial Commerce Insurrection in North Carolina Slothel Governor Settlement of South Carolina Charleston Founded The Proprietary Constitutions Rejected by South Carolina Rapid Growth of the Colony Introduction of Slavery Characteristics of the Early Settlers of South Carolina Efforts to Enforce the Navigation Acts Resistance of the People The Proprietaries Abandon their Constitutions Archdale's Reforms Religious Intoler- ance Establishment of the Church of England in South Carolina Action of the Crown Continued Prosperity of South Carolina Governor Moore Attacks St. Augus- tine Failure of the Effort The Spaniards are Repulsed in an Attempt to Capture Charleston Indian War in North Carolina The Tuscaroras Driven Northward War with the Yemmassees Destruction of their Power Separation of the Carol inas. ,.<__ I E have related the efforts of the French to colonize the shores of the beautiful region which they named Carolina, and the failure of Raleigh's attempt to found a city upon Roanoke island. We have now to consider the successful planting of this same region with English settlements. After the settlement of Virginia the attention of the English was fre- quently drawn to the fertile region south of the James, and as their plan- tations spread in that direction adventurous explorers went into this region, and returned with reports of its great beauty and fertility. When the severe measures of the Virginia colony for enforcing conformity to the established church were put in operation, many dissenters with- drew from the limits of the colony and settled in what are now the north- eastern councies of North Carolina. Among these were a company of Presbyterians, who settled upon the Chowan. Others followed them, and by the year 1663 these counties contained a prosperous and growing community of English-speaking people. In 1663 Charles II., who always displayed the most remarkable liber- ality in his gifts of American lauds, granted to eight of his favorites the vast region extending from the present southern boundary of Virginia to the St. John's river in Florida, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 2T70 SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINA J. 271 Those upon whom this rich gift was bestowed were the Earl of Claren- don, the prime minister, Lord Ashley Cooper, who was afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury, the Duke of Albemarle, Lord Craven, Sir John Colleton, Lord John Berkeley, his brother, Sir William Berkeley, the governor of Virginia, and Sir George Cartaret. They were given absolute power over their territory, the king reserving only a claim upon their allegiance. The country had been called Carolina by the first French settlers in honor of Charles IX. of France ; the old name was retained in honor of Charles II. of England. The proprietors had but one object in view : to enrich themselves ; hut they claimed to be influenced by a "pious zeal for the propagation of the gospel." They at once set to work to prepare a code of laws for the government of their province. This task was committed to Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, and the great philosopher, John Locke, then an almost unknown man. These produced a code known as " The Grand Model," or "Fundamental Constitutions." This was a system which might have been successful if the people for whom it was intended had been some European com- munity of the Middle Ages, but it was utterly unsuited to a colony in the woods of America, composed of men whose personal independence - - , ., , COAT OF ARMS OF NORTH CAROLINA. and sturdy love of freedom were the indispensable conditions of the success of their enterprise. By the terms of the " Grand Model " an order of nobility was created, into whose hands the sole right to rule was committed. Earls, barons, and squires were made the natural heads of the various classes of society, and the common people were attached to the soil as tenants. A simple tenant could never rise above his humble position, and was denied the right of suffrage; only those who possessed fifty acres of land were allowed this right, or were entitled to the name of freemen. The freerren were allowed an assembly, but that body was placed entirely under the control of the nobility. Religious freedom was promised to all persons, but the constitution expressly declared that the only orthodox establishment was the Church of England. Trial by jury was guaranteed, but with th destructive, provision that a majority should decide the verdict of the jury. It was very clear that this magnificent constitution would not suit the settlers in the log cabins of North Carolina, but the proprietors, ignorant of the people they had to deal with, proceeded to organize their govern- ment in England by electing the Duke of Albemarle to the rank of 272 HISTORY OF THE V 'SITED STATES. Palatine, as the head of their system was termed. Sir William Berkeley, then governor of Virginia, was ordered to establish the authority of the proprietors over the settlers on Albemarle sound. This he did, and appointed William Drununond, a Scotchman and one of the settlers, governor. This was the same Drummond who afterwards took part in Bacon's rebellion in Virginia, and was hanged by Berkeley, as has been related. A simple form of government was established, and the people of North Carolina were left in peace until it should be time to collec; the quit-rents which the proprietors claimed as due for their occupation of their lands. In 1661, a few years previous to this action of Berkeley, a company from New England had made a settlement on the Cape Fear river. The colony did not prosper, however, though liberal inducements were held out to it, and many of the emigrants returned home. In 1664 a colony from the Barbadpes joined the settlers on the Cape Fear. The new- comers had been sent out by a company at the Barbadoes, who purchased from the Indians a tract of land thirty-two miles square on the Cape Fear, and asked of the proprietors of Carolina a confirmation of their purchase and a separate charter of government. A liberal charter was granted them, the country was named Clarendon, and Sir John Yeamans, a resident of Barbadoes, was appointed governor. He was instructed to " make things easy to the people of New England ; from thence the greatest supplies are expected." In 1665 he led a company of emigrants from Barbadoes, and formed a settlement on the Cape Fear. The effort to found a town was unsuccessful, and the emigrants found great diffi- culty in contending against the natural barrenness and poverty of the region in which they had located. They devoted themsc^^es to the cutting and export of lumber, and established a trade in boards, staves and shingles to the West Indies, which is still carried on by their de- scendants. . This trade was found to be profitable, and emigration increased. In 1666 the colony is said to have had a population of eight hundred souls. In the meantime the settlements on Albemarle sound and the Chowan had prospered, and had increased steadily in population, under the simple government established over them. This government consisted of a council of six persons named by the proprietaries and six chosen by the assembly, and an assembly consisting of the governor, the council and twelve representatives chosen by the freeholders of the colony. The proprietaries had confirmed the colonists in the possession of their lands, and had solemnly promised them religious toleration and exemption from taxation except by the colonial legislature. In 1669 the assembly, SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINA**. 273 feeling secure in these guarantees, enacted a series of laws for the gov- ernment of the colony, which remained in force in North Carolina until near the close of the next century. It was enacted that no emigrant should be sued for a debt contracted before his settlement in the colony until he had been a resident of the province for five years. Marriage was made a civil contract, and for its validity required simply the con- sent of the contracting parties before a magistrate in the presence of witnesses. No emigrant could be taxed during his first year's residence in the colony. New settlers were invited by the offer of large bounties in lands, but no title to these lands could be obtained until after a two years' residence in the colony. The governor's salary and the other expenses of the province were secured by the imposition of a fee of thirty pounds of tobacco in every law suit. The members of the assembly served without compensation. In 1670 the constitution of Shaftesbury and Locke was sent over by the proprietaries, and the governor was ordered to establish it in the colony. It met with a determined resistance from both legislature and people, who could never be induced to submit to it. The people upon whom the proprietaries endeavored to force their " Grand Model " were in many respects the most singular community in America. Many of them had fled from injustice and persecution in other colonies, and in the solitude of the forests of North Carolina had become possessed of an independence which scorned any control but that of the government established by their own consent. The plantations were chiefly along the rivers and the shores of Albemarle sound ; there were no roads but the paths marked through the forests by the blazing of the trees; the inhabitants visited each other and travelled through the country in their boats, scarcely any, even among the women and children, being unacquainted with the use of the oar. The people were attached to their beautiful "summer land," and to the freedom which they enjoyed in it. They had little use for laws, for they were mainly a simple- hearted and virtuous race, who, by pursuing the paths of right, gave no cause for restraint. They had no court-house until 1722. Their first church was not built until 1705, and the freedom of conscience which they enjoyed was perfect. Yet they were a God-fearing people, and George Fox, who visited them in 1672, testifies to their readiness to hear the word of God and to their homely virtues. They were cut off from the world, careless of the struggles which rocked Europe to its founda- tions, and anxious only to live in the peaceful enjoyment of the good things God had given them, and to rear their children in the ways which they deemed conformable to his will. There were no towns in the colony 18 I 274 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and in power and importance North Carolina could not compare with any of her more northern sisters ; but there were no communities in which the people were happier or more contented than in this one. When ilie cruelties of Berkeley drove many of the Virginians from their province', they fled to North Carolina, and were kindly received by the people, win- treated Berkeley's demands to surrender the refugees for punishment will:. contempt. "Are there any who doubt man's capacity for self-govern- ment, let them study the early history of North Carolina; its inhabitants were restless and turbulent in their imperfect submission to a government imposed on them from abroad; the administration of the colony was firm, humane and tranquil, when they were left to take cure of themselves. Any government but one of their own institution was oppressive." * These were the people for whom the "Grand Model" was designed, and who successfully resisted its imposition. The proprietaries had withdrawn the government they had first established, at the time when the constitutions of Shaftesbury and Locke were offered to the colony, and the refusal of these constitutions by the colonists left North Carolina without any regularly established system of government. In this state of affairs Stevens, the governor, continued to administer the old system until a settlement of the matter in dispute could be had. He died in 1674, and the assembly elected Cartwright, their speaker, as his successor, by whom the government was administered for two years. Eastchurch, the new speaker, was sent to England to explain the grievances of the colony to the proprietaries, and to endeavor to secure the withdrawal of the obnoxious constitution. Without withdrawing their favorite system, the proprietaries, who were disposed to conciliate the colony, thought best to leave matters in their present condition, and appointed East- church governor. They did away with much of the good effect of this measure by coupling this appointment with that of Miller as collector of customs. He had been driven out of the colony by the people some time before, and he was now sent to compel the payment of the revenues claimed by the proprietaries, and to enforce the navigation acts in North Carolina. The enforcement of the navigation acts meant simply the certain crippling and the probable ruin of the industry of North Carolina. The commerce of the colony was small, and was already struggling against natural difficulties. The whole province contained a little less than foui thousand inhabitants, and its exports consisted of about eight hundred hogsheads of tobacco, a small quantity of Indian corn, and a few cattle. These were shipped in a few small vessels which came for them from * Bancroft's Hlstoi-y of the United States, vol. ii., p. 158. SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS. 275 New England, and brought in return the few articles of foreign manu- facture which the planters could afford to purchase. Yet this humble trade was made the object of the envy of the English merchants, and it was resolved by a rigorous enforcement of the navigation acts to cut the North Carolinians oif from the use of the New England markets, and to compel them to send their products to England for sale. Never was the iniquitous policy of England toward her colonies more strikingly and perfectly illustrated than in her treatment of North Carolina at this period. The effort to enforce the navigation act was met by a deliberately planned and executed insur- rection of the people, who published to the world a de- claration of the causes which had impelled them to this action, and which were chiefly the loss of their liberties by the changes in the govern- ment, the imposition of exces- sive taxes, and the interrup- tion of their commerce by the burdens laid upon it by the navigation acts. The leader of the movement was John Culpepper. One of the mem- bers of tho council joined the insurrection; but the rest, with Miller, who, in addition to his office of collector, had been acting as governor in the absence of Eastchurch, were arrested and imprisoned. When Eastchurch arrived, the colonists refused either to acknowledge his authority or to allow him to enter the colony. In the meantime they arranged matters upon the old popular system, and sent Culpepper and another of their number to England to negotiate a settle- ment with the proprietaries. Miller escaped from confinement and repaired to England to oppose the efforts of Culpepper. By cunningly making himself the champion of the navigation acts, Miller succeeded in arousing a strong sentiment A SETTLER'S CABIN. 276 HISTORY OF THE UNiTED STATE*. against Culpepper, who was arrested on a charge of resisting the collec- tion of the revenue and \embezzl ing the public funds. In support of this arbitrary act, the government pleaded an old statute of Henry VIII., by which a colonist could be arraigned in England for an offence com- mitted in a colony. Culpepper demanded to be tried in North Carolina; upon the scene of his alleged crime ; but this was refused him, and he was put on trial in England. The Earl of Shaftesbury, shrewdly per- ceiving that such a course was repugnant to the real sentiment of tho English people, and that it offered him an opportunity to increase his popularity, undertook the defence of Culpepper, and procured his acquittal. The proprietaries now appointed as governor one of their number, Seth Slothel, who had purchased the rights of Lord Clarendon. Slothel on hig voyage out was captured by the Algerine pirates, and during his absence the government of North Carolina was administered by gov- ernors appointed by the insurgents, who seem to have acted with the consent, or at least without the opposition of the proprietaries, who were much at a loss to know how to enforce their authority in the province. They instructed the col- onists to " settle order among them- selves," and appear to have left COAT OF ARMS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. , 1 T them very much to their own de- rices. The government was well and fairly administered and order was maintained ; an act of amnesty was published ; and when Slothel reached the colony, in 1683, after his release from his captivity, he found it peaceful and orderly. The administration of Slothel was unfortunate for the province. He conld enforce neither the constitutions of the proprietaries nor the navi- gation acts, as he was expected to do ; so he devoted his energies to the task of enriching himself, which he accomplished by robbing the colo- nists and defrauding his proprietary associates in England. In 1688 the colonists, greatly exasperated by his exactions, to which they had submitted for about five years, drove him out of the province by con- demning him to an exile of a year, and forever disqualifying him from holding the office of governor. This was their boldest act yet, and was an open defiance of the proprietaries. In the meantime the southern portion of Carolina had been brought under English rule. In 1670 a company of emigrants was sent out by the proprietaries, under the direction of William Sayle and Joseph West, SETTLEMENT OF THE CAEOLINAS. 277 tiie latter of whom was the commercial agent of the proprietaries. They went by way of Barbadoes, and landed at Port Royal, where the ruins of Fort Carolina, which had been erected by the French, were still to be seen. After a short delay here, they removed to a more favorable loca- tion farther northward, between two rivers, which they named the Ashley and Cooper, in honor of the Earl of Shaftesbury, one of the pro- prietaries. In 1080 this settlement was abandoned for a better situation nearer the harbor. This last settlement was the foundation of the city of Charleston. The first plantation on the Ashley river was afterwards known as Old Charleston. At present not even a log cabin remains to mark the site. The emigrants to South Carolina had been furnished with a copy of the constitutions of Shaftesbury and Locke ; but they were as averse to the acceptance of them as were the people of North Carolina, for they perceived that such a system as that devised by the proprietaries could not be put in operation in America. Immediately upon their arrival they proceeded to establish a form of government suited to their needs. It consisted of a governor, a council composed of five members appointed by the proprietaries and five by the assembly, and an assembly of twenty delegates chosen by the people. Thus was representative government established as the basis of the political life of the province, and through- out all her subsequent history it was cherished by South Carolina as her most precious possession. The colony grew rapidly in population; the delightful climate, the rich soil, and the liberal offers of lands by the proprietaries attracting settlers in considerable numbers. In 1671 Sir John Yeamans brought over African slaves from Barbadoes, thus introducing negro slavery into the colony at the very outset of its existence. This species of labor being found well suited to the necessities of the province was generally adopted in the remaining years of the century, and became the basis of the industry of South Carolina, which was from the first a purely agricul- tural State. The negroes multiplied rapidly by natural increase and by fresh importations ; " so rapidly," says Bancroft, " that in a few years, we are told, the blacks were to the whites in the proportion of twenty-two tc twelve ; a proportion that had no parallel north of the West Indies." The white population also increased rapidly. The dissenters, as all the Protestant sects who differed from the Church of England were called, came over to the colony in large numbers, hoping to find there the toleration they were denied at home. They consisted of Dutch and German Protestants, and Presbyterians from the north of Ireland and from Scotland. The last were generally people of culture, and gave to 278 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the colony many clergymen, physicians, lawyers, and schoolmasters. Churchmen from England also emigrated in considerable numbers, as the " Grand Model " established their church as the orthodox faith of the province. Dutch emigrants came also from New York to escape the ;ut rages of the English governors of that province. Last of all were the Huguenots, who were induced to settle in South Carolina by Charles II., who was sincerely anxious to give them a refuge from their persecutions in Europe, and who wished them to establish in Carolina the culture of the vine, the olive, and the silk-worm. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes drove thousands of the Huguenots from France. Large numbers of them joined their brethren in South Carolina. They were almost invariably persons of education and refinement. In France they had constituted the most useful and intelligent part of the population. They had almost monopolized the mechanical skill and mercantile enterprise of their native land, and their loss was severely felt by it for many gener- ations. In South Carolina they soon became sufficiently numerous to constitute an important part of the population, and their influence was felt in a marked degree, and for the good of the colony. They brought with them the virtues which had won them the respect and confidence of the people of Europe, and the industry which could not fail to place them among the most prosperous citizens of the new state. They mingled freely and intermarried with the other classes of the people of the province, and thus became the ancestors of a splendid race who did honor to their country and upheld her cause with their valor in her hour of trial in the next century. The early years of South Carolina were marked by a constant struggle between the colonists and the proprietaries. The latter vainly attempted to introduce the "Grand Model" as the law of the province, and the former steadily resisted it. A little later the proprietaries offered to make some modifications in their constitutions, but these concessions were re- jected also. The governor, Sir John Yeamans, regarded his office solely as a means of repairing his fortunes at the expense of both proprietaries and colonists, and was dismissed by his employers. West, who was a man of ability and liberality, was appointed his successor, and under him the colony prospered, but, as he was too friendly to the people, he was removed also. In 1684 a small colony under Lord Cardross, a Presbyterian, settled at Port Royal. These settlers had fled to America to escape persecution in England, but their effort to find an abiding place in the new world was not destined to be successful. Lord Cardross returned to Europe in A year or two, and in 1686 the Spaniards from St. Augustine, who SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLISAS. 279 claimed the region as a dependency of their own, invaded the litt'ie settle- ment and laid it waste. Of the ten families which had constituted the colony, some returned to Scotland, while the remainder disappeared among the colonists in the vicinity of the Cooper and Ashley rivers. In 1685 the proprietaries ordered the colonial authorities to enforce the navigation acts in the ports of the province. A rigid execution of this order would have been as fatal to the feeble commerce of South Carolina as to that of the settlements in the northern part of the prov- ince, and it was resisted by the colonists as a violation of their natural rights and of the promises made to them at the time of their emigration. In order to establish their authority more firmly the proprietaries appointed James Colleton governor, with the rank of landgrave. He was the brother of one of the proprietaries, and it was supposed that this fact and his aristocratic rank would give him a moral power which his predecessors had not possessed. The new governor attempted to enforce the constitutions, but was met with a determined resistance, and when he undertook to collect the rents claimed by the proprietaries, and the taxes he had been ordered to levy, the assembly seized the records of the prov- ince, imprisoned the colonial secretary, and defied the governor to exe- cute his orders. In 1690 they went still further, and having proclaimed William and Mary, disfranchised Colleton, and banished him from South Carolina. Disputes now ran high in the colony, chiefly in regard to rents and land tenures. The "cavaliers and ill-livers," as the party devoted to the interests of the proprietaries was termed, endeavored to compel the remainder of the settlers the Presbyterians, Quakers, and Huguenots, the last of whom had recently been admitted to all the privileges of citi- zenship to submit to their high-handed measures. They hoped among other things to secure the supremacy of the Church of England in the colony, notwithstanding the fact that a majority of the people were dis- senters. The troubles went on increasing, and at length the proprietors, in the hope of putting an end to them, consented to abandon their effort to force upon the Carolinas the legislation of Shaftesbury and Locke. In April, 1693, they abolished the fundamental constitutions by a formal vote, and decided to allow the government of the province to be con- ducted according to the terms of the charter. Thomas Smith was appointed governor, but in spite of his many vir- tues he was unacceptable to the people, and the proprietaries determined to send out to Carolina one of their own number with full powers to investigate and remedy the grievances of the colony. John Archdale, " an honest member of the Society of Friends," was chosen, and at onct: 280 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. repaired to Carolina. He was a man of great moderation, and was well suited to the task before him. He succeeded in harmonizing the hostile factions which divided the province, and in the formation of the council selected two men of the moderate party to one high churchman, an arrangement which fairly represented the actual state of parties, and gavetween the Savannah and the Altamalia 286 SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. 287 rivers. This region was to be held " in trust for the poor," for a period of twenty-one years, by the trustees named in the charter, and was to constitute a home for unfortunate debtors and Protestants from the conti- nent of Europe, who might wish to seek safety there from persecution. The territory thus assigned formed a part of South Carolina, but was formally separated from it and named Georgia in honor of the king. The " free exercise of religion " was secured to all sects " except Papists." No grant of land to any single settler was to exceed five hundred acres, a condition which it was hoped would prevent the rich from securing the best lands, and give to the poor an opportunity to become landowners. It was believed that the climate and soil of the new province were speci- ally adapted to the raising of silk-worms and the cultivation of the vine. The scheme of Oglethorpe enlisted the sympathies of all classes of the English people. Liberal donations were made in its behalf, and its benevolent projector exerted himself with energy to secure a colony with which to lay the foundations of the new state. It was determined to take none but the poorest and most helpless, and Oglethorpe himself decided to accompany them, and give his personal care to the plant- ing of the colony. One hundred and fifty persons, comprising thirty- five families, were embarked, and they sailed from England in No- vember, 1732. They reached Charleston in fifty -seven days, and were formally welcomed by the assembly of South Carolina and presented with a supply of cattle and rice. From Charleston the company sailed to Port Royal, while Oglethorpe hastened to explore the Savannah and select a site for the settlement. He chose a location at Yamacraw Bluff, on the right bank of the river, about twenty miles from its mouth. He purchased the land from the Yamacraw Indians, and the foundations of a town were laid. The place was named Savannah from the river on v.'hich it stood. Oglethorpe hastened forward the clearing of the land and the building of houses, but for nearly a year contented himself with a tent which was erected under four wide-spreading pines. " The streets were laid out with the greatest regularity; in each quarter a publL square was reserved; the houses were planned and constructed on one model each a frame of sawed timber, twenty-four feet by sixteen, floored with rough deals, the sides with feather-edged boards, unplaned, and the roof shingled." A garden was laid off by the river-side, to be the nursery of European fruits and other productions. COAT OF AKMS OF GEORGIA. 288 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Friendly relations were cultivated with the Indians. The chief of the Yamacraws came in bringing a buffalo skin, on the inner side of whicfc was painted the head and feathers of an eagle. " Here is a little present," said Tomo-chichi, as the chief was named. " The feathers of the eagle are soft, and signify love ; the buffalo skin is warm, and is the emblem of protection ; therefore love and protect our little families." The Mus- cogees, Creeks, Cherokees, and Oconees also sent their chiefs to Savannah to make an alliance with the English. The savages were well pleased with the noble and commanding appearance of Oglethorpe and his frank and kind manner of dealing with them, and trusted implicitly in the promises he made them. The distant Choctaws also sent messengers to open friendly relations with the new settlers, and a profitable trade was established with the tribes as far west as the Mississippi. Thus far the colony of Georgia was a success, and the friends of the movement in England were no* slow to make public the accounts which came to them of its delightful climate and fertile soil, and all who were oppressed or in need were invited to seek the protection and advantages which the new land offered. The fame of the colony attracted the attention of a number of German Protes- tants in and around Salzburg, who were under- going a severe persecution for the sake of their religion. Their sufferings enlisted the sympa- thy of the people of England, and the " Society OGLETHORPE. ^ r * ne Propagation of the Gospel" invited them to emigrate to Georgia, and secured for them the means of doing so. The Germans readily accepted the offer, and rejoiced greatly that they were thus afforded an opportunity of spreading the gospel among the Indians. Nearly one hundred persons get out from Salzburg, taking with them their wives and little ones in wagons, and journeyed across the country to Frankfort-on-the-Main. They carried with them their Bibles and books of devotion, and as they journeyed lightened their fatigues with those grand old German hymn? which they were to make as precious in the new world as they were to the people of God in the old. From Frankfort they proceeded to the Rhine and floated down that stream to Rotterdam, where being joined by two clergymen Bolzius and Gronau they sailed to England. They were warmly received by a committee of the trustees of the colony and forwarded to Georgia. ? A stormy passage of fifty-seven days brought them to Charleston, in 19 290 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. March, 1734, where they were met by Oglethorpe, who led them to their destination. They were assigned a location on the Savannah, a short distance above the town of Savannah, where they began without delay tc lay off a town which they named Ebenezer, in gratitude to God for hi.s guidance of them into a land of plenty and of rest from persecution. Others of their countrymen joined them from time to time, and their settlement grew rapidly, and became noted as one of the most orderly, thrifty, and moral communities in the new world. In 1734 the town of Augusta was laid out at the head of boat naviga- tion on the Savannah, and soon became an important trading-post. Emigrants came over from England in large numbers, and Oglethorpe had the satisfaction of seeing his colony fairly started upon the road to prosperity. He was justly proud of the success of the colony, for it was mainly due to his disinterested efforts. Governor Johnson of South Carolina, who had watched the labors of Oglethorpe with the deepest interest, wrote : " His undertaking will succeed, for he nobly devotes all his powers to serve the poor and rescue them from their wretchedness." The pastor of Ebenezer bore equally emphatic testimony to his devotion. ' He has taken care of us to the best of his ability," said the pastor. '' God has so blessed his presence and his regulations in the land, that others would not in many years have accomplished what he has brought about in one." In April, 1734, Oglethorpe, whose presence was required in Europe, sailed from Savannah, taking with him several Indians, and enough of the raw silk which had been produced in the colony to make a dress for the queen. Georgia was left to manage its own affairs during the absence of the founder. As the colonists regarded the use of ardent spirits as the sure cause of the dsbt and misery from which they had fled, they prohib- ited their introduction into the colony ; but it was found impossible to enforce this law. The importation of negro slaves was also forbidden. The colony was a refuge for the distressed and oppressed of all nations, and it seemed a violation of the spirit in which it was founded to hold men in bondage. " Slavery," said Oglethorpe, " is against the gospel as well as the fundamental law of England. We refused, as trustees, to make a law permitting such a horrid crime." The visit of Oglethorpe to England was productive of great benefit to Georgia. Parliament was induced to grant it assistance, and the king became deeply interested in the province which had been called by his name. Emigrants from England continued to seek its hospitable shores, and the trustees induced a band of Moravians, or United Brethren, tc emigrate to the colony. They came in 1735, with the intention of SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. 291 becoming missionaries of the gospel among the savage tribes, and under their leader Spangenberg, formed a new settlement on the Ogeechee, south of the Savannah. They claimed and received a grant of fifty acres of land for each of their number, in accordance with a law which had been passed for the encouragement of emigration. In the same year a com- pany of Scotch Highlanders, under their minister, John McLeod, arrived, and founded the town of Darien, on the Altamaha. In 1736 Oglethorpe himself returned, bringing with him three hundred emigrants. Among the new-comers were two brothers, men of eminent piety, who were destined to exercise a powerful influence upon the world. They wore John and Charles Wesley, sons of a clergyman of the Church of England, and themselves ministers of that communion. Charles Wesley had been selected by Oglethorpe as his secretary, and John Wesley came with the hope of becoming the means of converting the Indians to Christianity. He did not succeed in realizing his noble ambition, but we cannot doubt that his experience in America formed a very important part of the training by which God was preparing him for the great work he meant to intrust to him at a later day. The preaching of Wesley had a marked effect upon the colony. Crowds flocked to hear him, neglecting their usual amusements in their eagerness to listen to him. His austerity of life, however, involved him in troubles with the people, and his popu- larity at length disappeared. His brother Charles was too tenderly moulded for so rough a life as that of the infant colony, and his health sank under it. The brothers remained in Georgia only two years, and then went back to Europe, never to return to America. Soon after the departure of the Wesleys came to the colony George Whitefield, their friend and associate, the "golden-mouthed" preacher of the century. In his own land he had begun to preach the message of his Master when but a mere youth, and had proclaimed it to the inmates of the prisons and to the poor in the fields, and now he had come to bring the gospel to the people of the new world. He visited the Lutherans at Ebenezer, and was deeply impressed with the care with which they protected the orphan and helpless children of their com- munity. He determined to establish an institution similar to the orphan house at Halle in Germany, and by his personal exertions succeeded in raising in England and America the funds necessary for the success of his enterprise. He thereupon established near Savannah the first orphan asylum in America. He watched it with unceasing care during his life, but after his death it languished and was at length discontinued. White- field did not confine his labors to Georgia. He visited eveiy colony in America, and finally died and was buried in New England. The memory HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of his wonderful eloquence is still retained in this country by the children of those who listened to him. Immediately upon his return to Georgia, Oglethorpe proceeded to visit the Lutheran settlement at Ebenezer, to encourage the people and lay out their town. The Germans repaid his care by their industry, and in a fviw years their total annual product of raw silk amounted to ten thousand pounds. The culture of indigo was also carried on by them with marked success. Oglethorpe, having visited the Scotch settlement at Darien, now resolved to come to a definite understanding with the Spaniards at St. Augustine respecting the southern border of Georgia, and to sustain the pretensions of Great Britain to the country as far south as the St. John's. Proceeding with a detachment of Highlanders to Cumberland island, he marked out the location for a fort, to be called St. Andrew's, and on the southern end of Amelia island, at the mouth of the St. John's, built Fort St. George. The Spaniards on their part claimed the whole coast as far north as St. Helena's sound, and Oglethorpe, a little later, decided to abandon Fort St. George, but strengthened Fort St. Andrew, as it defended the entrance to the St. Mary's, which stream was finally settled upon as the boundary between Georgia and Florida. Oglethorpe was commissioned a brigadier-general by the king, and was charged with the defence of Georgia and South Carolina. He repaired to England and raised a regiment of troops, with which he returned to Georgia in 1738. Spain and England were rapidly drifting into war. The system of restrictions by which the European governments sought to retain the exclusive possession of the commerce of their respective colonies was al'.vays a fruitful source of trouble. It now operated to bring England and Spain to open hostilities. The Spanish colonies were forbidden by law to trade with any port but that of Cadiz. The merchants of this place, being given a monopoly of the colonial commerce, were enabled to fix their prices without fear of competition, and thus earned large fortunes. The trade of the Spanish-American colonies, however, was too tempting not to produce rivals to the merchants of Cadiz. The English, who had watched its growth with eager eyes, determined to ,pposed to slavery, but because they were always ready to injure the English colonies by any means in their power. Moreover, the Spanish authorities of Florida had ordered the English to withdraw from Georgia, and it was not certain that they would refrain from seeking to enforce this order. Oglethorpe had become convinced that war was in- evitable, and in order to be prepared for it had visited Europe and raised a regiment of six hundred men ; as has been related. War was declared against Spain by England in October, 1739. Admiral Vernon was sent against Portobello with his fleet, and captured that town and its fortifications, and gained some other successes over the Spaniards in Central America. In 1740 the American colonies were ordered by the British government to contribute each its quota to a grand expedition against the Spanish possessions in the West Indies. Each colony made its contribution promptly, and Pennsylvania, in the place of troops, voted a sum of money. The expedition reached Jamaica in January, 1741, but instead of proceeding at once to attack Havana, which was only three days distant, and the conquest of which would have made England supreme in the West Indies, the fleet was detained for over a month at Jamaica by the dissensions between Wentworth, the incompetent commander of the land forces, and Vernon, the admiral of the fleet. The expedition numbered over one hundred vessels, of which twenty -nine were ships of the line, and was manned with fifteen thousand sailors and twelve thousand troops, and supplied with every requisite for a successful siege. Havana might have been taken, and England have gained a hold upon the southern waters of America which could never have been wrested from her. Instead of undertaking this important measure, the expedition attacked Carthagena, the strongest fortress in Spanish America. The Spaniards defended it with obstinacy and held the English in check until the besieging force, decimated by the ravager of the climate, was compelled to withdraw. The war continued through the next year, but England gained no advantage in the West Indies which could at all compensate her for her losses in the struggle. In the autumn of 1739, upon the breaking out of the war, Oglethorpe was ordered to invade Florida and attack St. Augustine. He hastened to Charleston and urged upon the authorities of South Carolina, which formed a part of his military command, the necessity of acting with promptness and decision. He was granted supplies and a force of four SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. 295 hundred men, which, added to his own regiment, gave him a force of one thousand white troops. He was also furnished with a body of Indian warriors by the friendly tribes, and with his little army invaded Florida in the spring of 1741, and laid siege to St. Augustine. He found the garrison more numerous and the fortifications stronger than he had been led to believe. The Indians soon became disheartened and began to desert, and the troops from South Carolina, " enfeebled by the heat, dis- pirited by sickness and fatigued by fruitless efforts, marched away in large bodies." The small naval force also became dissatisfied, and Ogle- thorpe, left with only his own regiment, was obliged to withdraw into Georgia after a siege of five weeks. During this campaign Oglethorpe made a few prisoners, whom he treated with kindness. He prevented the Indians from maltreating the Spanish settlers, and, throughout the invasion, " endured more fatigues than any of his soldiers ; and in spite of ill health, consequent on exposure to perpetual damps, he was always at the head in every important action." The invasion of Florida was a misfortune for Georgia in every way. Not only were some of the inhabitants lost to the colony by death, and the industry of the province greatly interfered with by the calling off of the troops from their ordinary avocations, but a serious misfortune was sustained in the withdrawal of the Moravians from the province. Un- compromisingly opposed to war they withdrew from Georgia in a body, and settled in Pennsylvania, where they founded the towns of Bethlehem and Nazareth. In the last year of the war, 1742, the Spaniards resolved to avenge the attack upon Florida by driving the English out of Georgia. A strong fleet with a considerable land force was sent from Cuba to St. Augustine, from which it proceeded to the mouth of the St. Mary's. Oglethorpe had constructed a strong work called Fort William, on the southern end of Cumberland island, for the defence of this river. With no aid from Carolina, and with less than a thousand men, Oglethorpe was left to de- fend this position as well as he could. He posted his main force at Frederica, a small village on St. Simon's island. The Spanish fleet attacked Fort William in June, and succeeded in passing it and entering the harbor of St. Simon's. The troops were landed, and arrangements were made for a combined attack upon Frederica. Oglethorpe now resolved to anticipate the attack of the enemy by a night assault upon their position, but as his forces were approaching the Spanish camp, under cover of darkness, one of his soldiers, a French- man, betrayed the movement by firing his gun, and escaping into the enemy's lines, where he gave the alarm. Oglethorpe by a happy strata- 296 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. gem now induced the enemy to withdraw, and drew upon the deserter the punishment he merited. He bribed a Spanish prisoner to carry a letter to the deserter, in which he addressed the Frenchman as a spy of the English, and urged him to use every effort to detain the Spaniards before Frederica for several days longer, until a fleet of six English ships of war, which had sailed from Charleston, could reach and destroy St. Augustine. The letter was delivered by the released prisoner to the Spanish commander, as Oglethorpe had known would be the case, and the deserter was placed in confinement. Fortunately, at this moment, some vessels from South Carolina, laden with supplies for Oglethorpe, appeared in the offing. These the Spanish commander was confident were the ships on their way to attack St. Augustine. He determined to strike a vigorous blow at Frederica before sailing to the relief of his countrymen in Florida. On his march towards the English position he was ambuscaded and defeated, with great loss, at a place since called " Bloody Marsh." The next night he embarked his forces, and sailed for St. Augustine to defend it from the attack which had no existence save in the fertile brain of Oglethorpe, whose stratagem was thus entirely successful. On their withdrawal the Spaniards renewed their attempt to capture Fort William, but without success. The firmness and vigor of Oglethorpe had saved Georgia and Carolina from the ruin which the Spaniards, who had no intention of occupying the country, had designed for them. Yet the founder and brave defender of Georgia was not to escape the experience of those who seek with disinterested zeal to serve their fellow- men. The disaffected settlers sent an agent to England to lodge com- plaints against him with the government. In July, 1743, having made sure of the tranquillity and safety of the colony, Oglethorpe sailed for England to meet his accuser, and upon arriving in his native country de- manded an investigation of his conduct in the land for which he had sacrificed so much. The result of the inquiry was the triumphant acquittal of Oglethorpe, and the punishment of his accuser for making false charges. Oglethorpe was promoted to the grade of major-general in the English army. He did not return to Georgia again, but he had the satisfaction of knowing that during his ten years of sacrifice and toil in America he had successfully laid the foundations of a vigorous state, and had placed it far beyond the possibility of failure, and that his name was honored and loved by the people for whom he had given his best efforts without any personal reward. He died at the age of ninety years. After the departure of Oglethorpe many improvements were made in the government of Georgia, which was changed from a military rule to a SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. 297 civil establishment. The forms and customs of the English law were introduced, and the usual magistrates appointed. Slavery had been forbidden by the trustees, but the majority of the people were dissatisfied with this prohibition. The Germans and the Scotch were opposed to the introduction of stave labor, but the greater number of the English, many of whom had been reduced to poverty by iheir idleness and wastefulness, -,vcre of the opinion that the agricultural wealth of the colony could not be properly developed by white labor alone. "They were unwilling to labor, but were clamorous for privileges to which they had no right." They declared that the u?e of strong liquors was rendered absolutely necessary by the climate, and demanded the repeal of the laws against their introduction. Negro slaves were hired from ^he Carolina planters at first for a few years, and finally for a term of one hundred years, which was a practical establishment of sla- very in the colony. Within seven years after Oglethorpe's departure slave-ships from Africa brought their cargoes direct to Savannah, and sold them there. The scruples of the Germans were at length overcome, and they were induced to believe that negroes might be led into the Christian fold by their proper treatment by Christian masters, and that in this way their change of country might result in benefit to them. " If you take slaves in faith," wrote their friends from Germany, " and with the intent of conducting them to Christ, the action will not be a sin, but may prove a benediction." Even the pious Whitefield took this view of ;he subject, and urged the trustees to grant permission to the colonists to .hold slaves, as indispensable to the prosperity of Georgia. The trustees were so strongly urged to this step by all classes of the colony, and so overrun with complaints, that the twenty-one years of their guardianship having expired, they \vere glad to surrender their trust, which they did in 1752, and Georgia became a royal province. Privileges similar to those granted the other colonies were allowed it. The king appointed the governor and some of the other higher officials, and the assembly discharged the duties, and enjoyed the rights appertain- ing to similar bodies in the other provinces. Georgia was always a favored colony. Among the most important privileges bestowed upon it was the right to import and hold negro slaves, which was conferred upon it by Parliament after a careful examination into the matter. After this the colony grew rapidly, and cotton and rice were largely cultivated. In 1752, at the time of the relinquishment of the colony to the crown, G*x>r- gia contained a population less than 2500 whites, and about 400 negroes. In 1775, at the outbreak of the Revolution, the population numbered i'>out 75,000 souls, and its exports were valued at over half a million of dollars. CHAPTER XX. THE FRENCH IN THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. Origin of the Hostility of the Iroquois to the French Settlement of Canada Plans ol the French respecting the Indians The Jesuits Their Work in America Success of their Missions The Early Missionaries Foundation of a College at Quebec Efforts of the Jesuits to Convert the Iroquois Father Jogues Death of Ahasistari Father AlloUez The Missions on the Upper Lakes Father Marquette His Exploration of the Upper Mississippi Death of Marquette La Salle Efforts of France to secure the Valley of the Mississippi La Salle Descends the Mississippi to its Mouth His Effort to Colonize the Lower Mississippi The First Colony in Texas Its Failure Death of La Salle Lemoine d'Ibberville Settlement of Louisiana Colony of Biloxi Settle- ment of Mobile Crozat's Monopoly Founding of New Orleans Detroit Founded Slow Growth of the French Colonies Occupation of the Ohio Valley by the French- Wars with the Indians Extermination of the Natchez Tribe War with the Chickasaws. | E have already spoken of the explorations of Samuel Charaplain in Canada and in the northern part of New York. It is neces- sary now, in order to obtain a proper comprehension of the period at which we have arrived, to go back to the time of his discoveries and trace the efforts of France to extend her domin- ion over the great valley of the Mississippi. We have seen Champlain in one of his last expeditions accompanying a war party of the Hurons and Algonquins against their inveterate enemies, the Iroquois, or Five Nations. By his aid the former were enabled to defeat the Iroquois, and that great confederacy thus became the bitter and uncompromising enemies of the French nation. They cherished this hostility to the latest period of the dominion of France in Canada, and no effort of the French governors was ever able to overcome it. The efforts of Champlain established the settlement of Canada upon a sure basis of success, and after his death settlers came over to Canada from France in considerable numbers. Quebec became an important place, and other settlements were founded. It was apparent from the first that the French colonies must occupy a very different footing from those of England. The soil and the climate were both unfavorable to agriculture, and the French settlements were of necessity organized chic-fly as trading-posts. The trade in furs was immensely valuable, and the French sought to secure the exclusive possession of it. To this end 298 300 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. it was indispensable to secure the friendship of the Indians, especially of those tribes inhabiting the country to the north and west of the groat lakes. In 1634, three years before the death of Champlain, Louis XIII. granted a charter to a company of French nobles and merchants, bestowing upon them the entire region embraced in the valley of the St. Lawrence, then known as New France. Richelieu and Champlain, who were mem- bers of this company, were wise enough to understand that their country- men were not suited to the task of colonization, and that if France was to found an empire in the new world, it must be by civilizing and Chris- tianizing the Indians, and bringing them under the rule of her king, and not by seeking to people Canada with Frenchmen. From this time it became the policy of France to bring the savages under her sway. The efforts of the settlers in Canada were mainly devoted to trading with the Indians, and no attempt was made to found an agricultural state. Champlain had conceived a sincere desire for the conversion of the savages to Christianity, and had employed several priests of the order of St. Francis as his companions, and these had gained sufficient success among the savages to give ground for the hope that the red men might yet be brought into the fold of Christ. Father Lc Caron, one of this order, had penetrated far up the St. Lawrence, had explored the southern coast of Lake Ontario, and had even entered Lake Huron. He brought back tidings of thousands of the sons of the forest living in darkness and superstition, ignorant of the gospel, and dying " in the bondage of their sins." In France a sudden enthusiasm was awakened in behalf of the savages, and at court zeal for the conversion of the Indians became the sure road to distinction. Much of this was the result of genuine dis- interested regard for the welfare of the red men, but much also M-a3 due to the conviction that by such a course the power of France would be most surely established in Canada. The missions were placed entirely in the hands of the Jesuits, an order well suited to the task demanded of it. It had been established by its founder for the express design of defeating the influences and the work of the Reformation, and its members were chosen with especial regard to their fitness for the duties required of them. They were to meet and refute the arguments by which the Reformers justified their withdraw.", 1 , from the Roman Church, to beat back the advancing wave of Protes- tantism, and bring all Christendom once more in humble submission to the feet of the Roman pontiff. The Reformers had made a most success- ful use of education in winning men from Rome; the Jesuits would take their own weapons against the Protestants. They would no longer com- VALLEV OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 301 mand absolute and unquestioning submission to their church ; but would educate the people to accept the faith of Rome as the result of study and investigation ; and in order that study and investigation should lead to this desired result, the control of these processes should be placed exclu- sively in the hands of the members of the Jesuit order, who should direct them as they deemed best. Such a task required a band of devoted men, carefully trained for their special work ; and such an order the Jesuits became. Surrendering his conscience and will to the direction of his superiors, and sinking his personality in that of his order, the Jesuit became a mere intellectual machine in the hands of his superior. Bound by a most solemn oath to obey without inquiry or hesitation the com- mands of the Pope, or the superiors of the order, the Jesuit holds him- self in readiness to execute instantly, and to the best of his ability, any task imposed upon him. Neither fatigue, danger, hunger, nor suffering, was to stand in his way of perfect and unhesitating obedience. No dis- tance was to be considered an obstacle, and no lack of ordinary facilities of travel was to prevent him from attempting to reach the fields in which he was ordered to labor. The merit of obedience in his eyes atoned for every other short-coming ; devotion to the church, the glory of making proselytes, made even suffering pleasure and death a triumph, if met in the discharge of duliy. Such an order was in every way qualified for the work of Christianizing the savages, and America offered the noblest field to which its energies had yet been invited. There, cut off from the am- bitious schemes and corrupt influences which had enlisted their powers in Europe, the Jesuits could achieve, and did achieve their noblest and most useful triumphs. There, their influence was for good alone, and their labors stand in striking contrast with those which won for the order the universal execration of Europe. Not only did they win the honor of gaining many converts to the Christian faith, but they were the means of extending the dominion of their country far beyond the boundaries of Canada, and of bringing the great valley of the Mississippi under the authority of France. By the year 1536 there were thirteen Jesuit missionaries in Canada laboring among the Indians. Not content with remaining around the posts, they pushed out beyond the frontier settlements into the boundless forest, making new converts and important discoveries. Each convert was regarded as a subject of France and the equal of the whites, and the kindliest relations were established between the French and the natives. Many of the traders took them Indian wives, and from these marriages sprang the class of half-breeds afterwards so numerous in Canada The limits of Canada were too narrow for the ambition of the 102 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. they burned to carry Christianity to the tribes in the more distant regions beyond the lakes. In the autumn of 1634 Fathers Brabcuf and Daniel accompanied a party of Hurons, who had come to Quebec on a trading expedition, to their home on the shores of the lake which bears thei.* name. It was a long and difficult journey of nine hundred miles, and it taxed the endurance of the missionaries to the utmost, but they per- severed, and finally gained a resting-place at the Huron villages on Georgian bay and Lake Simcoe. There they erected a rude chapel in a little grove, and celebrated the mysteries of their religion in the midst of the wondering red men, who looked on with awe and not without Interest. Six missions were soon established among the Indian villages in this part of the lake, and converts began to reward the labors of the ^ir j-1^^,^ -r DULUTH, AT THE HEAD OF LAKE SUPERIOR. devoted priests. Father Brabeuf had not an idle moment. The first four hours of the day were passed in prayer and in the flagellation of his body ; he wore a shirt of hair, and his fasts were frequent and severe. The remainder of the day was given to catechizing and teaching the Indians. As he passed along the streets of the village he would ring his little bell, and in this way summon the warriors to converse with him upon the mysteries of the Christian faith. He spent fifteen years in his labors among the Indians, and hundreds of converts were by means oi him gained to Christ among the dusky children of the forest. The great Huron chief, Ahasistari, was among the converts of Father Brabeuf. " Before you came to this country," he said to the missionary, " when I hr.ve incurred the greatest perils and have alone escaped, I have VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPr~. 303 said to myself, 'Some powerful Spirit has the guardianship of my days/" That Spirit he now declared was Jesus Christ, and as he had before jdored him in ignorance, he now became his acknowledged servant. Being satisfied of his sincerity, Father Brabeuf baptized him, and the chief, in the enthusiasm of his new belief, exclaimed, " Let us strive to make the whole world embrace the faith in Jesus." The report of the successful efforts of the missionaries gave great satis- faction in France, and the king and queen and the nobles made liberal donations in support of the missions and for the assistance of the con- verts. A college for the education of missionaries was founded at Quebec in 1635. This was the first institution of learning established in America, and preceded the founding of Harvard College by two years. Madame de la Peltrie, a wealthy young widow of Alengon, with the aid of three nuns, established in 1639 the Ursuline Convent for the edu- cation of Indian girls. The three nuns came out from France to take charge of it, and were received with enthusiasm, especially by the Indians. Montreal being regarded as a more suitable place, the institution was removed to that island and permanently established there. The labors of the missionaries had thus far been confined to the Huron and Algonquin tribes, whom they found very willing to listen to them, and among whom they counted their converts by thousands. They had encountered but little hostility from them, and the dangers of the enter- prise were merely those inseparable from the unsettled condition of the country. They were anxious to extend their efforts to the fiercer and more powerful Iroquois, as the conversion of the tribes of this confederacy would not only swell the number of their converts, but would extend the influence of France to the very borders of the English settlements on the Atlantic coast. The Iroquois, or Five Nations, consisted, as has been said, of the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida and Mohawk tribes. They occupied almost all that part of Canada south of the Ottawa, and between Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron, the greater part of New York and the country lying along the south shore of Lake Erie, now included in the States of Ohio and Pennsylvania. They were generally called by the English the Mohawks. They were the most intelligent, as well as the most powerful, of the tribes with whom the French missionaries came in contact. Their traditions related that their confederacy had been formed in accordance with the instructions of Hiawatha, the greatest and wisest of their chiefs, who had been blessed by the Great Spirit with more than b'iman beauty and wisdom and courage. He had made his people great, flnited and prosperous; had then taken a solemn leave of them, and had 304 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. sailed out into the distant sunset in a snow-white canoe amid the sweetest music from the spirit land. They wore regarded with dread by the sur- rounding tribes, many of which were tributary to them. Their influence extended eastward as far as New England, and westward as far as the countries of the Illinois and the Miamis. They regarded the Hurons as their hereditary enemies, and the French, as the allies of the Hurons, now shared this hostility. The savages long remembered, and never forgave, the alliance of Champlain with the Hurons and Algonquins, to which reference has been made. The Jesuit missionaries vainly endeavored to add the tribes of the Vive Nations to their converts. The latter, regarding the French as enemies, could never be made to look upon the missionaries of that race as friends, and considered the efforts of the good fathers in their behalf DUBUQUE, IOWA. as a species of incantation designed for their destruction. They closed the region south of Lake Ontario to the French traders and priests, and kept a vigilant watch over the passes of the St. Lawrence for the purpose of breaking up the trade of the French at Montreal with the tribes on the lakes. The only route by which the lakes could be reached in safety was by the Ottawa and through the wilderness beyond. Yet occasionally a trading party would slip through the blockade established by the Iroquois, and, descending the lakes and the St. Lawrence, reach Montreal and Quebec in safety. These expeditions constituted the only means by which the Jesuit missionaries in the remote regions could communicate with their principal* establishment at Montreal. VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 305 In the summer of 1642 Father Jogues, who had labored with great success in the country now embraced in the State of Michigan, left the Sault Sainte Marie under the escort of the great Huron war chief Ahasis- tari and a number of his braves, and, descending the Ottawa and the St. Lawrence, reached Montreal and Quebec in safety. On the 1st of August he set out on his return, accompanied by a larger fleet of Huron canoes. Before the mouth of the Ottawa was reached the party wa. j attacked by a band of Mohawks, and the canoes were so much damaged that the occupants were forced to make for the opposite shore. The greater number escaped, but a few, among whom were Father Jogues and Father Goupil, a fellow-priest, were taken prisoners. Ahasistari had succeeded in reaching a place of safety, and from his concealment saw the missionaries prisoners in the hands of their cnemic?. He knew the fate that awaited them, and resolved to share it with them. Father Jogues might have escaped, but as there were among the prisoners several converts who had not yet received baptism, he decided to remain with them in the hope of being able to administer the sacred rite to them before their execution. Ahasistari strode through the midst of the astonished Mohawks to the side of the priest. " My brother," said the chief, " I made oath to thee that I would share thy fortune, whether death or life ; here am I to keep my vow." He received absolution from the hands of his teacher, and died . at the stake with the firmness of a Christian and a hero. Jogues and Goupil were carried to the Mohawk, and in each village through which they were led were compelled to run the gauntlet. On an ear of corn which was thrown to them for food a few drops of the dew had remained, and with these Father Jogues bap- tized two of his converts. Goupil was not so fortunate. He was seen in the act of making the sign of the cross over an Indian child, and was struck dead by a blow from the tomahawk of the child's father, who supposed he was working a spell for the little one's harm. Father Jogues had expected the same fate, but he was spared, and even allowed to erect a large cross near the village at which he was detained, and to worship before it at pleasure. He escaped at length and reached Albany, where he was kindly received by the Dutch, who enabled him to return to France, from which country he sailed again for Canada. He went boldly into the Mohawk country and began again the efforts which he had made during his captivity to convert his enemies to the true faith, but his labors were soon cut short by his murder by a Mohawk warrior. Other missionaries sought the country of these tribes, but only to meet torture and death at their hands. In 1645 the French, who desired to secure their possessions, made a 20 306 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. treaty of peace with the Five Nations. The latter professed to forget and bury the wrongs of the past, and agreed to be the true friends of the French. The Algonquins joined in the peace, but neither tribe was sincere in its professions of friendship. The Abenakis of Maine, who had heard of the good deeds of the Jesuit fathers, sent messengers to Montreal asking that missionaries might be sent to dwell among them. Their appeal was favorably considered, and Father Dreuilettes made his way across the wilderness to the head of the Kennebec, and descended that stream to a point within a few miles of its mouth, where he established his mission. Large numbers of the savages came to him for religious instruction, and he found them ready to embrace the truths he taught them. He entered heartily into all the modes of Indian life, hunting and fishing with them, and winning their confidence and affection. After remaining with them about a year he returned to Quebec, escorted by a band of his converts. He gave such favorable accounts of the disposition of the Maine Indians that a per- manent mission was established among them. By the close of the year 1646 the French had established a line of missions extending across the continent from Lake Superior to Nova Scotia, and between sixty and seventy missionaries were actively engaged in instructing and preaching to the savages. How far the labors of these devoted men were actually successful will never be known, as their work was of a character which cannot be submitted to any human test. They did not succeed, however, in changing either the character or the habits of their converts. They were still wild men, who scorned to engage in the labor of cultivating their lands, and lived by hunting and fishing. They learned to engage in the religious services of the missionaries, to chant matins and vespers, but they made no approach to civilization. When in after years the zeal of the whites for their conversion became less active, and the missionaries less numerous, they fell back into their old ways. In 1648 the peace between the Mohawks and the Hurons was broken, and the war blazed up again fiercer than ever. Bands of Mohawk war- riors invaded the territory of the Hurous, and both the savage and the missionary fell victims to their fury. On the morning of the 4th of July the village of St. Joseph, on Lake Simcoe, was attacked by a Avar party of the Mohawks. The Huron braves were absent on a hunting expedi- tion, and only the old men and the women and children of the tribe were left in the village. This was the village founded by the mission- aries Brabeuf and Daniel, the latter of whom, now an old man, was still dwelling with his converts. At the opening of the attack the good VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 307 priest hastened to baptize such as he could, and to give absolution 10 all whom he could reach. Then, as the Mohawks forced the stockade which protected the village, and swarmed in among the wigwams, he advanced calmly from the chapel to meet them, and fell pierced with numerous arrows. During the next year the Jesuit missions in Upper Canada were broken up. At the capture of the village Father Brabeuf and his com- panion Gabriel Lallemand were made prisoners, and were subsequently put to death with the cruellest tortures. They bore their sufferings with a firmness which astonished their persecutors. The Hurons were scat- tered, and their country was added to the dominion of the Five Nations. Many of the captive Hurons were adopted into the conquering tribes. A large number of these had embraced Christianity so many, indeed, that the Jesuits, who had been in nowise discouraged by the terrible scenes which had marked the war, began to cherish the hope that the presence of these converts would induce the Iroquois to receive a missionary among them. It was decided to make the attempt among the Onondagas, and Oswego, which was their principal village, was chosen as the site of the mission. The Iroquois made no effort to disturb the missionaries, and priests were sent among the other tribes of the confederacy. En- couraged by this reception the French undertook to secure a firm footing in this inviting region by establishing a colony at the mouth of the Oswego, and fifty persons were despatched to that point to begin a settle- ment there. This aroused the alarm of the Indians, who compelled the colonists to withdraw, and forced the missionaries to depart with them. This was the last effort of the .French to obtain possession of New York. The Five Nations were not to be reconciled with them on any terms, and their hostility made it useless to attempt the colonization of that fertile region. Defeated in their hope of obtaining a footing in the country of the Five Nations, the Jesuit fathers turned their attention more energetically to the vast region beyond the lakes. In 1654 two young fur-traders had penetrated into the country beyond Lake Superior, and after an absence of two years had returned to Quebec, bringing with them accounts of the powerful and numerous tribes occupying that region. They brought with them a number of Indians, who urged the French to open commer- cial relations with and send missionaries among these tribes. Their request was promptly granted, and missionaries were soon on the ground. One of these, the aged Father Mesnard, while journeying through the forests, wandered off from his attendants, and was never seen again. His cassock and breviary were found by the Sioux and were long retained by them as a protection against evil. 308 HISTORY OF THE V SITED STATES. In 1665 Father Claude Alloiiez ascended the Ottawa, and crossed the wilderness to the Sault Ste-Marie, on a mission to the tribes of the far west. In October he reached the principal town of the Chippewas at the head of Lake Superior. He found the tribe in great excitement; the voung warriors were eager to engage in a war against the formidable Sioux, and the old men were seeking to restrain them. A grand council- was in progress, which was attended by the chiefs of ten or twelve of the neighboring tribes for the purpose of preserving peace if possible. Father Allouaz was admitted to this assembly, and exhorted the warriors to abandon their hostile intentions, and urged them to join the French in an alliance against the Five Nations. His appeal was successful; the war against the Sioux was abandoned, and the savages came in from all parts of the surrounding country to listen to the words of the missionary. A chapel was built on the shore of the lake, and the mission of the Holy Spirit was founded. The fame of the missionary spread far to the west and north, and the tribes dwelling north of Lake Superior, the Pottawat- omies from Lake Michigan, who worshipped the sun, and the Sioux and the Illinois from the distant prairies of the west, came to the mission to hear the teachings of the missionary. They told him of their country, an unbroken expanse of level land, without trees, but covered with long, rich grass, upon which grazed innumerable herds of buffalo and deer ; of the rice which grew wild in their distant homes ; of the rich yield of maize which their fields produced ; of the copper mines of which they but dimly comprehended the value ; and of the great river which flowed through their country from the far north to the unknown regions of the south, and which Allouez understood them to call the " Messipi." After remaining at his mission for two years Allciiaz returned to Quebec to ask for other laborers in the great field around him, and to urge the French tft establish permanent settlements of emigrants or traders in the Lake Superior country. He remained at Quebec two days, was given an assist- ant, and at once returned to his post, where he continued his labors for many years. " During his long sojourn he lighted the torch of faith for more than twenty different nations." In 1668 the French West India Company, under whose auspices the settlement of Canada had been conducted, relinquished their monopoly of the fur-trade, and a great improvement in the condition and prospects of Canada ensued. In the same year Fathers Claude Dablon and James Marquette established the mission of Ste-Marie at the rapids through which the waters of Lake Superior rush into those of Huron. " For the succeeding years/' says Bancroft, " the illustrious triumvirate, Alloiiez, Dablon, and Marquette, were employed in confirming the influence of VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. SQL France in the vast regions that extend from Green bay to the head of Lake Superior, mingling happiness with suffering, and winning enduring glory by their fearless perseverance." In 1669 Father Alloiiez went to establish a mission at Green bay, and Father Marquette took his place at the mission of the Holy Spirit. Mar- quette had heard so much of the Mississippi that he resolved to under- take the discovery of the upper waters of that stream. He employed a young Illinois warrior as his companion, and from him learned the dia- lect of that tribe. In 1673, accompanied by a fellow-priest named Joliet, five French boatmen, and some Indian guides and interpreters, bearing their canoes on their backs, Marquette set out from his mission, and crossing the narrow portage which divides the Fox river from the Wis- consin, reached the headwaters of the latter stream. There the guides left them, wondering at their rashness in seeking to venture into a region which the simple imagination of the savages filled with vague terrors. The adventurers floated down the Wisconsin, and in seven days entered the Mississippi, " with a joy that could not be expressed." Raising the sails of their canoes they glided down the mighty father of waters, gaz- ing with wonder upon the magnificent forests which lined its shores, and which swarmed with game, and admiring the boundless prairies which stretched away from either bank to* the horizon. One hundred and eighty miles below the mouth of the Wisconsin the voyagers for the first time discovered signs of human beings. They landed, and found an Indian village a few miles distant from the river. They were kindly received by the inhabitants, who spoke the language of the Indians who had come with Marquette, and a week was passed at this hospitable village. The villagers told the travellers that the lower river extended far to the south, where the heat was deadly, and that in those latitudes the stream abounded with monsters which destroyed both men and canoes. At the departure of the whites the chief of the tribe hung around Marquette's neck the peace-pipe, and explained to him that it would prove a safeguard to him among the tribes into whose territory his journey would lead him. Continuing their voyage the explorers reached the mouth of the Mis- souri, and noticed the strong, muddy stream which it poured into the Mississippi. "When I return," said Marquette, "I will ascend that river and pass beyond its headwaters, and proclaim the gospel." One hundred and twenty miles farther south they passed the mouth of the Ohio, of which river they had heard from the Illinois at the village they had visited. As they proceeded farther south the heat became more in- tense, for it was the month of July. They met with Indians, whose 310 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. hostility was disarmed by the peace-pipe which Marquette bore. Some of these Indians were armed with axes of Kuro}>ean manufacture, which they had obtained either from the Spaniards in the far south, or from the English in Virginia. The voyage was continued to the mouth of the Arkansas. Marquette was now satisfied that the great river flowed into the Gulf of Mexico, and as he was fearful of falling into the hands of the Spaniards in that region he decided to bring his voyage to an end, and return to the lakes. The task of ascending the river was accomplished with great difficulty, and at length the mouth of the Illinois was reached. As they supposed this stream would lead them to the lakes the voyagers ALTOT, ILI* ascended it to its headwaters, and then crossed the country to the site of Chicago, from which they continued the voyage by way of Lake Michi- gan to Green bay. Marquette despatched Joliet to Quebec to report the results of the voyage, but himself remained at Green bay. It was his purpose to preach the gospel among the Illinois, who had begged him during his voyage to come back to them. He was detained at Green bay for some time by feeble health, bat in 1675 went back to the Illinois, and began his labors among them. Feeling that his end was near he undertook to return to the mission of St. Mary's, but fell ill on the way. He gave absolution to all his companions, and retired *o pi-ay. An hour after- VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 311 \rarrls, uneasy at his absence, his people went to seek him, and found him kneeling, but praying no longer, for his spirit had gone to receive its re- ward. Ho was buried on the banks of the river that bears hie name, und his memory was long cherished with affection by the Indians. The work of exploration which Marquette had begun was taken up by a bolder and firmer hand. Robert Cavalier de la Salle, a man of good family, had been educated for the service of the Jesuits, but had aban- doned his design of entering that order after completing his educa- tion. In 1667 he had emigrated- to Canada to seek his fortune, and had established himself as a fur-trader on Lake Ontario. Encouraged by the governor of Canada he had explored Lake Ontario, and had ascended to Lake Erie. When the French governor a few years later built Fort Frontenac to guard the outlet of Lake Ontario, La Salle was granted an extensive domain, including Fort Frontenac, now the town of Kingston, on condition that he would maintain the fort. He thus obtained the monopoly of the fur-trade with the Five Nations. Here he was residing at the time of the death of Marquette. The news of Marquette's discoveries filled him with the deepest interest, and he was eager to continue the exploration of the river at the point at which Marquette had discontinuec\ it, and to trace it to its mouth. He was already on the road to fortune, but the prospect of winning greater fame was too tempting to be resisted, and leaving his possessions on Lake Ontario, he sailed for France and laid before Colbert, the minister, the schemes he had formed for the exploration and colonization of the valley of the Mississippi. He obtained a grant of valuable privileges and received permission to attempt the task of adding that vast region to the dominions of France. He returned to Fort Frontenac in the autumn of 1678, bringing with him as his lieutenant an Italian veteran named Tonti and a number of mechanics and seamen, together with the materials for rigging a ship. Before the winter had set in he ascended Lake Ontario to the Niagara river, where he built a trading-post. Then passing around the falls, he constructed a vessel of sixty tons at the foot of Lake Erie. Tonti and Father Hennepin, a Franciscan, went among the Senecas during the construction of the ship and established friendly relations with them, and La Salle exerted himself to procure furs with: which to freight his vessel. The vessel completed, he ascended Lake Erie, passed through the straits into Lakes Huron and Michigan,. and entered Green bay. Then loading his vessel with a cargo of valuable furs, he sent her to the Niagara, with orders to return with supplies as soon as possible. During her absence La Salle and his companions ascended Lake Michigan in canoes as far as the mouth of the St. Joseph's^. ./1 2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. they built a fort. Then crossing over to the valley of the Illinois, he built a fort on a bluff near the site of Peoria, and awaited the return of the " Griffin." The vessel had been wrecked on the voyage to Niagara, and when it became evident that she would not return, Lu Salle named his fort Crevecceur (" Heartbreak ''). Supplies were necessary to the exploration of the Mississippi, and Li Salle being determined to obtain them, took with him three companions and crossed the wilderness to Fort Frontenac, which he reached in tha spring of 1680. During his absence Father Hennepin, by his order% FALLS OF ST. ANTHONY. explored the upper Mississippi as far as the fails, which he named ir honor of St. Anthony, the patron saint of the expedition. In the summer of 1680 La Salle returned to the Illinois, but various causes intervening to delay him, he was not able to undertake his exploration of the Missis sippi until 1682. In that year he built a barge on the upper Illinra, and embarking with his companions, floated down that stream to the Mississippi, which he descended to the Gulf of Mexico. He named the country along the banks of the river LOUISIANA, in honor of Louis XIV., King of France. Then ascending the Mississippi, he returned by the VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 313 lakes to Quebec, and in 1683 sailed for France to enlist the government and people in his project for colonizing the country along the lower Mississippi. His design was encouraged by the king, and emigrants were readily found. In 1684 he sailed from France with four ships and two hundred and eighty persons to plant a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. Unhappily the commander of the fleet was not in sympathy with La Salle, and being jealous of his authority, manifested a degree of stubborn- ness which was fatal to the expedition. One hundred of the colonists were soldiers ; of the rest, some were volunteers, some mechanics, some women, and some priests. After a long voyage they entered the Gulf of Mexico in January, 1685. They sailed past the mouth of the Mississippi, and when La Salle perceived his error, Beaujeu, the commander of the fleet, refused to return, but continued his western course until the bay of Matagorda was reached. There La Salle, weary of his disputes with Beaujeu, resolved to land, hoping that lie might yet find the mouth of the Mississippi. A careless pilot, in attempting to get the store-ship into the harbor, wrecked her, and all the supplies which Louis XIV. had provided with a lavish hand were lost. The colony, which was named Fort St. Louis, was from the first doomed to misfortune, and in a little more than two years was reduced by disease and suffering to thirty-six persons. In January, 1687, La Salle, leaving twenty men at Fort St. Louis, set out with sixteen men to march across the continent to Canada to obtain aid for the settlement. His remarkable courage and determination would doubtless have accom- plished this feat, but on the way he was murdered by two of his men, who regarded him as the author of their sufferings. Of the rest of his companions, five who kept together reached a small French post near the mouth of the Arkansas, after a journey of six months. The twenty men left at Fort St. Louis were never heard of again. The effort to colonize Texas completely failed, and all that was accomplished by La Salle's enterprise was the establishment of the claim of France to this region. To La Salle is due the credit of having been the first to comprehend the importance of securing to France the great region watered by the Mississippi and its tributaries, and it was through his efforts that the attention of France was seriously directed to its colonization. Hie remarkable qualities must always command the admiration and hie sad fate elicit the sympathy of all generous hearts. While La Salle was vainly striving to accomplish some good result with the Texas colony, his friend and lieutenant Tonti, in obedience to his instructions, started from the Illinois and descended the Mississippi 314 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES. almost to its mouth, hoping to meet him. At length, despairing of seeing him, Tonti engraved a cross and the arms of France upon a tree on the banks of the river, and returned to the Illinois. In 1699, twelve years after the death of La Salle, another and this time a successful effort was made to secure Louisiana to France. Lemoine d'Ibberville, a native of Canada and a man of ability and courage, resolved to plant a colony near the mouth of the Mississippi. With four vessels and two hundred emigrants, some of whom were women and children, he sailed from Canada for the mouth of the Mississippi. He landed at the mouth of the river Pascagoula, and with two barges manned by forty-eight men searched the coast for the mouth of the Mississippi. He found it and ascended as high as the mouth of the Red river. Here he was met by the Indians, who, to his astonishment, gave him a letter which had been placed in their charge fourteen years before. It was from Tonti, and was addressed to La Salle. He had given it to the Indians, and had charged them to deliver it to the first Frenchman they met. D'Ibberville returned to the gulf by way of Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain, which he named after two of the ministers of Louis XIV. Deeming the shores of the Mississippi too marshy for coloniza- tion, D'Ibberville formed a settlement at Biloxi, at the mouth of the Pascagoula, within the limits of the present State of Mississippi, and soon afterwards sailed for France to obtain reinforcements and supplies, leaving one of his brothers, Sauville by name, as governor, and the other, Bienville, to explore the Mississippi and the country along its banks. Early in 1700 D'Ibberville returned from France, and about the same time Tonti, La Salle's former lieutenant, now an aged man, arrived from the country of the Illinois. Acting upon Tonti's advice, D'Ibberville ascended the Mississippi for four hundred miles, and on the site of the present city of Natchez built a fort which he named Rosalie, in honor of the Duchess of Pontchartrain. Neither the settlement at Biloxi nor Rosalie prospered, however. The colonists were a shiftless set, and instead of seeking to cultivate the soil and establish homes for themselves, Went farther west to seek for gold. In 1702 D'Ibberville removed the colony from Biloxi to Mobile, which was founded in that year, and became the capital of Louisiana and the centre of the French influence in the scuth. This settlement languished, however, and in ten years only two hundred emigrants were added to its population. It was forced to depend upon the French colonies in the West Indies for subsistence. In 1714 the French government, becoming convinced that it was necessary to make a more vigorous effort to colonize Louisiana if it meant to hold that country, granted a monopoly of trade to Arthur VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI 315 Crozat, who agreed to send over 'every year two ships laden with emi- grants and supplies, and also a cargo of African slaves. The king, on his part, agreed to furnish the sura of ten thousand dollars annually for the protection of the colony. In the same year a trading-house was established at Natch itoches on the Red river, and another on the Ala- bama, near the present site of Montgomery. Fort Rosalie was made the centre of an important trade, and matters began to wear a new aspect in Louisiana. In 1718 Bienville, who had become satisfied of the propriety of removing the seat of government from Mobile to the more productive region of the lower Mississippi, put the convicts to work to clear up the thicket of cane which covered the site on which he meant to locate his HUMBOLDT PALISADES, PACIFIC RAILWAY. new city, and upon the ground thus prepared erected a few huts, the germ of the great city of New Orleans. It grew more rapidly than any of the settlements in Louisiana. In 1722 it contained about one hundred log huts, and a population of seven hundred. In 1723 the seat of gov- ernment was removed from Mobile to New Orleans; and in 1727 the construction of the levee was begun. While these efforts were in progress on the lower Mississippi the French were even more active in the west. Detroit was founded in 1701, an.i the villages of Kaskaskia and Cabokia were formed around the stations of the missionaries on the east bank of the Mississippi, above the mouth of the Ohio. The French population in America grew very slowly, ?,18 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. however. In 1690 the population of Canada was only twelve hundred ; that of Acadia, or Nova Scotia, less than one \ tousand ; and that of Louisiana less than five hundred. France had formed a deliberate and magnificent plan w,ith respect to her American possessions. She meant to build up a mighty empire in ihe valley of the Mississippi, extending from the great lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, and touching Canada. Her efforts to accomplish this were lavish and persistent, but the unhealthiness of the climate and the almost constant wars with the Natchez and Chickasaw Indians disheartened the settlers, and the French population grew so slowly that it could not accomplish the destiny demanded of it by the government at home. As late as 1740 Louisiana contained only about five thousand whites and less than two thousand five hundred negroes. The slow increase of the popu- lation made it necessary to hold the country by a series of military posts. By the year 1750 more than sixty of these posts had been built between Lake Ontario and the Gulf of Mexico, by way of Green bay, the Illinois, the Wabash, and the Maumee rivers, and along the Mississippi to Xew Orleans. Tli3 most important of these forts were held by garrisons of regular troop& ; who were relieved once in six years. They accomplished this in the face of the constant hostility of their old enemies, tne tribes of the Five Nations, and the Natchez and Chickasaws. In 1748 the French extended their claim to the country south of Lake Erie, as far east as the mountains, which they explored, and took formal possession of by burying at the most important points leaden plates engraved with the arms of France. According to the ideas of the times their claim was a valid one. In the meantime the settlements of Louisiana had been obliired to O struggle against the constant hostility of the Natchez Indians, who occu- pied the country around the present city which bears their name. They were not very numerous, but were more intelligent and civilized than the tribes among whom they dwelt. They worshipped the sun, from which deity their principal chief claimed to be descended. They watched the growing power of the French with alarm, and at length resolved to put R stop to the progress of the whites by a general massacre. On the 28tli ui November, 1729, they fell upon the settlement at Fort Rosalie and massacred the garrison and settlers, seven hundred in number. They were not long permitted to exult over their success. When the news of the massacre reached New Orleans Bienville resolved to retaliate severely upon the aggressors. He applied to the Choctaws, the hereditary enemies of the Natchez, for assistance, and \vas furnished by them with sixteen hundred warriors. With these and his own troops Bienville besieged the VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 217 Natchez in their fort; but they escaped under the cover of the night and fled west of the Mississippi, They were followed by the French and forced to surrender ; after which they were taken to New Orleans and sent to St. Domingo, where they were sold as slaves. The Great Sun was among the captives, and the tribe of the Natchez was completely destroyed. It was well known to the French that the Chickasaws, a powerful tribe dwelling between the territory of the Natchez and the Ohio on the north, and as far as the country of the Cherokees on the east, had incited the Natchez against them. Bienville therefore resolved to turn his arms against them. They had also given great trouble to the French by attacking and plundering their trading-boats descending the Mississippi" from the posts on the Illinois. Bienville concerted measures for a com- bined attack upon the Chickasaws with D'Artaguette, governor of the Illinois country, and two expeditions were despatched against the Indians. Bienville, Avith a strong force of French troops and twelve hundred Choctaw warriors, sailed in boats from New Orleans to Mobile and ascended the Tombigbee five hundred miles, to the place now known as Cotton Gin Point. He landed here an/i marched twenty-five miles over- land to the principal fort of the Chickasaws, which he at once attacked. He was repulsed with the loss of one hundred men, and was so discour- aged that he returned to New Orleans. D'Artaguette entered the Chickasaw country with fifty Frenchmen and one thousand Indians. He was defeated and taken prisoner, and was burned at the stake in May, 1735. In 1740 another effort was made by the French to crush the Chickasaws, but was equally unsuccessful. CHAPTER XXI. THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH COME IN CONFLICT. Relations between the English and the Five Nations The Hostility of the Latter to the French King William's War Destruction of Dover The Jesuit Missionaries incite the Indians to attack the English Expedition against Quebec Attack on Dustin' Farm Peace of Ryswick Hostility of the English to Roman Catholics Queen Anne's War Burning of Deerfield Eunice Williams Cruelties of the French Effort of New England to Conquer Acadia Capture of Port Royal Failure of the Expedition against Quebec King George's War Expedition against Louisburg Its Composition Arrival of the Fleet at Cape Breton Good Conduct of the Provincials Capture of Louisburg Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Unjust Treatment of the Colonies by England Sentiment of the Americans towards England. HE territory of the Five Nations lay between the English and French colonies. The friendship which these tribes had borne to the Dutch was transferred to the English upon the conquest of New Netherlands by the latter, and they remained the faith- ful and devoted allies of Great Britain until after the Revolution. Though they remained at peace with the French for some years after the treaty which has been mentioned in the preceding chapter, they regarded a renewal of hostilities with them as certain, and were on the whole anxious to resume the struggle at the earliest moment. James II., eager to establish the Roman Catholic religion in America, instructed the gov- ernor of New York to cultivate friendly relations with the French, and to exert all his influence to induce the Five Nations to receive Jesuit missionaries. The governor, however, saw that the French were rapidly monopolizing the fur-trade, and he encouraged the Five Nations to regard them with suspicion and dislike. The French by their own bad treat- ment of the Mohawks put an end to the hope of a lasting peace with thera Upon the escape of James II. to France, Louis XIV. warmly espoused the cause of the dethroned king, which he declared was the cause of legitimate monarchy as opposed to the right of the people to self-govern- ment ; and the war which was thus begun in Europe spread to the pos- sessions of the rival powers in America. The objects of the two parties in America were very different. That of the people of New England, who were principally interested in the struggle, was to secure their north- ern frontier against invasion from Canada, and to get possession of the 318 ENGLISH ASD FIIESUI LX CONFLICT. 319 fisheries. The French, on the other hand, wished to obtain entire control of the valley of the Mississippi, which would make them sole masters of the fur-trade, and to extend their power over the valley of the St. Lawrence, and thus obtain control of the fisheries also. To accomplish their first object the friendship of the Indian tribes in the valiey of the Mississippi was indispensable, and they exerted every means of which they were pos- sessed to gain it. They renewed their efforts to win over the Five Nations, but without success. The war between these tribes and the French -.vas soon renewed, as has been related, and on the 25th of August, 1689, a band of fifteen hundred Mohawk warriors surprised and captured Montreal, and put two hundred of the inhabitants to death with horrible erti. 21 322 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ders of New England. Nearly every settlement in Maine was destroyed by them or abandoned by the inhabitants, who fled to the other colonies for protection. The Indians prowled around the frontier posts. They had been well armed by the French, and shot down the men without mercy. The women and children were generally spared and carried to Canada, where they were sold to the French as slaves. In 1693 peace was made with the Abenakis, or Eastern Indians ; but within a year the Jesuits had succeeded in inducing the savages to resume hostilities. A party of Indians attacked the house of a farmer named Dustin, residing near Haverhill. He was at work in the field when the shouts of the savages warned him of the danger of his wife and children. Throwing himself on his horse, he hastened to their rescue, and on the way met his children flying for safety pursued by the savages. He threw himself in front of the little ones, and by a few well-aimed shots kept the pursuers back until the children reached a place of safety. Hannah Dustin, her youngest child only a few days old her nurse, and a boy from Worcester, unable to fly, were made prisoners by the Indians. The little one was killed, and the two women and the boy were carried away by the savages to their village, situated on an island in the Merrimac, just above Concord. Hannah Dustin resolved to escape, and communi- cated her plan to her companions. Each secured a tomahawk, and at night began the destruction of their captors, twelve in number. Ten Indians were killed and one squaw was wounded. The twelfth, a child, was purposely spared. Then collecting the gun and tomahawk of the murderer of her infant, and a bag-full of scalps, the heroic woman secured a canoe, and embarking in it with her companions, floated down the Merrimac and soon reached Haverhill, where they were received with astonishment and delight by their friends. This struggle, which is known in American history as King IVUIiam's War, was brought to a close in September, 1697, by the Peace of Rys- wick. It had lasted seven years, and had caused severe. suffering to the northern colonies, without yielding them any compensating advantages. The Five Nations were also severe sufferers. Failing to win them from their alliance with the English, Frontenac several times invaded their country with an army of French troops and Indians, and ravaged it with great cruelty. Frontenac led these expeditions in person, though he was seventy-four years old. The people of New York, regarding the Jesuits as the true authors of the miseries endured by the English and their allies, enacted a law io 1 700, that every Romish priest who voluntarily came into the province should be hanged. ENGLISH AND FRENCH CONFLICT. 323 Five years after the Peace of Ryswick, the War of the Spanish Suc- aession, or, as it is known in American history, Queen Anne's War, began in Europe, It soon extended to America, and embroiled the English and French in this country. The English settlements on the Western frontier of New England were almost annihilated by the Indians, .^id the French were unusually active. The people of Deerfield were warned by the friendly Mohawks BURKING CF EEERFIELD, MASS. the French and Indians were meditating an attack upon their settlement and through the winter of 1703-4 a vigilant watch was kept by night and day. The winter was very severe ; the snow lay four feet deep, and the clear, cold atmosphere made it almost as hard as ice. Profiting by this, a war party of about two hundred French and one hundred and forty-two Indians, under the command of Hertel de Rouville, set out 324 HISTORY OF THE^ UNITED from Canada, and by the aid of snow-shoes crossed the country on the snow and reached the vicinity of Deerfield on the last night of February, 1704. Towards daybreak on the 1st of March the sentinels, supposing that all was safe, left their posts at Deerfield, and the enemy at once silsntly mounted on the snow-drifts to the top of the palisades and entered the enclosure, which had an area of twenty acres. A general massacre followed. The town was destroyed, forty persons were killed, and one hundred and twelve were carried away into Canada. Among the captives were the minister Williams, his wife Eunice, and their five children. The sufferings of the prisoners on the march to Canada were fearful. Two men starved to death. The infant whose cries disturbed the captors was tossed out into the snow to die; and the mother who faltered from fatigue or anguish was despatched by a blow from the tomahawk. Eunice Williams had brought her Bible along with her, and in the brief intervals afforded by the halts of the savages for rest, drew from its sacred pages the consolations she so sorely needed. Her strength soon failed, as she had but recently recovered from her confinement. Her husband sought to cheer her by pointing her to " the house not made with hands," and she assured him that she was satisfied to endure any suffering, counting it gain for Christ's sake. Perceiving that her end was near, she commended her children to God and to their father's care, and was immediately killed by the savages, as she could go no farther. The Williams family were taken to Canada, and a few years later were ransomed, with tho exception of the youngest daughter, with whom the savages refused to part. She was adopted into a village of Christian Indians near Montreal, and became a convert to the Roman Catholic faith, and subsequently married a Mohawk chief. Years after- wards she appeared at Deerfield clad in the dress of her tribe. She had come to visit her relatives ; but no entreaties could induce her to remain with them, and she went back to her adopted people and to her children. The war was conducted with brutal ferocity by the French. Hertel de Rouville gained eternal infamy by his butcheries of helpless womep and children. Vaudreuil, the governor of Canada, urged on his forces to deeds of fresh atrocity, but at length the savages became disgusted with their bloody work and refused to murder any more English. The French succeeded, however, in inducing some of them to continue their assistance, and in 1708 Haverhill was surprised by the French and Indians under Rouville, and its inhabitants massacred with the most fiendish cruelty. None of them escaped death or captivity. Filled with horror and indignation, Colonel Peter Schuyler, of New York, wrote to the Marquis de Vaudreuil : " I hold it my duty towards God and my ENGLISH AND FRENCH IN CONFLICT. 325 neighbor, to prevent, if possible, these barbarous and heathen cruelties. My heart swells with indignation when I think that a war between Christian princes, bound to the exactest laws of honor and generosity, which their noble ancestors have illustrated by brilliant examples, is degenerating into a savage and boundless butchery. These are not the nethods for terminating the war." " Such fruitless cruelties," says Bancroft, " inspired our fathers with a deep hatred of the French missionaries; they compelled the employment of a large part of the inhabitants as soldiers, so that there was one year \ RETURN OF THE DAUGHTER OP EUNICE WILLIAMS TO THE INDIANS. during this war when even a fifth part of all who were capable of bearing arms were in active service. They gave birth also to a willingness to exterminate the natives. The Indians vanished when their homes were invaded ; they could not be reduced by usual methods of warfare ; hence a bounty was offered for every Indian scalp ; to regular forces under pay the grant was ten pounds to volunteers in actual service, twice that sum ; but if men would, of themselves, without pay make up parties and patrol the forests in search of Indians, as of old the woods were scoured for wild beasts, the chase was invigorated by the promised 'encourage- ment of fifty pounds per scalp/ " 326 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. In 1707 Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island made a combined attempt to conquer Acadia. A fleet was despatched against Port Royal, but without success. In 1710 a second expedition was sent from Boston against Port Royal, aided this time by an English fleet. Port Royal was taken, the French were driven out of the greater part of Acadia, and that province was annexed to the English dominions and called Nova Scotia. The name of Port Royal was changed to Annapolis, in honor of the Queen of England. Encouraged by this success, the English government the next year attempted the conquest of Canada by two expeditions, one by land and the other by sea. A powerful fleet and a strong army was despatched from England to cooperate with the colonists. The effort was unsuc- cessful. The fleet, which was badly handled by the admiral in attempt- ing to ascend the St. Lawrence, was wrecked with the loss of eight vessels and eight hundred and eighty-four men, and was obliged to return to Boston. The failure of the fleet to accomplish anything compelled the abandonment of the land expedition against Montreal. In 1713 the war was brought to an end by the treaty of Utrecht, by which Acadia was ceded permanently to Great Britain, and became a province of the English crown. After the close of Queen Anne's Avar the colonies remained at peace for nearly thirty years, during which time they were molested by neither French nor Indians. In 1744 the disputes in Europe concerning the succession to the Austrian throns culminated in a war, which is known in European history as the war of the Austrian succession, and in America as King George's war. As usual, England and France were arrayed on opposite sides, and their colonies in America soon became involved in hostilities. The French were the first to receive information from Europe of the existence of war, and began the struggle by attacking and capturing the English fort at Canso and carrying the garrison pris- oners to Louisburg. Louisburg, the principal port of the island of Cape Breton, was at this time the strongest fortress in America, and from its secure harbor the French were constantly despatching privateers against the merchant vessels and fishermen of New England. These depredations caused such serious loss to the eastern colonies that at length Governor Shirley pro- posed to the general court of Massachusetts to undertake the capture of Louisburg as the only means of putting a stop to them, and this measure was laid by the general court before the other colonies. It was under- stood that no aid was to be expected from the mother country, which was too busily engaged in conducting the war in Europe, and that the colonies ENGLISH AND FRENCH I If CONFLICT. 327 would be obliged to depend entirely upon their own resources for their success. Nevertheless, the measure was popular, and the enthusiasm of the colonists was aroused to the highest point. Nearly all the northern colonies had suffered severely at the hands of the French and Indians, and in every shipping port were to be found scores of men who had bec'ii robbed and otherwise maltreated by the French privateers. Pennsyl- vania and New Jersey, under the influence of the Quaker dislike of war, declined to send troops, but furnished a fair supply of money to defray their share of the expenses of the expedition ; New York made a contri- bution of money and of a number of pieces of artillery ; Connecticut gave five hundred men, and New Hampshire and Rhode Island each con- tributed a regiment. Massachusetts, being the most interested in the success of the expedition by reason of being the largest owner of shipping, undertook the principal part of the expense and agreed to furnish a majority of the troops and the vessels. There was no difficulty in pro- curing volunteers, but those who offered themselves were civilians, ignor- ant of military discipline, and utterly unprepared to attempt the reduc- tion of such a fortress as that against which the expedition was directed. These disadvantages, however, were lost sight of in the enthusiasm aroused by the hope of destroying the ability of the French to prey upon the commerce of the colonies. Sir William Pepperell, a wealthy merchant of Maine, was elected commander of the expedition, which rendezvoused at Boston in the early spring of 1745. One hundred vessels and a force of over three thousand men were assembled, and about the 1st of April sailed for Canso, which was reached on the 7th. The ice was drifting in such quantities that the fleet could not enter the harbor of Louisburg, and was obliged to remain at Canso for more than two weeks. Admiral Warren, commanding the West India squadron, had been invited to join the expedition, but in the absence of instructions from England had declined to do so. Almost immediately afterwards he received orders from home to render Massachusetts every aid in his power, and at once joined the New England fleet at Canso with four ships of war and a detachment of regular troops. At length, the ice having moved southward, the New England fleet entered the harbor of Louisburg on the 30th of April. The fortress was built on a neck of land on the south side of the harbor, and its walls were from twenty to thirty feet high and forty feet thick at the base, and were surrounded with a ditch eighty feet in width. Outlying forts pro- tected the main work, and there was not a foot of the walls that was not swept by the fire of the artillery. Nearly two hundred and fifty cannon of all sizes constituted the armament of the fortress, and the principal 328 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. outwork, the " royal battery," was deemed capable of withstanding an attack of five thousand men. The garrison numbered sixteen hundred men. To attack this fortress the New England troops brought with them eighteen cannon and three mortars. As the fleet drew near the town the French marched down to the beach <;o oppose the landing of the troops. Immediately the whale-boats of the ships were lowered and manned, and at a signal from the flagship darted fo* the shore with a speed which astonished and struck terror to the French, who were quickly driven to the woods. The landing was secured, and the next day a detachment of four hundred men marched by the town, giving it three cheers as they passed, and took position near the northeast harbor, completely cutting off the fortress from communi- cation with the country in its rear. This completed the investment, as the fleet closed the harbor, and prevented the approach of relief by sea. That night the troops in the royal battery spiked the guns of that work, abandoned it, and retreated into the town. It was immediately occupied by the New Englanders, who drilled the spikes out of the vent-holes of the guns, and turned them against the town. Batteries were erected by the colonial troops, and their fire opened upon Louisburg. The volun- teers proved admirable soldiers, exciting the surprise of the English naval officers by the readiness and facility with which they discharged the. various duties required of them. Numbers of them were mechanics by profession, and their skill was of the greatest service in this emergency. A New Hampshire colonel, who was a carpenter, constructed sledges with which to drag the artillery across a morass to the positions assigned the batteries. The weather was mild and singularly dry, and the men were healthy. "All day long the men, if not on duty, were busy with amuse- ments firing at marks, fishing, fowling, wrestling, racing, or running ifter balls shot from the enemy's guns." In the meantime the ships of Admiral Warren blockaded the harbor, and not only prevented French vessels from entering the port, but suc- ceeded in decoying into the midst of the English fleet the French frigate "Vigilante" of sixty guns, which was captured after a sharp engagement of several hours. She was loaded with stores for the fortress, and these fell into the hands of the victors. The French commander, who had shoAvn but little energy during the siege, was now so thoroughly disheartened that on the 17th of June, juw seven weeks after the commencement of the investment, he surrendered the town and fortifications. As the colonial troops entered the place tc take possession of it they were astonished at the strength of the works. " God has .gone out of the way of his common providence, in a remark- ENGLISH AND FRENCH IN CONFLICT. 329 abls and miraculous manner," they said, " to incline the hearts of the French to give up, and deliver this strong city into our hands." The capture of Lotiisburg by the undisciplined volunteers of America was the greatest success achieved by England during the war. The colonists were justly proud of it. Bells were rung and bonfires lighted in all the colonies, and the people rejoiced greatly at the success of their brethren and friends. England with characteristic selfishness claimed the glory exclusively for the squadron of Admiral Warren. France was greatly alarmed at the capture of Louisburg, which seri- ously threatened her dominion in America, and measures were at once begun for its recovery, and for the destruction of the English colonies. In 1 746 a large fleet was despatched to America under the Duke d' An- vil le, but many of the vessels were lost at sea, and the fleet was greatly weakened by pestilence. In the midst of these misfortunes the Duke d'Anville suddenly died, and his successor lost his mind, and committed suicide. The expedition made no serious demonstration against the Eng- lish, and resulted in total failure. In 1747 another fleet was sent out from France for the same purpose, but was captured after a severe fight by an English fleet under Admirals Anson'and Warren. In spite of these successes, however, the frontiers of the northern colonies suffered considerably, and the English government resolved to attempt once more the conquest of Canada. All the colonies were re- quired to furnish men or money to this enterprise, and eight thousand men were enlisted. The British government delayed, however, and finally abandoned the enterprise. On the 18th of October, 1748, the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle closed the war. The treaty required that all places taken by either party during the war should be restored, and Louisburg was delivered up to the French, to the great disgust of the New England colonies, who saw all the results of their sacrifices thrown away, and their commerce and fisheries once more placed at the mercy of the French. England had never regarded the interests of her colonies as worth considering, however, and it was not to be expected that she should manifest any concern for them now. It was commonly believed in America, and with good reason, that the king did not desire that New England should enjoy the security necessary to her prosperity. His majesty was beginning to be jealous of his Ameri- can subjects, who had, as Admiral Warren expressed it, " the highest, notion of the rights and liberties of an Englishman," and he was resolved to keep them so weak that they should not forget their dependence upon him. Peter Kalm, a Swedish traveller, who visited New York in 1748, thus records the prevailing sentiment in America at this period , " The 330 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. English colonies in this part of the world have increased so much in wealth and population that they will vie with European England. But to maintain the commerce and the power of the metropolis they are for- bid to establish new manufactures, which might compete with the Eng- lish ; they may dig for gold and silver only on condition of shipping them immediately to England ; they have, with the exception of a few fixed places, no liberty to trade to any ports not belonging to the English dominions, and foreigners are not allowed the least commerce with these American colonies. And there are many similar restrictions. These oppressions have made the inhabitants of the English colonies less tender to their mother land. This coldness is increased by the many foreigners who are settled among them ; for Dutch, Germans, and French are here, blended with English, and have no special love for old England. Be- sides, some people are always discontented, and love change ; and exceed- ing freedom and prosperity nurse an untamable spirit. I have been told not only by native Americans, but by English emigrants, publicly, that within thirty or fifty years the English colonies in North America may constitute a separate state entirely independent of England. But as this whole country is towards the sea unguarded, and on the frontier is kept uneasy by the French, these dangerous neighbors are the reason why the love of these colonies for their metropolis does not utterly decline. The English government has, therefore, reason to regard the French in North America as the chief power that urges their colonies to submission." The war not only served to confirm the hostility of the Americans to France, but it also aided in opening the eyes of some of the most scep- tical of the colonists as to the deliberate intention of the mother country to persist in the injustice with which she had for so long treated her col- onies. Great Britain was slowly but surely alienating her American subjects, and was preparing them in the most certain manner for the great effort they were shortly to make to rid themselves of her tyranny. During the last year of the war an incident occurred at Boston which might have opened the eyes of the ministry to the growing determination of the Americans to resist any interference with their liberties. Deser- tions from the English ships-of-war in Boston harbor had become so fre- quent that Sir Charles Knowles, the commanding officer, sent his boats up to Boston one morning and seized a number of seamen in the vessels at the wharves, and a number of mechanics and laborers engaged in work on shore. The people of Boston indignantly demanded of the governor the release of the impressed men. As his excellency declined to interfere in the matter the people seized the commanders and officers of the ships who happened to be in the town, and kept them prisoner?; antil they agreed to release the men they had unlawfully seized. CHAPTER XXII. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. England Claims the Valley of the Ohio Organization of the Ohio Company The French extend their Posts into the Ohio Country Washington's Mission to the French at Fort Duquesnc Mis Journey Keception by the French His Journey Home A Perilous Undertaking Organization of the Virginia Forces Washington made Second in Com 1 1 land The French Drive the English from the Head of the Ohio Fort Duquesre Built by them Washington Crosses the Mountains The Fight at Great Meadows - Beginning of the French and Indian War Surrender of Fort Necessity to the French- ~ Unjust Treatment of the Colonial Officers Congress of the Colonies at New York- - Franklin's Plan of a Union of the Colonies Its Failure Reasons of the British Govern- ment for Rejecting it England assumes the Direction of the War Arrival of General Braddock Plan of Campaign Obstinacy of Braddock He Passes the Mountains - Defeat of Braddock Heroism of Washington Retreat of Dunbar beyond the Moun- tains Vigorous action of Pennsylvania Armstrong defeats the Indians and burns th* town of Kittanning. HE three wars between the English and French in America which we have just considered were but a prelude to the great struggle which was to decide which of these powers should control the destinies of the new world. The English, as we have seen, were growing stronger and more numerous along the Atlantic coast, and were directing their new settlements farther into the interior with each succeeding year. The French held Canada and the valley of the Mississippi, but their tenure was that of a military occupation rather than a colonization. Between the possessions of these hostile nations lay the valley of the Ohio, a beautiful and fertile region, claimed by both, but occupied as yet by neither. The French had explored the country, and had caused leaden plates engraved with the arms of France to be deposited at its principal points to attest their claim ; and had opened friendly relations with the Indians. The region had been frequently visited by the traders, who brought back reports of its remarkable beauty and fertility an'd of its excellent climate. The British government regarded this region as a portion of Virginia, and one of the chief desires of the Earl of Halifax, the prime minister of England, was to secure the Ohio valley by plant- ing an English colony in it. A company was organized in Virginia ano 331 332 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Maryland for this purpose and for the purpose of trading with the Indian?, and was warmly supported by the Earl of Halifax. It was named the Ohio Company, and at length succeeded in obtaining a favorable charter from the king, who, in March, 1749, ordered the governor of Virginia to assign to the Ohio Company five hundred thousand acres of land lying between the Monongahela and Kanawha rivers, and along the Ohio. The company were required to despatch within seven years at least one hundred families to the territory granted them, to locate without delay at least two-fifths of the lands they desired to occupy, and to build and garrison a fort at their own cost. They were granted an exemption from quit rents and other dues for ten years, and this freedom from taxation was extended by the company to all who would settle in their domain. A number of Indian traders had located themselves west of the Alle- ghanies, and in order to supply these with the articles needed for their traffic with the Indians, the Ohio Company built a trading-post at Wills' creek, within the limits of Maryland, on the site of the present city of Cumberland. Here one of the easiest of the passes over the Alleghauics began, and by means of it the traders could easily transport their goods to the Indian country west of the mountains and return with the furs flieir traffic enabled them to collect. Being anxious to explore the country west of the mountains, the com- pany employed Christopher Gist, one of the most experienced Indian traders, and instructed him " to examine the western country as far as the falls of the Ohio, to look for a large tract of good level land, to mark the passes in the mountains, to trace the courses of the rivers, to count the falls, to observe the strength and numbers of the Indian nations." Gist set out on his perilous mission on the last day of October, 1750, and crossing the mountains reached the Delaware towns on the Alleghany river, from which he passed down to Logstown, a short distance below the head of the Ohio. ' You are come to settle the Indians' lands ; you shall never go home safe," said the jealous people ; but in spite of their threats they suffered him to proceed without molestation. He traversed the country to the Muskingum and the Scioto, and then crossing the Ohio explored the Kentucky to its source, and returned to Wills' creek in safety. He reported that the region he had traversed merited all the praise that had been bestowed upon it ; that it possessed a pleasant and healthy climate, and was a land of great beauty. The soil was fertile and the streams abundant and excellent. The land was covered with a rich growth of the most valuable and beautiful trees, and abounded ii small level districts and meadows covered with long grass and white clover, on which the elk, the deer, and the buffalo grazed in herds. Wild FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 333 turkeys and other game abounded, and the country offered every attrac- tion to settlers who were willing to improve it. Gist also reported that the agents of the French were actively engaged in seeking to induce the western tribes to make war upon the English and prevent them from obtaining a footing west of the mountains. The purposes of the English were well known to the French, who viewed them with alarm, as the successful occupation of the Ohio valley by the English would cut off the communication established by the French between Canada and the Mis- sissippi. This the French were resolved to prevent at any cost. The Indians regarded both of the white nations as intruders in their country. They were willing to trade with both, but were averse to giving up their lands to either. "If the French," said they, "take possession of the north side of the Ohio, and the English of the south, where is the Indian's land?" The possession of the Ohio valley was thus of the highest importance to the French. Their fortified post of Fort Frontenac gave them the command of Lake Ontario, which they further secured by constructing armed vessels for the navigation of the lake. They retained their hold upon Lake Erie by strengthening Fort Niagara, which La Salle had built at the foot of that lake. They entered into treaties with the Shawnees, the Delawares, and other powerful tribes between the lake and the Ohio, and steadily pushed their way eastward towards the mountains. They ' began their advance into the valley of the Ohio by building a fort at Presque Isle, now the city of Erie, in Pennsylvania, another on French creek, on the site of the present town of Waterford, and a third on the site of the present town of Franklin, at the confluence of French creek with the Alleghany. These rapid advances eastward alarmed the English government, which instructed the governor of Virginia to address a remonstrance to the French authorities and to warn them of the consequences which must result from their intrusion into the territory of the English. To do this it was necessary for the governor to despatch his communication to the nearest French post by the hands of some messenger of sufficient resolu- tion to overcome the natural dangers of such an undertaking, and of suffi- cient intelligence to gain information respecting the designs and strength of the French ; and Governor Dinwiddie was somewhat at a loss to find such a person. Fortunately the man needed was at hand, and the atten- tion of the governor being called to him, his excellency decided to intrust him with the delicate and dangerous mission. The person selected for this task was a young man in the twenty -second year of his age, George Washington by name. He was a native of West- THE BRONZE DOOR IN THE NATIONAL CAPITOL COMMEMORATING IH HYJiNXS OS LIFE OF GEORGE WASHINGTON. 334 FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 335 moreland county, Virginia, where he was born on the 22d of February, 1732. He was a great-grandson of the Colonel John Washington whom we have noticed as the leader of an expedition against the Indians in the time of Sir William Berkeley. His father, Augustine Washington, was a wealthy planter, but his death, when George was eleven years old, deprived his son of his care and also of the means of acquiring an educa- tion. He soon acquired all the learning that it was possible to gain at a country school, from which he passed to an academy of somewhat higher grade, where he devoted himself principally to the study of mathematics. His half brother, Lawrence, who was fourteen years older than himself, had received a careful education and directed the studies of his younger brother, to whom he was devotedly attached. Though deprived of the care of his father at such an early age it was the good fortune of George Washington to possess in his mother a guide well qualified to fill the place of both parents to her fatherless children. She was a woman of rare good sense, of great decision of character, and one whose life was guided by the most earnest Christian principle. Her tenderness and sweet womanly qualities won the devoted love of her children, and her firmness enforced their obedience. From her George inherited a quick and ardent temper, and from her he learned the lesson of self-control which enabled him to govern it. As a boy, Washington was noted for his truthfulness, his courage, and his generosity. He was both liked and respected by his schoolmates, and such was their confidence in his fairness and good judgment that he was usually chosen the arbiter of their boyish disputes. He joined heartily in their sports, and was noted for his skill in athletic exercises. He was a fearless rider, and a good hunter, and by his fondness for manly sjwrts developed his naturally vigorous body to a high degree of strength. He was cheerful and genial in temper, though reserved and grave in man- ner. He early acquired habits of industry and order, and there arc still existing many evidences of the careful and systematic manner in which he discharged every duty assigned him at this early age. At the age of fourteen it was decided that he should enter the navy, and his brother Lawrence, who had served with credit in that branch of the royal service, had no difficulty in obtaining for him a midshipman's warrant. The ship he was to join lay in the Potomac, and his trunk was sent on board ; but at the last moment his mother, dreading the effect of the temptations of a son man's life upon a boy so young, appealed to him by his affection for h- r to remain with her. Washington was sorely disappointed, but he yielded cheerfully to his mother's wish. The marriage of his brother Lawrence gave to the young man a second 336 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. home at Mount Veriion, where he passed a large part of his time. Here he was brought into constant contact with the most cultivated and refined society of Virginia, an association which had a happy influence upon the formation of his character. There also he formed the acquaintance and .von the friendship of Lord Fairfax, the grandson of Lord Culpepper, and the inheritor of Culpepper's vast estates in Virginia, which com- prised about one-seventh of the area of the State of Virginia as it existed prior to the separation of West Virginia in 1861. Lord Fairfax con- ceived a great fondness for the young man, and took a deep interest in hi.s future welfare. Washington, upon leaving school, had chosen the profession of a surveyor as his future avocation, and soon after his first meeting with Lord Fairfax was employed by that nobleman to survey the lands belonging to him, many of which had been occupied by settlers without right or title. It was an arduous and responsible task, and Washington, who was just entering his seventeenth year, seemed almost too young for it; but " Lord Thomas" had satisfied himself of his young friend's capability for it, and the result justified the opinion he had formed. His work was done with care and accuracy, and his measure- ments were so exact that they are still relied upon. His life as a surveyor was in many respects a hard one, but he enjoyed it. It gave new vigor to his naturally robust constitution and his splendid figure, and while yet a youth he acquired the appearance and habits of mature manhood. He also learned forest life in all its various phases, and by his constant intercourse with the hunters and Indians, gained a knowledge of the character and habits of these wild men which in after years was of infinite value to him. During his surveying expeditions Washington was a frequent visitor at Greenway Court, the seat of Lord Fairfax, where, in addition to the other attractions, there was a well-selected library, of which the young man regularly availed himself. His reading was of a serious and useful nature; "Addison's Spectator" and the "History of England" were among his favorite works. Though the heir to a considerable estate, Washington supported him- self during this period by his earnings as a surveyor. " His father had bequeathed to the eldest son, Lawrence, the estate afterwards called Mount Vernon. To Augustine, the second son, he had given the old homestead in Westmoreland county. And George, at the age of twenty- one years, was to inherit the house and lands in Suffolk county. As yet, however, he derived no benefit from this landed property. But his industry and diligence in his laborious occupation supplied him with abundant pecuniary means. His habits of life were simple and economi- cal; he indulged in no gay and expensive pleasures." FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 337 In 1751, in order to prepare for any emergency to which the hostility of the French and Indians might give rise, the colony of Virginia was divided into military districts, each of. which was placed in charge of an adjutant and inspector, with the rank of Major, whose duty it was to keep the militia in readiness for instant service. Washington had at an early day evinced a great fondness for military exercises, and as a boy had often drilled his school-fellows in the simplest manoeuvres of the troops. As he advanced towards manhood, his brother Lawrence, THE WASHINGTON STATUE IN UNION SQUAKE, NEW YORK. Adjutant Muse, of Westmoreland, and Jacob Vanbraam, a fencing- master, and others, had given him numerous lessons in the art of war. Though but nineteen years old, he was regarded by his acquaintance as one of the best-informed persons upon military matters in the colony, and at the general desire of those who knew him he was commissioned a major in the colonial forces, and placed in command of ona of the military districts. He discharged his duties with ability and zeal, and gave such satisfaction that when Governor Dimviddie, in 1752, divided the province into four military districts, Major Washington was placed in command 22 000 tlOO HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of the northern district. "The counties comprehended in this division he promptly and statedly traversed, and he soon effected the thorough discipline of their militia for warlike operations." He was .discharging the duties of this position when selected by the governor of Virginia to bear his message to the commander of the French forces on tlie Ohio. Governor Dinwiddie intrusted to his young envoy a letter addressed to the commander of the French forces on the Ohio, in which he demanded of him his reasons for invading the territory of England while Great Britain and France were at peace with each other. Washington was instructed to observe carefully the numbers and positions of the French, the strength of their forts, the nature of their communications Avith Canada and with their various posts, and to endeavor to ascertain the real designs of the French in occupying the Ohio valley, and the proba- bilities of their being vigorously supported from Canada. " Ye're a braw lad," said the governor, as he delivered his instructions to the young major, "and gin you play your cards weel, my boy, ye shall hae nae cause to rue your bargain." Washington re- ceived his instruc- tions on the 30th of October, 1753, and on the same day set out for Winchester, then a frontier post, from which he proceeded to Wills' creek, where he was to cross the mountains. Having secured the ser- vices of Christopher Gist as guide, and of two interpreters, and four others, Washington set out on his journey about the middle of November. They crossed the mountains, and journeyed through an unbroken country, with no paths save the Indian trails to serve as guides, across rugged ravines, over steep hills, and across streams swollen with the recent rains, until in nine days they reached the point where the Alleghany and Monongahela unite and form the Ohio. Washington carefully examined the place, and was greatly impressed with the advantages offered for the location of a fort by the point of land nt the junction of the two rivers. WASHINGTON'S JOURNEY TO THE OHIO. FREXCII AXD INDIAN WAR. 329 The judgment expressed by him at the time was subsequently confirmed by the choice of this spot by the French for one of their most important posts Fort Duquesne. Washington had been ordered by the governor to proceed direct tc Loo-stown, where he was to hold an interview with the Delaware chief O / known as the Half King, to acquaint the Indians with the nature of his mission, and ascertain their disposition towards the English. While he svas at this place he met several French deserters from the posts on the lower Ohio, who told him the location, number, and strength of the French posts between Quebec and New Orleans by way of the Wabash and the Maumee, and informal him of the intention of the French to occupy the Ohio from its head to its mouth with a similar chain of forts. The Half King confirmed the story of the deserters. He had heard that the French were coming with a strong force to drive the English out of the land. A "grand talk " was held with the chiefs in council by Wash- ington, and they answered him, by the Half King, that what he had said was true ; they were brothers, and would guard him on his way to the nearest French post. They wished neither the English nor the French to settle in their country ; but as the French were the first intruders they were willing to aid the English in their efforts to expel them. They agreed to break off friendly relations with the French ; but AVashington, who knew the Indian character well, was not altogether satisfied with their promises. On the 30th of November he set out from Logstown with his compan- ions, attended by the Half King and three other Indians, and on the 4th arrived at the French post at Venango. The officer in command of this fort had no authority to receive his letter, and referred him to the Cheva- lier St. Pierre, the commander of the next post. They treated the English with courtesy, and invited Washington to sup with them. When the wine was passed around they drank deeply and soon lost their discre- tion. The sober and vigilant Washington noted their words with great attention, and recorded them in his diary. " They told me," he writes, "that it was their absolute design to take possession of the Ohio, and, by G d, they would do it; for, that although they were sensible the English could raise two men for their one, they knew their motions were too slow and dilatory to prevent any undertaking of theirs. They pre- tend to have an undoubted right to the river, from a discovery made by one La Salle sixty years ago; and the rise of this expedition is to prevent our settling on the river or waters of it, as they heard of some families moving out in order thereto." The French officers then informed Washington of their strength south of the lakes, and of the number and location of their posts between Montreal and Var.an^e 340 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STAIES. The French exerted every stratagem to detach the Indians from Wash- ington's party, and they met with enough success to justify Washington's distrust of them. All had come to deliver tip the IVench speech-belts, or. in other words, to break off friendly relations with the French. The Delaware chiefs wavered and failed to fulfil their promise; "but the Half King clung to Washington like a brother, and delivered up his belt as he had promised." The party left Venango on tin 7th of December, and reached Fort Le Boeuf, the next post, on the llth. It was a strong work, defended by cannon, and near by Washington saw a number of canoes and boats, and the materials for building others, sure indications that an expedition down the river was about to be attempted. He obtained an interview with St. Pierre, the commander, an officer of experience and integrity, greatly beloved as well as feared by the Indians. He received the young envoy with courtesy, but refused to discuss questions of right with him. " I am here," he said, " by the orders of my general, to which I shall con- form with exactness and resolution." On the 14th St. Pierre delivered to Washington his answer to the letter of Governor Dinwiddie. and next day the party set out on its return. The)' descended French creek in canoes, at no little risk, as the stream was ful of ice. At Venango, which wag reached on the 22d, they found their horses, which were so feeble that it was doubtful whether they would be able to make the journey home. " I put myself in an Indian walking-dress," says Washington, "and continued with them three days, until I found there was no possibility of their getting home in any reasonable time. The horses became less able to travel every day ; the cold increased very fast, and the roads were becom- ing much worse by a deep snow continually freezing ; therefore, as I was uneasy to get back tp make report of my proceedings to his honor the governor, I determined to prosecute my journey the nearest way through the woods on foot." Taking Gist as his only companion, and directing their way by thfe compass, Washington set out on the 26th, by the nearest way across the country, for the head of the Ohio. The next day an Indian who had THE HALF KIXG. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 341 lain in wait for them fired at Washington at a distanci of only fifteen steps, but missed him, and was made a prisoner by him. Gist was anxious to kill the savage on the spot, but Washington would not allow this, and they kept the fellow until dark, and then released him. They trav- elled all night and all the next day in order to make sure of escaping from the enemies they felt certain their freed captive would set upon their trail. At dark on the 28th they reached the Alleghany, and spent the night on the banks of that stream. The next morning they set to work with one poor hatchet to construct a raft, on which to pass the river. y,'hich was full of floating ice. They completed their raft about sunset, WASHINGTON AND GIST CROSSING THE ALLEGIIAXY. and launched it upon the stream. It was caught in the floating ice, ami Washington was hurled off into the water and nearly drowned. Unable to reach the opposite shore, they made for an island in mid-stream, and passed the night there. The cold was intense, and Gist had all his fingers and several of his toes frozen. The next morning the river was a solid mass of ice, hard enough to bear their weight. They at once crossed to the opposite bank and continued their journey, and on the 16th of January, 1754, were at Williamsburg, where Washington delivered to the governor of Virginia the reply of the French commander, and reported the results of his journey. The French commander returned a courteous but evasive answer to Governor Dinwiddie's commi uication. and referred him for a definite 342 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. settlement of the matter to the Marquis Duquesne, the governor of Canada. It was clear from the tone of his letter that he meant to hold on to the territory he had occupied, and the governor of Virginia v/as satisfied from Major Washington's report of his observations that St. Pierre was about to extend the line of French posts down the Ohio. The authorities of Virginia resolved to anticipate him, and in the spring of 1754 the Ohio Company sent a force of about forty men to build a fort at the head of the Ohio, on the site to which Washington had called attention. In the meantime, measures were set on foot in Virginia for the pro- tection of the frontiers. A regiment of troops was ordered to be raised, and it was the general wish that Major Washington should be appointed to the command. He declined the commission when tendered him, on the ground of his youth and inexperience, and was made lieutenant- colonel, the command of the regiment being conferred upon Colonel Jo c :hua Fry. Washington was ordered to repair to the west to take charge of the defence of the frontiers, and in April, 1754, reached Wills' creek with three companies of his regiment. Just at this moment news arrived that the party sent to build a fort at the head of the Ohio had been driven away by the French. A force of one thousand men, with artillery, under Captain Coutrecoeur, had descended the Alleghany and had surrounded the English. One hour was given them to surrender, and being utterly unable to offer any resistance, they capitulated upon condition of being allowed to retire to Virginia. Immediately upon the withdrawal of the English the French forces occu- pied the unfinished work, completed it, and named it Fort Duquesne. This was a more important act than either party believed it at the time. It was the beginning of the final struggle by which the power of France in America was broken. In the history of Europe this struggle is known as the Seven Years' War ; in our own history as the French and Indian War. Hostilities were now inevitable, and Washington, who was on his march to the Ohio when the news of the aggression of the French was received, resolved to push forward without delay. Colonel Fry had fallen sick, and the direction of affairs on the border had passed entirely into the hands of the young lieutenant-colonel. He intended to proceed to the junction of Red Stone creek and the Monongahela, the site occu- pied by the present town of Brownsville, to erect a fort there, and hold it until he could be reinforced. His force was poorly provided with clothing and tents, and was deficient in military supplies of all kinds. The country to be traversed was a wild, unbroken region, without roads FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 343 or Lridgos, and through it the artillery and wagons were to be trans- ported. The little force moved slowly and with difficulty, and Wash- ington pushed on in advance with a small detachment, intending to secure the position on the Monongahela and await the arrival of the main body, when the whole force could descend the river in flat-boats to Fort Duqucsne. On the 20th of May he reached the Youghiogheuy and there received a message from his ally, the Half King, telling him that the French were in heavy force at Fort Duquesne. This report was confirmed at the Little Meadows by the traders, and by another message from the Half King on the 25th of May, warning Washington that a force of French and Indians had left Fort Duquesue on a secret expedition. Washington was sure that this expedition was destined to attack him, and advanced to the Great Meadows and took position there. On the morn- ing of the 27th Gist arrived and reported that he had seen the trail of the French within five miles of the Great Meadows. In the evening of the same day a runner came in from the Half King, and with a message that the French were close at hand. Taking with him forty men, Washington set off for the Half King's camp, and by a difficult night- march through a tangled forest in the midst of a driving rain, reached it about daylight. The runners of the Half King found the French eii- camped in a deep glen not far distant, and it was decided to attack them at once. The Half King and his warriors placed themselves under Washington's orders, and the march was resumed towards the French camp. The French were surprised, and an action of about a quarter of an hour ensued. The French lost ten men killed, among whom was their commander, Jumonville, and twenty-one prisoners. This was the first blood shed on the American continent in the long struggle which won America for the free institutions of the Anglo-Saxon race. Washington was very anxious to follow up the advantage he had gained, and had already appealed to the governors of Maryland and Pennsylvania for assistance, but no aid reached him. Unable to advance in the face of the rapidly increasing forces of the French, he threw up a stockade fort at Great Meadows, which he named Fort Necessity, from the fact that the provisions of the troops were so nearly exhausted that the danger of a famine was imminent. On the 3d of July six hundred French and one hundred Indians suddenly appeared before the fort and occupied the hills surrounding it. The attacking party were able to shelter themselves behind trees and could command the fort from their safe position, while the English were greatly exposed, and it was evident to the most inexperienced that the fort was untenable. Nevertheless, the 344 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. work was held for nine hours under a heavy fire, and amid the discom- forts of a severe rain-storm. At length De Villiers, the French com- mander, fearing that his ammunition would be exhausted, proposed a parley and offered terms to Washington. The English had lost thirty killed and the French but three. The terms of capitulation proposed by De Villiers were interpreted to Washington, who did not understand French, and in consequence of the interpretation, which was made by " a Dutchman little acquainted with the English tongue," Washington and his officers "were betrayed into a pledge which they would never have consented to give, and an act of moral suicide which they could never have deliberately committed. They understood from Vanbraam's inter- pretation, that no fort was to be built beyond the mountains on lands be- longing to the King of France ; but the terms of the articles are, ( neither in this place nor beyond the mountains.'" The Virginians were allowed to march out of the fort with the honors of war, retaining their arms and all their stores, but leaving their artillery. This they did on the next morning, July 4th, 1754. The march across the mountains was rendered painful by the lack of provisions, and after much suffering the troops arrived at Fort Cumberland in Maryland. Although the expedition had been unsuccessful, the conduct of Washington had been marked by so m,nch prudence and good judgment that he received the thanks of the general assembly of Virginia. Governor Dinwiddie had already thrown many obstacles in the way of the defence of the colony, and he now refused to reward the provincial officers with the promotions they had so well earned. In order to avoid this he dissolved the Virginia regiment, and reorganized it into inde- pendent companies, no officer of which was to have a higher rank than that of captain. It was also ordered that officers holding commissions from the king should take precedence of those holding commissions from the colonial government. Washington, feeling that he could no longer remain in the service with self-respect, resigned his commission and with- drew to Mount Vernon. Soon afterwards Governor Sharpe, of Mary- land, having been appointed by the king commandcr-in-chief of the forces of the southern colonies, proposed to Washington, through a friend, to return to the army and accept the rank of colonel, but with the actual authority of a captain. Washington declined the offer with characteristic dignity. "If you think me," he wrote, "capable of holding a commis- sion that has neither rank nor emolument annexed to it, you must main- tain a very contemptible opinion of my weakness, and believe me more nominate all civil officers. No money was to be issued but by their joint order. Each colony was to retain its domestic constitution ; the federal government was to regulate all relations of peace or war with the In- dians, affairs of trade, and purchases of lands not within the bounds of particular colonies ; to establish, organize, and temporarily to govern new settlements ; to raise soldiers, and equip vessels of force on the seas, rivers, or lakes ; to make laws, and levy just and equal taxes. The grand council were to meet once a year to chose their own speaker, and neither to be dissolved nor prorogued, nor continue sitting longer than six weeks at any one time, but by their own consent." This plan met with considerable opposition, was thoroughly discussed. and was finally adopted by the convention. It was not altogether accept- able to the colonies, each of which dreaded that the establishment of a central government would result in the destruction of the liberties of the individual provinces. Connecticut promptly rejected ft, New York re- ceived it with coldness, and Massachusetts showed & roore active opposit'on to it. Upon its reception in England it was at once thrown aside by the royal government. The union proposed by the plan was too pcrfx.* .::d FRENCH ASD INDIAN WAR. 347 would make America practically independent of Great Britain, and so the board of trade did not even bring it before the notice of the king. Franklin regarded the failure of his plan of union with great regret, In after years he wrote: "The colonies so united would have been suffi- ciently strong to defend themselves. There would then have been no need of troops from England ; of course the subsequent pretext for tax- ing America, and the bloody contest it occasioned, w uld have been avoided. But such mistakes are not new ; history is full of the errors of states and princes." The plan for the union of the colonies having failed, the British gov- ernment resolved to take into its own hands the task of carrying on the war, with such, assistance as the colonies might be willing to afford. A million of pounds was voted for the defence of the British possessions in America, and four strong fleets were sent to sea, together with numerous privateers, which nearly destroyed the French Yvest Indian trade. In 1755 Major-General Edward Braddock was appointed commander-in- chief of the English forces in America. He had served under the Duke of Cumberland, in his expedition into Scotland against the Pretender Charles Edward, in 1746, and was regarded as one of the most promising officers in his majesty's service. Braddock sailed from Cork, in Ireland, early in January, 1755, and on the 20th of February arrived at Alex- andria, in Virginia. He was soon followed by two regiments of infantry, consisting of five hundred men each, the largest force of regulars Great Britain had ever assembled in America. A conference of the colonial governors with the new commander-in- chief was held at Alexandria, and a plan of campaign was de^i led .upon. Four expeditions were to be despatched against the French. The first under Braddock in person, was to advance upon Fort Duquesne ; the second, under Governor Shirley of Massachusetts, was to attempt the capture cf Fft Niagara ; the third, under William John, the Indian agent among; the Mohawks, and a man of great influence over them, was to be directed against Crown Point ; and the fourth -^as to capture the French posts near the head of the Bay of Fundy, and expel the French from Acadia. It was now evident that the war was about to commence in good earnest, and the colonies exerted themselves to support the efforts of the mother country to the extent of their ability. General Braddock was thoroughly proficient in the theory of his pro- fession, but his experience of actual warfare had been limited to a single? campaign, and that a brief one. He possessed the entire confidence of his superiors in England, and his faith in himself was boundless. He &48 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. believed that the regulars of the British army were capable of accom- plishing any task assigned them, and entertained a thorough contempt for the provincial troops that were to form a part of his command. Soon after his arrival in Virginia he offered Washington a position on his staff as aid-de-camp, with the rank of colonel, which was promptly accepted. Had General Braddock been a different man the presence of Washington in his military family might have been of the greatest service to him, for the experience of the young colonel would have made him an invaluable counsellor. Braddock was in a strange country, and was charged with WILLS CREEK NARROWS, MD. tii ; conduct of a campaign in which the ordinary rules of warfare r.s practised in Europe could not be adhered to. He knew nothing of the ditticulties of marching his army through a tangled wilderness and over a mountain range of the first magnitude. Unfortunately for him he was not aware of his ignorance, and would neither ask for nor listen to advice or information upon the subject. "He was, I think, a brave man," says Franklin, "and might probably have made a figure as a good officer in some European war. But he had too much self-confidence, too high an opinion of the validity of regular troops, and too mean a one of both FRESCII AND AVDAi.V ll.i/J. 349 Americans and Indians." During on : of his interviews witli him Frank- lin undertook to impress upon him the necessity of guarding agaii:3t the danger of Indian ambuscades. '' KJ smiled at my ignorance," says Franklin, and replied : ' These esvages may indeed be a formidable enemy to your raw American militia ; but upon the king's -regular and disciplined troops, sir, it is impossible they should maka iny impres- sion. ' ' The army assembled at Wills' creek, to which place General Braddock repaired in his coach. The bad roads had put him in a passion, and had broken his coach, and he was in no mood upon his arrival to pursue a sensible course. He was advised to employ Indians as scouts on the march, or to use them to protect a force of Pennsylvanians who were making a road over the mountains for the passage of the army, but he refused to do either. Washington urged him to abandon his wagon-train, to use pack"h.orses in place of these vehicles, and to move with as little baggage as possible. Braddock ridiculed this suggestion. Neither he nor any of his officers wculd consent to be separated from their cumbrous baggage, or to dispense with any of the luxuries they had been used to. A month was lost at Wills' creek, and in Juna the army began its march. It was greatly impeded by the difficulty of dragging the wagons and artillery over roads filled with the stumps of trees and witl rocks. Such little progress was made that Braddock, greatly disheartened, pri- vately asked Washington to advise him what to do. As it was known that the garrison at Fort Duquesne was small, Washington advised him to hasten forward with a division of the army in light marching order, and seize the fort before reinforcements could arrive from Canada. Brad- dock accordingly detached a division of twelve hundred men and ten pieces of cannon, with a train of pack-horses to carry the baggage, and pushed on in advance with them, leaving Colonel Dunbar to bring up the main division as promptly as possible. A famous hunter and Indian- fighter named Captain Jack, who was regarded as the most experienced man in savage warfare in the colonies, now offered his services and those of his men to Braddock to act as scouts. Braddock received him with frigid courtesy, and refused his offer, saying that he " had experienced troops upon whom he could rely for all purposes." Instead of pushing on with energy with his advance division, Braddock moved very slowly, gaining but a little more than three miles a day. "They halt," wrote Washington, "to level every mole hill and to erect a bridge over every brook." On the 8th of July the army reached the east bank of the Monongahela, about fifteen miles above Fort Duquesne, having taken about double the necessary time in the march from Wills' 350 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. creek. On the same day, Washington, who had been ill for some days, and was still unwell, rejoined Braddock. ' Early on the morning of the 9th of July the march was resumed. The Monongahela was forded a short distance below the mouth of the Youghiogheny, and the advance continued along the southern bank of that river. About noon the Monongahela was forded again, and the army was planted upon the strip of land between the rivers which form the Ohio. Washington was well convinced that the French and Indians were informed of the movements of the army, and would seek to interfere with it before its arrival before the fort, which was only ten miles distant, and urged Braddock to throw in advance the Virginia Rangers, three hundred strong, as they were experienced Indian fighters. Braddock angrily rebuked his aide, and as if to make the rebuke more pointed, ordered the Virginia trocps and other provincials to take position in the rear of the regulars. The general was fully convinced of the ability of his trained troops to take care of themselves. They made a gallant show as they marched along with their gay uniforms, their burnished arms and flying colors, and their drums beating a lively march. Washington could not repress his admiration at the brilliant sight, nor his anxiety for the result. In the meantime the French at Fort Duquesne had been informed by their scouts of Braddock's movements, and had resolved to ambuscade him on his march. Early on the morning of the 9th a force of about two hundred and thirty French and Canadians and six hundred and thirty-seven Indians, under De Beaujeu, the commandant at Fort Duquesne, was despatched with orders to occupy a designated spot and attack the enemy upon their approach. Before reaching it, about two o'clock in the afternoon, they 'encountered the advanced force of the English army, under Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas Gage, and at once attacked them with spirit. The English army at this moment was moving along a narrow road about twelve feet in width, with scarcely a scout thrown out in advance or upon the flanks. The engineer who was locating the road was the first to discover^ the enemy, and called out "French and Indians!" Instantly a heavy fire was opened upon Gage's force, and his indecision allowed the French and Indians to seize a commanding ridge, from which they maintained their attack with spirit. There, concealed among the trees, they were almost invisible ^o the English, who were fully exposed to their fire, as they occupied a broad ravine, covered with low shrubs, immediately below the eminence held by the French. The regulars were quickly thrown into confusion by the heavy fire and FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. Sol ch9 fierce ycliS cf the Indians, who could nowhere be seen, and their losses were so severe and sudden that they became panic-stricken. They were ordered to charge up the hill and drive the French from their cover, but refused to move, and in their terror fired at random into the woods. In the meantime, the Indians were rapidly spreading along the sides of the ravine and continuing their fire from their cover among the trees with fearful accuracy. The advance of the English was driven back, and it crowded upon the second division in utter disorder. A reinforcement of eight hundred men under Colonel Burton arrived at this moment, but only to add to the confusion. The French pushed their lines forward nowand increased the disorder of the English, who had by this time lost nearly all their officers. Braddock now came up, and gallantly exerted himself to restore order, but "the king's regulars and disciplined troops" \v p ere so utterly demoralized that not one of his commands was obeyed. The only semblance of resistance maintained by the English was by the Virginia Rangers, whom Braddock hud insulted at the beginning of the day's march. Immediately upon the commencement of the battle they had adopted the tactics of the In- dians, and had thrown themselves behind trees, from which shelter they were rapidly pick- ing off the Indians. Washington entreated Braddock to allow the regulars to follow the example of the Virginians, but he refused, and stubbornly endeavored to form them in platoons under the fatal fire that was bein poured upon them by their hidden assailants. Thus through his obstinacy many '.'..-;eful lives were needlessly thrown away. The officers did not share the jvinic of the men, but behaved with the greatest gallantry. They were the especial marks of the Indian sharpshooters, and many of them were killed or wounded. Two of Braddock's aides were seriously wounded, aud their duties devolved upon Washington in addition to his own. He passed repeatedly over the field carrying the orders of the commander and encouraging the men. When sent to bring up the artillery, he found ii surrounded by Indians, its commander, Sir Peter Halket, killed, an;1 the men standing helpless from fear. Springing from his horse he BRADDOCK S DEFEAT. 352 11IST02Y OF THE UNITED STATES. appealed to the men to save the guns, pointed a field piece and discharged it at the savages, and entreated the gunners to rally. He could accom- plish nothing by cither his words or example. The men deserted the guns and fled. In a letter to his brother, Washington wrote : " I had four bullets through my coat, two horses shot under me, yet escaped unhurt, though death was levelling r.iy companions on every side around me." * Bruddock had five horses shot und:r him, and at length himself received a mortal wound. As he fell, Captain Stewart, of the Virginia troops, caught him in his arms. He was borne from the field, though he begged to be left to die on the scene of his defeat. PI is fall was fortunate for the army, which it saved from destruc- tion. The order was given to fall back, and the " regulars fled like sheep before the hounds." The French and Indians pressed forward in pursuit, and all would have been lost had not the Virginia Rangers themselves been in the rear, and covered the flight of the regulars with a determination which checked the pursuers. The artillery, wagons, and all the camp train were abandoned, and the savages, stopping to plunder these, allowed the fugitives to recross the river in safety. * Washington attributed his wonderful escape from even a wound to the overruling providence of God. The Indians regarded the matter in the same light. About fifteen years after the httle, while examining some lands near the mouth of the Great Kanawha KETREAT OF BRADDOCK'S ARMY. FRESCH AND INDIAN WAR. 353 Having seen the general as comfortable as circumstances would permit, Washington rode all that night and the next day to Dunbar's camp to procure wagons for the wounded and soldiers to guard them. With these he hastened back to the fugitives. Braddock, unable to ride or to endure the jolting of a wagon, was carried in a litter as far as the Great Meadows. He seemed to be heart- broken and rarely spoke. Occasionally he would say, as if speaking to himself, with a deep sigh, "Who would have thought it?" It is said that he warmly thanked Captain Stewart for his care and kindness, and apologized to Washington for the manner in which he had received his advice. He had no wish to live, and he died at Fort Necessity on the night of the 13th of July. He was buried the next morning before daybreak as secretly as possible for fear that the savages might find and violate his grave. Close by the national road, about a mile west of Fort Necessity, a pile of stones still marks his resting-place. The losses of the English in the battle were terrible. Out of eighty- six officers, twenty-six were killed and thirty-six wounded. Upward of seven hundred of the regulars were killed or wounded. The Virginia Rangers had suffered terrible losses, for they had not only borne the brunt of the battle, but had lost many of their number by the random fire of the frightened regulars. Dunbar, who succeeded Braddock in the command, still had fifteen hundred effective men left to him ; but he was too badly frightened to attempt to retrieve the disaster, which a compe- tent officer might have done with such a force. He broke up his camp, destroyed his stores, and retreated beyond the mountains. Disregarding the entreaties of the colonists not to leave the frontiers exposed to the savages, he continued his retreat to Philadelphia, and went into winter quarters there. The effect of these reverses upon the colonists was most marked. When they understood that Braddock's splendid force of disciplined regulars had been routed by a mere handful of French and Indians, their respect for the invincibility of British troops was destroyed ; and their confidence in their own prowess was greatly increased by the proud reflection that the only thing that had been done to save the army of Braddock from total destruction had been accomplished by the provin- river, Washington was visited by an old chief. The chief told him " he was present at the Battle, and among the Indian allies of the FrencL ; that he singled him out, and repeatedly lired his rifle at him; that he also ordered his young warriors to make him their only mark ; but that on finding all their bullets turned aside by some invisible and inscrutable interposition, he was convinced that the hero at whom he had so often and so truly aimed must be, for some wise purpose, specially protected by the Great Spirit. He now came, therefore, to testify his veneration." \ 23 354 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ei&ls. Washington's conduct was a subject of praise in all the colonies, and brought his name conspicuously l>cfore the whole people of America. In a sermon preached a few months after Braddock's defeat, the llev. Samuel Davies, a learned clergyman, spoke of him as " that heroic youth, Colonel Washington, whom I cannot but hope Providence has hil!icrt:> preserved in so signal a manner for some important service to his 2ountry." The retreat of Dunbar left the frontiers of Virginia and Pennsylvania it the mercy of the savages, who maintained a desultory but destructive warfare along the entire border. The defence of this exposed region was BURNING OP K1TTANNING BY GENERAL ARMSTRONG. intvusted to Colonel Washington ; but he had so few men as to make his undertaking a hopeless one. The frontier settlements of Virginia were destroyed ; the beautiful valley of the Shenandoah was ravaged with ^merciless fury, and the more protected regions were kept in a state of constant uneasiness and alarm. Governor Dimvicldie was repeatedly appealed to to furnish more men, but refused, and endeavored to excuse his delinquency by saying : " We dare not part with any of our white men to any distance, as we must have a watchful eye over our negro slaves." Pennsylvania met the troubles with greater vigor and resolution. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 355 About thirty miles above Fort Duquesne, on the Alleghany river, the Indian village of Kittanning, the home of a noted chief named Captain Jacobs. Together with the Delaware chief Shingis, he had, at the instigation of the French, kept up a continual warfare upon the frontier settlements. A military force for the defence of the frontier was raised by the colony and placed under the command of Benjamin Frank- lin as colonel. He soon resigned, and was succeeded by Colonel John Armstrong, a man better suited to the position, and who subsequently became a major-general in the war of the Revolution. Armstrong resolved to destroy Kittanniug and the tribe inhabiting it as the bess means of putting a stop to their outrages, and called for volunteers for the enterprise. Three hundred men responded. Towards the last of September, 1756, they crossed the mountains on horseback, and in A few days reached the vicinity of Kittanning. Dismounting and leaving their horses in charge of a guard, they silently surrounded the village. The Indians spent the night in carousing within hearing of the whites, and retired to rest at a very late hour. Just before daybreak the whites attacked the village and set it on fire. It was completely destroyed, and Jacobs and all but a handful of his men were slain. The few survivors fled farther west, and the Pennsylvania frontier was relieved of the ings it had so long endured. CHAPTER XXIII. THE FRENCH AND INDHtf WAR CONTINUED. Expedition against Acadia Brutal Treatment of the Acadians They are Expelled from their Country A Sad Story Fate of the Acadians Johnson at Lake George March of Dieskau Battle of Lake George Failure of Shirley's Expedition Arrival of the Earl of Loudon Montcalm in Canada Capture of Oswego by the French Outrages of the Earl of Loudon upon New York and Philadelphia Expedition against Louis- burg How the Earl of Loudon Beat the French Capture of Fort William Henry by Montcalm Massacre of the Prisoners by the Indians Efforts of Montcalm to save them The Royal Officers attempt to cover their Failures by outraging the Colonies. the events we have related were transpiring in the Ohio valley other expeditions were despatched against the French. One of these was directed against that part of Acadia, or Nova Scotia, which still remained in the hands of the French. It lay at the head of the Bay of Fundy, and was defended by two French forts. This region was the oldest French colony in North America, having been settled sixteen years before the landing of the Pil- grims, but was regarded by the English as within their jurisdiction. In May, 1755, an expedition of three thousand New England troops was despatched from Boston, under Colonel John Winslow, to attack these forts and establish the English authority over the French settlements. Upon reaching the Bay of Fundy Winslow was joined by three hundred English regulars under Colonel Monckton, who assumed the command. The forts were taken with comparatively little eifort, and the authority of England was extended over the whole of Nova Scotia. The Acadians agreed to acknowledge the authority of their new masters, and to observe a strict neutrality between France and England in the war ; and the English on their part promised not to require of them the usual oaths of allegiance, to excuse them from bearing arms against France, and to pro- tect them in the exercise of the Catholic religion. The Acadians numbered about seventeen thousand souls. They were a simple and harmless people, and were enjoying in a marked degree the blessings of industry and thrift. They had begun their settlements by depending upon the fur-trade and the fisheries for their support, but had abandoned ithese ^pursuits for that of agriculture, which was already 356 FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 357 yielding them rich rewards for their skill and labor. They were proud of their farms and took but little interest in public affairs, scarcely know- ing what was transpiring in the world around them. It is hard to imagine a more peaceful or a happier community than this one at the time they passed under the baleful rule of England. Crime was unknown among them, and they seldom carried their disputes before the English magistrates, but settled them by the arbitration of their old men. They encouraged early marriages as the best means of preserving the morality of their people ; and when a young man married, his neighbors turned out in force and built him a house, and for the first year of his marriage aided him to establish himself firmly, while the bride's relatives helped her to furnish the home thus prepared. Thus the people were taught to regard and practise neighborly kindness as one of the cardinal Christian virtues. They were devoted Catholics, and practised their religion with- out bigotry. They were attached to the rule of France by language and religion, and would have been glad to see her authority re-established over them ; but they submitted peacefully to the rule of the English and faithfully observed the terms of their surrender. Unfortunately for the Acadians their possessions soon began to excite the envy of the English. Lawrence, the governor of Nova Scotia, ex- pressed this feeling in his letter to Lord Halifax, the English premier. " They possess the best and largest tract of land in this province," he wrote ; " if they refuse the oaths, it would be much better that they were away." The English authorities had prepared a cunningly devised scheme for dispossessing those simple people of their homes, and they now proceeded to put it in execution. The usual oaths of allegiance had not been tendered to the Acadians upon their surrender, as it was known that as Frenchmen and Catholics they could not take them, as they required them to bear arms against their own brethren in Canada, and to make war upon their religion. It was resolved now to offer the oaths to them, and thus either drive them into rebellion or force them to abandon their homes. When this intention was known, the priests urged them to refuse the oaths. " Better surrender your meadows to the sea," they de- clared, " and your houses to the flames, than, at the peril of your souls, take the oath of allegiance to the British government." As for the Acadians themselves, " they, from their very simplicity and anxious sin- cerity, were uncertain in their resolves ; now gathering courage to flee beyond the isthmus, for other homes in New France, and now yearning for their own houses and fields, their herds and pastures." The officers sent by the English authorities to enforce their demands conducted themselves with a haughtiness and cruelty which added greatly 358 HISTORY Of THE UNITED STATES. to the sorrows of the Acadians. Their titles to their lands were declared null and void, and all their papers and title-deeds were taken from them. Their property was taken for the public service without compensation, and if they failed to furnish wood at the times required, the English soldiers " might take their houses for fuel." Their guns were seized, and they were deprived of their boats on the pretext that they might be used to communicate with the French in Canada. At last, wearied out with these oppressions, the Acadians offered to swear allegiance to Great Britain. This, however, formed no part of the plan of their persecutors, and they were answered, that by a British statute persons who had been once offered the oaths, and who had refused them, could not be permitted to take them, but must be treated as Popish recusants. This brought matters to a crisis, and the English now resolved to strike the decisive blow. A proclamation was issued, requiring " the old men. and young men, as well as all lads over ten years of age," to assemble on the 5th of September, 1 755, at a certain hour, at designated places in their respective districts, to hear the "wishes of the king." In the greater number of places the order was obeyed. What happened at the village of Grand Pre', the principal settlement, will show the course pur- sued by the English in all the districts. Four hundred and eighteen of the men of the place assembled. They were unarmed, and were marched into the church, which was securely guarded. Winslow, the New England commander, then addressed them as follows : " You are convened together to manifest to you his majesty's final resolution to the French inhabitants of this his province. Your lands and tenements, cattle of all kinds, and live stock of all sorts, are forfeited to the crown, and you yourselves are to be removed from this his province. I am, through his majesty's goodness, directed to allow you liberty to carry off your money and house- hold goods, as many as you can, without discommoding the vessels you go in." He then declared them, together with their wives and children, a total of nineteen hundred and twenty-three souls, the king's prisoners. The announcement took the unfortunate men by surprise, and filled them with the deepest indignation ; but they were unarmed, and unable to re- sist. They were held close prisoners in the church, and their homes, which they had left in the morning full of hope, were to see them no more. They were kept without food for themselves or their children that day, and were poorly fed during the remainder of their captivity. They were held in confinement until the 10th of September, when it was announced that the vessels were in readiness to carry them away. They were not to be allowed to join their brethren in Canada lest they should serve as a reinforcement to the French in that provinrp but were to be FRENCH A3D ISDIAX WAR. 351) scattered as paupers through the English colonies, among people of another race and a different i'uith. On the morning of the 10th, the captives were drawn up six deep. The English, intending to make their trial as bitter and as painful n.s possible, had resolved upon the barbarous measure of separating the families of their victims. The young men and boys were driven at the point of the bayonet from the church to the ship and compelled to em- bark. They passed amid the rows of their mothers and sisters, \vho s kneeling, prayed heaven to bless and keep them. Then the fathers and husbands were forced by the bayonet on board of another ship, and as the vessels were now full, the women and children were left behind until more ships could come for them. They were kept for weeks near the sea, suffering greatly from lack of proper shelter and food, and it was December before the last of them were removed. Those who tried to escape were ruthlessly shot down by the sentinels. " Our soldiers hate them," wrote an English officer, " and if they can but find a pretext to kill them they will." In some of the settlements the designs of the English were suspected and the proclamation was not heeded. Some of the people fled to Canada ; others sought shelter with the Indians, who received them with kindness ; others still fled to the woods, hoping to hide there till the storm was over. The English at once proceeded to lay waste their homes ; the country was made desolate in order that the fugitives might be compelled through starvation to surrender themselves. Seven thousand Acadians were torn from their homes and scattered among the English colonies on the Atlantic coast, from New Hampshire to Georgia. Families were utterly broken up, never to be re-united. The colonial newspapers for many years were filled with mournful adver- tisements, inquiring for a lost husband or wife; parents sought their missing children, and children their parents in this way. But of all these inquiries few were answered. The exiles were doomed to a parting worse than death, and their captors had done their work so well that human ingenuity could not undo it. Some of those who had been carried to Georgia attempted to return to their homes. They escaped to sea in bouts, and coasted from point to point northward, until they reached New England, when they were sternly ordered back. Their homes were their own no longer. More than three thousand Acadians fled to Canada, and of these about fifteen hundred settled south of the Ristigouche. Upon the surrender of Canada they were again subjected to the persecutions of the English. "Once those who dwelt in Pennsylvania presented a humble petition tc 360 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the Earl of London, then the British commander-in-chief in America ; and the cold-hearted peer, offended that the prayer was made in French, seized their five principal men, wjio in their own land had been person-; of dignity and substance, and shipped them to England, with the request that they might be kept from ever again becoming troublesome by being consigned to service as common sailors on board ships of war. No doubt existed of the king's approbation. The lords of trade, more merciless than the savages and than the wilderness in winter, wished very much that every one of the Acadians should be driven out ; and when it seemed ~< SCENE ON THE COLORADO. that the work was done, congratulated the king that 'the zealous endeavors of Lawrence had been crowned with an entire success.' I know not if the annals of the human race keep the record of sorrows so wantonly in- flicted, so bitter and so perennial, as fell upon the French inhabitants of Acadia. 'We have been true, 5 they said of themselves, ' to our religion, and true to ourselves; yet nature appears to consider us only as the ob- jects of public vengeance.' The hand of the English official seemed under a spell with regard to them; and was never uplifted but to curse them." * * Bancroft'* History of the United States, vol. iv., p. 206. FRENCH ASD INDIAN WAR. 36l While these sorrows were being heaped upon the helpless Acadians by- England the provincial forces were serving the cause elsewhere with more credit to their manhood. As has been stated the expedition against the French fort at Crown Point, on Lake Champlain, had been intrusted to General William Johnson. His army consisted principally of troops from Massachusetts and Connecticut. They were joined at Albany by a regiment from New Hampshire. The troops rendezvoused at the head of boat navigation, on the Hudson, in July, 1755, under the command of General Lyman. They numbered about six thousand men. A fort was built and named by the troops, in honor of their commander, Fort Lyman. In August Johnson arrived with the stores and artillery, and assumed the command of the expedition. He ungenerously changed the name of the fort to Fort Edward. Leaving a strong force to garrison it he moved with five thousand men to the head of Lake George, from which he intended to descend the lake in boats. The French had been informed of Johnson's movements by their scouts. Baron Dieskau, the governor of Canada, placed the entire arms- bearing population of the Montreal district in the field, and resolved to prevent Johnson from reaching Crown Point by attacking him in his own country. With a force of two hundred French regulars, and about one thousand two hundred Indians, he set out across the country to attack Fort Edward. Upon arriving in the vicinity of the fort the Indians learned that it was defended by artillery, of which they were greatly afraid, and refused to attack it. Dieskau was, therefore, compelled to change his plan, and resolved to strike a blow at Johnson's camp, which he was informed was without cannon. In the meantime the scouts of the English had detected the movement against Fort Edward. Ignorant of the change in Dieskau's plans John- son sent a force of one thousand men, under Colonel Ephraim Williams of Massachusetts, and two hundred Mohawks, under their famous chief Hendrick, to the relief of the fort. Their march was reported to the French, who placed themselves in ambush along the road they were pur- suing, and attacked them as soon as they had fairly entered the defile. The English were at once thrown into confusion. Hendrick was shot down at the first fire, and Williams fell a few moments later. The Eng- lish and Mohawks then began a rapid retreat to their camp, closely pursued by their assailants. The sound of the firing was soon heard in Johnson's camp, and as it drew nearer it became apparent that the detachment was retreating. The troops were gotten under arms, and the trees in front of the camp were hurriedly felled to form a rude breastwork. A few cannon had just 3f>2 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. arrived from the Hudson, and these were placed to command the road />y which the French were approaching. These arrangements were just completed when the fugitives of Williams' command appeared in fuli retreat, w'ih the French and Indians but a few hundred yards behind them. J ieskau urged his men forward with the greatest energy, intend- ing to i /roe his way into the English camp along with the fugitives. The artillery was carefully trained upon the road by which he was advancing, and the moment the fugitives were past the guns they opened with a terrific fire of grape, which caused the Canadians and Indians to break in confusion, and take to the woods for shelter. The regulars held their ground, and maintained a determined contest of five hours, in which they were nearly all slain. The Indians and Canadians did little execu- tion, as they stood in dread of the artillery. At length Dieskau, seeing that his effort had failed, drew off his men, and retreated. He was pur- sued for some distance by the English. Towards evening he was sud- denly attacked by the New Hampshire regiment, which was inarching from Fort Edward to Johnson's assistance. The French were seized with a panic at this new attack, and abandoning their brave commander, fled for their lives. Dieskau, who had been severely wounded several times, was taken prisoner. He was kindly treated, and was subsequently sent to England, where he died. General Johnson was slightly wounded at the commencement of the battle, and withdrew from the field, leaving the command to General Lyman, to whom the victory was really due. Notwithstanding this John- son did not even mention Lyman's name in his report of the battle, but claimed all the honor for himself. He was rewarded by the king with a baronetcy, and the gift of twenty-five thousand dollars. General Lyman was not even thanked for his services. Johnson made no effort to improve his victory. The expedition against Crown Point, which might now have been undertaken with a better prospect of success, was abandoned, and Johnson contented him- self with building a useless log fort at the head of Lake George, which he named Fort William Henry. Late in the fall he placed a garrison in this fort, and then returned to Albany, where he disbanded his army. The expedition under Governor Shirley, against Fort Niagara, was equally unsuccessful. By the month of August Shirley had advanced no farther than Oswego. Here he received the news of Braddock's defeat, which so disheartened him that, after building and garrisoning two forts at Oswego, he returned to Albany. By the death of Braddock Shirley succeeded to the chief command of all the royal forces in America. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 363 In December, 1755, Shirley held a conference with the colonial gov- ernors, at New York, to decide upon the campaign for the next year. It was agreed that three expeditions should be undertaken in 1756: one against Niagara ; a second against Fort Duquesne, and a third against Crown Point. In the meantime Lord Loudon was appointed by the king commander-in-chief of the forces in America. He sent over Gen- eral Abercrombie as his lieutenant. Abercrombie arrived in Junt with several regiments of British regulars. He relieved General Shirley from command, but nothing was to be done until the arrival of the comman- der-in-chief, who did not reach America until July. Lord Loudon was a more pompous and a slower man than Braddock, and more incompetent. A force of seven thousand men was assembled at Albany for the expedition against Ticouderoga and Crown Point, and Loudon at once repaired thither, and assumed the command. The col- onists were confident that something of importance would now be accom- plished ; but they were destined to disappointment. The commander-in- chief and his subordinates spent their time in settling the relative rank of the royal and provincial officers. Notwithstanding the fact that all that had been accomplished during the war had been gained by the colo- nial forces, there was an iniquitous regulation which gave the precedence to the lowest officer holding a royal commission over one holding a higher rank from any of the colonies. This led to many disputes, and the colonists saw themselves robbed of the honors they had so fairly won. This was onlv one of the manv wrongs by which Great Britain succeeded * O J in alienating the people of America from their attachment to her. In the meantime Dieskau had been succeeded as governor of Canada by the Marquis de Montcalm, the ablest of the rulers of New France. He was a man of genuine ability and of indomitable energy. He reached Quebec in 1756, and at once set out for Ticonderoga, which he placed in a state of defence. Perceiving the exposed condition of the English forts at Oswego he resolved to capture them. Collecting a force of five thousand Frenchmen, Canadians, and Indians, lie crossed the lake from Frontenac, and reached Oswego on the 5th of August He soon drove the English out of Fort Oswego ; but Fort Ontario, the second work, opposed a more vigorous resistance to him. The garrison held out until their commander, Colonel Mercer, was killed, and they had lost all hope of receiving aid from Albany, when they capitulated. An immense amount of military stores, one hundred and thirty-five pieces of cannon, and all the boats and vessels Shirley had prepared for the expedition against Niagara fell into the hands of Montcalm. The Iroquois had viewed the erection of the forts at Oswego by the English with grea; 364 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. jealousy, and in order to conciliate them Montcalm wisely destroyed the works, and withdrew into Canada. Loudon had detached a force under Colonel Webb to the assistance of the Osvvego forts, but it was sent so late that it was met on the way by the news of the capture of the forts. Colonel Webb, in dismay, fell back rapidly, and obstructed the road to Albany. Having failed to accomplish anything against the enemy Lord Loudon now undertook to subjugate the colonies of New York and Pennsylvania. He was firmly convinced that the colonists needed to be taught submis- sion to the will of the royal commander, and as he had been made a sort of viceroy of all the colonies, he thought the present a fitting occasion to teach them this lesson. He demanded of the cities of Albany, New York, and Philadelphia free quarters for his troops during the winter. The mayor of New York refused the demand " as contrary to the laws of England and the liberties of America." " G d d n my blood," said the viceroy to the mayor ; " if you do not billet my officers upon free quarters this day, I'll order here all the troops in North America under my command, and billet them myself upon the city." There was no reasoning with " the master of twenty legions," and the magistrates were obliged to get up a subscription for the free support, during the winter, of an army that had passed a whole campaign without coming in sight of the enemy. In Philadelphia the matter was settled very much in the same way. Albany was also obliged to submit, but the magistrates took occasion to tell the royal officers that they did not want their services, as they could defend their frontiers themselves. "The frontier was left open to the French ; this quartering troops in the principal towns, at the expense of the inhabitants, by the illegal authority of a military chief, was the great result of the campaign." It was becoming clear to the colonists that their safety from the depredations of the French and sav- ages was not to be gained by the royal troops, but by their owu efforts. A congress of governors was held at Boston in January, 1757, and it was resolved that there should be but one expedition this year, and that this should be sent under the Earl of Loudon against Louisburg. The frontier posts, especially Forts Edward and William Henry, were to be defended, and Washington, with the Virginia troops, was to guard the border of that colony against the expeditions of the French from Fort Duquesne. The last was a difficult and almost impossible duty, for the French from Fort Duquesne could choose their point of attack any- where on the long and exposed frontier, while the force under Washing- ton was utterly inadequate to the task of watching the entire line. Leaving Bouquet to guard the frontier of Carolina against the Chero- FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 365 kees, and Webb to hold the country between Lake George and the Hudson, Lord London, on the 20th of June, 1757, sailed from New York with six thousand regulars to attack Louisburg. He proceeded to Halifax, where he was joined by a fleet of eleven ships of war and four thousand troops, bringing his whole force to ten thousand regulars and sixteen ships of the line and a number of frigates. The campaign of this redoubtable warrior is thus described by Bancroft: "He landed (at Halifax), levelled the uneven ground for a parade, planted a vegetable ft SITE OF FORT WILLIAM HENRY ON LAKE GEORGE. garden as a precaution against the scurvy, exercised the men in mock battles and sieges and stormings of fortresses, and when August came, and the spirit of the army was broken, and Hay, a major-general, expressed contempt so loudly as to be arrested, the troops were embarked, as if for Louisburg. But ere the ships sailed, the reconnoitring vessels came with the news that the French at Cape Breton had one more ship than the English, and the plan of campaign was changed. Part of the soldiers landed again at Halifax, and the Earl of Loudon, leaving 366 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATIC. his garden to the weeds, and his place of arms to briars, sailed for .New' York. The Marquis of Montcalm was a very different man from the Earl of London. As a man he was superior to him in every way ; as a com- mander he was active, quick, and resolute ; while London was incompe- tent, slow, and pompous. Montcalm had stationed himself at Ticonderoga in order to be able to watch the English, and he resolved to take advan- tage of Lord London's absence to attack Fort William Henry at the head of Lake George. On the 2d of August he appeared before the fort with a force of about six thousand French and Canadians and seventeen hundred Indians, and laid siege to it. The garrison consisted of about three thousand men, u:iJcr Colonel Monroe, a gallant officer. Montcalm summoned him to surrender the fort, but Monroe returned an indignant refusal to this demand, and sent to General Webbe, at Fort Edward, fifteen miles distant, to ask for assistance. Webbe might easily have saved the fort, as he had four thousand men under his command, but he made no effort to do so. Colonel Putnam, afterwards famous in the Revolution, eagerly sought and at last received permission to march with his regiment to Monroe's assistance, but he had proceeded only a few miles when Webbe commanded him to return to Fort Edward. In the place of assistance, the timid Webbe then sent to Monroe a letter greatly exaggerating the force of the French, and advising him to surrender. This letter was intercepted by Montcalm, who was on the point of raising the siege, and he forwarded it to Monroe, with a renewed demand for his surrender. The brave veteran held out, however, until nearly all his guns were disabled and his ammunition nearly exhausted. He then hung out a flag of truce, and Montcalm, who was too true a hero not to appreciate valor in a foe, granted him liberal terms. The garrison were allowed to march out with the honors of war upon giving their parole not to serve against France for eighteen months. They were to retain their private property, and were to liberate all their prisoners. On the 9th of August the fort was surrendered to the French. Montcalm had kept the savages from liquor in order to be able to restrain them in the hour of victory. They now sought and obtained rum from the English, and spent the night in dancing and singing. The next morning, as the English marched out of their camp, the Indians fell upon them and began to plunder them. From robbery, the excited savages soon passed to murder, and many of the English were killed and others made prisoners. The French officers threw themselves into the melee and exerted themselves gallantly to control the Indians. Many of them were wounded in these efforts. Montcalm in an agony implored FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 367 the Indians to respect the treaty. " Kill me," he cried, as he struggled to restrain the savages, " but spare the English, who are under my pro- tection." He called to the English soldiers to defend themselves. The retreat to Fort Edward became a disorderly flight. Only about six hundred men reached there in a body. More than four hundred had .' ought shelter in the French camp, and were sent by Montcalm to their friends under the protection of a strong escort. He also sent one of his officers to ransom those who had been taken prisoners by the Indians. The vast stores accumulated at Fort William Henry were carried away by the French, and the work itself demolished. The loss of Fort William Henry greatly frightened General Webbe at Fort Edward. In spite of his force of six thousand men, and the with- drawal of the French to Lake Champlain, he seriously contemplated a retreat to beyond Albany. Lord London, who had arrived at New York, was equally impressed with the danger, and proposed to take position with his army on Long island for the defence of the continent. The campaign was over, and the French were everywhere triumphant. With the exception of Acadia, they held all the country they had occu- pied at the beginning of the war. The English had lost the forts ^t Oswego and William Henry, and immense quantities of supplies. They had been entirely expelled from the valleys of the Ohio and the St. Lawrence, and the hostile parties of the Indians were enabled to extend their ravages far into the interior of the colonies. America was thoroughly disgusted with the incompetency and cow- ardice of the royal commanders. The old spell of British invincibility was broken, and the colonists were rapidly losing their respect for the troops sent over from England to protect them. Men were coming to the conclusion that their connection with Great Britain was simply a curse to the colonies. They regarded the conduct of the war thus far by the royal officials as simply " a mixture of ignorance and cowardice," and were satisfied that they were amply able to defend themselves against the French and Indians without any assistance whatever from England. The royal officials sought to cover their failures by complaints against the Americans. The hearty disgust and contempt with which the colo- nists regarded their pusillanimous conduct was reported by them to the home government as evidence of a mutinous spirit on the part of the Americans. Throughout the colonies they pursued one uniform system of seeking to force the provinces into submission to their own illegal acts, and to compel them to an acknowledgment of the arbitrary power of the crown. " Everywhere," says Bancroft, " the royal officers actively asserted the authority of the king and the British nation over America. 368 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Did the increase of population lead the legislatures to enlarge the repre- sentative body? The right to do eo was denied, and representation was held to be a privilege conceded by the king as a boon, and limited by his will. Did the British commander believe that the French colonies through the neutral islands derived provisions from the continent? By his own authority he proclaimed an embargo in every American port. Did South Carolina, by its assembly, institute an artillery company? Lyttleton interposed his veto, for there should be no company formed but by the regal commission. By another act, the same assembly made provision for quartering soldiers, introducing into the law the declaratory clause, that ' no soldier should ever be billeted among them.' This also Lyttleton negatived; and but for the conciliatory good temper of Bouquet, who commanded at Charleston, the province would have been inflamed by the peremptory order which came from Loudon to grant billets under the act of Parliament." * In the eyes of Great Britain America was merely an out-of-the-way corner of the world which existed by the bounty of England, and which was entitled to no rights, no privileges save what the king in his goodness should see fit to allow its people ; and in theory and practice every royal official, from the viceroy down to the most insignificant government clerk, arrogated to himself the power of oppression which he claimed for the sovereign. * Bancroft's Hisloiy of the United States, vol. iv., p. 270. CHAPTER XXIV. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR CONCLUDED. A Change for the Better William Pitt Prime Minister Vigorous Measures Adopted- Recall of the Earl of Loudon Capture of Louisburg Abercrombie on Lake George- Advances against Ticonderoga Death of Lord Howe Failure of the English attack upon Ticonderoga Disgraceful conduct of Abercrombie His Retreat Capture of Fort Frontenac Advance of General Forbes Grant's Defeat The Viiginians again save the Regulars Capture of Fort Duquesne Washington retires from the Army Ticonderoga and Crown Point occupied by the English Capture of Fort Niagara The Expedition against Quebec Failure of the first Operations Despondency of Wolfe He Discovers a Landing-place The Army scales the Heights of Abraham Montcalm's Surprise Battle of the Plains of Abraham Death of Wolfe Defeat of the French Death of Montcalm Surrender of Quebec Capture of Montreal Treaty of Paris Canada ceded to England France loses all her American Possessions The Cherokee War Hostility of the Indians to the English Pontiac's War Death of Pontiac Bouquet relieves Fort Duquesne Eesults of the War. HE gross mismanagement of affairs in America aroused a storm of indignation in England, and the king was obliged to yield to the popular sentiment, and change his ministers. At the head of the new ministry he placed William Pitt, tha leader of the popular party, who was destined to become one of the greatest of English statesmen. His great talents had raised him from the insig- nificant position of ensign in the guards to the leadership of the govern- ment of Great Britain, -and were now to be the means of retrieving the disasters of his country, and regaining for her her lost power and prestige. A truly great man, Pitt knew how to admire and sympathize with merit in others, and was not blinded by the glitter of rank, nor ham- pered by an aristocratic faith in the divinity of royalty. He appreciated and sympathized with the Americans more perfectly than any of his pre- decessors in office, and began his career with the wise determination to * O encourage and develop their patriotism by a generous and systematic assistance of their efforts. He caused the government of Great Britain to assume the expenses of the war, and announced that the sums ex- pended by the colonies for the public defence, since the commencement of hostilities, would be refunded, and that henceforth the British govern- 24 369- 370 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ment would provide the funds for the prosecution of the war. The colonies were each required to furnish troops, but Pitt " stipulated that the colonial troops raised for this purpose should l>e supplied with arms, ammunition, tents, and provisions, in the samo manner as the regular troops, and at the king's expense; so that the only charge to the colonies would be that of levying, clothing, and paying the men. The governors were also authorized to issue commissions to provincial officers, from colonels downwards, and these officers were to held rank in the united army according to their commissions. . Had this liberal and just system been adopted at the outset, it would have put a very different face upon the affairs of the colonies." * These energetic and just measures were promptly responded to by the colonies, which placed a force of twenty- eight thousand men in the field. To these Pitt added twenty-two thou- sand British regulars, making a total of fifty thousand men, the largest army that had ever been assembled in America, and exceeding in num- ber the entire male population of Canada. The Earl of Loudon was recalled, and instead of a single supreme command three separate expeditions were organized under different officers. An expedition against Louisburg was placed under the orders of Lord Jeffrey Arnherst, an able and upright soldier, assisted by Briga- dier-General James Wolfe; who, though only thirty-one years old, had spent eighteen years in the army, and had served at Dettingen, Fontenoy, and Laffeldt. He was considered one of the ablest commanders in the English service, and was universally beloved. To General Forbes the task of conquering the Ohio valley was assigned; and the expedition against Ticonderoga and Crown Point was intrusted to General Aber- crombie. Pitt had little faith in Abercrombie, who had been Lord London's most trusted lieutenant ; but retained him to please Lord Bute, and associated with him, as his second in command, the young and giftod Lord George Howe, in the hope that Howe's genius would redeem Abcr- crombie's faults, and lead him to victory. The expedition against Louisburg consisted of a fleet of twenty ships of the line and eighteen frigates, under Admiral Boscawen, and an army of fourteen thousand men, under General Amherst. The fleet reached Cabarus bay on the 2d of June, 1758. The fortifications of Louisburg were somewhat dilapidated, but were held by a garrison of thirty-two hundred men, commanded by Chevalier Drucour, an officer of expe- rience and determination. These frigates were sunk across the mouth of - the 'harbor to close it against the English, and within the basin lay five *. ^parks' Writings of Washington, vol. ii., p. 2S9 Note. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. ships of the line, one fifty-gun ship, and two frigates, which took part in the defence of the place. The surf was so heavy that Amherst was unable to land his troops until the 8th. The first division was led by Wolfe, under the cover of the fire of the fleet. He forbade a gun to be fired from his command, and, upon ncaring the shore, leaped into the water, followed by his men, and in the fare of a sharp resistance, drove the French from their outposts into the town. The place was now regularly invested, and, after a bom- bardment of fifty days, during which the shipping in the harbor was destroyed, the town and fortifications were surrendered to the English on the 27th of July. With Louisburg the French gave up the islands of Cape Breton and Prince Edward. Five thousand prisoners and an immense quantity of military supplies were secured by the Ivio;!ish. Halifax being already the chief naval station of the English in these waters, Louisburg was abandoned. Amherst, Wolfe, and Boscawen were hon- ored by the English government for their victory. The season was too far advanced after the capture of Loais- burg to admit of the commencement of operations against Quebec, and Amherst was suddenly called away from the coast to take charge of the army on Lake George. Abercrombie had assembled a force of seven thousand English regulars and nine thousand Americans at the head of Lake George. Among the American troops were Stark and Putnam, afterwards famous in the war for independence, the former serving as a captain in the New Hampshire regiment, the latter as a major of Connecticut troops. Abercrombie was commander-in-chief, but the troops had little confidence in him. They were devoted to Lord Howe, who was the real leader of the expedition. On the 5th of July the army broke up its camp, and embarking in ten hundred and thirty-five boats, with the artillery on rafts, descended the lake to its lower end, from which they were to advance overland upon Fort Carillon, which the French had erected on the promontory of Ticonderoga. The next morning Lord Howe pushed forward with the advanced gup.rcl, and encountered a scouting party of thf French. A WOLFE S ATTACK ON LOUISBURG. 372 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. sharp conflict ensued. The French were easily driven back, but Lord Howe was killed almost at the first fire. His death cast a gloom over the army, which promised ill for the success of the undertaking. Abercrombie continued to advance, and on the morning of the 9th sent Clerk, his chief engineer, to reconnoitre the French position at Ticon- Jaroga. Clerk reported that the French works \vere feeble, and imper- fectly armed. Stark, of New Hampshire, and some of the English officers saw that they were both strong and well provided with artillery. They so reported to Abercrombie, but he accepted the statement of his engineer, and, without waiting for his artillery, ordered an assault upon the French lines that very day. The Marquis of Montcalm was commanding in person at Ticonderoga, ABERCROMBIE'S EXPEDITION ON LAKE GEORGE. and had disposed his small force of thirty-six hundred and fifty men in a line of breastworks thrown up about half a mile beyond the fort, and extending across the promontory on which that work stood. The death of Lord Howe had deprived the English of their only leader capable of contending against this accomplished commander, and the incompetency of Aberorombie was to render easy what might have been, under other circumstances, a most difficult undertaking. 7 O Abercrombie could have brought up his artillery by the next day, but he was unwilling to wait for it, as he anticipated an easy victory. He stationed himself in a place of safety about two miles from the field, and ordered his troops to assail the French intrenchmcnts with the bayonet. FRESC1I ASD INDIAN WAR. 373 The attack was made in gallant style, and was continued with energy during the afternoon. The English performed prodigies of valor, but were not able to overcome the strength of the French works, or the activity with which the defenders maintained their position. Unlike the English commander, Montcalm was everywhere along his line, cheering his men with his presence and example, anJ distributing refreshments tc them with his own hands. Without a commander who dared place him- self under fire, with no one on the spot to direct their movements, the valor of the English was thrown away. A volley from an advanced party of their own men completed their confusion, and they broke help- lessly, and fell back in disorder towards Lake George. Abercrombie made no effort to rally them ; he was too badly frightened for that; anJ ATTACK ON TICONDEROGA. led the army towards the landing-place, on Lake Gecrge, with such haste that but for the energetic action of Colonel Bradstreet the troops would have rushed pell-mell into the boats, without any semblance of order, and with a still greater loss of life. The English lost nearly two thousand men in the attack upon the French works ; but they still had left a force of more than four times the strength of the French, and their artillery had not been engaged. With this force they might have taken Ticonderoga, but Abercrombie was too much terrified to attempt anything of the kind. On the morning of the 9th he embarked his troops and hastened to the head of Lake George. Montcalm was astounded at his retreat, but as he had too small a force, and his men were exhausted, he made no effort at pursuit. Arrived at the head of Lake George, the frightened Abercrombie sent the artillery HISTORY OF THE VxiTED STATES and ammunition hack to Albany for safety, and occupied his army vith the erection of Fort George, near the ruins of Fort William Henry. The news of this disaster caused General Amherst to hasten with four regiments and a battalion from Louisburg to Lake George. He reached the camp of Abcrcrombie on the 5th of October. In November orders arrived from England appointing Amherst commander-in-chief of the royal forces in America, and recalling Abercrombie, who returned to England to attempt to excuse his cowardice by villifying America and the Americans. He could not deceive Pitt, however, whose indignation at his pogillunimotts conduct was only restrained by the influence of Lord Bute in the royal councils. After Abcrcrombic's retreat, Colonel Bradstrcct, of New York, at his earnest solicitation, obtained leave from the council of war to undertake an expedition against Fort Frontcnac, which being situated at the foot of Lake Ontario, commanded both the lake and the St. Lawrence. Itc pos- session was of the highest importance to the French, as it was their main depot for the supply of the posts on the upper lakes and the Ohio with military stores. Collecting a forqe of 2700 men, all Americans, con- sisting chiefly of troops from New York and Massachu- setts, Brads treet hastened to Oswego before his movements were known to the enemy. From Oswego he crossed the lake in open boats, and landed on the Canada side within a mile of Fort Frontenac. His sudden arrival struck terror to the garri- son, and the greater part secured their safety by an instantaneous flight. The next day the fort surrendered. The victors capturea with it a vast quantity of military stores destined for the forts in the interior, and a fleet of nine armed vessels, with which the French controlled the lake. Two of the vessels were laden with a part of the stores and sent to Os- wego, and the remainder of the vessels and stores, together with the fort, were destroyed. The English then recrossed the lake to Oswego. The capture of Fort Frontenac was an event of great importance, as it led, as wo shall see further on, to the abandonment by the French of their posts in the valley of the Ohio. INVESTMENT OF FORT FRONTENAC. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 375 For the reduction of Fort Duquesne a force of seven thousand men was assembled under General Forbes. Of these, five thousand were from Pennsylvania and Virginia, the troops from the latter colony being under the command of Colonel Washington. The Pennsylvania troops assem- bled at Raystown, on the Juniata, and the Virginians at Fort Cumber- land. Washington urged upon Forbes the advantages of adopting the old road cut by Braddock's army in his advance to the Ohio, but Forbes, at the suggestion of some land-speculators, decided to construct a new and a better road farther to the north. As regarded the future settlement of the west this was an excellent plan, but as far as it concerned the immediate object of the campaign it was a mistake, as it involved a large expenditure of labor and a great waste of time. While this road was being constructed General Bouquet, with the ad- vanced guard, crossed Laurel Hill and established a post at Loyal Hanna. The new road progressed very slowly, only forty-five miles being con- structed in six weeks. Bouquet had with him a force of about two thousand men, chiefly Highlanders and Virginians. Learning from his scouts that Fort Duquesne was held by a garrison of only eight hundred men, of whom three hundred were Indians, Bouquet, without orders from General Forbes, resolved to attempt the capture of the fort by a sudden blow. He detached a force of eight hundred Highlanders, and a company of Virginians, under Major Grant, to reconnoitre Fort Duquesne. The French were fully informed of all of Grant's movements, but they allowed him to approach unmolested, intending to disarm his vigilance and then attack him. Grant affected the usual contempt for the provin- cial troops, and upon arriving before the fort, placed Major Lewis with the Virginians to guard the baggage, and sent his regulars forward to reconnoitre and make a sketch of the work. Fie was greatly encouraged by the fact that the French allowed him to approach without firing a gun at him, and in his self-complacency marched right into an ambuscade >vhich the enemy had prepared for him. The French commander had posted the Indians along the sides of the defile by which Grant was ad- vancing, and at a given signal the garrison made a sudden sally from the fort against the Highlanders, while the Indians opened a heavy fire upon them from their place of concealment. The regulars were quickly thrown into confusion, and their officers were found incapable of conducting such a mode of warfare. Attracted by the firing, Major Lewis, with a com- pany of Virginians, hastened to the scene of the encounter, and by engaging the enemy hand-to-hand enabled the regulars to save themselves from a general massacre. The detachment was routed with heavy loss and both Grant and Lewis were taken prisoners. The fugitives retreated 37G HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. to the point where the baggage had been left. It was guarded by Captain JJullit, whom Lewis had left there with one company of Virginians. By the gallant and skilful resistance of this little force the French and Indians were checked, and finally driven back in confusion. The English then continued their retreat with all speed to Loyal Hanna. Again the provincials had saved the regulars from total destruction. General Forbes had -the magnanimity to acknowledge and compliment the Vir- ginians for their services, and Captain Bullit was promoted to the rank of major. General Forbes was greatly disheartened by the news of Grant's disas- ter. A council of war was called to deliberate upon the future operations of the army, and decided that as it was now November, and they were still fifty miles from Fort Duquesne, with an unbroken forest between them and the fort, nothing more could be' accomplished until the spring. The enterprise was on the point of being abandoned when fortunately three prisoners were brought in, from whom Washington drew the information that the garrison of Fort Duquesne was reduced to a very small force, that the Indians had all deserted the French, and that the expected reinforcements and supplies from Canada had not arrived. It was evident that a well-executed effort would result in the capture of the fort. This information decided General Forbes to continue the expedition. A force of twenty-five hundred picked troops was placed under Wash- ington's command, and he was ordered to push forward as rapidly as possible, and prepare the road for the advance of the main army. Washington was ably seconded in his movements by the energetic Arm- strong, and the march was pressed with such vigor that in ten days the nrrny arrived in the vicinity of Fort Duquesne. The French now saw that the fall of the fort was inevitable. They had but five hundred men, and Bradstreet's capture of Fort Frontenac had cut them off from the reinforcements and supplies they had expected from Canada. Unwilling to stand a siege, the result of which was certain, they abandoned the fort on the night of the 24th of November, and embarking in flat boats, floated down the Ohio to join their countrymen in the valley of the Mississippi. On the 25th the English army arrived before the fort, and, finding it deserted and in ruins, occupied it. At the universal desire of the army Forbes named the place Fort Pitt, which has since been changed to Pittsburgh. The splendid city which occupies the site is the proudest monument that has been built to the memory of the "Great Commoner." Two regiments, composed of Pennsylvanians, Virginians, and Mary- lauders, under Mercer, were left to garrison Fort Pitt, which was restored 378 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. to its former strength. General Forbes then returned east of the moun- tains, and Washington resigned his commission and retired to private life. The object of the campaign was accomplished, and he could now enjoy the rest to which five years of constant service had entitled him. The capture of Fort Duquesne was the most important event of the war. It put an end to the French occupation of the valley of the Ohio, and settled the claim of Great Britain to that valuable region. The Indians, having no longer the support and encouragement which they had derived from the French at this post, ceased their hostile efforts, and during the remainder of the war the frontiers of Virginia and Pennsyl- vania were at peace. The capture of the fort was followed by a large emigration west of the mountains, which, beginning the next spring, so^i placed a large and energetic population of Englishmen ajid their families in the valley of the Ohio. The Indians, disheartened by the defeat of the French, began to form treaties of peace or neutrality with the English. Washington's services in this campaign were acknowledged with pride throughout the colonies, but the British government took no notice of them. Not even Pitt, with all his appreciation of America, thought it worth while to offer him any promotion or reward, as had been done in the case of other meritorious provincial commanders. Soon after his withdrawal frorfi the army he took his seat in the house of burgesses, to which he had been elected. That body ordered its speaker to publicly thank Colonel Washington in the name of the house and of the people of Virginia for his services to his country. The speaker discharged this duty with ease and dignity, but when Washington attempted to reply he blushed and stammered, and was unable to speak a word. The speaker relieved his confusion by coming to his assistance with the kind remark, "Sit down, Mr. Washington ; your modesty equals your valor, and that surpasses the power of any language I possess." The English cause was now more successful than it had ever been, and Canada was exhausted by the efforts she had put forth for her defence. This was clear to Montcalm, who had no hope of holding Xcw France against the attacks of Great Britain, and it was also clear to the far-seeing mind of Pitt. The British minister, therefore, resolved that the next campaign should be decisive of the war. He promptly reimbursed the colonies for the expenses incurred by them during the past year, ana found no difficulty in enlisting them heartily in his schemes. Three expeditions were ordered for the year 1759. Amherst Avas to advance by way of Lake Champlain, and after capturing Ticonderoga and Crown Point, was to lay siege to Montreal ; Wolfe was to ascend the St. Law- FRESC1I ASD INDIAN WAR. 379 rence and attack Quebec, and was to be joined by Amherst if the latter should be successful in his efforts against Montreal ; and General Pridcanx was to proceed by way of Oswego to capture Fort Niagara, and then descend Lake Ontario and join Amherst at Montreal. Amherst moved promptly against Ticonderoga, which post was aban- doned by the French upon his approach. Crown Point fell into his hands in the same manner, but here the advance of the English was stayed. No boats had been provided to transport the army down Lake Champlain, and Amherst was forced to halt until these could be procured. RUINS OF FORT TICONDEROGA. He was thus unable to invest Montreal, or to cooperate with Wolfe in the movement against Quebec. General Prideaux began his march to Oswego about the same time, and proceeding from Oswego laid siege to Fort Niagara. He was killed by the bursting of a gun soon after the commencement of the siege, and the command devolved upon Sir William Johnson, who pressed the attack with vigor. On the 23cl of July, 1758, the fort capitulated; but John- son was obliged to abandon the attempt to descend the St. Lawrence to Wolfe's assistance from a luck of boats and provisions. HISTORY OF THE UN II ED STATES. The expedition against Quebec assembled in June, 1758, at Louisbr.rg, under the command of General Wolfe. It consisted of eight thousand troops and a fleet of twenty-two ships of the line, besides frigates and some smaller vessels. On the 26th of June the Isle of Orleans was reached, and the troops were immediately landed. A short distance up ohe river Quebec rose defiantly, its seemingly impregnable citadel of St Louis crowning the lofcy cliffs that rose from the river's brink. For the defence of the place Montcalm had six greatly reduced battalions of regulars and a force of Canadian militia. A few Indians remained faithful to him ; but the majority of the tribes, doubtful of the issue of the contest, preferred to remain neutral. The French commander, seeing the inferiority of his force to that of the English, put his trust chiefly in the natural strength of his position, which he believed would enable him to hold it even with his small for*?. The situation of Quebec was peculiar. It lay on a peninsula, between the river St. Charles on the north and the St. Lawrence on the south and east. On these sides it was perfectly protected by the river, leaving the west side alone exposed. The lower town was situated on the beach, while the upper stood on the cliffs two hundred feet above the water, and above this still rose the castle of St. Louis. Above the city the high promon- tory on which the upper town was built stretched away for several miles in an elevated plain, and from the river to this plain the rocks rose almost perpendicularly. Every landing-place was carefully guarded, and the whole range of cliffs seemed bristling with cannon. The French commander did not believe it possible for an army to scale these cliffs. Montcalm located his camp below the city, between the St. Charles and the Montmorenci rivers, and covered the rive* front of his position with many floating batteries and ships of war. The naval superiority of the English at on, i e gave them the command of the river. The French were driven from Point Levi, opposite the city, and upon it Wolfe erected batteries, from which he bombarded the lower town and soon laid it in ashes. The upper town and the citadel were beyond the range of his guns, and could not be injured by this fire. Wolfe now decided to storm the French camp on the opposite side of the St. Lawrence, and in the month of July attacked them from the iirection of the Montmorenci, but owing to the haste of the first division, which advanced to the assault before it could be properly supported by the second, the attack was repulsed with a loss of five hundred men. This repulse greatly disheartened the English commander, whose sensitive spirit suffered keenly under the dread that his enterprise was doomed to taiiuro. He obtained news of the capture of Fort Niagara and the occu- FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 381 pation of Tieouderoga and Crown Point, and eagerly watched for the approach of the promised assistance from Amherst. It never came, and Wolfe saw that he must take Quebec by his own efforts or not at all. He attempted several diversions above the city in the hope of drawing iVIontcalm from his intrcnchments into the open field, bat Ihe latter otierely sent De "Bougairiville with fifteen hundred men to ^atch the shore abov: Quebec and prevent a landing. Wolfe fell into a fev3r, caused by his anxiety, and his despatches to his government cre- ated the gravest uneasiness in England for the success of his enterprise. Though ill, Wolfe examined the river with eagle eyes to de- tect some place at which a land- ing could be at- terapted. His energy was re- warded by his discovery of the cove which now bears his name. From the shore at the head of this cove a steep and difficult pathway, along which two men could scarcely march abreast, wound up til the summit of the heights, and was guarded by a small force of Canadians. Wolfe at once resolved to effect a, landing here and ascend the heights by this path. The greatest secrecy was necessary to lie suc- cess of the undertaking, and in order to deceive the French as to his real design, Captain Cook, afterwards famouo as a great navigator, was sent to take soundings and place buoys opposite Montcalm's camp, as if that were to be the real point of attack. The morning of the 13th of GENERAL JAMES WOLFE. 382 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. (September was chosen for the movement, and the day and night of the 12th were spent in preparations for it. At one o'clock on the morning of the 13;.h, a force of about five thousand men under Wolfe, with Moncktou and Murray, set off in boats from the fleet, which had ascended the river several days before, anj Jropped down to the point designated for the landing. Each officer w?& thoroughly informed of the duties required of him, and each shared tho r 'solution of the gallant young commander, to conquer or die. As thr boats floated down the stream, in the cliiar, cool starlight, Wolfe spoke to his officers of the poet Gray, and of his "Elegy in a Country Church- yard." '* I would prefer," said he, " being the author of that poem to the glory of beating the French to-morrow." Then in a musing voice he repeated the lines : "The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, Await alike the inexorable hour ; The paths of glory lead but to the grave." In a short while the landing-place was reached, and the fleet, follow- ing silently, took position to cover the landing if necessary. Wolfe and his immediate command leaped ashore, and secured the pathway. The light infantry, who were carried by the tide a little below the path, clambered up the side of the heights, sustaining themselves by clinging to the roots and shrubs which lined the precipitous face of the hill. They reached the summit and drove off the picket-guard after a slight skirmish. The rest of the troops ascended in safety by the pathway, and a battery of two guns was abandoned on the left to Colonel Howe. Having gained the heights, Wolfe moved forward rapidly to clear the forest, and by daybreak his army was drawn up on the Heights of Abraham, in the rear of the city. Montcalm was speedily informed f the presence of the English. * It can be but a small party oome to burii a few housr and retire," he answered incredulously. A brief examination satisfied him of his danger and he exclaimed in amazement : " Then they have at last got to the weak side of this miserable garrison. We must give battle and crush them before mid-day." He at once despatched a messenger for De Bougain- ville, who was fifteen miles up the river, and marched from his camp opposite the city to the Heights of Abraham, to drive the English from them. The opposing forces were about equal in numbers, though the English troops were superior to their adversaries in steadiness and deter- mination. The battle began about ten o'olock, and was stubbornly con- tasted. It was at length decided in favor of the English. Wolfe, though FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. $?, wounded several times, continued to direct his army until, as he was loading them to the final charge, he received a musket ball in the breast. He tottered, and called to an officer near him : "Support me; let not my brave fellows see me drop." He was borne tenderly to the rear, and Water was brought him to quench his thirst. At this moment ths offi^r ipon whom he was leaning cried out : " They run ! they run ! v " Who run ? " asked the dying hero, eagerly. " The French," said the officer, 1 give way everywhere." " What ? " said Wolfe, summoning up lik DEATH OF GENEBAL WOLFE BEFORE QUEBEC. remaining strength, " do they run already ? Go, one of you, to Colone. Burton ; bid him march Webb's regiment with all speed to Charles river to cut off the fugitives." Then, a smile of contentment overspreading his pale features, he murmured : " Now, God be praised, I die happy/' and expired. He had done his whole duty, and with his life had pur- chased an empire for his country. Monckton, the second in rank, having been wounded, the command devolved upon General Townshend, a brave officer, but incapable of following up HUxh a success with vigor. He recalled the troops from the 384 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. pursuit, and contented himself with the possession of the battle-field. At this moment De Bougainville arrived with his division, but Towu- shend declined to renew the engagement. Montcalm had borne himself heroically during the battle, and had done all that a brave and skilful commander could do to win the victory. As he was endeavoring to rally his troops at their final repulse, he was wounded for the second time, and was carried into the city. The surgeon informed him that his wound was mortal. " So much the better," he answered cheerfully ; " I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." De Ramsay, thq commandant of the post, asked his advice about the defence of the city. " To your keeping," answered Montcalm, " I com- mend the honor of France. I will neither give orders nor interfere any further. I have business of greater moment to attend to. My time is short. I shall pass the night with God, and prepare myself for death." He then wrote a letter to the English commander, commending the French prisoners to his generosity, and at five o'clock on the morning of the 14th his spirit passed away. Succeeding generations have paid to his memory the honors it deserves, and on the spot where the fate of Quebec was decided the people of Canada have erected, to commemorate the heroism of the conqueror and the conquered, a noble monument inscribed with the names of WOLFE and MONTCALM. The French lost five hundred killed and one thousand prisoners, while the loss of the English was six hundred in killed and wounded. Five days afterward, on the 18th of September, the city and garrison of Quebec surrendered to General Townshend. The capture of this great strong- hold was hailed with rejoicings in both America and Eng-and. Con- gratulations were showered upon Pitt, w r ho modestly put them aside with the reverent remark : " I will aim to serve my country ; but the more a man is versed in business, the more he finds the hand of Providence everywhere." In April, 1760, De Levi, the French commander at Montreal, attacked Quebec with a force of ten thousand men, hoping to reduce it before the arrival of reinforcements from England. Murray, the English com- mander, marched out with three thousand men to attack him, and in a severe battle on the 26th of April was defeated and driven back to the city with a loss of one thousand men. The French then laid siege to Quebec, but on the 9th of May an English fleet arrived to its relief, and De Levi was obliged to withdraw to Montreal. In September Montreal itself was invested by a powerful force under General Amherst. Seeing that there was no hope of resistance, the French commander surrendered the town on the 8th of September, 1760. With this capture Canada VRESCB AND INDIAN WAR. 385 passed entirely into the hands of the English. Detroit and the other posts on the lakes were soon given up by the French, and the dominion of France in America was confined to the valley of the Mississippi. * II There were no further hostilities between the English and French, but, is we shall see, the war was kept up by the Indians for some years later. The French and Indian war was closed by the treaty of Paris, on the 10th of February, 1763. By this treaty Great Britain obtained all the French territory east of the Mississippi, with the exception of the island of New Orleans, the northern boundary of which was the rivers Iberville and Amit, and Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain. Florida was ceded to England by Spain in exchange for Havana. France ceded to Spain the island of New Orleans and all Louisiana west of the Mississippi. Thus Great Britain was mistress of the whole of the vast region east of the Mississippi, with the exception of the island of New Orleans, from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. The region west of the Missis- sippi was claimed by Spain. In ill the vast continent of America France retained not one foot of ground. In the meantime the Indians of the southwest had become involved in war with the whites. The Cherokees, who had always been friendly to the English, had done good service during the early part of the war by protecting the frontiers of Virginia, and had served also in Forbes' expedition against Fort Duquesne. They received for their services no reward or pay from any source, and as they were setting out for their homes neither General Forbes nor the colonial authorities supplied them with either food or money. To avoid starvation on their march they were compelled to plunder the barns of some of the settlers, and this led to a conflict which rapidly spread into a border war. Lyttleton, the gov- ernor of South Carolina, exerted himself to prevent the restoration of peace, and with success, as he desired the credit of exterminating the Cherokees. He was opposed by the legislature and people of the colony, but in 1759 he sent a force into their country, which committed such ravages that the Cherokees, driven to despair, resolved upon a war of extermination. They made a league with the Muscogees, and sent to the French in Louisiana for military stores. The Carolinians asked aid of General Amherst, who sent them a force of twelve hundred men, principally Highlanders, under General Montgomery. Reinforced by a body of Carolinians, Montgomery invaded the Cherokee country in 1760, and laid it waste. This tribe had made great advances in civilization, and had settled in villages, and engaged in the cultivation of their lauds. Their homes were made desolate, and they were driven to the mountains. Montgomery then rejoined Amherst, in the north, in obedience to orders ; 25 >86 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. but the Indians for many years maintained a desultory warfare along tho southwestern border. The surrender of Canada to the English was viewed with the greatest disfavor by the Indians of the north and west, who were attached to the French, and were unwilling to submit to the rule of the English. Im- mediately after the surrender the English occupied all the French posts along the lakes, and in the Ohio valley, with small garrisons. The con trast between these and the French, who had formerly held these forts, soon impressed itself forcibly upon the minds of the savages. The French had been friendly and kind to the Indians, and had sought to convert them to Christianity ; the English were haughty and domineer- ing, and insulted their priests, and denounced their religion. The French had prohibited the sale of rum to the Indians ; the English introduced it, and finding it profitable continued it, with a recklessness of conse- quences which did not escape the keen observation of the savages. The demoralization of the red men was rapid, and drunkenness and its attend- ant vices wrought sad changes in them. The tribes were bitterly hostile to the men who were ruining their people, and all were alarmed by the rapidity with which emigration had been pouring over the mountains since the capture of Fort Duquesne. They saw that they were about to be driven from their homes, and forced westward, before the advancing tide of the whites. The most determined opponent of the English rule was Pontiac, a ^hief of the Ottawas. He was a Catawba by birth, had been brought from his native country as a prisoner, and had been adopted into the Ottawa tribe, whose chief he had become by his bravery and skill. He was the idol of his own people, and his influence over the neighboring tribes was boundless. He was styled " the king and lord of all the country of the northwest," and bitterly resented the English occupation of his dominions. The first English officer who came to take possession of the French forts was received by him with the stern demand, " How dare you come to visit my country without my leave?" This "forest hero" now resolved to unite all the tribes cf the northwest in ajast de- termined effort to drive out the English, and regain the independence of the red man. The plan of operations which lie adopted was most ccm- prahensive, and was the most remarkable exhibition of genuine leadership ever given by an Indian. He began negotiations with the neighboring tribes, and induced the Delawares, Shawnees, the Senecas, Miamis, and many of the smaller tribes, occupying the great region of the upper \akes, the valley of the Ohio, and a portion of the Mississippi valley, to join his people in their effort against the English. He sent a prophet to FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 387 all the tribes to declare to them that the Great Spirit had revealed to him " that if the English were permitted to dwell in their midst, then th'j white man's diseases and poisons would utterly destroy them." The con- spiracy was pressed forward with energy, and though it was more than a year in forming, it was kept a profound secret. The principal post on the upper lakes was Detroit. It was surrounded by a numerous French population engaged in agriculture and trading it was the centre of the trade of this region, and its possession was of the highest importance to the English. Pontiac was anxious to obtain possession of this fort, and sent word to Major Gladwin, the commandant, that he was coming on a certain day, with his warriors, to have a talk with him. The chief was resolved to make this visit *,he occasion of seizing the fort, and massacring the gar- rison ; and he and his warriors selected for the attempt cut down their rifles to a length which enabled them to con- j ceal them under their blankets, f in order to enter the fort with | their arms. The plot was re- ^ vealed to Gladwin by an In- dian girl, whose affections had been won by one of the English officers, and when Pontiac and his warriors re- paired to the fort for their "talk" Gladwin made him aware that his conspiracy was mitted him to leave the fort in PONTIAC. discovered, and very unwisely per safety. Pontiac now threw off the. mask of friendship and boldly attacked Detroit. This was the signal for a general war. In about three weeks' time the savages surprised and captured every fort west of Niagara, with the exception of Detroit and Pittsburgh. The garrisons were, with a few exceptions, put to death. Over one hundred traders were killed and scalped in the woods, and more than five hundred families were driven, with the loss of many of then- numbers, from their settlements on the frontier. Pontiac endeavored,. 333 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. without success, to capture Detroit,-and a large force of the warriors of several of the tribes laid siege to Pittsburgh, the most important post in the valley of the Ohio. The ravages of the Indians were extended over che wide territory between the Ohio and the Mississippi, and the settle- ments in that region were for the time completely broken up. General Bouquet, with a force of five hundred men, consisting chieflj of Scotch Highlanders, was sent from eastern Pennsylvania to the relief of Fort Ligonier, which was located at the western base of the moun- tains, and of Pittsburgh. Their march lay through a region which had been desolated by the Indians, and they were obliged to depend upon the stores they carried with them. Upon i caching Fort Ligonier Bouquet found the communication with Pittsburgh cut off, and could learn nothing of the fate of the fort or garrison. Leaving his cattle and wagons at Ligonier, he pushed forward with his men in light marching order, deter- mined to ascertain if Pittsburgh still held out. He had to fight his way through the Indians, who turned aside from the siege of the fort, and ambushed the Highlanders at nearly every step. They were overwhelm- ingly defeated by the gallant Highlanders, for Bouquet was now a veteran Indian fighter, and had learned to fight the savages with f heir own tactics. Their rout was complete, and Bouquet reached Pittsburgh in safety, to the great joy of the garrison. Bouquet's victory was decisive. The Indians were utterly disheart- ened, and fled westward ; and from that day the Ohio valley was freed from their violence. The tide of emigration once more began to flow over the mountains, and this time it was to know no cessation. The tribes concerned in Pontiac's conspiracy lost hope, and were overawed by the preparations of the English for their destruction, and began to with- draw from the confederacy, and make peace with the whites. Pontiac soon found himself deserted by all his followers, even by his own people ; but his proud spirit would not brook the thought of submission. He would make no treaty ; he was the mortal foe of the English, and would never acknowledge their rule. Leaving his home and his people, he set out for the country of the Illinois, for the purpose of stirring up the more distant tribes to war. A proclamation from Lord Amherst offered a reward for his murder, and he soon fell, the victim of the hired \ssassin. The long war was over. It had brought both loss and gain to tlu colonies. It had involved them in an expenditure of $16,000,000, of which sum but $5,000,000 had been refunded by the English govern- ment. Thus the debts of the colonies were greatly increased. Thirty thousand men had been killed, or had died from wounds or disease dur- FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 339 ing the war, and the sufferings of the settlers along the extended and exposed frontiers had been almost incalculable. On the other hand, the war had greatly increased the business of the colonies, especially in those of the north. Large sums had been spent in America by Great Britain for the support of her armies and fleets, and many fortunes were built up by enterprising men during this period, Above all the Americans had been taught their own strength, and the value of united action. They had often proved their superiority to tho regular troops of the English army, and had learned valuable lessons in the art of war. In the long struggle Washington, Gates, Morgan, Mont- gomery, Stark, Putnam, and others were trained for the great work which was to be required of them in future years. The colonies were bound together by a common grievance, arising out of the haughty con- tempt with which the royal commanders treated the provincial troops, and sacrificed their interests to those of the regulars. The lesson that the colonies could do without tho assistance of England, and that their true interests demanded a separation from her, was deeply implanted in the minds of many of the leading men. Another gain for the colonies was a positive increase in their liberties, resulting from the war. The necessity of securing the cordial cooperation of the Americans during the struggle caused the royal governors to cease their efforts to enforce arbi- trary laws, during the existence of hostilities', as the enforcement of such measures would have alienated the colonists, and have prevented them from raising the needed supplies of men and money. The colonial assemblies were careful to take advantage of this state of affairs. They made their grants of supplies with great caution, and retained in their own hands all the disbursements of the public funds. They thus accus- tomed the people to the practices of free government, and taught them their rights in the matter, so that when the war closed the royal gov- ernors found that they were no longer able to practise their tyranny. CHAPTER XXV. >. CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Injustice of Great Britain towards her Colonies The Navigation Acts Effects of these Laws upon the Colonies. Great Britain seeks to destroy the Manufactures of America- Writs of Assistance They are Opposed Home Manufactures Encouraged by the Americans Ignorance of Englishmen concerning America Great Britain claims the Bight to Tax America Resistance of the Colonists Samuel Adams The Parsons' Cause Patrick Henry England persists in her Determination to Tax America Pas- sage of the Stamp Act Resistance of the Colonies Meeting of the First Colonial Con- gress Its Action William-JPitt -Repeal of the Stamp Act Franklin before the House of Commons New Taxes imposed upon America Increased Resistance of the Colonies Troops quartered in Boston The " Massacre" The Non-Importation Associations Growth of Hostility to England Burning of the " Gaspe " The Tax on Tea retained by the King Destruction of Tea at Boston Wrath of the British Government Boston , Harbor Closed Troops Quartered in Boston The Colonies come to the Assistance of Boston Action of the Virginia Assembly General Gage in Boston The Regulating Act Its Failure Gage seizes the Massachusetts Powder Uprising of the Colony Meeting of the Continental Congress Its Action Addresses to the King and People of England The Earl of Chatham's Indorsement of Congress The King remains Stubborn. HE treaty of Paris placed England in control of the North American continent east of the Mississippi, and the English government was of the opinion that this possession brought with it the right to treat America as it pleased, without regard to the rights or liberties of her people. We have already considered some of the many acts of injustice by which Great Britain drove the colonies into rebellion against her. We have now to relate those bearing more immediately on the separation. The navigation acts of 1660 and 1663 were passed, as we have seen, for the purpose of crippling the commerce of the colonies, and confirming their dependence upon England. They were severely felt throughout all the colonies, and especially in New England, which was largely de- pendent upon its commerce. These acts were the beginning of a policy deliberately adopted by England, and persisted in by her for more than a century, for the purpose of enriching her mercantile class by depriving the colonists of the just rewards of their labors. The Americans were regarded by the mother country as inferiors, and as dependents, who had 390 CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 391 been planted by her in " settlements established in distant parts of the world for the benefit of trade." The natural right of all men to acquire property and wealth by the exercise of their industry was denied to them; they were to labor only that the British merchant might grow rich at their expense. Every species of industry in America, save the mere cultivation of the soil, was to be heavily taxed that it might be crushed out of existence. The Americans were to be obliged to ship (heir products to England for sale, and to be compelled to purchase in her markets the supplies they needed. No foreign country might trade directly with the colonies. Such articles of foreign production as were needed must be shipped to England, and then transferred to British ves- sels for transportation to the colonies, in order that they might yield a profit to the English ship-owner. The only direct trade which was allowed, and was not taxed, was the infamous traffic in negro slaves, against which every colony protested, and which Great Britain compelled them to accept. Even the trees in the " free woods," suitable for masts, were claimed by the king, and marked by his " surveyer-general of woods." It was a criminal offence to cut one of them after being so marked. In spite of these outrages the colonies persisted in their efforts to establish manufactures and a commerce of their own. As early as 1643 iron works were established in Massachusetts, and in 1721 the New Eng- land colonies contained six furnaces, and nineteen forges. Pennsylvania was still more largely engaged in the manufacture of this metal, and ex- ported large quantities of it to other colonies. By the year 1756 there were eight furnaces and nine forges, for smelting copper, in operation in Maryland. In 1721 the British ironmasters endeavored to induce Par- liament to put a stop to the production of iron in America, but without success. In 1750 they were more successful. In that year an act of Parliament forbade, under heavy penalties, the exportation of pig-iron from America to England, and the manufacture by the Americans of bar- iron or steel for their own use. All the iron works in the colonies were ordered to be closed, and any that might afterwards be erected were to be destroyed as " nuisances." Some of the colonies had engaged in the manufacture of woollen goods, and the making of hats had become a very large and profitable business. In 1732 Parliament forbade the transportation of woollen .roods of American manufacture from one colony to another, and the same restriction was placed upon the trade in hats. As an excuse for this outrage it was argued that as the Americans had an unlimited sup- ply of beaver and other furs open to them, they would soon be able to 392 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. supply all Euro]>c, as well as themselves, with hats. England was nn- willing that America should manufacture a single article which she could supply, and in order to cripple the industry of the colonies still further it was enacted by Parliament that no manufacturer should employ more than two apprentices. In 1733 the famous " Molasses Act" was passed, imposing a duty on sugar, molasses, or rum imported into any of the British possessions from any foreign colony. The object of this act was to benefit the British West India possessions by .compelling the North American colonies to trade with them. In order to enforce the various restrictions upon the trade of the colonies Great Britain established in America a large force of customs officers, who were given unlawful powers for this purpose. Parliament enacted that any sheriff or officer of the customs, who suspected that mer- chandise imported into the colony in which he was stationed had not paid the duty required by law, might apply to the colonial courts for a search warrant, or " writ of assistance," and enter a store or private dwelling and search for the goods he suspected of being unlawfully im- ported. These writs were first used in Massachusetts in 1761, and aroused a storm of indignation from the people, who felt that their most sacred rights were being violated by them. They were resisted, and the case was carried before the courts in order to test their validity. James Otis, the attorney for the crown, resigned his office rather than argue in behalf of them, and with great eloquence pleaded the cause of the people. His speech created a profound impression thoughout the colonies, and aroused a determination in the hearts of his fellow-citizens to oppose the other enactments of Parliament which they felt to be un- just. This trial was fatal to the writs, which were scarcely ever used afterwards. " Then and there," says John Adams, " was the first opposi- tion to arbitrary acts of Great Britain. Then and there American Independence was born." The spirit of opposition soon manifested itself in the New England colonies. The manufactures, trade, and fisheries of that section were almost ruined, and the people had no choice but to defend themselves. Associations were formed in all the colonies pledging themselves not tc. purchase of English manufacturers anything but the absolute necessities of life. Families began to make their own linen and woollen-cloths, and to preserve sheep for their wool. Homespun garments became the dress of the patriot party, and foreign cloths were almost driven out of use. It was resolved to encourage home manufactures in every possible way, and associations were formed for this purpose. These measures became very popular, and were adopted by the other colonies in rapid succession. CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 393 England was blind to these signs of alienation and danger, and such of her public men as saw them regarded them as of no importance. It was resolved to go still further, and levy direct taxes upon the colonies. In 1763 such a proposition was brought forward by the ministers. It was claimed by them that as the debt of England had been largely in- creased by the French war, which had been fought in their defence, it was but right that they should help to defray the expense by paying a tax to the English government. In the meantime the colonies had warmly discussed the intentions of Great Britain respecting them, and all strenuously denied the right of the mother country to tax them without granting them some form of repre- sentation in her government. They claimed the right to have a voice in the disposal of their property, and they regarded the design of Parlia- ment as but a new proof of the indisposition of the mother country to treat them with justice. The feeling of the Americans towards England at this period has been aptly described as "distrust and suspicion, strangely mixed up with filial reverence an instinctive sense of injury, instantly met by the instinctive suggestion that there must be some con- stitutional reason for doing it, or it would not be done." In spite of the injuries they had received at her hands the Americans were warmly attached to England. They gloried in her triumphs, were proud to trace their descent from her, and claimed a share in her great history and grand achievements. Had England been wise she might have strengthened this attachment to such an extent that the ties which bound the two countries could never have been sundered. But England was not only careless of the rights of Americans, she was grossly ignorant of their country and of their character. " Few Englishmen had accurate ideas of the nature, the extent, or even the position of the colonies. And when the Duke of Newcastle hurried to the king with the information that Cape Breton was an island, he did what perhaps half his colleagues in the ministry, and more than half his colleagues in Parliament, would have done in his place. They knew that the colonies were of vast extent ; that they lay far away beyond the sea ; that they produced many things which Eng- lishmen wanted to buy, and consumed many things which Englishmen wanted to sell ; that English soldiers had met England's hereditary ene- mies, the French, in their forests; that English sailors had beaten French sailors on their coasts. But they did not know that the most flourishing of these colonies had been planted by men who, prizing freedom above all other blessings, had planted them in order to secure for themselves and their children a home in which they could worship God according to their own idea of worship, and put forth the strength of their minds 394 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and of their bodies, according to their own conception of what was best for them here and hereafter." * The few Americans who visited Great Britain found themselves looked upon as aliens and inferiors ; their affec- tion for the land of their fathers was met with contempt, and they were ridiculed as barbarians. The English colonial officials made this feeling apparent to those Americans who remained at home. Everywhere the colonists saw themselves treated with injustice. The hind-earned glories of their troops in the colonial wars were denied them and claimed for the English regulars, and there was scarcely a provincial who had borne arms but had some petty insult or injury, at the hands of the royal authorities, to complain of. Looking back over their history the Ameri- cans could not remember a time when they had not been treated with in- justice by Great Britain. They owed that country nothing for the planting of the colonies ; that was the work of their ances- tors, who had been forced to fly from England to escape wrong and injury. They had been left to conquer their early diffi- culties without aid, and with scanty sympathy from England, who had taken no notice of them SAMUEL ADAMS. until they were suffi- ciently prosperous to be profitable to her. Then she had rarely laid her hand upon them but to wrong them. She had pursued such a uniformly unjust policy towards them that their affection for her was rapidly giving way to a general de- sire to separate from her. They owed her nothing ; they were resolved to maintain their liberties against her. Some of the leading men of the colony had already begun to dream of the future greatness of America, and had become convinced that the true interests of their country required a separation from England. In spite of this feeling England persisted in her course of folly. In March, 1764, the House of Commons resolved, "that Parliament had a * Historical View of the American Revolution. By G. W. Greene, p. 1 5. CAUSES OF THE AMERICA* REVOLUTION. 395 right to tax America." The next month (April) witnessed the enforce- ment of this claim in the passage of an act of Parliament levying duties upon certain articles imported into America. By the same act iron and lumber were added to the " enumerated articles" which could be exported only to England. The preamble to this measure declared that its pur- pose was to raise " a revenue for the expenses of defending, protecting, and securing his majesty's dominions in America." The colonists protested against this act as a violation of their liberties, and declared that they had borne their full share of the expense of the wars for their defence, that they were now able to protect themselves without assistance from the king, and added the significant warning that " taxation without representation was tyranny." No one yet thought of armed resistance ; the colonists were resolved to exhaust every peaceful means of redress before proceeding to extreme measures. As yet the desire for separation was confined to a few far-seeing men. Prominent among these was Samuel Adams, of Boston, a man in whom the loftiest virtues of the old Puritans were mingled with the graces of more modern times Modest and unassuming in manner, a man of incorruptible integrity and sincere piety, he was insensible to fear in the discharge of his duty. He was a deep student of constitutional law, and was gifted with an eloquence which could move multitudes. His clear vision had already discerned the dangers which threatened his country, and had discovered the only path by which she could emerge from them in safety. His plan was simple: resistance, peaceable at first; forcible if necessary. Under his guidance the people of Boston met and protested against the new plan of taxation, and instructed their repre- sentatives in the general court to oppose it. " We claim British rights, not by charter only," said the Boston resolves ; " we are born to them. If we are taxed without our consent, our property is taken without our consent, and then we are no more freemen, but slaves." The general court of Massachusetts declared " that the imposition of duties and taxes by the Parliament of Great Britain upon a people not represented in the House of Commons is absolutely irreconcilable with their rights." A committee was appointed to correspond with the other colonies, with a view to bringing about a concerted action for the redress of grievances. In Virginia, New York, Connecticut, and the Carolinas equally vigorous aieasures were taken. In Virginia the first indicatioa of the intention of the people to resist the arbitrary measures of the crown was given in a matter insignificant in itself, but clearly involving the great principle at issue. In that colony tobac \vas the lawful currency, and the failure of a crop, or a rise in the price of 39G HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. tobacco, made such payments often very burdensome. In the winter of 1 763 the legislature passed a law authorizing the people of the colony to pay their taxes and other public dues in money, at the rate of twopence a pound for the tobacco due. The clergymen of the established church had each a salary fixed by law at a certain number of pounds of tobacco, and as this measure involved them in a loss they refused to acquiesce in it, and induced Sherlock, the bishop of London, to persuade the king to refuse the law his signature. "The rights of the clergy and the authority of the king must stand or fall together" was the sound argu- ment of the bishop. Failing of the royal signature the law was inoperative. The matter was soon brought to an issue in Vir- ginia. The Rev. Mr. Maury, one of the clergymen affected by the law, brought a suit to recover damages, or the dif- ference between twopence per pound and the current market price of tobacco, which was much higher. This was pop- ularly known as the " Par- sons' Cause." It was a clearly ''HIM joined issue between the right of the people to make their own laws on the one side, and the king's prerogative on the other. The "parsons" se- cured the best talent in the colony for the prosecution of their claims ; the cause of the " people " was confided to a young man of twenty-seven, whose youth was supplemented by the additional disadvantages of being poor and unknown. He was Patrick Henry, the son of a plain farmer, and a native of the county of Hanover. He had received but little edu- cation, as his father's straitened circumstances had compelled him to put his son to the task of earning his bread at the early age of fifteen years. He entered a country store, and the next year went into business with his elder brother, William, who being too indolent to attend to business left the store to the management, or rather the mismanagement of Patrick, The young man was brimming over with good nature, and could never find it in his heart to refuse any one credit, and was too kind-hearted to press PATRICK HEXRY. CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 397 unwilling debtors to payment. He let the store " manage itself," and amused himself by studying the character of his customers, and with his flute and violin. He was also a great reader, and read every work he could buy or borrow. The store survived about a year, and the next two or three years were passed by Patrick in settling its affairs. At the age of eighteen he married, and began life as a farmer. He soon grew tired of this pursuit, and selling his farm once more engaged in mercantile Lie. It was not suited to him, nor he to it. He passed his days in read- ing, this time giving his attention to works of history and philosophy. Livy was his favorite, and he read it through at least once a year for many years. His second mercantile enterprise ended in bankruptcy in a few years, and in extreme want he determined to try the law. He obtained a license to practice after a six weeks' course of study, and entered upon his new career utterly ignorant of its duties. It is said that he could not then draw up the simplest legal paper without assistance. He was then twenty-four years old, but it was not until he had reached the age of twenty-seven that he obtained a case worthy of his powers ; for he had genius, and it only required the proper circumstances to draw it out. He had passed days in communion with nature in his frequent hunting and fishing excursions, and had drunk deeply of the wisdom she imparts to her votaries. He had studied men with the eye of a master, and he had at last fallen into the position from which he could rise to his true place among the leading spirits of the age. In the case with which he was now intrusted, a decision of the court on a demurrer, in favor of the claims of the clergy, had left nothing undetermined but the amount of damages in the cause which was pending. " The array before Mr. Henry's eyes," says his biographer, William Wirt, "was now most fearful. On the bench sat more than twenty clergymen, the most learned men in the colony, and the most capable, as well as the severest critics before whom it was possible for him to have made his debut. The court-house was crowded with an overwhelming multitude, and surrounded with an immense and anxious throng, who, not finding room to enter, were endeavoring to listen without, in the deepest attention. But there was something still more awfully disconcert- ing than all this ; for in the chair of the presiding magistrate sat no other person than his own father. Mr. Lyons opened the cause very briefly : in the way of argument he did nothing more than explain to the jury that the decision upon the demurrer had put the act of 1750 entirely out of the way, and left the law of 1748 as the only standard of their damages ; he then concluded with a highly wrought eulogium on the benevolence of the clergy." 398 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. When it came Patrick Henry's turn to speak, he rose awkwardly, amid a profound silence. No one had ever heard him speak, and all were anxious to see how he would acquit himself. He clutched nervously at his papers, and faltered out his opening sentences with a degree of con- fusion which threatened every moment to put an end to his effort. The people watched their champion in sorrow and indignation ; the clergy exchanged glances of triumph, and eyed the speaker with contempt; while his father, overcome with shame, seemed ready to drop from his chair. But suddenly there came a change over the young advocate. Warming with his subject, he threw off his embarrassment and awkwardness, and stood erect and confident. His look of timidity gave place to one of command ; his countenance glowed with the, fire of genius, and startled the gazers by the aspect of majesty which it assumed for the first time. His tones grew clear and bold, his action graceful and commanding, and the astounded jury and audience were given a display of eloquence such as was without a parallel in the history of the colony. Henry knew that the case was against him, but he pleaded the natural right of Virginia to make her own laws independently of the king and Parliament. He proved the justness of the law ; he drew a striking picture of the character of a good king, who should be the father of his people, but who becomes their tyrant and oppressor, and forfeits his claim to obedience when he annuls just and good laws. The opposing counsel cried out at this bold declaration, " He has spoken treason," but was silenced by the excited throng. " They say," says Mr. Wirt, " that the people, whose countenances had fallen as he arose, had heard but a very few sentences before they began to look up ; then to look at each other in surprise, as if doubting the evi- dence of their own senses; then, attracted by some gesture, struck by some majestic attitude, fascinated by the spell of his eye, the charm of his emphasis, and the varied and commanding expression of his countenance, they could look away no more. In less than twenty minutes they might be seen in every part of the house, on every bench, in every window, stooping forward from their stands, in death-like silence; their features fixed in amazement and awe, all their senses listening and riveted upon the speaker, as if to catch the last strain of some heavenly visitant. The mockery of the clergy was soon turned into alarm, their triumph into confusion and despair, and at one burst of his rapid and overwhelming invective, they fled from the bench in precipitation and terror. As for the father, such was his surprise, such his amazement, such his rapture, that, forgetting where he was, and the character which he was filling, tears of ecstasy streamed down his cheeks without the power or inclination to repress them." CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 399 The jury brought in a verdict of one penny damages for the " parsons," and the court overruled the motion of their counsel for a new trial. Henry from that moment took his place among the leaders of the patriot party in Virginia. He had struck a chord which responded in every American heart; he had denied the right of the king to make IPWS i'oi the colonies. The remonstrance of Massachusetts was followed by similar appeals from Connecticut, New York, Rhode Island, and Virginia. The peti- tion of New York was couched in such strong terms that no member of Parliament could be found bold enough to present it. These remon- strances were unheeded by Parliament, which pronounced them "ab- surd " and " insolent." That body persisted in its determination to tax the colonies, and Grenville, the prime min- ister, warned the Americans that in a contest with Great Britain they could expect nothing but defeat. He announced the intention of the English government to levy the taxes, and graciously added that if the colonies pre- ferred any special form of taxation, their wishes would be met as far as possible. In March, 1765, the measure known as the "Stamp Act" passed the House of Com- mons by a vote of five to one, and was adopted almost unanimously by the House of Lords. It met with a warm opposition in the Commons from the friends of America, prominent among whom was Colonel Barre*, who had served with Wolfe- in America, and had learned to appreciate the American character. The measure received the royal signature at once. The poor king would have signed any thing he was bidden he was insane. The act imposed a duty on all paper, vellum, and parchment used in the colonies, and re- quired that all writings of a legal or business nature should be made on " stamped paper ; " otherwise they were declared null and void. In order to enforce the "Stamp Act," Parliament, two months later, passed " the Quartering Act." It authorized the ministers to send as many troops as they should see fit to America, to enforce submission to the acts of Parliament. Wherever these troops should be stationed, it should be the duty of the people, at their own expense, to furnish them with quarters, fuel, bedding, cider or rum, candles, soap, " and other necessaries." The news of the passage of these acts produced the most intense ex- GEORGE THE THIRD. 400 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. citement in America. The general assembly of Virginia was in session when tho nc\vs was received in May. The royalist leaders were amazed at the folly of the ministry, but deemed it best to take no action in the matter. Patrick Henry, now a member of the assembly, rose in his place and offered a series of resolutions, declaring that the people of Viiv ginia were bound to pay only such taxes as should be levied by their own assembly, and that all who maintained the contrary should be regarded as enemies of the liberties of the colony. These resolutions provoked an exciting debate, in which Henry in a magnificent oration exposed the tyranny of the British government, and stirred the hearts of the bur- gesses with a determination to resist. " Csesar had his Brutus," ex- claimed the orator in one of his loftiest flights, "Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third ." The assembly was in an uproar. "Treason ! treason ! " shouted the speaker. A few joined in the cry, but the majority waited in breathless suspense the completion of the sentence of Henry who, fixing his eye upon the speaker, added in a tone which was peculiar to himself, " may profit by their example. If that be treason, make the most of it." The resolutions were adopted by a large majority. The next day, during Henry's absence, the timid assembly rescinded some of the resolves, and modified the others. The assembly, for thus daring to exercise its right of expressing its opinion, was at once dissolved by the governor; but too late to prevent its action from pro- ducing its effect. Copies of the resolutions of Henry were forwarded to Philadelphia, where they were printed and circulated through the colo- nies. They aroused the drooping spirits of the people, and it was re- solved everywhere that the stamps should not be used in America. The general court of Massachusetts ordered that the courts should not require the use of stamps in conducting their business ; and in June, before the Virginia resolutions reached Boston, issued a circular inviting all the colonies to send delegates to a Congress to be held at New York in October. In the meantime associations were organized in all the colonies as far south as Maryland, called " Sons of Liberty," for the purpose of stopping the use of stamps. The people were resolved to take the matter in their own hands. In Boston the mob attacked the house of Oliver, the secretary of the colony, who had been appointed to distribute the stamps, and compelled him to resign. They also attacked the houses of some of the most prominent supporters of the ministry, but the patriots sincerely deplored and condemned these violent proceedings. At Weth- ersfield, Connecticut, five hundred farmers seized Jared Ingersol, the stamp officer for that colony, compelled him to resign, and then to remove his hat and give " three cheers for liberty, property, and no stamps." CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 401 Similar scenes were enacted in the other colonies, expressive of the deter- mination of the people to resist the measures of the crown. On the 7th of October, 1765, the First Colonial Congress met at New York. It was composed of delegates from the colonies of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Maryland, South Carolina, New York, and New Jersey. New Hampshire, though not representevi by a delegate, gave her support to its measures, and Georgia formally signified her acceptance of the work of this body. Timothy Ruggles, pf Massachusetts, was chosen president. The session extended over three weeks, and resulted in the adoption of a " Declaration of the Rights and Grievances of the Colonies ; " a petition to the king ; and a memorial to both Houses of Parliament. In the Declaration of Rights the Congress took the ground that it was a violation of their rights to tax them without granting them a representation in the Parliament of Great Britain, and that as such representation was impossible because of the distance between the two countries, no taxes could be legally imposed upon the colonies but by their own assemblies. The measures of the Congress were, as soon as possible, indorsed by all the colonial assemblies, and thus the colonies were drawn into that union which, in their own language, became " a bundle of sticks, which could neither be bent nor broken." At length the 1st of November arrived, the day on which the Stamp Act was to go into operation. Not a man could be found to execute the law, all the stamp officers having resigned through fear of popular vio- lence. Governor Golden, of New York, declared he was resolved to have the stamps distributed, but the people of the city warned him that he would do so at his peril, and burned him in effigy. Golden became alarmed at these demonstrations, and on the 5th of November delivered the stamps to the mayor and council of New York. In all the colonies the 1st of November was observed as a day of mourning. Bells were tolled, flags hung at half-mast, and business suspended. The merchants of New York, Boston, and Philadelphia united in an agreement to im- port no more goods from England, to countermand the orders already sent out, and to receive no .goods on commission until the Stamp Act should be repealed. Their action was promptly sustained by the people, who pledged themselves to buy no articles of English manufacture, and to 2ncourage home productions. Circulars were sent throughout the colo- nies urging the people to unite in such action, and were heartily responded to. Business went on without the use of stamps, and the courts ignored them in their proceedings. The news of these proceedings should have warned the English minis- ters of their folly : it only made them more determined to persist in it. 26 402 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. They resolved not to repeal the Stamp Act. To comply with the request of the colonists now that they had resisted the law, would, they declared, be simply a surrender to rebellion. "Sooner than make our colonies our allies," said one of their number, " I would wish to see them returned to their primitive deserts." The friends of America, led by the u-ed and infirm William Pitt, made a determined effort to procure the repeal of the Stamp Act, and they were now supported by all the influence of, the English merchants, who found their trade rapidly falling off in consequence of the non-intercourse resolves adopted by the Americans. STAMP ACT OFFICIAL BEATEN BY THE PEOPLE. Swathed in flannels, Pitt proceeded to the House of Commons, and in a speech of great vigor urged the House to repeal the obnoxious and uncon- stitutional measure. In reply to Grenville, the prime minister, who accused him of exciting sedition in America, he said, " Sir, I have been charged with giving birth to sedition in America. Sorry I am to have the liberty of speech in this House imputed as a crime. But the impu- tation will not deter me; it is a liberty I mean to exercise. The gentle- CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 4Q3 man tells us that America is obstinate ; that America is almost in rebellion. I rejoice that America has resisted." The House started at these words, but Pitt continued firmly, " If they had submitted, they would have vol- untarily become slaves. They have been driven to madness by injustice. My opinion -is that the Stamp Act should be repealed, absolutely, totally, immediately." Edmund Burke, then a rising young man, eloquently sustained the appeal of the great commoner. The Commons had already begun to waver, but before yielding en- tirely, they wished to ascertain from competent witnesses the exact temper and disposition of the Americans. For this purpose, Benjamin Franklin, who was residing in London at the time as the agent of several of the colonies, was summoned before the bar of the House to give the desired information. He appeared, in answer to the summons, on the 13th of February, 1766. He was questioned by Lord Grenville and Charles Townshcnd, and by several friends of the ministry, and delivered his an- swers with firmness and clearness. He told them that the colonists could not pay for the stamps, as there was not enough gold and silver in the colonies for that purpose ; that they had incurred more than their share of the expense of the last war, for which Great Britain had in no way reimbursed them ; that they Avere still burdened with heavy debts con- tracted in consequence of this war ; that they were well disposed towards Great Britain before 1763, and considered Parliament as "the great bul- wark and security of their liberties and privileges ; but that now their temper was much altered, and their respect for it lessened ; and if the act is not repealed, the consequence would be a total loss of the respect and aflection they bore to this country, and of all the commerce that depended on that respect and affection." He startled the House by declaring that in a few years America would be amply able to supply herself with all the necessities of life then furnished her by Great Britain. " I do not know," said he, " a single article imported into the northern colonies but what they can either do without or make themselves. The people will spin and work for themselves, in their own houses. In three years there may be wool and manufactures enough." "If the legislature," he was asked, " should think fit to ascertain its right to lay taxes, by any act laying a small tax, contrary to their opinion, would they submit to pay the tax?" "An internal tax," lie replied, "how small soever, laid by the legislature here, on the people there, will never be submitted to. They will oppose it to the last. The people will pay no internal tax by Parlia- ment." " May they not," asked a friend of Grenville, " by the same in- terpretation of their common rights, as Englishmen, as declared byMagna Charta and the Petition of Right, object to the Parliament's right of ex- 404 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. tcrnal taxation?"* "They never have hitherto," answered Franklin, promptly. " Many arguments have been lately used here to show them that there is no difference, and that if you have no right to tax them in- ternally, you have none to tax them externally, or make any other law to bind them. At present they do not reason so ; but in time they may bs 2onvinced by these arguments." Franklin's testimony was conclusive. The Stamp Act was repealed on the 18th of March, 1766, not because it was acknowledged by Eng- land as a measure of injustice, but because it could not be enforced with- out a collision with the colonies, which the ministry were not as yet prepared for. The people of London greeted the repeal with great joy. Bonfires were lighted, bells were rung, the city was illuminated, and the shipping in the Thames was decorated with flags. The news was sent by special messengers to the nearest ports, in order that it might reach America with as little delay as possible. In America the news of the repeal of the Stamp Act was received with the greatest joy. The bells were rung in the principal cities, the imprisoned debtors were released from captivity, the associations for non- intercourse with England were dissolved, and everywhere Pitt was hailed LJ the champion of the liberties of America. New York, Virginia, and Maryland each voted a statue to him. The rejoicings of the Americans were premature : Parliament in repealing the Stamp Act solemnly asserted, by a bill for that purpose, its right and power to "bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever." England was only baffled for the moment ; she had not relinquished hr designs upon the liberties of America. The repeal of the Stamp Act brought with it the fall of Grenville's ministry. Another was appointed under the leadership of the Marquis of Rockingham ; but it was short-lived, and soon gave way. The king then summoned William Pitt, who had in the meantime been created Earl of Chatham, to form an independent ministry, late in 1766. This act was regarded with great hope in America, as Pitt was universally considered the colonists' best friend. These hopes were doomed to disappointment. In January, 1767, Charles Townshend, the chancellor of the exchequer in Pitt's cabinet, taking advantage of the absence of the prime minister, declared in the House of Commons that it was his intention, at all risks. to derive a revenue from America by laying taxes upon her, and that he knew how to raise this revenue from her. Having thus thrown down the gauntlet to his official chief it became evident that either the Earl of Chatham must relinquish the premiership, or Townshend must leave the * The levying of duties by Parliament on merchandise imported into the colonies. CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 4Qo cabinet. Chatham was anxious to dismiss him from the chancellorship, but as it was known that Townsheml was acting in accordance with the sympathies and wishes of the king, no one was willing to risk his pros- pects by accepting the chancellorship in Townshend's place ; and Chat- ham, unable to fill his place, was obliged to retain him. In utter disgust Chatham withdrew from active participation in the affairs of the cabinet, and Townshend remained supreme director of the coloi.iai policy of England. In May Townshend revealed his plan for raising a revenue in America. It was to levy a duty, to be collected in the colonies, on certain articles of commerce, such as wine, oil, paints, glass, paper, and lead colors, and especially upon tea, which last commodity he declared the Americans obtained cheaper from the Dutch smugglers than the English themselves. He was told that if he would withdraw the army from America there would be no necessity for taxing the colonies. He replied, "I will hear nothing on the subject; it is absolutely neces- sary to keep an army there." In June, 1767, an act was passed by Parliament levying upon the colonies the duties proposed by Townshend ; and a board of commissioners of the customs for America was established, with its head-quarters at Boston. Soon after their appointment the " Romney " frigate entered Boston harbor, and the new commissioners, confident in her protection, treated the people of* Boston with unbearable haughtiness. Pier officers frequently stopped the New England vessels as they entered the harbor, and impressed seamen from their decks. The colonies were moved with the profoundest indignation upon the receipt of the news of the imposition of the new taxes. The colonial newspapers, which now numbered twenty-five, were filled with appeals to the people to stand up for their liberties. The old associations for non- importation of English goods were revived, and on every hand the declaration was unanimous that the Americans would neither eat, drink, nor wear anything imported from England. The general court of Massachusetts issued a circular letter to the other colonial assemblies inviting them to unite with her in measures for obtaining redress. The English ministers were greatly incensed at the new resistance of the colonists, and in June, 1768, ordered the general court. of Massachu- setts to rescind its circular letter. Their demand was refused, and the general court, led by James Otis and Samuel Adams, expressed its con- viction that Parliament would better serve the cause of peace by repeal- ing its obnoxious laws. The circular had been favorably received by the other colonies, and Massachusetts was constantly receiving from them encouragement to persist in her resistance to the tyranny of the ministry. As a punishment for the refusal of the general court to rescind its circu- 406 HISTORY OF THK UNITED STATES. lar, that body was dissolved by the royal governor of Massachusetts. Sonic of the other colonial assemblies that had shown sympathy with Massachusetts were also dissolved by their respective governors. A very bitter feeling existed between the people and the royal officials, and, to make matters worse, at this crisis the revenue officers at Boston jcized a schooner belonging to John Hancock, one of the patriot leaders, on the pretext that her owner had made a false entry of her cargo, which consisted of wine. The schooner was towed under the guns of the " Romney " frigate, and a crowd collected in Boston and attacked the FANEUIL HALL IN 1775. houses of the commissioners of customs, who were forced to fly to the fort on Castle island for safety. The report of this outbreak was transmitted to England as proof that Massachusetts was almost in a state of insurrection, and it was resolved by the ministry to send troops to overawe " the insolent town of Boston," and to hold Massachusetts as a conquered country. A regiment of regu- lars under General Gage reached Boston in September, 1768, but the assembly refused to provide quarters or food, or the other necessaries v/hich were demanded by their commander in accordance with the "Quartering Act." General Gage was obliged to encamp a part of his men on Boston Common, while he lodged the rest temporarily in Fane nil CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 407 Hall. With considerable difficulty he hired several houses in Boston and quartered his troops in them. The assembly of New York also refused to provide food or quarters for the royal troops, and was dissolved by the governor of the province. The wrath of the English officials was concentrated upon Boston, which was held as though it were a conquered city. Sentinels were placed at the street corners, and the citizens were challenged by them as they went about their daily duties. The ill-feeling between the citizens and the troops gave rise to several encounters between them. On the evening of the 2d of March, 1770, a sentinel was attacked by the mob. A detach- ment of troops was sent to his aid, and was stoned by the mob. At length a soldier fired his musket at the crowd and his comrades poured in a volley, killing three and wounding five citizens. The citv was thrown THE BOSTON MASSACRE. into an uproar, the alarm bells were rung, and crowds poured into the streets. The danger of a general collision was very great, but the people were persuaded to disperse upon the promise of Hutchinson, the gov- ernor, that justice should be done. This outbreak was known at the dine as " the Boston Massacre." The next morning a meeting of the citizens was held at Faneuil Hall. Resolutions were passed, demanding the removal of the troops from the city to the fort on Castle island, and the arraignment before the civil courts of Captain Preston, the officer .vho ordered the troops to fire. The soldiers were removed from the town as the only means of preserving the peace, and Captain Preston and six of his men were arraigned for murder. John Adams and Josiah Quincy, two leaders of the patriot party, undertook the defence of the accused officer and his men in order to make sure that they should have a fair trial. They were acquitted of murder, but two of the soldiers 408 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. were convicted of manslaughter. The calmness and deliberation with which this trial was conducted had a happy effect in England, and exhibited the fairness and moderation of the colonists in the most favor- able light. The British merchants now began to feel the effect of the non-impor- tation associations of the Americans, and their trade suffered even more than it had done in the times of the Stamp Act, in consequence of the cessation of orders for goods from the colonies. They now began to sus- tain the demand of the colonists for the repeal of the unjust taxes. Lord North, who was now prime minister, was willing to grant their demand, and to remove all the taxes except the duty on tea, which he retained at the express command of the king, who had now recovered his reason, and was the real director of the policy of his government. George III. held on with the most stubborn tenacity to the assertion of his right to tax the colonies, and insisted " that there should be always one tax, at least, to keep up the right of taxing." This concession was made in May, 1770, and for nearly a year there was a lull in the excitement. The matter was not settled, however, for the Americans had not resisted the amount of the tax, but the imposition of any tax at all. They were contending for a principle, not for the saving of a few dollars. The bad feeling which was rapidly growing up between the colonists and the mother country was greatly increased by the injustice and annoy- ance heaped upon the colonists by the royal officials. Almost every colony had to complain of these outrages, and the king's officers seemed to think they could not do their cause better service than by exasperating the Americans. In New York the people had erected a liberty pole in the fields, now the City Hall Park. One night in January, 1770, a party of soldiers from the fort cut down the pole. This act was bitterly resented by the citizens, and frequent quarrels occurred between them and the troops, though there was no actual bloodshed. Early in 1772 the armed schooner " Gaspe* " was stationed in Xarra- gansett bay to enforce the revenue laws. Her commander, Lieutenant Dudingston, undertook to execute his orders in the most insulting and arbitrary manner. Market boats and other vessels passing the " Gaspe* ' ; were compelled to lower their colors to her, and armed parties from the schooner were sent ashore on the neighboring islands, and carried off such provisions as they desired. Complaint was made by the citizens of Providence to the governor of Rhode Island, who referred the matter to the chief justice, Hopkins, for his opinion. The chief justice declared "that any person who should come into the colony and exercise any authority by force of arms, without showing his commission to the gov- CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN xtc, VOL UTION. 409 ernor, and, if a custom-house officer, without being sworn into his office, was guilty of a trespass, if not piracy." It was clear from the opinion of the chief justice that Dudingston was exceeding his authority, and the governor sent a sheriff on board the " Gaspd " to ascertain by what orders the lieutenant acted. Dudingston referred the matter to the admiral at Boston, who replied : " The lieutenant, sir, has done his duty. I shall give the king's officers directions that they send every man taken in molesting them to me. As sure as the people of Newport attempt tc rescue any vessel and any of them are taken I will hang them as pirates." The insolence of the admiral caused even more indignation than the outrages of Dudingston, and the citizens of Rhode Island resolved to take the matter into their own hands at the earliest opportunity. On the 9th of June, 1772, the Providence packet, a swift sailer, was 'passing up the bay when she was hailed by the " Gaspd." She paid no attention to the hail, and being, of light draught stood in near the shore. The " Gaspe* " gave chase, and, attempting to follow her, ran aground on Namquit, a short distance below Pautuxet. The tide falling soon, left her fast. The news of her disaster was conveyed to Providence by the packet, and a plan was at once matured for her destruction. On the following night a party of men in six or seven boats, led by John Brown, a leading merchant of Providence, Captain Abraham Whipple of Provi- dence, Simeon Potter of Bristol, and others, left Providence and dropped down towards the position of the " GaspeV' They were discovered as they approached, and were hailed by Dudingston. One of the party in the boats fired and Dudingston fell wounded. The schooner was then boarded without opposition, her crew were set ashore, and the " Gaspe" " was set on fire and burned to the water's edge. A large reward was offered for the perpetrators of this bold act. All were known in Provi- dence; but in spite of this, the royal officials were not able to secure* the apprehension of any of them. The secret was faithfully kept. The non-importation associations had, upon the repeal of the duties we have mentioned, limited their opposition to the use of tea, and the East India Company in England found itself burdened with an enormous stock of tea which it could not dispose of as usual in consequence of the cessation of sales in America. The company therefore proposed to pay all the duties on the tea in England, and ship it to America at its own risk, hoping that the fact of there being no duty to pay in America would induce the colonists to purchase it. This plan met the determined oppo- sition of the king, who would not consent to relinquish the assertion of his right to tax the Americans. Lord North could not understand that it was not the amount of the tax, but the principle involved in it, that 4 JO HISTORY OF THE UNITED STA'lEb. was opposed by the Americans, and he proposed that the East India Company should pay three-fourths of the duty in England, leaving thb other fourth about three pence on a pound to be collected in America. His lordship was told plainly that the Americans would not purchase the tea on these conditions; but he answered: "It is to no purpose the making objections, for the king will have it so. The king means tc try the question with the Americans." There were men in America who fully understood that the king meant "to try the question with the Americans," and were willing the trial should come. Samuel Adams was satisfied as to what would be the result, and was diligently working to prepare the people for it. He had the satisfaction of seeing public opinion in America daily assume a more enlightened and determined condition. A convention of all the colonies o for taking action for a common resistance seemed to him a necessity, and he sent forth circulars to the various provinces urging them to assert their riglits upon every possible occasion, and to combine for mutual support and protection. The news of the agreement between the East India Company and the government for the exportation of tea increased the determination of the colonists to resist the tax. It was also resolved that the tea should neither be landed nor sold. A meeting was hejd in Philadelphia and resolutions were passed requesting those to whom the tea was consigned "to resign their appointments." It was also resolved that whosoever should "aid or abet in unloading, receiving, or vending the tea" should be regarded "as an enemy to his country." Meetings of a similar nature were held in New York and Charleston, and similar resolutions were adopted. A fast-sailing vessel reached Boston about the 1st of November. 1773, with the news that several ships laden with tea had sailed from England for America. On the 3d of November a meeting was held at Faneuil Hall, and on motion of Samuel Adams, it was unanimously resolved to send the tea back upon its arrival. A man in the crowd cried out : " The only way to get rid of it is to throw it overboard." The meeting invited the consignees of the tea to resign their appointments. Two of these men were sons of Governor Hutchinson, who was intensely hated by the people of Massachusetts because of his double-faced policy, which had been detected and exposed by Dr. Franklin. Until this dis- covery Hutchinson had induced the people of Massachusetts to believe that he was their best friend, when in reality he had suggested to the British government nearly all the unjust measures that had been directed against that colony. The first of the tea ships reached Boston on the 25th of Novembe* CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 41 1 1773. A meeting of the citizens was held at Faneuil Hall, and it was ordered that the vessel should be moored to the wharf, and a guard of twenty-five citizens was placed over her to see that no tea was removed. The owner of the vessel agreed to send the cargo back if the governor would give his permit for the vessel to leave Boston. This the governor withheld, and in the meantime two other ships arrived with cargoes of tea and were ordered to anchor beside the first. The committee appointed by the meeting of citizens waited on the consignees, but obtained no satisfaction from them. The law required that the tea must be landed within twenty days after its arrival, or be seized for non-payment of duties. The consignees and the governor had determined to wait until the expiration of this time, when the royal authorities would seize the tea and remove it beyond the reach of the citizens. The duties could then be paid and the tea landed and sold. Their intentions were fully understood by the patriots. When the committee made its report to the meeting of citizens, it was received in a dead silence, and the meeting adjourned without taking any action upon it. This ominous silence alarmed the consignees. Hutchinson's two sons fled to the fort and placed themselves under the protection of the troops, while the governor quietly left the city. On the 16th of December another meeting was held. The next day the time allowed by law would expire and the tea would be placed under the protection of the fort and the armed ships in the harbor. The owner had gone to see the governor, at Milton, to obtain a pass for his vessels, without which they could not leave the harbor. This the governor refused on the ground that he had not a proper clearance. He returned to Boston late in the evening and reported the result of his mission to the meeting. Then Samuel Adams arose and gave the signal for the action that had been determined upon by saying: "This meeting can do nothing more to save the country." Instantly a shout rang through the room, and a band of forty or fifty men " dressed like Mohawk Indians," with their faces blackened to pre- vent recognition, hastened from the meeting to the wharf where the ships were moored. A guard was posted to prevent the intrusion of spies, and t\\? ships were at once seized. Three hundred and forty-two chests of tea were broken open and their contents poured into the water. The affair was witnessed in silence by a large crowd on the shore. When the destruction of the tea was completed, the " Indians " and the crowd dis- persed to their homes. Paul Revere was despatched by the patriot leaders to carry the news to New York and Philadelphia. At New York and Philadelphia the people would not allow the tea to 412 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. be landed, and at Charleston it was stored in damp cellars, where the whole cargo was soon ruined. At Annapolis a ship and its cargo \vere burned; the owner of the vessel himself setting fire to the ship. The British government was greatly incensed at the refusal of the colonists to allow the tea to bo landed, and determined to compel the Americans to submit to the authority of Great Britain. Boston, in par- ticular, was to be made a terrible example to the rest of the colonies. A bill was introduced into Parliament, and passed by a majority of four to one, closing the port of Boston to all commerce, and transferring the seat of government to Salem. The British ministry boasted that with ten DESTRUCTION OF TEA IN BOSTON HARBOR. thousand regulars they could " march through the continent," and they were resolved to bring America to her knees and make her confess her iault in dust and humiliation. In addition to the Boston Port Bill, Parliament passed other measures of equal severity. By one of these the royal officers were ordered to quarter the troops sent out from England on all the colonies at the people's expense; another provided that if any officer, in the execution of the Quartering Act, should commit an act of violence, he should be sent ta England for trial. The deliberate purpose of this last act was to encourage the military and other officials to acts of violence and oppression by shielding them from punishment in America. The liberties of the American people were thus placed at the CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 413 rncrcy of every petty official bearing a royal commission. Another law, known as the " Quebec Act," granted unusual concessions to the Roman Catholics of Canada, in order to attach them to the royal cause in the event of a collision betwaen England and the colonies. Boston was largely dependent .upon her commerce, and the closing of her harbor entirely destroyed her trade and brought great loss and suffering to her people. The outrage to which she was thus subjected was resented by the whole country, and evidences of sympathy poured in upon her from every quarter. Salem refused to allow the establishment of the seat of government within her limits, and offered the use of her port to the merchants of Boston free of charge. Marblehead made a similar offer. Large numbers of the people of Boston were thrown out of employment by the closing of Boston harbor, and their families, left helpless, suffered considerably. The various colonies came forward promptly to their relief. The neighboring towns sent in provisions and other necessaries of life, and money was subscribed in other parts of the country. South Carolina sent to Boston two hundred barrels of rice, and promised eight hundred more when they were wanted. North Carolina sent a contribution of 2000 in money, and money and provisions were sent from Virginia and Maryland. In the former colony, the farmers beyond the Blue Ridge raised a contribution of one hundred and thirty- seven barrels of flour and sent it to Boston. Even the city of London sent $150,000 to the relief of Boston. Cheered by these evidences of sympathy, Boston resolved to hold out to the end. One of the first and most determined of the colonies in expressing her sympathy for Massachusetts was Virginia. Upon the receipt of the news of the closing of the port of Boston, the assembly of this colony passed resolutions of sympathy with Massachusetts, and appointed the 1st of June, the day designated for the enforcement of the Port Bill, as a day of fasting and prayer. For this bold action the governor dissolved the assembly. It met the next day May 25th in spite of Governor Dun- morc's prohibition, in the coffee room of the Raleigh Tavern, and declared that an attack on Massachusetts was an attack on every other colony and ought to be opposed by the united wisdom of all. The assembly urged that a general congress of all the colonies should be held to take united action for the redress of grievances, and a committee was appointed to correspond with the other colonies for the purpose of bringing about this congress. The 1st of June was rigidly observed in Virginia as a fast day. George Mason charged his family to be careful to attend church on that day clad in mourning. In the meantime Hutchiuson had been replaced as governor of Massa- 414 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ohusetts by General Gage, the cominamler-in-<'hief of the British army in North America. He landed in Boston on the 17th of May, 1774, and was well received by the people. He was a man of mild character and great good-nature, and utterly unfit for the task of coercing a free people. The determined attitude of the patriots- bewildered him. He brought with him instructions for " the seizure and condign punishment of Samuel Adams, John Hancock, Joseph Warren, and other leading patriots ; but he stood in such dread of them that he never so much as attempted their arrest." He was greatly perplexed to know how to manage the people of Boston. It was clear to him that they intended to resist the injustice of the mother country, but they kept so carefully within the law that he could not take hold of their acts. They held meetings and discussed their grievances, but violated no law, and discountenanced violence of all kinds. He was authorized by the British government to fire upon the colonists whenever he should see fit ; but their pru- dent and peaceful course gave him no opportunity for so doing. The government at length under- took to put a stop to the town Americans by to hold such after a certain day. They evaded this law by convok- ing the meetings before the desig- nated day, and "'keeping them alive" by adjourning them from time to time. Faneuil Hall and the Old South Church were the favorite places of meeting; but many of these assemblies were held under the Liberty Tree. In the meantime the recommendation of Virginia for a general con- gress was accepted by the other colonies, and measures were set on foot to bring it about. The need of such an assembly, which should represent the whole country, was becoming more and more apparent every day. In the various colonies delegates were chosen, and it was agreed, at the instance of the legislature of Massachusetts, that the congress should in?ct i:i Philadelphia on the 5th of September, 1774. Martin, the roy- alist governor of Georgia, prevented that colony from choosing delegates to the congress, and General Gage attempted a similar interference with meetings of the them forbidding meetings JOHN HANCOCK. CAL'SRS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 415 the general court of Massachusetts. Samuel Adams, as usual, had anti- cipated him, however. On the 17th of June, having privately ascer- tained the sentiments of the members, he locked the door of the room in which the meeting of the assembly was held, and so kept out the governor's secretary, who came to dissolve the session, and who knocked in vain for admission. Thus safe from executive interference, the general court proceeded to appoint its delegates to the congress, and to make provision for their support. This accomplished, the doors were opened and the members submitted to the dissolution pronounced by Governor Gage. The act of Parliament by which the British government undertook to prohibit the town meetings of Massachusetts was known as the " Regu- lating Act." It was introduced into Parliament by Lord North in April, and received the royal assent in May, 1754. It was an infamous measure. It annulled the charter of the colony, and " without previous notice to Massachusetts, and without a hearing, it arbitrarily took away rights and liberties which the people had enjoyed from the foundation of the colony, except in the evil days of James II." All the power of the colony was concentrated in the hands of the royal governor by conferring upon him the appointment of all the courts of justice and every official connected with them. The courts were all to be remodelled in the inter- est of the king, and Gage at once set to work to appoint the new judges. The whole colony united in a determined resistance to them. In many of the towns the citizens would not allow the new courts to be opened, and in Boston no man could be found to serve as a juror in the courts appointed for that city. A meeting of the citizens of Boston was held at Faneuil Hall on the 26th of August, 1774, and was attended by dele- gates from the counties of Worcester, Middlesex, and Essex. It adopted a series of resolutions denying the authority of Parliament to change any of the laws of the province, and declared that the new government set up by Gage under the Regulating Act was unconstitutional, and that the new officers, should they attempt to act, would become the enemies of the province although they bore the commission of the king. In order to provide for the safety of the colony a provincial congress with large executive powers was advised by the convention. Gage found himself unable to enforce the new laws. " The chief justice and his colleagues, repairing in a body to the governor, represented the impossibility of vcercising their office in Boston or in any other part of the province ; the rmy was too small for their protection ; and besides, none would act as nrors. Thus the authority of the new government, as established by act of Parliament, perished in the presence of the governor, the judges, 41 G HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and the army." * Tluis defeated Gage began to increase the number of troops at Boston. On the 1st of September Gage sent a detachment to Quarry Hill, near Charlestown, and seized the public magazine in which the province of Massachusetts kept its powder for its militia, and brought it to Boston. The news of this seizure roused the people of the surrounding counties to a high state of indignation. A body of several thousand of the best citizens of Middlesex, "leaving their guns in the rear," marched to Cam- bridge to protest against the outrage. They compelled Danforth, a county judge and a member of Gage's council, Phipps, the high sheriff, and Oliver, the lieutenant-governor, to resign their places. They attempted no violence, and inasmuch as Gage had acted within the lettci of the law in removing the powder, dispersed quietly, satisfied for the time with their protest. Their demonstration thoroughly alarmed Gage, who kept the troops in Boston under arms all night, posted cannon to command the approaches to the town, and doubled all the guards. At the same time he wrote to England for reinforcements. The news of the seizure of the Massachusetts powder spread rapidly through the province and into the adjoining colonies. The seizure was made on Thursday morning, and by Saturday morning twenty thousand men were under arms and advancing upon Boston. They were stopped by expresses from the patriots at Boston, but their prompt action showed the spirit of the province. When the news reached Israel Putnam, in his home in Connecticut, the old hero at once called on the militia to go with him to the aid of Boston, where the report said the people had been fired on by the royal troops and shipping. His call was answered by thousands, but later advices from Boston put a stop to the march. " But for counter intelligence," wrote Putnam to the patriots at Boston, " we should have had forty thousand men, well equipped and ready to march this morning. Send a written express to the foreman of this committee when you have occasion of our martial assistance ; we shall attend your summons, and shall glory in having a share in the honor of ridding our country of the yoke of tyranny which our forefathers have not borne, neither will we. And we much desire you to keep a strict guard over the remainder of your powder, for that must be the great means, under God, of the salvation of our country." The excitement was not without its good results, however. It led every man to examine the condition of his means of resistance, and to supply his deficiencies in arms and equipments. The royal authority * Bancroft. CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 417 was at an end outside of Boston, and active royalists found it best to seek safety within that city. The general congress, or, as it is better known, the Old Continental Congress, met in Carpenter's Hall, in Philadelphia, on the 5th of Sep- tember, 1774. It numbered fifty-five members, consisting of delegates from every colony save Georgia, whose governor had prevented the elec- tion of delegates. Among the members were many of the most eminent men in the land. From Virginia came George Washington, Patrick Henry, and Richard Henry Lee ; from Massachusetts Samuel Adams and John Adams; from New York Philip Livingston, John Jay, and William Livingston ; from Rhode Island the venerable Stephen Hop- kins; from Connecticut Roger Sherman; from South Carolina Edward CARPENTER'S HALL, PHILADELPHIA. and John Rutledge and Christopher Gadsden ; and from New Jersey the Rev. John Witherspoon, the President of Princeton College. The mem- bers of this illustrious body were not strangers to each other, though the majority of them met now for the first time. They had corresponded with each other, and had discussed their wrongs so thoroughly that each was well acquainted with the sentiments of his colleagues, and all were bound together by a common sympathy. The congress was organized by the election of Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, as speaker. Charles Thomson, of Pennsylvania, an Irishman by birth, and the principal of the Quaker High School in Philadelphia, was then chosen secretary. Tt was proposed to open the sessions with 27 418 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. prayer. Some of the members thought this might be inexpedient, as all the delegates might not be able to join in the same form of worship. Up rose Samuel Adams, in whose great soul there was not a grain of sham. He was a strict Congregationalist. " I am no bigot," he said. " I can hear a prayer from a man of piety and virtue, whatever may be his cloth, provided he is at the same time a friend to his country." On his motion the Rev. Mr. Duchd, an Episcopal clergyman of Philadelphia, was in- vited to act as chaplain. Mr. Duche accepted the invitation. When the congress assembled the next morning all was anxiety and apprehension, for the rumor of the attack upon Boston, which had reached Putnam and aroused Connecticut, had gotten as far as Philadelphia. The chaplain opened the session by reading the thirty-fifth Psalm, which seemed, as. John Adams said, ordained by Heaven to be read that morn- ing, and then broke forth into an extempore prayer of great fervor and eloquence. At the close of the prayer a deep silence prevailed in the hall. It was broken by Patrick Henry, who rose to open the day's pro- ceedings. He began slowly and hesitatingly at first, " as if borne down by the weight of his subject," but as he proceeded he rose grandly to the duty of the occasion, and in a speech of masterly eloquence he recited the wrongs of the American colonies at the hands of Great Britain, and de- clared that all government in America was dissolved, and urged upon the congress the necessity of forming a new government for the colonies. Towards the close of his speech he struck a chord which answered in every heart. " British oppression," he exclaimed, " has effaced the boun- daries of the several colonies; the distinctions between Virginians, Penn- sylvanians, New Yorkers, and New Englanders are no more. I am not a Virginian, but an American." The deputies were astonished at his eloquence, as well as at the magnitude of the interests with which they were intrusted. The congress continued its , sessions for seven weeks. It had no authority to bind the colonies to any course ; its powers were merely ad- visory, and it did not transcend its authority. It drew up a Declaration of Rights, in which it defined the natural rights of man to be the enjoy- ment of life, liberty, and property. It claimed for the Americans, as British subjects, the right to participate in the making of their laws, and the levying of taxes upon their own people. The right of trial by jury in the immediate vicinity of the scene of the alleged offence, and the right of holding public meetings and petitioning for the redress of grievances > were solemnly asserted. A protest was entered against the maintaining of standing armies in America without the consent of the colonies, and against eleven specified acts passed since the opening of the reign of CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 419 George III., as violative of the rights of the colonies. The declaration concluded with the solemn warning, "To these grievous acts and measures Americans cannot submit." Congress then addressed itself to a plan for obtaining redress. It was agreed to form an "American Association," whose members were to pledge themselves not to trade with Great Britain or the West Indies, or with persons engaged in the slave trade ; not to use tea or any British goods ; and not to trade with any colony which should refuse to join the -^.i/;^ HARBOR OF NEW YORK IN 1875. association. For the purpose of enforcing the objects of this association committees were to be appointed in the various parts of the country to sec that its provisions were carried into effect. Other papers were adopted by the congress, setting forth its views more clearly. A petition to the king was prepared by John Dickinson, of Pennsylvania, who also drafted an address to the people of Canada. A memorial to the people of the colonies was written by Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, and an address to the people of Great Britain by John Jay, of New York. These papers were forwarded to England to be Juki 420 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. before the British government, and on the 26th of October the congress adjourned to meet on the 10th of May, 1775. In January, 1775, Lord North presented the papers adopted by congress to the House of Commons, and at the same time they were laid before the House of Lords by Lord Dartmouth. The venerable Earl of Chatham made this the occasion of a powerful appeal to the majority in Parliament to reverse their arbitrary course towards the Americans before it should be too late. Referring to the papers laid before the House, he said : " When your lordships look at the papers transmitted us from America, when you consider their decency, firmness and wisdom, you cannot but respect their cause and wish to make it your own. For myself, I must avow, that in all my reading and I have read Thucydides, and have studied and admired the master states of the world for solidity of reason, force of sagacity, and wisdom of conclusion under a complication of difficult circumstances, no nation or body of men can stand in prefer- ence to the general congress at Philadelphia. The histories of Greece and Rome give us nothing equal to it, and all attempts to impose servitude upon such a mighty continental nation must be in vain. We shall be forced ultimately to retract ; let us retract while we can, not when we must. These violent acts must be repealed ; you will repeal them ; I pledge myself for it, I stake my reputation on it, that you will in the end repeal them. Avoid, then, this humiliating necessity." The king was furious when the words of the greatest statesman of his kingdom were repeated to him. Neither the wisdom nor the eloquence of Chatham could turn the king or the ministers from their mad course. They had but one plan for America now. She must submit humbly to their will ; if she should resist, she must be crushed into submission. The king meant to try the question with the Americans. CHAPTER XXVI. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Gage fortifies Boston Neck He summons the General Court Recalls his Proclamation The Provincial Congress of Massachusetts It takes Measures for Defence The Militia Organized The Minute Men Friends of America in England Gage resolves to seize the Stores at Concord Midnight March of the British Troops The Alarm given Skir- mishes at Lexington and Concord Retreat of the British A terrible March Uprising of New England Boston Invested Dunmore seizes the Virginia Powder Is made to pay for it Uprising of the Middle and Southern Colonies The Mecklenburg Declara- tion of Independence Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point -Meeting of the Second Continental Congress Congress resolves to sustain Massachusetts Renewed Efforts for Peace Congress assumes the General Government of the Colonies A Federal Union Organized Its Character A Continental Army formed George Washington appointed Commander-in-chief General Officers appointed Condition of the Army before Boston Inaction of Gage Battle of Bread's Hill A glorious Defence The Battle equivalent to a Victory in its effects upon the Country Arrival of Washington at Cambridge He takes Command of the Army He reorganizes the Army Difficul- ties of the undertaking The Invasion of Canada resolved upon March of Montgomery and Arnold Rapid Successes of Montgomery He captures Montreal March of Arnold through the Wilderness Arrival before Quebec Forms a Junction with Mont- gomery The Siege of Quebec The Ice Forts Failure of the Attack Death of Mont- gomery Retreat of the Americans from Canada Lord Dunmore's War in Virginia Destruction of Norfolk The Thirteen United Colonies Burning of Falmouth Naval Matters Action of Great Britain The War to be carried on The Hessians. HILE the Continental Congress was in session, matters were in a most serious state in Massachusetts. General Gage, alarmed by the threatening aspect of the Americans, began to fortify Boston Neck, the narrow peninsula which united the city with the main land. A regiment was stationed at these works to prevent com- munication between the citizens and the people in the country. The news of this action spread rapidly. At Portsmouth, New Hampshire, a company of volunteers seized the fort and carried off one hundred and fifty barrels of powder and several cannon. At Newport forty-four cannon were seized by the people and sent to Providence for safe- keeping. In the midst of this excitement, Gage, thinking such a step might con- ciliate the people, summoned the general court to meet at Salem ; but alarmed at the growing spirit of liberty, countermanded the order. The 421 422 HISTORY 01' THK UNITED STATES. members of the general court met, however, at Salem, on the 5th of October, 1774, but finding no one to organize them adjourned to Concord, where they resolved themselves into a provincial congress, of which .John Hancoclwwas elected president. This congress existed as the government of the people, and was independent of the authority of the king. They protested their loyalty to King George, and their desire for peace, and endeavored to induce Gage to desist from -fortifying Boston Neck. Gage refused to comply with their de- mand, and warned them to desist from their unlawful course. The provincial congress paid no atten- tion to his warning, but proceeded to call out the militia to the num- ber of twelve thousand. They were allowed to remain at their homes, but were required to be ready for service at a minute's warning. Hence they were known as " Minute Men." Two com- mittees of safety were appointed : one to call out the minute men when their services were needed ; the other to supply them with provisions and ammunition. Two general officers, Artemas Ward and Seth Pomeroy, were ap- pointed. The other New Eng- land colonies were invited to in- crease the number of minute men to twenty thousand. The sum of 20,000 was voted for the military service, and Massachu- setts prepared for the worst. In every colony military prepara- tions were set on foot, and the whole of America began to prepare for the coming storm which all thinking men now saw was close at hand. The papers drawn up by the Continental Congress had been widely circulated in England, and had aroused a great deal of sympathy for America, and it was hoped by many that the new Parliament, which met in January, 1775, would see the necessity of doing justice to the colonies. The cause of America was eloquently pleaded by the Earl of Chatham THE MINUTE MAN. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 423 and others, but the king and the ministers were resolved to compel the submission of the Americans, and the majority in Parliament sustained them. A measure known as the "New England Restraining Bill" was in- troduced by Lord North, which deprived the people of New England of the privilege of fishing on the banks of Newfoundland. In March news arrived that all the colonies had indorsed the action of the Continental Congress, and had pledged themselves to support it. To punish them the provisions of the Restraining Bill were extended to every colony save New York, Delaware, and North Carolina. These colonies were ex- empted in the hope of inducing them to desert the American cause. The measure failed of its object; and the three favored colonies remained firm in their support of the congress. General Gage now resolved to take a decisive step. He learned that the patriots had established a depot of provisions and military stores at Concord, eighteen miles from Boston, and resolved to seize these supplies at once. The military force under his command at Boston numbered three thousand men, and he felt himself strong enough, not only to seize these stores, but also to arrest John Hancock and Samuel Adams, who f were lodging at Lexington. Accordingly, on the night of the 18th of April, 1775, he detached a force of eight hundred men under Lieutenant- Colonel Smith, and shortly before midnight had them conveyed across Charles river to Cambridge, from which place they began their march to Concord. Gage had conducted the whole movement with the greatest secrecy, but his preparations had been detected by the patriot leaders in Boston, and Hancock and Adams had been warned of their danger. The British had hardly embarked in their boats when two lanterns were displayed from the tower of the Old North Church. Paul Revere, the chosen messenger, who had been awaiting this signal, at once set off from Charlestown and rode in haste to Lexington to warn the patriots of the approach of the British troops. At the same time William Dawes left Boston by the road over the Neck, and rode at full speed towards Lex- ington, arousing the country as he went along with his stirring tidings. Other messengers were sent forward by these men, and the alarm spread rapidly through the country. From Cambridge the British pushed forward rapidly towards Lexing- ton. They had not gone far when they heard in advance of them the firing of alarm guns, and the tolling of bells. The British officers were astonished at the rapidity with which their movement had been dis- covered ; but they could not doubt the meaning of these signals. Th* country was being aroused, and their situation was becoming serious, Lieutenant-Colonel Smith sent, a messenger to General Gage for reinforce- 424 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 425 ments, and ordered Major Pitcairn to push forward with a part of the force and seize the two bridges at Concord. Pitcairn obeyed his orders promptly, and arrested every one whom he met or overtook save a coun- tryman, who escaped and reached Lexington in time to give the alarm. Pitcairn's division reached Lexington at daybreak on the 19th of April. They found seventy or eighty minute men, and several other persons, assembled on the common. They were ignorant of the intentions of the British, and supposed they merely wished to arrest Adams and Hancock, who had left the village upon the first alarm. As he saw the group Pitcairn ordered his men to halt and load their muskets, and BK1TISH TKOOPS ON CONCORD COMMON. called out to the Americans, "Disperse, ye villains, ye rebels, disperse; lay down your arms ; why don't you lay down your arms and disperse?" The Americans stood motionless and silent, " witnesses against aggres- sion ; too few to resist ; too brave to fly." Pitcairn, seeing that his order was not obeyed, discharged his pistol, and ordered his men to fire. A few straggling- shots followed this order, and then the regulars poured sf close heavy volley into the Americans, killing seven, and wounding nine of them. Parker, the commander of the minute men, seeing that the affair was to be a massacre instead of a battle, ordered his men to disperse. The British then gave three cheers for their victory. In a little while Colonel Smith arrived with the remainder of his command, and the whole party then pushed on towards Concord. 426 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The alarm had already reached Concord, and in a little while news was received of the massacre at Lexington. The minute men promptly assembled on the common, near the church, and awaited the approach of the enemy. The minute men from Lincoln came in at an early hour, and a few from Acton. About seven o'clock the British were seen advancing in two divisions, and as it was evident that they were about four times as numerous as the Americans, the latter retreated to the summit of a hill 3n the opposite side of the Concord river, and there awaited the arrival of reinforcements, which were coming in from the surrounding country. The British occupied th3 town, and posting a force of one hundred men to hold the North bridge, began their search for arms and stores. The greater part of these had been secreted, but the soldiers found a few that could not be removed, and gave the rest of their time to plundering the houses of the town. " This slight waste of stores," says Bancroft, " was all the advantage for which Gage precipitated a civil war.'' Between nine and ten o'clock the American force had increased by the arrival of the minute men from Acton, Bedford, Westford, Carlisle, Littleton, and Chelmsford, to about four hundred and fifty. Below them, in full view, were the regulars plundering their homes, and from the town rose the smoke of the fires the soldiers had kindled for the destruction of the few stores they had managed to secure. Not knowing whether they meant to burn the town or not, the officers of the minute men resolved to advance and enter Concord. Barret, the command- ing officer, cautioned the men not to fire unless attacked. As their approach was discovered the British began to take up the planks of the North bridge, and to prevent this the Americans quickened their pace. The regulars then fired a volley which killed two of the minute men. The fire was returned, and two of the soldiers were killed and several wounded. These volleys were followed by some desultory skirmishing, and about noon Colonel Smith drew off his men and began to retreat by the way he had come. With the retreat of the British from Concord the real work of the day began. The country was thoroughly aroused, and men came pouring in from every direction eager to get a shot at the regulars. The road by which the royal forces were retreating was narrow and crooked, and led through forests and thickets, and was bordered by the stone walls which enclosed the farms. At every step the militia and minute men hung upon the enemy, and kept up an irregular but fatal fire upon them from behind trees, fences, and houses. Flanking parties were thrown out to clear the way, but without success. The number of the Americans increased it every step. Each town took up the strife as the regulars THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 427 entered its limits. Far and wide the alarm was spreading through the country, and the people were getting under arms. By noon a messenger rode furiously into the distant town of Worcester and shouted the alarm. Instantly the minute men of the town got under arms, and after joining their minister in prayer, on the common, took up the march for Cam- bridge. The whole province was rising, and the enemies of the fugitive regulars were increasing every moment. Smith hurried his command through Lexington at a rapid rate, and a short distance beyond the town met Lord Percy advancing to his assist- ance with twelve hundred infantry and two pieces of artillery. Percy THE FIGHT AT CONCORD BRIDGE. formed his men into a square, enclosing the fugitives, who dropped help- lessly on the ground, " their tongues hanging out of their mouths like those of dogs after a chase," and with his cannon kept the Americans at bay. He could not think of holding his position, however, and after a halt of half an hour resumed the retreat, first setting fire to some houses in Lexington. The fighting now became more energetic than ever. From either side, from in front and the rear, the Americans kept up a constant fire upon the British, who revenged themselves by murdering some helpless people along the road, and burning houses. Below West Cambridge the British broke into a run, and at length, about sunset, suc- ceeded in escaping across Charlestown Neck, where they were safe under the fire of their shipping. Had the militia from Marblehead and Salem, 428 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. who wore on the march, been more alert, the entire British force would have been captured, as they were in no condition to resist a determined attack in front. The loss of the Americans during the day was forty-nine killed, thirty- four wounded, and five missing. The British lost in killed, wounded, and missing two hundred arid seventy-three men, or more than fell in Wolfe's army in the battle of the Heights of Abra- ham. Many of the officers, including Colonel Smith, were wounded. The news of the conflicts at Lexington and Concord spread rapidly through New England, and was S'jnt by express mes- sengers to New York and the colonies farther south. In New England it pro- duced a general up- rising of the people, and in ten days Bos- ton was blockaded by an irregular army of twenty thousand provincial troops, whose encampments extended from Rox- bury to the Mystic river, above Charles- town, a distance often miles. John Stark, who had served with gallantry in the old French war, was on his way to Boston in ten minutes after he was informed of the fighting. Israel Putnam, a veteran soldier, and as true a hero as ever lived, was ploughing in his field when the courier rode by with the tidings of the battle. He left his plough, sprang on his horse, and after rousing his neighbors rode from his home, in Connecticut, to Cambridge, without even stopping to change his clothes. The Massa- chusetts Congress took energetic measures for the support of the army RETREAT OP THE BRITISH FROM LEXINGTON. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 429 before Boston, and in a few clays this force began to assume a more regular character. Matters had also reached a crisis in Virginia. On the night of the 20th of April Lord Dunmore seized the powder in the magazine at "Wil- liamsburg, and sent it, under guard of a party of marines, on board an armed schooner in the James river. The inhabitants on the morning of the 21st took arms to compel the restoration of the powder, but were per- suaded to refrain from violence. In a few days the news from Lexington and Concord was received, and it was the general belief that Dunmore's course was only a part of a general plan to disarm the colonies. On the 2d of May Patrick Henry summoned the independent companies "f CAPTTTRE OF TICOXDEROGA BY ALLEN. Hanover to meet him at a certain place, and led them towards Williams burg, determined to compel the governor to restore the powder, or pay its full value in money. On the march they were met by a messenger from Dunmore, who paid them the full value of the powder in money. This money was soon after forwarded to Congress. The companies then dis- banded, and returned home. Dunmore, thoroughly frightened, fled with his family on board a man-of-war, and declared " Patrick Henry and his associates to be in rebellion." Afraid to meet the Virginians in an open fight, he threatened to arm their slaves against them, and inaugurate a general massacre. The middle and southern colonies were prompt to follow the example 430 111 STORY OF THE UNITED STATES- of Ne^v England. The people of New York seized the provisions in- tended for the king's troops at Boston, shut up the custom-house, and forbade any vessels to leave the harbor for ports or colonies acknowledg- ing the authority of Great Britain. The arms and ammunition belonging to the city were seized by the volunteers, and measures were set on foot for a general resistance to the authority of the king. New Jersey was equally determined, and in Pennsylvania enthusiastic meetings of citizens resolved "to associate for the purpose of defending, with arms, their lives, their property, and liberty." Military companies were formed, and trained in the exercise of arms. The people of Maryland compelled their royalist governor to surrender to them all the arms and ammunition of the province. The militia officers of South Carolina at once resigned their commissions from the governor, and regiments of militia for the de- fence of the colony were raised and drilled. At Charleston the royal arsenal was seized, and its contents distributed among the people. Geor- gia also placed herself in the ranks of her patriot sisters, and seizing the ammunition and arms within her limits prepared for resistance. North Carolina took a more decisive stand than any of the colonies. The spirit of resistance ran high within her borders. A convention of the people of Mecklenburg county was held at Charlotte on the 29th of May, and adopted a series of resolutions declaring themselves independent of the control of Great Britain, and renouncing all allegiance to her. This was the famous " Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence." The whole country, from New Hampshire to Georgia, was united in its deter mination to resist the injustice of Great Britain with arms. Massachu- setts had struck the first blow, but every colony was now prepared and determined to bear its part in the great struggle for freedom. The Massachusetts Committee of Safety were anxious to secure the important posts of Ticonderoga and Crown Point on Lake Champlain. The possession of these posts would not only enable the Americans to command the entrance to Canada, but would give them the large quan- tities of military supplies stored in these forts. The project was entered into with great energy by Benedict Arnold, then commanding a company before Boston, and by Ethan Allen of Vermont. Allen was the leader of the Green Mountain Boys, a military organization in Vermont, which had been formed to resist the authority of New York, which claimed Vermont as a part of its territory. The people of Vermont, however, preferred the authority of New Hampshire to that of New York. The dispute had become quite animated when the outbreak of the Revolution drew the attention of all parties to more stirring events. Arnold, upon hearing that Allen was preparing to seize the forts, set out at once for THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 421 Vermont, and overtook the Green Mountain Boys near the head of Lake Champlain. Producing a colonel's commission he ordered Allen to sur- render the command to him, but the latter refused, and was sustained by his men, and Arnold at length agreed to serve as a volunteer. Securing a few boats Allen crossed the lake with his little force, about two hundred and seventy in number, and at daybreak, on the morning of May 10th, surprised Fort Ticonderoga, and made prisoners of the garrison before they were fairly awake. Not a blow was struck. The astounded com- mander of the fort asked Allen by whose authority he acted. " In the INDEPENDENCE HALL IN 1776. name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress," was the in- stant reply, delivered in stentorian tones. The commandant instantly submitted. On the 12th of May Seth Warner, Allen's lieutenant, sur- prised Crown Point, and secured the fort. Arnold secured a number of boats and, descending the lake, captured St. John's, in the " Sorel." Sixty prisoners were taken in this expedition, and besides two of the most im- portant military posts in America the patriots secured two hundred cannon, and a large supply of ammunition. On the 10th of May, the day of the capture of Ticonderoga, the 432 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. second Continental Congress met at Philadelphia. This time they assem- bled in the State-house, a place more suited to the dignity of such a body; and calculated to give more publicity to their proceedings. No change was at first made in the officers of the preceding session, but in a few days Peyton Randolph resigned his position to return home to attend the Virginia legislature, which had been summoned by the governor. Thomas Jefferson was appointed to fill his place as a delegate. John Hancock of Massachusetts, who had been specially exempted by the king from all offers of amnesty, was chosen president of the Congress. Three new members of Tiote now entered the Congress. They were Benjamin Franklin, a delegate from Pennsylvania, and George Clinton and Robert R. Livingston, delegates from New York. Franklin had just returned from England, where he had resided for several years as the agent for some of the colonies. He had been in constant official contact with the leading men of Great Britain, and was thoroughly informed as to the policy of the British government respecting America. He was, therefore, a most valuable acquisition to the Congress. The circumstances under which this Congress assembled were very dif- ferent from those which had attended the meeting of its predecessor. Th^n there was hope that the remonstrances of the colonies would open the eyes of the British government to the folly of its course ; but those remonstrances had been received with fresh outrages, their petitions had " been spurned with contempt from the foot of the throne," and the British army had begun the war at Lexington and Concord. Massachu- setts, driven beyond the point of forbearance, had taken up arms, and had besieged the royal troops in Boston. A state of war actually existed, and Congress must either sustain Massachusetts, and so involve every colony in the struggle, or leave her to meet the power of Great Britain unaided. The whole country was in favor of standing by Massachu- setts, and the delegates in Congress reflected this feeling. It was there- fore resolved by Congress to place all the colonies in a state of defence, and to prepare for a vigorous prosecution of the war should it be found impossible to avert it. At the same time, as a last means of preserving peace, a new petition was addressed to the king stating the grievances of the colonies, and asking for justice at his majesty's hands. Addresses were also issued to the people of Great Britain, Ireland, and Jamaica. To the people of Great Britain they declared, after relating their wrongs, and their failure to obtain redress : " We are reduced to the alternative of choosing an unconditional submission to the tyranny of irritated min- isters, or resistance by force. The latter is our choice. We have counted the cost of this contest, and we find nothing so dreadful as voluntary THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 433 slavery." In the petition to the king Congress denied that it was the intention of the colonies to cast oft' their allegiance; but asserted their intention to maintain their rights. When this petition was presented to the king, in September, he refused to take any notice of it. In view of the altered position of affairs Massachusetts consulted the Congress as to the propriety of establishing a regular system of govern- ment, and \vas advised to make such regulations for that purpose as wen- necessary, and to continue them as a temporary expedient until it should be known whether the king would allow the colony to resume the gov- ernment guaranteed to it by its charter. In order to avoid the trouble which would ensue from an interruption of the regular postal communi- cation between the colonies, Congress assumed the power of organizing a general system of mails for the whole country, and appointed Dr. Franklin postmaster-general. From these acts Congress advanced to others still more important. A "Federal Union" of the colonies was organized, in which each colony retained the exclusive control of its internal affairs, but delegated to Con- gress authority to direct all matters pertaining to the general welfare of the colonies, such as the power to declare war, make peace, and negotiate treaties of alliance and friendship with foreign countries. In the exer- cise of these powers Congress assumed the general government of America. A day of fasting and prayer to God, for his assistance in the struggle for freedom, was enjoined upon all the colonies. All persons were forbidden to furnish provisions under any circumstances. Measures were adopted for the organization and enlistment of an army, and for the purpose of erecting fortifications at suitable points, and procuring arms and ammuni- tion. In order to raise the funds needed for carrying out these objects " Bills of Credit," to the amount of two millions of dollars, were issued, and for their redemption Congress pledged the faith of the "United Colonies." The provincial congress of Massachusetts requested the Con- gress at Philadelphia to adopt the Xew England forces before Boston as the "Continental Army," and this request was at once complied with. As General A Yard, the commander of these troops, held his commission from Massachusetts, it was necessary for Congress to appoint a com- mander-in-chief commissioned by itself. "NVith respect to this appointment the members were divided. Some thought that as the troops were all New England men, the commander should be chosen from the same section. Others favored the appointment of a commander who would inspire the confidence of, and be acceptable to, the entire country. The name of General AVard was suggested by the first party ; but a majority of the delegates favored the appointment 28 434 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of Colonel Washington, who was a member of Congress, and chairman of the committee on military affairs, in which capacity he had proposed the plan for the organization of the army, and had suggested the most important measures for defence. He had profoundly impressed the dele- gates with his great and commanding character, his military ability, and his wisdom as a statesman. Patrick Henry, on his return home from the first Congress, had been asked who was the greatest man in that body. His reply expressed the views of his colleagues resecting Washington. " If you speak of eloquence," he said, " Mr. Rutledgc, of South Caro- lina, is, by far, the greatest orator; but if you speak of solid information and sound judgment Colonel Washington is unquestionably the greatest man on that floor." Dr. Warren wrote from Mas- sachusetts to Samuel Adams, in Congress, about this time, that theappoiut- ment of Colonel Wash- ington as commauder-in- chief would give great satisfaction to many lead- WASHINGTON. ing men in Massachusetts. John Adams was anxious for the appointment, and having satisfied himself of the wishes of the greater part of the dele- gates, ventured openly to allude to Washington as the proj>er person for the position, and spoke of him as a gentleman whose "skill and experience as an officer, whose inde- pendent fortune, great talents, and excellent universal character, would command the approbation of all America, and unite the cordial exertionr of the colonies better than any other person in the Union." On the 14th of June Mr. Johnson, of Maryland, formally nominated Washington to the office of commander-in-chief, and he was unanimously chosen by ballot. The next day his election was communicated to him by the President of Congress. Washington rose in his place, and thanked the House for the unexpected honor conferred upon him, assured them of his devotion to the cause, and announced his acceptance of the great trust confided to him. He declared his intention to refuse the pay affixed to the office, THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. which had been placed at five hundred dollars a month, and added : " I will keep an exact account of my expenses. These, I doubt not, they will discharge, and that is all I desire." Congress, on its part, pledged its hearty support to the new commander, and resolved " to maintain and assist, and adhere to him with their lives and fortunes in the defence of American liberty/' Washington lost no time in proceeding to assume the command con- ferred upon him. After a few days spent in preparation, in Philadelphia, he left that city on the 21st of June, for the head-quarters of the army, accompanied by Generals Lee and Schuyler. A few days after the election of the c o m m a n d e r-i n- chief Congress ap- pointed four ma- jor-geuerals, one adjutant-general, with the rank of brigadier, and eight brigadier- generals for the subordinate com- mands in the American army. The major-gen- erals were Arte- mas "Ward,Charles Lee, Philip Schuy- ler, and Israel Put- nam. The adju- tant-general was Horatio Gates. The brigadiers were Seth Pomeroy, Richard Mont- gomery, David Wooster, William Heath, Joseph Spencer, John Thomas, John Sullivan, and Nathaniel Greene. In the meantime the blockade of Boston had been continued by the prov- incial army, under General Ward. These forces numbered about fifteen thousand men, and had come from their respective towns in independent companies, and were without any regular organization. They had no uni- form, but the majority wore their ordinary homespun working-clothes ; they GENERAL ISRAEL PUTNAM. 436 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. were deficient in arms ; a few had muskets, but the majority had rifles and fo \vling-pieces. The artillery consisted of nine pieces of cannon, and was commanded by Colonel Gridley, who had directed the artillery at the siege of Louisburg. The Massachusetts troops were commanded by Geneial Ward; those from New Hampshire by Colonel Stark; the Con necticut troops by Putnam ; and the regiment from Rhode. Island by Nathaniel Greene, a young blacksmith. Save for the solemnity of the cause, and the earnestness and determination which animated the whole force, there was little to save this quaint assemblage from the ridicule ir hich the royal officers heaped upon it. It did to ordinary view seem tiie height of folly to oppose such an ill-provided and unorganized mass to the splendidly equipped veterans who served King George. Yet this force, "with calico frocks and fowling-pieces," hemmed in within the narrow limits of Boston, the splendid army of ten thousand men, commanded by such generals as Howe, Burgoyne, and Sir Henry Clinton, which Gage had concentrated in Boston. Burgoyne could not repress his astonishment upon reaching Boston. " What I he exclaimed, "ten thousand peasants keep five thousand king's troops shut u;>! Vv r cll, let us get in, and we'll soon find elbow-room." In spite of his immense superiority, howev r, Gage did not venture to attack the American lines. He contented himself with issuing a proclamation declaring the province under martial lav. 7 , and offering a free pardon to all rebels who should return to their allegiance, with the exception of Samuel Adams and John Hancock. These rebels w~re cut cff from all hope of die king's mercy, and were given to understaud that they could expect nothing but the most summary punishment. General Gage now determined to extend his lines and to occupy Dorchester Heights, overlooking South Boston, and Bunker Hill, an eminence rising beyond Charlestown, on the north of Boston. The exe- cution of this design was fixed for the 18th of June, and in the meantime Gage's intention became known in the American camp. To prevent it, it was resolved, at the instance of tho Massachusetts Committee of Safety, to seize and fortify these eminences, beginning with Bunker HilL The more prudent opposed this undertaking as too rash ; it was certain tc bring on a general engagement of the opposing forces, and the Americans were too poorly provided with arms and ammunition to hope for success,, Others insisted that no time should be lost in securing the heights. Putnam was confident they could be held with proper intrench men ts, and that thus protected the troops could be relied upon to hold their position. The great scarcity of ammunition rendered the undertaking one of pecu- liar daring, and it was necessary to select for the command an officer THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 437 whose firmness and discretion could be depended upon. The choice fell upon Colonel William Prescott of Massachusetts, and a brigade was placed under his orders. Soon after sunset on the IGth of June a force of about eleven hundred men, armed principally with fowling-pieces, and carrying their scanty stock of powder and ball in their old-fashioned powder horns and oouches, assembled on Cambridge Common. Langdon, the President of Harvard College, one of the chaplains of the army, offered up an impres- sive prayer, and then the order was given to march and the columu BUNKER HILL, MONUMENT. moved off in the darkness. No one knew the object of the expedition, but the presence of several wagons loaded with intrenching tools made it svidcnt that the movement was one of importance. Charlcstown Neck was strongly guarded, but the detachment passed it in safety and reached the summit of Bunker Hill without being observed. The Committee of Safety had sur^ested that Bunker Hill should be secured, but Prescott's J C5O orders from General Ward were to fortify Breed's Hill, a lower eminence but nearer to Boston, and commanding the harbor more perfectly. It was a more exposed position than the other, but Prescott decided to obey his orders. Colonel Gridley, who was an experienced engineer, marked 438 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. out a redoubt about eight rods square, and in the clear June starlight the men set to work with a will to construct the fortification before the morning should reveal them to the British. It was midnight when the men began their labors. A strong guard was thrown out along the shore of the harbor to prevent a surprise, and the men could distinctly hear the call of the sentinels on the men-of-war in the harbor. During the night Putnam came over to the hill to encourage the Connecticut troops by his presence, but assumed no command. The early morning light revealed to the astonished royalists the hall- finished redoubt on Breed's Hill and the Americans still busily at work upon it. The sloop-of-war " Lively," lying off the present navy yard, without waiting for orders, opened a steady fire upon the redoubt, and her example was soon followed by the other war vessels and the floating batteries in the harbor. A battery of heavy guns was posted on Copp's Hill in Boston, about twelve hundred yards distant, and opened on the redoubt. This fire was well calculated to demoralize a raw force such as that within the redoubt, but it produced no effect upon the Americans, who went on with their task quietly and with energy. Gridley soon withdrew from the hill, and Prescott, thus deserted, and without an engineer, prepared to extend his line to the best of his ability. He pro- longed it from the east side of the redoubt northward for about twenty rods towards the bottom of the hill ; but the men were prevented from completing it by the heavy fire of the British artillery. One man ven- tured beyond the redoubt early in the day, and was killed by a shell. Preseott ordered him to be instantly buried, lest the sight of his body might dishearten the men. To inspire the troops with confidence, Pres- cott sprang upon the parapet and walked slowly up and down the work examining it and issuing his orders. In the meantime the firing had aroused the people of Boston, who crowded the house-tops and every available point from which a view of the action could be obtained. General Gage reconnoitred the American position from Boston, through his glass, and observed Prescott, who was standing on the redoubt inspecting the work. " Who is that officer in command?" he asked of Councillor Willard, who was by his side. "Will he fight?" Willard had recognized Prescott, who was his Jbrother-in-law, and replied : " He is an old soldier, and will fight to the last drop of his blood." Gage thereupon determined to dislodge the Americans from their position without loss of time, and summoned a council of .his officers at his head-quarters, in. which it was decided to ross Charles river, effect a landing at Moulton's Point, and attack the works in front. Generals Clinton and Orant adv'^cated an attack from THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 439 the direction of Charlestown Neck, which would have resulted in the capture of the whole American force ; but Gage refused to place his attacking column between the American army at Cambridge and the detachment on the hill. The bustle in Boston as the British prepared for the attack could lie ..stlnctly seen by the Americans, and urgent messages were scut u General Ward for reinforcements and provisions. Putnam hurried tc Ward's head-quarters to urge this demand ; but Ward, who was greatly oppressed by the scarcity of powder in the camp, hesitated to weaken the main body, and it was not until eleven o'clock on the morning of the 17th of June that he gave orders for the regiments of Stark and Reed to advance to Prescott's assistance. The arrival of these troops greatly cheered the little band under Prescott, who had been working all night, and were greatly in need of food. In the meantime Prescott had posted the Connecticut troops behind a rustic breastwork which he had con- structed on the north of the redoubt. A stone fence ran down the side of the hill towards a swamp in this direction. Behind this the Ameri- cans placed a post and rail fence which they had torn up, and filled the interval between them with new-mown hay, thus forming a rude shelter. A part of the reinforcements joined Knowlton at this breastwork, and the remainder halted on Bunker Hill to enable Putnam to hold that point, the possession of which he considered essential to the safety of the force on Breed's Hill. About two o'clock General Warren arrived. He held the commission of a major-general, and both Prescott and Putnam offered to relinquish the command to him, but he refused it, saying he had come to serve as a volunteer, and took his place in the ranks at the redoubt. At noon twenty-eight barges filled with regulars, under the command of Generafs Howe and Pigott, left Boston, and crossing the harbor, landed at Moulton's Point, under the cover of a heavy fire from the shipping. General Howe now discovered that the American position was stronger than he had supposed, and sent over to General Gage for reinforcements. While awaiting their arrival he refreshed his men with provisions and grog. His reinforcements having arrived, General Howe found himself at the head of over two thousand veteran troops, splendidly squippcd in every respect. Opposed to him were about fifteen hundred imperfectly armed Americans. Gage had threatened that if Charlestown Heights were occupied by the provincials he would burn the town of Chnrleshnvn. He now proceeded to execute his barbarous threat, and fired the town by means of shells from the battery on Copp's Hill, hoping that the flames and smoke would screen, the approach of his 440 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. attacking party under General Howe. A change of wind prevented this, however, and carried the smoke in the opposite direction. About half-past two o'clock on the afternoon of the 17th of June General Howe gave the order to advance. One division, under General Pigott, was ordered to storm the redoubt, while the other was led by General Howe in person against the rail fence, for the purpose of turning the American left flank and cutting off the retreat of the force in the redoubt. Prescott passed along his line as he saw the advance of the enemy, and encouraged his men with his cheering words. " The red coats," he said, " will never reach the redoubt if you will but withhold your fire till I give the order, and be careful not to shoot over their heads." Putnam had come down to the rail fence to encourage the men posted there, and as he saw the advance of the enemy called out to the troops: " Wait till you see the whites of their eyes; aim at their waist- bands ; pick off the handsome coats." The British advanced in splendid style up the side of the hill, firing rapidly as they moved on. The Americans awaited their advance in a deep silence. As Pigott's division came within forty yards of the redoub^, the defenders levelled their guns and took a steady aim. A minute or two later Prescott gave the command, " Fire ! " A sheet of flame broke from the rampart and tore great gaps in the English line, Avhich reeled and staggered back down the hill. The officers exerted themselves gal- lantly to rally the men, and once more the line advanced. This time the Americans suffered them to come nearer, and again drove them back with a fatal fire before which whole ranks went down. They broke in such confusion, that Pigott himself ordered a retreat. The division under General Howe was equally unfortunate. It was suffered to advanco within thirty yards of the rail fence, and was then driven back by a fire which broke it in confusion. The British retired to the shore from which they had started. Greatly astonished, but not disheartened by his repulse, General Howe reformed his line, and after an interval of fifteen minutes moved off again against the works, his plan being the same as that of the first assault. This time the Americans reserved their fire as before, and once more sent the whole British line reeling and broken down the hill. Officers of experience on the English side subsequently declared that they had never seen such firing in any battle in which they had been engaged. A deafening cheer from the patriot line greeted the repulse of the enemy. " If we can drive them back once more," cried Prescott, " they cannot rally again." A shout from the redoubt an- gwered him. " We are ready for the red coats again ! " General Clinton had witnessed the repulse of the regulars from his 441 442 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. position on Copp's Hill, and was filled with astonishment and indigna- tion at the sight. Without waiting for orders, he crossed over to Charles- town with reinforcements, and offered his services to General Howe as a volunteer. Many of the English officers were opposed to another attack ; but as it was learned that the ammunition of the Americans was very low, Howe resolved to storm the works with the bayonet, and this time to break through the open space between the redoubt and the rail fence breastwork. His men were ordered to lay aside their knapsacks, and many of them threw off their coats also. A raking fire of artillery drove the Americans from the breastwork extending from the redoubt into that work for shelter, and the order was given to the regulars to advance with fixed bayonets. The Americans' were nearly oat of ammunition, and in the whole command there were not fifty men with bayonets to their guns. They met the advance of the enemy with a sharp fire, but their powder having given out, were not able to check them. Pressing on the British assailed the redoubt on three sides with the bayonet. A desperate hand-to-hand struggle followed ; the Americans fighting with clubbed guns and with stones. It was impossible to hold the work, however, and Prescott gave the order to retreat. The men fell back in good order. The aged General Pomeroy, who was serving as a volun- teer in the ranks, clubbed his gun and retreated with his face to the regulars, keeping them at bay by his determined action. The detachment at the rail fence, tinder Knowlton, Stark, and Reed, held their position until their comrades had withdrawn from the redoubt, and then retreated in good order down the hill, thus preventing the enemy from cutting off the retreat of Prescott's party. One of the last to leave the redoubt was General "Warren, who had borne himself with great gallantry in the engagement. He had scarcely left the trenches when he fell shot through the head, thus consecrating the spot with his blood, and leaving to his country a noble memory which she has ever held in grateful honor. Putnam had gone to the rear before the final attack of the enemy to collect men for a reinforcement. On his return he met the retreating provincials passing over Bunker Hill. Without orders from any one, he rallied such as would obey him, and for the first time during the day assumed the command. With these forces, and a detachment which arrived too late to take part in the battle, he withdrew to Prospect Hill, where he began to fortify his position. The British made no effort to pursue him, but contented themselves with occupying Breed's and Bunker Hills. In this battle the Americans lost four hundred and fifty men, killed, wounded, and prisoners. The British, out of a force of less than three THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 443 thousand, lost one thousand and fifty-four, including eighty-three officers, thirteen of whom were killed. Among the killed was Major Pitcairn, who had ordered his men to fire on the patriots at Lexington. The victory was dearly bought by the British. In its moral effects the battle was worth as much to the Americans as a success. It taught them that undisciplined provincials could hold thtir ground against the king's regulars, and inspired them with a confidence in their own ability to maintain the struggle. They had held their ground against twice their number, and were driven from it only when their ammunition failed. General Gage was deeply impressed with this lesson, and made no attempt to assume the offensive. When the news of the battle reached England the ministers were greatly dissatisfied with their victory. Gage was recalled, and General Howe was appointed his successor. Washington, who had started on his journey to New England before the arrival of the news of the battle, was met on the way by the courier who bore the tidings to Congress. He hastened his journey and reached Cambridge on the 2d of July. The next day he formally assumed the command of the army. He was received with an enthusiasm which was most gratifying to him, and at once set to work to place the army in a proper condition for the service required of it. He was fully aware of the magnitude of the task he had undertaken, and his letters written at the time indicate a deep reliance upon God for assistance in discharging it. The army numbered about fourteen thousand men, and was without organization, without uniforms, poorly armed, and imperfectly clothed. It must be disciplined, supplied with arms and c~_. ' ig, and with ammunition. At the same time the enemy in Boston must be watched and kept in check. To make the army effective its force must be raised to twenty or twenty-five thousand men, and the petty jealousies which divided it must be removed. It was resolved to maintain the present position of the army before Boston, and to capture or drive out the British force in that city. Washington established his head-quarters at Cambridge, which was his 3e ntre, and was under the immediate command of General Putnam. The right wing, under General Ward, held Roxbury, and the left, under General Charles Lee, was at Prospect Hill. About this time the army was joined by a force of riflemen from Virginia, Maryland, and Penn- sylvania, under Daniel Morgan, who was destined to achieve distinction during the war. He was rough and uneducated, but was one of ths truest sons of America. He was never found wanting in any position :u which he was placed, and was a man upon whose devotion and integrity absolute reliance could be placed by his commanders. 44-i HISTORY OF THE UXITLD STATES. The winter was passed in the organization of the army. The want of ammunition prevented Washington from assuming the offensive, though he greatly desired to do so. It was necessary to observe the greatest care to prevent this state of affairs from becoming known to the British, and it the same time every effort was made to supply the deficiency. These? efforts were partially successful. It was proposed to attack Canada soon after the capture of the forts at i'iconderoga and Crown Point. This proposal met with little favor in Congress until it was known that the British were assembling a force of regulars, and enlisting the Indians in Canada, for the invasion of New York. Then, as a measure of self-defence, the proposed invasion of that country was sanctioned, and preparations for it were actively begun. Two expeditions were determined upon ; one by way of Lake Champlain, the other across the wilderness, by way of the Kennebec and Chaudiere rivers. The first was intrusted to General Philip Schuyler, who had been appointed by Washington to the command in New York ; and the latter to Colonel Arnold, who was in the camp at Cambridge, eager for some opportunity to distinguish himself. A force of New York and New England troops was assembled on Lake Champlain under Schuyler, who was ably seconded by Brigadier- General Richard Montgomery, who had served under Wolfe in the old French war. Schuyler moved down the lake to the Isle aux Noix in the Sorcl river, and occupied that island. In September he made an attempt to capture St. John's, but finding it much stronger than he had supposed, resumed his former position. Falling seriously ill soon after, he was oblige ^ withdraw to Albany, and relinquished the command to Montgomery. Reaching Albany he succeeded in securing supplies, ammunition, and reinforcements, and sent them to Montgomery. That energetic officer at once assumed the offensive, and captured St. John's, on the Sorcl river, on the 3d of November, after a spirited resistance, and in spite of the cfTorts of Sir Guy Carleton to relieve it. On the 13th of November Montgomery arrived before Montreal, which surrendered upon his first summons. This capture enabled the American commander io supply his men with woollen clothes, of which they were very much in need. Although it was the beginning of the winter, and his force was reduced to three hundred men, poorly clad, and lacking almost every kind of supplies, Montgomery set out without delay to join Arnold before Quebec. Arnold had left the camp at Cambridge in September with a force of eleven hundred men, including three companies of riflemen under Morgan. He was to ascend the Kennebec, and march across the wilder- THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 445 ness to Quebec, where lie was to unite his force with the army from New York. The march across the unbroken wilderness of Maine and Canada is one of the most memorable in history. It consumed two months of time, and was marked by intense suffering and unceasing and severe labor. The troops had to cut their way through an unbroken wildernes*, ford icy streams, climb mountains, and brave the rigors of the Canadian winter. Their provisions gave out, and they were reduced to the necessity of eating their dogs and chewing their moccasins. At length, on the 9th of November, Arnold with about six hundred and fifty effective men reached the St. Lawrence, at Point Levi. Could he have crossed over to Quebec at once, that city must have fallen into his hands; but he was unable to do so, as he had no boats ; and in a few days Sir Guy Carleton arrived from Montreal, which he had abandoned to Montgom- ery, and put the city in a state of defence. Elud- ing the two armed vessels which held the river, Arnold crossed his com- mand to the opposite side of the St. Lawrence, and climbing the cliffs by the path which Wolfe had ascended, occupied the Heights of Abraham, and endeavored to draw the garrison out of theii works to meet him. They declined his challenge, and finding it impossi- ble to besiege the city without artillery, he moved to a point twenty miles up the river, where he met Montgomery, from whom he obtained cloth- ing for his men, who had lost nearly all their clothes in their march through the wilderness. Montgomery now assumed the command of the united forces, which ARNOLD S MARCH TO QUEBEC. 446 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. numbered less than a thousand men, and on the 5th of December laid siege to Quebec. Having no materials for the proper construction of a battery, a novel expedient was adopted. Gabions were filled with ice and snow, over which water was poured. The cold soon froze this to a solid mass ; but, as the ice was brittle, it afforded no protection against the fire of the enemy's guns. The Americans soon found their artillery too light to make any impression upon the walls of the city, and as a last resort it was determined to attempt the capture of the place by an assault, which was ordered for the 31st of December. The attack was made with GENERAL RICHARD MONTGOMERY. spirit, but was unsuccessful. Montgomery was shot down while leading the attack on the lower town, and his column was driven back. Arnold was severely wounded in the assault upon the upper town, and the com- mand passed to Morgan, the next in rank. Morgan succeeded in carrying the two batteries which defended the entrance to Quebec, and in forcing his way into the town ; but being overpowered by numbers was compelled to surrender. He and his men were treated with especial kindness by Sir Guy Carleton in recognition of their bravery. The attack having proved a failure, Arnold, whose force had been reduced to THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 447 five hundred men, fell back to a position about three miles above Quebec, and held it all winter, hoping to receive such reinforcements as would enable him to take Quebec. In April, 1776, General "YVooster joined Arnold with reinforcements, and assuming the command, made another unsuccessful effort to capture Quebec. Wooster was soon recalled, and was succeeded by General Thomas. Sir Guy Car-leton, governor of Canada, was heavily reinforced, and Thomas was obliged to abandon the attempt on Quebec and retreat. His movement was so hasty that he left his baggage, artillery, and sick in Carletou's hands. The British commander, with a humanity rare among his countrymen during this struggle, treated the sick prisoners with great kindness. Thomas fell back as far as the Sorel, where he lied of the small-pox, which was making great ravages among the troops. Sir Guy Carleton continued to advance, and defeated a portion of the army under General Thompson at Three Rivers. Thompson and a number of his officers and men were made prisoners. The remainder secured their retreat and joined General Sullivan on the Sorel. The wreck of the army now fell back from Canada to Crown Point in a most miserable and disheartened condition. Thus ended the invasion of Canada, the most disastrous expedition attempted by the Americans during the war; yet still one the failures of which were greatiy offset by the heroic daring of the troops engaged. Carleton was able to occupy the entrances to Canada with a strong force, and to make any future attempt at invasion 'mpossible. While these events were transpiring in Canada, Virginia was also the scene of war. Towards the close of the year 1775 Lord Dunmorc, the royalist governor of Virginia, who had taken refuge on board a man-of- war, issued a proclamation offering freedom to the negro slaves and indentured white servants of the patriots who would join him in the servile war he meant to inaugurate. "With a force collected in thi? manner, he landed at Norfolk and took possession of the town. Fugitive slaves joined him in considerable numbers, and it seemed likely that he would be able to carry out his threat and scourge Virginia and North Carolina with a warfare of massacre and servile violence. Several regi- ments were raised in Virginia to drive him out of the province. The second of these, under Colonel Woodford, seized the narrow peninsula which connects Norfolk with the mainland, and on the 9th of December was attacked by Dunmore's forces, which were summarily defeated. ID revenge, Dunmore returned in January, 1776, and bombarded and burned Norfolk, then the largest and richest town and the principal shipping port of Virginia. 448 IIIS'IORY OF 2 HE UNITED STATES. On the 5th of September, 1775, the Continental Congress resumed its sessions. Delegates from Georgia appeared and were admitted to seats in the Congress, and the colonies assumed the style of the Thirteen United Colonies. Matters were not very encouraging when Congress met. The army was in need of everything that could contribute to its efficiency; and the New England coast was harassed with the armed vessels of Great Britain, which laid its towns under exaction, or subjected them to bombardment, and committed other gross outrages upon the inhabitants. On the 18th of October the town of Falmouth, now Portland, in Maine, was burned by Lieutenant Mowatt of the British navy. The other towns, warned by the fate of Falmouth, proceeded to fortify themselves, and escaped with nothing worse than an occasional engagement with some royal cruiser. Naval matters very largely occupied the attention of the whole country at this period. The only way in which the needed supplies could be obtained was by purchase abroad or the capture of the enemy's ships. Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina promptly established naval boards for the purpose of fitting out cruisers for this service; and among the first acts of Washington, after assuming the command of the army, was to send out armed vessels to the St. Lawrence and the New England O waters to seize the supply ships of the English on their way to Canada and Boston. A number of vessels were captured by these cruisers, and a considerable quantity of arms, ammunition, and other stores thus accumu- lated. Congress appointed a secret committee to import powder from the West Indies, and to erect mills in the interior for its manufacture, and foundries for casting cannon. Licenses were issued to privateers, and a naval committee was appointed to superintend the formation of a marine force for the defence of the harbors, and was charged with the building of thirteen frigates. In December a secret committee was appointed to open and conduct a correspondence with foreign nations, or with friends of the cause in Europe. Parliament, in the meantime, had not been idle, but had enacted stringent measures for the prosecution of the war and the punishment of the colonists. The measures adopted by the British government were cruel and barbarous. The Americans were to be treated as criminals and as deserving of death. They were made subject to the pains and penal- ties of treason if captured, and could in no case expect the treatment of prisoners of war. The crews of all vessels captured in trading to the colonies were condemned beforehand to serve in the marine corps of the royal navy. It was decided to increase the British army in America to forty tl'ousand men. Twenty-five thousand of these troops were to be THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 449 raised, and the effort to enlist men was begun in England, but without success. Recruits could not be found in sufficient numbers to repay the effort. The ministry could not hope for better success in Ireland, as they had been warned by General Howe that the Irish were strong sym- pathizers with the Americans and could not be relied upon to fight against them. In this emergency the government resolved to employ German troops for the subjugation of America, and negotiations were opened with Brunswick and Hesse Cassel, two petty German States. The result was that Great Britain hired seventeen thousand troops from these states for the conquest of the English-speaking people of America. These mercenaries were generally known as Hessians, and became the objects of the bitter hatred of the Americans a hatred which they fully earned by their subsequent cruelties towards the colonists. These measures were not adopted by the British government without opposition. There was a determined minority in England, consisting of such men as Burke, Barr6, and the Duke of Grafton, who manfully sought to obtain justice for the colonies up to the last moment at which a settlement was possible. The corporation of London and the mercantile interests of the country generally were opposed to the measures of the government, and sought to procure a just and peaceful settlement; but all efforts were in vain. The king and the ministry were resolved upon the subjugation of America j nothing else would satisfy them. 29 CHAPTER XXVII. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. The Sieg^e of Boston Difficulties of the American Array Activity of the Privateers Clinton's Expedition Colonel Knox arrives from Ticonderoga with Cannon Seizure of Dorchester Heights by Washington The British Evacuate Boston Royalist Plots in New York Paper Money Issued by Congress Gates sent to the North The British Attack Charleston Battle of Fort Moultrie The Howes in New York Bay Change in the Character of the War Growing Sentiment in Favor of Independence Virginia Proposes that the Colonies Assert their Independence Action of Congress The Decla- ration of Independence Articles of Confederation Adopted by Congress Lord Howe'8 Efforts at Conciliation Addresses a Letter to Washington Battle of Long Island Defeat of the Americans Retreat from Long Island Evacuation of New York by the Americans Loss of Fort Washington Washington Retreats through New Jersey He Crosses the Delaware Darkest Period of the War Washington's Determination to Continue the War Lord Howe's Proclamation Its Effect Congress at Baltimore Carleton Invades New York Defeats Arnold on Lake Champlain Carleton Retires into Canada Battle of Trenton Happy Effects of the Victory Congress confers Dic- tatorial Powers upon Washington Commissioners sent to France. HE winter of 1775-76 was passed by the army before Boston in inaction. There was not ammunition enough in the camp to enable Washington to attack Boston, and the British were well content to remain within their lines without seeking to raise the siege. Washington exerted himself to the utmost to obtain artillery and powder. Henry Knox, a bookseller of Boston, who had entered the military service of the colonies, had attracted the attention of the commander-in-chief by his skill in the use of artillery, and in plan- ning the works erected for the defence of the camp. Knox now proposed to go to Ticonderoga and bring away from that place and from Crown Point all the artillery and powder that could be spared, and his plan was at once approved by Washington, who urged Congress to commission him a colonel of artillery. At the same time he wrote to Schnyler, the com- mander in New York, to give Knox every assistance in his power in his effort to bring the artillery from Lake Champlain to Boston. Great dif- ficulties were experienced during the winter in inducing the troops to renew their enlistments. It required all the ingenuity and tact of which Washington was master to remove the prejudices and jealousies which had grown up in the camp since the commencement of the blockade of 450 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 451 Boston, and which threatened to disband the army. He succeeded in a greater degree than he had expected. At the opening of the year 1776 he had about ten thousand men in camp, many of whom were raw troops newly enlisted, and without arms. Still they were a more harmonious and contented force than the first army. Towards the close of 1775 the privateers made extensive captures from the British. Captain Manly,* of the schooner "Lee," captured a British brig, oiF Cape Ann, laden witl: arms, artillery, and military stores for the British army at Boston. These were sent at once to Washington, and proved of the greatest ser- vice. Among the captures was an immense mortar, which Putnam named the " Congress," and placed in position at Lech- mere Point, on the north of Boston. Matters were gloomy in- deed. The people were anx- ious that Boston should be attacked, but such a course was impossible. As late as the 10th of February, 1776, Washington wrote : " With- out men, without arms, with- out ammunition, little is to be done." To increase the dis- couragement of the patriots news came of the defeat of the attempt to conquer Can- ada. The British were col- lecting a fleet for a demon- stration against some point on the Atlantic coast, and as it was not certain where the blow would fall, a feeling of general uneasiness prevailed along the entire seaboard. This expedition sailed from Boston, under Sir Henry Clinton, about the 1st of February. Washington, who had for some time suspected that it was designed to capture New York, had already sent General Charles Lee to raise troops to occupy that important city, and hold it against the British. Lee executed his task with energy, and on the 4th ot February entered New York, and encamped in the suburbs, in what is now the City Hall Park. Governor Tryon, who had taken refuge on board a man-of-war, threatened to bombard the city if the American forces should enter it; but Lee informed him that the first shot fired at GENERAL HENRY KNOX. 452 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. New York would be the signal for the execution of the leading friends of the royal cause in that city. This decisive answer induced Tryon to delay his barbarous purpose. That afternoon Sir Henry Clinton, Avith his fleet, entered the harbor. Finding that he had come too late to secure the city, Clinton declared that he had merely called at the harbor to pay a visit to his friend Tryon, and in a few days he sailed away for North Carolina, where the royalist Governor Martin, who, like Tryon, had taken refnge on board a man-of-war, had been endeavoring to stir up an insurrection of the Tories, as the royalists were called. The command of this movement was to be assumed by Clinton. Martin also expected SIEGE OF BOSTON. to be reinforced by seven regiments and a fleet under Sir Peter Parker, which were on their Avay from Ireland. To gain time, and stir up the Tories to prompt action, he commissioned two retired officers of the British army, Scotchmen, named McDonald and McLeod, who had recently settled in North Carolina, to raise troops among the friends of the king in the interior. They succeeded in raising about fifteen hundred, men, and set off for the coast to join Martin. The patriots at once ral- lied in considerable force to oppose their march, and intercepted them at Moore's Creek Bridge, near Wilmington. On the 25th of February, a sharp engagement was fought here, which resulted in the defeat of the Tories, McLeod was killed, and McDonald was taken prisoner. Eighteen THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 453 hundred stand of arms, one hundred and fifty swords, two medicine- chests, and the sum of fifteen thousand pounds sterling, in gol' 1 , fell into the hands of the victors, and went far toward supplying their deficien- cies. The contemplated rising of the Tories was put down in the interior counties, and Martin, finding his hopes of raising troops in North Caro- lina destroyed, withdrew with Clinton to the Cape Fear to await the arrival of the fleet of Sir Peter Parker. In the meantime a Union flag had been provided for the army l>efore Boston, and was formally displayed for the first time in the American camp on the 1st of January, 1776. It retained the English cross in the upper left hand corner, in token of the relations still existing between the colonies and England ; and bore on its broad field thirteen stripes of alternate red and white, representing the thirteen colonies united for the defence of their liberties. Towards the close of February the stock of powder was con- siderably increased, and a little later Colonel Knox ar- rived from Ticon- deroga with the can- non and ammuni- tion from that post. He hind transported them on sledges across the long stretch of country between Lake Champlain and Boston, and had overcome difficulties in the accomplishment of this task which seemed at first insurmountable, The arrival of these guns gave Washington a fair simply of heavy ordnance, and put an end to the long delay which had prevailed in the American camp. The regular army had been increased to fourteen thousand men, and had been reinforced by six thousand militia from Massachusetts. All now was bustle and activity. The newly arrived cannon were mounted to command the city, and Washington was at length able to attempt the long-desired demonstration against the enemy in Bostrn. As early as December, 1775, Congress had urged him to undertake the cap- ture of Boston, and had authorized him to destroy the city if he could expel the British in no other way, and John Hancock, who was a lar^e property-owner, regardless of the fate of his possessions, had written to him: "Do it, and may God crown your attempt with success." All WASHINGTON WATCHING THE BRITISH EVACUATE BOSTON. 454 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. through the winter Washington had been held back from such an attempt by the advice of his council of war, which hesitated to assume the offen- sive with an insufficient supply of ammunition and artillery. Putnam had succeeded in fortifying the neighboring heights on the mainland, but had been obliged to do much of this work at night to avoid the fire of the enemy's shipping. The last obstacle to decisive action was now- removed. Washington resolved to seize the eminence on the south of Boston, known as Dorchester Heights. It commanded the town from that quarter, and also the shipping in the harbor. Its possession by tht Americans would force Sir William Howe either to evacuate the city or risk a general engagement for its recovery. On the evening of the 2d of March a heavy fire was opened upon th& British lines by the American batteries, and also upon Boston. A num- ber of houses were set on fire, and the attention of the British was fully occupied in extinguishing the flames. The bombardment was renewed the next night. At dark, on the evening of the 4th of March, the Americans renewed their fire with redoubled vigor, and were replied to with spirit by the British, and during the whole night the roar of cannon went on, covering the movements of the Americans from observation by the enemy. The force assigned for the seizure of Dorchester Heights was placed under the command of General Thomas, and in case the move- ment should be discovered, and the eremy should seek to dislodge this detachment from the heights, General Fuinam was ordered to cross Charles river, with a column of four thousand picked troops, and attack the city from that quarter. Under the cover of the heavy cannonade the column of General Thomas passed the narrow isthmus in safety, and reached the heights by eight o'clock, undiscovered by the enemy. They at once set to work, though the ground was frozen to a depth of more than eighteen inches, and by morning had thrown up a scries of earth- works which entirely commanded both the city and the harbor. General Howe was greatly astonished as he examined these works through his glass when the mists of the morning cleared away. "The rebels," he said, " have done more work in a night than my whole army would have done in a month." The British admiral declared that his ships could not remain in the harbor, as the possession of the heights by the Americans placed the fleet entirely at their mercy. It was evident to all the British commanders that the heights must be recovered, or the city abandoned ; and General Howe determined to storm the American works that night, and made preparations for an attack. This movement was prevented by a severe storm, which put a stop to the cooperation of the fleet, and when the storm had died away the works had been so greatly strengthened as THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 455 to render an assault hopeless. A council of war was held, and it was resolved to abandon the town. As such a step required some time, Howe secured the safety of his army by declaring that he would burn the town if his troops were fired on during their embarkation. A deputation of the citizens proceeded to the American camp and informed General Washington of Howe's determination, and in order to save the city from further suffering the British were allowed to depart in peace. They con- sumed eleven days in their embarkation. They embarked about fifteen hundred Tories with them, and after plundering a number of stores and private houses, and robbing the inhabitants of a considerable supply of provisions, they embarked on the 17th of March, and dropping down the MEDAI, STRUCK BY CONGRESS IN HONOR OF THE RECAPTURE OF BOSTON. bay anchored in Nantasket roads. They had scarcely left the city when the American army, under Washington, marched in and occupied the place. The long siege of ten months was at an end, and Boston was again free. The patriot army was received with enthusiasm, and matters soon began to resume their accustomed condition. By the capture of Boston the Americans obtained possession of two hundred and fifty pieces of artillery, four mortars, and a considerable quantity of ammunition, provisions, and clothing, which the British could not carry away. After the departure of the British fleet from Nantasket roads several transports with troops, not aware of the evacuation, entered the harbor, and were captured. Several storeships, laden with military supplies of all kinds, also arrived from England, and were captured in 456 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the same way. These captures were of the highest importance to the patriots. Their supply of ammunition was in this way increased more than sevenfold. The capture of Boston was justly esteemed the most important success of the war. It freed New England from the presence of the English, and enabled her to contribute men and money to the defence of the middle colonies. On motion of John Adams, Congress adopted a unanimous vote of thanks to Washington and the army, and ordered a gold medal to be struck in commemoration of the deliverance of Boston. The British fleet remained in Nantasket roads for several days after the evacuation of Boston, and then bore away for Halifax. Washington was fearful that its destination was New York, and leaving General Ward with five regiments to hold Boston, hastened southward with the main body of the army. He reached New York on the 13th of April, and set to work with vigor to put the city and its approaches in a state of de- fence. He soon discovered that the Tories in the city were in constant communication with Governor Tryon and the British ships in the harbor. Severe measures were at once adopted to stop this intercourse. A con- spiracy for the recovery of the city by Tryon was discovered, and his agents were found tampering with the American soldiers. One Thomas Hickey, a deserter from the British army, was hanged "for mutiny, sedition, and treachery," and this vigorous measure at once put a stop to the plots of the Tories. Congress, in February, 1776, found itself obliged to issue four millions of dollars of additional paper money in order to meet the expenses of the war, which were heavier than had been supposed. For the proper man- agement of the finances, an auditor-general and assistants were appointed to act under the financial committee of Congress, and it was not long be- fore this branch of the public service assumed the form of a treasury department. In April a war office was established by Congress under the supervision of a committee of its members. John Adams was made chairman of this committee, and resigned his post of chief-justice of Massachusetts to accept it. The retreat of Sullivan from Canada now became known, and the con- duct of that officer was approved by Congress, which passed a vote of thanks to him. At the same time it appointed Major- General Horatio Grates to the command of the army in his place. Gates was an English- man by birth, and had joined the colonial movement in the hope of winning honors and fame by his services. He had served in the British army during the colonial period, but had failed to receive the rewards he deemed himself entitled to, and had resigned his commission in disgust, THE DECLARATION 0& INDEPENDENCE. 457 and had come to America to reside a few years before the rupture with England. His experience and skill made him a valuable acquisition to the American army, but his ambition and jealousy were destined to cause it considerable trouble. Gates at once claimed that his command embraced not only the troops on Lake Champlain, but also the whole northern army under Schuyler. The matter was referred to Congress, and it was decided that Gates was independent of the control of Schuyler only while in Canada. Elsewhere he was subject to Schuyler's command. In the meantime Congress had sent General Charles Lee to the south to take command of the troops assembling to oppose Sir Henry Clinton, who was waiting off the mouth of the Cape Fear river lor the arrival of the fleet of Sir Peter Parker from Ireland. This fleet joined Clinton in May, and a little later Congress learned by means of intercepted letters that Charleston, in South Carolina, was the object of attack. The com- mand of the strong military force which the fleet brought was to be held by Sir Henry Clinton, to whom the general direction of the ex- pedition was intrust- ed. Lee hastened at once to Charleston. He found there a force of about six thousand men, from the Carolinas and Virginia ; but the city was not defended by a' single fortification. Had Clinton assailed it at once, it must have fallen into his hands, as he arrived in the harbor on the 4th of June, the very day that Lee reached the city ; but he delayed his attack until he could fortify his own position, and so gave Lee time to erect works for the defence of the city. The key to the American position was Fort Moultric, a small work built of palmetto logs, and situated on the southwest point of Sul- livan's island. It was commanded by Colonel William Moultric, whose name it bore. In front of it lay the British fleet under Sir Peter Parker.. Sir Henry Clinton had taken position with two thousand men on Long island, which was separated from Sullivan's island by only a narrow creek, and was building batteries to cover his passage of the creek. His plan was to allow the fleet to breach the walls of Fort Moultrie, and then to cross his troops to Sullivan's island under the cover of his batteries, ATTACK ON FORT MOULTRIE. 458 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and carry the fort by storm. Lee, who was ignorant of the capacity of the soft, spongy palmetto wood for resisting the force of cannon shot, re- garded the effort to hold Fort Moultrie as madness. He stationed a force under Colonel Thompson on Sullivan's island opposite Clinton to dispute his passage of the creek, and took position on the mainland with the rest of his force where he could support either Moultrie or Thompson, as might be necessary. On the 28th of June, the enemy's fleet opened fire on Fort Moultrie, which replied with spirit, and for ten hours the cannonade was main- tained with great vigor by both sides. The enemy's balls buried them- selves in the soft, spongy wood of the palmetto logs, and thus did little SERGEANT JASPER AT FORT MOULTRIE. injury to the fort; but the well-directed fire of the American guns inflicted great damage upon the fleet. The British were finally compelled to withdraw with heavy loss, and abandoned and set fire to one of their ships. During the engagement the flag of the fort was shot away, and fell outside of the walls. Sergeant Jasper, of the South Carolina forces, at once sprang over the wall, and amidst a heavy fire secured the flag tied it to a pole, and set it up again on the ramparts. This done, he re- joined his comrades at the guns. A few days later, Governor Rutledge presented Jasper with his own sword, and offered him a lieutenant's com- mission. Jasper accepted the sword, but declined the commission on the ground that he could neither read nor write. Clinton made repeated efforts to cross the creek and storm the fort THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 459 during the battle, but was as often driven back by the batteries under Thompson. At length, the fleet having withdrawn, he embarked his men, and soon after sailed for New York to join the troops ass*mbling ne:ir that city. Washington was correct in supposing that New York was the tru3 des- t. :->;i of Sir William Howe after leaving Nantasket roads. That com- iii i .: ier s.iiled first to Halifax, where he landed the civilians and other useless incumbrances he had been obliged to carry away from Boston. Then, refitting his command, he, awaited the arrival of his brother, Ad- miral Lord Howe, who was on his way from England with reinforce- ments. In the latter part of June he sailed from Halifax for New York, and arrived within Sandy Hook on the 28th of June, the very day of th attack on Fort Moultrie. He landed his forces on Staten island, where he was received with enthusiasm by the Tories. A little later he was joined by Sir Henry Clinton from Charleston, and about' the middle of July Lord Howe arrived with reinforcements, a large part of whom were Hessians, hired as we have stated by the king of England from the duke of Hesse Cassel, in Germany. Their arrival raised the strength of the British army in New York bay to 30,000 men. Their attack upon the city was merely a question of time, and under the most favorable circum- stances it was scarcely to be hoped that Washington would succeed in maintaining his hold upon New York. In the meantime an event of the highest importance had changed the whole character of the war as re- garded the Americans. The colonists had taken up arms to resist the aggressions of the king and government of Great Britain upon their liberties, and to compel the mother country to respect the rights guaranteed to them by their charters and by the British constitution. Thus far the war had been waged for these ends. At the outset of the struggle a few far-seeing persons, such as Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry, had been convinced that an appeal to arms would render' the final separation of the colonies from England inevitable, and that such an issue was but the fulfilment of the destiny of their country, and as such to be desired. The great majority of the people, however, neither thought of nor Avished for independence. They Avould have been satisfied to secure their liberties and privileges as Eng- lish subjects, and would gladly have continued loyal to the king. The events of the war had made it plain to the most skeptical that England did not intend to do justice to her colonies. Neither the king, the minis- try, nor Parliament were disposed to swerve from their purpose of re- ducing America to absolute submission to their will. They were deter* mined that the colonists should bear every burden of British citizenship, 460 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and enjoy none of its privileges save what they should sec fit to allow them. Americans were not to enjoy either liberty or property as lawful rights, but both these possessions were to be held by them at the pleasure INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA, IN 1877. of Great Britain. This determination was so clear that none could mis- take it. Since the commencement of the struggle public opinion in America had undergone a great change, and the party in favor of a tota* and final separation from the mother country had increased so rapidly THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 461 that it now embraced the great majority of the American people. Now that they had become convinced that they could maintain their liberties only by a total and unqualified separation frOm Great Britain, they did *aot hesitate to choose that course. Their choice was made without re- gret. At the commencement of the war a very genuine attachment bound the people of the colonies to England ; but the course of the royal govern- ment and the severities of the British commanders in the northern colo- nies, and the outrages of the royal governors in the south, had entirely alienated the people from their love for England. Still there were many Tories, or friends of the king, in America, and they were active and bitter in their opposition to the patriots. From the INTERIOR OF IKDEPiJTDENCE HALI* first the Americans regarded the Tories with a feeling of hatred which increased as the struggle went on, and this feeling was soon extended to all who fought under the royal flag or sought to uphold its causf. Not only had the people been gradually coming to view independence as desirable and indispensable; the exercise by Congress of the functions of a supreme government had accustomed them to it, and had shown them their capacity for conducting a general government for the whole country. Early in March, 1776, Congress granted letters of marque and reprisal against British commerce, and somewhat later sent Silas Deane as its commissioner to France to seek assistance from that country. In May it had formally recommended the colonies to disregard the royal govern- ments and adopt systems suited to their needs, and in harmony with the 462 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. changed state of affairs. To all men it was evident that a formal renun- ciation of allegiance to Great Britain and the assertion of their independ- ence by the colonies was merely a question of time. It was, therefore, a surprise to no one when the first definite action looking towards independence was taken. On the 15th of May, 1776, the general assembly of Virginia instructed the delegates of that colony in Congress to offer a resolution in favor of the separation of the colonies from England, and the formal declaration of their independence. On the 30th of May Massachusetts instructed her delegates to support this reso- lution. On the 7th of June Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, o.Tered a resolution in Congress, "that the united colonies are, and ought to be, free and independent states, and that their political connection with Great Britain is, and ought to be, dissolved." The resolution was seconded by John Adams, of Massachusetts, and was debated with great earnestness. It was adopted by a bare majority of one seven colonies voting for it, and six against it. In accordance with the resolution, a committee was appointed to draw up a declaration of independence, and, in order that the delegates might have an opportunity to ascertain the wishes of their constituents, the consideration of the subject was postponed until the 1st of July. Two other committees were also appointed. One of these was charged with the preparation of a plan for uniting the colonies in a single government; the other was to report a plan for securing alliances with foreign nations. The committee charged wiJi the preparation of a decla- ration of independence consisted of Benjamin Franklin, John A.iams, Thomas Jefferson, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston. On the 28th of June the committee reported the declaration to Con- gress. It was written by Thomas JefTorson, and with a few verbal altera- tions was adopted by the committee as it came from his hand. It reviewed in a clear and comprehensive manner the causes which had impelled the colonies to take up arms for the defence of their liberties, and which now induced them to sever the tics that bound them to Great Britain. The declaration concluded in these memorable words : " Y.'e, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of all the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of r the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Groat Britain is, and ought to be, dissolved ; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alii- MABTHA WASHINGTON. 464 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And for the support of this declara- tion, with a firm reliance on the protection of a Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor." , The declaration was debated in Congress, and a few passages, which it was feared might offend the friends of the colonies in Great Britain, were stricken out. The vote was then taken by colonies, and though some of the delegates voted against it, the declaration received the votes of all the colonies with the exception of New York, which accepted it a few days later. On the 4th day of July 1776, the Declaration of Independence was formally adopted by Congress, and was ordered to be published to the world, and to ba read at the head of the regiments of the army. Congress was in session in the hall of the state house in Philadelphia. In the spire of this venerable build- ing hung a bell, inscribed with the words of Scripture : " Proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof." On the morning of the 4th of July vast crowds assembled around the build- ing, as it was known that Congress would on that day take definite ac- tion upon the declaration. The bell-ringer stationed himself in the tower ready to proclaim the good OLD BELL OF INDEPENDENCE HALL. news the moment it should be an- nounced to him, and had posted his little son at the door of the hall to await the signal of the door-keeper. When the announcement of tne vote was made, the door-keeper gave the signal and the boy ran quickly to the tower. The old man heard him coming, and clutched the bell-rope with a firm grasp. The next instant the glad cry of the boy's voice was heard. " Ring ! ring ! " he cried ; and then the deep, sonorous tones of the bell went rolling out of the to\\ tr, and were answered with a mighty shout from the assembled throng with- out. The declaration was received by all the states and by the army with enthusiasm. Thus the thirteen united colonies became the thirteen United States. It should not be forgotten that the declaration did not make the THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 465 colonies independent states, or states in any sense. It was simply their announcement to the world that they had, each for itself, by the exercise of its own sovereign power, assumed the independence which rightfully belonged to it. The Declaration of Independence put an end to all the hopes that had been cherished of an accommodation with Great Britain, and caused those who were still wavering to embrace the cause of their country. It re- lieved Congress of the disadvantage under which it had hitherto acted, and enabled it to pursue a more vigorous and decisive policy in the prosecution of the war. There was no retreat now ; nothing remained but to continue the struggle until Great Britain should be compelled to acknowledge the independence of the states, or they should be reduced to the condition of conquered provinces. On the 12th of July the committee appointed to prepare a plan for the union . of the States re- ported one, which is thus summed up : "1st. The style of the confederacy was to be ' The United States of America.' "2d. Each State retained its sovereignty, freedom, and independence and every power and right which is not expressly delegated to the United States. " 3d. The object of the confederation was for their mutual defence, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, bind- ing themselves to assist each other against all force offered to or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever. " 4th. In determining all questions in Congress each State was to have one vote. " 5th. Each State was to maintain its own delegates. "6th. The free inhabitants of each State, paupers, vagabonds, an& fugitives from justice excepted, were to be entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States. " 7th. All fugitives from justice from one State into another were to be delivered up on demand. 30 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE PROCLAIMED IN PHILADELPHIA. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. " Sth. Full faith and credit were to be given to the records of each State in all the others. " 9th. Congress was to grant no title of nobility. " 10th. No person holding any office was to receive a present from a foreign power. " llth. No State was to form any agreement or alliance with a foreign power without the consent of the States in Congress assembled. "12th. No two or more States were to form any alliance between themselves without the like consent of the States in Congress assembled. " 13th. No State, without the like consent of Congress, was to keep war ships or an army in time of peace ; but each was to keep a well- organized frnd disciplined militia, with munitions of war. " 14th. No State was to lay any duty upon foreign imports which would interfere with any treaty made by Congress. " 15th. No State was to issue letters of marque, or to engage in war, without the consent of the Congress, unless actually invaded or menaced with invasion. " 16th. When Federal land forces were raised, each State was to raise the quota required by Congress, arm and equip them at the expense of all the States, and to appoint all officers of and under the rank of colonel. " 17th. Each State was to levy and raise the quota of tax required by Congress for Federal purposes. " 18th. The faith of all the States was pledged to pay all the bills of credit emitted, or money borrowed on their joint account, by the Congress. " 19th. It was agreed and covenanted that Canada might accede to the union so formed if she chose to do so. " 20th (and lastly). Each State was to abide by the determination of all the States in Congress assembled, on all questions which, by the confederation, were submitted to them. The Articles of Confederation were to be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union was to be perpetual. No article of the confederation was to be altered without the consent of every State. " The delegations of power by each of the States to all the States ; in general Congress assembled, upon a like analysis, may be stated as follows : " 1st. The sole and exclusive power to determine on war and peace, escept in case a State should be invaded or menaced with invasion. " 2d. To send and receive ambassadors. " 3d. To make treaties, with a proviso, etc. . THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 467 " 4th. To establish rules for captures. " 5th. To grant letters of marque and reprisal. " 6th. To appoint courts for trial of piracies and other crimes specified. " 7th. To decide questions of dispute between two or more States, in a prescribed manner. " 8th. The sole and exclusive power to coin money and regulate the value. " 9th. To fix a standard of weights and measures. " 10th. To regulate trade with the Indian tribes. " llth. To establish post-offices. " 12th. To appoint all officers of the militia land forces, when called out by Congress, except regimental. " 13th. To appoint all officers of the Federal naval forces, " 14th. To make rules and regulations for the government of land and naval forces. " 15th. To appropriate and apply public money for public expenses, the common defence, and general welfare. " 16th. To borrow money and emit bills of credit. " 17th. To build and equip a navy. " 18th. To agree upon the number of land forces, and make requisi-. tions upon the States for their quotas, in proportion to the value of all land within each State. " The foregoing powers were delegated with this limitation : The war power, the treaty power, the power to coin money, the power to regulate the value thereof, the power of fixing the quotas of money to be raised by the States, the power to emit bills of credit, the power to borrow money, the power to appropriate money, the power to regulate the number of land and naval forces, and the power to appoint a commander-in-chief of the army as well as the navy, were never to be exercised unless nine of the States were assenting to the same. " These articles form the original basis and first Constitution of the existing Federal Union of the United States of America." * These Articles of Confederation were adopted, after discussion, by Con- gress, voting by States, and were then submitted to the several States for ratification by them. In the meantime Congress continued to exercise the powers conferred by them. By the early part of 1777 all the States save Maryland had ratified and adopted the articles. That State did not give her full assent to them until 1781. * Hon. Alexander H. Stephens. 458 HISTORY OF THti UNITED STATES, Lord Howe arrived in New York bay about the middle of July, as has been stated. He was vested with full powers by the king to settle the quarrel between America and England if the Americans would agree to submit unconditionally to the king. Failing to accomplish a settlement) he and his brother, Sir William Howe, were charged with the supreme conduct of the war. Lord Howe was a man of amiable disposition, and really desired peace; but as he was fully convinced of the justice of the royal pretensions, he could not understand or appreciate the claims or grievances of the Americans. Moreover, he had come too late. The American people meant that their separation from Great Britain should be final. Lord Howe was greatly deceived upon his arrival as to the actual state of feeling in America. He was received with loyal ad- dresses by the Tories of Long and Staten islands and the New Jersey shore, and was assured by Governor Tryon that the country was full of friends of the king who might be induced to join him if properly supported. Lord Howe, therefore, resolved to attempt a peaceful settlement before proceeding to hostilities ; and issued a circular addressed to the people of America, offering them the royal pardon if they would cease their rebellion, lay down their arms, and trust to the clemency of the king. Congress gave to this circular the widest publicity, by causing it to be published in every newspaper in the Union, in order that the people might see that the only settlement that would be accepted by England was their voluntary and absolute submission to her arbitrary will. " They must fight or be slaves." About the same time Lord Howe addressed a letter to the American commander-in-chief, styling him George Washington, Esquire. No notice of this communication was taken by Washington, and Howe sent him another letter addressed to George Washington, etc., etc. Washington, rightly considering that the omission of his official title was an insult to his country, refused to receive the letter. Adjutant-General Patterson, of Lord Howe's staff, who bore the communication, expressed his regret that the letter could not be opened. Lord Howe, he said, came vested with great powers, and was sincerely anxious for peace. Washington, who had received him with kindly courtesy, replied that he was aware that Lord Howe was intrusted with the power to grant pardons, but that as the Americans were engaged in the defence of their rights, and hud tommitted no crime, they had no need of pardon, and his lordship's good intentions could not be of service to them. It was now plain to Lord Howe that he had been deceived by Tryon THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 46? and his friends, and that nothing could be accomplished save by force of arms. His circular had produced no effect, and he could detect no sign of wavering on the part of the Americans. It had been evident for some time that the next effort of the British would be to get possession of the city of New York. Their fleet already held the harbor, and should they succeed in securing the Hudson they would be able to establish a direct communication with Canada, and to isolate New England and New York from the Middle States and the South. Reinforcements were sent to Washington from Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and Delaware. These gave the American com- mander a force of about twenty-five thousand men ; but scarcely seven- teen thousand were fit for duty ; the remainder being disabled by sick- ness. Washington erected two forts on Manhattan island, one just above Kingsbridge, named Fort Washington, and the other just below it, named Fort Independence. Kingsbridge furnished the only communication between the island of Manhattan and the mainland, and these forts were erected for its defence, as well as to hold the enemy's vessels in check should they attempt to ascend the Hudson. On the New Jersey side of the river, opposite Fort Washington, a third work was erected, and named Fort Lee. Other forts were built higher up the Hudson to hold the river against the enemy and maintain the communication between the Northern and Southern States. One of these, called Fort Montgomery, was located at the entrance to the Highlands, opposite the promontory oi Anthony's Nose ; another was built six miles higher up the river, and was known, as Fort Constitution. For the defence of the heights of Brooklyn, which commanded the city of New York, Washington caused a line of works to be erected on a range of hills a short distance south of Brooklyn, and established there an intrenched camp. General Nathaniel Greene was placed in command of this position, and exerted himself with vigor to strengthen it. When he had matured his plans he was suddenly taken ill, and was obliged to relinquish the command to General Sullivai.. The British fleet lay in Gravcsend bay, just without the Narrows, and Washington was for a while uncertain whether they would make their first attempt against the force on Long island, or attack the city of New York. It soon became evident that the capture of the lines on Long island would be their first care, and Sullivan was reinforced with six battalions, all that could be spared from New York, and on the 24th of August General Putnam was placed in command of the forces on Long island. On the night of the 26th of August the British crossed over from 470 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Staten island to Long island, and prepared to give battle. Their plan was to engage the attention of the Americans by a direct attack with two divisions, while Sir Henry Clinton, with a third division, was to turn the left flank of the Americans and gain their rear. They hoped, if these movements were successful, to surround and capture the entire force under Putnam. Clinton began his march about nine o'clock on the night of the 26th, guided by a Long island Tory. About daylight, on the morn- ing of the 27th of August, the enemy made their attack upon the front of the American posi- tion, and engaged their attention in this direction, while Clinton, by a rapid march, gained their rear. For a while the Americans fought well, but find- ing themselves al- most surrounded, and in danger of being captured, they abandoned the field and retreated within the intrenchmeuts at Brooklyn. The Hessian troops be- haved with great barbarity during the engagement, and a number of the Americans were cruelly and wan- tonly bayoneted by them. A part of the engagement was fought in the beautiful region now occupied by Greenwood cemetery. Washington hastened to Brooklyn as soon as informed of the battle, and arrived just in time to witness the defeat of his troops. He was powerless to repair the disaster, and could only look on in helpless agony. " My God ! " he exclaimed, with tears : " What brave fellows I must lose this day!" The American loss was very severe in this battle. Out of a force of five thousand men engaged they lost two thousand men, a large num- GEXERAL JOHN SULLIVAN. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 471 ber of whom were prisoners. The British had sixteen thousand men engaged, and lost four hundred. Had they followed up their victory by an immediate assault upon the American intrenehments they must have carried them ; but General Howe believed that Washington had a much stronger force for their defence than was the case, and encamped in front of the intrenehments, intending to begin operations against them the next day. The 28th, however, was a day of drenching rain, and the enemy were unable to do more than break ground. for a battery. On the 29th a dense fog hung over the island ; but it lifted for a moment, aud enabled the Americans to detect an unusual commotion among the THE RETREAT FROM LONG ISLAND. British shipping. It seemed plain that the enemy were preparing to enter the East river with their fleet, and so separate the force on Long island from that in New York. Washington at once summoned- a council of war, and it was decided to retreat from Long island without delay. It was a hazardous attempt, for the army under General Howe was so close to the American lines that the conversations of the men could be heard, and the British fleet might at any moment seize the East river. To withdraw a force of nine thousand men across a wide; deep river, in the face of such an army and fleet, was a task which required the greatest skill. It was successfully accomplished, however. Every 472 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. boat in and around New York and Brooklyn was impressed, and though the orders for the retreat were not issued until noon on the 29th, every* thing was in readiness for the retreat by eight o'clock that evening. At midnight the troops took up their silent march from the intrenched line x x> the ferry, where the boats, manned by Glover's regiment, which was oom posed of fishermen from Marblehead, awaited them. By eight o'clock the next morning the entire army, with all its cattle, horses, and wagons, was safe upon the New York side of the river. Howe was greatly mortified at the escape of the American army, for he had regarded it as a sure prize, and prepared, with the aid of his ships, to seize the upper part of Manhattan island, and confine the Ameri- cans to the city of New York, where their surrender would be inevitable. Before proceeding to the execution of this plan he resolved to make another effort to induce the Americans to abandon their cause, as he rightly believed their defeat on Long island would be followed by a season of great depression. A few days after the retreat he released General Sul- livan, who had been taken prisoner in the battle, on parole, and sent a letter by him to Congress, asking that body to send an informal com- mittee, whom he would receive as private gentlemen, to confer with him on so/tie measure of reconciliation. Congress, willing to hear what he had to propose, sent Dr. Franklin, John Adams, and Edward Rutledge to confer with him. They met Lord Howe at a house on Staten island, opposite Amboy. The only terms his lordship had to propose were the unconditional submission of the Americans to the royal mercy. He was informed that the Americans would consent to treat with Great Britain only as "a free and independent nation," and that it was useless to pro- pose any other basis for a settlement. Lord Howe thereupon expressed his regret that he should be obliged to distress the Americans. Dr. Franklin thanked him for his good feeling, and remarked : " The Ameri- cans will endeavor to lessen the pain you may feel by taking good care of themselves." The report of the interview was made public by Con- gress, and had a happy effect. It convinced all classes that England had no terms to offer them but such as embraced a shameful surrender cf their liberties. Fearful that Howe would seek to shut him up in New York, Wash- ington left a force within the city to hold it, and encamped with the main body of his army on Harlem Heights, at the northern er.d of the island, from which he could secure his retreat into Westchestcr county. The army was reduced to less than twenty thousand men, and was dis- heartened by the defeat on Long island. It was seriously debated whether New York should be defended or not ; and it was proposed to THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 473 burn the city to the ground, in order to prevent the enemy from securing comfortable winter-quarters in it. Congress ordered that the city should not be destroyed, but it was evident that it could not be held. Washington was anxious to learn the intentions of the enemy, who still remained on Long island, and Captain Nathan Hale, a talented young officer of the Connecticut line, volunteered to enter their lines and procure the desired information. He proceeded to the British camp, obtained the information wanted, and was returning in safety when he was arrested by a party of the enemy, among whom was a Tory relative, who recognized him. He was taken to Howe's head-quarters, and the next morning, September 22d, without any form of trial, was hanged as a spy. He met his death with firmness, saying : " I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country." In the meantime the British had seized the islands at the mouth of the Harlem river, and had erected a battery on one of them. On the 15th of September they crossed in force to Manhattan island, at Kipp's bay, about three miles above the city. They easily drove back the force stationed there to resist their landing, and secured their position. AVash- ington at once sent General Heath to hold the enemy in check, and ordered Putnam to evacuate the city of New York, and retire to Harlem Heights, without the loss of a moment. Putnam obeyed his orders promptly, and retreated from the city along the line of the Bloomingdale road, now the upper part of Broadway. His march was retarded by a crowd of women and children fleeing from the city, and was exposed to the fire of the enemy's ships in the Hudson. By great exertions he man- aged to save his command, but was obliged to leave his heavy artillery and three hundred men in the hands of the enemy. The British at once took possession of New York, and threw up a line of intrenchments above the city, from the Hudson, at Bloomingdale, to the East river, at Kipp's bay. The Americans now held the upper part of the island, and erected a double line of earthworks from river to river, about four miles below Kingsbridge. ' On the 16th of September the enemy made an attack upon the Ameri- can advanced posts, but were handsomely repulsed by the Virginia and Connecticut troops. Major Leitch, the commander of the Virginians, and Colonel Knowlton, the commander of the Connecticut regiment, and one of the captains at Bunker Hill, were killed. In spite of these losses the spirits of the troops, which had been much depressed by the recent disasters, were greatly cheered. A lull of several weeks followed, during which the Americans suffered greatly from sickness. They were without proper hospital accommoda- 474 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. tions, " and they lay about in almost every barn, stable, shed, and even under the fences and bushes." Howe now began to move his army towards Long island sound, for the purpose of marching across the mainland to the Hudson, and cutting off the retreat of Washington from Manhattan island ; and at the same time sent his fleet up the Hudson. His intention was understood by Washington, who left three thousand men to defend Fort Washington, and with the main body of his army fell back to the line of the Bronx, near the village of White Plains. Here he was attacked, on the 28th of October, by General Howe, who was advancing from the direction of New Rochelle, and who was still hopefu) of gaining the American rear. A spirited encounter ensued, in which each party lost about four hundred men ; and the British intrenched themselves in front of the American position. Apprehensive of an effort on the part of the enemy to storm his line, Washington caused the troops to spend the night in strengthening the rude works which covered it. They labored with such diligence that the next morning the British commander decided that the line was too strong to be attacked, and determined to wait for reinforcements. That night Washington silently abandoned his lines at White Plains, and withdrew to the heights of North Castle, five miles distant. Howe, unwilling to follow him further, marched to Dobb's ferry, on the Hudson, and encamped.. This movement of the British commander caused Washington to fear that he meant to cross over into New Jersey. He accordingly made a new disposition of his forces to meet any emergency. General Charles Lee, who had recently returned from the South, was left at North Castle with a portion of the army to watch Howe ; Heath, with another portion, was ordered to occupy Peekskill to defend the passes of the Highlands; and Putnam was stationed, with a third detachment, on the west side of the Hudson to hold that region. With the remainder of his troops Washington crossed the Hudson and joined General Greene at Fort Lee, arriving there on the 13th of November. A force of three thousand Pennsylvania troops had been left to hold Fort Washington, on Manhat- tan island. Washington was in favor of withdrawing them at once, but left the matter to the decision of General Greene and Colonel Magaw, the commander of the fort, who determined to hold it. The result proved their error. Fort Washington was attacked on the 16th of November by a force of five thousand Hessians and some English troops, under General Knyphausen, and was taken by storm. The enemy lost nearly one thousand men, and took over two thousand prisoners. Washington THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 475 witnessed the capture from Fort Lee without the ability to aid the garrison. Fort Washington having fallen, Fort Lee was no longer of service, and the commander-in-chief resolved to abandon it before it was too late. The removal of the stores was at once begun, but before it could be com- pleted Lord Cornwallis, with a force of six thousand men, crossed the Hudson below Dobb's ferry, and by a rapid march across the country endeavored to confine the Americans to the strip of land between the Hudson and the Hackcnsack. An immediate retreat from Fort Lee became necessary, in order to secure the bridge over the Hackensack. All the heavy cannon at Fort Lee, a considerable quantity of provisions and military stores, and three hundred tents were abandoned, and fell into the hands of the British. The passage of the Hackensack was secured, and the army began its memorable retreat across. New Jer- sey, closely followed by the enemy, under Cornwallis. From the Hacken- sack Washington fell back behind the Pas- saic, at Newark. As his rear-guard passed out of the town the advance of Cornwallis entered Newark. Ine RETREAT OF WASHINGTON ACROSS NEW JERSEY. Raritan was crossed at New Brunswick, and Washington left a force of twelve hundred men at Princeton, under Lord Stirling, and pushed on to Trenton to secure the passage of the Delaware. The British hung closely upon him during the whole retreat, the opposing forces being often within cannon-shot of each other. On the 8th of December, with scarcely three thousand men, Washington crossed the De' iware at Trenton, and went into cp.mp in Pennsylvania. The enemy reached the river soon after, but, as, all the boats had been secured by the Americans, were unable to cross o- v er. Lord Cornwallis was very anxious to procure boats, cross the river, and push on to Philadelphia, but Howe decided to wait until the river should be frozen, and to pass it on the ice. In the meantime, the Hessians were stationed in Trenton, and guarded the river for some distance above and below the town. 476 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The American war had now entered its darkest period for the Ameri- cans. New York was lost to them, they had been driven from New Jersey, and their army seemed melting away. During the painful retreat across New Jersey, Washington had exerted himself to the utmost to call in the other detachments of his army. General Schtiyler was directed to send him the Pennsylvania and New Jersey troops in his command; but the enlistments of these troops were rapidly expiring, and they could not be induced to renew them. General Charles Lee was ordered to cross the Hudson and join the commander-in-chief with all speed, but he moved with a slowness and care- lessness that were criminal. Pic re- mained about a fortnight on the east side of the Hudson, and then began his march with such slow- ness that he did Jppnot reach Morris- town until the 8th of December. On the 13th, while lying carelessly apart from his troops, at a small inn at Bask ing- ridge, he was cap- tured by a troop of British cavalry. The command passed to General Sullivan, and in a few days he had united his forces with those of the commander-in-chief. General Lee had an abiding confidence in his own ability, and was reluctant to lose his independent 'command by joining Washington. His natural self-conceit had been ' greatly increased by his success at the South, and he was firmly convinced that he alone was capable of guiding the American cause through the difficulties which encompassed it. Influenced by this feeling he disre- garded the authority of the commander-in-chief, and subjected him to great inconvenience. He was not untrue to the cause he had embraced, GENERAL CHARLES LEE. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 477 but liis patriotism was of a different type from that which animated Washington. The enlistments of a large part of the troops expired on the 1st of December, and nothing could induce them to remain in the army. Whole regiments abandoned the service, and the handful of reinforce- ments which was obtained from Philadelphia fell far short of supplying their place. The people were disheartened, and it seemed that the cause was hopeless. A force of six thousand militia was raised in Massachu- setts and Connecticut, and was on the point of marching to Washington's assistance, when the fleet of Sir Peter Parker entered Newport harbor, and landed a force on the island of Rhode Island, which took possession of Newport. In view of this invasion it was deemed best to retain the New England militia at home. Washington was fully alive to the danger which threatened the cause; but he was calm and cheerful. During the retreat through New Jersey he said to Colonel Reed : " Should we retreat to the back parts of Penn- sylvania, will the Pennsylvanians support us?" "If the lower counties are subdued, and give up," said the colonel, "the back counties will do the same." Washington passed his hand over his throat, and said, with a smile : " My neck does not feel as though it was made for a halter. We must retire to Augusta county, in Virginia. Numbers will be obliged to repair to us for safety; and we must try what we can do in carrying on a predatory war ; and if overpowered we must cross the Allegheny mountains." At this juncture of affairs Lord and General Howe issued a proclama- tion, by virtue of their authority as commissioners appointed by the crown for the settlement of the war, in which all persons in America in arms against his majesty's government were ordered to disperse and return to their homes, and all civil officers were commanded to discon- tinue their treasonable practices, and relinquish their usurped authority. A full and free pardon was offered to every one who would, within sixty days, appear before certain designated officials, claim the pardon offered, and take an oath pledging him to obey the laws, and submit to the authority of the king. Large numbers of persons, most of whom were possessed of property which they desired to save, at once came forward, made their submission, and took the required oath. Some of these were men who had borne a prominent part in the patriot movement ; among them were two delegates from Pennsylvania to the Continental Congress, and the president of the New Jersey convention, which had ratified the Declaration of Independence. Withirf ten days after the proclamation was issued between two and three thousand persons submitted, and swore 478 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. allegiance to the king. In Philadelphia great excitement prevailed, and General Putnam, who was in command there, feeling that there was danger that the royalists in the city might succeed in obtaining control of it, advised that, until matters were placed on a more certain footing, Con- gress should hold its sessions at some safer place. Accordingly it adjourned on the 12th of December to meet in Baltimore. The only quarter in which the Americans had been able to oppose any- thing of a successful resistance to the British was the region of Lake Champlain. AVe have related the retreat of Sullivan and Arnold from Canada, and the appointment of Gates to the command of their forces. The army halted at Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point, which it strengthened, and awaited the development of the plans of Sir Guy Carleton, the British commander in Canada. That officer had determined to secure the control of Lakes Champlam and George, and then to push on to the Hudson, open communication with the Howes at New York, and spend the winter at Albany. He would thus entirely sever the communication between New England and New York, and the Middle and Southern States. Sullivan had wisely destroyed all the boats on Lake Champlain which he did not need for his own purposes, and as there was no road along the shore by which he could advance, Carleton was obliged to construct a fleet before he could attempt to ascend the lake. He exerted himself with such energy that in three months he had a fleet of five large and twenty small vessels, and a number of armed boats assembled at the foot of the lake. Gates was informed of Carleton's design, and ordered Arnold, who was possessed of some nautical knowledge, to construct a flotilla and take command of it for the purpose of contesting Carleton's effort to ascend the lake. Arnold set to work with enthusiasm, and soon had a force of ves- sels afloat about half as strong as that of the enemy. He chose a favor- able position, and awaited Carleton's approach. A sharp encounter occurred between the opposing forces early in October near Valcour island, but was indecisive, and at nightfall Carleton took position to cut oif Arnold's retreat. The night was dark and cloudy, and taking advan- tage of it, Arnold passed the enemy, and sailed for Crown Point. His vessels were in bad condition, however, and two were sunk on the voyage. Only six succeeded in coming within sight of Crown Point, near which they were overtaken by Carleton on the 6th of October. Arnold made a gallant fight with his remaining vessels. One was taken with her crew, and Arnold's flag-ship, the " Congress," was cut to pieces, and half of her crew were slain. Resolved not to surrender, Arnold ordered the vessels to be run aground, and set them on fire. He and his men then THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 479 waded ashore, and by a sharp fire from their rifles kept the enemy from the burning galleys until they were entirely consumed. The Americans then hastened to Crown Point, where they set fire to the fort and the stores, and continued their retreat to Ticonderoga. Grates great Iv strengthened the defences of this post, and when Carleton arrived before it, he found it too strong to be attacked. He therefore abandoned his attempt to reach the Hudson, and returned to Canada. A few weeks later, feeling that the lake country was safe for the winter, Gates, in obedience to orders from Washington, sent him part of his force, and shortly afterwards marched with the remainder cf his troops to the assistance of the commander-in-chief. Including these troops, Washington's force now numbered about six thousand men fit for duty. The enlistments of many of them would expire on the last day of December, and it was of the highest importance that some- thing should be done to revive the confidence of the country before these men should be lost to the army. The circumstances in which Washington was placed required a blow to be struck in some quarter. A victory would be productive of the most important moral results ; a defeat could do no more than ruin the cause, and a policy of inaction was sure to accomplish that. An opportunity at once presented itself. The British had ceased then pursuit, and though they held New Jersey in strong force, had scattered their detachments through the State. General Howe was in New York, and Lord Cornwallis was at the same place, and was about to sail for England. Both commanders believed the American army to be too seriously crippled to assume the offensive during the winter. The Hes- sians, who constituted the advance-guard of the royal forces, were sta- tioned along the Delaware. Colonel Donop had his head-quarters at Burlington, and Colonel Rahl was at Trenton with a force of fifteen hundred men. Rahl was a brave and competent officer, but he enter- tained such a thorough contempt for the Americans that he neglected to protect his position by earthworks or other defences. The Hessians kept the country in terror; they were inveterate thieves, and plundered both patriot and royalist without mercy. They had earned the deep and abiding hatred of the American soldiers by bayoneting the wounded in the battles in which they had been engaged. Washington now determined to recross the Delaware and attack the Hes- sians at different points. A force of twenty-four hundred picked troops under his own command was to cross the river a few miles above Trenton and attack the enemy at that place ; and at the same time another detachment under Heed and Cad'.vallader were to cross over from Bristol and drive 480 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the Hessians under Colonel Donop out of Burlington. These attacks were to be simultaneous, and were ordered to be made at five o'clock on the morning of the 26th of December. The division of Washington was accompanied by a train of twenty- four field-pieces under Colonel Knox. The river was high and full of floating ice, and the weather was cold and stormy. A detachment of boats had been collected for the service, and was manned by Colonel Glover's regiment of Marblehead fishermen, who had ferried the army over the East river in the retreat from Long island. The march was begun just after dark on Christmas night, and Washington hoped to reach the New Jersey shore by midnight ; but the passage of the river was difficult and tedious by reason of the floating ice and the high wind which repeatedly swept the boats out of their course ; and it was four o'clock before the artillery was landed. The march was at once re- sumed. Washington, with the main body, moved by a wide circuit to gain the north of the town, while a detachment under Sullivan was ordered to advance by the river road and attack the enemy from the w r est and south sides. A blinding storm of hail and snow delayed the advance of the troops, but also concealed their movements from the enemy ; and it was eight o'clock before Trenton was reached. The attack was at once begun, and Was pressed with vigor. The Hessians were completely taken by sur- THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 481 prise; they flew to arms promptly, but by this time the Americans had gained the main street, and were sweeping it with a battery of six pieces. Colonel Rahl was mortally wounded while leading his grenadiers to the charge, and his men, seized with a panic, endeavored to retreat. Finding that they were surrounded, about one thousand of them threw down their arms and surrendered. The remainder succeeded in escaping and joining Colonel Donop at Burlington. The Americans lost two men killed, and two were frozen to death on the march. Several were wounded. They took one thousand prisoners with their arms. Thirty-two of the captives were officers. Washington now learned that the ice was so thick in front of Bristol that Reed and Cadwallader had not been able to get their cannon over the river, and had not attacked the enemy at Burlington. He therefore deemed it best to withdraw into Pennsylvania, as Donop's force was still intact at Burlington, and 'the encrny had another column at Princeton, a few miles distant. On the evening of the 26th he returned to his camp beyond the Delaware. The next day he learned from Reed and Cad '.valla- der, who had crossed the Delaware on the 27th, that Donop had called in all his detachments along the river, and had retreated in haste to New Brunswick and Princeton.* The news of the victory at Trenton was received with delight in all parts of the country, and men began to take hope. Several regiments, whose terms of enlistment expired on the last day of December, were in- duced to remain six weeks longer. Washington resolved to make an effort to recover New Jersey, and men of influence were sent to rouse the militia of that State to take up arms for the defence of their homes. Altogether matters assumed a more promising aspect than they had worn at any period of the war. On the 30th of December Washington re- crossed the Delaware and took position at Trenton. About the same time Congress bestowed upon Washington the highest proof of their confidence in his wisdom and integrity that a free people can ever confer upon a leader. On the 27th of December Congress con- Si BATTLE OF TRENTON. 482 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ferred upon General Washington, by a formal resolution, unlimited mili- tary power for six months. The committee, in their letter informing him of this act, wrote : " Happy is it for this country that the general of their forces can safely be intrusted with the most unlimited power, and neither personal security, liberty, nor property be in the least endangered there- oy." The confidence of the country was not misplaced. Never was dictatorial po-^er used more wisely or unselfishly, and never did its exercise produce more beneficial results. It was rf solved by Congress to secure assistance from abroad, and on the 30th of December Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee the last of -vhom was appointed in place of Mr. Jefferson, who could not go were ^nt as commissioners to France to secure the assistance of the government of that country. France was not yet prepared to go to war with England, and the commissioners could do no more than secure aid in moo^y, which was expended in the purchase of supplies and military stores, vhich were shipped to the United States. It was arranged that this n>oney should be repaid by Congress in the produce of the country, especially in tobacco, which was to be shipped to France through a mer- caul, le house. The assistance thus obtained was of the greatest service to *<* Americans. CHAPTER XXVIII. THE YEAR 1777. flowe attempts to Crash Washington Battle of Princeton The British Confined to tne Seaboard Recovery of New T eraey The American Army in Winter Quarters at Morristown Effects of the American Successes Difficulty of Procuring Troops Washington Refuses to Exchange Prisoners His Course Approved by Congress Measures of Congress Naval Affairs Tryon Burns Danbury Gallantry of Arnold Troubles in the Northern Department Congress Adopts a National Flag " The Stars and Stripes" Course of France towards the United States France decides to Assist the Americans Lafayette His arrival in America Capture of the British General Prescott Howe threatens Philadelphia Washington moves Southward Battle of the Brandywine Washington Retreats to the Schuylkill Wayne's Defeat at Paoli Phila- delphia Evacuated by the Americans It is Occupied by the British Battle of German- town The British Attack the Forts on the Delaware They are Abandoned by the Americans Burgoyne's Army in Canada Advance of Burgoyne into New York Investment of Ticonderoga It is Abandoned by the Americans The Retreat to Fort Edward Burgoyne reaches the Hudson Murder of Miss McCrea Siege of Fort Schuyler Battle of Bennington Critical Situation of Burgoyne Gates in Command of the American Army Battles of Behmus' Heights and Stillwater Surrender of Burgoyne's Army Clinton in the Highlands. was the astonishment of General Howe when he learned of the battle at Trenton. He could scarcely believe that a handful of militia had captured a strong force of veteran troops led by such a commander as Colonel Rahl. He at once took prompt measures to repair the disaster. Lord Cornwallis, who was on the eve of sailing for England, was ordered to resume his command in New Jersey, and a force of seven thousand men was rapidly collected and placed under his orders. These troops rendezvoused at Princeton. Washington was informed of these movements, and ordered Generals Mifflin and Cadwallader to join him without delay. They reached Tren- ton the 1st of January, with thirty-five hundred men. This increased the American force to about five thousand men fit for duty. Upon the approach of Cornwallis' army, Washington took position behind the Assunpink, and prepared to dispute the passage of that stream. The fords and bridge over the creek were carefully guarded, and were swept by the fire of the artillery placed to command them. A force under General Greene and Colonel Hand was thrown -forward to hold the enemy 483 4S4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. in check, am! so retarded their movements that the British army did not arrive before Trenton until four o'clock in 'the afternoon of January 2d, 1777. Cornwallis made several determined efforts to force a passage of the creek, but was each time driven back by the well-directed fire of the provincials. Thinking that he could accomplish more the next day, the British commander drew off his men, resolving to renew the attack in the morning, when, he boasted, he would " bag the fox." Both armies encamped for the night in sight of each other, reddening the sky with the glow of their camp-fires. The situation of the American army was now critical in the extreme. A retreat into Pennsylvania was impossible, as the Delaware was full of COLLEGE OF JTEW JERSEY, AT PRINCETON. floating ice, and could not be passed in the face of such an army as that of Cornwallis. The issue of the next day's conflict was, to say the least, doubtful, for the army of Cornwallis was composed mainly of veteran troops, and he was himself a leader of genuine ability. In this emergency Washington determined upon one of the most brilliant and well-conceived operations of the war. It was known to him that the British had their main depot of supplies at New Brunswick, and he supposed from the presence of so many troops with Cornwallis that this depot had been left unguarded. He therefore resolved to break up his camp, and march by an unfrequented road around the left flank of the enemy to Princeton, THE YEAR 1777. 485 capture the force stationed there, and then hasten to New Brunswick and secure the stores at that place. Sending his heavy baggage and stores down the river to Burlington, Washington silently withdrew his army from its position at midnight, leaving the camp-fires burning to deceive the enemy, and a small force to watch the British and destroy the bridges after the army had passed on. A forced march brought the Americans within three miles of Princeton by daybreak on the morning of the 3d of January. The army was divided into two divisions, one under Washington, and the other under General Mercer, which approached the town by different routes. Three British regiments on their way to Trenton, had passed the previous night BATTLE OF PRINCETON. at Princeton, and had resumed their march at dawn. The first of these, under Colonel Mawhood, was encountered by the division of General Mercer, about two miles from Princeton. As Mawhood supposed Mercer's force to be a party retreating from Trenton, he at once resolved to attack it. His attack was successful. The Americans were driven back, and General Mercer was wounded, bayoneted, and left on the field appar- ently dead. Mercer's troops fell back in confusion, and a body of Pennsyl- vania militia, which had been sent by Washington to their assistance, was held in check by the fire of the British artillery. At this moment, Washington, who had been rendered anxious by tho 486 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. obstinate and continued firing, arrived on the field. A glance showed hitn. the broken and shattered regiments of Mercer falling back in confu- sion, and the Pennsylvania militia wavering under the heavy cannonade directed against them. Not a moment was to be lost, and putting spurs to his horse, he dashed forward in the face of the fire of Mawhood's artillery, and waving his hat, called upon the troops to rally and follow him. The effect was electrical ; the fugitives rallied with a loud cheer and reformed their line, and at the same moment a Virginia regiment, which had just arrived,, dashed out of a neighboring wood and opened a heavy fire upon the enemy. A little later the American artillery came up, and opened a shower of grape upon the British.. Mawhood was driven back, and with great difficulty succeeded in regaining the main road, along which he retreated with all speed to Trenton. The second British regiment, advancing from Princeton to Mawhood's assistance, was attacked by St. Glair's brigade, and was speedily driven across the country towards New Brunswick. The third regiment, seeing the fate of their comrades, became panic-stricken. A portion fled towards New Brunswick, and the remainder took refuge in the -college building at Princeton. They surrendered after a few shots from the American artillery. The Americans lost but a few men in this battle ; but General Mercer, a brave and efficient commander, was mortally wounded, and died a few days after the engagement. The British lost about one hundred killed and three hundred prisoners. Eager to secure the stores at New Brunswick, Washington pushed on with speed in that direction, but after passing a few miles beyond Prince- ton decided to abandon the attempt. He was sure that Cornwallis would pursue him as soon as his retreat from Trenton was discovered, and his men were too much exhausted to reach New Brunswick before the arrival of the enemy. They had been without rest for a night and a day, and some of them were barefooted. His generals sustained him in the opinion that it was injudicious to continue the movement against New Brunswick, and he reluctantly abandoned it, and withdrew in the direc- tion of Morristown. When Cornwallis discovered the withdrawal of the Americans on tho morning of the 3d of January, he was greatly perplexed to know in what direction they had gone. In a little while the sound of the can- nonade at Princeton revealed to him the route taken by them, and he at once understood the design of Washington. He must save his stores at any risk, and he broke up his camp and set out for Princeton and New Brunswick. The Americans had obstructed the Princeton road, and had THE YEAR 1777. 487 !>roken down the bridge over Stony creek, a few miles from the town. Without waiting to rebuild the bridge, the British commander forced his men through the icy waters, which were breast high, and hastened through Princeton with all speed. Believing that Washington had hurried on to New Brunswick, Cornwallis marched direct to that place, and did not notice the deflection of the American army from the main route. Reach- ing New Brunswick, he made arrangements to defend the town, which he supposed would be attacked. In the meantime the American army retreated to a strong position at Morristown, where the troops erected huts in which to pass the winter. Finding that the enemy did not attack him, Washington ventured to extend his line. His right was at Princeton, under General Putnam, and his left, under General Heath, was in the Highlands. His own head-quarters were at Morristown. For six months neither party attempted any movement of importance. Washington was not idle, however. Though he had but the skeleton of an army at Morristown, he displayed such activity in cutting off the foraging parties of the British that they were unable to draw any supplies from the country beyond their lines, and rarely ventured without their camps. By the beginning of spring Cornwallis had abandoned every post in New Jersey save New Brunswick and Perth Amboy. From these points he could communicate with and draw his supplies from New York by water. Thus was New Jersey almost entirely redeemed from the enemy. The militia of the State recovered from their former despondency, and warmly seconded the efforts of Washington against the British. Confidence was returning to the country ; and though men felt that the struggle might yet be long and arduous, it was not as hopeless as they had feared. Washington passed the winter in endeavoring to reorganize the army, and fit it for 'the work required of it in the spring. The policy of short enlistments adopted by Congress was the source of very great trouble, and the expiration of the enlistments of a large part of the army during this winter caused the commander-in-chief the greatest anxiety. He repeatedly condemned this policy, and endeavored to procure the sub- stitution of a longer term. Great efforts were made to procure recruits, but they came in very slowly. In order to check the ravages of the. small-pox in the camp, the recruits were inoculated immediately upon their arrival. Efforts were now made to bring about an exchange of prisoners. The British objected to an exchange of man for man, on the ground that the Americans were rebels, and such an exchange would be an acknowledg- 488 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. raent of their belligerent rights. Somewhat later General Howe, who had about five thousand prisoners in New York, renewed the negotiation. The British had treated the captured Americans with great severity, and had confined them in warehouses in New York, and in foul hulks anchored in the bay. They were improperly fed, and were allowed to remain almost naked. Their sufferings were fearful, and they were reduced and emaciated in strength and body, until they were truly said to resemble " walking corpses." British cruelty never exhibited itself in a more inhuman form than in the treatment of these unfortunate captives UNITED STATES NAVY YARD, BROOKLYN. by the royal officials. More than ten thousand of them died in New York, during the war, from the effects of this treatment. When Gen- eral Howe's proposal to exchange these men for the Hessians taken by the Americans was received, it was declined by Washington. The Hes- sians had been well fed and well treated by the Americans, and were hale and hearty, and Washington was unwilling to liberate them for service in the British army, and to receive in exchange for them half-starved men, who were so weak that they could scarcely reach their homes. It THE YEAR 1777. 489 was a stern necessity, but it was reco nized by Congress, and Washing- ton's view of the matter was sustained. During the winter five more major-generals were commissioned by Congress. They were Stirling, St. Clair, Mifflin, Stephen, and Lincoln. Arnold, who was the senior brigadier in the service, justly conceived that his rank and services in battle entitled him to promotion, and was indig- nant at having been passed over in the new appointments, and complained bitterly of the injustice done him. Eighteen brigadier-generals were also appointed. Among them were Geo'rge Clinton, of New York ; Glover, the commander of the Marblehead regiment ; Woodford and Muhlen- berg, of Virginia; and Hand and Anthony Wayne, of Pennsylvania. Congress gave great attention to the reorganization of the army during this session. A quartermaster's department was organized, with General Mifflin at its head. Four regiments of cavalry were ordered to be enlisted. The hospital service was reorganized, and placed under the jontrol of Dr. Shippen, of Philadelphia ; and Dr. Rush, of Philadel- phia, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, was appointed surgeon-general of the army. Efforts were also made to place the navy upon a better footing. Several of the frigates ordered by Congress to be built had been com- pleted and equipped ; but the work on the rest was delayed by the wan* of funds. Efforts were made to complete them, as they were greatly needed ; all the vessels constituting the American fleet being at this time blockaded in the harbor of Providence, Rhode Island, by the enemy. Since the beginning of the struggle a destructive warfare had been carried on by the privateers of New England against the commerce of Great Britain, especially against the vessels of that country trading to the West Indies. During the first years of the war nearly three hundred of these were captured by the privateers. The cargoes of the captured vessels were valued at the immense sum of five millions of dollars. The American merchantmen also maintained a regular communication with France, Spain, and Holland, ,and a profitable trade was carried on between the United States and those countries. It was attended with ^reat risk, however, and many of the American vessels were captured by the British men-of-war. Washington remained at Morristown some time after the spring opened, and exerted himself to the utmost to take the field as soon as the enemy should develop their plans. The first months of the season were employed by the British Commander in a series of plundering expedi- tions. One of these was directed against Peekskill, where the Americans had collected a large quantity of stores. General McDougall, command- 490 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ing the American force at that point, found it impossible to defend the stores, and set fire to them and retreated to the heights overlooking the town. The enemy made no attempt to follow him, and returutd down the river. General Heath had been transferred to the command of the forces in Massachusetts, and was succeeded in the comniaud of the Highlands by General Putnam. In the latter part of April General Tryon, the last roydLst governor of New York, was sent by General Howe, with a force of two thousand men, to destroy a large quantity of stores collected by t!i Americans at Danbury, in the western part of Connecticut, about tweaty-three miles from the sound. On the 26th of April, Tryon land^t' near Norwalk, and marched to Danbury, where he burned the stores and set fire to the town. Thus far he had met with no opposition ; b'lt the alarm had spread immediately after his landing, and the Connecncut militia, to the number of six hundred men, assembled under Generals Sillimau and Wooster. Arnold chanced to be at New Haven, and collecting a small force of volunteers, hurried to join Silliman and Wooster, and the whole command hastened after the marauders. Tryon began his retreat from Danbury before daylight on the morning of the 27th, and was soon after attacked by the militia. During the 27th and 28th, the British were harassed at every step by the little band of Americans, who, though too weak to defeat them in any single encounter, hung upon their march and inflicted upon them a loss of nearly three hun- dred men. The enemy at last came under the protection of the guns of their ships, and the Americans were forced to withdraw. Tryon then re-embarked his exhausted troops and returned to New York. The American loss was slight. The brave old General Wooster, a veteran of sixty-eight years, was mortally wounded at the head of his men, and died a few days later. Arnold behaved with such distinguished gallantry in this affair that Congress rewarded him with the rank of major-gen- eral, and presented him with a horse handsomely equipped. Even this acknowledgment of his merit was mingled with injustice, for the date of his commission still left him below the rank he was entitled to ; and he felt the second slight as another undeserved injury. The Connecticut militia were very indignant at the burning of Dan- bury, and resolved to avenge it. In the latter part of May, a party of . one hundred and seventy men, under Colonel Meigs, crossed the sound in whale-boats to the east end of Long island. They carried their boats during the night fifteen miles across the neck, and launching them again, proceeded to Sag Harbor, where they destroyed twelve vessels and a large quantity of stores collected there by the British, and made ninety pris- oners. They then returned to Connecticut without the loss of a man. THE YEAR 1777. 491 Recruits came in to the American camp very slowly, and various ex- pedients were adopted by Washington to hasten the enlistments. At his instance, Congress declared that all indented servants who enlisted in the army should receive their freedom at once. Bounties in land were offered to such Hessians as should desert the British service. This last measu: j did not accomplish much towards crippling the enemy. In the northern department, Schuyler was left with a mere skeleton of an army. He had but seven hundred men, at the most, at Ticou- dero his efforts to contend against General Howe he was under many disad- vantages, not the least of which was the fact that his army was encamped in a region abounding in Tories who refused him any support and con- stantly aided the British. His army was imperfectly disciplined ; it wa inferior in numbers and equipment to the enemy ; and was in no condi- tion to meet Howe in the open field, still less to undertake the difficult task of driving him from his intrenchments at Philadelphia. " Had the same spirit pervaded the people of this and the neighboring States, as the States of New York and New England," said Washington, " we might have had General Howe nearly in the same situation of General Bur- goyne." Washington knew that the salvation of the country demanded his presence at the head of the army. He trusted to time for his vindi- cation, and was chiefly anxious that the enemy should not learn of the dissensions in the councils and camp of the Americans. He firmly opposed the appointment of Conway to the post of " inspector of the armies of the United States," but Congress, under the influence of the cabal, appointed Conway to that place with the rank of major-general. In a little while the action of the conspirators became known and aroused such a storm of indigpation from the officers and men of the army, from the legislatures of the States, and from the great mass of the people that Gates and Conway and their associates cowered before it, and Congress became heartily ashamed of having given the plot any encour- agement. The only effect of the conspiracy was to raise Washington higher in the confidence and affection of his countrymen. The members of the conspiracy were ever afterwards anxious to deny their share in it, and exerted themselves to prevent the truth concerning it from becoming known. The punishment of Grates came as soon as he was intrusted with an independent command, as we shall see. As for Conway, he was despised by the better part of the officers of the army, and found his position so unenviable that he addressed a note to Congress complaining that he had been badly treated, and intimated his intention to resign because he was not ordered to the northern department. Congress was by this time ashamed of having bestowed upon him such undeserved honors, and gladly interpreted his letter as an actual resignation of his rank, and at once ended the difficulty by accepting it. Conway was profoundly aston- ished. He was confident that Congress would become terrified by his threat to resign, and urge him to remain in the service, and was utterly unprepared for the action of that body. He hastened to explain his AID FROM ABROAD. 517 letter, but was not listened to. Some time after this he ventured to denounce the commander-in-chief, and was challenged to a duel by Gen- eral Cadwallader, who had already charged him with cowardice at the battle of Germantown. Conway was wounded ; and believing himself near death wrote to Washington, apologizing for his conduct toward.-; him. " You are," he said, " in my eyes the great and good man. May vou long enjoy the love, veneration, and esteem of these States whoso liberties you have asserted by your virtues." His wound was not mortal as he had supposed, and he recovered, and soon left the country. The winter was passed by Washington in an effort to increase the army, and render it more efficient. Baron Steuben, a Prussian officer, who had served under Frederick the Great, was appointed inspector, with the rank of major-general. He introduced into the army the drill and discipline of the Prussian service, and greatly increased its efficiency. The various States, save Georgia and South Carolina, were called upon by Congress to contribute their quota of troops to the army. In consideration of their large slave population, and the necessity of retaining their troops for their own defence, those States were excused from compliance with this demand. Count Pulaski succeeded in raising an independent body of cavalry, and Major Henry Lee organized a regiment of light horse, which under his command subsequently became noted as one of the most efficient corps of the army. Congress proposed to increase the force of the army to sixty thousand men, but was never able to bring Jt to more than half that number. The inability of Congress to pay the troops compelled many of the officers to leave the army, in order to provide for their families, who were suffering. Congress called upon the States to raise money for the public expenses by taxing their people, but some of them neglected to respond to this appeal, and the remainder were too poor to render much assistance. Congress issued new bills of credit; but the value of the "Continental Currency," as this money was called, had depreciated so greatly that a pair of shoes could not be bought for less than from five to six hundred dollars in these bills. The Tories and the British depreciated them still further by flooding the country with counterfeits. A great improvement was made in the supply of provisions furnished the army by the appointment of General Greene, at the request of Wash- ington, to the post of quartermaster-general, which had been held by General Mifflin, who had neglected its duties on all occasions. At the urgent solicitation of the commander-in-chief, Greene assumed the dis- tasteful position for one year, and discharged its duties with a skill and precision which kept the army so well supplied with provisions and HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. .iiinnunition that it was never, during his administration, obliged to abandon a movement because of a lack of these necessities. In April, 1778, General Prescott was exchanged for General Charles Lee, who at once returned to duty in the army. During his captivity Lee, who was willing to ruin the cause if he could benefit himself, pro- posed a plan to the British ministry by which they could, in his opinion, bring the war to a successful close. The ministers did not see fit to adopt Lee's plan, but filed it away among the British archives, and the traitor was exchanged and permitted to resume his command in the American army, to become again a source of trouble and loss to it. * In the meantime the American cause had assumed a new phase abroad. The English government had confidently expected that Burgoyue's expedition would be successful, and the result of his operations was watched by France with the deepest anxiety. When news arrived of the defeat of Burgoyiie the astonishment of King George and his ministers was equalled only by their mortification. It was resolved to wipe out the humiliation by a more vigorous prosecution of the war. It was rumored that France was about to aid the Americans, and that Holland was on the point of loaning them money. These rumors aroused the English people to .a heartier support of the government than they had yet given it, and many of the principal cities offered to raise troops to supply the places of those who had been surrendered by Burgoyne. At the same time the friends of America were greatly encouraged, and resolved to make a new effort to put a stop to the war by offering America such terms as would either induce her to renew her former con- nection with Great Britain, or to become the ally and friend of that country. A considerable sum of money was subscribed by these for the relief of the American prisoners, who were left by the government without even the necessaries of life. When Parliament assembled a strong attack was made upon the policy of the king by the friends of America. The employment of the Hes- sians, and, above all, of the barbarous Indians of North America, whose cruelties shocked the English people, was severely denounced. The mer- cantile class was seriously discontented. Its trade with America was destroyed, and the activity of the American cruisers was so great that six hundred English vessels had already been captured ; and it was necessary to convoy merchantmen, by vessels of war, from one port of the kingdom to another. Thus far the war had caused an expenditure of twenty thousand lives and one hundred millions of dollars, and the conquest of America was as far off as at the commencement of hostilities. * Thf reader is referred to the work of Mr. George H. Moore, " The Treason ol 'Jen- ral diaries Lee," for the details of this plan. AID FROM ABROAD. 519 Under this pressure the king was constrained to yield, and, in February, 1778, Lord North presented to Parliament two bills by which his majesty hoped to maintain his authority in America, and conciliate his revolted subjects. The first of these renounced all intention on the part of Great Britain to levy taxes in America ; the other appointed five commissioners to negotiate with the Americans for the restoration of the authority of England and the close of the war. The consent of the king to these measures was wrung from him by the complaints of a large part of the English people, and by his fear that France would openly aid the United States. These bills involved a direct surrender of the whole ground of the war; but indicated no change of opinion on the part of the kin^;. This action on the part of Great Britain aroused the French govern- ment to a more energetic course. Louis XVI. was opposed to treating with the United States; but the French ministers were aware that a prompt recognition on their part of the independence of the republic would effectually neutralize the measures of Great Britain, and prevent a reconciliation. France was perfectly willing that America and England should weaken each other by their contest, but she was resolved that Great Britain should never recover her colonies. The capture of Bur- goyne's army had demonstrated the ability of America to continue the war, and the French ministers resolved to lose no time in concluding an alliance with her. On the 17th of December, 1777, the Count de Ver- gennes caused Franklin and Deane to be informed of the king's intention not only to acknowledge but to support the independence of Americ?, and on the 6th of February a treaty of friendship and commerce, and a second treaty of defensive alliance, were concluded between the United States and France. The latter bound the United States to support France in case Great Britain should declare war against her. The king of France acknowledged the independence of the United States of America, and agreed to assist them with his fleet and army. No peace was to be made without mutual consent, and not until the independence of the United States should be acknowledged by Great Britain. These treaties were ratified by Congress, and were hailed with joy by the Ameri- cans, whose confidence was revived by the assurance of the assistance of one of the most powerful states of Europe. When the news of the treaties was received in England, the friends of America urged the government to abandon the war, and acknowledge the independence of the United States, as the only means of retaining the good feeling and trade of that country. The government would not even entertain the proposition. The most it would do was to pass the conciliatory bills of Lord North, if they failed to accomplish the 520 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. desired end the war must go on. In March France formally communi- cated to England her treaties with America. This was regarded bv England as equivalent to a declaration of war, nnd the British ambas- sador was at once recalled from Paris. In June the British commissioners, appointed to treat under Lord North's conciliatory measures, arrived in America and opened negotia- tions. Congress demanded, as a prelude to any negotiations, that the independence of the United States should be recognized by England, and her fleets and armies withdrawn from America. The commissioners having no authority to treat upon any such basis returned to England, having first made several in- effectual efforts to detach prom- inent Americans from the cause by bribery. The course of Sir William Howe had not pleased the British government, and lie was removed from his com- mand on the llth of May, 1788, and was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton. About the same time Clinton was in- formed by his government that a large French fleet might be expected at any moment on the American coast, and was ordered to evacuate Philadel- phia and concentrate all his SIR HENRY CLINTON. forces at New York. He ac- cordingly sent his sick and wounded, and most of his stores, with his fleet around to New York by eea ; while, with his army, twelve thousand strong, he left Philadelphia on the 18th of June, and, crossing the Delaware, began his march through New Jersey to New York. As soon as Washington learned of his movement he broke up his camp, on the 24th of June, and crossed the Delaware in pursuit of the British army. The intense heat of the weather, and the heavy train which the British carried with them, caused them to move very slowly, and Washington soon overtook them. A council of war was called, at which General Charles Lee, who held the tecond rank in the American army, urged that Washington should con- fine his efforts to harassing the British on the march. It was resolved, AID 1'EOM ABROAD. 521 however, to attack the enemy and force them to a general engagement. Lee at first declined to take any part in the battle, but at the last moment changed his mind, and solicited a command. Upon the adjournment of the council of war, on the 27th of June, Washington sent Lafayette, with two thousand men', to occupy the hills near Monmouth Court-house, and confine the enemy to the plains. On the morning of the 28th of June Lee, who had asked for a command, was sent forward by Washington, with two brigades, to attack the enemy. Upon coming up with Lafayette, who was his junior, Lee assumed the command of the whole advanced force, and marched in the direction of the enemy, who had encamped on the previous night near Monmouth Court-house, and had resumed their march, early on the morning of the 28th. As soon as Clinton heard of Lee's advance, he determined to drive him back, and for this purpose wheeled about with his whole rear division, and made a sharp attack upon Lee, who fell back to higher ground. A misunderstanding of his order caused one of his subordinate officers to abandon his position, and Lee's whole force fell back in some confusion. In the excitement of the moment Lee forgot to send word to Washington of his movement, and the first the commander-in-chief, who was advancing with the main body, knew of it was the right of Lee's command falling back rapidly, and in disorder. Riding up to the fugi- tives he asked them why they were retreating, and was answered that they did not know, but had been ordered to do so. Suspecting that the retreat had been ordered for the purpose of ruining the plan of battle, Washington hastened forward until he met General Lee, and sternly demanded of him : " What is the meaning of all this, sir?" Lee was disconcerted for a moment, and then answered that the retreat was con- trary to his orders ; and moreover that he did not wish to encounter the whole British army. " I am sorry," said Washington, " that you under- took the command unless you meant to fight the enemy." Lee answered that he did not think it prudent to bring on a general engagement. Washington replied, sternly: "Whatever your opinion may have been, I expect my orders to be obeyed." Washington at once reformed the men on a commanding eminence, and hurried the main body of the Americans forward to their support. The British soon appeared in force, and endeavored to dislodge the Americans from their position, and failing in this, attempted, but without success, to turn their left flank. The battle lasted until nightfall, and the American army bivouacked on the field, expecting to renew the engagement the next morning ; but during the night Clinton skilfully withdrew from his lines and continued his retreat. The weather was so 522 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. warm that Washington did not deem it prudent to continue the pursuit, and Clinton was allowed to regain New York without further molesta- tion. The Americans lost about two hundred men in this engagement, a number of whom died from the effects of the extreme heat. The British lost three hundred men. During the retreat, two thousand Hessians deserted from the British ranks. As General Lee possessed a large share of the confidence of the com-, mander-in-chief, he might have saved himself from the consequences of his fault, had he sought to explain his conduct in a proper manner. On the day after the battle he addressed an insulting letter to Washington, and met the reply of the commander-in-chief with another letter still more disrespectful in tone, demanding a court of inquiry. The court found him guilty of disobedience of orders, and of disrespect to the commander- in-chief, and sentenced him to be suspended from his rank for one year. Towards the close of his term of punishment he addressed an insolent letter to Congress, in consequence of some fancied neglect, and was dis- missed from the army. A few years later he died in Philadelphia. After the battle of Monmouth, Washington halted for a short time to refresh his men, and then marching to the Hudson crossed that stream, and took position at White Plains, in New York, to be ready to coope- rate with the French fleet, which was daily expected, in an attack upon the city of New York. The French fleet under Count D'Estaing, with four thousand troops on board, had arrived in the Delaware just after Lord Howe had sailed for New York. Failing to find the enemy in the Delaware, D'Estaing sailed for New York, but Lord Howe withdrew his vessels into Raritan bay, and as the larger French ships could not cross the bar, the contemplated attack upon New York was abandoned, to the great regret of Washington. The French fleet brought the American commissioners who had nego- tiated the treaty with France, and also Monsieur Gerard, the first am- bassador from the French king to the United States. In place of the combined attack upon New York, it was resolved by Washington, in concert with the French admiral, to attack Newport and drive the British out of Rhode Island. The British had established one of their principal depots of supplies at this point, and had there a force of six thousand men under General Pigot. It was arranged that a force of American troops under General Sullivan should attack the enemy by land, while the French fleet and army should cooperate with Sullivan from the sea. On the 29th of July D'Estaing reached Narragansett bny with his fleet, and on the 8th of August entered Newport harbor, in spite of the fire of the British batteries. A whole week had been lost, how- AW FROM ABROAD. 623 ever, by th-j failure of the American troops to reach the positions assigned them as promptly as the French fleet. The, delay was unavoidable, but, it ruined the enterprise. On the 9th Lord Howe arrived off Newport harbor with his fleet to the assistance of General Pigot. On the 10m D'Estaing sailed out to engage the British fleet, but before this could be effected a sudden and terrible storm scattered both fleets. Howe returned to New York, and D'Estaing made his way back to Narra- gansett bay in a crippled condition. Instead of landing the four thou- sand French troops he had brought with him, the French admiral sailed to Boston with his whole force to refit. Sullivan in the meantime had crossed from the mainland to the island of Rhode Island, and had taken position before the British intrenchments in front of Newport. Here he awaited the return of the French fleet, and in the mean white kept up a steady fire upon the British works. Upon D'Estaing's return he informed Sullivan of his intention to sail to Boston to refit his ships. Sullivan earnestly begged him to remain two or three days, as the British must certainly surrender by the end of that time. D'Estaing refused to do so. Sullivan then asked that the French troops might be left to cooperate with him, and this also was refused. Left alone, Sullivan was obliged to retreat to the mainland, as he learned that aid was on its way from New York to Pigot. He effected this movement with skill and success, on the night of the 30th of August. The next day Sir Henry Clinton reached Newport with a squadron of several ships and a reinforcement of four thousand men. As he had arrived too late to attack the force under Sullivan, Clinton sent the troops he had brought with him, under Major-General Grey, to ravage the coasts to the eastward. Grey destroyed a large number of vessels along the coasts, and stripped Fair Haven, New Bedford, and the island of Martha's Vineyard of everything that could be carried off, and returned to New York laden with plunder. Late in October a British fleet which had been despatched from Eng- land under Admiral Byron in pursuit of D'Estaing, arrived off Boston harbor. Byron was unwilling to venture within the harbor, and the French would not leave their place of security, and the English remained off Boston until a storm arose and scattered their fleet. On the 1st of November the French, taking advantage of the enforced withdrawal of their enemy, stood out to sea and sailed for the West Indies, and on the same day Clinton despatched a force of five thousand British troops from New York to the West Indies. Brutal as Avas the conduct of General Grey, it had been already sur- passed bv the British and their Indian allies in Pennsylvania. 524 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, inhabitants of Wyoming valley, a beautiful region on the Srsquelmnna, had driven away the Tories from that region, and these had resolved upon revenge. Early in July a force of about eleven hundred Tories and Indians, under Colonel John Butler and the Indian chief Brandt, entered the Wyoming valley. Nearly all the able-bodied settlers were .absent with the American army, and upon hearing of the approach of the enemy a small force had been despatched by Washington under Colonel Zebulon Butler, to the assistance of the settlers. This force was defeated by the Tories and Indians, who then proceeded to lay waste the valley and murder the inhabitants. They performed their bloody work in the most barbarous manner, and the beautiful valley was made a deso- lation. In the following month Cherry valley in New York was ravaged \rith equal cruelty by a force of Tories and Indians, and the inhabitants were either murdered or carried into captivity. The entire region of the upper Susquehanna and Delaware and the valley of the Mohawk were at the mercy of the savage allies of Great Britain. In the latter part of November, Sir Henry Clinton sent a force of two thou- sand men from New York under Colonel Campbell to attack Savannah, Georgia, which was held by a garrison of one thousand men under General Robert Howe. The British carried the American position after a sharp engagement, and on the 29th of December, Savannah surrendered to them. General Prevost, the English commander in Florida, now repaired to Savannah, and assumed the com- mand. On his march across the country he captured Sun bury, a fort of considerable importance. Upon reaching Savannah he sent Colonel Campbell to seize Augusta, which was quickly secured and fortified. Georgia was thus entirely subdued by the British by the middle of January, 1779. After the failure of the attack upon Newport the American army went into winter quarters, occupying a series of cantonments extending from the eastern end of Long Island sound to the Delaware. This disposition enabled them to oppose a force to the British at every important point. Washington established his head-quarters at Middlebrook, New Jersey, SURRENDER OF SAVANNAH. AW FROM ABROAD. 625 near the centre of his line. The winter passed away without any event of importance. The British held Ne\v York and Newport with too strong a force to make an attack upon either post successful, and the v v\'ithdrawal of the French fleet to the West Indies left Washington without any means of encountering the naval force of the enemy. The season was not without its trials, ho\\e/er. Washington wrote t the beginning of the year 1779, "Our affairs are in a more distressed, ruinous, and deplorable condition than they have been since the com- mencement of the war." The currency of the country grew more worth- less every day. During the year 1779 the enormous sum of one hunrded and thirty-one million of dollars was issued in continental bills. The magnitude of the volume of the currency only served to depreciate it more and more, and though supplies and articles of trade were plentiful, their owners refused to accept the depreciated bills of Congress, and would sell for gold and silver only. "A wagon-load of money," Washing- ton wrote to the president of Congress, " will not purchase a wagon-load of provisions." During the year the currency depreciated from $8 for one dollar to $41.60 for one dollar. Congress had so little specie that every- thing must have gone to ruin but for the exertions of Robert Morris, -A member of Congress from Pennsylvania, and a leading merchant of Philadelphia, who borrowed large sums of coin on his own credit, anr* loaned them to the government. This he continued to do throughout the war. Congress had long before this been deprived of many of its ablest mem- bers, who had resigned their seats in order to accept appointments in their own States, or to enter the army. Their places were filled with weaker men, and many dissensions mark the deliberations of the Congress of this period. Many members of Congress and a large part of the people seemed to regard the alliance with France as decisive of the war, and Were disposed to relax their efforts. During the winter it was proposed to join the French in an expedition for the recovery of Canada for France, and the scheme found favor with a majority of the delegates in Congress. Washington opposed it with firmness. He pointed out to Congress the difficulties of the undertaking, and declared his conviction that it was not to the interest of the United States that a power different in race, language and religion from the people of this republic should have a footing upon this continent. In addition to this he did not desire the people; of the United States to increase their obligations to a foreign, even though a friendly, power. The American forces in the Southern States were commanded by Gen- eral Benjamin Lincoln. The Tories were very numerous and very active HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. hi this region, and the feeling between them and the patriots was one of Uie bitterest hostility, and often manifested itself in bloody and relentless conflicts. Seven hundred Tories under Colonel Boyd set out in Feb- ruary, 1779, to join Colonel Campbell at Augusta. On the 14th they were attacked at Kettle creek, by a force of patriots under Colonel Pickens, ind were defeated with heavy loss. Pickens hung five of his prisoners as traitors. General Lincoln now sent General Ashe with two thousand men to drive the British out of Augusta. Upon hearing of his approach Colonel Campbell evacuated Augusta and fell back to Brier creek, a small stream about halfway to Savan- nah. Ashe followed him, but without ob- serving proper cau- tion, and on the 3d of March was sur- prised and routed by Campbell, with the loss of nearly his entire force. This d e f e a t encouraged General Prevost to attempt the capture of Charleston. He marched rapidly across the country to Charleston, and demanded its surrender. Lincoln, who had* been reinforced, no sooner heard of this movement than he hastened by forced marches to the relief of Charleston, and compelled Prevost to retire to St. John's island, opposite the mainland. The British threw up a redoubt at Stone ferry to protect the crossing to this island. It was attacked on the 20th of June by the forces of General Lincoln, who were repulsed with heavy loss. A little later Prevost withdrew to Savannah. Tlv^ intense* heat of the weather suspended military operations in the south during the remainder of the summer. In September, 1779, the French fleet under Count D'Estaing arrived off the coast of Georgia from the West Indies, and the admiral agreed to ioin Lincoln in an effort to recapture Savannah. The American army GENERAL BENJAMIN LINCOLN. AID FROM ABROAD. 527 began its investment of the city on the 23d of September, and everything promised favorably for success ; but D'Estaing became impatient of the delay of a regular siege, and declared that he must return to the West Indies to watch the British fleet in those waters. Savannah must either be taken by assault, or he would withdraw from the siege. To please him Lincoln consented to storm the British works, and the assault was made on the 9th of October, but was repulsed with severe loss. D'Estaing himself was wounded, and the chivalrous Count Pulaski was killed. Lincoln now retreated to Charleston, and the French fleet sailed to the West Indies, having a second time failed to render any real assistance to the Americans. This disaster closed the campaign for the year in the south. In the meantime Sir Henry Clinton had been ordered by his govern- ment to harass the American coast, and in accordance with these instruc- tions despatched a number of plundering expeditions from New York against exposed points. One of these was sent in May, under General Mathews, into the Chesapeake. Mat-hews entered the Elizabeth river, plundered the towns of Korfolk and Portsmouth, and burned one hun- dred and thirty merchant vessels and several ships of war on the stocks at Gosport, near Portsmouth. He then ascended the James for some distance and ravaged its shores. He destroyed in this expedition two millions of dollars worth of property, and carried off about three thousand hogsheads of tobacco. Upon the return of this expedition, Clinton ascended the Hudson for the purpose of destroying two forts which the Americans were construct- ing a short distance below West Point, for the protection of King's ferry, an important crossing-place between the Eastern and Middle States. One of these, which was being built at Stony Point, was abandoned. The work on Verplanck's Point, on the east side of the Hudson, immediately opposite, ivas compelled to surrender early in June. Returning to New York, Clinton sent General Tryon with twenty-five hundred men to plunder the coast of Long Island sound. He plundered New Haven, burned Fairfield and Norwalk, and committed other out- rages at Sag Harbor, on Long island. In the course of a few days this inhuman wretch burned two hundred and fifty dwelling-houses, five elmrches, and one hundred and twenty-five barns and stores. Many of the inhabitants were cruelly murdered, and a number of women were outraged by the British troops. Tryon would have carried his outrages further had he not been recalled to New York by Clinton, who feared that Washington was about to attack him. The loss of Stony Point was a serious blow to Washington, as it com- 528 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, pelled him to establish a new line of communication between the opposite sides of the Hudson by a longer and more tedious route through the Highlands. He resolved, therefore, the recapture of the post from the British at all hazards. The British had greatly strengthened the fort, which the Americans had left unfinished, and the only way in which it could be captured was by a surprise. It was a desperate undertaking, and Washington proposed to General Anthony Wayne to attempt it. Wayne readily consented, and the two generals made a careful reconnoissance of the position. It was agreed to make the attempt at midnight, and in order to guard against a be- trayal of the move- ment every dog in the vicinity was put to death. A negro who visited the fort regularly to sell fruit, and who had been for some time acting as a spy for I the Americans, agreed to guide them to the work. n At midnight on the loth of July, the storming party, guided by the ne- gro, approached the fort in two divi- his musket lest the the movement. The GENERAL ANTHONY WAYNE. load sions. Not a man was permitted to accidental discharge of a gun should ruin negro, accompanied by two soldiers who were disguised as farmers, approached the first sentinel and gave the countersign. The sen- tinel was at once seized and gagged, and the same was done with th: second sentinel. The third, however, gave the alarm, and the garrison flew to arms and opened a sharp fire upon the Americans. The latter now dashed forward at a run, scaled the parapet, and in a few moments the two opposite divisions met in the centre of the fort. The Americans took more than five hundred prisoners, and all the supplies and artillery AID FROM ABROAD. 529 of the fort fell into their hands. Though they were justly exasperated by the brutal outrages of the British, which we have related, they conducted themselves towards their prisoners with a noble humanity. The British historian Stedman declares, " They (the Americans) would have been fully justified in putting the garrison to the sword ; not one man of which was put to death but in fair combat." It was one of the most brilliant expe- ditions of the war. Wayne now proceeded to prepare for the reduction of the fort at Verplanck's Point, but while he was thus engaged a heavy British force ascended the river to its relief, and he was obliged to forego his attack, and also to abandon Stony Point. On the night of the 18th of June, Major Henry Lee made a bold dash STORMING OF STONY POINT. at the British fort at Paulus Hook, now Jersey City, and captured it, taking one hundred and fifty-nine prisoners. The British made great efforts to intercept him, but he effected his retreat in safety, bringing off his prisoners, and losing only two men. For these gallant exploits Wayne and Lee were each voted a gold medal by Congress. Towards the close of the summer of 1779, Washington resolved to in- flict upon the Indians a severe punishment for their outrages upon the whites, and especially for the massacres of Wyoming and Cherry valley in the previous year. Early in August General Sullivan was sent into western New York with three thousand men, with orders to ravage the country of the Six Nations. He was joined by General James Clinton 34 530 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. with two thousand men, and on the 29th of August attacked and defeated a force of seventeen hundred Indians and Tories at Newtown, now El- mira. Sullivan followed up this victory by pushing forward into the Indian country, and laying it waste with fire and sword. In the course of a few weeks he destroyed more than forty Indian villages, and burned all the cornfields and orchards. The beautiful valley of the Genesee was made a desert, and to avoid starvation the Indians and their Tory allies were obliged to emigrate to Canada. They were quieted but for a time by the terrible vengeance of the Americans, and soon renewed their depredations, and continued them to the end of the war. Congress had made great efforts to increase the force of the navy, and the number of American men- of-war had been materially en- larged. Many of them had been captured, however, by the enemy, and the navy was still weak and unable to render much service to the cause. The privateers were unusually 'active, and were hunted with unremitting vigilance by the English war vessels. They man- aged to inflict great losses upon the commerce of Great Britain, however. A number of American cruisers were fitted out in France, and kept the English coast in terror. John Paul Jones, a native of Scotland, who had been brought to Virginia at an early age, was one of the first naval officers commissioned by Congress. He was given the command of the " Ranger," a vessel of eighteen guns, and by his brilliant and daring exploits kept the English coast in a state of terror, and even ventured to attack exposed points on the coast of Scotland. In 1779 he was given command of a small squadron of three ships of war fitted out in France, and sailing from L'Orient, proceeded on a cruise along the coast of Great Britain. On the 23d of September, he fell in with a fleet of merchantmen convoyed by two English frigates, and at once attacked them. The battle began at seven in the evening, and was continued for three hours with great fury. Jones lashed his flagship, the " Bon Homme Richard," to the English frigate " Serapis," and the two vessels fought muzzle to muzzle until the LIEUTENANT-COLONEL HENEY LEE. AID ABROAD. '531 1 "Serapts" surrendered. The otlier Englisli vessel was also captured. The battle was one of the most desperate in the annals of naval warfare, and Jones' flagship was so badly injured that it sunk in a few hours after the fighting was over. In October, Sir Henry Clinton, in obedience to orders from home, evacuated Newport, and concentrated his forces at New York, which place he believed was in danger of an attack by the Americans and French. Until the close of the season Washington cherished the hope that the French fleet would return and assist him in an effort vo regain New York, and had called out the militia for this purpose. When he learned that D'Es- taing had sailed to the West Indies after the failure of the attack upon Savannah, he dismissed the militia to their homes, and went into winter quarters in New Jersey, with his head-quarters at Mor- ristown. While these events had been transpiring upon the Atlantic seaboard, the United States had been steadily pushing their way westward beyond the mountains. In 1769, before the commencement of the Revo- lution, the beautiful region now known as Kentucky had been visited and explored by Daniel Boone, a famous Indian hunter. He was charmed with the beauty of the country and the excellence of the climate, and resolved to make it his home. The reports of Boone and his companions aroused a great interest in the new country among the inhabitants of the older settle- ments in Virginia and North Carolina, more especially as it was in this region that the lands given to the Virginia troops for their services in the French war were located. Surveyors were soon after sent out to lay off JOHN PATH. JOXES. COAT OF ARMS OP KENTtJCKt. 532 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. these lands, and in 1773 a party under Captain Bullit reached the falls of the Ohio, and built a fortified camp there for the purpose of surveying the region. This was the commencement of the city of Louisville, but the actual settlement of the place was not begun until 1778. In 1774 Harrodsburg was founded by James Harrod, one of Boone's companions ; and in 1775 Daniel Boone built a fort on the site of the present town of Boonesborough. The savages made repeated attacks upon his party, but failed to drive them away. The fort was finished by the middle of April, and soon after Boone was joined by his wife and daughters, the first white women in Kentucky. The region of Kentucky was claimed by Virginia, but the settlers sub- mitted to the authority of that province with impatience. They sent a delegate to the Continental Congress in October, 1775, and claimed representation in that body as an independent colony under the name of Transylvania ; but the dele- gate of the fourteenth colony was not admitted by Congress, as Virginia claimed the terri- tory as her own. In the spring of 1777 the general assembly of Virginia organized the Kentucky region as a county, and established a court of quarter sessions at Harrods- burg. In this condition Ken- tucky remained during the Revolution. The population increased rapidly in spite of the war and of the unremitting hostility of the Indians. During the Revolution the Kentucky settlements suffered very much from the hostility of the Indians, who were urged on by the emissaries of Great Britain to a war of extermination. The principal agent of the mother country in this barbarous warfare was Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit. In order to put a stop to his intrigues and de- prive the Indians of his aid, Congress resolved to despatch a force to attack Detroit. While this plan was in contemplation the State of Virginia, in 1778, sent Colonel George Rogers Clarke with a force of two hundred men to conquer the territory northwest of the Ohio, which Virginia claimed as DANIEL BOONE. AID FROM ABROAD. 533 a part of her possessions. Clarke \vas a backwoodsman, but one of nature's heroes. He assembled his men at Pittsburg, and descended the Ohio to the fulls in flat-boats. There he established a settlement of thirteen families, the germ of the present city of Louisville. Being joined by some Kentuckians he continued his descent of the river to a short distance below the mouth of the Tennessee. Landing and conceal- ing his boats, he struck across the country and surprised and captured the town of Kas- kaskia, within the limits of the present State of Indiana. A detachment was sent to Kahokia, SUM! received its sub- mission. The peo- ple of these towns were of French origin, and were greatly averse to the English rule under w h i c h they had lived since the con- quest of Canada. The alliance between the United States and France made them very willing to acknowledge the authority of the Union, to which they readily swore allegiance. The fort at Vincennes was in a weak condition and was held by a small garrison, and readily submitted to Clarke. Hamilton no sooner heard of the successes of Clarke than he set out from Detroit on the 7th of October, 1778, with a force of three hundred and fifty warriors, and on the 17th of December reoecupied Vincenne?. He now prepared to drive the Americans out of the Illinois country, and spent the winter in trying to arouse the savages against them. He offered a significant reward lor every American scalp brought in to him, GENERAL GEORGE ROGERS CLARKE. 534 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES?. but offered nothing for prisoners. At the same time he proposed in invade Virginia in the spring with an overwhelming force of Indians. Clarke and his party were in very great danger. They were entirely cut off* from Virginia and without hope of reinforcements. In this emergency, Clarke, who had learned that Hamilton had greatly weakened the garrison at Vincennes, resolved to stake the fate of the west on a single issue, and attempt the capture of that post. On the 7th of Feb- ruary, 1779, he left Kaskaskia with one hundred and thirty men, and marched across the country towards Vincennes. On the 18th they were within nine miles of Vincennes. The Wabash had overflowed the country along its banks, and in order to reach the object of their march, FRANKFORT, KENTUCKY. Clarke and his men were obliged to cross the submerged lands, up to their armpits in water. They were five days in crossing these " drowned lands," and had the weather been less mild, must have perished. On the 23d Vincennes was reached, and the town was at once carried. Clarke then laid siege to the fort, assisted in this task by the inhabitants of the town, and in twenty-four hours compelled Hamilton and his men to surrender themselves prisoners of war. *' Clarke was unable to advance against Detroit because of the insuffu ciency of his force. His successes, however, were among the most im-> portant of the war. They not only put an end to the British scheme of a general Indian war along the western frontier of the United States, but established the authority of the Union over the country east of the Mississippi, and prevented Great Britain from asserting a claim to that AID FROM ABROAD. 535 region at the conclusion of peace, a few years later. Returning to the Ohio, Clarke built a blockhouse at the falls. The conquered territory was claimed by Virginia, and was erected by the legislature of that State into the county of Illinois. By order of Governor Jefferson of Virginia, Clarke established a fort on the Mississippi, about five miles below the mouth of the Ohio, which he named Fort Jefferson, and entered intc- friendly relations with the Spaniards at St. Louis. The Tennessee region, which formed a part of the province of North Carolina, had been settled previous to the outbreak of hostilities. Fort Loudon, about 30 miles southwest of Knoxville, was built in 1756, and in 1770 the Cumberland valley was settled, and Nashville was founded. By the commencement of the revo- lution the Tennessee country was quite thickly settled, and the popula- COAT OF ARMS OF TENNESSEE. tion was increasing at an encouraging rate. In 1776 the Cherokees, incited by the British, waged a for- midable war upon the settlers, but were defeated by the forces of Vir- ginia and North Carolina. A little later the legislature of North Caro- lina organized the Tennessee settlements as the " District of Washington." CHAPTER XXX. THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. Severity of the Winter ot 1779-80 Sufferings of the American Army Clinton Sails for the Carolinas Colonel Tarleton Capture of Charleston Conquest of South Carolina- Gates in Command of the Southern Army Battle of Camden Exploits of Marion and Sumter Advance of Cornwallis Battle of King's Mountain Gates Succeeded by General Greene Knyphaasen's Expeditions into New Jersey Arrival of the French Fleet and Army Arnold's Treason The Plot for the Betrayal of West Point Arrest of Major Andre" Flight of Arnold Execution of Andre" Mutiny of the Pennsylvania and New Jersey Troops Measures of Congress Arnold Captures Richmond, Virginia Battle of the Cowpens Masterly Retreat of General Greene Cornwallis Baffled Battle of Guilford Court House Cornwallis at Wilmington Battle of Hobkirk's Hill Siege of Ninety-Six Execution of Colonel Hayne Battle of Eutaw Springs Washington Decides to Attack New York The French Army on the Hudson Financial Affairs Resumption of Specie Payments Message from the Count De Grasse Cornwallis at Yorktown The American Army Moves Southward Siege of Yorktown Surrender of Cornwallis Effect of the News in England Indian Troubles Efforts in England for Peace Negotiations Opened Treaty of Paris End of the War The Army Disbanded Washington Resigns his Commission. HE winter of 1779-80 was passed by the American army in huts near Morristown. It was one of the severest seasons ever ex- perienced in America. The harbor of New York was frozen over as far as the Narrows, and the ice was strong enough to bear the heaviest artillery. Communication between New York and the sea was entirely cut off, and the British garrison and the citizens Buffered from a scarcity of provisions. Knyphausen was afraid the Americans would seek to pass the Hudson on the ice and attack the city, and landed the crews of the shipping in the harbor, and added them to the garrison. His precautions were useless, as the American army was too weak and too poorly supplied to undertake the capture of New York. The troops at Morristown suffered very greatly during the winter. They had scarcely clothing enough to protect them from the cold ; and provisions were so scarce that in order to keep his men from starvation, Washington was compelled to impress supplies from the people of the surrounding country. The heavy snows made the army entirely depen- dent upon New Jersey for its subsistence, as transportation from a long distance could not be attempted. The people of New Jersey bore the 536 THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 537 sacrifices imposed upon them with a noble cheerfulness, and though their State was drained almost to exhaustion, were untiring in their efforts to provide food and clothing for the troops. The Continental currency had fallen so low that one dollar in silver was worth thirty dollars in paper by the beginning of the year 1780; but neither officers nor men could obtain their pay in this depreciated currency. It was almost impossible for the government to purchase anything with its notes. About the last of December, 1779, Sir Henry Clinton, leaving a strong garrison under General Knyphausen to hold New York, sailed south, with the greater part of his army, in the fleet of Admiral Arbuthnot. He CHARLESTON, SOTJTH CAROLINA, IN 1877. proceeded first to Savannah, and then moved northward for the purpose of besieging Charleston. General Lincoln exerted himself with energy to fortify that city. Four thousand citizens enrolled themselves to assist the regular garrison in the defence, but only two hundred militia from the interior responded to Lincoln's call for aid. Reinforcements were received from Virginia and North Carolina, and Lincoln was able to muster seven thousand men, of whom but two thousand were regular troops. In February, 1780, the British landed at St. John's island, about thirty miles below Charleston. Clinton advanced towards the city along the banks of the Ashley, while the fleet sailed around to force an entrance into the harbor. The advance of Clinton was very gradual, and Lincoln HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. was enabled to strengthen his works, and prepare for a siege. It was not until early in April that Clinton's array appeared before the American works and began preparations to reduce them. A day or two 1 er the British fleet passed Fort Moultrie with but little loss, and took position off the city. Clinton had lost nearly all his horses on the voyage from New York, and was anxious to replace them from the country north of Charleston, The Americans had stationed bodies of militia at different points north of the city to keep open the communications with Charleston, and to prevent the foraging parties of the British from reaching the interior. Clinton intrusted the task of breaking up these posts and obtaining fresh horses to Lieutenant-Colonel Banastre Tarleton, a young and energetic officer. Tarleton was short of stature, of a dark, swarthy complexion, and broad shouldered and muscular. He was insensible to fatigue, unscrupulous as to the means by which he accomplished his objects, merciless in battle, and unflagging in pursuit. He was one of the most efficient officers in the English army, and one of the most cruel. By purchase from friends and seizures from foes, he soon supplied Clinton with all the horses he needed. He then began his attempt to break up the American posts north of Charleston. On the night of the 14th of April, he surprised a body of fourteen hundred cavalry under General Huger and Colonel William Washington, at Monk's Corner, about thirty miles north of Charleston. The Americans were defeated with a loss of one hundred prisoners and four hundred wagons laden with stores. A little later Fort Moultrie surrendered, and soon after Tarleton cut to pieces another detachment of American cavalry. Charleston was now completely invested, and the siege was pressed with vigor by Clinton. Lincoln's situation became every day more hopeless. The fire of the British artillery destroyed his defences and dismounted his cannon, and as he was entirely cut off from the country he had no hope of relief from without. On the 9th of May, a terrible fire was opened upon the defences and the city of Charleston. The city was set on fire in five places, and the American works were reduced to a mass of ruins. On the 12th, Lincoln surrendered the towii and his army to Sir Henry Clinton. The prisoners, including every male adult in the city, Cumbered about six thousand men. The regulars were held as prisoners of war, but the militia were dismissed to their homes on their promise not to serve again during the war. Clinton followed up his capture of the city by a series of vigorous meas- ures. Tarleton was despatched into the interior to attack a Virginia regiment under Colonel Beaufort, which was advancing to the relief of THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 539 Charleston. Beaufort began his retreat as soon as he heard of the surren- der of Charleston, but was overtaken and surprised by Tarleton at Wax- haw's, on the boundary of North Carolina. The British had made a forced march of one hundred and five miles in fifty-four hours. They gave no quarter to the Americans, and put to the sword all who were unable to escape. Their barbarous conduct on this occasion was termed by the American's " Tarletoii's quarters." A second column was sent by Clinton towards Augusta, and a third towards Camden to reduce the country between Charleston and those points. They encountered but little resistance. Clinton issued a proclamation threatening to visit the severest punishments upon those who refused to submit to the royal authority ; and this was followed a little later by another, offering pardon to all who would return to their allegiance and assist in restoring the authority of the king. The measures of the British commander were entirely success- ful, and South Carolina was so completely subjugated that early in June, Sir Henry Clinton sailed for New York, leaving Lord Cornwallis to complete the conquest of the State. The country abounded in Tories, who exerted themselves actively to assist the British commander in his efforts to hold the Carolinas in subjection. Large numbers of them joined the British army, and " loyal legions " were formed in various parts of the country. The only resistance kept up by the Americans was maintained by the partisan corps of patriots led by Marion, Sumter, and Pickeus. The exploits of these daring bands caused the British commander to feel that he could not hold the Carolinas except by the aid of a strong force, and kept him in a state of constant uneasiness. On the 16th of August, Sum- ter defeated a large body of British and Tories at Hanging Rock, east of the Wateree river. Large numbers of negroes deserted their masters and fled to the British. In order to offer a definite resistance to the British, and to collect a regular army to oppose them, the Baron De Kalb was sent to take com- mand of the troops in the south, and all the regulars south of Pennsyl- vania were ordered to join him. De Kalb managed to collect about two regiments, and with these moved slowly southward. A lack of provisions forced him to halt three weeks on Deep river, one of the upper tributaries of the Cape Fear. Matters were so bad in the south that Congress resolved to send General Gates, the conqueror of Burgoyne, to take command of the army in that quarter. General Charles Lee, who knew that Gates was not the man to retrieve such losses, predicted that "his northern laurels would soon be changed into southern willows." Gates hastened southward, and overtook De Kalb at Deep river, and assumed the command. De Kalb 540 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. advised him to move into South Carolina by a circuitous route through the county of Mecklenburg, which was true to the patriot cause, and where provisions could be easily obtained. Gates declined to take his advice, and marched towards Camden by the direct route, which led through a barren and almost uninhabited region. He was sure that his wagons from the north laden with provisions would overtake the troops in two days; but he was mistaken : the wagons never made their appearance, and the troops suffered greatly from hunger and disease. His army increased every day by reinforcements from Virginia and North Carolina. On the 13th of August, he reached Clermont, about twelve miles from Camden. His force now amounted to nearly four thousand men, nearly two-thirds of whom were Continentals. Upon the approach of Gai^s, Lord Rawdon, the British commander in this part of the State, fell back to Camden, where he was joined by Corn- wallis, who had just arrived from Charleston, and who assumed the com- mand. On the night of the 15th, Gates moved nearer to Camden, and at the same time Cornwallis advanced to attack Gates, whom he hoped to surprise. The advanced guards encountered each other in the woods, and the two armies halted until morning. The battle began with dawn, on the 16th of August. The militia fled at the first charge of the British, but the Continentals, under the brave De Kalb, stood firm, though attacked in front and flank. At length De Kalb fell mortally wounded, and the Continentals gave way. The American army was completely routed, and was broken up into small parties and scattered through the country. These continued a disorderly retreat, closely followed for about thirty miles by Tarleton's cavalry, who cut them down without mercy. The battle of Camden was the most disastrous defeat incurred by the Americans during the whole war. They lost nearly eighteen hundred men in killed and prisoners, and all their artillery and stores. . A few days after the battle, Gates reached Charlotte, North Carolina, with about two hundred men, the remains of the army which his incapacity had ruined. A few days previous to the battle, Sumter surprised a detachment convoying stores to the British array at Camden, *and took two hundred prisoners. As soon as Cornwallis heard of this, he sent Tarleton in pur- suit of the " Game Cock," as he styled Sumter. Tarleton pushed forward with such vigor that half of his men and horses were broken down. He overtook Sumter at Fishing Creek, on the west bank of the Catawba, and routed him with the loss of the greater part of his partisan corps, and rescued the prisoners. All united and organized resistance to the British in the Carolinas now THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. r>\\ ceased for a time. The true policy of Cormvallis was to conciliate the people by acts of clemency, but instead of this he exasperated them by his unnecessary severity. Among the prisoners taken at the defeat of Sumter were a number who had given their parol not to serve during the war. Some of these were hanged on the spot ; the remainder were sub- jected to a severe imprisonment. These severities aroused a desire for vengeance among the people, and gave many recruits to Marion, who from the swamps of the lower Pedee maintained a constant and severe partisan warfare against the British. At the same time, Sumter by great exertions recruit- ed his command, and resumed his operations in the upper country. These bands were deficient in arms at first, but sup- plied themselves from the enemy. They made their gunpowder, own cast their own bullets, and pro- vided food themselves their horses, their rapid secret movements they kept the British in a state of constant alarm. They would make a sudden and unexpected attack upon the enemy at some exposed point, and before pursuit could be attempted would be miles away, or safe in the labyrinths of the swamps. Gates continued to retreat slowly to the northward after his defeat. He had now about a thousand men with him. Virginia and Maryland made great exertions to reinforce him, but without success. In September, Cornwallis advanced northward with the main body of his army. Upon reaching Charlotte he despatched Colonel Ferguson, one of his most trusted officers, to rally the Tories among the mountains GENERAL FRANCIS MARION. 642 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. in the interior. Cornwallis intended to advance from Charlotte by way of Salisbury and Hill.sborough into Virginia, and form a junction with a force to be sent to the lower Chesapeake by Sir Henry Clinton. The success of this movement would complete the subjugation of the south. The patriots in the country through which his army passed were very active. His expresses were captured or shot, and his plans made known to the Americans. While Ferguson was on the march, Cornwallis advanced to Salisbury. The movement of Ferguson roused the patriots of the interior counties to arms, and they assembled rapidly, with the intention of cutting him off from the army under Cornwallis. They came from all directions, BATTLE OP KING'S MOUNTAIN. from as far as Kentucky and Tennessee. Their weapons were their rifles, to the use of which they had been trained from childhood ; they had no baggage ; and they moved forward as rapidly as their horses could carry them. These forces had been gathering for several days before the rumors of their march reached Colonel Ferguson. He regarded the reports with distrust at first, but upon receiving more accurate information began a rapid retreat. About the same time the various parties of the Americans effected ajunction. They numbered three thousand men. A council of war was held, and it was resolved to send forward a detachment to bring Ferguson to a stand, and to follow with the main body as quickly as possible. Nine hundred men, mounted on swift horses, were sent forward, under THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 543 Colonel Campbell. They rode for thirty-six hours, a large part of the time through a drenching rain, and dismounted but once during this? period. Ferguson, alarmed and astounded at this determination to crush him, fell back to a strong position on King's mountain, near the Catawba. He was attacked there on the 7th of October by the Americans, and defeated after a hotly contested fight. Ferguson and about one hundred and fifty of his men were killed, the remainder were compelled to sur- render. The prisoners numbered about nine hundred and fifty, of whom about one hundred and fifty were wounded. The Americans lost twenty killed and a somewhat larger number wounded. The North Carolinians selected ten of the Tories who had earned their fate by their cruelties to the Americans, and hanged them on the spot. The Americans then separated and returned home, after seeing their prisoners safe in the hands of the proper authorities. Their victory raised the drooping spirits of their countrymen, and encouraged them to fresh exertions to resist the British. As soon as Cornwallis heard of it, he abandoned his forward movement, and, falling back into South Carolina, took position between the Broad and Saluda rivers. He remained there until the close of the year. Marion took advantage of the change of feeling caused by the victory of King's mountain to renew his operations on the Pedee, but Tarleton compelled him to withdraw to his fastness in the swamps. Sumter was more successful in the northern part of the State, and defeated a detach- ment sent in pursuit of him. - Tarleton then went after him in person, but was defeated and forced to retreat. Sumter was wounded in this engagement, and was compelled to withdraw from the field for several months. During this period his command, deprived of their leader, dis- banded. The contest in the Carolinas degenerated into a savage civil war. The patriots and Tories fought each other wherever they met, and destroyed each other's property throughout the State. The country was thus kept in constant terror. Upon the retreat of Cornwallis from Salisbury, Grates advanced south- ward as far as Charlotte. Here he "was relieved of his command by General Nathaniel Greene, who had been appointed by Congress, at the urgent solicitation of Washington, to take charge of the southern depart- ment. Gates had given great dissatisfaction by his failure in the south and Congress ordered a court of inquiry to examine into his condu Greene was placed in charge of the entire south from Delaware to Georgia, " subject to the control of the commander-in-chief." Thus Washington was given the supreme direction of the war. Greene possessed his entire confidence, and the most cordial and affectionate relations existed between them. Greene found the remnants of Gates' army in a half .mutinous 544 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. condition. The men were without pay, without clothing, and suffering for the necessaries of life. Reinforcements were sent him from the north, among which were Morgan's regiment of riflemen, Lee's legion of light- horse, and several batteries of artillery. We must now return to the army under Washington. As the spring opened the sufferings of the troops at Morristown increased. Food was SO scarce that the troops were driven to desperation. Two regiments of Connecticut troops declared their in- tention to abandon the army and march home, or wrest pro- visions from the peo- ple of the surround- ing country by force. W T ash ing ton was compelled to exert all his influence and authority to restore order. It was with great difficulty that provisions were pro- cured, and the wants of the troops sup- plied. The danger caused by this state of affairs was so great that Congress authorized Wash- ington to declare martial law. The news of these troubles in the American camp induced Knyphausen to undertake an expedition into New Jersey. He landed at Elizabethtown, with five thousand men, on the 6th of June, and marched towards Springfield. His advance was warmly contested by the militia of the region, but he penetrated as far as the village of Connecticut Farms. Being unable to advance farther he caused the village to be sacked and burned ; and Mrs. Caldwell, the wife of the minister of the village, was murdered by some of the British troops. The militia of the region gathered in force, and Knyphausen was obliged to make a hasty retreat to Elizabethtown. GENERAL NATHANIEL GREENE. THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 545 The murder of Mrs. Caldwell aroused the most intense excitement throughout New Jersey. It was denounced as one of the most infamous deeds of the war, and gave rise to a fierce and general spirit of vengeance. Her husband, an eloquent and highly esteemed minister, animated his countrymen by his stirring sermons, and he soon had the satisfaction of seeing that his labors were not in vain. After the return of Sir Henry Clinton to New York, Washington moved a part of his troops towards the Highlands. Knyphausen again advanced from Elizabethtown towards Springfield, hoping to gain the passes beyond Morristown before his march should be discovered. His advance was detected, however, and General Greene, who was in com- mand of the American forces, prepared to resist him. A sharp fight ensued, in which Greene succeeded in checking the British advance. The New Jersey regiment, of which Caldwell was chaplain, was engaged in the battle. The wadding of the men gave out, and Caldwell, mount- ing his horse, galloped to the Presbyterian church, and returned with an armful of Dr. Watts' hymn books, which he distributed among the troops, with the pious injunction, " Now put Watts into them, boys ! " The militia came flocking in to the support of General Greene, and Knyphausen finding it impossible to advance farther, burned Springfield and fell back to Elizabethtown. The Americans were greatly encouraged in the spring by the return of Lafayette, who had spent the winter in France. He had been success- ful in his endeavors to induce the French court to send another fleet and army to the assistance of the patriots ; and he now brought the good news that a new expedition was on its way to America. In July a fleet under Count de Tiernay, with an army of seven thousand men, under Count de Rochambeau, reached Newport. The Count de Rochambeau was directed by his government to place himself under the orders of General Washing- ton in order to avoid disputes that might arise from military etiquette. This expedition was the first division of the army to be sent to America by France. The second division was to sail from Brest, but was unable to do so, as it was blockaded in that harbor by a British squadron. Thus the supplies of arms and clothing which were to have been sent to the American army were delayed, and the troops under Washington were unable to cooperate with the French in an attack upon New York. An English fleet had followed the French across the Atlantic, and Clinton was anxious to secure its cooperation in an attack upon the French at Newport. He could not agree with Admiral Arbuthnot upon a plan of attack, and the English admiral contented himself with blockading the French in Newport harbor. Washington called out the militia of New 35 546 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. England to assist in the defence of Newport in case of an attack. The French fleet was shut up in this port, and to the great disappointment of Washington, was unable to take part in any combined operation. Some weeks later Washington, anxious to strike a decisive blow at the enemy, invited the French commanders, De Tiernay and Rochambeau, tc meet him at Hartford, to arrange a plan for an attack upon New York. The meeting was held, but it was decided to ask the cooperation of the French admiral in the West Indies, as the fleet at Newport was not strong enough to cope with the British fleet at New York. Until the answer of the admiral was received nothing could be done. While absent at Hartford a plot was discovered which involved the fair fame of one of the most brilliant officers of the American army. General Benedict Arnold had been disabled by the wounds he had received at Quebec and Saratoga from undertaking active service, and through the influence of Washington had been placed in command of Philadelphia after its evacuation by Clinton in 1778. There he lived in a style far beyond his means, and became involved in debts, which he was unable to pay. To raise the funds to discharge them he engaged in privateering and mer- cantile speculations. These were gen- erally unsuccessful, and merely in- creased his difficulties. His haughty and overbearing manner involved him in a quarrel with the authorities of Pennsylvania, who accused him before Congress of abusing his official position and misusing the public funds. He was tried by a court-martial and was sentenced to be reprimanded by the commander-iu-chief. Washington performed this disagreeable task as delicately as possible, but did not lose his confidence in Arnold. He knew him as an able officer, but, as his acquaintance with him was limited, was most likely ignorant of the faults of Arnold's character, which were well known tc the members of Congress from Connecticut, who had no confidence in him. To them he was known to be naturally dishonest, regardless of the rights of others, and cruel and tyrannical in his dealings with those under his authority. Arnold never forgave the disgrace inflicted upon him by the sentence of the court-martial, and cherished the determination to be revenged upon Washington for the reprimand received from him. THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 547 While in Philadelphia, Arnold had married a member of a Tory- family, and was thus enabled to communicate readily with the British officers. He opened a correspondence with Sir Henry Clinton, signing himself Gustavus. He kept up this correspondence for several months, and then made himself known to the British commander. In the mean- time, at his earnest solicitation, he was appointed by Washington, in August, 1780, to the command of West Point, the strongest and most important fortress in America. He did this with the deliberate intention of betraying the post into the hands of the enemy. The correspondence had been conducted on the part of Sir Henry Clinton by Major John Andre^ of the British army, a young man of amia- ble character and more than ordinary accomplishments. He wrote under the assumed name of John Anderson. He was an especial favorite of Sir Henry Clinton, and was beloved by the whole army in which he served. Soon after the appointment of Arnold to the command of West Point, Andr6 volunteered to go up the Hudson and have an interview with him for the pur- pose of completing the arrangements for the betrayal of that fortress. His offer was accepted by Clinton, and he ascend- ed the Hudson as far as Haverstraw in the sloop of war " Vulture." He was set ashore and was met near Hav- erstraw on the west bank of the Hud- Bon by General Arnold, on the 22d of September. The meeting took place about dark, and the night had passed before the arrangements were completed. Much against his will, Andr6 was compelled to pass the next day within the American lines. During the 23d the " Vulture," having attracted the attention of the Americans, was fired upon and forced to drop down the river. Andre* found the man who had set him ashore unwilling to row him back to the sloop, and he was compelled to return to New York by land. He changed his uniform for a citizen's dress, and, provided with a pass from Arnold, under the name of John Anderson, set out for New York along the east bank of the river, which he deemed safer than the opposite shore. All went well until Andre" reached the vicinity of Tarrytown. There he was stopped by three young men, John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wart. They asked him his name and destination, and he, supposing them to be Tories, did not use the pass given him by Arnoldj, 548 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. but frankly avowed himself a British officer travelling on important busi- ness. To his dismay he then learned that his captors were of the patriot party, and he offered them his watch, purse, and any reward they might name if they would suffer him to proceed. They refused to allow him to stir a step, and searched his person. They found concealed in his boots papers giving the plan of West Point, and an account of its gar- rison. Andre' was taken by his captors before Colonel Jamison, the com- mander of the nearest American post. Jamison recognized the hand- writing as that of Arnold, but, unwilling to believe that his commander could be guilty of treason, he detained the prisoner, and wrote to Arnold informing him of the arrest of Andr6 and of the papers found upon his person. The papers themselves he forwarded by a special messenger to Washington, who was on his return from Hartford. Arnold Deceived Colonel Jamison's letter as he sat at breakfast with some of his officers. He concealed his emotion, and excusing himself to his guests, called his wife from the room, told her he must flee for his life, and hast- ening to his barge, escaped down the river to the "Vulture," and was received on board by the com- mander of that vessel. From his place of safety he wrote to Washington asking him to 'protect his wife, who, he declared, was inno- cent of any share in his plot. When he learned that Arnold was safe, Andre' wrote to Washington, and confessed the whole plot. He was at once brought to trial upon the charge of being within the American lines as a spy. The court-martial was presided over by General Greene, and Lafayette and Steuben were among its members. Andre* asserted that he had been induced to enter the American lines by the misrepresentations of Arnold. He denied that he was a spy, and though cautioned not to say anything that might crim- inate himself, he frankly confessed the whole plot. He was sentenced upon his own confession to be hanged. Clinton made great exertions to save him, and Washington, whose sympathy was won by the amiable character of Andre*, was anxious to spare him. The circumstances of the case demanded that the law should be executed, and Andre* was hanged CAPTURE OF MAJOB ANDKE. THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 549 at Tappan. near the Hudson, on the 2d of October, 1780. Congress voted to each of his three captors a pension of two hundred dollars for life and a silver medal. The plot of Arnold had been discovered by the merest chance, and the American cause had narrowly escaped a crushing disaster. The loss of West Point would have given the British the entire control of the Hud- son, and have enabled them to separate New England from the Middlt and Southern States. It might have proved fatal to the cause, and cer- tainly would have reduced Washington to great extremities. Arnold WEST POINT IN 1875. received for his treachery the sum of ten thousand pounds sterling and a commission as brigadier-general in the English service. He was regarded with general contempt by the English officers, who refused to associate with him, and were greatly averse to serving under him. In the summer of 1780 it seemed likely that England would be involved in war with the whole civilized world. The claim of Great Britain to the right to search the vessels of neutral nations for article* contraband of war was productive of great annoyance to the northern powers, whose commerce was subjected to serious loss by these arbitrary 550 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. measures. Catharine II. of Russia determined to resist it, and organized with Denmark and Sweden a league known us the "Armed Neutrality," for the purpose of enforcing the principle that neutral ships in time of war are entitled to carry merchandise without being liable to search or seizure by the belligerent powers. Holland joined this league, and concluded a secret commercial treaty with the United States. This treaty was discovered by Great Britain almost immediately, and in the following manner : The American min- ister to Holland, Henry Laurens, was captured at sea by a British frigate. He threw his papers, the treaty among them, into the sea, but they were recovered by an English sailor, who sprang overboard and secured them. They were laid before the British government, which demanded that Holland should disavow the treaty and the correspondence with the United States. The Dutch government returned an evasive answer, and England immediately declared war against Holland. The English fleet at once proceeded to attack the Dutch possessions and commerce in all parts of the world. Holland declared war against Great Britain, and her fleet was added to that of France against England. Spain now made an alliance with France against England, and sent her fleet to cooperate with the French in the West Indies, and also laid siege to Gibraltar. The Irish about the same time demanded a reform of the many abuses from which that island had been suffering since the battle of the Boyne, and this demand was sustained by a force of eighty thousand armed Protestant volunteers which had been raised for the defence of Ireland against a threatened attack of the French. They demanded an independent parlia- ment, and even threatened a total separation from Great Britain. In the face of these difficulties the spirit of England rose higher than ever, ana that country, with a vigor worthy of her ancient renown, put forth all her energies to find a way out of her difficulties. The whole world was arrayed against her, but in the face of it she held her own. The heroism manifested by England at this trying period is worthy of the highest admiration. The American army passed the winter of 1780-81 in cantonments east and west of the Hudson. The Pennsylvania troops were stationed near Morristown, and the New Jersey regiments at Pompton. Though the troops were better provided with food than during the previous winter, their sufferings were still very severe. They were neglected by Congress, which was too much occupied with its dissensions to make any serious effort to relieve the wants of the soldiers. The Pennsylvania troops had an especial cause of complaint. Their enlistments were for three years or the war. The three years had expired, but the government refused to THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 551 discharge them on the ground that the enlistments were for the period of the war, no matter how long it should last. The troops on the other hand contended that the words u for the war " meant that the enlistments should expire if the war closed in less than three years. On the 1st of January, 1781, thirteen hundred Pennsylvania troops left the camp at Morristown under arms, and set off for Philadelphia, to obtain redress from Congress. General Wayne, their commander, placed himself in front of them, and, pistol in hand, attempted to stop their march. In an instant their bayonets were at his breast. " We love, we respect you," they exclaimed, " but you are a dead man if you fire. Do not mistake us ; we are not going to the enemy ; were they now to come out you would see us fight under your orders, with as much resolution and alacrity as ever." They halted at Princeton, where they were met by the agents of Sir Henry Clinton, who endeavored to induce them to join the British service. They promptly seized these men and delivered them up to General Wayne as spies. At a later period it was proposed to reward them for this action, but they refused to accept anything, saying : " We ask no reward for doing our duty to our country." Congress was greatly alarmed by the approach of these troops, and a committee, accompanied by Reed, the president of Pennsylvania, was sent to meet them. The committee met the leaders of the mutineers, and agreed to relieve their immediate wants, and to secure them their back pay by means of certificates. Permission was given to all who had served three years to withdraw from the army. Upon these conditions the troops returned to duty. The disaffection in the army was increased by the yielding of Congress. On the 20th of January the New Jersey troops at Pompton mutinied, but this outbreak was quelled by a detachment sent from West Point by Washington. The mutiny opened the eyes of the country to the sufferings of the army, and aroused all parties to the necessity of providing for the troops. It was clearly understood that a failure to sustain the army would result in the defeat of the cause. Urgent appeals were made by Congress to all the States, and especially to those of New England, to supply the wants of the army, and Congress endeavored to negotiate a loan abroad. Direct taxation was resorted to to provide money at once. The year 1781 opened with a military expedition under the command of the traitor Arnold, now a brigadier-general in the British service. Early in January he was sent by Sir Henry Clinton, with sixteen hun- dred British and Tories, from New York to the Chesapeake, to ravage the shores of Virginia. After plundering the plantations along the lower bay and the James, Arnold ascended that river, and landing his troops 552 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. marched to Richmond. Thomas Jefferson, then governor of Virginia, called out the militia, but only a handful responded. Arnold occupied Richmond, burned the public buildings and some private dwellings, and then re-embarked and dropped down the river to Portsmouth. Wash- ington was anxious to capture him, and sent Lafayette, with a force of twelve hundred men, southward, by land, to prevent Arnold from- escaping overland to join Cornwallis in the Carolinas, and at the same time the French fleet sailed from Newport for the Chesapeake to prevent the escape of the traitor by water. The British Admiral Arbuthnot fol- lowed the French fleet, and brought it to an engagement off the mouth of the Chesapeake. The French were worsted and obliged to return to Newport, and Admiral Arbuthnot entered the bay, and reinforced Arnold with two thousand British troops, under General Philips, who assumed the command at Portsmouth, and fortified his position there. From his camp he sent out de- tachments to ravage the country in all directions. La- fayette, in the mean- time, upon hearing of the failure of the plan, halted at An- napolis, in Maryland. Arnold, upon being superseded by Philips, returned to New York. Early in January Cornwallis, who was at Winnsborough, South Caro- lina, sent Colonel Tarleton, with a force of one thousand cavalry and light infantry, to cut off Morgan's division from the column under Gen- eral Greene. Morgan was between the Broad and Catawba rivers at the time, and upon hearing of Tarleton's approach began to retreat towards the Catawba. Tarleton pushed on with such speed that Morgan saw he must be overtaken. He accordingly halted, and took position at the ' Cowpens," about thirty miles west of King's mountain, and rested his men. Tarleton arrived in front of this position on the 17th of January, and made an impetuous attack upon the Americans. At first he drove the militia before him, but Morgan keeping his Continentals well in hand, suddenly wheeled upon him, and drove him from the field. The two forces were about equal. Morgan lost but eighty men, while the loss of the British was over six hundred. Tarleton escaped from the field with only a few of his cavalry. BATTLE OF THE COWPENS. THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 553 Cornwallis moved forward as soon as he learned of Tarleton's defeat. He supposed that Morgan would be encumbered with his wounded and prisoners, and would be slow in leaving the scene of his victory, and he hoped by a rapid march to come up with him, crush him, and rescue the prisoners before he could join General Greene. Morgan was much toe wary to be caught in such a trap. He felt sure Cornwallis would seek to avenge Tarleton's defeat, and leaving his wounded under a flag of truce, he resumed his retreat with all speed immediately after the battle, and hurrying towards the Catawba, crossed that river. Two hours after he had passed it the ad- vance of Cornwallis' army reached the bank of the river, but, owing to a sudden rise in the stream, were unable to cross it. The British were detained in this manner for two days, during which Morgan rested his men, and sent off his prisoners to a place of safety. Two days after the i passage of the Ca- HI tawba Morgan was joined by the troops under General Greene, who had heard of the victory of the Cow- pens, and was advanc- ing to the assistance of his lieutenant. Greene Was not yet strong enough to meet the British, and he continued the retreat towards the Yadkin. He moved slowly, and his rear-guard was still engaged in the passage of the Yadkin, when the advanced guard of Cornwallis reached that stream, on the 3d of February. Cornwallis had burned all his heavy baggage, and had reduced his army to the strictest light marching order, in the hope of being able to intercept Greene. A skirmish ensued on the banks of the Yadkin, and night coming on the British commander deferred the passage of the stream until the next day. During the night a heavy rain swelled the river so high that it could not GENERAL DANIEL MORGAN. 554 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. be forded, and the Americans had secured all the boats on the other side. Greene, profiting by this delay, hurried on to cross the Dan into Vir- ginia, where he could receive reinforcements and supplies. Morgan was left to cover the retreat of the army, but falling ill was obliged to relin- quish the command of the rear-guard to Colonel Otho H. Williams. Cornwallis passed the Yadkin as soon as possible, and strained every nerve to prevent Greene from crossing the Dan. He supposed the Ameri- cans would not be able to cross at the lower ferries, but would be obliged to pass the river higher up, where it could be forded. He therefore urged his army to its utmost exertions to secure these fords before the arrival of the Americans. Perceiving Cornwallis' error, Colonel Wil- liams retreated towards the upper fords, and so confirmed the British commander in his delusion. Having led the British sufficiently out of the way, Williams wheeled about, and by a rapid march of forty miles in twenty-four hours, down the river, rejoined Greene, who had moved with all speed to the lower ferries, where, in anticipation of his retreat, he had collected a supply of boats. The Dan was passed on the 15th of February, and the American army was safe from its pursuers. An hour or two later Cornwallis, who had discovered his mistake, and had marched with speed from the upper fords, appeared on the opposite bank of the river, only to see his adversary safely beyond his reach. The river was too deep to be forded, and Greene had all the boats in his possession. Cornwallis was deeply mortified at his failure to intercept Greene. He had pursued him for over two hundred miles, and had made great sacri- fices to come up with him, but the American commander had managed to elude him, and had successfully carried out one of the most brilliant retreats in history. The Americans regarded their escape as providen- tial ; and not without cause. Their way across the Carolinas might be tracked by the blood from their feet ; and twice, when the enemy had come within gunshot of them, the rising of the waters of the Catawba and the Yadkin, which they had passed in safety, had held back the British and enabled them to escape. After resting his men for a few days on the banks of the Dan, Cornwallis fell back to Hillsborough. Having received reinforcements, General Greene recrossed the Dan, about the last of February, and advanced into the Carolinas to watch Cornwallis and encourage the patriots of that region. Cornwallis, being short of supplies, moved slowly southward. Greene followed him cau- tiously, too weak to risk a battle, but ready to take advantage of the first error on the part of his adversary. His movements were conducted with the utmost circumspection, and in order to guard against a surprise he never remained in the same place more than one day, and kept secret THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 555 until the last moment the places he selected for his encampments. In the meantime he was gradually receiving reinforcements, from Virginia and Maryland, until his army numbered four thousand men. Feeling himself strong enough to attack the enemy, Greene left his baggage at a point of safety, and advanced to Guilford Court-house, seventeen miles distant, with the intention of bringing Cornwallis to a decisive engagement. Here he was attacked by Cornwallis, on the 15th of March, and after one of the hardest-fought battles of the war, was compelled to retreat. Greene withdrew in good order, and Cornwallis, though victorious on the field, was so sorely crippled that he was unable to make any pursuit, and was obliged to fall back to Wilmington, near the mouth of the Cape Fear river. By the time he reached that place, his army had been so much weakened by desertions, and losses in battle, that it amounted to but fourteen hundred men. Greene lost a thousand militia by desertion during his retreat, but was soon enabled to supply their places. He then moved into South Carolina for the purpose of attacking the British force under Lord Rawdon, which was posted at Camden. He advanced to Hobkirk's Hill, about two miles from Camden, where he was attacked, on the 25th of April, by Lord Rawdon. After a sharp engagement Greene was defeated, and obliged to retreat. He withdrew his army in good order, having inflicted upon his adversary a loss about equal to his own. Rawdon was unable to derive any advantage from his victory, as he could not bring Greene to another general engagement. The activity of the American partisan corps in his rear alarmed him for the safety of his communications with Charleston, and he abandoned Camden and fell back to Monk's Corner. In the meantime Lee, Marion, Pickens, and the other partisan leaders had broken up the fortified posts of the British with such success, that by the month of June, 1781, only three positions of importance remained to the British in South Carolina Charleston, Nelson's Ferry, and Fort Ninety-six, near the Saluda. The last-named position was of the greatest importance, and was held by a force of Carolina Tories. Lee and Pickens were sent against Augusta, Georgia, and captured it after a close investment of seven days. General Greene himself marched against Ninety-six, and laid siege to it. Being informed that Lord Rawdon was marching to relieve it, he determined to carry the fort by assault before Rawdon could arrive. The assault was made on the 18th of June, but was repulsed with severe loss. Greene then raised the siege and retreated across the Saluda. Early in July the excessive heat put an end to active operations on the 656 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. part of the two armies. Greene withdrew to the high hills of the Santee, and the British went into camp on the Congaree. A bitter partisan war- fare now sprung up between the patriots and the Tories, and continued through the summer. Houses were pillaged and burned, farms were laid waste, and no quarter was given by either party. Even women and children were included in these dreadful massacres. Lord Kawdon now resolved to add to the horrors of this warfare by executing as traitors those who had given their parole not to engage in the war, or had received a protection, if they should be taken in arms. Among the prisoners taken by the British, at the capture of Charleston, was Colonel Isaac Hayne, a distinguished citizen of that place. His wife was dying and his children were helpless, and he gave his parole to remain BATTLE OP EUTAW SPRINGS. neutral, in order to be able to take care of them, and was promised pro- tection. At a later period, the British commander being in need of reinforcements, Hayne was ordered to take up arms against his country in behalf of the king. He regarded himself as relieved from his parole by this (jommand, and soon after escaped from Charleston, and raised a partisan corps, at the head of which he was captured. He was con- demned to die as a traitor ; and though the inhabitants cf Charleston, both patriot and royalist, petitioned for his pardon, it was refused, and he was hanged, by order of Lord Rawdon, on the 5th of August. His execution was regarded by the Americans as cruel and unjust, and as con- trary to military law. General Greene felt himself obliged to retaliate by executing as deserters all these prisoners who had formerly served in his own army, and so bitter was the feeling of the American troops thai THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 657 they could scarcely be prevented from shooting the British officers who fell into their hands. Lord Ravvdon now sailed for England, and left the command of his army to Colonel Stewart, an officer of ability and experience. At the close of the summer General Greene, whose army had been increased by the commands of Marion and Pickens to twenty-five hundred men, resumed the offensive. He attacked the British at Eutaw Springs, on the 8th of September, and after a severely contested battb t^e left wing of the British was routed. In the moment of victory the American army stopped to plunder the enemy's camp, and the British taking advantage of the delay, rallied and made a stand in a large stone house, from which they could not be driven. Greene was forced to draw off his troops and leave the field to the British, who lost seven hundred men in the engagement. The American loss was five hundred men. Both sides claimed the victory ; but the advantage certainly was not with the British, who lost more than a third of their men. Colonel Stewart, in view of this loss, fell back to the vicinity of Charleston. Greene fol- lowed him as far as Monk's Corner, and then returned to the hills of the Santee. The American commander had abundant reason to be satisfied with the result of his operations in South Carolina. He had rescued the greater part of the State from the British, and had confined them to the region between the Santee and the lower Savannah. He had repeatedly engaged the enemy with the most inadequate means, and under the most unfavorable circumstances, and had never failed, even though defeated, to accomplish the object for which he fought. He had baffled the British commanders over again, and, like William of Orange, had managed to derive greater advantages from his reverses than his adversaries were able to draw from their victories. Washington was well pleased with the achievements, in the south, of his most trusted lieutenant. He was very anxious to attempt something decisive with his own army, if he could secure the aid of a French army and fleet. Two enterprises offered themselves to him an attack upon New York, which had been greatly weakened by detachments sent from its garrison to the south, and an expedition against Cornwallis. That commander had left Wilmington, on the 20th of April, and had advanced, without encountering any serious resistance, to Petersburg, Virginia. He arrived there on the 20th of May, and was joined by the troops under General Philips, who had been plundering the country along the James river. While Washington was hesitating which would be the best course to pursue, a French frigate arrived at Newport, with the Count de Barras ou board, who had come to take command of the fleet at Newport. H 558 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. brought the good news that a fleet of twenty ships-of-the-line, under the Count de Grasse, having on board a considerable force of troops, had sailed for America, and might be expected to arrive in the course of a few months. Washington held a conference with the Count de Ilocham- beau, at Weathersfield, Connecticut, and it was resolved to attack New York. The French army was to march from Newport and form a junc- tion with the Americans on the Hudson. A frigate was despatched to the West Indies to inform the Count de Grasse of this arrangement, and to ask his cooperation in the proposed attack. Sir Henry Clinton, who suspected the designs of Washington, now ordered Lord Corn wall is, who had crossed the James river, and was at Williamsburg, to send him a reinforcement of troops. Cornwallis pre- pared to comply with this order, and for that purpose marched towards Portsmouth, followed cautiously by Lafayette and Steuben, who had with them about four thousand American troops. On the march a slight engagement occurred, near Westover, between Lafayette and Cornwallis, in which the Americans narrowly escaped a defeat. The British army crossed to the south side of the James, and a detachment was embarked for New York. At this moment a second order was received from Sir Henry Clinton, who had received a reinforcement of Hessians from Eng- land, directing Cornwallis to retain all his force, choose some central position in Virginia, fortify himself in it, and await the development of the American plans. Cornwallis should have taken position at Ports- mouth, from which place his line of retreat to the south would have remained intact. In an evil hour for himself he recrossed the James, and crossing the peninsula between that river and the York, took position at the towns of Gloucester and Y'orktown, opposite each other, on the York river. He had with him an army of eight thousand effective troops, and proceeded to fortify his position with strong intrenchments. A number of vessels of war were anchored between Yorktown and Gloucester to maintain the communication between those points, and to assist in the defence of the place. During all this time the financial affairs of the republic were growing worse and more hopeless. The continental currency had become utterly worthless, one dollar in paper being worth only one cent in coin, at the opening of the year 1781. In the spring of that year Congress sought to put an end to its financial troubles by taking the control of the finances from a board which had hitherto mana-ged them, and intrusting them to Robert Morris, whose services in behalf of the cause have been men- tioned before. Morris was an experienced financier, and had opposed, with nil his energy, the system of making continental money a legal THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 559 tender. He now made a return to specie payments the condition of his acceptance of the trust imposed upon him by Congress. On the 22d of May, 1781, Congress most unwillingly resolved : " That the whole debts already due by the United States be liquidated as soon as may be to their specie value, and funded, if agreeable to the creditors, as a loan upon interest ; that the States be severally informed that the calculations of the present campaign are made in solid coin, and, therefore, that the requisitions from them respectively being grounded on those calculations, must be complied with in such manner as effectually to answer the pur- pose designed; that, experience having evinced the inefficacy of all attempts to support the credit of paper money by compulsory acts, it is THIS Bill entitles tk Bearer to Tece COKTIHENTAL BILLS. recommended to such States, where laws making paper bills a tender yet exist, to repeal the same." On the 31st of May continental bills, being ao longer a legal tender, ceased to circulate. Henceforth all transactions were to be in hard money. The result amply vindicated the wisdom of Morris' views. He induced Congress to establish the Bank of the United States, at Philadelphia, with a capital of two millions of dollars and a charter for ten years. This bank was allowed the privilege of issuing its own notes, which it was required to redeem in specie upon presentation. This requirement gained for the bank the confidence of the people, and capitalists availed themselves of it for the investment of their money. Morris used the bank freely in his public operations, and 560 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. at the same time used it so wisely that he was able to secure all the aid it was capable of bestowing without subjecting it to too severe a strain. He raised the credit of the government higher than it had ever stood before, and was able to do much towards paying the soldiers and supply- ing them with food and clothing. As often as the public funds failed, he pledged his own credit to supply the deficiency. No man did more to contribute to the success of the cause than. Robert Morris ; and no man SCENE IN THE HIGHLANDS OF THE HUDSON. received more ingratitude from the government and people of the Union than he. In July "Washington was joined, in the Highlands, by the French army Under Count de Kochambeau, and preparations were made to attack New York. An intercepted letter informed Sir Henry Clinton of this design, and he exerted himself to put the city in a state of defence. In the midst of his preparations Washington received a letter from the Count de Grasse, stating that he would sail for the Chesapeake instead of Newport. This decision of the French admiral compelled an entire change of plan on the part of the Americans. As De Grasse would not cooperate with them, they must abandon the attack upon New York, and attempt the THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 561 capture of Cormvallis at Yorktown. No time was to be lost in making the attempt, for it was now the month of August. By a series of skilful movements Sir Henry Clinton was induced to believe that an attack upon New York would soon be made, and at the same time the American irmy was marched rapidly across New Jersey, i'ol lowed by the Frcncli. Lafayette, who was in Virginia, was ordered to prevent at all hazards A retreat of Cormvallis' army to North Carolina, and was directed to ask assistance of General Greene, if necessary. The plan of Washington was to blockade Corn wall is in the York river by means of the French fleet, and at the same time to besiege him in Yorktown with the army. The troops were somewhat unwilling to undertake a southern campaign in August, but their good humor was restored at Philadelphia, where they received a part of their pay in specie, and a supply of clothing, arms, and ammunition, which had just arrived from France. From Phil- adelphia the combined armies proceeded to Elkton, at the head of the Chesapeake, where they found transports, sent by the French admiral and by Lafayette, to convey them to the James river. The first intimation Sir Henry Clinton had of a change in the American plans was the sudden sailing of the French fleet from Newport on tha 28th of August. Supposing that Be Barras's object was to unite with another fleet in the Chesapeake, Clinton sent Admiral Graves to prevent the junction. Upon reaching the capes the British admiral was aston- ished to find the fleet of the Count de Grasse, consisting of twenty ships- of-the-line, anchored within the bay. De Grasse at once put to sea as if to engage the enemy, but in reality to draw them off and allow De Barras to enter the Chesapeake. For five days he amused the English by con- stant skirmishing. De Barras at length appeared and passed within the capes and De Grasse at once followed him. Admiral Graves was unwill- ing to attack Lhis combined force and returned to New York. The movement of the American army to the south was known to Dlinton, but he supposed it was only a manoeuvre to draw him off of Man- hattan island into the open country. When the Americans were beyond the Delaware and the French fleets had effected their junction in the Chesapeake, he recognized his mistake and saw that the object of Washr ington was the capture of Cormvallis. It was too late to prevent it; but in the hope of compelling Washington to send back a part of his force tc lefend New England, Clinton sent the traitor Arnold with a large bod> jf troops to attack New London in Connecticut. On the 6th of Septem- ber Arnold captured that town and burned the shipping and a large part ^f the town. He then took Fort Griswold, on the opposite side of the Thames, by storm, and basely massacred CoJoueL I/^dyard, the commauder v 562 HISTORY Of THE UNITED STATES. ml sixty of the garrison after the surrender of the fort. The militia of the State were summoned to take up arms for its defence, and responded in such numbers that Arnold became alarmed for his safety and returned to New York. The object of his expedition failed most signally. Wash- i-.vton left New England to defend herself and continued his movement igainst Cornwallis. Cornwallis was very slow to realize his danger. He believed the small force under Lafayette the only command opposed to him, and on the 10th of September wrote to Clinton that he could spare him twelve hundred men for the defence of New York. He did not perceive his error until '.he French fleet had anchored in the Chesapeake and cut off his escape BURNING OF NEW LONDON, CONNECTICUT, BY ARNOLD, *>y water. He then attempted to retreat to North Carolina, as Waging; ton had foreseen, but Lafayette, who had been reinforced by three vftou- sand French troops under the Marquis de St. Simon, from the fleet of De Grasse, was too active for him, and finding his retreat impossible, Cornwallis sent urgent appeals to Clinton for assistance, and strengthened his fortifications. Tn the meantime the American and French armies descended th* Chesapeake, and took position before Yorktown, while the French flecl closed the mouth of York river. The siege was begun on the 28th of 6(-ptember. Sixteen thousand men were present under Washington** orders. Works were erected completely enclosing those of the British, aad on the 9th of October the cannonade was begun. It was continued THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 563 for four days, and the British outworks were greatly damaged, and several of their vessels in the river were burned by means of red hot shot thrown into them by the French vessels. On the 14lh two of the advanced redoubts of the enemy were stormed and taken, one by the Americans, the other by the French. From the positions thus gained a very destructive fire was maintained upon the English lines, which were broken in many places, while many of their guns were dismounted and rendered useless. On the 15th Cornwallis found himself almost out of ammunition, and unable to maintain his position but for a few days longer. In this strait the British commander resolved upon the desperate alternative of crossing the York to Gloucester, abandoning his sick and wounded and baggage, and endeavoring to force his way north- ward by extraordi- nary marches to New York. It was a hopeless under- taking, but Cornwal- lis resolved to make the trial. On the night of the 16th of October he crossed a part of his army from Yorktown to Gloucester, but a sudden storm delayed the passage of the river by the second division until after daylight, when.it was useless to make the attempt. The first division was with difficulty brought back to Yorktown, as the boats were exposed to the fire of the American batteries while crossing the river. Nothing was left to Cornwallis now but a capitulation, as his works weis in no condition to withstand an assault, and simple humanity to his men demanded that the contest should cease. He sent to Washington an offer to surrender and the terms were soon arranged. On the 19th of October Cornwallis surrendered his army of seven thousand men as prisoners of war to Washington, as commander of the allied army, and his shipping, seamen, and naval stores to the Count de Grasse, as the representative of the king of France. Washington despatched one of his aids to Philadelphia to communicate the good news to Congress. The officer pushed forward with all speed, and reached Philadelphia at midnight, and delivered his message. Soon the peals of the State-house bell roused the citizens, and the watchmen LAFAYETTE STORMING THE REDOUBT AT YORKTOWX. 564 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. took up the cry, " Cornwall is is taken ! Cornwallis is taken 1 " The peo- ple poured out into the streets in throngs, and no one slept in Philadel- phia that night. The next day Congress proceeded in a body to a church and gave thanks for the great victory. A national thanksgiving was ordered, and throughout the whole land rejoicings went up to God for the success which all men felt was decisive of the war. On the 19th of October, the day of the surrender of Cornwallis, Sir Henry Clinton sailed from New York to his assistance with a force of cieven thousand men. Off the capes he learned of the surrender of the British army at Yorktown, and as his fleet was not strong enough to meet that of the French he returned at once to New York. The news of the surrender of Cornwallis was received in England with SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. astonishment and mortification. It was the second time England had lost an entire army by capture, and her efforts to subdue the United States were no nearer success than they had been at the opening of the war. The English people had never regarded the attempt to conquer America with favor, and they now became more open and energetic in their demands for peace. " Lord North, the prime minister," says an English writer, " received the intelligence of the capture of Cornwallis as he would have done a cannon ball in his breast ; he paced the room, and throwing his arms wildly about, kept exclaiming, ' O God ! it is all over I it is all over ! ' ' The king and the aristocracy, however, had no thought of yielding yet to the popular pressure, and were resolved to carry on the war. After the surrender at Yorktown, Washington urged the Count de THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 555 Grasse to cooperate with General Greene in an attack upon Charleston. The French admiral declined to comply with his request, alleging the necessity of his immediate return to the West Indies. The French troops were quartered for the winter at Williamsburg, Virginia, and the Ameri- can army returned northward and resumed its old positions on the Hudson. Washington, though convinced that peace was close at hand, did not relax his vigilance, and urged upon Congress the necessity of preparing for a vigorous campaign the next year ; but so thoroughly was Congress carried away by the prospect of peace that his recommendations were unheeded. In the south the British and Tories were so disheartened by the sur- render of Cornwallis that they ceased active operations and evacuated all their posts but Savannah and Charleston. General Greene at once dis- posed his army in such a manner as to confine them closely to Charleston. In the Northern States the only place held by the British was New York. Though active operations had ceased on the part of the two armies, a cruel and destructive warfare was continued by the Indian allies of the British against the border settlements of Pennsylvania and Virginia, and a similar warfare was maintained by the Tories and Indians along the frontier of New York. These outrages involved the Christian Delaware * Indians in the punishment of the guilty savages. The Delawares had become converted to Christianity under the influence of the Moravian missionaries, and had removed from the Susquehanna to the Muskingum. They were suspected by the Americans of the crimes of their heathen brethren, and in the spring and summer of 1782 their towns were destroyed and numbers of them were slain. The war was carried into the country of the Wyandottes by the whites, but with less success. On the 6th of June a force of Pennsylvanians under Colonel Crawford was defeated by the AVyandottes. In the same summer a band of northern Indians led by Simon Girty, a Tory of infamous character, invaded Kentucky. They were mev, by the Kentuckians under Boone, Todd, and other leaders. A severe battle was fought at the Big Blue Lick, and the Kentuckians were defeated with the loss of nearly half their force. In the meantime the desire of the. English people for the close of the war had grown too strong to be resisted, and the king and his minister* were at length forced to yield. The impossibility of conquerinvas adopted, which had the most important influence GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES. apon the subsequent history of the country. The treaty of Paris fixed the Mississippi river as the western boundary of the United States. This river consequently became the western limit of Virginia, Con- necticut, and Massachusetts. In 1784 Virginia ceded to the general government of the United States her claim to the vast region owned by her beyond the Ohio. Massachusetts aria Connecticut soon followed her example, and New York also ceded her western territory to the govern- ment. In July, 1787, Congress organized this vast region as the terri- tory of the northwest. It was provided that slavery should never be permitted to exist in this territory, or in any of the States which might afterwards be formed out of it. This wise provision, which was the basis of the wonderful prosperity of this great region, was due to the foresight of Thonia. Jeiferson. The northwest being secured to freedom, emigra- WASHINGTON'S tion soon set in, and it began its great career of prosperity which hat since known no .slackening. It was provided by the constitution that when it should have bee.! ratified by two-thirds of the States, it should go into Deration on the 4th of March, 1789. Eleven of the States having ratified the constitution, eltx> tions ,vere held for President and Vice-President of the I uited States. and for members of Congress. New York was named as the seat of tlu, new government. The 4th of March, 1789, was ushered in with a pablic demonstration at New York; but a sufficient number of member,/ *jf Congress to form a quorum for the transaction of business did not arrive until the 30th of March. On the 6th of April the electoral votes were counted, and it was found that Ge^rgo Washington had been unanimously chosen first President of the United States, and John Adams Vice -Presi- dent. Charles Thomp- son, the oldest secre- tary of Congress, was sent to Mount Ver- non to notify Wash- ington of his election, and a messenger was despatched to Boston on a similar errand to Mr. Adams. Wash- ington promptly sig- nified his acceptance of the office, and, two days later, started for New York. It was his desire to travel as quietly and unostentatiously as pos- sible, but the people of the States through which he passed would not permit him to do so. His journey was a constant ovation. Crowds greeted him at every town with the most enthusiastic demonstrations of affection and confidence; triumphal arches were erected; his way was strewn with flowers by young girls ; and maidens and mothers greeted him with songs composed in his honor. In consequence of these demon- strations his progress was so much retarded that he did not reach New fork until tfia latter part of April. On the 30th of April Washington appeared on the balcony of "^dera? flail, New York, on the site of which the United ..tates Treasury now stands, and took the oath of office in the presence of ;he Senate and House of Representatives, and a large crowd of citizens assembled in the streets below. He then repaired to the Senate chamber, and there deliv- WASHINGTON RECEIVING THE INTELLIGENCE OP m ELECTION. $74 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ered an address to both houses of Congress, The organization of the government being now complete, Congress proceeded to arrange the executive department by the creation of the departments of state, the f-reasury, and wjir. President Washington appointed Thomas Jeffer- ion, secretary of state, Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury,. and General Henry Knox, secretary of war,, John Jay was made chief justice of the United States, and Edmund Randolph, attorney- general. The new government found itself face to face with many difficulties, the principal of which was the payment of the national debt. This debt was in the form of notes of the government, or promises to pay for value received. These notes had been issued by the States as well as by Con-' gress during the revolution, and had been given in payment for services rendered the general and State gov- ernments, and for supplies. In Jan- uary, 1790, Alexander Hamilton pro- posed to pay all these debts in full, and that the general government should assume the war debts of the States. This plan met with consider- able opposition at first, but was at length adopted. It was also arranged that the revenue of the country should be divided as follows : As the control of commerce had passed into the hands of Congress the revenue derived from the duties levied upon imported mer- chandise was to be applied to the uses of the general government. The proceeds of the direct taxes upon real estate and other property, which could be levied only by the respective States, were to be used for the expenses of those States. It had been for some time considered desirable to remove the seat of the federal government to some point more central than New York, and which could be brought under the supreme control of Congress. In 1790 it was resolved that the seat of government be fixed at Philadelphia for ten years, and at the end of that time be removed to a new city to be built on the banks of the Potomac. A federal district, ten miles square, was obtained by cession from Virginia and Maryland, and was place-3 under the sole control of the United States. The foundations of t nev/ city, named Washington, in honor of the " Father of his Country," were laid on the left bank of the Potomac, a short distance below the falls of PRESIDENT WASHINGTON, WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 575 hat river, and buildings for the accommodation of the general govern- ment were begun and pushed forward as rapidly as possible. The general governme-^ '^as removed to Philadelphia in 1791, and in December of that year the second Congress began its sessions in that city. The principal measure of this session was iie establishment of the Bank of the United States, in accordance with tiie recommendations of Alex ander Hamilton. The bank was chartered for twenty years, and ite capital was ten millions of dollars, of which the government took two millions, and private individuals the remainder. The measure \vas carried in the face of considerable opposition in Congress, but was very beneficial to the government, as well as to the general business of the country. The notes of the bank were payable in gold and silver upon presentation at its counters. Commerce now began to show signs of a great revival from the stagna- tion and loss caused by the war. The duties levied upon foreign goods gave to domestic manufactures an opportunity to place themselves upon a firmer foundation. Very great improvements were made in the character of American manufactures. In New England the weaving of cotton and woollen goods was begun, in a feeble way it is true, but the foundation vis laid of that great industry which has since been a constant and grow- ing source of wealth to that section. In 1790, the first census of the United States was taken, and showed the population to be 3,929,827 souls. The Indians of the northwest had been very troublesome for some time. The British agents in that region incited them to hostility against the United States, and urged them to claim the Ohio as their southern and eastern- boundary . They committed innumerable outrages along this river, and almost put a stop to the trade upon its waters by attacking and plunder- ing the flatboats of the emigrants and traders which were constantly de- scending the river. The general government resolved to put a stop to their outrages, and General Harmer was sent against them in 1790, but was de- feated with great loss. In 1 791 General St. Clair, the governor of the north- west territory, was placed in command of an expedition against the savages. He set out from Fort Washington, now Cincinnati, about the middle of September, with a force of two thousand men, but near the head waters of the Wabash was surprised and defeated by an Indian force under Little Turtle, a famous chief of the Miamis. The wreck of his army fled to Fort Washington, and the frontier was once more defenceless. President Washington now placed General Anthony Wayne in com- mand of the forces destined to operate against the Indians. With his usual energy Wayne assembled his army at Fort Washington, and in the 576 mSTORY OF Till UNITED STATES. summer of 1794 marched into the Indian country, laid it waste, an& defeated the Indian tribes in the battle of the Maumee on the 20th of August. In the summer of 1795, the Indians, cowed by their defeat, and alarmed by the withdrawal of the British from the frontier posts, met General Wayne at his camp on the Miami, and entered into a treaty with the United States by which they ceded all the eastern and southern part of Oiiio to the whites, and withdrew farther westward. In the elections of 1792 Washington and Adams were chosen President and Vice-President of the United States for a second term of four years. The disputes which had been begun by the adoption of the constitution had been continued during the first term of Washington's presidency, and had given rise to two political parties the Federalists, or those who favor BATTLE OP THE MAUMEE. a strong national government, and who supported the administration ; and Me Anti-Federalists, who opposed the policy of the administration. Among (he leaders of the Federalist party were Washington, Adams, Hamilton, \nd Jay ; among the Anti-Federalist leaders were Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe. The differences between Jefferson and Hamilton increased with time, and soon assumed the character of a personal hostility, a circumstance which was productive of great trouble to the president, since it prevented his cabinet from acting harmoniously. As the quarrel deepened, the Anti-Federalist party repudiated that title, and took the name of Repub- lican, as it better expressed their principles. The political questions entered largely into the second election, and prevented Mr. Adams from receiving the unanimous vote which was given to Washington. WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 577 Shortly after the commencement of Washington's first term of u3oe, the French revolution broke out, and drew upon France the attention of the whole world. The events of this great struggle were watched with the deepest interest in America, for the nation cherished the warmest senti- ments of gratitude to France for her aid in the revolution. The Repub- lican party urgently favored an alliance with the French republic, but Washington and the greater part of his cabinet were resolved to maintain a strict neutrality as to all European quarrels. The excesses of the revolutionists shocked the public sentiment of America, and the events of the reign of terror cooled the zeal of many of the most ardent friends of the French republic. Still party feeling ran high upon the subject, And the disputes were yet very bitter when Mr. Edmond Charles Genet, or " Citizen Genet," as he was generally styled, arrived in the United States, in 1793, as minister from the French republic. He brought the news that France had declared war against Great Britain. He was well received by the Republicans, who were anxious that the United States should become the ally of France and thus engage in a new war with Great Britain. Washington and his cabinet were unmoved by this clamor, and a proclamation was issued declaring the neutrality of the United States in the war between Great Britain and France, and warning the American people to refrain from the commission of acts inconsistent with this neutrality. The firmness of the president in resisting the demand for an alliance with France saved the country from innumerable losses, perhaps from the destruction of the work of the revolution. Genet, encouraged by the sympathy of the Republican party, was determined to embroil the United States with Great Britain to such an extent that they would be compelled to make common cause with France. He therefore began to fit out privateers from American ports agrinst the commerce of England. He was warned by the government that he was transcending his privileges ac the minister of a friendly powsr, but paid no attention to this rebuke. The Republican party now took a more active stand in favor of the French alliance, and its more ultra members assumed the name of Democrats, while others styled themselves Demo- cratic Republicans. The determination of President Washington not to interfere in the quarrels of Europe was vehemently assailed, and the news- papers of this party went so far as to denounce the president and his sup- porters as the enemies of France and the friends and secret supporters of their old oppressor, the king of England. Genet was greatly deceived by these clamors, which he mistook for the sentiment of the American people. He took a step further, and authorized the French consuls in the American ports to receive and sell vessels cap- 37 573 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. turecl by French cruisers from the English, with whom the United States were at peace. He also contemplated raising a force in Georgia and the Carolina* for the purpose of seizing Florida, and another in Kentucky for the conquest, of Louisiana, both of which regions were then held by Spain, a power friendly to the United States. The patience of the president having been exhausted by Genet's insolent conduct, Washington requested the French government to recall him, which it did in 1794, much to the astonishment of citizen Genet. M. Fauchet was appointed in his place. Genet did not return home, but became a citizen of the United States. The impunity with which Genet had braved the federal government gave rise to fears that it was not strong enough to enforce its authority. Advantage was taken of this feeling in an unexpected quarter. The fertile region of western Pennsylvania, watered by the Monongahela and its tributaries, had been settled by a hardy population, chiefly of Scotch- Irish Presbyterians, who had with great labor and amid constant exposure to the attacks of the Indians, redeemed the land from the wilderness, and covered it with thriving farms and orchards. Grain and apples and peaches were their staple products j the grain was distilled into whiskey, and the fruits were made into brandies. One of Hamilton's favorite measures for the raising of a revenue was the imposition of an excise or duty upon whiskey. This tax was generally unpopular throughout the country, but especially so in the four western counties of Pennsylvania. The settlers of this region organized themselves in secret societies for the purpose of resisting this tax, and at length, in 1792, rose in rebellion against the government, refused to pay the tax, and drove off the excise officers. The best men in this section were engaged in the rebellion, and it was openly proposed to separate from Pennsylvania and form a new State. Nearly seven thousand armed men assembled, and declared their intention to resist the authority of the State and federal governments. Matters remained in this condition for about two years, and at length Washington, finding it necessary to employ force for the suppression of the revolt, sent a strong body of troops to compel the rebels to submit. Upon the appearance of the troops, the leaders of the movement fled, and the "Whiskey Insurrection" suddenly came to an end. This vigorous itftion of the federal government greatly added to its strength. The fidelity with which Washington sought to discharge his duty towards England, as a neutral, was but little appreciated by the govern- ment of that country, which conducted itself towards the United States in a manner that seemed likely to result in another war. By the treaty of Paris England had agreed to surrender the frontier posts held by her forces within the limits of the United States. These were still retained, WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 579 and were made by the British agents so many centres for stirring up the Indians to acts of hostility against the Americans. Orders were issueu to the British naval officers to seize and detain all vessels laden with French goods, or with provisions for any of the French colonies. As the American ships were largely engaged in trade with France and her colonies, this order threatened the commerce of the States with ruin. The feeling of indignation against England, caused by these outrages, was increasing throughout the Union, and the country was rapidly drift- ing into a war with that kingdom. The interests of the United States demanded peace with all the world, as the country was yet too weak ami unsettled to endure another war with safety. This necessity was recog- nized by Washington and his advisers, and the constant aim of the presi- dent was to avoid, as far as possible, all complications which might lead to war. The conduct of Great Britain could not be passed by, and if a settlement of the matter, consistent with the honor and interests of the republic could not be arranged, war was inevitable. Anxious to exhaust all peaceful means of settlement, President Wash- ington sent John Jay, the chief justice, to England to enter into negotia- tions with the British government for the settlement of all matters in dispute between the two countries. Mr. Jay was eminently qualified for the task, both by his remarkable abilities and his great and honorable services to the country since the outbreak of the revolution. lie was received in England with great respect, and in the course of a few months concluded a treaty, which was submitted to the Senate of the United States for ratification. By the terms of this treaty Great Britain agreed to give up the western posts within two years, to grant to Ameri- can vessels the privilege of trading with the West Indies upon certain conditions, and to admit American ships free of restrictions to the ports of Great Britain and the English East Indian possessions. On the othe* hand provision was made by the United States for the collection of debts due British merchants by American citizens. This treaty did not please any party entirely, not even Mr. Jay him- self; but it was the best that could be obtained from Great Britain at the time, and as such was accepted by the administration, which threw all its influence in favor of its adoption. It met with very great opposition in .'the Senate, and subjected the president to a great deal of adverse criticism throughout the country. After a fortnight's debate in secret session the Senate advised the ratification of the treaty. The acceptance of this treaty, imperfect and unsatisfactory as it was, secured peace to the United States for a number of years at this most critical period of its history. In 1795 treaties were also negotiated with Spain, by which the bound* 580 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. vies between the United States and Louisiana and Florida were definitely settled. The navigation of the Mississippi was made free to both parties, and the Americans were granted the privilege of making New Orleans, for three years, a place of deposit for their trade. The commerce of the United States, M'hich was increasing rapidly, was confined chiefly to the New England States. A lucrative trade with the countries of Europe bordering the Mediterranean had grown up, but was greatly interfered with by the Algerine pirates, who sallied out from their harbors on the African coast and captured many of the vessels engaged in this trade, and sold the crews into slavery. The European powers had purchased exemption from these outrages by paying an annual tribute to the Dey of Algiers. The United States for the present thought it best to follow the universal custom, and ransomed the captive American sailors by the payment of nearly a million of dollars. At the same time the more sensible policy of establishing a navy for the protection of American commerce was resolved upon, and in 1795 a bill was passed by Congress for the construction of six first-class frigates. This was the beginning of the United States navy. Mr. Jeiferson had retired from the cabinet at the close of 1793, and after his withdrawal party quarrels ran higher than ever. The motives and conduct of the president were denounced with great bit- terness by his opponents, and he was subjected to considerable annoyance by these attacks. He continued, with firmness, the course he had marked out for himself, trusting to time and the good sense of his countrymen for his vindication. In September, 1796, he issued a farewell address to the people of the United States, in which he announced his purpose to retire from public life at the close of his second term, and delivered to his countrymen such counsels and admonitions as he deemed suited to their future guidance. It was the warning of a father to his children engaged in a difficult and all-important undertaking. It had a most happy effect. It brought up the memory of the great and unselfish services of Wash- ington, and enabled his countrymen to see him in his true light. The gratitude of the nation, which had been long obscured by party passion, burst forth in a mighty stream, and from every quarter came evidences of the affection and veneration of the American people for their great leader. Congress adopted a reply to the farewell address, expressing the highest confidence in the wisdom and integrity of Washington, and COAT OF ARMS OF VERMONT. WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 681 during the winter of 1796-97 nearly all the State legislatures adopted similar resolutions. At the elections held in the fall of 1796 the Federalists put forward John Adams as their candidate, while the Republicans supported Thomas Jefferson. The contest was very bitter, and resulted in the electiou of Mr. Adams. Mr. Jefferson, receiving the next highest number of votes, was declared Vice-President, in accordance with the law as it then stood. During the administration of President Washington three new Slates were admitted into the Union, making the whole number of States six- MOTTNT VERNON. teen. They were Vermont, which was admitted on the 4th of March, 1791, making the first new State under the constitution; Kentucky, which was admitted in 1792; and Tennessee, admitted on the 1st of June, 1796. At the close o his term of office, Washington withdrew to his home at Mount Vernon, to enjoy the repose he had so well earned, and which was so grateful to him. His administration had been eminently success- ful. When he entered upon the duties of the presidency the government was new and untried, and its best friends doubted its ability to exist long; 582 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the finances were in confusion and the country was burdened with debt ; the disputes with Great Britain threatened to involve the country in a new war ; and the authority of the general government was uncertain and scarcely recognized. When he left office the state of affairs was changed. The government had been severely tested and had been found equal to any demand upon it j the finances had been placed upon a safe and healthy footing, and the debt of the country had been adjusted to the satisfaction of all parties concerned in it. The dis- putes with England had been arranged, and the country, no longer threatened with war, was free to devote its energies to its improvement. Industry and commerce were growing rapidly. The exports from the United States had risen from nineteen millions to over fifty-six millions of dollars, and the imports had increased in nearly the same proportion. The rule of non-interference in European quarrels, and of cultivating friendly relations with all the world, had become the settled policy of the republic, and its wisdom had been amply vindicated. The progress of the republic during the eight years of Washington's administration '#!& indeed gratifying, and gave promise of a brilliant future. CHAPTER XXXII. THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF JOHN ADAMS AND THOMAS JEFFERSON. Inauguration of John Adams Aggressions of France upon the United States The American Commissioners Insulted by the French Government The Alien and Sedition Laws The United States Prepare. for War with France France Signifies her Willing- ness to Treat New Commissioners appointed Settlement of the Dispute Hostilities at Sea Capture of the " Insurgente" and " Vengeance" Death of Washington Removal of the Capital to Washington City The Second Census Inauguration of Thomas Jeffer- son The President's Message His First Measures Admission of Ohio Louisiana Purchased by the United States War with the Barbary Powers Burning of the" Phila- delphia" Re-election of Mr. Jefferson Aaron Burr Kills Alexander Hamilton in a Duel Burr's Subsequent Career Fulton's Steamboat Outrages of England and France upon American Commerce American Vessels Searched and American Seamen Im- pressed by England Efforts to Settle these Questions Affair of the "Chesapeake" and " Leopard " The Embargo Results of this Measure Losses of the Eastern States Election of James Madison to the Presidency Repeal of the Embargo Retirement of Mr. Jefferson. the 4th of March, 1797, John Adams was inaugurated President of the United States, and Thomas Jefferson took the oath of office as Vice-President. Mr. Adams was in the sixty-second year of his age, and in the full vigor of health and intellect. He made no changes in the cabinet left by President Washing- ton, and the policy of his administration corresponded throughout with that of his great predecessor. He came into office at a time when this policy was to be subjected to the severest test, and was to be triumph- antly vindicated by the trial. Mr. Adams began his official career with the declaration of his "determination to maintain ]>eace and inviolate faith with all nations, and neutrality and impartiality with the belligerent powers of Europe." The relations of the United States with France had been of an un- friendly nature for some time. Jay's treaty had greatly offended the French government, and the insolent conduct of M. Ade't, the French minister to the United States, had led to a suspension of diplomatic intercourse between the two republics. The French Directory now proceeded to manifest its disregard of the rights of America by ordering the seizure of all American vessels in its ports laden with English manufactured goods. 583 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. At the same time the American minister to France, Charles C. Pinckney, was treated with such studied insult that he demanded his passports and withdrew to Holland. Privateers were sent out from French ports, which captured American merchantmen and treated their crews as prisoners of war. France also exerted her influence with Spain and Holland to in- duce them to treat the United States with hostility because of the alleged partiality of Jay's treaty with Great Britain. All this while there was a considerable party in the United States which was anxious for the conclu- sion of an alliance with France, and which either could not, or would not, see the deliberate purpose of that country to treat with the American republic only as a dependent. In May, 1797, President Adams called a special session of Congress and laid before it a statement of the relations with France. The announcement of the insults received by the American minister at the hands of the Directory and the increased aggressions upon American commerce, aroused a feeling of deep indignation throughout the country, and drew upon the partisans of France in America a considerable amount of deserved odium. In the hope that a peaceful and honorable settlement might yet be had, John Marshall and Elbridge Gerry, the former a Federalist and the latter a Republican, were appointed special com- missioners, and were ordered to proceed to Paris and unite with Mr. Pinckney in the negotiation of a treaty which should not conflict with those JOHN ADAMS. existing with other nations, and which should place beyond question the right of the United States to maintain their neutrality. Marshall and Gerry joined Pinckney in Paris in October, 1798, and made their business known to the French minister of foreign affairs, the famous Talleyrand. He at first refused to receive the American envoys in an official capacity, and afterwards employed unknown agents to communicate with them, in order that he might be free to disavow any engagement entered into with them. It soon transpired that the object of these secret interviews was to extort money from the commissioners. They were given to understand that if they would pay Talleyrand a certain sum of money for the use of himself and his friends, and would pledge the United States to make a loan to France, negotiations would be begun without delay. The answer of the American commissioners was well expressed in the indignant words of Pinckney : " Millions for defence, not one cent for tribute." Marshall ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 585 and Pinckney were ordered to quit France at once, but Mr. Gerry was invited to remain and negotiate a treaty. He was nevertheless unable to accomplish anything. The correspondence between the commissioners and Talleyrand's agents was published in the United States, and aroused such a storm of indignation that the French party disappeared. It never dared to make its appearance again. About thirty thousand French exiles were residing in the United States at this time, and it was believed by the government that some of these had acted as spies for the Directory. It was known that many had abused the hospitality extended to them by seeking to induce the people of the south and west to join them in an effort to wrest Louisiana and Florida from Spain, and by endeavoring to strengthen the opposition to the efforts of the government to discharge its duty of neutrality towards the European powers. In the spring of 1798, in order to remedy this trouble, Congress passed the measures known as the " alien and sedition acts," by the first of which the president was empowered to order out of the country "any foreigner whom he might believe to be dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States." By the sedition act it was made a crime with a very heavy penalty for any one to" write, utter, or publish" any "false, scandalous, and malicious writing" against " either House of the Congress of the United States or the president of the United States, with intent to defame, or to bring them, or either of them, into contempt and disrepute." These acts met with great opposition throughout the country, and the latter especially was regarded as an effort on the part of the government to destroy the freedom of the press. The alien act was not executed, but a large number of foreigners left the country soon after its passage. Several persons were prosecuted under the sedition act for their severe criticisms of the government, and the result was invariably to increase the ranks of the Republican party, which steadfastly opposed the laws as unconstitutional and violative of the free- dom of the people of the Union. In the summer of 1798 Mr. Marshall returned from France, and his report confirmed the statements that had been made respecting the hostile intentions of the government of that country. The president submitted to Congress a statement of the disputes between the two republics, and Congress, recognizing the danger of war, began to prepare for it. It was resolved to create a navy, and the three frigates just completed were fitted for sea. The president was authorized to have built, or to purchase or hire twelve ships of war of twenty guns each. An army was ordered to be raised, and the prominent points on the coast were to be placed in a state of defence. Washington was made commander-in-chief of the ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 53 7 army, with the rank of Lieutenant-Geueral. He accepted the position and applied himself with energy to the task of preparing the country for defence. He gave a hearty support to the measures of the president, and used his great influence to secure for them a similar approval on the part of the people. In the winter of 1798-99 Congress appropriated a million of dollars to defray the expense of the military preparations, and authorized the construction of six ships of war of seventy-four guns each, and six sloops of war of eighteen guns each. The energy and enthusiasm with which the Americans prepared for war opened the eyes of Talleyrand. He had not supposed they would fight, and now that he found they would, he was not willing to add to the difficulties of France by engaging in a new war. He therefore signified in an informal manner to Mr. Van Murray, the United States minister in Holland, that the French government was willing to renew diplo- matic intercourse with the United States. Mr. Adams, upon being in- formed of this, resolved to make one more effort to secure a peaceful settlement of the quarrel. He sent Oliver Ellsworth, Chief Justice of the United States, William R. Davie, and William Van Murray, minister to Holland, as commissioners to treat with the French republic for a settlement of all differences between the two countries. In taking this step he greatly offended many of the leaders of his party, who insisted that overtures for peace should come from France. The most rational and probable solution of Mr. Adams' course, in the absence of direct proof, says the Hon. A. H. Stephens, " is that he acted under the urgent private advice of Washington. Be that as it may, it proved to be one of the wisest and most beneficent deeds of his life." The commissioners were ordered by the president not to enter France unless they were assured that they would be received in a "manner befitting the commission- ers of an independent nation." Upon reaching Paris the commissioners found that a great change had taken place in the affairs of France. A revolution had unseated the Directory, and Napoleon Bonaparte was at the head of the government as first consul. Commissioners were appointed to meet the American envoys, and negotiations were begun and carried forward with such suc- cess that on the 30th of November, 1800, a treaty of peace was signed between the United States and France. In the meantime, though war was not actually declared, hostilities had begun. More than three hundred merchant vessels were licensed to carry arms for their defence. On the 9th of February, 1799, the American frigate " Constellation " captured the French frigate " L' Insurgente," of about equal force, after a severe engagement of an hour and a quarter, 588 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. inflicting upon her a severe loss in killed and wounded. Somewhat later the "Constellation" encountered the French frigate " La Vengeance," of superior force, and in an engagement of about five hours duration silenced her fire and inflicted upon her a loss of one hundred and fifty-six men in killed and wounded. The French vessel succeeded in making her escape. These successes were very gratifying to the Americans, as they showed what their navy could accomplish if given a fair trial. The news of the conclusion of peace put a stop to hostilities. The army was disbanded, but the navy was kept afloat, and the coast defences were maintained. Before the arrival of the news of the treaty the country was called THE SUSQUEHANNA ABOVE HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA. upon to mourn the loss of its most illustrious citizen, George Washington. He took cold while riding over his estate at Mount Vernon, and was O seized with a violent sore throat, from the effects of which he died on the 14th of December, 1799, in the sixty-eighth year of his age. He was buried in his family vault at Mount Vernon, where his ashes still lie. The highest honors w r ere paid to his memory by Congress, and by the various State governments, and in all parts of the Union a universal mourning was held for the Father of his Country. Not less sincere were the tributes paid in foreign lands to the memory of the illustrious dead. Upon the receipt of the sad news the flags of the Channel fleet of Great ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 589 Britain were placed at half-mast by order of the Admiral Lord Bridport. Napoleon, then first consul of France, caused the standards of the French army to be draped in mourning for ten days, and announced the news to the army in the orders of the day. The proudest tribute of all to the grandeur and purity of the character of Washington is the unceas- ing and ever increasing love and veneration with which his memory is cherished by his countrymen. During the summer of the year 1800 the seat of the general govern- ment was removed from Philadelphia to the new federal city of Wash- ington, in the District of Columbia. On the 22d of November, the session of Congress was opened in the unfinished capitol at Washington. The elections for president and vice- president were held in the autumn of 1800. Mr. Adams was the Federalist candidate for the presidency, and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney the candi- THOMAS JEFFERSON. date of that party for vice-president. The Republican or Demo- cratic party nominated Thomas Jefferson for the presidency, and Colonel Aaron Burr, of New York, for the vice-presidency. The alien and sedition laws had rendered the Federalist party so unpopular that the electors chosen at the polls failed to make a choice, and the election was thrown upon the House of Representatives, according to the terms of the Consti- tution. On the 17th of February, 1801, after thirty-six ballots, the House elected Thomas Jefferson President, and Aaron Burr Vice-Presi- dent, of the United States, for a term of four years from and after the 4th of March, 1801. The second census of the United States, taken in 1800, showed the population of the country to be 5,319,762 souls. Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States, was inaugurated at the new capitol, in the city of Washington, on the 4th of 590 ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 591 March, 1801. He was in his fifty-eighth year, and had long been regarded as one of the most illustrious men in America. He was the author of the Declaration of Independence, had represented the country as minister to France, had served in the cabinet of General Washington as secretary of state, and had filled the high office of vice-president during the administration of Mr. Adams. He was the founder of the Democratic party, and was regarded by it with an enthusiastic devotion which could see no flaw in his character. By the Federalists he was denounced with intense bitterness as a Jacobin, and an enemy of organized government. He was unquestionably a believer in the largest freedom possible to man, but he was too deeply versed in the lessons of statesmanship, and was too pure a patriot to entertain for a moment the levelling principles with which his enemies charged him. Under him the government of the republic suffered no diminution of strength, but his administration was a gain to the country. Mr. Jefferson began his administration by seeking to undo as far as possible the evil effects of the sedition act of 1798. A number of per- sons were in prison in consequence of sentences under this act at the time of his inauguration. .These were at once pardoned by the president and released from prison. At the meeting of the seventh Congress, in December, 1801, President Jefferson, in pursuance of an announcement made some time before, inaugurated the custom which has since prevailed of sending a written message to each House of Congress, giving his views on public affairs and the situation of the country. Previous to this the president had always met the two houses upon their assembling, and had addressed them in per- son. A strong Democratic majority controlled this Congress, and gave a hearty support to the president. The obnoxious measures of the last administration, such as the internal taxes, the taxes on stills, distilled spirits, refined sugars, carriages, stamped paper, etc., were repealed. In accordance with a suggestion of the president the period of naturalization was reduced from fourteen to five years. Measures were also set on foot for the redemption of the public debt, and it was provided that seven millions three hundred thousand dollars should be annually appropriated as a sinking fund for that purpose. Another act, of which the wisdom was not so apparent, was passed for the reduction of the army. During the interval which had elapsed since the organization of the Territory of the Northwest, emigrants had been pouring into the southern and eastern part of it with great rapidity. In one year twenty thousand new settlers were added to the population of the Territory of Ohio. The population had now become so large that the eastern part of the North- 592 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. west Territory applied for admission into the Union as a separate State. Its request was granted, and on the 19th of February it was admitted into the Union as the State of Ohio, with a population of seventy thousand. In 1801 France by a secret treaty received back from Spain the Terri- tory of Louisiana. The French did not occupy the country, but left it under Spanish rule. In 1803 the Spanish governor of New Orleans, in violation of the treaty of 1795, closed the port of New Orleans to American commerce. This act aroused the most intense indignation among the people along the tributaries of the Mississippi, who were thus cut off from the sea, and it was with difficulty that they could be re- strained from an attempt to take possession of Louisiana. Mr. Jefferson had long been anxious to obtain for the United States the country bordering the lower Mississippi, as he was convinced that the power holding the mouth of that river must of necessity control the great valley through which it flows. Accordingly, Robert R. Livingston, the American minister at Paris, was ordered to open negotiations with the French government for the purchase of Louisiana. He found this an easier task than he had ex- pected, for Napoleon, who was on the eve of a great European war, COAT OF ARMS OF OHIO. wag much . Q ^^ Q f money> an( J was by no means anxious to add to his troubles by being obliged to de- fend Louisiana. A bargain was soon concluded by which the United States became the possessors of the whole region of Louisiana, from the Mississippi to the Pacific, embracing over a million of square miles. The United States paid to France the sum of $15,000,000 for this immense region, and guaranteed to the then inhabitants all the rights of American citizens. " This accession of territory," said Napoleon, upon the comple- tion of the purchase, "strengthens forever the power of the United States, and I have just given to England a maritime rival that will sooner or later humble her pride." This purchase was of the highest importance. It about doubled the area of the United States, and placed the whole valley of the Mississippi within the territory of the republic. It was naturally a most popular tict, and was approved by the entire nation, with the exception of a small number of the old Federalist leaders. Congress divided this great regio r into two territories the Territory of Orleans, corresponding to the pres- ent State of Louisiana, and the District of Louisiana, comprising the remainder of the purclr ADMIXISTRATIOXS Of ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 593 Mention has been made of the payment of tribute to the dey of Algiers by the United States during the administration of Washington. Previous to 1301 the United States expended nearly two million dollars in pur- chasing exemption from capture for its merchant vessels in the Mediter- ranean. These payments were made to all the Barbary powers, Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers, and Morocco. As the American republic lay at the other side of the Atlantic, and its ships of war were not often seen in the Mediterranean, the African pirates did not trouble themselves to comply with their agreements, and continued their outrages upon American shif in spite of the tribute paid them. In 1801 the bey of Tripoli, dissatisfied with the tribute paid him, d LAFAYETTE SQUARE, NEW ORLEANS. clared war against the United States, and a number of American wa. vessels were sent to the Mediterranean to protect the commerce of their country in that sea. In 1803 Commodore Preble was sent to the Mediterranean with a fleet. The frigate " Philadelphia" was stationed to blockade Tripoli, while Pr ble, with the remainder of the vessels, sought to punish tr- emperor of Morocco by an attack on Tangiers. While thus engaged the " P' delphia" ran ashore in chasing an Algcriiie cruiser. In (his helpless condition she was surrounded bv Tripolitan gunboats and captured after a fight which lasted ihe entire day. Captain Bainbridge, her commander, and three hundred of her crew were made prisoners. The officers were held for ransom, but the seamen were reduced to slavery. On the 5th of February, 1804, Lieu- 38 594 HISTORY CF THE UNITED STATES tenant Stephen Decatur, with a picked crew of seventy-six men, entered the harbor of Tripoli in a small schooner named the " Intrepid." Placing his vessel alongside of the *' Philadelphia " by night, he boarded the frigate as she lay under the guns of the castle and the Tripolitan fleet, drove the Turkish crew into the sea, set fire to the frigate in every part, and retreated from the harbor without the loss of a man. During the year 1804 the American fleet repeatedly bombarded Tripoli and did con- siderable damage to it. The war went on until the summer of 1805, when the bey of Tripoli asked for peace, and a treaty was made by which the Tripolitan pirates surrendered their captives on payment of a ransom, and agreed to refrain from aggressions upon the commerce of the United States in future without payment of further tribute. For some vears the American vessels were safe from the outrages of the Barbary pirates. In the fall of 1804 Mr. Jefferson was elected president for a second term, but this time C lonel Burr was dropped by his party, who nomi- nated and elected George Clinton, of New York, vice-president in his place. Burr had at last experienced the reward of his insincerity : both parties had come to distrust him. After his defeat for the vice-presi- dency he had been nominated by his party as their candidate for governor of New York. He was warmly opposed by Alexander Hamilton, who was mainly instrumental in bringing about his defeat. Burr never for- e^ive Hamilton for his course in this election, and took advantage of the fi.st opportunity to challenge him to a duel. They met at Weehawkcn, on the banks of the Hudson opposite New York, on the llth of July, 1804. Hamilton, who had accepted the challenge in opposition to his better judgment, and who had expressed his intention not to fire at Burr, was mortally wounded, and died within twenty-four hours. In him per- ished one of the brightest intellects and most earnest patriots of the republic. His loss wao regarded as second only to that of Washington, and the sad news of his death was received in all parts of the country with profound and unaffected sorrow. A feeling of deep and general in- dignation was aroused against Burr, who found it expedient to withdraw from New York and retire to Georgia until the excitement had subsided. The murder of Hamilton, for it was nothing else, closed Burr's politi- cal career. His remaining years were passed in restless intrigue. In 1805 he went west, and there undertook the organization of a military movement of some sort, which from the secrecy with which it was con- ducted, was generally regarded as treasonable, and intended for his own aggrandizement. In 1806 he was arrested b* r the United States, and after a prolonged trial, during which he defended himself with great ability. ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AXD JEFFERSON. 595 he was acquitted of the charge of treason. His subsequent career was obscure, and he died in 1836, friendless and alone. He was a man of great ability ; but he failed to put his great talents to an honest use. In the year 1807 a great change was made in the system of navigation by Robert Fulton, a native of Pennsylvania, who built and successful ly navigated the first steamboat. He named it the "Clermont," and made the voyage from New York to Albany, a distance of about one hundred and fifty miles, in thirty-six hours. From this time steam navigation rapidly superseded the old system of sailing vessels in the waters of tlie United States, and exercised a powerful influence in the development of the wealth and prosperity of the country. Since the beginning of the century France and England had been at war with each other, and their quarrels had drawn the wb .>le European world into the struggle. The administration of Mr. Jefferson had con- tinued the neutrality of its predecessors, but in a fit of mistaken economy had exhibited the greatest hostility to the navy, wl.iui had been reduced to the most inefficient state possible. The oommerce of the Union had grown with remarkable rapidity, and the need of a vy for its protection was now greater than ever. The administration could not be brought to recognize this fact, however, and it regarded the navy as of no other use than to enforce the revenue laws in its home waters. The general character of the European war had thrown the commerce of the old world into the hands of the few nations which were not en- gaged in the struggle. The United States btained the largest share of this trade, but were not left long to enjoy it in peace. The efforts of Great Britain and France to injure each other caused them to extend their attacks to neutral nations. The British government, by its " orders in council," declared all vessels engaged in conveying West India pro- duce from the United States to Europe legal prizes. This measure was intended to cripple France, and at the same time to injure the United States, which had become too successful a commercial rival to England. ' O A number of American vessels were seized and condemned upon this pre- text. Great indignation was expressed throughout the United States but the government did nothing to remedy the trouble. In May, 1800, Great Britain declared the European coast, from Brest to the mouth of the river Elbe, in a state - f blockade, thus forbidding neutral vessels tc trade with any port within these prescribed limits, on pain of capture and confiscation. This high-handed measure was a direct blow to the United O States. It was met on the part of France by an act equally unjustifiable. Napoleon issued his famous "Berlin decree," by which he declared the whole coast of Great Britain in a state of blockade, and forbade the intro- 506 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. duction of English goods into France, and the admission into French ports of any neutral vessel that should first touch at an English port. In answer to this decree Great Britain forbade all trade with France by neutral nations. Napoleon thereupon issued his ' Milan decree," confis- cating not only the vessels and cargoes that should violate the " Berlin decree," but also such as should submit to be bcarchcd by the English. Thus the commerce of the world was placed at the mercy of these two nations. The United States were the chief sufferers by these arbitrary measures. Their ships were captured by both British and French cruisers, and their remonstrances produced no cessation of the outrages. It was not possible to do anything for the protection of the commerce of the country, as the mistaken policy of the administration had deprived it of an efficient navy. The whole Atlantic seaboard demanded a change in this respect, and petitions poured in upon Congress asking for the con- struction of more vessels of war, and for protection from the aggressions of the European powers. The only result of these petitions was a recom- mendation from the president to Congress to build more gunboats. It was not' possible to go to war with both England and France, and the American government was left to make a choice as to which power it would undertake to settle the question with. The popular feeling was stronger against England, which, being the most active power at sea, was the principal aggressor, and the events to be related finally turned the scale against England. The British government maintained the doctrine that no subject could expatriate himself, or become a citizen of another country. This was the opposite of the view held by the United States, 'which welcomed emigrants from other countries, bestowed upon them the rights of citizen- ship, and in their new character of adopted citizens protected them. The commanders of the British men-of-war were accustomed to stop American vessels on the high seas and search them for deserters. Under this head they included all persons born within the dominions of Great Britain, whether naturalized American citizens or not. When found on American vessels, these persons were removed by force and compelled to serve on board English ships of war. The British officers did not confine these impressments to "deserters," but seized and forced into their service great numbers of native-born Americans, who were thus torn from their homes and consigned to a slavery which was bitter and cruel to them. The government of the United States addressed urgent remonstrances to that of Great Britain against these outrages, and finally, in the spring of 1806, sent William Pinckney as joint commissioner with James Mon- roe, then minister to England, for the purpose of negotiating a treat% ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 597 which should put a stop to the acts complained of. The commissioners appointed by Great Britain expressed the desire of their country not to impress American seamen, and their willingness to redress as promptly as possible any mistake of the kind. They declined to relinquish the right to search for deserters, as it would be ruinous to the English navy. The truth is Great Britain treated her seamen with such cruelty that they would have deserted by the thousand had they been assured of protection from arrest. The British commissioners declared that while their country would not relinquish the riglit of search and impressment, strict orders would be issued to their naval commanders to use the right with caution A NEW JERSEY FRUIT FARM. and moderation. The British government itself was sincerely desirous of conciliating the United States, but its naval commanders, tempted by the weakness of the American navy, paid no attention to its orders and conducted themselves with haughty insolence towards American vessels, seizing and searching them, and forcing men from their decks with the same activity as before, aim rarely missing an occasion to insult the flag of the republic. Meanwhile the commissioners concluded a treaty for ten years between the United States and Great Britain. It was on the whole more advantageous than Jay's treaty, but the president was not 593 HISTORY OF THE U SITED STATES. satisfied with it, and assumed the responsibility of rejecting it, in the spring of 1807, without submitting it to the Senate. A British naval eommander now ventured upon an act which threw the relations between the two countries into a more hopeless state than ever. The United States frigate " Chesapeake," 38, under the command of Commodore Barron, was about to sail for a European station. Strict orders were issued to her officers not to enlist any British subject, know- ing him to be such : but it was said that four of her crew were deserters O ' from the British frigate " Melampus." Several British war vessels were lying in the Chesapeake bay, and one of these, the " Leopard," a fifty- gun frigate, put to sea a few hours before the "Chesapeake" sailed. The latter vessel sailed before she was fully ready for sea, and the work of getting the ship in order was still in progress, when she was hailed off the capes by the " Leopard," under the pretence of sending despatches to Europe. A lieutenant of the British frigate came on board and de- manded the surrender of the four men we have mentioned. Commodore Barron refused the demand on the ground that there were no such men on board. The lieutenant then returned to his ship, and the "Leopard" opened fire upon the " Chesapeake " and killed three of her men and wounded eighteen others. The " Chesapeake" was utterly unprepared for resistance, and Barron struck his colors after a single gun had been fired. The four men were taken from the " Chesapeake," the " Leopard " sailed for Halifax, and the American frigate returned to Norfolk. The news of this outrage excited the profoundest indignation through- out the country. On the 2d of July, 1807, the president issued a proc- lamation ordering all British vessels of war to depart from American waters, and the people were warned against holding any intercourse with them. A special session of Congress was called, and the American minister at London was ordered to demand satisfaction for the outrage. The British government had received information of the affair before the arrival of the American demand. The action of the commander of the " Leopard " was disavowed, and a special messenger was sent to the United States to arrange the matter. Great Britain disclaimed the right to search vessels of war, and the excitement was quieted for a time. In December, 1806, as the outrages upon American commerce were continued, Congress, at the recommendation of the president, passed the " Embargo Act," by which all merchant vessels of the United States were prevented from leaving the ports of this country. This measure entirely put an end to the intercourse between the United States and the European nations. It was hoped by the president and the friends of the measure that it would compel Great Britain and France, by the loss of ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON. 599 our trade, to put a stop to their arbitrary measures. Its only effects were to cause very heavy loss to the mercantile interests of this country, and to produce a general discontent throughout the Eastern and Middle States. Thousands of persons were thrown out of employment by the .enforced idleness of the ships, and many of tiicse turned their attention to manufacturing pursuits, which received a decided impetus; so that some good grew out of the embargo, after all. In the election of 1808 Mr. Jefferson, following the example of Wash- ington, declined to be a candidate for a third term, and the Democratic O * ' or administration party supported James Madison for the presidency, and George Clinton for the vice-presidency. They were elected by large majorities; but the effect of the embargo was seen in the casting of the electoral votes of the five New England States against the administration. The disaffection of the New England States induced Mr. Jefferson, just before the expiration of his term of office, to recommend to Congress the repeal of the embargo act. His opinion was unchanged as to the pro- priety of the embargo, but he recommended its repeal as a measure of peace and conciliation. The law was re- pealed on the 1st of March, 1809, and in the same month Congress passed an act pro- hibiting trade with France and England. At the close of his term of office Mr. Jefferson withdrew from public life, and retired to his home at Monticello, in Vir- ginia. The wisdom and success of the general policy of his administration had far outweighed his mistakes, and he retired from office with undiminished popularity, and with the respect and confidence of the nation. Indeed his popularity was greater at the close of his administration than at the beginning a rare and gratifying reward to a public servant. His great services in the revolution, his draft of the Declaration of Independence, his acquisition of Louisiana, and the purity and grandeur of his character, placed him, in the public estimation, next to Washington. AARON BCRR. CHAPTER XXXIII. THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES M'ADISON THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND. Inauguration of Mr. Madison Negotiations with Mr. Erskine Their Failure Seizure of American Vessels in France Sufferings of American Ship-Owners Great Britain Sta- tions her Ships of War off American Ports Affair of the " President" and " Little Belt" Trouble with the Northwestern Indians Tecumseh Battle of Tippecanoe Meeting of the Twelfth Congress Measures for Defence Admission of Louisiana into the Union Death of George Clinton The British Ultimatum War Declared against Great Britain Opposition to the War The British Offer of Settlement Rejec'ed The War for "Free Trade and the Sailors' Rights" Mr. Madison Re-elected Campaign of 1812 Preparations for the Invasion of Canada General Hull Surrenders Detroit to the British Loss of the Northwestern Frontier Failure of the Attack on Queenstown Exploits of the Navy Capture of the "Guerriere" by the "Constitution" The Priva- teers Russia offers to Mediate between the United States and England Financial Affairs Harrison's Campaign Massacre at the River Raisin Defence of Forts Meigs and Stephenson Perry's Victory on Lal>e Erk Battle of the Thames Death of Tecumseh Recovery of the Northwest Capture of York British Attack on Sackett's Harbor Repulsed Removal of General Dearborn Failure of the Campaign on the Lower Lakes The Creek War Jackson's Victories Naval Affairs The British Out- rages in Chesapeake Bay Negotiations for Peace Capture of Fort Erie Battles of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane Siege of Fort Erie Successes of the Americans Advance of Prevost Battle of Plattsburgh Macdonough's Victory on Lake Champlain Battle of Bladensburg Capture of Washington Destruction of the Public Buildings by the British Attack on Baltimore Death of General Ross "The Star-Spangled Banner" The British Attack on the New England Coast Opposition of New England to the War The Hartford Convention The British in Florida General Jackson expels them Jackson at New Orleans Arrival of the British Expedition off the Coast Vig- orous Measures of Jackson Battle of New Orleans Defeat of the British Naval Affairs The Treaty of Peace The Barbary Powers Humbled The Tariff Tin; Bank of the United States Admission of Indiana James Monroe elected President. ) [AMES MADISON, the fourth president of the United States, was inaugurated at Washington on the 4th of March, 1809. He was in the fifty-eighth year of his age, and had long been one of the most prominent men in the Union. He had borne a distinguished part in the convention of 1787, and was the author of the Virginia resolutions of 1786, which brought about the assembling of this convention. He had entered the convention as one of the most prominent leaders of the national party, which favored the 600 THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 601 consolidation of the States into one distinct and supreme nation, and had acted with Randolph, Hamilton, Wilson, Morris, and King, in seeking to bring about such a result. When it was found impossible to carry out this plan Mr. Madison gave his cordial support to the system which was finally adopted by the convention ; and while the constitution was under discussion by "the States, he united with Hamilton and Jay in earnestly recommending the adoption of the constitution by the States, in a series of able articles, to which the general title of the " Federalist" was given. After the organization of the government Mr. Madison was a member of the House of Representatives, and was regarded as one of the leaders of the Federalist party, and gave to Hamilton his cordial support in the finance measures of that minister. Towards the close of Washington's administration, however, Mr. Madison's political views underwent a great change. He was a near neighbor and warm friend of Mr. Jefferson, and was greatly influenced by the opinions and the strong personal character of that great states- man. As the political controversies of the time deepened, he became more and more in- clined towards the Republican or "Strict Con- struction " party, and in Mr. Adams' admin- istration took his position as one of the lead- ers of that party. At the time of his election to the presidency, Mr. Jefferson having with- drawn from public life, Mr. Madison Avas the recognized leader of the Democratic party, as the Republican party had come to be called. In 1799 his famous report upon the Virginia resolutions of 1798 stamped him as one of the first statesmen in America ; and this report has always been regarded by succeeding generations as the most masterly exposition of the true prin- ciples of the constitution ever penned. During the whole of Mr. Jeffer- son's administration Mr. Madison served as secretary of state, and not only added to his great fame by his eminent services in that capacity, but prepared himself for the difficult duties of the presidency. Mr. Madison had opposed the embargo, while sustaining the general foreign policy of Mr. Jefferson, but was in favor of the non-intercourse act, which forbade the country to trade with England and France. This act contained a clause, which provided that it should cease to apply to either or both of them as soon as they should repeal their " decrees," or " Vders in council," affecting the commerce of the United States. Mr. Erskine, the British minister to the United States, a man of noble JAMES MADISON. THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. G03 and generous character, was anxious that the differences between the two countries should be settled amicably, and he entered heartily into negotia- tions with the American government for this purpose. In accordance with the instructions he had received from England, he believed himself author- ized to inform the American government that the "orders in council" of Great Britain would be revoked by that government, as far as thoy applied to the commerce of the United States, and to offer " a suitable provision for the widows and orphans of those who were killed on board the ' Chesa- peake.'" Upon these assurances the president, on the 19th of April, 1810, issued a proclamation suspending the non-intercourse act, as to SUPERIOR STREET, CLEVELAND, OHIO. England, after the 10th of June following. The news was received with joy all over the country, and in the course of a few weeks over one thousand vessels sailed from the United States, laden with American products, for foreign ports. They had hardly gotten to sea when the president was informed by the British government that Mr. Erskine had exceeded his powers in promising the withdrawal of the "orders in council." The president immediately issued a second proclamation, with- drawing his first, and matters resumed their old footing. Mr. Krskine was recalled, and a Mr. Jackson was appointed in his place. The failure of the negotiation with Erskine had greatly mortified not only tho j.n-i- dcnt and his cabinet, but the whole nation, and Mr. Jackson was coldly 604 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. received. That gentleman adopted a tone and style in his correspondence with the secretary of state, which were so offensive that the president refused to hold communication with him, and demanded his recall. All diplomatic intercourse between the two countries thus came to an end. The outrages upon American commerce continued. Danish pri- vateers almost drove the American merchantmen from the Baltic. American ship-owners asked permission to arm their vessels for their own defence, a the government had not a navy sufficient to protect them ; but their petition was refused by Congress on the ground that such a state of 'affairs would be equivalent to war. The sentiment of the people of the country was rapidly settling in favor of war, and they could see little difference between the existing state of affairs and open hostilities. France was equally guilty with Great Britain. In the spring of 1810 Napoleon issued a decree by which any American vessel entering any port of France, or of any country under French control, was made liable to seizure and confiscation. The decree was held back for six weeks after its date, with the deliberate design of involving as many American ships as possible in the ruin intended for them. The first intimation given to the United States of its existence was the seizure of one hun- dred and thirty-two American ships in the French ports. They were shortly afterwards sold with their cargoes, and added the sum of eight millions of dollars to the French treasury . The government of the United States remonstrated against this high-handed outrage; but to no purpose, until Napoleon's want of money induced him to adopt a more honest course. About the middle of the year 1810 the American minister at Paris was informed that the Berlin and Milan decrees were revoked, and would cease to have effect after the 1st of November of that year. In accordance with this information the president, on the 1st of November, 18!0, issued a proclamation suspending the non-intercourse act with respect to France, and announcing that the provisions of the act would be continued with respect to Great Britain unless her "orders in council" should be revoked within three months from that date. The president also called the attention of the British government to the repeal of the French decrees, and as the " orders in council " were based upon these decrees, urged their repeal. Great Britain replied that the evidence of the revocation of the Berlin and Milan decrees was insufficient, and that the non-intercourse acts of Congress and the president's proclamation were partial and unjust. This answer was regarded in the United States as evidence of Great Britain's deliberate intention to continue her ot - rages upon this country, and very greatly increased the popular desire for THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. 605 war. England persisted in her determination to enforce her " orders in council," and even went to the inexcusable length of stationing her war vessels off the principal harbors of the United States for the purpose of intercepting our merchantmen. While matters were in this unsettled condition the American frigate "President," on the evening of the 10th of May, 1811, encountered a strange vessel off the mouth of the Delaware. As the dusk of the evening was too deep for Commodore Rodgers to distinguish the stranger's nation- ality, he hailed her, and was insolently answered by a gun from her. He re- plied with a broadside, and after an action of twenty minutes the stranger was disabled. Rodgers then hailed again, and was answered that the dis- abled vessel was the British sloop of war " Little Belt." She was greatly damaged, and had thirty-two of her crew killed and wounded. The " President" was scarcely injured, and had but one man slightly wounded. A different statement of the affair was rendered to his government by each cf the commanding officers, and was accepted by each government. In this conflict of testimony, the matter was suffered to pass by. The news of the prompt chastisement of the insolence of the British commander was received with delight in the United States, and the affair was generally regarded as, in some measure, an* atonement for the disgrace of the surren- der of the " Chesapeake " to the " Leopard," The Indians of the northwest were becoming very troublesome, and their aggressions were attributed to the instigation of the British in Canada. Tecumseh, a Shaw-nee chief of unusual abilities, attempted to unite the Indians of the continent in a grand effort against the Americans, and for this purpose passed from tribe to tribe, from the great lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, and urged them to take up the hatchet. He was assisted by iiis twin brother Elskwatawa, generally called " the Prophet," who appealed to the superstitious fears of the savages by his juggler)'. The federal government determined to strike a blow at the savages before their plans for union could be brought to a successful issue. In the autumn of 1811, Major-General William Henry Harrison, theu governor of Indiana Territory, was sent to operate against the tribes on the Wabash. He took with him a body of Kentucky and Indiana militia, and one regiment of regular troops. On the 6th of November he arrived at the junction of the Tippecanoe and Wabash rivers near the town of the Prophet, the brother of Tecumseh. The Prophet sent several of the principal Indian chiefs to meet Harrison with offers of submission, They informed him that the Prophet would come into camp the next day, and make a treaty with him. Harrison suspected that the purpose of the IndiaiiS w r as simply to gain time, and that they would probably seek to COG HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATE*. surprise him during the night, and accordingly caused his men to bivouac on their arms that night. His precautions were well taken. About four o'clock on the morning of November 7th the savages made a furious attack on the American camp. They were promptly received, and after a severe conflict of several hours were put to flight. Tecumseh was not present in this engagement. General Harrison followed up his victory by destroying the Prophet's town, and building some forts for the pro- tection of the country. The battle of Tippecanoe quieted the Indians of the northwest for a while, but greatly increased the desire of the people f that region for war with England. In view of the threatening condition of affairs the, president by his OSWEGO, N. Y., IN 1875. proclamation convened the twelfth Congress in session a month earlier than usual, and that body met on the 4th of November, 1811. It was remarkable, as was also its successor, the thirteenth Congress, for the number of its members who afterwards took their places among the great men of the republic. The public men of the revolutionary period \vcic> dropping out of political life, and new men, with new ideas, were takinir their places in the councils of the nation. Among the new members ot Congress were Henry Clay, a native of Virginia, but a representative from Kentucky, John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, John Randolph of Vir- ginia, Felix Grumly of Tennessee, Josiah Quincy of Massachusetts, and THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. CC7 Langdon Cheeves and William Lowndes of South Carolina. There was a large administration majority in both Houses, and the prevailing senti- ment of Congress was in favor of war with England. In this respect Congress fairly reflected the feeling of the country. Under the influence of this feeling, Congress during this session voted to increase the regular army to thirty-five thousand men, and authorized the president to accept the services of fifty thousand volunteers, and to call out the militia whenever occasion might require. The vessels of the navy were ordered to be fitted for sea, and new ships were to be con- structed. There was need for these measures, as the army at the time consisted of but three thousand men, and the navy of less than twenty frigates and sloops of war in commission, and about one hundred and fifty gunboats for harbor defence. The third census, taken in 1810, showed the population of the country to be 7,239,903. During this winter the government detected and laid before Congress an effort of Great Britain to produce disaffection in the New England States, with a view to secure their withdrawal from the Union. The agent of this plot was one John Henry. The committee appointed by Congress to investigate the matter mm ' m TrmTW" nnmrf Wfg- COAT OF ARMS OF LOUISIANA. presents to the mind of the committee conclusive evidence that the British government, at a period of peace, and during the most friendly professions, have been deliberately and perfidi- ously pursuing measures to divide these States, and to involve our citizens in all the guilt of treason and the horrors of civil war." Amid these troubles the State of Louisiana was admitted into the Union on the 8th of April, 1812. Shortly afterwards that portion of the Louisiana purchase lying outside of the limits of the State of Louisiana was organized into the Territory of Missouri. On the 20th of April, 1805, George Clinton, the vice-president of the United States, died at Washington, at the age of seventy-three. His place was filled by William H. Crawford, of Georgia, the president pro tempore of the Senate. On the 30th of May, 1812, the British minister at Washington deliv- ered to the government of the United States the final reply of his gov- ernment to the demands of this country in the questions at issue between them. This ultimatum was submitted to Congress by the president on the 1st of June, accompanied by a message in which he recapitulated the CA$ON OF THE LODOBE AND GBEEXE RIVERS, WYOMING TEEEITOBY. G08 THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND. 609 wrongs inflicted by Great Britain upon this country, her violations of the rights of neutrals, her impressment of American seamen, her seizures of American ships, and her refusal to enter into any equitable arrangement for the settlement of these questions. The determination of Great Britain to drive American commerce from the seas was evident, and the questicn was submitted to Congress whether the United States should continue to submit to these outrages, or should resort to war to protect their rights. After a debate of several days, an act declaring war against Great Britain was passed by Congress, and was approved by the president on the 18th of June, 1812. On the 19th the president issued a proclamation declar- ing that war existed between the United States and Great Britain and her dependencies. Congress authorized the president to enlist twenty-five thousand men for the regular army, to raise a force of fifty thousand volunteers, and to call out one hundred thousand militia for garrison duty. General Henry Dearborn, of Massachusetts, was appointed to the chief command of the army. The war measures of Congress were not passed without considerable opposition. A large party, composed of some of the ablest and best men in that body, was opposed to the war, and resented the effort to go to war with England alone. They claimed that France had given as good cause for war, but that nothing was said of punishing her. This was true, but this party lost sight of the fact that the United States could not go to war with both powers, and were compelled to direct their efforts against the principal offender, which was clearly England. The war was re- garded as .an administration measure, and though it was sustained by a large majority of the American people, there was still a strong and respectable party, especially in the New England States, which opposed it, and which .claimed that all peaceful means of settlement had not yet been exhausted. John Randolph, of Virginia, opposed the declaration of war in a speech in the House of Representatives remarkable for it&. boldness and vigor, and declared that h"e had no hesitation in saying that, he should prefer a contest with France to one with England. Soon after the declaration of war England made an effort to settle the controversy with the United States by negotiation. In September, 1812; Admiral Warren, commanding the British fleet at Halifax, addressed -a- letter to Mr. Monroe, the secretary of state, informing him that he was authorized by his government to enter into negotiations for a cessation of hostilities upon the basis of a revocation of the "orders in council." Mr. Monroe replied that the president was willing to enter into an armistice provided Admiral Warren had power and was willing to include in the negotiations measures for the discontinuance of the practices of seizing 39 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and searching American vessels and impressing American sailors frotii their decks, as experience had shown that no peace between the two countries could be lasting which did not include a settlement of thes^ questions. As Admiral Warren had no authority to enter into these questions the president declined to proceed further, and the effort at negotiation came to an end. It has been held by many that the rejection by the president of the British overture was a grave error. John Ran- dolph thought that all the questions at issue, save the right of a British subject to expatriate himself and receive American protection, could be settled by negotiation. That point he did not believe England would ever concede. His opinion was to some extent vindicated by the uncon- ditional revocation of the French decrees, and the immediate repeal of the British " orders in council " upon the receipt of the news of this revocation. These measures were repealed within a month after the declaration of war by the United States. The only cause of the war remaining unsettled was the impressment question. The war thus became a struggle for the personal freedom of American sailors ; and in a better cause no nation ever drew the sword. The weakness of the American navy made it impossible for this coun- try to attempt any distant enterprise against Great Britain, and it was not believed by even the most enthusiastic Americans that we could con- tend with her upon terms of equality at sea. The only means by which she could be crippled by this country was by the invasion and conquest of Canada, and to this end the efforts of the United States were directed during the war. It was also believed that the commerce of England could be seriously injured by the efforts of American privateers, and from the commencement of hostilities great activity was displayed in getting vessels of this class to sea. In the autumn of 1812 Mr. Madison was reflected to the presidency by a large majority. Elbridge Gerry, of Connecticut, was chosen vice- president. Mr. Madison entered 'upon his second term en the 4th of March, 1813, some months after the war had begun. At the outset of the war the American forces were stationed along the Canadian frontier as follows : General Dearborn, the commander-in-chief held the right, or eastern part of the line ; the centre was commanded by General Stephen Van Rensselaer; and the left was held by General William Hull, then governor of Michigan Territory. The forces under these commanders were to cooperate with each other in their move- ments, and were to converge upon Montreal as the objective point of the -campaign. Early in July General Hull, who had seen service in the war of tho THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND. till revolution, collected a force of about two thousand men at Detroit. His position was very much exposed, Detroit being at that time separated from the other settlements by about two hundred miles of unbroken forest. He urged upon the government to increase his force to three thousand men, and to secure the command of Lake Erie before the British should obtain possession of it His requests could not be com- plied with, and he was obliged to depend upon the force at Detroit. Immediately upon the declaration of war the British commanders in Canada displayed great activity, seizing the most important points along the frontier. In less than a mouth Fort Mackinaw and other points were in their possession, and Hull's position at Detroit was surrounded WOODWAKD AVENUE, DETROIT, MICHIGAN. and his communications with the States cut off. Hull thereupon fortified his position, and endeavored, but without success, to open communication with the country in his rear. In the meantime a strong British foro assembled at Fort Maiden, in Canada, opposite Detroit, under the com- mand of General Brock, the governor of Upper Canada; and the British agents set to work to arouse the Indians of the northwest a;rainst th* Americans. In these efforts they were successful. Brock erected bat- teries on the Canadian side of the river, in a position to command Detroit, and demanded of Hull the surrender of that place. The demand bc'in^ refused, Brock crossed his forces to the American shore, about three mi lea 612 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. below the position occupied by General Hull, on the 16th ot August, a::rt advanced to attack him. As the British army drew near the America:) lines they were astounded to see a white flag flying from them. An ofll cer rode up to inquire the cause. The flag was the signal for a parley. Negotiations were begun, and later in the day Detroit, with its garriso.) and stores, and the whole of Michigan Territory, was surrendered to tht British by General Hull. The American troops were overcome witli astonishment and mortification at this shameful surrender ; for the force of the enemy, to whom they were betrayed by their commander, consisted of but seven hundred British and Canadians, and six hundred Indians. By the surrender of Detroit the whole northwestern frontier was exposed to the British and their Indian allies. Great Britain, unmindful of the shame she had incurred by her employment of the savages during the revolution, did not hesitate once more to devote the American frontier to the horrors of a savage war. The west was greatly alarmed, and ten thousand volunteers offered their services to the government for the defence of the frontier. They were accepted, and were placed under the command of General Harrison, who was appointed to succeed Hull. Two years later, after being exchanged, General Hull was brought to trial by a court-martial for his surrender of Detroit and his army. He was found guilty of cowardice and neglect of duty, and was sentenced to be shot. He was pardoned by the president in consideration of his services during the revolution. This was a sorry beginning for the war, and was followed by another disaster. General Van Rensselaer, the commander of the centre of the American line, had collected a force, principally New York militia, at Lewiston, on the Niagara river. At Queenstown, on the opposite side of the river, General Brock had stationed himself with a British force. On the 13th of October General Van Rensselaer crossed a force, under Colonel Van Rensselaer, and attacked the British fort and captured it. General Brock now arrived with a reinforcement of six hundred men, and endeavored to regain the fort, but was defeated and killed. General Van Rensselaer hastened back to the American side to bring over more troops, but his men refused to obey his orders, alleging that they could not be ordered out of their own State without their consent. The British were heavily reinforced, and the Americans were attacked and defeated ; all who had crossed to the Canada side being killed or captured. Among the prisoners was Lieutenant-Colonel Winfield Scott, afterwards com- mander-in-chief of the American army, then a young man, who had crossed over as a volunteer to aid the force on the Canada side. Utterly disg:'iied with the conduct of his troops, General Van Rensselaer THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND. 613 resigned his command after the battle of Queenstown. General Smyth, of Virginia, was appointed to succeed him. He made one or two efforts to enter Canada, but being each time prevented by his council of war, resigned his command. Thus closed the year 1812, and the first campaign of the war. Its results were disastrous and disheartening. The attempt to invade Canada had ended with the surrender of Detroit and the defeat at Queenstown. A large part of the frontier was lost, and over twenty-five hundred men had been captured by the enemy. These failures had aroused the discon- tent of a considerable portion of the people of the Union, and the opposition of the New England States to the war was greatly increased. Matters would have seemed hopeless had not the navy, which had been the most neglected branch of the public service, redeemed the national honor by a series of brilliant successes. It was the intention of the government at the outset of the war to retain the vessels of the navy in the ports of the country to assist in the defence of the harbors of the United States. The fear was openly ex- pressed that if these vessels should venture to put to sea they would certainly be captured by the British cruisers. The officers of the navy were indignant at these insinuations, and as soon as the news of the declaration of war was received at New York, several of the vessels of war in that port put to sea at once to avoid the orders which their com- manders feared were on the way to detain them in port, and also for the purpose of making a dash at the Jamaica fleet, which was on its way to England. They followed this fleet to the entrance to the British channel, but without overtaking it. A British squadron sailed from Halifax to cruise off the port of New York. The American frigate " Constitution," Captain Hull, while en- deavoring to enter New York harbor, fell in with this squadron, and was chased by it for four days. Her e.cape was due entirely to the superior skill of her officers and the energy of her crew. The chase was one of the most remarkable in history, and the escape of the American frigate won great credit for Capcain Hull. Failing to reach New York, Hull sailed for Boston, and reached that port in safety. Remaining there a few days, he put to sea again, just in time to avoid orders from Wash- ington to remain in po^. In July the Amsvican frigate " Essex " captured a transport filled with British soldiers, and a few days later encountered the British sloop of war "Alert," Mrhich mistook her for a merchantman. The " Essex " suffered her to approach, and then opened a rapid fire upon her, which soon dis- abled her, 7iv wounded behind. Soon after this General Dearborn suffered another reverse at Fort George, and allowed a detachment of six hundred men of his army to be HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. cut off by the British. In consequence of these failures General Dear- born was removed by the president, who appointed General Wilkinson, the commander of the troops at New Orleans, as his successor. It was proposed that General Wilkinson should enter Canada with his troops and advance upon Montreal, and that General Hampton, com- manding the forces on Lake Champlain, should join him on the St. Lawrence. Wilkinson and Hampton were not on friendly terms, and neither of them were possessed of sufficient patriotism to overlook their personal differences for the good of their country. Wilkinson advanced as far as the rapids of the St. Lawrence, and sent a body of troops, under General Brown, to cover the descent of the rapids by the army. An engagement occurred at Chrysler's Farm, on the llth of November; the British were driven back ; but the Americans lost more than three hundred men. Wilkinson now sent word to Hampton to move forward to his support, but the latter answered that he had abandoned the expedi- tion, and was going into winter quarters. Under these circumstances Wilkinson fell back to French Mills, about nine miles from St. Regis, where he went into winter quarters. Hampton prepared to pass the winter at Plattsburg on Lake Champlain. Thus the expedition was ruined by the quarrels of its commanders. In December the Americans abandoned Fort George, and retreated across the Niagara river. Before doing so General McClure, the com- manding officer, burned the village of Newark, in order to prevent the enemy from using it as quarters for their troops during the winter. There was no necessity and no excuse for the destruction of this village, and it was speedily avenged by the enemy. About the middle of Decem- ber the British crossed the Niagara river, surprised Fort Niagara, and put the garrison to the sword. In retaliation for the burning of New- ark they burned every town and house that could be reached on the American side of the river, including Lewistown, Youngstown, Manchester, Black Rock, and Buffalo. The war was not confined to the northern frontier. In the spring of 1813 Tecumseh had visited the Creek tribes in the southwest and aroused their war spirit. In August seven hundred Creeks attacked and cap- tured Fort Mims, on the west bank of the Alabama river, near the r mouth of the Tombigbee. Between three and four hundred settlers, who had taken refuge in the fort, were massacred. The south was soon aroused by the news of this massacre, and in a short while a force of seven thousand volunteers was marching into the Indian country in four divisions, One division, under General Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee, moved southward from Nashville ; another from THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND. 623 East Tennessee, under General Cocke ; a third from Georgia, under Gen- eral Floyd ; and a fourth from Mississippi Territory. In addition to these forces the lower Creeks took up arms against their brethren, and the Cherokees and Choctaws joined the Americans. The principal vil- lages of the hostile Creeks lay on and near the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, and their hunting-grounds extended much farther north. The Tennessee forces, under General Jackson, were the first to enter the In- dian country, and a number of unimportant encounters occurred. On the 3d of November the Indians were defeated in a bloody battle at Tal- lasehatche, and on the 8th of the same month at Talladega. These were hard-won victories for the Americans, and terrible blows .to the savages. OR the 29th of 'November the Georgia volunteers, under General Floyd, attacked the Creek town of Autossee, and killed two hundred warrior*. The Creeks were badly armed, but their spirit was unbroken by their reverses. Early in the year 1814 they assumed the offensive, and on the 22d of January attacked General Jackson at Emucfau. Jackson suc- ceeded in repulsing them, but in spite of his victory deemed it best to fall back to Fort Strother. On the 25th the Indians again attacked him, and were again defeated. Soon after this Jackson, being largely rein- forced, advanced into the Indian country with an army of four thousand Tennesseeans. At the Horse-Shoe Bend of the Tallapoosa the Creeks had their principal settlement, an intrenched camp, in wl^ch they had col- lected their women and children, under the protection of one thousand warriors. They were attacked here on the 27th of March, 1814, by Jackson's army, and their camp was carried after a desperate fight, in which six hundred warriors were killed, and two hundred and fifty women and children were made prisoners. This terrible blow put an end to the resistance of the Creeks. They sought peace, and were com- pelled to purchase it by the surrender of more than two-thirds of their hunting-grounds. The year 1813 was eventful and important in the naval history of the republic, and once more the navy sustained fhe spirits of the country, which had been cast down by the failure of the army. On the 25th of February the American sloop of war " Hornet," Captain Lawrence, cap- tured the British brig "Peacock," off the mouth of the Demerara river, after an action of fifteen minutes. The " Peacock " was so terribly cut up by her adversary's fire that she sank in a few minutes after she struck her flag. Captain Lawrence returned to the United States, and was pro- moted to the command of the frigate " Chesapeake," which was lying in Boston harbor preparing for sea. While there Lawrence was challenged 624 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. by Captaiii Broke, of the British frigate " Shannon," which was cruising off Boston harbor. Although his ship was badly manned, and his crew undisciplined, Lawrence accepted the challenge, and put to sea on the 1st of June to meet the " Shannon." The action was begun about thirty miles east of Boston Light, and lasted but fifteen minutes. The "Shan- non" was in every way superior to the "Chesapeake," and the latter ship was forced to strike her flag, with a loss of one hundred and forty-six of her crew. Captain Lawrence was mortally wounded. As he was being 'Carried below hia last words were: "Don't give up the ship!" words which have since become the watchword of the service of which 'he was one of the brightest ornaments. The rejoicings in England over the capture of the "Chesapeake" were very great. They were highly gratifying to the Americans, and espe- cially to the little navy of the Union, whose splendid services had won the respect of " the mistress of the seas." In the summer of 1813 the "United States," "Macedonian," and " Hornet," while attempting to get to sea from New York through Long Island sound, were driven into the harbor of New London, and block- aded there by a British squadron. In August the American sloop of war "Argus " was captured while cruising in the English channel by the " Peli- can." In September the American brig "Enterprise," 12 guns, Captain Burrows, captured the British brig "Boxer," Captain Blythe, off the coast of Maine. gBoth commanders fell in the engagement, and were buried with equal honors. During the summer of 1813 the British fleet of Sir George Cockburn entered the Chesapeake repeatedly and ravaged its shores. All the ship- ping that could be reached by the enemy was destroyed, and the towns of Frenchtown, Georgetown, Havre de Grace, and Fredericktown were plundered and burned. An attack was made on Norfolk, but was repulsed with heavy loss. Cockburn then plundered the town of Hamp- ton, and sailed to the southward. The barbarities committed by this fleet along the Chesapeake and its tributaries were horrible. Neither age nor Sex was spared by the Bmish sailors and marines, and women were rav- ished, and old men and little children murdered, with the knowledge of the admiral, who made no effort to stop the outrages. During the winter of 1813-14 a communication was received from the British government, stating that although Great Britain had declined the Russian mediation, she was willing to enter into direct negotiations with the United States, either at London or Gottenburg, in Sweden. The president at once accepted the English offer, and Henry Clay and Jona- than Russell were added to the commissioners already in Europe. Got- THE SECOND WAR WITH E tenburg was at first selected as the place of meeting, which was i *lcrward* changed to Ghent. At this time the opposition to the war was very great in many p^rts of NIAGARA FALLS. the Union. The New England States continued bitterly hostile to it, and the legislature of Massachusetts, in a remonstrance addressed to Con- gress, denounced the war as unreasonable, and urged the conclusion of a 40 526 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. peace. Congress itself was more divided upon the support of the war than it had ever been. It contained many new men, some of them des- tined to play prominent parts in the .Titure history of the country. Pre-eminent among these was Daniel Webster, of New Hampshire, who from the first took a high position as one of the most gifted men in Congress. Hostilities were resumed by the Americans on the Niagara frontier with the beginning of the spring of 1814. Early in May General Brown, whose force had been increased to five thousand men, crossed the _ Niagara. Fort Erie sur- rendered to him, without a blow, on the 3d of July. On the 4th General Scott, with the advanced guard of the army, moved to- wards the British, who had taken position, under General Riall, at Chip- pewa, fifteen miles distant. Scott was joined by Gen- eral Brown, with the rest of the army, on the night of the 4th, and the next day a severe engagement occurred, in which the British were defeated, with a loss of five hun- dred men. The loss of the Americans was three hun- dred. After his defeat at Chip- pewa General Riall fell back to Burlington Heights, and the Americans advanced to Queenstown, but soon after withdrew to Chippewa. Being strongly reinforced by a body of troops, under General Drummond, Riall advanced from Burlington Heights -to attack the Americans, followed by General D v ummond's com- mand; and at the same time General Brown, who had heard of Drum- mond's arrival, set out from Chippewa to attack the British. The advanced forces of the Americans were commanded by General Scott. The two irmies unexpectedly met at Bridgowater, or Lundy's Lane, immediately >ppoeite Niagara Falls, at sunset, on the 25th of July. Tho British occu- OENERAL WINFIELD SCOTT IN 1814. THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND. 627 pied a strong position, and notwithstanding the lateness of the hour Scott resolved to attack them. The main body of the Americans, under Gen- eral Brown, soon arrived, and the battle became general. The British had posted a battery on a hill which commanded the field, and were doing great execution in the American ranks. It was captured by the regiment of Colonel James Miller, and General Drummond, who had arrived on the field and had taken command in place of General Riall, who had been wounded and captured by the Americans, advanced to recover it. Drummond made three determined efforts to retake the bat- tery, but was driven back each time. It was now midnight, and about eight hundred men had fallen on each side. The Americans had ex- BATTLE OF LUNDY S LANE. I austed their ammunition and were dependent now upon the cartridges they obtained from the boxes of the fallen British. Finding all their efforts vain the British sullenlv withdrew and left the field to the Ameri- cans. The latter were so exhausted by their hard march of fifteen miles, and five hours of constant fighting, that they made no effort at pursuit, and soon withdrew from the hill to their camp. As they had no moan- of hauling off the captured guns they were obliged to leave them on the field. Generals Brown and Scott were both wounded during the battle, as were nearly all of the field officers. The victory of Lundy's Lane was particularly gratifying to the Amer- icans. It was won, not over Canadian militia, but over veteran trooje S28 HISTORY CF THE UN 1 TED STATES. who had served under Wellington in the wars with Napoleon. It broke the long series of defeats sustained by the Americans since the opening of the war, and showed what could be accomplished by American soldiers under competent and determined commanders and in anything like a fair fight. General Brown withdrew to Fort Erie after the battle, and being dis- abled by his wounds, relinquished the command to General Gainos. General Drummond moved forward, and on the 4th of August laid siege to Fort Erie. On the 15th he attempted to carry the fort by an assault at midnight, but was repulsed with a loss of one thousand men. In spite of this reverse he pressed the siege with vigor, and in the meantime Gen- SIEGE OF FORT ERIE. eral Brown recovered from his wounds and resumed the command of the fort. On the 17th of September the Americans made a sortie against the batteries of the British, which were two miles in advance of their camp. By a sudden dash from the fort, they stormed and carried the batteries, spiked the guns, set fire to the magazines, inflicted a loss of six hundred in killed and Avounded upon the enemy, and retreated into the fort, carrying with them four hundred prisoners. The American loss in this brilliant sally was three hundred men. Drummoml immediately raised the siege and retreated across the Chippewa. In October a reinforcement of four thousand men arrived from Lake Champlain under General Izar decided that it would be time enough to call out the militia when the British had revealed their designs more plainly. He did not believe the British had any idea of advancing upon Washington, and thought Baltimore could defend itself. Mr. Madison submitted to the decision of the secretary of war, and the national capital was left defenceless. In the meantime, the British commanders, learning the exposed con- dition of the city of Washington, determined to attack it. They divided their fleet for this purpose, one portion ascending the Potomac, and another the Patuxent. The latter division conveyed the troops of Gen- eral Ross, and landed them at Benedict, on the Patuxent, about fifty miles from Washington. General Ross at once set out for Washington, advancing slowly and meeting with no resistance. As he had no horses, his troops were obliged to drag their three or four cannon by hand, ano the British made but about ten miles a day. A few determined troop? night have driven them back, and the roads might at least have been obstructed and the progress of the enemy impeded. General Winder gathered a small force of militia, and took position at Bladensburg, 0:1 the east branch of the Potomac, about three miles from Washington. He was joined here by Commodore Barney with five hun- dred sailors and marines from the gunboat flotilla in the Patuxent, which Barney, unable to offer any resistance, had bu -nod upon the approach of THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND. 633 the British fleet. On the 24th of August the British reached Bladens- burg, and attacked the force under General Winder. The militia fled at the first fire, but Barney and his sailors and marines stood their ground, and served their guns with vigor until their position was turned on both flanks by the superior force of the enemy, when they retreated, leaving their guns and wounded in the hands of the victors. The so-called battle of Bladensburg was little more than a skirmish. General Ross halted to rest his men, who were worn out with the heat, and towards sunset resumed his march, and entered Washington a little before dark. The government had abandoned the city some hours before, and had removed the greater part of its papers and archives, and such public property as could be carried away, and only a few frightened citizens remained in the town. Admiral Cochrane had some time before announced that the British forces were ordered "to destroy and lay waste all towns and districts of the United States found accessi- ble to the attack of British armaments," and the army of General Ross now proceeded to carry out these infamous instructions. They burned the capitol, and with it the library of Congress, the buildings occupied by the treasury and state departments, and plundered the president's mansion and set it on fire. A number of stores and private dwellings were also pillaged and set on fire. The navy yard, with all its contents and several vessels on the stocks, was entirely destroyed. The British afterwards attempted to excuse their shameful conduct in Washington by alleging that it was in retaliation for the burning of the parliament house at York in Canada, an act which had been disclaimed by the Americans and which the British had not been able to prove was their work. General Ross occupied Washington during the night of the 24th, and until dark on th-3 25th. Then fearing lest the Americans would assemble in such force as to intercept him, he retreated stealthily from Washington on the night of the 25th, and on the 29th reached Benedict and rcembarkcd his troops. The English vessels sent up the Potomac fuccecded in passing Kort Washington, which made little or no effort to Ktoj) them, and on the "2Stl> anchored off Alexandria. Twenty-one vessels \vere captured, and the town saved itself from bombardment by paying ti ransom of sixteen thousand barrels of flour and one thousand hogs- heads of tobacco. After resting his men, General Ross ascended the Chesapeake to the T'atapsco, for the purpose of attacking Baltimore, which was defended l.y Fort McHenry at the mouth of the harbor, and a force of Maryland militia and some volunteers from Pennsylvania. A force of eight thou- sand men was landed at the mouth of the Patapsco, under General Ross, THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND. 635 and on the 12th of September advanced towards the city, while the fleet ascended the river to capture Fort McHenry and force its way into the harbor. A small party of Americans contested the advance of the British army, and a skirmish ensued in which General Ross was killed. A sharp encounter followed, each side losing about two hundred and fifty men The American militia retired in good order, and on the morning of the 13th the British resumed their march towards Baltimore. The Amer- icans were discovered in considerable force, occupying a line of intrench- nients defended by artillery, and commanded by General Samuel Smith, BATTLE MONUMENT, BALTIMORE, ERECTED IN MEMORY OF THOSE WHO FELL AT NORTH POINT. an officer of the revolution. The British commander now deemed it best to await the result of the engagement between the fleet and Fort Mel It nry, which was in progress at the time. The British fleet maintained a heavy fire upon the fort, which replied with vigor, and soon made it app-ireiv to the enemy that they could not silence it or pass it. The attack rn the fort proving a failure, the British withdrew to North Point on the night of the 13th, and rcembarked on their ships. During this cann. Minus Francis S. Key of Baltimore, who had visited the British flwt t> obtain the release of certain prisoners, and who was detained by the admiral HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. during the bombardment, wrote the famous song of "Tho Stir-Spangled Banner," which has since become the national song of America. The Chesaj>eake was not the only part of the coast that suffered from the ravages of the British. The shores of Maine were ravaged with great t/arbarity. Stonington, Connecticut, was subjected to a four days' bom- bardment by a Brit'.'h fleet, but the militia repulsed every attempt cf the enemy to land. The foreign commerce of the country was completely destroyed. The superior naval strength of the British enabled them to blockade the Atlantic ports so thoroughly, that the government ordered the lights along the coast to be destroyed, as they only served as guides to British cruisers. The opposition of the New England States to the war, which l.ad caused them such severe loss, increased daily, and at length the legislature of Massachusetts recommended a convention of delegates from the sea- board States to devise amendments to the Constitution for the purpose of securing them from a recurrence of such evils as they were suffering from. The convention met at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 14lh of December, 1814, and was composed of delegates from the Xcw Enet entered Pensacola harbor, and obtained possession of the forts. From this point they began to stir up the Creek Indians to make war on the Americans, and fitted out an expedition against Fort Bowyer, commanded by Major Lawrence, which defended the harbor of Mobile. On the 15th of September an attack was made upon this fort, and was repulsed with the loss to the enemy of a vessel and a number of men. General Jackson, having collected a force of three thousand Ten- ncssecans, marched to Pensacola, entered the town on the 7th of Novem- ber, demanded that the British should leave the place at once, and noti- fied the Spanish governor that he should hold him responsible for the JACKSON SQUARE, NEW ORLEANS. occupation of the town or the forts by the British for purposes of hostility towards the United States. The British immediately blew up a fort which they had erected seven miles below the town, and embarked in their ships. Confident that New Orleans would be the next object of attack by the British, and knpwing that the city was poorly prepared to resist, General Jackson at once sent General Coffee with the mounted Tennesseeans to that city, and followed with the rest of his troops as rapidly as possible. New Orleans was at this time a city of about twenty thousand inhabi- tants, less than one-half of whom were whites. The whites were princi- pally of French birth or parentage, and cared little for the United States. They could not be relied upon to iold the city against the British. The 638 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. defences were in a miserable state, and the people were demoralized and insubordinate. Jackson set to work with vigor. He proclaimed mar- tial law, and put down the opposition to his measures for the safety of the city with a firm hand. He called for volunteers to defend the city, and urged the free men of color i.o come forward and enroll themselves. They responded in considerable numbers. The prisons were emptied, and the prisoners enrolled in the ranks of the army. The services of Lafitte, a noted smuggler-chief of Barataria bay, and of his band, were accepted. The British had endeavored to secure the aid of this band as pilots, as they knew the coast thoroughly, but Lafitte and his men had refused to hold any communication with them. While Jackson was thus engaged, the British fleet arrived on the coast of Louisiana and cast anchor off the mouth of Lake Borgne, the shortest passage by water to New Orleans. It had on board a force of twelve thousand veteran troops, just released from the wars against Napoleon, and four thousand marines and sailors. The British army was commanded by Sir Edward Pakenham, the brother-fh-law of the Duke of Welling- ton, and an officer of tried ability, and under him were Generals Gibbs, Keene, and Lambert, veterans of the peninsular war. The Americans had a small flotilla in Lake Borgne, and by extraordi- nary exertions, Jackson managed to collect a force of five thousand troops, only one thousand of whom were regulars. On the 14th of December the British sent their boats into Lake Borgne, and after a severe engage- ment captured the American flotilla, and opened the way to the city. On the 22d of December the British landed twenty-four hundred men under General Keene, who advanced to a point on the bank of the Mississippi, about nine miles below New Orleans. Jackson attacked this party on the night of the 23d with the regulars and Coffee's Tennesseeans dismounted, and drove them to take shelter behind a levee. The success of the Americans in this engagement greatly encouraged them to hope for a similar issue to the final conflict. The next day Jackson took position on solid ground behind a broad nnd deep trench that extended across the plain of Chalmette from the Mississippi to an impassable swamp, and covered his position with a line of intrenchments. The British, believing Jackson's force to be much stronger than it really was, made no attempt to interfere with him for several days, and he employed this delay in strengthening his line with bales of cotton. The British on the 28th of December opened a heavy cannonade upon the American line. Jackson replied with energy with his five pieces of artillery, and the firing was continued without accomplish- ing anything definite for several hours. On the 1st of January, 1815, they THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND. G39 attempted a second cannonade, but the American guns soon silenced their fire. On the 4th of January, a body of twenty-two hundred Ken- tucky riflemen, who had descended the Mississippi to his assistance, reached Jackson's camp. Only one-half of them were armed. Jackson could not supply the remainder with arms, but set them to work to con- struct a second line of intrenchmcnts in the rear of his first. Having finished their preparations, the British erected a battery of <-ix THE PLAIN OF CHALMETTE SCENE OP THE BATTLE OP NEW ORLEANS. eighteen pounders on the night of the 7th of January, and on the morning of the 8th advanced to carry the American line by storm. Their centre was led by General Pakenham in person, and other columns under Gen-- evals Gibbs and Keene moved against tlic right and left wings of the Americans. The open space over which the enemy were obliged to pass was nearly a mile in width, and was completely commanded by Jackson's guns. The British advanced in splendid style, and wcrv soon within G40 HISTORY OF THE VSITED STATES. range of tlio American artillery, which opened on them with terrible effect. They never wavered, but closing nj> their ranks firmly pressed on. As they came within musket shot the Kentucky and Tennessee riflemen opened a fatal fire upon them which literally mowed them down. They wavered and broke. General Pakcnham attempted to rally them, and was shot down. Generals Gibbs and Kccnc were wounded while engaged in the same attempt, the latter mortally. The command devolved upon General Lambert, who made two more attempts to carry the line by storm. Each time the fatal fire of the American riflemen drove back the tried veterans of Wellington's campaigns, and at last they broke and fled in confusion. General Lambert continued the retreat to tiie BATTLE OP NEW ORLEANS. shore of the gulf, where the British fleet lay, and about a fortnight later embarked his troops and withdrew. The American loss in the battle of New Orleans was seven killed *ml six wounded. The British lost two thousand in killed and wounded The victory was of the highest importance. It saved not only New Orleans but the mouth of the Missi dppi from British control. Had the army of General Pakenham been successful, there is good reason tc believe that England would have refused to relinquish the Mississippi, and the war would have gone on, or peace would have been made with the mouth of the great river under the control of England. The victory closed the war, and was won as we shall sea three weeks after the >*eaty of peace was signed. THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND. 641 At sea the war was carried on by the few American cruisers that maiu nged to elude the blockade of our coast. The frigate " Essex," Commodore Porter, went to sea in 1813, and made a number of captures in the Atlantic. Learning that the British whalers, which had been armed for the purpose of capturing American vessels engaged in the same trade, were doing considerable damage in the Pacific, Commodore Porter sailed around Cape Horn and entered that ocean. He captured twelve armed British whalers in the course of a few months, and then learning that the British frigate "Phoebe" had been sent in pursuit of him, Porter sailed to Valparaiso to look for her. While he lay there the " Phoebe," accompanied by the English sloop of war " Cherub," arrived off the luirhor. The "Phoebe" was herself a full match for the "Essex," but Porter resolved to fight both vessels. As he was leaving the harbor a sudden squall carried away his main topmast, and left him at the mercy of his enemicc, which at once attacked him. His defence was one of the most gallant and desperate in history, but he was forced to surrender, but not until he had lost fifty- eight of his crew killed, and sixty-six wounded. In January, 1815, the frigate "President," Commodore Decatur, man- aged to elude the blockade of New York and get to sea. She was chased by a British squadron of five vessels, and a running fight ensued. Being entirely disabled, the " President " was forced to surrender. In February, 1815, while cruising off the port of Lisbon, one fine moonlight night, the " Constitution," Captain Stewart, encountered two British sloops of war, the "Cyane," 24, and the "Levant," 18, and cap- tured both of them after a short engagement. These vessels were captured after peace was signed, and were restored to the British. On the 23d of March, the " Hornet," Captain Biddle, captured the British brig " Penguin" off the Cape of Good Hope. The " Penguin " was so much injured that Biddle was forced to destroy her. On the 30th of June the " Peacock/' Captain Warrington, ignorant of the close of the war, captured the " Nautilus " in the East Indies. The latter vessel was restored to the British. Thus the war, which opened so gloomily for the Americans, closed with a series of brilliant successes for them. In the meantime negotiations for peace had been conducted between the American and British commissioners at Ghent, in Belgium. The Amer- ican commissioners had been instructed to demand the settlement of the impressment question, and at the same time to give assurance that upon the relinquishment of that claim by England Congress would enact a law forbidding the enlistment of English sailors in either the navy or mer- chant service of the United States. On the 14th of December, 1814, the labors of the commissioners were brought to a close, and a treaty of peace 41 642 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. between the United States and Great Britain was signed. The treaty provided that all places captured by either party during the war should be restored to their rightful possessors. Arrangements were made for determining the northwest boundary of the United States, and for set- Ming matters of minor importaiu <.-. The treaty was silent on the subject jf impressments, the cause of the war. Nevertheless Great Britain ceased to exercise her claim to this right as regarded the United States, and has not since attempted to revive it, so that the object of the war, the protection of American sailors from impressment by England, \vas at- tained after all. The treaty was unanimously ratified by the Senate, and on the 18th of February peace was proclaimed by the president. \ few THE " HORNET " AND THE " PENGUIN." days later the president recommended to Congress the passage of a 'aw forbidding the enlistment of foreign seamen in American vessels. The proclamation of peace was hailed with delight in all parts of the country, especially in the Atlantic cities, which had suffered heavily by the wai , and the national rejoicings were intensified by the news which arrived a few days later of the brilliant victory of New Orleans. Soon after the conclusion of peace with Great Britain, the United States were called upon to punish the insolence of the dey of Algiers. That ruler, thinking that the United States were too much crippled by their recent conflict with Great Britain to punish his insolence, suddenly reade war upon them. He threatened to reduce Mr. Lear r the America? THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAXu. 643 l, to slavery, and compelled him to purchase his liberty and that of iu family by the payment of a large ransom. Several American mer- chantmen were captured by the Algerine pirates, and their crews reduced to slavery. The excuse offered by the dey for these outrages was that fche presents of the American government were not satisfactory. The government of the United States determined to compel the Bar bary powers to make a definite settlement of the questions at issu-c between them and this country, and in May, 1815, Commodore Decatur was despatched to the Mediterranean with a fleet of ten vessels, three of which were frigates. He was ordered to compel the dey to make satis COMMODORE DECATUR. faction for his past outrages, and to give a guarantee for his future good conduct. On the voyage out Decatur fell in w:+h the largest frigate in the Algerine service, near Gibraltar, on the 17th of June, and captured her after a fight of thirty minutes. On the 19th another Algerine cruiser was taken. The fleet then proceeded to Algiers, but upon its arrival found the dey in a very humble frame of mind. The loss of his twc best ships, and the determined aspect of the Americans, terrified him intr submission, and he humbly sued for peace. He was required to come on board of Decatur's flag-ship, and there sign a humiliating treaty with t::: United States, by which he bound himself to indemnify the Americans from whom he had extorted ransoms, to surrender all his prisoners uncon- 644 HISTORY OtT THE UNITED STATES. ditionally, to renounce all claim to tribute from the American govern- ment, and to cease from molesting American vessels in future. The difficulty with Algiers having been satisfactorily settled, Decatiu sailed to Tunis and Tripoli, and demanded of the government of each of those countries indemnity for some American vessels which had been cap- tured by the British in their harbors with their connivance. The demand was coupled in each case with a threat of bombardment, and was com- plied with. About the middle of the summer Commodore Bainbridge joined Decatur with the " Independence," 74, the " Congress," and sev- eral other vessels, but the energetic Decatur had settled all the difficulties, and had so humbled the Barbary powers that they never again renewed their aggressions upon American commerce. The American fleet then visited the principal ports of the Mediterranean. The brilliant record made by the navy during the war with England secured it a flattering reception everywhere. In the autumn of 1815 the Indian tribes deprived of the support of Great Britain made peace with each other and with the United States. The northwestern frontier was thus secured against the further hostility of the savages. The finances of the country were in a wretched condition at the close of the war. All the banks but those of New England had suspended specie payments, and none were now in a condition to return to a specie basis. The public debt was over $100,000,000, and there was a general lack of confidence throughout the country. Mr. A. J. Dallas, the secre- tary of the treasury, in view of the general distress, proposed to abolish a number of the internal taxes which had been levied for the support of the war. In their place he advised the imposition upon imports from foreign countries of duties sufficiently high not only to afford a revenue, but aiso to protect the manufactures which had sprung up during the war, and which were threatened with ruin by the competition of European goods. The president, in his annual message, warmly recommended such i course. Another important measure was also enacted. The charter of the first Bank of the United States expired in 1811. Efforts had been made, without success, to obtain its renewal, and Mr. Madison, in Janu- ary, 1814, had vetoed a bill for this purpose which had passed both Houses of Congress. In the spring of 1816 a bill was passed by Con gress chartering a new Bank of the United States for twenty years, with a capital of $35,000,000, and received the president's signature on the 10th of April. It was located in Philadelphia, but had branches in other States. It gave the people a uniform currency, good in all parts of the country, and redeemable on demand in gold and silver, and thus THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND. 645 did much to remedy the financial difficulties of the times. Some- what later a law was passed requiring that all sums of money due the United States should be paid in gold or silver coin, "in treasury notes, in notes of the Bank of the United States, or in notes of banks payable, and paid on demand, in specie." On the 19th of April, 1816, the Territory of Indiana was admitted into the Union as 9 State, making the nineteenth member of the Con- federacy. The presidential election took place in the fall of 1816. Mr. Madison having declined to be a candi- date for a third term, the Democratic party nominated James Monroe, of Virginia, for President, and Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York, for Vice-President, and elected them by large majorities over the Federal candidates, who were : For President, Rufus King, of New York ; for Vice-President, John Howard, of Maryland. COAT OF ABM8 OF INDIANA. CHAPTER XXXIV. FHE ADMINISTRATIONS OF JAMES MONROE AND JOHN QUINCT ADAMS, inauguration of Mr. Monroe His Tour through the Eastern States Admission of Mis- sissippi into the Union Troubles with the Indians General Jackson's Vigorous Measures against the Spaniards in Florida Purchase of Florida by the United States Illinois becomes a State The First Steamship Maine admitted into the Union TI.e Slavery Question The Missouri Compromise Admission of Missouri as a State The Fourth Census Re-election of Mr. Monroe The Tariff Protective Policy c f the Gov- ernment Recognition of the Spanish Republics The Monroe Doctrine Visit of Lafayette to the United States Retirement of Mr. Monroe John Quincy Adams elected President His Inauguration Rapid Improvement of the Country Increase of Wealth and Prosperity Internal Improvements The Creek Lands in Georgia ceded to the United States Death of Thomas Jefferson and John Adams The Anti- Masons The Tariff of 1823 Andrew Jackson elected President of the United States. AMES MONROE was inaugurated President of the United States, at Washington, on the 4th of March, 1817. He had served during the revolution in the army of the United States, and had entered Congress soon after the formation of the govern- ment as a representative from Virginia, and had won great credit by his services in that body. He had been secretary of state during the eight years of Mr. Madison's administration, and had greatly in- creased his fame by his discharge of the diffi- cult and delicate duties of this position He was a man of amiable and conciliatory char- acter, and was popular with both parties. In his inaugural address lie declared his inten- tion to administer the government in accord- ance with the principles of Washington, and the sentiments of this document were warmly applauded throughout the country by Feder- alists as well as Democrats. The administra- tion of Mr. Monroe covered a period gener- ally known in our political history as "the JAMES MONROE. era of good feeling." Party lines were almost blotted out, and the people of the country more united than at any previous or subsequent qeriod in the bupport of national measures. 646 ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS. G47 A few months after his inauguration President Monroe made a tour through the Eastern States, He was received with marked attention everywhere, and the Federalist city of Boston entertained him with the cordial ospitality which is one of her characteristics. On the 10th of December, 1817, the western portion of the Territory of Mississippi was admitted into the Union as the State of Mississippi. T!:t eastern portion of the former Territory was erected into the Territory 01 Alabama, for which a government was provided by Congress. Towards the close of the year 1817 the Seminole Indians, whose lands lay within the Spanish province of Florida, began to commit depredations along the borders of Georgia and Alabama Territory. They were joined by the Creeks, and their operations coon became so im- portant as to demand the immediate action of the f deral government. General Gaines, commanding the federal troops in Alabama, attempted to check the Indians, but his forces were inadequate to the task, and he was compelled to ask assistance of the government. General Jackson, com- manding the southern department, svas ordered to call out the militia and take the field against the In- dians. He collected a force of one thousand mounted Tennesseeans, and in March, 1818, invaded the Indian country, and in a few weeks laid it waste ; the villages and corn fields were b. i-;.ed, and the cattle captured or killed. Being satisfied tl.at the Spaniards in Florida had incited the Indian? to make v, r r.r on the United States, General Jackson, as soon as he had punished the Indians, marched into Florida and seized St. Marks, on App'lzdub bay, the only fortified town of the Spaniards in that part of Florida. An armed American vessel, cruising off the Florida coast, hoisted the British colors, and two prominent hostile Creek chiefs were decoyed on board, and were summarily hanged by order of Jackson. In one of hr forays against the Indians Jackson captured two British trader Robert C, Ambrister, or Ambuster, and Alexander Arbuthnot. They were accused of aiding the Indians, were tried and found guilty bj a court-martial, and were promptly hanged. The Spanish governor in- dignantly protested against the invasion of Florida, but Jackson, unmoved by thL protest, advanced in May to Pensacola, the seat of the Spanist provincial government, which place was immediately surrendered to him The Spanish governor fled to Fort Barrau -is, below the town. Jackson attacked the fort and compelled it to surrender after a brief 548 HISTORY Of THE UNITED STATES. whereupon the governor continued his flight to Havana. The invasion of Florida by Jackson drew forth an indignant protest from the Spanish government, but his conduct was sustained by a decisive majority in both Houses of Congress. The Spanish government did not press the matter, as negotiations were soon entered upon which brought about an amicable settlement of the difficulty. The Spanish kingdom was indebted to certain citizens of the United States in sums amounting in the aggregate to $5,000,000. Spain in- structed her minister at Washington to conclude a treaty with the United States ceding Florida to them as an equivalent for these claims. The treaty was arranged in 1819. Spain- ceded to the United States all her claims to East and West Florida, and to the territory claimed by her on the Pacific coast north of 42 degrees of north latitude, and the federal government assumed the Spanish debt to the citizens of this country. Two years later this treaty was ratified by Spain, and on the 22d of April, 1821, the president formally announced the acquisition of Florida by the United States. This pur- chase also included the territory in Oregon claimed by Spain, and em- braced an area of 367,320 square miles. Florida was at once organ- ized as a Territory, and General Jackson was appointed its first COAT 0, ABM8 0, ILUNOIS. On the 3d of December, 1818, the Territory of Illinois was admitted into the Union as a State. The year 1819 was marked by an event of great importance in the history of the world. Steam had been used for some time in the inland navigation of the Union, but it was not generally believed it could be applied to sea-going vessels. The steamship " Savannah," built in New York, but owned in the city from which she was named, made a success- ful voyage from New York to Savannah in the early part of 1819. In May of that year she sailed from Savannah for Liverpool, and reached that port in safety. From Liverpool she subsequently made a voyage tc St. Petersburg. She was the first steam vessel that ever crossed the Atlantic, and, wherever she went, was an object of the greatest interest The question of steam navigation on the ocean was thus satisfactorily settled by America. On the 14th of December, 1819, Alabama was admitted into the Union as a State, making the total number of States twenty-two. On the 15th ot March, 1820, Maine, which had formed a part of COAT OF ARMS OP ALABAMA. ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS. 649 Massachusetts, but had been ceded by that State to the general govern- ment, was admitted into the Union as a State. The object of the erection of this new State was to offset the growing power of the Southern States by the creation of a new member of the Union in New England. The number of the New England States was thus increased to six. For some years past the question of African slavery in the States had been assuming an important and alarming position in the public mind. The States of the north and west had gotten rid of such negro slaves as they had originally possessed, and had forbidden their citizens to own or bring within their limits for pur- poses of labor any persons of this class. The Southern States, on the other hand, comprised a region in which slave labor was particularly profitable, and it was believed by the people of this region that the industry of many parts of the south could not be properly developed by white men, as the climate was more un- suited to them than to the negroes. The production of cotton, rice, sugar, and tobacco depended on the labor of the negro, and in the States where those great staples were raised slavery was regarded as a necessity. At the period we are now considering slavery existed in the States of Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Kentucky. Being regarded by these States as neces- sary to their prosperity, they con- sidered any and all plans for it? removal as attacks upon their chief source of wealth. In the non-slaveholding States the feeling that slavery was sinful had been gradually gaining ground, and there were many persons in the south who held the same views. Certain religious bodies in the country had distinctly expressed their be- lief that it was contrary to the teachings of Christianity to own slaves, and memorials had been presented to the legislatures of some of the States, and to the Congress of the United States, praying for the abolition of slavery. The law for the organization of the Northwest Territory forbade the admission of slavery into the States to be formed out of that Territory, and thus secured them for free labor. Though Congress did not hesitate COAT OP ARMS OF MAINE. 650 HISTORY OF THE USITED STATES. to legislate upon the subject of slavery in this case, it steadily refused to comply with the demands of the petitions presented to it praying it to take measures for the abolition of slavery throughout the nation. The existence of slavery within the individual States was recognized and pro- tected by the Constitution, and Congress held that it had no right to interfere with the domestic relations of those States in which slavery, thus recognized and protected, was established. In February, 1819, the Territory of Missouri, which was formed out COTTON PLANTATION. r" a part of the Louisiana purchase, asked permission to form a constitu- r-':>n preparatory to being admitted into the Union as a State. When the bill for this purpose was presented to the House of Representatives on the 13th of February, Mr. Tallmadge, of New York, proposed to insert I clause providing "that the further introduction of slavery, or involun- ary servitude, be prohibited, except for the punishment of crimes whereof the party thall have been duly convicted ; and that all children bora ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS. 651 ill said State, after the admission thereof into the Union, shall be free at the age of twenty-five years." The announcement of this amendment produced a great sensation in the House, and throughout the country. It was believed by the advo- cates of slavery that the resolutions of the House of Representatives yt 1790, in reply to the first petition presented to it for the abolition of slavery, had settled the question of the powers of the federal government respecting slavery. No effort had been made to revive the subject in the admission of Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, Mississippi, or Alabama, in each of which States negro slavery existed. Many of the most de- termined opponents of slavery believed that, under the constitution and the Louisiana treaty with France, Congress had no right to adopt the proposed restriction upon the admission of Missouri as a State. Among these were Mr. Jefferson, then living in retirement at Monticello, and John Quincy Adams, the secretary of state in Mr. Monroe's cabinet. Both of .these gentlemen were sincerely desirous of the abolition of slavepy. Mr. Jefferson believed that the States alone had power to legis- late upon the subject within their respective limits. The opponents of slavery, on the other hand, contended that while Congress had no power to interfere with slavery in the thirteen original States, it had full power to legislate concerning it in the Territories, which were the common prop- erty of the States north and south. The advocates of slavery contended that, as the treaty under which the Louisiana purchase was made con- tained a pledge to the inhabitants of that Territory that they should enjoy "all the privileges of citizens of the United States," such a restriction as that proposed by Mr. Tallmadge would be a violation of this pledge. They claimed also that as slaves were property, and the Territories the common possession of the Spates, the citizens of the slavcholding States had the right to carry their property into the Territories ; and that the prohibition of slavery in the Territories would be to deprive the south of her share in their enjoyment. The anti-slavery advocates replied to this, that slave and free labor could not coexist on the same soil, and that to allow slavery in the Territories would be to drive free labor out of them and that it would be a great wrong to allow the introduction of a few hundred thousand slaves at the cost of driving millions of free men from the Territories. The discussion of this question produced intense feeling between the Northern and Southern States, and the sectional division of the country was drawn too deep to be effaced while the cause of it remained. It was very clear to thinking men that the feelings aroused by tin's controversy could not be quieted until the institution of slavery should be abolished 652 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. throughout the country, or should be introduced into every new State formed out of the Territories remaining to the republic. The excitement deepened daily, and at one time became so intense as to threaten the existence of the Union. Good men of all parties gave their best efforts '-jo the task of effecting a settlement of the difficulty, but amid the storm Df passion which was aroused by the debate in Congress it was hard to accomplish anything. The bill allowing the people of Missouri to form a State constitution passed the House of Representatives with Mr. Tallmadge's amendment by a small majority. It was defeated in the Senate. When Congress met again in December, 1819, the debate was renewed upon the Missouri question. The House again passed the bill forbidding the existence of slavery in Missouri. The Senate struck out Mr. Tallmadge's amend- ment, and added to the House bill, as a substitute for it, a proviso offered by Mr. Thomas, of Illinois, that slavery should not exist in any part of the Louisiana Territory north of 36 degrees and 30 minutes north lati- tude, and west of the proposed State of Missouri, or in any State to be formed out of this Territory. The House refused to accept the Senate's amendment, and in order to adjust their differences a committee of con- ference was appointed by the two Houses. Maine, whose admission we have related, was an applicant for admis- sion into the Union at this time, and it was contended by the south that it was unjust to admit her without any restriction as to her domestic institutions, and yet to impose upon Missouri a restriction which would deprive a large part of her population of their property, and close the State against emigration from the south. The result of the committee of conference was that after long and exciting debates the amendment offered by Mr. Thomas, of Illinois, was accepted. Maine was admitted as a free State. It was enacted by Congress that slavery should never exist north of the line of 36 degrees 30 minutes north latitude ; and that Missouri should be admitted into the Union as a slave State upon the adoption of a constitution by her people. This was regarded as an equitable settlement of the difficulty, and the measure is known as the Missouri Compromise. The act for the admission of Maine received the president's approval on the 3d of March, 1820, and the State was admitted into the Union under it on the 15th of March. The separate act in relation to Missouri was approved by the president on the 8th of March, 1820. Its title shows its object. It was, "An act to authorize the people of Missouri Territory to form a constitution and State government, and for the admission of such State into the Union on an equal footing with the original States, and to prohibit slavery in certain ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS. 663 Territories." As we shall see the State of Missouri was not admitted into the Union under the famous Missouri Compromise. When Congress met in December, 1820, the constitution adopted by Missouri was presented to that body. It contained a clause which pre- vented free people of color from settling in the State. "This clause," says Colonel Benton, " was adopted for the sake of peace for the sake of internal tranquillity and to prevent the agitation of the slave ques- tion." * It was objected to in Congress by the party that had previously opposed the admission of Missouri as a slave State. This party argued that the constitution required that the citizens of one State should be en- titled to the privileges of citizens in the other States; and that as some of the States recognized free people of color as citizens, this provision of the Missouri constitution was in open hostility to the constitution of the United States, since it deprived the citizens of some of the States of their rights. The friends of the compromise measure were astounded, as they had supposed that it had removed all obstacles to the admission of Missouri, which had already exercised the privileges of a State in electing senators and representatives to Congress, and in taking part in the presi- dential election of 1820. The subject was reopened in Congress in all its bitterness, and the country again plunged into profound agitation. At this juncture Henry Clay exerted himself with great energy to bring about a settlement of the dispute. He induced the House to com- mit the matter to a committee of thirteen, of which he was made chair- man. This committee advised the admission of Missouri upon the con- dition that the obnoxious clause in her constitution should be withdrawn and that her legislature should pass no law violative of the rights of citizens of other States. Mr. Clay supposed that as this recommendation amply met the objection to the admission of Missouri, it would remove the last obstacle to the accomplishment of that object. To his astonish- ment it was defeated by a vote of eighty for it and eighty-three against it. The struggle now became more bitter than ever. The anti-slavery party, which had by this time obtained a definite existence, were deter- mined that the right of the general government to control the slavery ques- tion should be acknowledged. The pro-slavery party were determined to resist the exercise of that claim. Threats were freely indulged tc de- stroy the Union by the withdrawal of the States. Mr. Clay, undaunted by his failure, renewed his patriotic efforts to bring about a settlement of the dispute, and at length secured the passage of measures substantially the same as those advised by his first committee. The act of Congress for this purpose was approved by the president on the 2d of March, 1821. * Benton's Thirty Yenrif View, vol. i., p. 8. 654 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The Missouri legislature on the 26th of June expunged the obnoxious article from the constitution of the State, and on the 10th of August the president issuad his proclamation admitting Missouri into the Union.* The slavery question was quieted for a time by the admission of Mis- souri, but it was not settled. We shall encounter it again and again in the remaining chapters of this work. In 1820 the fourth census of the United States placed the population of the republic at 9,638,191 souls. In the fall of 1820 Mr. Monroe and Governor Tompkins were re- elected president and vice-president of the United States. Mr. Monroe received at the polls a majority of the votes of every State in the Union, and every electoral vote but one, which was one in the college of New Hampshire, and was cast for John Quincy Adams. Mr. Monroe entered upon his second term on the 4th of March, 1821. Next in importance to the slavery question was that of the tariff, or the imposition of a protective duty in favor of home manufactures. In his inaugural address the president had recommended the imposition of such a system of duties. During the war the non-intercourse laws of Congress and the rigid blockade maintained by the British fleet en- tirely cut the United States off from COAT OF ARMS OF MISSOURI. 1 -11 commercial intercourse with the rest of the world, and compelled the States to depend upon their own exertions for the supply of their wants. During this period numerous manufacturing enterprises had sprung up, especially in New England, where capital wr,s idle, and labor abundant. At the close of the war the country was flooded with European goods, which were sold at reduced prices for the especial purpose of ruining American manufactures. In their weak and helpless condition the American enterprises could not endure this competition, and * "A general idea prevails very extensively that Missouri was admitted as a slave State Jn 1820, under an agreement with the Restrictionists, or Centralists, proposed by Mr. Clay, tliat she should be so admitted upon condition that negro slavery should be forever pro- hibited in the public domain north of 36 degrees 30 minutes north latitude. No great* r error on any important historical event ever existed. The truth is, Mr. Clay was not tl.- author of the territorial line of 3"> degrees 30 minutes, incorporated in the act of 1821, nor was Missouri admitted under the provisions of that act. On the contrary, she was ad- mitted on the 10th of August, 1821, by presidential proclamation, upon the 'Fundamental Condition,' in substance, that the State government, in all its departments, should be sub- ject to the constitution of the United States, as all the State governments were, and are." ~A Compendium of the History of the United State*. By Hon. Alexander H. Stephens, p. 329. ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. y. ADAMS. 655 the tariff was proposed as the only means of saving them from ruin. The first measure of this kind was passed by Congress in 1^16, and was op- posed by the New England States, which were then largely engaged in commerce, and was supported by the south. In 1820 the tariff was re- vised. The New England States, which had directed the chief efforts to manufactures since 1816, had felt the beneficial effects of protective duties, and now became the warm supporters of the tariff. The south being an agricultural section had found that its interests demanded free trade, had changed its position and resolutely opposed the tariff. In spite of the opposition to the measure, however, the duties were increased in the tariff of 1820. For some years past Mexico and the States of South America formerly held by Spain as provinces had been struggling to achieve their independ- ence of the mother country. Henry Clay had exerted himself with en- thusiasm to obtain from Congress a recognition of their independence, but such a step had been considered premature. In March, 1822, however, his efforts were crowned with success, and a bill was passed by Congress, in accordance with the recommendation of the president, recognizing the independence of Mexico and the South American republics, and providing for the establishment of diplomatic relations with them. The next year President Monroe declared in a message to Congress that, "as a principle, the American continents, by the free and independent position they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European power." This claim that America belongs to republicanism, and is not to be the scene of European schemes for territorial aggrandizement, has since been known as the " Monroe doctrine," and has been regarded as one of the cardinal points of the policy of the government of the United States. The last year of Mr. Monroe's administration was marked by an event of the deepest interest to t!_.> whole country. In 1824 the venerable Marquis de Lafayette came to the United States at the express invitation of Congress, to visit the nation whose freedom he had helped to achieve. He reached New York on the 13th of August, and was received with enthusiasm. He travelled through all the States, and was everywhere re- ceived with demonstrations of respect and affection, and ho was given abundant evidence in all parts of the country that the nation cherished vith love and pride the memory of the generous stranger who came to its aid in its darkest hour of trial. Returning to Washington during the s -ssion of Congress, Lafayette s-x'nt several weeks there. Congress, as a t-)!;en of the gratitude of the nu;io:i for his services, voted him a township r/T land, and the sum of two hundred thousand dollars. The frigate 650 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. \ " Brandywine," just finished, was appointed to convey him back to France a delicate compliment, as the vessel was named after the stream on whose banks Lafayette fought his first battle, and was wounded, in the cause of American independence. At the time of his visit to the United States Lafayette was nearly seventy years old. In the fall of 1824 the presidential election was held amid great political excitement. The " era of good feeling " was at an end, and party spirit ran high. There were four candidates in the field, Mr. Monroe having declined a third term ; Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, William H. Crawford, and Henry Clay. None of these received a popular majority, and the election was thrown into the House of Rep- resentatives in Congress, and resulted in the choice of John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, as President of the United States. John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, had been chosen Vice-President by the popular vote. On the 4th of March, 1825, John Quincy Adams was inaugurated President of the United States. He was the son of John Adams, the second president of the republic, and was in his fifty-eighth year. He was a man of great natural ability, of strong per- sonal character, and of unbending integrity. He had been carefully educated, and was one of the most learned men in the Union. Apart from his general education he had received a special training in statesmanship. He had served as minister to the Nether- lands, and in the same capacity at the courts of Portugal, Prussia, Russia, and England, where he had maintained a high reputation. He had represented the State of Massachusetts in the Federal Senate, and had been secretary of state, in the cabinet of Mr Monroe, during the last administration. He was, therefore, thoroughly qualified for the duties of the high office upon which he now entered. He called to his cabinet men of marked ability, at the head of which was Henry Clay, who became secretary of state. The administration of Mr. Adams was one of remarkable prosperity. The country was grow- ing wealthier by the rapid increase of its agriculture, manufactures, ami commerce; and abroad it commanded the respect of the world. Still party spirit raged with great violence during the whole of this period. The invention of the cotton gin, by Eli Whitney, in 1793, by which the seed was separatee? from the cottoa had so cheapened the cost of pro- JOHN QXJINCY ADAMS. ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS. Qft ducing that great staple, that it had become the principal article of export from the United States, and a source of great and growing wealth to the whole country. Several important undertakings were prosecuted with vigor, or were completed during Mr. Adams' term of office. The National Road, a splendidly constructed highway, built by the general government, from' Cumberland, Maryland, across the mountains, was completed to Wheel- ing, on the Ohio, in 1820, and was carried beyond that stream during Mr. Adams' administration, the design being to extend it to the Missis- sippi. It furnished a broad and well-built thoroughfare between the seaboard and the west, and exerted a marked influence upon the internal trade of the country. The road from Cumberland to Wheeling cost $1,700,000. The Erie canal, extending from Buffalo on Lake Erie to the Hudson at Albany, was projected by De Witt Clinton. The plan \vas at first pronounced impracticable, but Clinton succeeded in inducing the State a*" New York to undertake the scheme, and in 1825 the great work was completed, and the waters of the lakes and the Hudson were united. The .completion of this canal secured to the city of New York the con- trol of the western trade, and added to its wealth and importance in a marked degree. Steam had been for some years in use as the motive power in the navi- gation of the rivers of the Union, and it now began to be applied to purposes of land transportation. The first railroad in this country was a mere tramway, for the transportation of granite from the quarries at Quincy to the Neponsett river, in Massachusetts, and was constructed in the year 1826. This was followed by the Mauch Chunk railway, from the coal mines to the Lehigh river, in Pennsylvania, in 1827. These were merely local works, and of but little importance, except in so far as they helped to demonstrate to the public mind the possibility and the usefulness of such enterprises upon a larger scale. Charters for roads of more importance were soon obtained in several of the States. In 1828 work was begun on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, and in 1829 on the South Carolina railroad. In the year 1827 there were three miles of railroad in operation in the United States. In 1875 the number of miles in operation is a little over seventy thousand. For some time previous to the entrance of Mr. Adams upon office, Georgia had been involved in a dispute with the general government and with the Creek Indians- concerning the lands of the latter, which th? United States had agreed to purchase for the benefit of Georgia. Twenty- five years passed after the promise was made, and the lands remained 42 658 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. unpurchased because the Indians Avould not sell them. A treaty was finally made in 1825 by which some of the chiefs ceded to the general government the lands in question. The majority of the Indians declared the chiefs had no authority to enter into this treaty, and called upon the United States to repudiate it. It was cancelled by the general govei-n- ment, but the State of Georgia determined to enforce it. The general government took the side of the Indians, and for a while it seemed that an open conflict would ensue between the State and federal authorities. The matter was settled by the Creeks consenting to sell their lands and to accept new homes in the west. The Indian lands were purchased by the United States, and the Creeks emigrated beyond the Mississippi. On the 4th of July, 1826, died, within a few hours of each other, two ex-presidents of the republic : John Adams and Thomas Jefferson ; the latter the author of the Declaration of Independence, and the former its most efficient supporter. Mr. Adams died at his home at Quincy, Mas- sachusetts, at the ripe old age of ninety years ; Mr. Jeiferson at Monti- cello, his beautiful Virginian home, at the age of eighty-two. Both had filled the highest stations in the republic, and both had lived to see the country they loved take rank among the first nations of the globe. They died on the fiftieth anniversary of American independence. In the year 1826 a new party made its appearance in our politics. A man named William Morgan, residing in the western part of New York, published a book purporting to reveal the secrets of the order of Free- masons. He suddenly disappeared, and it was charged that he had been seized and murdered by the Freemasons in revenge for his exposures. The affair caused great excitement in the Northern and some of the Western States, and gave rise to a political party known as the Anti- Masons, whose avowed object was the exclusion of Masons from office, It acquired considerable strength in some of the States, but in a few year& died out. The tariff question now engaged the attention of the country once more. The manufacturing interests were still struggling against foreign competition, and it was the opinion of the Eastern and Middle States that the general government should protect them by the imposition of high duties upon products of foreign countries imported into the Union. The south was almost a unit in its opposition to a high tariff. Being, as we have said, an agricultural section, its interests demanded a free market, and it wished to avail itself of the privilege of purchasing where it could buy cheapest. The south and the west were the markets of the east, and the interests of that section demanded the exclusion of foreign competition in supplying these markets. ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS. 659 In July, 1827, a convention of manufacturers was held at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and a memorial was adopted praying Congress to increase the duties on foreign goods to an extent which \vould protect American industry. When Congress met in December, 1827, the protective policy \vtis the most important topic of the day. It was warmly discussed in Congress and throughout the country. The interests of New England were championed by the matchless eloquence of Daniel Webster, who claimed that as the adoption of the protective policy by the government had forced New England to turn her energies to manufacturers, the government was bound to pro- tect her against competition. The southern rep- resentatives argued that a protective tariff was unconstitutional, and was injurious in its operations to the interests of the people of the Southern States, who, being producers of staples for export, ought to have liberty to purchase such articles as they needed wherever they could find them cheapest. They de- clared that " duties under the protective policy were not only bounties to manufacturers, but a heavy tax levied upon their constituents and a great majority of the consumers in all the States, which never went into the public treasury." The tariff bill was passed by the House on the 15th of April, 1828, and was approved by the president a little later. It was termed by its oppo- nents the "Bill of Abominations." In the midst of this excitement the presidential election occurred. Mr. Adams was a candidate for re-election, but was overwhelmingly defeated by Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee. John C. Calhoun was chosen Vice- President. The election of Jackson was regarded as a popular condem- nation of the protective policy of the government. DANIEL WEBSTEB. CHAPTER XXXV. THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF ANDREW JACKSON AND MARTIN VAN BUREN. Character of Andrew Jackson Indian Policy of this Administration The President Vetoes the Bill to Renew the Charter of the United States Bank Debate between llayne and Webster Jackson's Quarrel with Calhoun D^ath A ex-President Monroe The Cholera Black Hawk's War Re-elec ion o f President Jackson The Tariff-. Action of South Carolina The Nullification Ordinance Firmness of the President The Matter settled by Compromise Patriotism of Henry Clay The Removal of the Deposits The Seminole War begun Great Fire in New York Settlement of the French Claims Arkansas admitted into the Union The National Debt Paid Death of ex- President Madison Martin Van Buren elected President Michigan admitted into the Union The Panic of 1837 Causes of it Suspension of Specie Payments Great Distress throughout the Union The Sub-Treasury Repudiation of State Debts The Canadian Rebellion The President's Course The Seminole War ended The Anti-Slavery Party Resolutions of Congress respecting Slavery William Henry Harrison elected President The Sixth Census. NDREW JACKSON, the seventh president of the United States. was inaugurated at Washington, on the 4th of March, 1829. President Jackson was in many respects one of the most re- markable men of his day. He was of Scotch-Irish descent, and was born in North Carolina during the controversy between the colonies and Great Britain, which preceded the revolution. He was left fatherless at an early age, and his youth was passed amid the stirring scenes of the war for independence. At the age of thirteen he began his career by taking part in the fight at Hanging Rock, under General Sumter. The home of the Jacksons was broken up and pillaged by the Tories, and the mother and her two sons became wanderers. The sons were shortly after made prisoners by the Tories, and the day after his capture Andrew Jackson was ordered by a British officer to clean his boots. He indignantly refused, and the officer struck him with the flat of his sword. The boys were at length exchanged through the exertions of their mother. Both had contracted the small-pox during their cap- tivity, and the elder son soon died of his disease. Not long afterwards Mrs. Jackson, with some other ladies, went to Charleston to minister to the wants of the American prisoners of war confined there by the British 660 ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 661 A fever was raging among these unfortunates at the time, and Mrs. Jack- son was soon numbered among its victims. Thus, at the age of fifteen, Andrew Jackson was left alone in the world without a relative. Though young in years, he had been greatly matured in character by his trials. Even at this early age he was generous to a fault to his friends, and immovable in his resolutions when once formed. A few years later he removed to Tennessee, then a Territory, and upon the admission of the State into the Union was elected as her first repre- sentative in Congress. His services during the war of 1812-15 have- been related. His brilliant victory over the British at New Orleans made him one of the most noted men of the day, and his prompt and decisive measures against the Spaniards in Florida during Mr. Monroe's administration greatly added to his reputation. During the administration of John Adams General Jackson occupied a seat in the United States Senate, and gave a cordial support to the principles of Mr. Jefferson. Resigning his seat in the Senate before the close of his term, he was elected one of the judges of the supreme court of Tennessee. The election of General Jackson to the presidency was regarded with some anxiety, for though his merits as a soldier were conceded, it was feared by many that his known imperiousness of will and his in- flexibility of purpose would seriously dis- qualify him for the delicate duties of the presidency. Nature had made him a ruler, however, and his administration was marked by the fearless energy that characterized every act of his life, and was on the whole successful and satisfactory to the great majority of his countrymen. General Jackson began his administration by appointing a new cabinet, at the head of which he placed Martin Van Buren, of New York, as secretary of state. Until now the postmaster-general had not been regarded as a cabinet officer. General Jackson now invited that officer to a seat in his cabinet and a share in its deliberations, and his course has since been pursued by each and all of his successors. The first important act of the new president was to recommend to Congress the removal of all the Indian tribes remaining east of the Mississippi to new homes west of that stream. Such a measure, he con- tended, would give to them a broader range, and one more suited to thei- AN DUE W JACKSON. 662 OF THE UNITEP STATES. wants and would relieve the States east of the Mississippi from all further apprehension of Indian wars. This removal involved consider- able loss and hardship to the Creeks in Georgia, who had made an encouraging advance in civilization. A bill was passed by the Twenty- first Congress in May, 1830, for the purpose of carrying this policy into effect but the removal of the Indians was not completed for some years afterwards. In his first annual message to Congress, in 1829, the president took strong ground against the renewal of the charter of the Bank of the STATE-HOUSE, AT RALEIGH, NORTH CAROLINA. United States, which was about to expire. This was a bold step, as the bank was the most powerful institution in the United States, and had warm friends in every part of the country. The stockholders of the bank applied to the Twenty-second Congress during its first session, which began in December, 1831, for a renewal of their charter, and in the late spring of 1832 a bill renewing' this charter was passed by both Houses of Congress. The president refused to sign the bill, and returned it to Congress with his objections. He held that Congress had no con- stitutional power to charter such a bank, and regarded it as inexpedient ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 6G3 to continue its existence. An effort was made by the friends of the bill to pass it over the president's veto, but it failed to obtain the necessary two-thirds vote, and consequently did not become a law. The bank was therefore obliged to suspend its operations at the expiration of its charter in 183G. In 1830 Senator Foot, of Connecticut, submitted a resolution of inquiry to the Senate concerning the disposal of the public lands. The debate upon the resolution extended far beyond the subject embraced in that document, and in the course of it Senator Robert Y. Hayne, of STATE-HOUSE, CONCOKO, NEW HAMPSHIRE. South Carolina, a brilliant orator, declared that any State had the right, in the exercise of its sovereign power, to declare null and void any act of Congress which it should consider unconstitutional. This was a plain statement of the doctrine that the Union was simply a compact between the States, from which any of the States could secede at pleasure, and it was the first time such a sentiment had been expressed on the floor of Congress. Mr. Webster, of Massachusetts, replied to Mr. Hay no, in an oration of .superb eloquence. He denied the doctrine that the Union was a compact of sovereign, independent States, from which any one of them B84 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. could withdraw at pleasure; and argued that the constitution was the work of the people themselves, not as separate States, but as members of a great nation, and was designed to make the Union perpetual ; that the controversies between the States and tlje general government were to be decided by the supreme court, the tribunal created for that purpose by the constitution, and not by the States themselves; and that any attempt on the part of the people of a State to withdraw from the Union was treason. The debate adied greatly to the fame of both senators, and the sentiments of Mr. Webster were unanimously re-echoed by the north, and SCENE IN THE MAMMOTH CAVE, KENTUCKY. by a large majority at the south. The effect of the debate was to direct the attention of the people to a study of the principles of the constitution Different views were maintained. The Northern and Western States regarded the Union as indissoluble, while the Southern States held that it was a compact of sovereign States, and that any State could withdraw from the Union for just cause. During the session of the Twenty-first Congress a breach occurred between President Jackson and Mr. Calhoun, the vice-president. The former w r as told for the first time that Mr. Calhoun, while a member of ADMiyrSTRATlOSS Of JACKSON AN! VAX BUREN. fc. Mr. Monroe's cabinet, had endeavored to prevent the government from sustaining him in his invasion of Florida in 1818. General Jackson deeply resented this, and the breach between himself and Mr. Calhoun widened daily. Shortly afterwards Mr. Calhoun resigned the vice-presi- dency, and was elected to the Senate by the legislature of South Carolina in 1831. In the same year Mr. Clay was elected to the Senate from Kentucky. On the 4th of July, 1831, ex-President Monroe died in New York, in the 74th year of his age. In June, 1832, the Asiatic cholera made its first appearance in the United States, and swept with fearful rapidity over the whole country. Thousands of persons of all ages and conditions died of it within a few mouths, and a feeling of general terror pervaded the country. Its prin- GENERAL ATKINSON'S DEFEAT OP BLACK HAWK. clpal ravages occurred in the Northern States and in the valley of th? Mississippi. In the spring of 1832 the Sacs and Foxes, and some other tribes of Indians, inhabiting the region now known as Wisconsin, made incursions against the frontier settlements of Illinois. General Atkinson was sent by the general government with a force of troops to crush them, and with the assistance of the militia, after a series of skirmishes, drove them beyond the Mississippi. Black Hawk, a chief of the Sac nation, and the leader of the movement, was taken prisoner. He was kindly treated, and to impress him with the folly of attacking a great nation, he was taken to Washington, and then to the principal eastern cities, that he might see for himself the power of the whites. Early in 1831 General Jackson was nominated for a re-election to the HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. legislature of Pennsylvania. The presidential election -fall of 1832. General Jackson was supported by the ^o party, and Mr. Clay by the Whigs, for the presidency. The Cutest was marked by intense bitterness, for Jackson's veto of the charter of the Bank of the United States, his other vetoes of public im- provement bills, and his attitude in the " Nullification " controversy between the United States and South Carolina, had created a powerful opposition to him in all parts of the country. In spite of this opposition he was re-elected by a triumphant majority, and Martin Van Buren, of New York, the Democratic nominee, was chosen vice-president. In the meantime serious trouble had arisen between the general gov- ernment and the State of South Carolina. During the year 1832 the tariff was revised by Congress, and that body, instead of diminishing the duties, increased many of them. This action gave great offence to the Southern States, which regarded the denial of free trade as a great wrong to them. They were willing to submit to a tariff sufficient for a revenue, but were utterly opposed to a protective tariff for the reasons we have already stated. The States of Virginia, Georgia, and South Carolina were the most energetic in their opposition to the measure, but the first two, upon its passage, submitted to it, hoping to carry out their wishes by constitutional means at some future time. The State of South Carolina, holding the views advocated by Mr. Haync in the Senate, in his debate with Mr. Webster, resolved to " nul- lify " the law within its own limits. A convention of the people of the State was held, which adopted a measure known as the " Nullification Ordinance." This ordinance declared that the tariff act of 1832, being based upon the principle of protection, and not upon the principle of raising revenue, was unconstitutional, and was therefore null and void. Provision was made by another clause for testing the constitutionality of the law before the courts of the State. The State assumed the right to forbid the collection of the duties imposed by the tariff within its limits ; and if the general government should resist the course of the State by force, the State of South Carolina was declared to be no longer a member of the Union. This ordinance was to take effect on the 12th of February. 1833, unless in the meantime the general government should abandon its policy of protection and return to a tariff for revenue only. Matters had reached this state when the presidential election occurred in the fall of 1832. The country at large was utterly opposed to the course of South Carolina, and denied its right to nullify a law of Con- gress, or to withdraw from the Union in support of this right. Intense excitement prevailed, and the course of the president was watched with ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN, OG7 the gravest anxiety. He was known to be opposed to the protective policy ; but it was generally believed that he was firm in his intention to enforce the laws, however he might disapprove of them. Congress met in December, 1832, and in his annual message President Jackson urged upon that body a reduction of the tariff. The message gave great satisfaction to the opponents of the tariff. A few days later the president issued a proclamation against nullification, moderate in lan- guage, but firm in tone. He expressed his opinion that the course of South Carolina was unlawful and wrong, and intimated that he would exert the power intrusted to him to compel obedience to the constitution and laws of the Union. He appealed to the people of South Carolina not to persist in the enforcement of their ordinance, as such a course on tlicir part must inevitably bring them in collision with the forces of the federal government ; and told them plainly that any citizen of any of the States who should take up arms against the United States in such a conflict would be guilty of treason against the United States. Referring to the action of the convention, he said : " This ordinance is founded, not on the inde- feasible right of resisting acts which are plainly un- constitutional, and too oppressive to be endured ; but on the strange position that any one State may not only declare an act of Congress void, but prohibit its execution ; that they may do this consistently with the constitution ; that the true construction of that instrument permits a State to retain its place JOH N c. CALUOUN. in the Union, and yet be bound by no other of its laws than those it may choose to consider as constitutional." The leaders of the South Carolina movement were Governor Hayne and John C. Calhoun, then a senator of the United States from South Carolina. Governor Hayne replied to the president with a counter proc- lamation, in which he warned the people of the Strte against " the dan- gerous and pernicious doctrines" of the president's proclamation, and called upon them to disregard "those vain menaces" of military force, and " to be fully prepared to sustain the dignity and protect the liberties of the State, if need be, with their lives and fortunes." The State pre- pared to maintain its position by force. Troops were organized, and arms and military stores were collected. The president, on his part, took measures promptly to enforce the law. He ordered a large body of troops to assemble at Charleston, under General Scott, and a ship of war was sent to that port to assist the fed- eral officers in collecting the duties on imports. Civil war seemed for a 668 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. time inevitable. The president was firmly resolved to compel the sub- mission of South Carolina, and to cause the arrest of Mr. Calhoun and the other leading nullifiers, and bring them to trial for treason. The issue of such a conflict could not be doubtful. Fortunately a peaceful settlement of the trouble was effected. Mr. Verplanek, of New York, a supporter of the administration, introduced a bill into Congress for a reduction of the tariff, and the State of Vir- ginia sent Benjamin Watkins Leigh, a distinguished citizen, as commis- sioner to South Carolina, to urge her to suspend the execution of her ordinance until March 4th, as there was a probability that a peaceful settlement of the difficulty would be arranged before that time. South Carolina consented to be guided by this appeal. Henry Clay, Avith his usual patriotic self-sacrifice, now came forward in the Senate with a compromise which he hoped would put an end to the trouble. He was an ardent advocate of the protective system, but he was prepared to sacrifice it to the welfare of the country. He introduced a bill providing for the gradual reduction in ten years of all duties then above the revenue standard. "One-tenth of one- half of all the duties for protection above that stan- dard was to be taken off annually for ten years, at the end of which period the whole of the other half \vas to be taken off, and thereafter all duties were to be levied mainly with a, view to revenue and not HENRY CLAY. *' or protection." This measure with some modifica- tions was adopted by both Houses of Congress, and was approved by the president on the 2d of March, 1833. The people of South Carolina rescinded their ''Nullification Ordinance," and the trouble was brought to an end.* It was generally believed that the Union had escaped from a grave peril. The firmness of the president received the approval of the nation, except in South Carolina. The action of that State was generally con- demned, and the result was looked upon as a decided triumph of the national authority. * " Mr. Clay, on this occasion," says Hon. Alexander H. Stephens, " had to break with his old political friends, while he was offering up the darling system of his heart upon the altar of his country, \7hatever else may be said of him, no one can deny that Henry Clay was a patriot every incli of him a patriot of the highest standard. It was said that when he was importuned not to take the course he had resolved upon, for the reason amongst others that it would lessen his c 'lances for the presidency, his reply was, 'I would rather be right than be president.' This showed the material he \v;is made of. It was worthy a Marcellus or Cato." The War Between the States, vol. i., p. 433. ADMIXISTHATIOXS OF JACKSON A^D VAN BUREN. CC9 On the 4th of March, 1833, General Jackson entered upon his second term of office. The troubles which had disquieted the country had been satisfactorily settled, and the president took advantage of the peaceful condition of affairs to visit New York and the New England States. He was received everywhere with enthusiasm. Upon his return to the capital, the president took a step which plunged the country into great excitement once more. The charter of the Bank of the United States made that institution the legal depository of the funds of the United States. The secretary of the treasury, with the sanction of Congress, alone had authority to remove them. The president was of the opinion that the public funds were not safe in the keeping of /he bank, and announced his intention to remove them from the Bank of the United States and deposit them with certain State banks. The majority of the cabinet were opposed to the measure, and the secretary of the treasury, William J. Duane, when ordered by the president to withdraw the funds, refused to obey him, as he considered the president's course " unnecessary, unwise, arbitrary, and unjust." He was at once removed from his position by President Jackson, who appointed Roger B. Taney, of Maryland, in his place. Mr. Taney issued an order to the collectors, forbidding them to deposit the public moneys paid to them in the Bank of the United States. As for the funds already in the possession of the bank, it was decided to withdraw them as they were needed for the payment of the current expenses of the government. This measure was productive of great financial distress throughout the Union, which con- tinued for some time. The president's course also produced open war between himself and the Senate, in which body he was opposed by Clay, Calhoun, and Web- ster, its foremost members. He was defended by Ben ton, of Missouri, and Forsyth, of Georgia, but in spite of their efforts a resolution declar- ing the president's course unconstitutional, and severely censuring him for it, was adopted by the Senate. The president remained firm, how- ever. He submitted an able protest against the action of the Senate, and by the help of the House of Representatives defeated the bank on every po'nt. The Senate subsequently recognized the propriety of the presi- dent's action, and of its own motion expunged the resolution of censure from its journal. In pursuance of its policy towards the Indians, the government attempted in 1835 to remove the Seminoles from Florida beyond the Mississippi. They were unwilling to relinquish their lands ; and under the leadership of their great chief, Osceola, opposed a determined resist- ance to the efforts of the general government. Major Dade, with one 670 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. hundred and seventeen men, was sent from Tampa bay to the assistance of General Clinch at Fort Drane, which was threatened by the Indians. He was attacked on the 28th of December, 1835, while on the march, and he and all but four of his men were massacred. On the same day another blow was struck at Fort King, many miles away from the scene of this massacre. Mr. Thompson, the Indian commissioner, and a party (if his friends, while dining outside of the walls of the fort, were attacked l.y a band of Semiuoles led by Osceola hi person, and killed and scalped. GREAT FIRE IN NEW YORK. General Clinch at once took the field against the savages, and on the 31st of December defeated them at "Withlacooche, ninety miles north of Tampa bay. In February, 1836, General Gaines won an important victory over the savages near the same place. The Creeks joined the Seminoles in May, 1836, and the war spread into Georgia. The former were soon crushed by the United States troops, and were sent west of the Mississippi. The Seminoles continued the war, and as often as they were defeated in the open field would take refuge in the swamps and everglades, where it was difficult for the whites to follow ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 671 them, and from which they maintained a constant and effective warfare upon their enemies. Osceola was always ready to make a treaty, and never hesitated to break it. At last he was conquered by his own weapon of deceit. In October, 1837, he came into the American camp under a flag of truce. He was at once seized, with all his followers, by General Jessup, the American commander. Osceola was sent as a prisoner to Fort Moultrie, in South Carolina, where he died of a fever. The Avar went on for several years longer. The winter of 1834-35 was one of the coldest ever known in America. The Chesapeake bay was frozen from its head to the Capes, and on the 8th of February, 1835, the mercury stood at eight degrees below zero as far south as Charleston. On the 4th of January the mercury congealed at Lebanon, New York. On the night of December 16, 1835, a fire broke out in the city of New York, and in fourteen hours consumed the greater part of the business portion of the city, and destroyed over $17,000,000 worth of property. I:\ the last years of his adminis- tration President Jackson brought to a successful close a vexatious dis- pute with France, which had long been a source of annoyance to the country. American merchants held claims to the amount of $5,000,000 against France for the " unlawful seizures, captures, and destruction of vessels and cargoes" during the wars of Napoleon. The government of Louis Philippe acknowledged the justice of these claims, and in 1831 a treaty was negotiated between the United States and France for their payment. The Chamber of Deputies refused three times during as many years to appropriate the money for the payment of these claims, and in 1834 President Jackson ordered the United States minister at Paris tc demand his passports, and advised Congress to make reprisals on French vessels. This vigorous course brought France to her senses, and at this juncture Great Britain offered her mediation for the settlement of the difficulty. The Chamber of Deputies appropriated the necessary sum, and the American claims were paid and the matter settled to the sat ifac- tion of all parties. Claims for similar seizures were brought against Spain, Naples, and Denmark, and were satisfactorily settled through the firmness of the president. Treaties of friendship and commerce were negotiated with Russia and Turkey. On the 15th of June, 1836, Arkansas was admitted into the Union as a State. 672 111STUUY OF THE UXlTElJ STA'l'LS. One of the most important acts of General Jackson's administration was the payment of the national debt. He not only left the nation free from debt, but handed over to his successor a surplus of forty millions of dollars in the national treasury. On the 28th of June, 1836, ex-President James Madison died at Montpelier, his home, in Virginia, in the eighty-sixth year of his age. The presidential election was held in the fall of 1836. General Jack- son having declined to be a candidate for a third term, the Democratic party supported Martin Van Buren for President, and Richard M, Johnson, of Kentucky, for Vice- President. Mr. Van Buren was elected by a large majority ; but the electors having failed to make a choice of a candidate for vice- COAT OF ARMS OF MICHIGAN. president, that task devolved upon the Senate, which elected Colonel Richard M. Johnson by a majority of seventeen votes. On the 26th of January, 1837, Michigan was admitted into the Union as a State, making the twenty-sixth mem- ber of the confederacy. The original thir- teen States had been doubled in number, and the Union was strong at home, and respected abroad. At the close of his term General Jack- son retired from public life, and passed the remainder of his days at his beautiful home, near Nashville, in Tennessee, which he had named the "Hermitage." He had conducted one of the most remarkable administrations in our history, and one of the most successful, and had shown himself to be an earnest, incorruptible, and self-sacrificing patriot, and a man of unbending honesty and of extraordinary energy and inflexibility of purpose. Martin Van Buren, the new president, entered upon the duties of 1m office on the 4th of March, 1837. He was in his fifty-fifth year, and had occupied many distinguished positions in public life. He had repre- sented the State of New York in the Senate of the United States, and had been governor of that State. He had been minister to England, had MARTIN VAN BUREN. ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 673 been made secretary of state at the commencement of General Jackson's first term, and had been elected vice-president of the United States at the period of Jackson's re-election. The extraordinary prosperity which had prevailed throughout the nation during the last year of Jackson's term came to a sudden end almost immediately after the inauguration of Mr. Van Buren. For some time past a reckless spirit of speculation had engrossed the nation, and had led to excessive banking, and the issuing of paper money to an extent far beyond the necessities of the country. The State banks, with which the public funds had been deposited by President Jackson, sup- posed they would be able to control these funds for an indefinite period, MILWAUKEE, WISCONSIN, IN 1875. as the revenue of the government was largely in excess of its expenses; and they made loans freely, and upon not the best securities, in all cases. Few of the new banks which sprang into existence had enough gold and silver in their vaults to redeem the notes with which they flooded the country. Fictitious values prevailed in every department of trade, and the banks vied with each other in affording the means for the wildest speculations. In the midst of this excitement two acts of the general government brought matters to a crisis. The speculation mania had extended to the public lands, and in order to restrain it within manageable bounds Presi- dent Jackson caused the secretary of the treasury to issue an order to the 43 674 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. collectors at the local offices to receive only gold and silver in payments for land. This order was generally known as the " Specie Circular." In the summer of 1836 a law was passed by Congress requiring the president to distribute among the States the funds on deposit in the banks. This was an unexpected measure to the banks, and forced them to call in their loans to meet the withdrawal of the government funds. The operations of the "Specie Circular" at the same time sent large quantities of their notes back to them to be redeemed in coin. This complication of diffi- culties brought them at once to the end of their resources, and they were rendered powerless to extend their usual facilities to their customers. The result was that the business of the country was thrown into a state of hopeless confusion, and by the spring of 1837 the failures in New York alone amounted to one hundred million dollars. All parts of the country were affected by the financial troubles, and in New Orleans the failures amounted to twenty-seven million dollars. Petitions were addressed to the president from all parts of the Union, praying him to take some steps to relieve the general distress, and in May a deputation of merchants and bankers from New York waited upon President Van Buren, and urged him to postpone the immediate collection of duties for which merchants had given bonds, to withdraw the treasury orders requiring sums due the United States to be paid in gold and silver, and to convene Congress in extra session for the purpose of devising measures of relief. The president complied with their request to suspend the collection of duties for which bonds had been given, but declined to take the other steps asked of him. Within a few days after his answer was known the banks of New York suspended specie pay- ments, and their example was followed by the rest of the banks throughout the Union. The distress of the country was very great. Hundreds of thousands of laborers were thrown out of employment, and business of all kinds was at a standstill. The government, which, a few months before, had been out of debt, and in possession of a surplus of forty millions, now found itself unable to provide funds for its ordinary expenses. The president was compelled to summon an extra session of Congress, which met on the 4th of September, 1837. The president in his message attributed the embarrassed condition of the country to the excessive issues of bank notes, the great fire in New York in 1835, and the reckless speculations of the people for several years past. He suggested no special legislation for the relief of these troubles, as he regarded such a course as beyond the constitutional authority of the general government. Indeed the government could do but little to restore public confidence ; that was ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 675 the task of the people themselves, and it was not accomplished for several years. To meet the necessities of the government, and provide a legal currency, Congress, at the recommendation of the president, issued treas- ury notes to the amount of ten millions of dollars. Another recom- mendation of the president did not give such general satisfaction. The president advised the creation of au independent treasury for the public funds, as a means of avoiding the risks assumed by the government in depositing its funds in the banks. These treasuries were to be located at certain central points, and the sub-treasurers were to be appointed by the president, and were to give bonds for the proper fulfilment of their EASTON, PENNSYLVANIA. duties. The president believed that the adoption of this measure would withdraw large sums of money from active circulation and so put a stop to speculation. The bill for the creation of the independent treasury was warmly opposed in and out of Congress, as it was feared by many that the withdrawal of so much gold and silver from circulation would seriously injure the business of the country. Mr. Calhoun supported the measure with all his great abilities, and Mr. Clay and Mr. Webster opposed it. The measure failed at the extra session, but became a law 676 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. in 1840. In 1841 it was repealed, and in 1846 was re-enacted. It is still in force, and its wisdom and usefulness are now generally admitted. The spirit of speculation had extended to the State governments as well as to private individuals, and State bonds had been issued to the amount of one hundred million dollars. The pretext for this excessive increase of debt was the necessity of raising funds to carry out their system of in-, ternal improvements. The panic involved the States in its effects, and eight of them found themselves unable in 1838 to pay the interest on their bonds. In course of time they made good their obligations, but the State of Mississippi and the Territory of Florida not only refused to pay the interest on their bonds, but repudiated their debts. The sale of their bonds had been made principally in Europe, and their repudiation of their debts aroused great indignation on the other side of the Atlantic, and brought disgrace upon the whole nation. The effects of this were seen a few years later, when the United States sought to negotiate a national loan in Europe. Not a bond could be sold or a dollar obtained there. In 1837 a movement was made by the people of Canada to throw off their connection with Great Britain, and to establish their independence. It aroused the sympathies of a large number of the people of the United States, and in northern New York associations called " Hunters' Lodges " were formed for the purpose of aiding the Canadian patriots. The president of the United States and the governor of New York endeavored to suppress these illegal associations, but without success. A body of seven hundred Canadians and American sympathizers took possession of Navy island in the Niagara river. The island is a part of Canada, and lies near the shore of that country. The force on the island employed the steamboat "Caroline" to convey men and provisions from the town of Schlosscr on the American shore to the island. The British authorities in Canada determined to destroy the boat. One dark night in December, 1837, a detachment from Canada was sent to Navy island for this purpose. Not finding the " Caroline " there, they went over to Schlosser, where she was moored at her dock. The boat was captured after a short struggle in which one American was killed, and was carried out into the stream and set on fire. She drifted down to the falls, and plunged over them in a blaze. The British minister at Washington at once declared the responsibility of his government for the capture of the boat, and justified it on the ground of self-defence. In the meantime the president had sent General Wool with a strong force to the Canadian border with orders to prevent any expedition from leaving this country to aid the Canadians. He compelled the force oa ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. G77 Navy island to surrender, but the border war continued until the close of 1838, when it was put down. In 1840 the question was to some extent revived. Alexander McLeod, a British subject residing in Canada, boasted that he had been engaged in the capture of the "Caroline," and had killed the American who fell in .RAFTING LUMBER IN MAINE. that conflict. Shortly afterwards he visited the New York side of the river, and was at once arrested upon a charge of murder by the authori- ties of that State. The British government demanded his unconditional release on the ground that he had simply obeyed the orders of his gov- ernment, which was alone responsible for his act. The general govern- ment of the United States also demanded the surrender of McLeod to the Federal authorities. The State of New York, however, held that the offence with which McLeod was charged had been committed on her soil, and brought the prisoner to trial. As he succeeded in proving that 678 HISTORY OF TIIE UNITED STATES. he was not engaged in, or present at the attack, he was acquitted. This conflict between the federal and State authority led to the passage by Congress of a law requiring similar offences to be tried before the United States courts. In the midst of the Canadian controversy a quarrel sprang up between the State of Maine and the British province of New Brunswick, concern- ing the northeast boundary of the United States. Both parties prepared for a conflict, but the president sent General Scott to the scene of danger, and he, by his moderation and firmness, succeeded in maintaining peace until the matter could be settled by treaty. The war with the Seminole Indians in Florida continued through the BATTLE OF OKEECHOBEE. whole of this administration. The capture and death of Osceola, which we have related, though a severe blow to his followers, did not dishearten 7 O * them. On the 25th of December, 1838, Colonel Zachary Taylor in- flicted a severe defeat upon the Indians at Lake Okeechobee. The war was at length brought to an end in 1842, but not until it had lasted seven years, and had cost many valuable lives and the enormous sum of nearly forty million dollars. The Seminoles were subdued, and were removed from Florida to new homes beyond the Mississippi. The Missouri Compromise did not quiet the agitation of the slavery question. It gave to the country only a momentary respite. The Anti- slavery or Abolition party had now become one of the recognized political organizations of the country. Its avowed object was the abolition of ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN. 679 slavery in every State in which it existed. It was argued in opposition to their principles that the constitution recognized and protected slavery in the States in which it existed; but they met this assertion bv the bold declaration that they would continue their agitation until they had de- stroyed either slavery or the Union. They did not wish to live under a constitution which protected slavery, and which one of their principal leaders denounced as " a covenant with death, and an agreement with hell." The body embraced the extreme Anti-slavery men of the north. Among its adversaries were some of the sincerest opponents of slavery, who hoped to accomplish their ends by constitutional means and by the influences of a better and more enlightened public opinion, and who deprecated and opposed the violence of the extreme Abolitionists. The leader of the ultra party in Congress was John Quincy Adams, who had been returned to the House of Representatives from Massachusetts in 1831. Memorials were presented to Congress praying the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, and gave rise to exciting debates in that body, which affected the whole country profoundly, and did much to widen the breach between the Northern and Southern States. This agitation continued through the whole of Mr. Van Buron's term of office. Early in the session of 1838-39, Mr. Atherton, of New Hamp- shire, offered a series of resolutions expressing the relations of the general government towards the States, and dec ] aring the inability of Congress to interfere with slavery in those States in which it already existed, or in the District of Columbia, or the Territories. These resolutions were adopted by the House by decisive majorities, and were regarded by Mr. Clay and by the leading public men of the country as effectually dis- posing of the troublesome question as far as the general government was concerned. The resolutions were as follows: "Resolved, That this government is a government of limited powers, and that by the institution of the United States, Congress lias no jurisdiction whatever over the institution J slavery in the several States of the. confederacy." The vote upon this resolution stood : 196 for it, and 6 against it. The second resolution was in these words : "Re-solved, That petitions for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia and the Territories of the United States, and against the removal of slaves from one State tu another, are a part of a plan of operations set on foot to affect the institution of slavery in the Southern States, and thus indirectly to destroy that institution within their, limits." On this resolution the vote stood : 136 for it, and C5 against it. The third resolution was in these words: "Resolved, That Congress has no right to do that indirectly which it cannot do directly ; 680 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and that the agitation of the subject of slavery in the District of Columbia, or the Territo- ries, as a means, and with a view, of disturbing or overthrowing that institution in the several States, is against the true spirit and meaning of the constitution, an infringement of the rights of the States affected, and a breach of the public faith upon which they entered into ihe confederacy." The vote on this resolution was : 164 in favor of it, and 40 against it. The fourth of this series was in these words: "Resolved, That the constitution rests on the broad principle of equality among the members of this confederacy, and that Congress, in the exercise of its acknowledged powers, lias no right to discriminate between the institutions of one portion of the States and another, with a view of abolishing the one and promoting the other." The vote on this resolution was : 174 in favor of it, and 24 against it. The fifth and last of Mr. Atherton's resolutions was in these words : "Resolved, That all attempts on the part of Congress to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia, or the Territories, or to prohibit the removal of slaves from Stale to State, or to discriminate between the institutions of one portion of the confederacy and another, with the view aforesaid, are in violation of the constitution, destructive of the fundamental principle on which the union of these States rests, and beyond the jurisdiction of Congress; and that every petition, memorial, resolution, proposition, or pa] er, touching or relating in any way, or to any extent whatever, to slavery, as aforesaid, or the abolition thereof, shall, on the presentation thereof, without any further action thereon, be laid upon the table, without being debated, printed, or referred." The vote on the first branch of this resolution was, 146 in favor, and 52 against it; on the second branch of the resolution the vote stood, 126 for it, and 78 against it. As we shall see, this declaration of Congress was far from quieting the agitation upon this troublesome question. The slavery conflict had in reality just begun. In the fall of 1840 the presidential election was held. Mr. Van Buren and Vice-President Johnson were nominated for re-election by the Democratic party, and the Whigs supported General William Henry Harrison, of Ohio, for president, and John Tyler, of Virginia, for vice- president. The financial distress of the country had been but slightly relieved, and was generally attributed by the people to the interference of the government with the currency. This feeling made the Democratic nominees exceedingly unpopular, and the political campaign, which was one of the most exciting ever conducted in this country, resulted in the election of Harrison and Tyler by overwhelming majorities. In 1840 the sixth census showed the population of the United States to be 17,069,453 CHAPTER XXXVI. THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON AND JOHtf TYLER. An Extra Session of Congress Summoned Death of President Harrison John Tylei becomes President of the United States Meeting of Congress The Bankrupt Law President Tyler Vetoes the Bills to Revive the United States Bank His Quarrel with his Party The "Tyler Whigs" The Tariff of 1842 The Treaty of Washington The United States will not Tolerate the Exercise of the Right of Search Dorr's Rebellion The Mormons Invention of the Electric Telegraph Explosion on the "Princeton" Efforts to Secure the Annexation of Texas Early History of Texas The Texan War o f Independence Battle of San Jacinto Texan Independence Established Texas Applies fo. Admission into the Union Opposition to the Measure Significance of the Vote at the Presidential Election James K. Pulk Elected President Texas admitted into the Union Iowa and Florida become States. i X the 4th of March, 1841, William Henry Harrison was inaugu- rated president of the United States at Washington in the pres- ence of an immense concourse of citizens from all parts of the Union. He was in his sixty-ninth year, and had spent forty y^rs of his life in the public service. His services during the Indian hostilities which preceded the war of 1312-15, and his exploits during that war, have been related. He had served as governor of In- diana Territory, and had been both a member of Congress and a senator of the United States. He was a man of pure life and earnest char- acter, and the certainty of a change of policy in the measures of the federal government had caused the people of the country to look forward to his administration with hope and confidence. He began by calling to seats in his cabinet men of prominence and ability. At the head of the cabinet he placed Daniel Webster, as secretary of state. The president issued a proclamation convening Congress in special session on the WILLIAM HENRY 31st of May, 1841. He was not destined' to fulfil the hopes of his friends, however. He was suddenly seized with pneumonia, and died on the 4th of April, 1841 just one month after his inauguration. 682 IISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. It was the first time that a president of the United States had died in office, and a gloom was cast over the nation by the sad event. The mourning of the people was sincere, for in General Harrison the nation lost a faithful, upright, and able citizen. He had spent forty years in prominent public positions, and had discharged every duty confided to him with ability and integrity, and went to his grave a poor man. " Brave old Cincinnatua 1 he left but his plow." Upon the assembling of Congress, that body, " out of consideration of his expenses in removing to the seat of government, and the limited means he had left behind," appropriated the equivalent of one year's presidential salary twenty-five thousand dollars to Mrs. Harrison. According to the terms of the constitution, upon the death of General Harrison, the office of president of the United States devolved upon the vice-presi- dent, John Tyler, of Virginia. Mr. Tyler was not in the city of Washington at the time of the death of his predecessor, but re- paired to that city without loss of time, upon being notified of the need of his presence, and on the 6th of April took the oath of office before Judge Cranch, chief justice of the District of Columbia. Mr. Tyler was in his fifty-second year, and had served as governor of Virginia, and as representative and senator in Congress from that State. On the 9th of April President Tyler issued an address to the people of the United States, in which there was no indication of a departure from the policy announced in the inaugural of General Harrison. He retained the cabinet ministers of his predecessors in their respwtive positions. On the 31st of May the Twenty-seventh Congress convened in extra session. It was known as the " Whig Congress," as a large majority of its members were of that party. Had this party remained united tney could have controlled the action of Congress to suit themselves, but as we shall see the policy of the executive soon divided them. The first not of this Congress was to repeal the sub-treasury bill which had been passed in 1840. The effects of the commercial crisis had involved thousands of merchants in hopeless bankruptcy, and under the old laws they had no means of recovering their lost position, as they were crushed down by their debts. Neither their creditors nor the country at large derived any JOHN TYLER. ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER, 683 benefit from this state of affairs, and Congress at once passed a general bankrupt law for the relief of persons thus situated. It was highly bene- ficial to the country, and was repealed, in 1843, when the necessity for it had ceased to exist. Efforts were made to revive the Rink of the United States, and a bil! was passed establishing an institution known as "The Fiscal Bank of the United States." Mr. Tyler, who was a member of the strict construe- tionist school, now found himself at variance \vith a majority of his party in both Houses of Congress. As he did not believe that Congress could constitutionally charter such an institution, he vetoed this bill. The advocates of the measure could not command the requisite two-third* DAVENTORT, IOWA. majority for the passage of the bill over the president's veto, and his action was sntained. Another bill was passed by Congress, of a similar character, establishing " The Fiscal Corporation of the United States," but this also was vetoed by the president for the same reasons. His veto was sustained by Congress in this instance also. The vetoes of these measures were generally approved by the strict constructionists through- out the Union, without reeard to party ; but they were bitterly denounced by the majority of the Whigs, who charged the president with having violated the implied pledges upon which he was elected, and with having betrayed his party. The AVhigs were for the time forgetful of the fact that at the time of his nomination to the vice-presidency Mr. Tyler was known to be opposed to the Bank of the United States. The members 684 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES. of the cabinet, with the single exception of the secretary of state, resigned their positions in consequence of Mr. Tyler's course. Mr. Webster retained his position in order to complete the important negotiations he \vas at the time conducting with England. The places of the other mem- bers of the cabinet were filled by the president with prominent members of the strict constructionist school of the Whig party, who sustained the president. The second session of the Twenty-seventh Congress met in December, 1841, and continued its sittings until August, 1842. It was noted as the longest session ever held up to this time. It found the Whig party divided, and the opposing factions bitterly hostile to each other. The majority, led by Mr. Clay, opposed the administration. The minority, because of their support of the president, received the name of " Tyler Whigs." The principal question agitated during this session was the tariff. According to the compromise act of 1833, the duties this year were to be regulated according to a revenue standard. The majority in Congress, however, paid no regard to the pledge given in this compro- mise, and a new tariff bill was passed by both Houses of Congress, regu- lating the duties on a strongly protective basis, and with the avowed object of reviving the protective policy. It was vetoed by the president. Another measure of a similar though slightly modified character was passed, and this was vetoed also. Congress then passed the tariff of 1842, in which the principles of the compromise of 1833 were altogether set aside, and the duties made strictly protective. It required a sharp strug- gle in Congress to secure the passage of this bill ; which received the executive signatuie on the 30th of August. In the meantime Mr. Webster succeeded in bringing the negotiations with Great Britain to a successful close. These negotiations had grown out of the revolutionary disturbances in Canada, and the controversy respecting the northeast boundary of the United States, during the administration of Mr. Van Buren, which we have related. The boun- dary question was of older origin than the former controversy, and had been pending between the United States and England for fifty years. Mr. Webster, immediately upon his entrance upon the office of secretary of state, had, with the approval of the president, signified the desire of .this country to terminate the controversy, and Lord Ashburton had been sont by the British government as special minister to the United States, with full power to settle all the controversies between the two countries. The trontv of Washington was concluded in 1842, and was accepted by both countries as a settlement of the questions at issue between them. By the terms of this treaty the northeastern boundary was arranged as ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 685 it exists at present ; the United States obtained the free navigation of the St. John's river to the sea ; and gained possession of the important mili- tary position of Rouse's Point, at the outlet of Lake Champlain. The two countries mutually agreed to surrender upon proper demand all fugitives from justice escaping from the territory of one into that of the other ; and to maintain a certain number of ships of war on the African coast to aid in suppressing the slave trade. When the treaty was completed two subjects presented themselves to the negotiators. One of these was the right claimed by Great Britain for her cruisers to stop and if necessary to search merchant vessels belonging to other nations on the high seas ; the other was the impressment of sea- men from American merchant vessels by British cruisers. Mr. Webster, EVANS VILLE, JNDIANA. in a paper of great ability, addressed to the American minister at London, but intended for the British foreign minister, denied the right of search, and sustained his position by arguments that were simply irrefutable. In a letter to Lord Ashburton Mr. Webster refused to consider the im- pressment question, as the United States could in no case admit such a claim on the part of Great Britain, and declared that every case of im- pressment would be considered an act of hostility and would be repelled ,as such. He declared as the unalterable policy of this country the doc- trine that " Every merchant vessel on the high seas is rightfully con- sidered as a part of the territory to which it belongs;" that "in every regularly documented American merchant vessel the crew who navigate it will find their protection in the flag which is over them ; " and that " the American government, then, is prepared to say that the practice of 686 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. impressing seameu from American vessels cannot hereafter be allowed to take place." The tone of the secretary of state, though firm, was cour- teous aud conciliatory, and the negotiations were conducted in the same spirit of conciliation by the British minister. With this treaty the United States formally took their position as one of the great powers of the world. The negotiations being completed, Mr. Webster resigned his place in the cabinet in May, 1843, and was suc- ceeded by Abel P. Upshur, of Virginia. In 1842 an insurrection broke out in the State of Rhode Island, which required the intervention of the United States for its suppression. It is known as the Dorr rebellion. The old charter of the colony, granted by Charles II., in 1663, had up to this time served as the constitution of the State. It was found to be unsuited to the requirements of the people in their more prosperous condition, and an eifort was made to change it. Two parties were formed, one in favor of the proposed changes, the other opposed to them. Each party nominated its candidate for the office of governor and elected him. The "suffrage party," which favored the changes, elected Thomas W. Dorr governor, took up arms, and attacked the State arsenal for the purpose of arming their followers. They were repulsed by the State militia assisted by the United States troops. Dorr was arrested, tried for treason, and sentenced to imprisonment for life. He was released in 1845. The opponents of the " suffrage party " deemed it best to yield to the popular wish, however, and in November, 1842, a new constitution, embracing the desired changes, was adopted by the legislature. About the same time a series of disturbances occurred in the State of Illinois, which were but the forerunners of a more serious embarrassment to the general government at a later period. A new religious sect had sprung up some years before in the western part of New York. They called themselves Mormons, and were founded by a cunning impostor named Joseph Smith, who professed to have received a new revelation from God, written on plates of gold. Among the articles of the Mormon faith is one which teaches the doctrine of a plurality of wives. Feeling that the east was not favorable to their growth, the Mormons at an early day removed to the west. They settled at first in Missouri, but so exasperated the people of that State by their conduct, that they were soon driven out of Missouri. Crossing the Mississippi, they settled in Illinois, and founded a city which they called Nauvoo, and built a temple. Their numbers increased rapidly from emigration from nearly every country in Europe. The new- comers were mainly persons of low position and without education. ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 687 Conscious of their strength, they raised troops, and set the authority of the State of Illinois at defiance. The State endeavored to reduce them to obedience, and their conduct, as in Missouri, turned the people against them. Several conflicts ensued between the Mormons and the authorities. In one of these Joe Smith, the prophet, and his brother were seized JUKI put in jail ; and while lying there were murdered by the mob in July, 1844. This brought matters to a crisis, and the 1 people of Illinois deter- mined to drive the Mormons across the Mississippi. Nauvoo was attacked in 1845, and the Mormons were compelled to leave the State. In 1846 they bent their steps westward, and after a long and painful journey acrv^sa the plains, reached the valley of Salt Lake, and established a settlement there. Out of this settlement grew the Territory of Utah. MADISON, WISCONSIN. In 1844 occurred one of the most important events in the history of the world. In 1832 Samuel F. B. Morse, a native of Massachusetts, invented the electric telegraph. He spent some years in perfecting his in- vention, and in 1838 applied to Congress for a small appropriation to assist him in building a line of wire to demonstrate the usefulness of his dis- covery. He was obliged to wait five years for a favorable answer, and it was not until he had given up all hope of receiving aid from Congres? that that body, on the last day of the session of 1843, appropriated the sum of thirty thousand dollars to construct a telegraph line between Washing- ton City and Baltimore, a distance of forty miles. The line was completed 688 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. in 1844, and was successfully operated by Professor Morse. This was the first line established in the world. In the thirty-one years which have elapsed since then the use of the telegraph has become general throughout the civilized world, and in the United States alone over sixty thousand miles of telegraph lines are in operation at the present time. On the 28th of February, 1844, the president, accompanied by the members of his cabinet and a number of distinguished citizens, officers ot the army and navy, and ladies, went on board the new steam frigate "Princeton," lying in the Potomac, to witness the experimental firings of a new cannon of unusual size on board that ship, to which the name of "The Peacemaker" had been given. At one of the discharges the gun exploded, causing the instant death of Messrs. Upshur and Gilmer, the secretaries of state and of the navy, and several other spectators. This sad event was greatly lamented throughout the country. Judge Upshur was succeeded as secretary of state by John C. Calhoun, then a senator from South Carolina. The last years of Mr. Tyler's administration were devoted to the effort to secure the annexation of the republic of Texas to the United States. The territory embraced within the limits of Texas constituted a part of the Spanish- American possessions, and was generally regarded as a part of Mexico. During the last century a number of forts had been erected in Texas by the Spaniards as a means of holding the province against the French, and each fort was made a missionary station, from which efforts were made to convert the Indians, but without success. The United States were, in the early part of the present century, inclined to regard Texas as rightfully a part of the Louisiana purchase, but this claim was waived when Florida was. purchased. Early in the present century pioneers from the United States began to find their way to Texas, which was then a wild country, inhabited only by roving Indians, and the garrisons of the few Spanish forts within it limits. One of these emigrants, Moses Austin, of Durham, Connecticut, conceived the plan of colonizing Texas with settlers from the United States. For this purpose he obtained from the Spanish government, in 1820, the grant of an extensive tract of land ; but before he could put his plans in execution he died. His son, Stephen F. Austin, inherited the rights of his father under this grant, and went to Texas with a number of emigrants from this country, and explored that region for the purpose of locating his grant. He selected as the most desirable site for his colony the country between the Brazos and Colorado rivers, and founded a city, which he named Austin in honor of the originator of the colony, to whom Texas owes its existence as an American commonwealth. Hav- ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 689 ing seen the settlers established in their new homes, Mr. Austin returned to the United States to collect other emigrants for his colony. During his absence Mexico and the other Spanish provinces rose in revolt against Spain, and succeeded in establishing their independence. Texas, being regarded as a part of the Mexican territory, shared the for- tunes of that country. Upon his return to Texas, Austin, in considera- tion of the altered state of affairs, went to the city of Mexico and obtained from the Mexican government a confirmation of the grant made to his father. Such a confirmation was necessary in order to enable him to give the settlers valid titles to the lands of his colony. Mexico at first exercised but a nominal authority over the new settlements, and the colonists were OLD FORT BENTON, MONTANA. allowed to live under their own laws, subject to the rules drawn up by Austin. In order to encourage settlements in Texas, the Mexican Con- gress, on the 2d of May, 1824, enacted the following law, declaring, " That Texas is to be annexed to the Mexican province of Cohahuila, until it is of sufficient importance to form a separate State, when it is to become an independent State of the Mexican republic, equal to the other States of which the same is composed, free, sovereign, and independent in whatever exclusively relates to its internal government and adminis- tration." Encouraged by this decree, large numbers of Americans emigrated to* 44 690 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Texas, and to these were added emigrants from all the countries of Europe. The population grew rapidly, new towns sprang up, and Austin's colony prospered in a marked degree, until 1830, when Busta- mente having made himself by violence and intrigue president of the so- called Mexican republic, prohibited the emigration of foreigners to the Mexican territory, and issued a number of decrees very oppressive to the people, and in violation of the constitution of 1 824. In order to enforce these measures in Texas, he occupied that province with his troops, and placed Texas under military rule. The Texans resented this interference with their rights, and finally compelled the Mexican troops to withdraw from the province. In 1832 another revolution in Mexico drove Busta- mente from power, and placed Santa Anna at the head of affairs as presi- dent or dictator. Texas took no part in the disturbances of Mexico, but after the acces- eion of Santa Anna to power, formed a constitution, and applied for admission into the Mexican republic as a State, in accordance with the constitution of 1 824, and the act of the Mexican Congress which we have quoted. Stephen F. Austin was sent to the city of Mexico to present the petition of Texas for this purpose. He was refused an answer to this petition for over a year, and at last wrote to the authorities of Texas, advising them to organize a State government without waiting for the action of the Mexican Congress. For this recommendation, which the Mexican government regarded as treasonable, Santa Anna caused the arrest of Austin, and kept him in prison for over a year. Texas now began to manifest the most determined opposition to the usurpation of Santa Anna, and measures were taken to maintain the rights of the province under the constitution of 1824. Troops were organized, and preparations made to resist the force which it was certain Mexico would send against them. Santa Anna did not allow them to remain long in suspense, but at once despatched a force under General Cos, to disarm the Texaus. On the 2d of October, 1835, Cos attacked the town of Gonzalez, which was held by a Texan force, but was repulsed with heavy loss. A week later, on the 9th of October, the Texans captured the town of Goliad, and a little later gained possession of the mission house of the Alamo. Both places were garrisoned, and the Texan army, which was under the command of Austin, in the course of a few months succeeded in driving the Mexicans out of Texas. On the 12th of November, 1835, a convention of the people of Texas met at the city of Austin, and organized a regular State government. Prominent among the members was General Sam Houston, a settler ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 691 from the United States. Soon after the meeting of the convention Gen- eral Austin resigned the command of the army, and was sent to the United States as the commissioner of that State to this government, and was succeeded as commander-in-chief by General Sam Houston. Henry Smith was elected governor of Texas by the people. As soon as Santa Anna learned that his troops had been driven out of Texas, and that the Texans had set up a State government, he set out for that country with an army of seventy-five hundred men. He issued orders to his troops to shoot every prisoner taken, and intended to make the struggle a war of extermination. He arrived before the Alamo late in February, 1836. This fort was very strong, and was held by a force of one hundred and forty Texans under Colonel Travis. It was besieged FOET ALAMO SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS. by the whole Mexican army, and was subjected to a bombardment of eleven days. At last, on the 6th of March, the garrison being worn out wi'h fatigue, the fort was carried by assault, and the whole garrison was put to the sword. Among the heroes who fell at the Texan Thermopylae was the eccentric but chivalrous Colonel Davy Crockett of Tennessee, whc< had generously come to aid the Texans in their struggle for liberty. The' capture of the Alamo cost the Mexicans a loss of sixteen hundred men, or over eleven men for every one of its defenders. On the 17th of March, 1836, the convention adopted a constitution for an independent republic, and formally proclaimed the independence of Texas. David G. Burnett was elected president of the republic. 692 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The fort at Goliad was held by a force of three hundred and thirty Texans, under Colonel Fanning, a native of Georgia. On the 27th of March it was attacked by the Mexican army. The garrison maintained a gallant defence, but their resources being exhausted, and the Mexicans being reinforced during the night, Fanning decided to surrender his force, if he could obtain honorable terms. He proposed to Santa Anna to lay down his arms, and surrender the post on condition that he and his men should be allowed and assisted to return to the United States. The prop- osition was accepted by Santa Anna, and the terms of the surrender wore formally drawn up and were signed by each commander. As soon as the surrender was made, however, and the arms of the Texans were delivered, Santa Anna, in base violation of his pledge, caused Fanning and the survivors of the garrison, to the number of three hundred men, to be put to death. The massacres of the Alamo and Goliad, and the steady advance of the Mexican army under Santa Anna, caused a feeling of profound alarm throughout the new republic. The government was removed temporarily to Galveston, and General Houston retreated behind the San Jacinto. Santa Anna pursued the Texan forces, and at length came up with them on the banks of that stream. Houston had but seven hundred and fifty men with him, and these were imperfectly armed, and without discipline. With this force he surprised the Mexican camp, on the 21st of April, and routed the Mexican army, inflicting upon it a loss of over six hun- dred killed, and taking more than eight hundred prisoners. Santa Anna himself was among the prisoners. Houston at once entered into negotia- tions with him for the withdrawal of the Mexican forces from Texas. This was done at once, and the independence of Texas was achieved. Santa Anna also recognized the independence of the new republic, but the Mexican Congress refused to confirm this act. Houston was now the idol of the Texan people, as the deliverer of their country from the hated Mexicans. At the next general election he was chosen president of the republic, and was inaugurated on the 22d of October, 1836. General Mirabeau B. Lamar was the third president of the republic of Texas, and entered upon his office in 1838. He was succeeded in 1844 by Anson Jones, the fourth president. The territory of the republic was sufficiently large to make five States the size of Kew York, and its climate and soil were among the most delightful and fertile in the world. It contained a population of about two hundred thousand, and was increasing rapidly in inhabitants and in prosperity. On the 3d of March, 1837, the independence of the republic of Texas acknowledged by the United States, and in 1839 by France and ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER. 693 England. Being young and feeble, and being settled almost entirely by Americans, the people of Texas at an early day came to the conclusion that their bes f , interests required them to seek a union with the United States, and as early as August, 1837., a proposition was submitted to Mr. Van Buren looking to such a union. It was declined by him, but the question was taken up by the press and people of the Union, and was discussed with the greatest interest and activity. The south was unani- mously in favor of the annexation of Texas, as it was a region in which slave labor would be particularly profitable ; and a strong party in the north opposed the annexation for the reason that it would inevitably extend the area of slavery. An additional argument against annexa- tion was that it would involve a war with Mexico, which had never acknowledged the independence of Texas. In April, 1844, Texas formally applied for admission into the United States, and a treaty for that purpose was negotiated with her by the government of this country. It was rejected by the Senate. In the fall of 1844 the presidential election took place. The leading political question of the day was the annexation of Texas. It was advo- cated by the administration of Presi- dent Tyler and by the Democratic party. This party also made the claim of the United States to Oregon one of the leading issues of the campaign. Its candidates were James K. Polk, of Tennessee, and George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania. The Whig party supported Henry Clay, of Kentucky, and Theodore Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey, and opposed the annexation of Texas. During this campaign, which was one of unusual excitement, the Anti-slavery party made its appearance for the first time as a distinct political organization, and nominated James G. Birney as its candidate for the presidency. The result of the campaign was a decisive victory for the Democrats. This success was generally regarded as an emphatic expression of the popular will respecting the Texas and Oregon questions. Mr. Birney did not receive a single electoral vote, and of the popular vote only sixty-four thousand six hundred and fifty-three ballots were cast for him. When Congress met in December, 1864, the efforts for the annexation of Texas were renewed. A proposition was made to receive Texas into the Union by a joint resolution of Congress. A bill for this purpose passed the House of Representatives, but the Senate added an amend- COAT OF ARSIS OF TEXAS. 694 HISTORY OF THE VK1TED STATES. COAT OP ARMS OF IOWA. ment appointing commissioners to negotiate with Mexico for the- annexa- tion of Texas, which she still claimed as a part of her territory. The president was authorized by a clause in these resolutions to adopt either the House or the Senate plan of annexation, and on the 2d of March, 1845, the resolutions were adopted. Senator Benton, of Missouri, the author of the Senate plan, was of the opinion that the matter would be left to Mr. Polk, the president-elect, to be conducted by him ; and that gentleman had expressed his intention to carry out the Senate plan, as he hoped an amicable arrangement could be made with Mexico. Mr. Tyler, however, determined not to leave the annexation of Texas to his successor, and at once adopted the plan proposed in the House resolu- tions, and on the night of Sunday, March 3d, a messenger was des- patched with all speed to Texas to lay the proposition before the authori- ties of that State. It was accepted by them, and on the 4th of July, 1845, Texas became one of the United States. The area thus added to the territory of the Union comprised two hun- dred and thirty-seven thousand five hundred and four square miles. It was provided by the act of admission that four additional States might be formed out of the territory of Texas, when. the population should increase to an extent which should make such a step desirable. Those States lying north of the Missouri Compromise line 36 30' north latitude were to be free States ; those south of that, line were to be free or slave- holding, " as the people of each State asking admission may desire." To Texas was reserved the right to re- fuse to allow the division of her territory. On the 3d of March, 1845, the president approved an act of Congress admitting the Territories of Iowa and Florida into the Union as States. No president has ever been more unpopular during his administration than Mr. Tyler. His administration speaks for itself, however, and bears out the truth of his memorable words : " I appeal from the vituperation of the present day to the pen of impartial history, in the full confidence that neither my motives nor my acts will bear the interpretation which has, for sinister purposes, been placed upon them." COAT OF ARMS OF FLORIDA. CHAPTER XXXVII. THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK THE WAR WITH MEXICO. The Oregon Question Position of President Polk respecting it The Question Settled- Treaty for Settlement of Claims against Mexico Mexico Resents the Annexation of Texas General Taylor Ordered to Texas He Advances to the Rio Grande Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma The War with Mexico Begun Invasion of Mexico Occupation of Matamoras Action of the United States Government Taylor Advances into the Interior The Storming and Capture of Monterey The Armistice Return of Santa Anna to Mexico President Polk Duped Santa Anna Seizes the Mexican Govern- ment General Wool Joins General Taylor Tioops Taken from Taylor's Army Ad- vance of the Mexicans Battle of Buena Vista Conquest of California by Fremont and Stockton Occupation rf Santa Fe~ New Mexico Conquered Doniphan's March Occupation of Chihuahua Sailing of Scott's Expedition Reduction of Vera Cruz Santa Anna Collects a New Army Battle of Cerro Gordo Occupation of Puebla by Scott Trouble with Mr. Trist Vigorous Measures of Santa Anna Scott Advances upon the City of Mexico El Pefion Turned Battles of Contreras and Churubusco Capture of Molino del Rey Storming of Chapultepec Capture of the City of Mexico Siege of Puebla Raised Flight of Santa Anna Treaty of Peace Negotiated Close of the War Acquisition of California and New Mexico Discovery of Gold in California Rapid Emigration to the Pacific Death of John Quincy Adams The Wilmot Proviso Revival of the Slavery Question General Taylor elected President. HE inauguration of James K. Polk, as president of the United States, took place on the 4th of March, 1845. He had served the country as governor of the State of Tennessee, and for four- teen years had been a member of the House of Representatives in Congress from that State, and had been several times chosen speaker of that body. His cabinet was selected from the first men of his party. James Buchanan was secretary of state ; Robert J. Walker was secretary of the treasury ; William L. Marcy, secretary of war ; and George Bancroft, the historian, secretary of the navy. Two important questions presented themselves to the new administration for settlement : the troubles with Mexico growing out of the annexation of Texas, and the arrangement of the northwestern boundary of the United States. The question of the northwestern boundary had been left unsettled by the treaty of Washington in 1842. Great Britain was anxious to arrange the matter, and late in the year 1842 Mr. Fox, the British minister at 696 696 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Washington, proposed to Mr. Webster, then secretary of state, to open negotiations. The British proposition was accepted, but nothing further was done until February, 1844, when Sir Richard Packenham, the British minister at Washington, proposed to take up the question of the Oregon boundary and settle it. Mr. Upshur, the secretary of state, accepted the offer, but was killed a few days later by the explosion on board the "Princeton." Six months later, Sir Richard Packenham renewed the proposal to Mr. Calhoun, who had become secretary of state, and nego- tiations were entered upon in earnest. The territory of Oregon lay between the forty-second and fifty-fourth parallels of north latitude, and extended from the Rocky mountains on the east to tho Pacific ocean on the west. This region was originally claimed by Spain, by whose subjects it was first discovered. At the ces- sion of Florida, Spain ceded to the United States all her territory north of the forty-second parallel of north lati- tude, from the headwaters of the Arkansas to the Pacific. Mexico, upon achieving her independence, had acknowledged by a treaty with the United States the validity of this boundary. The line of fifty-four degrees forty minutes north latitude was established by treaty between the United States, Great Britain, and Russia as the southern boun- dary of the Russian possessions in America. The United States claimed the entire re- gion of Oregon in virtue of the cession of Spain in the Florida treaty ; the discoveries of Captain Gray, of Boston, who circumnavi- gated the globe, and in 1792 discovered to a certain extent and explored the Columbia river; the explorations of Lewis and Clarke in 1805 and 1806 of the southern main branch of the Columbia, and of the river itself from the mouth of that branch to the sea ; and the settlement of Astoria planted at the mouth of the Columbia in 1811 by John Jacob Astor, of New York. Oregon was also claimed by England, who also rested her pretensions on discovery, and on the settlement made by the Northwest Company on Fraser's river, in 1806, and on another near the headwaters of the north branch of the Columbia. In 1818 the United States and Great Britain had agreed upon the forty-ninth degree of north latitude, as the boundary between the United States and British America from the Lake of the Woods to the summit of the Rocky mountains. Mr. Calhoun now opened the negotiations by JAMES K. POLK. ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 697 proposing to continue this line to the Pacific. The British minister would not consent to this, but proposed to extend the forty-ninth parallel from the mountains to the north branch of the Columbia, and then to make the boundary follow that stream from this point of intersection to the sea. Mr. Calhoun at once declined to accept this boundary, and the further con- sideration of the subject was postponed until Packenham could receive additional instructions from his government. During the presidential campaign of 1844 the Democratic party adopted as its watchword, "all of Oregon or none," and the excitement upon the question ran high. The election of Mr. Polk showed that the American people were resolved to insist upon their claim to Oregon, and when the new president in his inaugural address took the bold ground that the PORTLAND, OREGON, IN 1875 FROM EAST SIDE OF WILLAMETTE. American title to " Oregon territory " " was dear and indisputable," and declared his intention to maintain it at the cost of war with England, the matter assumed a serious aspect, and for a while it seemed that party pas- sion would involve the two countries in hostilities. President Polk, upon a calmer consideration of the subject, caused the secretary of state to reopen the negotiations by proposing to Great Britain the forty-ninth parallel of latitude as a boundary. The British minister declined the proposition, and the matter was dropped. According to the treaties of 1818 and 1828, the joint occupation of Oregon could be terminated by either party by giving the other twelve months notice. The president now proposed to give the required notice, which was done by a resolution of Congress. This put an end to the old arrangement, and compelled the two countries to make a new settlement 098 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of the difficulty ; and this was the object of the president in terminating the joint occupation. The subject was brought to the notice of the Britisn Parliament by Sir Robert Peel, who expressed his regret that the last offer of the United States had been declined. The British ministry decided at length to re- open negotiations, and Sir Richard Packenham shortly after communicated to Mr. Buchanan the willingness of his government to accept the forty- ninth parallel as a boundary. The time at which the joint occupation would terminate was rapidly drawing to a close, and the president was anxious to settle the matter, but at the same time was not willing to assume the responsibility of accept- STREET IN OLYMPIA, WASHINGTON TERRITORY. ing a boundary which fell so far short of the popular expectations. At the suggestion of Senator Benton, of Missouri, he asked the advice of the Senate as to the propriety of accepting the British offer, and pledged him- self to be guided by its decision. The Senate advised him to accept it, and when the treaty was sent to it, ratified it after a warm debate extend- ing over two days. Thus the matter was brought to a close. By the treaty, which was concluded in 1846, the forty-ninth parallel of north latitude was made the boundary between the United States and the Brit- ish possessions, from the summit of the Rocky mountains to the middle of the channel between Vancouver's island and the mainland, and thence southerly through the middle of the Straits of San Juan de Fuca to the ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 699 Pacific. The navigation of the Columbia river and its main northern branch was made free to both parties. In the meantime the Mexican difficulty had been found much harder of settlement. Mexico had never acknowledged the independence of Texas, and since the defeat at San Jacinto had repeatedly threatened to restore her authority over the Texans by force of arms. She warmly resented the annexation of Texas by the United States, and a few days after that event was completed, General Almonte, the Mexican minister at Washington, entered a formal protest against the course of the United States, demanded his passports and left the country. Some years before this a number of American ships trading with Mex- ican ports had beon seized and plundered by the Mexican authorities, who also confiscated the property of a number of American residents in that country. The sufferers by these outrages appealed for redress to the gov- ernment of the United States, which had repeatedly tried to negotiate with Mexico for the collection of these claims, which amounted to six millions of dollars. Mexico made several promises of settlement, but failed to comply with them. In 1840, however, a new treaty was made between that country and the United States, and Mexico pledged herself to pay the American claims in twenty annual instalments of three hun- dred thousand dollars each. Three of these instalments had been paid at the time of the annexation of Texas ; but Mexico now refused to make any further payment. Mexico claimed that the limits of Texas properly ended at the Neuces river, while the Texans insisted that their boundary was the Rio Grande, Thus the region between these two rivers became a debatable land, claimed by both parties, and a source of great and immediate danger. It was evident that Mexico was about to occupy this region with her troops, and the legislature of Texas, alarmed by the threatening attitude of that coun- try, called upon the United States government to protect its territory. The president at once sent General Zachary Taylor with a force of fifteen hundred regular troops, called the " army of occupation," to " take posi- tion in the country between the Neuces and the Rio Grande, and to repel any invasion of the Texan territory." General Taylor accordingly took position at Corpus Christi, at the mouth of the Neuces, in September, 1845, and remained there until the spring of 1846. At the same time a squadron of war vessels under Commodore Conner was despatched to the Gulf to cooperate with General Taylor. Both of these officers " were ordered to commit no act of hostility against Mexico unless she declared war, or was herself the aggressor by striking the first blow." At the commencement of the dispute between the two countries, Her- 700 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. rera was president of Mexico. Although diplomatic communications had ceased between the United States and Mexico, he was anxious to settle the quarrel by negotiation, but at the presidential election held about this time Herrera was defeated, and Paredes, who was bitterly hostile to the United States, was chosen president of the Mexican republic. Paredes openly avowed his determination to drive the Americans beyond the Neuces. In February, 1846, General Taylor was ordered by President Polk to advance from the Neuces to a point on the Kio Grande, opposite the Mexican town of Matamoras, and establish there a fortified post, in order to check the Mexican forces which were assembling there in large num- bers for the purpose of invading Texas. Taylor at 'once set out, and leaving the greater part of his stores at Point Isabel, on the Gulf, ad- vanced to the Rio Grande, and built a fort and established a camp oppo- site and within cannon shot of Matamoras. General Ampudia, command- ing the Mexican forces at Matamoras, immediately notified General Taylor that this was an act of war upon Mexican soil, and demanded that he should " break up his camp and retire beyond the Neuces " within twenty-four hours. Taylor replied that he was acting in accordance with the orders of his government, which was alone responsible for his conduct, and that he should maintain the position he had chosen. He pushed forward the work on his fortifications with energy, and kept a close watch upon the Mexicans. Neither commander was willing to take the responsibility of beginning the war, and Ampudia, notwithstanding his threat, remained inactive. His course did not satisfy his government, and he was removed, and General Arista appointed in his place. Arista at once began hostilities by interposing detachments of his army between Taylor's force and his depot of supplies at Point Isabel. On the 26th of April Taylor sent a party of sixty dragoons under Captain Thornton to reconnoitre the Mexican lines. The dragoons were surprised with a loss of sixteen killed. The remainder were made prisoners, and Thornton alone escaped. This was the first blood shed in the war with Mexico. A day or two later, being informed by Captain Walker, who with his Texan Rangers was guarding the line of comhiunication with Point Isabel, that the Mexicans were threatening the latter place in heavy force, General Taylor left Major Brown with three hundred men to hold the fort, and marched to Point Isabel to relieve that place. He agreed with Major Brown that if the fort should be attacked or hard pressed, the latter should notify him of his danger by firing heavy signal guns at cer- tain intervals. He reached Point Isabel, twenty miles distant, on the 2d of May without meeting any opposition on the march. THE WAR WITH MEXICO. 701 General Arista, attributing Taylor's withdrawal to fear, determined to capture the fortification on the opposite side of the river. On the 3d of May he opened fire upon it from a heavy battery at Matamoras, and sent a large force across the Rio Grande, which took position in the rear of the fort and intrenched themselves there. In the face of this double attack he little garrison defended themselves bravely, but at length Major Brown fell mortally wounded. The command devolved upon Captain Hawkins, who now felt himself justified in warning Taylor of his danger, and began to fire the signal guns agreed upon. Taylor was joined at Point Isabel by a small detachment, and his force BATTLE OP PALO ALTO. was increased to twenty-three hundred men. He listened anxiously for the booming of the signal guns from the fort on the Rio Grande, and at length they were heard. He knew that the need of assistance must be great, as the little band in the fort had held out so long without calling for help, and he at once set out to join them. He left Point Isabel on the 7th of May, taking with him a heavy supply train. The steady firing of the signal guns from Fort Brown (for so the work was afterwards named in honor of its gallant commander) urged the army to ite greatest exertions. On the 8th of May the Mexican army, six thousand strong, was dis- covered holding a strong position in front of a chaparral, near the small stream called the Palo Alto, intending to dispute the advance of the Americans. Taylor promptly made his dispositions to attack them. Hii 702 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. troops were ordered to drink from the little stream and to fill their can- teens. The train was closed up, and the line was formed with Major Ringgold's light battery on the right, Duncan's battery on the left, and a battery of eighteen-pounders in the centre. The artillery was thrown well in front of the infantry, and the order was given to advance. The Mexicans at once opened fire with their batteries, but the distance v/as too great to accomplish anything. The American batteries did not reply until they had gotten within easy range, when they opened a fire the accuracy and rapidity of which astonished the Mexicans. Their lines were broken, and they fell back, and the Americans advanced steadily DEATH OP MAJOR RINGGOLD. through the chaparral, which had been set on fire by the discharge of cannon, until a new position within close range was reached. Paying no attention to the Mexican artillery, the American guns directed their fire upon the enemy's infantry and cavalry, and broke them again and again. The battle lasted five hours and ceased at nightfall. It was fought entirely by the artillery of the two armies, and was won by the superior handling and precision of the American guns. The loss of the Mexicans was four hundred killed and wounded ; that of the Americans nine killed and forty-four wounded. Early in the battle Major Ringgold was mor- tally wounded, and died a little later. He was regarded as one of the most gifted officers of the army, and to him was chiefly due the precision THE WAR WITH MEXICO 703 *nd rapidity of movement acquired by the " flying artillery " of the American army, which were so successfully tested during this war. The American army encamped on the battle-field, and the next morning, May 9th, as the Mexicans had retreated, leaving their dead unburied, resumed its advance. In the afternoon the Mexicans were discovered occupying a much stronger position than they had held at Palo Alto. Their line was formed behind a ravine, called Resaca de la Palma, or the Dry River of Palms. Their flanks were protected by the thick chaparral, and their artillery was thrown forward beyond the ravine and protected by an intrenchment, and swept the road by which the Americans must advance. During the night fresh troops had joined the Mexican army, and had increased their force to seven thousand men. Taylor formed his line with his artillery in the centre. The artillery was ordered to advance along the road commanded by the Mexican bat- tery, and the infantry were directed to move as rapidly as possible through the chaparral, and drive out the Mexican sharpshooters. The infantry executed this order in handsome style, but the chaparral was so dense that each man was obliged to act for himself as he forced his way through it. The Mexican battery was handled with great skill and cool- ness, and held the centre in check until some time after the infantry had forced their way close to the edge of the ravine. At this juncture Captain May was ordered to charge the Mexican guns, and started down the road at a trot. As he reached the position of the American artillery, Lieutenant Ridgely suggested that May should halt and allow him to draw the Mexican fire. Ridgely opened a rapid fire on the Mexican guns, which answered immediately. At the same moment May dashed at the Mexican battery with his dragoons, and reached it before the cannoneers could reload their pieces. They were sabred at their guns, and the battery was carried. Captain May himself made a prisoner of General La Vega, as the latter was in the act of discharging one of the guns. Leaving the battery to the American infantry which now hurried forward to secure it, the dragoons charged the Mexican centre and broke it. The whole American line then advanced rapidly ; the Mexicans gave way, and were soon flying in utter confusion towards the Rio Grande, which they crossed in such haste that many of them were drowned in the attempt to reach the Mexican shore. General Arista, the Mexican commander, .fled alone from the field, leaving all his private and official papers behind him. The Americans lost one hundred and twenty-two men killed and wounded ; the Mexicans twelve hundred. All the Mexican artillery, two thousand stand of arms, arid six hundred mules were captured by the Americans. 704 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. General Taylor advanced from the battle-field to Fort Brown, the gar- rison of which had heard the distant roar of the battle, and had seen the flight of the Mexicans across the Rio Grande. The defeat of the Mexicans at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma had greatly disheartened them. They not only abandoned their intention to invade Texas, but gave up all hope of holding the Rio Grande frontier. On the night of the 17th of May their array evacuated Matamoras, and retreated upon Monterey. On the 18th the American army crossed the Rio Grande, and occupied Matamoras. General Taylor scrupulously respected the municipal laws of the town, and protected the citizens in the exercise of their civil and religious privileges. All supplies needed by the troops were purchased at a liberal price, and jo plundering or disorder was allowed or attempted. In the meantime the news of the attack upon the dragoons under Cap- tain Thornton had reached the United States, and with it the rumor that the American army was confronted on the Texan side of the Rio Grande by a vastly superior force of Mexicans, and that its destruction was almost certain. The president sent a special message to Congress on the llth of May, in which he informed that body that "war existed by the act of Mexico," and called upon Congress to recognize the state of war, and to provide for its support by appropriating the necesrary funds, and to authorize him to call for volunteers. Under the impression that the perilous situation of Taylor's army made instant action necessary, Congress appropriated ten millions of dollars for the prosecution of the war, and authorized the president to accept the services of ffty thousand Volunteers. One-half of this force was to be mustered into the service; the remainder held as a reserve. The president's call was responded to with enthusiasm all over the land, and in the course of a few *veeks two hundred thousand volunteers offered their services. General Wool was ordered to muster the volunteers accepted by the president into the service. Preparations were made by the American government to prorecute the "war with vigor. At the suggestion of General Scott a comprehensive plan of operations was adopted. Two separate expeditions were to be organ- ized. One, called the "Army of the West," was to assemble it Fort Leavenworth, on the Missouri, to cross the plains and the Rocky moun- tains, and to invade and conquer the northern provinces of Mexico. A powerful fleet was to be sent around Cape Horn to attack the Mexican ports on the Pacific and cooperate with the Army of the Wer*. -A second force, called the "Army of the Centre," was to advance from Texas to the city of Mexico, and, if it waa thought best, was to co- THE WAR WITH MEXICO. 705 operate with the "Army of Occupation" under General Taylor. As we shall see, the plan was afterwards modified, and the advance upon the Mexican capital was made from Yera Cruz on the Gulf of Mexico. Towards the last of May the news of the brilliant victories on the Rio Grande was received at Washington, and was hailed with rejoicings throughout the Union. On the 30th of May Congress conferred upon General Taylor the rank of major-general by brevet as a reward for his Victories. On the 23d of May the Mexican Congress formally declared war against the United States, and the call of the Mexican government for ST. JOSEPH, MISSOURI. volunteers for the defence of that country was responded to with enthusiasm. Thanks to the energy of General Wool, twelve thousand volunteers were mustered into the service of the United States in six weeks. Nine thousand of these were sent forward rapidly to reinforce General Taylor^ and with the remainder Wool marched to San Antonio, in Texas, to await further orders. General Taylor had been delayed at Matamoras for three months by the weakness ^f his force ; but as soon as reinforcements reached him, he prepared to advance into the interior. His first movement was directed Against the city of Monterey, the capital of the State of New Leon, where the Mexicans had collected an army. His army numbered about nine thousand men of all arms, and of these a little over twenty-three hundred men were detached for garrisons, leaving an active force of six thousand 45 706 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. six hundred and seventy men. On the 20th of August General Worth's division marched from Matamoras, and a fortnight later General Taylor set out from the Rio Grande with the main army. On the 9th of Sep- tember the American forces encamped within three miles of Monterey, Monterey is an old Spanish city, nearly three hundred years old. It lies in a beautiful valley, and is about two miles in length by one mile in breadth. The mountains approach close to it, and protect it on all sides but two. On one of these sides it is approached from the northeast by the road from Matamoras, and on the other by a rocky gorge through which runs the road connecting the city witli Saltillo. The city has three large plazas or public squares, and is built like the towns of old Spain, with narrow streets, and houses of stone one story in height, with strong walls of masonry rising about three feet above the flat roofs. The city itself is enclosed with strong \valls, intended for artillery. Every means of defence had been exhausted by the Mexicans. Forty-two heavy cannon were mounted on the city walls, the streets were barricaded, and the flat roofs and stone walls of the houses were arranged for infantry. Each house was a separate fortress. A strongly fortified building of heavy Btone, called the Bishop's palace, stood on the side of a hill without the city walls, and on the opposite side of the city were redoubts held by in- fantry and artillery. The command of Monterey and its defences was held by General Ampudia, and the garrison consisted of ten thousand veteran troops. Ten days were passed by the American army in reconnoitring the town, its peculiar situation rendering such movements very difficult. On the afternoon of the 20th of September General Worth was ordered to turn the hill on which stood the Bishop's palace, gain the Saltillo road, and carry the works in that direction. This movement was successfully accomplished; but in order to gain the desired position Worth was obliged to cut a new road across the mountain. His troops bivouacked for the night just out of range of the enemy's guns. During the night the Americans built a battery to command the Mexican citadel. On the morning of the 21st of September the American artillery opened fire upon Monterey, and the infantry advanced to carry the Mexi- can works. The brigade of General Quitman carried a strong work in the lower part of the town, and at the same time General Butler, with a part of his division, forced his way into the town on the right. While these operations were in progress General Worth's division seized the 8altillo road, and secured the enemy's line of retreat. Several fortified positions along the heights were also carried, and their guns turned upoo the Bishop ? s palace. THE WAR WITH MEXICO. 707 During the night 9f the 21st the Mexicans evacuated the lower part of the city, but kept their hold upon the citadel and the upper town, from which they maintained a vigorous fire upon the American positions. At daybreak, on the 22d, Worth's division, advancing in the midst of a fog and rain, carried the crest commanding the Bishop's palace, and by noon had captured the palace itself. The guns of the captured works were now directed upon the enemy in the city below. The enemy had fortified the city so thoroughly that the Americans were not only forced to carry the various barricades in succession, but were compelled to break through the walls of the fortified houses, and advance from house to house in this way. One or two field-pieces were drawn up to the flat roofs, and the Mexicans were driven from point to point during the 22d and 23d, until they were confined to the citadel and plaza. On the night of the 23d General Ampudia opened negotiations, and on the morning of the 24th surrendered the town and garrison to General Taylor. The Mexican soldiers were allowed to march out with the honors of war. General Taylor was induced to grant this concession by his generous desire to spare the people of the city the sufferings which would have been caused by a prolonged defence. The Mexican commander represented to General Taylor that the Mexican government was sincerely anxious for peace, and that it would respond favorably to any fair propositions upon this subject that might be laid before it. In order to afford an opportunity for such an arrange- ment of the war, and influenced by the scarcity of provisions the American army having at the time but ten days' rations Taylor agreed to a cessation of hostilities for eight weeks, subject to the consent of his government. The Mexican army withdrew from Monterey, and an American garrison, under General Worth, as governor, occupied the city. The main body of Taylor's army then went into camp at Walnut Springs, three miles distant from Monterey. The Americans lost four hundred and eighty-eight men, killed and wounded, in the storming of Monterey. The Mexican loss was much greater. In the meantime the government of the United States had been led into a terrible blunder by its desire to bring the war to a speedy close. Santa Anna, who had been driven out of Mexico by one of the numer- ous revolutions in that country, was living in exile at Havana. He declared that if he were allowed to return to Mexico he would use his influence in favor of peace, and would secure a treaty for the accomplish- ment of that end. He was sure he could carry out this scheme, and only needed to be sustained by the United States government with the sum of three or four millions of dollars to enable him to get control of the 708 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Mexican government. President Polk was completely duped by the " illustrious exile," and not only urged Congress to appropriate the sum of two millions of dollars to assist Santa Anna, but issued an order to Commodore Conner, commanding the American fleet in the Gulf, to per- mit Santa Anna to pass through his lines and return to Mexico. Santa Anna at once availed himself of this order, and landing at Vera Cruz hastened into the interior. Once in Mexico Santa Anna thought no more of his promises to Presi- dent Polk. He set to work to gain possession of the government, but not with a view to making peace. He issued a manifesto, in which he called on his countrymen to rally under his banner for the defence of their homes and country. He assured them of his undying hatred of the "perfidious Yankees," pointed to the reverses of the government of Paredes, and declared that he alone could save the country. His appeals were successful. The Mexican people rose at his call, deposed Paredes, and elected Santa Anna president. The repeated defeats of their armies were forgotten in the new enthusiasm which Santa Anna's presence and proclamations aroused, and in the course of a few months that leader found himself at the head of a well-equipped army of twenty thousand men, which was being steadily increased by the arrival of fresh recruits. In the meantime General Wool, with a reinforcement of three thousand troops, had marched from San Antonio to join General Taylor. He had reached Monclova, about seventy miles from Monterey, when he heard of the capture of the latter place by Taylor. His route had lain across an uninhabited and desert region, in which the troops suffered greatly for want of water. He was directed by General Taylor to take position in a fertile district in the province of Durango, where he could obtain sup- plies for his own command as well as for the army at Monterey. General Wool conciliated the people of the region occupied by him by protecting them in their liberties and property, and paying fair prices for all the supplies furnished by them. The Mexicans were far better treated by the conquering army than they had been by their own rulers. In accordance with orders received from Washington General Taylor put an end to the armistice on the 13th of November. On the 15th General Worth, with seven hundred men, occupied Saltillo, the capital of the State of Coahuila. Leaving a garrison in Monterey, under General Butler, Taylor moved towards the coast to attack Tampico. Upon reach- ing Victoria, the capital of the State of Tamaulipas, he learned that Tampico had surrendered to the United States squadron, under Commo- dore Conner, on the 14th of November. Victoria was occupied on the 29th of December. The troops under General Wool were now ordered THE WAR WITH MEXICO. 709 to join General Worth at Saltillo, and General Taylor prepared to resume his forward movement into the heart of Mexico. At this juncture his offensive operations were suddenly brought to a close. The plan of the invasion adopted by the government of the United States had been so far modified that the " Army of the Centre/ ; under General Winficld Scott, was ordered to capture Vcra Cruz, the principal Mexican port on the Gulf, and advance upon the city of Mexico from that point. Troops in sufficient numbers . could not be drawn from the United States, and General Scott, as commander-in-chief, decided to draw the desired number of men from Taylor's army. The order for the with- drawal of these troops reached General Taylor just as he was about to resume active operations. Taylor was keenly disappointed at being thus condemned to inactivity, but like the true soldier that he was at once obeyed the orders sent him. Generals Worth and Quitman with their divisions, and the greater portion of the volunteers who had come out with General Wool, were at once despatched to the Gulf coast to join the expedition against Vera Cruz. The withdrawal of these troops left General Taylor with a very small force. During the menth of January and the early part of February, 1847, reinforcements from the United States increased his army to about six thousand men. A portion of these was placed in garrison at Monterey and Saltillo, leaving General Taylor about forty-seven hundred effective troops, of whom but six hundred were regulars. Early in January, 1847, General Scott sent Lieutenant Richey with an escort of cavalry to convey a despatch to General Taylor. Lieutenant Richey was killed by the Mexicans on the way, and his despatches were forwarded to Santa Anna, who learned from them the American plan for the invasion of Mexico. He at once resolved upon his own course. Relying upon the strength of Vera Cruz to hold Scott's army in check, he determined to attack General Taylor at once, and crush him. By the most energetic and despotic measures he silenced the opposition which prevailed in the city of Mexico, and obtained both men and money for his attempt. On the 26th of January he began his march upon Saltillo with twenty-three thousand well-armed and equipped men, and twenty pieces of artillery. The Mexican army had reached San Louis Potosi, about sixty miles south of Saltillo, when General Wool, commanding at the latter place, learned of their approach. He at once notified General Taylor, who advanced with his whole effective force from Monterey to Saltillo. As the enemy continued to approach, Taylor left his stores at Saltillo, and moved rapidly to Agua Nueva, eighteen miles beyond Saltillo, on the 710 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. road to San Louis Potosi. His design was to secure the southern end of the pass through the Sierra Nevada. With this pass in the possession of '.he Americans the Mexican army would be compelled to fight at once, as the country in their rear was incapable of supplying them with provi- sions. The reports of the reconnoitring parties made it evident that the Mexican force was vastly superior to that of the Americans, and General Taylor also learned that a strong body of Mexican cavalry, under Gen- eral Minon, was some distance to the left of his position, which could be turned. A daring reconnoissance was made by Major M'Culloch, of the Texan Rangers. He entered the Mexican camp, passed through it, and obtained accurate information of their numbers, and regained his own .lines in safety. Upon receipt of M'Culloch's intelligence, and the report of the effort of the Mexican cavalry to turn his left, General Taylor fell back from Agua Nueva to a new position, eleven miles higher up the valley, on the 21st of February. The withdrawal of the American army was made in good time. Santa Anna had sent Minon with the cavalry to gain the rear of Taylor's army, and at the same time endeavored, by a forced march of fifty miles, to surprise General Taylor at Agua Nueva. Upon arriving in front of that place, he found to his astonishment and disappointment that Taylor had abandoned his position. Interpreting this movement as a flight, the Mexican commander pushed on in pursuit of his adversary, and came up with him on the rooming of the 22d of February. The position chosen by General Taylor was at the north end of the valley known as Las Angosturas, or the Narrows, and near the hacienda or plantation known as Buena Vista, from which latter place the battle took its name. It was one of great strength. Its flanks were protected by the mountains which rose abruptly from the defile, and -the ground in front was broken by numerous ravines and gullies. The American forces were disposed so as to secure every advantage afforded by the nature of the ground, and the road through the pass the key to the whole position was swept by the fire of the artillery. The troops were in high spirits, It was "Washington's birthday, and this incident was generally com- mented upon as a good omen. About noon a Mexican officer brought a note to General Taylor, in which Santa Anna demanded the surrender of the American army. This demand was refused, and skirmishing at once began. During the after- noon Santa Anna sent a force under General Ampudia to ascend the mountains and turn the American left. This brought on severe skirmish- ing in this quarter, but nothing definite was accomplished during the THE WAR WITH MEXICO. 711 afternoon. Late in the afternoon the Mexican cavalry under General Minon, which had passed the mountains, appeared in the plains north of Saltillo. Minon was ordered to halt in the position he had gained and await the result of the battle of the next day at Buena Vista. His .appearance caused great anxiety to General Taylor, who hastened to Saltillo with reinforcements after nightfall, as he feared Minon would seek to capture that place. During the night of the 22d Santa Anna reinforced the column under Ampudia, and opened the battle at daybreak on the 23d of February, by endeavoring to turn the American left. A little later he opened fire from his artillery, and moved forward three powerful columns of attack against the American centre. The movement of the column of Ampudia was successful, the left of the American line was completely turned, but the attack upon the centre was repulsed by the splendid fire of the American batteries. At this moment General Taylor arrived upon the field from Saltillo, bringing with him May's dragoons, several companies of Mississippi riflemen, and a portion of the Arkansas cavalry, embracing every man that could be spared from Saltillo. He had come at a critical moment, for the turning of his left flank by Ampudia had neutralized the natural advantage of the position. Many of the troops were in full retreat upon Buena Vista, and nothing but the courage and constancy of those who yet remained firm could save the day. By great exertions Colonel Jefferson Davis rallied the greater part of his own regiment the Missis- sippi rifles and a part of the Second Indiana, and by a rapid advance drove back a strong Mexican column in his front. He had scarcely accomplished this when he was assailed by a body of one thousand splendid Mexican lancers. Davis quickly formed his own men and the Second and Third Indiana in the shape of the letter V, with the opening towards the enemy, and posted Sherman's battery on his left. The line thus formed awaited in silence the approach of the Mexican cavalry, which came on at a gallop. As they drew near the opening of this terrible V the Mexicans, who had expected the Americans to fire, when they intended to dash in upon them before the men could reload, were astonished at the silence with which they were received, and slackened their pace until they came to a walk within eighty yards of the opening of the angle. In an instant Davis gave the command, and his men took deliberate- aim. Then a volley flashed from the rifles and swept away the head of the Mexican column. The next moment Sherman's guns opened upon the cavalry with grape and canister. Under this combined fire horses and lancers fell in great numbers, forming a barricade ovei 712 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. which the enemy could not pass, and the Mexicans, seized with a panic, wheeled about and fled in confusion. While this attack was in progress the Mexicans sent a body of cavalry under Torrejon to seize the plantation of Buena Vista. Torrejon made his attack with vigor, but was driven back by the Kentucky and Arkansas volunteers, assisted by Colonel May's dragoons. Colonel Yell, of the Arkansas regiment, was killed and Torrejou was wounded in this part of the engagement. During all this while a steady cannonade had been in progress along the centre of the American line. The Mexicans endeavored to silence the American batteries, but without success. Santa Anna now sent a strong force to pass around the American left DEFEAT OF THE MEXICAN RIGHT WING AT BUENA VISTA. and gain the rear of Taylor's line ; and this force was joined by a part of Torrejon's command, which was retreating from Buena Vista. The movement was detected by Colonel May, who met it with his cavalry and several companies of Illinois and Indiana volunteers. General Taylor sent to his assistance all the cavalry he could spare and Bragg's battery. The retreat of the Mexicans, who had passed beyond the American left, Avas cut off, and they were driven in confusion to the base of the mountain, while Bragg's guns showered canister upon them and increased the panic which had set in among them. It seemed that the whole Mexican column, numbering five thousand men, must surrender THE WAR WITH MEXICO. 713 or be exterminated. In this emergency the Mexican commander raised the white flag, and asked for a parley, professing to have a message from Santa Anna to General Taylor, and the American guns ceased firing. Before the trick *,vas discovered the Mexican right escaped under the cover of the flag of truce by passing along the base of the mountain to a point from which they rejoined their main army. Santa Anna now brought up his reserves, and late in the afternoon made a determined attack upon the American right, which had been greatly weakened to assist the troops engaged in repelling the attack on the left. The Mexican column, twelve thousand strong, easily drove back the few scattered volunteers that disputed their advance, GENEllAJL, TAYLOU THANKING CAPTAIN BRAGG AT BUENA VISTA. and captured O'Brien's battery, which was without infantry support, but not until every man had been killed or wounded. Washington's guns now opened upon the enemy, and succeeded in holding their cavalry in check for a moment. The Mexican infantry pushed on, firing as they advanced, and it was evident that the crisis of the battle was at hand. The battle had been going on for eight hours, and the American troops \vere greatly exhausted by the unusual exertions they had been subjected to; while the Mexican column, consisting mainly of their reserves, was fresh, and four times as strong as the whole American army. Keenly alive to his danger Taylor exerted himself in every possible way to bring up his scattered regiments in time to save the position. The flying rtillery of Captain Bragg was the first to reach the field. There was 714 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. not an infantry soldier near to support him, and the salvation of the armj depended upon Bragg's efforts. He unlimbered his guns within a few yards of the rapidly advancing Mexicans, and poured in discharge after discharge with a rapidity which seemed wonderful. The Mexican advance was checked, and Sherman now came up and opened fire from his guns upon them. Washington's battery a little later joined in the fire. The Mississippi and Indiana volunteers now reached the field, and made a spirited attack upon the enemy's right flank. Under thia terrible fire the Mexicans wavered for a few moments, and then broke in confusion and fled from the field. The Mexicans made no further attack during the day, and that night Santa Anna, abandoning his wounded, and leaving his dead unburied, retreated rapidly towards Agua Nueva. The American loss in the battle of Buena Vista was two hundred and sixty- seven killed, and four hundred and fifty-six wounded. That of the Mexicans was over two thousand killed and wounded, including many officers of high rank. Taylor followed the Mexican army on the 24th as far as Agua Nueva, and collecting their wounded, removed them to Saltillo, where they were attended by the American surgeons. The victory of Buena Vista was decisive FKEMONT. of the war. It saved the valley of the Rio Grande from invasion by a victorious Mexican army, and enabled the expedition of General Scott against Vera Cruz to proceed without delay to the accomplishment of its objects. It also greatly disheartened the Mexican people, and during the remainder of the year Taylor's army had nothing to do but to hold the country it occupied. General Taylor remained at Agua Nueva until he was satisfied that no further trouble was to be apprehended from the Mexican army, and then returned by easy stages to his camp at Walnut Springs, near Monterey, which he reached by the last of March. In the summer of 1847, leaving General Wool in command of the army, General Taylor returned to the United States, where he was received with distinguished honor. While these events were going on in Mexico Captain John C. Fremont, of the United States army, had been engaged in prosecuting the discoveries in the Rocky mountain region, which he had begun in 1843, in which year he had explored the valley known as the Great Basin, the region of tlie Great Salt lake, and the valleys of the Sacramento and San THE WAR WITH MEXICO. 715 Joaquin, on the Pacific coast. In May, 1845, Fremont set out on his third expedition, and passed the winter in the valley of the San Joaquin, then Mexican territory. In May, 1846, he received orders from Wash- ington to move into California and counteract any foreign scheme for securing that Territory, and to conciliate the good-will of the inhabitants toward the United States. Fremont had but sixty men with him, but he at once moved into the valley of the Sacramento. The Mexican POINT ARENA LIGHTHOUSE COAST OF CALIFORNIA. inhabitants were seriously considering at this time whether they should massacre the American settlers, or whether, in the event of a war between Mexico and the United States, they should place California under the protection of Great Britain. Fremont was informed of these plots, and, though no war existed as yet between the two republics, he also learned that the Mexican General De Castro was advancing to drive him out of California. The American settlers nocked to Fremont's camp, with their arms and horses, and he soon found himself at the head of a considerable 716. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. force. He was thus enabled to repulse De Castro's attack, and, after a few conflicts, to drive him from Upper California. By July, 1846, the Mexican authority was entirely overthrown in Upper California, and the flag of independence was raised by the settlers. The American squadron in the Pacific was commanded by Commodore SI oat, who was ordered by the secretary of the navy to seize the port of San Francisco as soon as he was reliably informed of the existence of war between the two countries, and to occupy or blockade such other Mexican ports as his force would permit. In the early summer of 1846 the American squadron was lying at Mazatlan. A British squadron under Admiral Seymour also lay in the har.bor, and the American commodore became convinced that the British admiral was watching him for the purpose of interfering with his designs upon California. He therefore resolved to get rid of him, and put to sea and sailed to the westward, as if making for the Sandwich islands. The British fleet followed him promptly, but in the night the commodore tacked and sailed up the coast to Monterey, while the British continued their course to the islands. Sloat was coldly received at Monterey by the authorities. Hearing of the action of Fremont and the American settlers, the commodore a few days later took possession of the town, and sent a courier to Fremont, who at once joined him with his mounted men. California was now taken possession of in the name of the United States. About the middle of July Commodore Stockton arrived in the harbor, and succeeded Commodore Sloat, who returned home, in the command of the squadron. The next day Admiral Seymour arrived at Monterey. He saw he was too late, and quietly submitted to what he could not pre- vent, though he was greatly astonished to find the town in possession of the American forces. On the 17th of August Fremont and Stockton occupied Los Angeles, the capital of Upper California. In June, 1846, General Kearney, with the "Army of the West," num- bering eighteen hundred men, marched from Fort Leavenworth, on the Missouri, across the plains to Santa Fe', the capital of the Mexican prov- ince of New Mexico. After a march of nearly one thousand miles, he occupied Santa F^ on the 18th of August. Leaving a garrison at Santa F, Kearney pushed on towards California, intending to conquer that province also ; but upon reaching the Gila river, he was met by the famous hunter Kit Carson, who informed him of the conquest of Cali- fornia by Fremont and Stockton. Kearney thereupon sent two com- panies of dragoons under Major Sumner back to Santa Fe', and with the remainder continued his march to the Pacific coast. Upon leaving Santa Fd, Kearney had instructed Colonel Doniphan k. THE WAR WITH MEXICO. 717 Invade the country of the Navajoo Indians and compel them to make peace with the Americans. Doniphan set out in November, 1846, and crossing the mountains, which were covered with snow, succeeded in making n treaty with the Navajoes, by which they agreed to refrain from hostilities against the people of New Mexico. He then marched to the southeast to meet General "Wool at Chihuahua. The inhabitants of New Mexico, encouraged by the absence of Doni- phan with so large a force, rose in revolt against the American forces, and murdered the American governor of the territory and several other officials on the 14th of January, 1847. Colonel Sterling Price, com- manding the troops at Santa Y6, at once marched against the insurgents, SOUTHWEST FROM SANTA FE. defeated them in two engagements, though they greatly outnumbered nis force, and suppressed the rebellion. The insurgents obtained peace only by surrendering their leaders, several of whom were hanged by the Americans. Colonel Douiphan, in the meantime, had continued his march. His route lay through a barren region destitute of water or grass called the Jornado del Muerto " The Journey of Death." He pressed forward with firmness through this terrible region, his men and animals suffering greatly on the march, and in the latter part of December entered the valley of the Rio Grande. With a force of eight hundred and fifty-six men he defeated over twelve hundred Mexicans at Brazito, on the 2Gth 718 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of December, 1846, and inflicted upon them a loss of nearly two hundred men ; losing only seven men himself. On tho 28th he occupied El Paso, and there waited until his artillery could join him from Santa Fe. It arrived in the course of a month, and on the 8th of February he resumed his march to Chihuahua. On the 28th he encountered and defeated a Mexican force of over fifteen hundred men with ten pieces of artillery, at a pass of the Sacramento river, a tributary of the Rio Grande. The Mexicans lost over three hundred killed and a number wounded. The Americans lost two killed and several wounded. The Mexicans were EAST SIDE OF PLAZA SANTA FE. completely routed, and left their artillery and all their train in the hands of the Americans. On the 1st of March, 1847, Doniphan entered Chihuahua, and raising the American flag on the citadel, took possession of the province in the name of the United States. Chihuahua was one of the largest cities in Mexico, and contained nearly thirty thousand inhabitants. Doni- phan's force was less than one thousand men. He had expected to find General Wool here, and failing to meet him was in utter ignorance of the positions of the American forces. His own position, in the midst of a hostile population, was perilous indeed, but by his firm and just 720 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. measures he conciliated the inhabitants. He remained at Chihuahua for six weeks vainly expecting the arrival of General Wool, and on the 27th of April evacuated that place, and set out for Saltillo, three hundred and fifty miles distant. He reached that place on the 22d of May. Remain- ing there but three days, he continued his march to Monterey, from which he proceeded to Matamoras. The enlistments of his men being over, they were transported to New Orleans, and there mustered out of the service. Thus ended the most remarkable expedition on record. In less than one year a corps of volunteers, unused to the hardships of war, had marched over snow-covered mountains and across burning deserts, a dis- tance of over five thousand miles, over three thousand of which lay through an unknown and hostile country, abounding in enemies who might have crushed them at any moment had they rallied in sufficient force. In the meantime there had been new truUiAcs in California. In August, 1847, Commodore Stockton appointed Captain Fremont military commandant of California, and soon after sailed from San Francisco to Monterey, from which place he continued his voyage to San Diego. Soon after the departure of the fleet, Fremont learned of a conspiracy to overthrow his government. By a forced march of one hundred and fifty miles he surprised and captured the insurgent leader, Don J. Pico. A court-martial sentenced him to death, but Fremont wisely spared his life, and Pico, in gratitude for this clemency, gave him his powerful aid in hia efforts to tranquillize the country. General Kearney had continued his march from New Mexico, encoun- tering great difficulties along the rout^e, and suffering considerably from the repeated attacks of superior parties of the enemy. In December, 1847, he reached San Pasqual, where he was obliged to halt. His situa- tion was desperate indeed ; his provisions were exhausted ; his horses had died on the march ; his mules were disabled ; a large number of his men were sick ; and his camp was surrounded by the enemy, who held every road by which he could escape. In this situation three men Kit Car- son, Lieutenant Beales of the navy, and an Indian whose name is unfor- innately unknown volunteered to make their way through the enemy's lines to San Diego, thirty miles distant, and inform Commodore Stockton of Kearney's need of assistance. They succeeded in reaching San Diego, and the commodore promptly sent reinforcements to Kearney, which enabled him to drive off the enemy and reach San Diego in safety. Commodore Stockton now directed his attention to suppressing the insur- rection of the Mexican inhabitants of California, who had gotten posses- 722 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. sion of Los Angeles. Driven to extremities they surrendered the town on condition that the Americans should respect the rights and property of the citizens. Commodore Stockton having been relieved of his civil functions by orders from Washington, General Kearney claimed the governorship of the territory by virtue of his rank. Fremont refused to recognize his authority, and was brought to trial before a court-martial, which found him guilty of disobedience of orders and mutiny, and sentenced him to be dismissed from the service. The sentence was remitted by the presi- dent on account of Fremont's meritorious and valuable services, but Fremont refused to accept the clemency of the president, and thus admit SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA, IN 1875. the justice of the sentence of the court, and resigned his commissioa General Kearney remained in California as governor of that territory. The expedition under General Scott sailed from New Orleans late ic November, 1846, and rendezvoused at the island of Lobos, about one hundred and twenty-five miles north of Vera Cruz. The plan of opera- tions for this army was very simple to capture Vera Cruz and march to the city of Mexico by the most direct route. At length everything being in readiness, the expedition sailed from Lobos island, and on the morning of the 9th of March, 1847, the army, thirteen thousand strong, landed without opposition at a point selected by General Scott and Com- modore Conner a few days before. The city and vicinity had beec thoroughly reconnoitred, and the troops were at once marched to the positions assigned them by the commander-in-chief. Vera Cruz is the principal seaport of Mexico, and contained at th* THE WAR WITH MEXICO 723 time of the siege about fifteen thousand inhabitants. It was strongly fortified on the land side, and towards the Gulf was defended by the Castle of San Juan de Ulloa, the strongest fortress in America, with the exception of Quebec. On the 10th of March the investment of the city was begun by General Worth, and the American lines were definitely established around the 4 city for a distance of six miles. During the day, and for several days thereafter, bodies of Mexicans attempted to harass the besiegers, and a steady fire was maintained upon them by the guns of the castle and the city as they worked at their batteries. The American works being com- pleted, and their guns in position, General Scott summoned the city of Vera Cruz to surrender, stipulating that no batteries should be placed in the city to attack the castle unless the city should be fired upon by that work. The demand was refused by General Morales, who commanded both the city and the castle, and at 4 o'clock on the afternoon of the 22d of March, the Ameri- can batteries opened fire upon the town. The bombardment was continued for five days, and the fleet joined in the attack upon the castle. The city suffered terribly ; a number of the inhabitants were killed, and many buildings were set on fire by the shells. On the 27th the city and castle surrendered, and were promptly occupied by the Americans. Over five thousand prisoners and five hundred pieces of artil- GENEBAL WINFIEXD SCOOT. lery fell .into the hands of the victors. The garrison were required to march out, lay down their arms, and were then dismissed upon their parole. The inhabitants were protected in their civil and religious rights. The surrender was completed on the morning of the 29th. Having secured the city and the castle, General Scott placed a strong garrison in each, and appointed General Worth governor of Vera Cruz. He then prepared to march upon the city of Mexico, and on the 8th of April the advance division, under General Twiggs, set out from Vera Cruz towards Jalapa. Deducting the force left to garrison Vera Cruz, Scott's whole army amounted to but eighty-five hundred men. Santa Anna had not found the consequences to himself of the battle of Buena Vista as bad as he had expected. He had succeeded in persuad- ing his countrymen that he had not been defeated in that battle, but had simply retreated for want of provisions, and they had agreed to give him 724 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. another trial. He had pledged himself to prevent the advance of the Americans to the capital, in the event of the fall of Vera Cruz, and with the aid of those of his countrymen who were willing to support him had quelled an insurrection at the capital, and had strengthened his power to a greater degree than ever. With a force of twelve thousand men he had taken position at Cerro Gordo, a mountain pass at the eastern edge of the Cordilleras, to hold the American army in check, and had fortified his position with great skill and care. General Twiggs halted before the Mexican position to await the arrival of General Scott, who soon joined him with the main army. The Mexi- can lines were carefully reconnoitred, and on the 18th of April General BATTLE OF CEKRO GOKDO. Scott, avoiding a direct attack, turned the enemy's left, seized the heights commanding their position, and drove them from their works with a loss of three thousand prisoners and forty-three pieces of artillery. Santa Anna mounted a mule, taken from his carriage, and fled, leaving the carriage and his private papers in the hands of the Americans. Besides their prisoners, the Mexicans lost over one thousand men in killed and wounded. Scott's loss was four hundred and thirty-one killed and wounded. The brilliant victory of Cerro Gordo opened the way for the American army to Jalapa, which was occupied on the 19th of April. Continuing his advance, General Scott captured the strong fortress of Perote, situated THE WAR WITH MEXICO. 725 on a peak of the Eastern Cordilleras, which was abandoned almost with- out a blow by its defenders, on the 22d of April. On the 15th of May Puebla, the second city of Mexico, containing eighty thousand inhabi- tants, was occupied. General Scott established his head-quarters at Puebla, and awaited reinforcements. The terms of the volunteers would expire in June, and they refused to re-enlist, as they were afraid to encounter the yellow fever, the scourge of the Mexican climate, the season for which was close at hand. They were returned to the United States, and Gen- eral Scott was forced to spend three months at Puebla in inactivity. The force he had with him was greatly weakened by sickness, and eighteen hundred men were in the hospitals of Puebla alone. AMERICAN AKMY ENTERING PUEBLA. While at Puebla, General Scott was ordered by the secretary of war to collect duties on merchandise entering the Mexican ports, and to apply the money thus obtained to the needs of the army. He was also ordered to levy contributions upon the Mexican people for the use of the troops. He refused to obey this order, declaring that the country through which he was moving was too poor to warrant impressments, and that such a measure would exasperate the Mexicans and cause them to refuse to supply the army at all. "Not a ration for man or horse," he said, " would be brought in except by the bayonet, which would oblige the troops to spread themselves out many leagues to the right and left in search 726 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of subsistence, and stop all military operations." He continued to buy provisions for his army at the regular prices of the country, and by so doing greatly allayed the bitterness of feeling with which the Mexicans regarded the Americans. Another annoyance to which the commander-in-chief was subjected arose from the ill-advised action of Mr. N. P. Trist, who had been sent out to Mexico in the quality of peace commissioner. Soon after the capture of Vera Cruz, General Scott had suggested to the president the propriety of sending out commissioners to his head-quarters, who should be empowered to treat for peace when a suitable occasion should offer it- self. The president selected for this purpose Mr. N. P. Trist, who had been United States consul at Havana, and who was acquainted with the Spanish language a singular selection. Mr. Trist was furnished with the draft of a treaty carefully prepared in the state department at Wash- ington, and was intrusted with i despatch from Mr. Buchanan, the secre- tary of state, to the Mexican minister of foreign relations. He was instructed to communicate confidentially to General Scott and Commodore Perry both the treaty and his instructions. General Scott was informed of Trist's mission by the secretary of Avar, and was directed to suspend military operations until further orders, unless attacked. Mr. Trist reached Vera Cruz in due time,, but instead of explaining his mission, as directed, to General Scott, he sent a note to the com- mander-in-chief from Vera Cruz, enclosing the letter of the secretary of war, and the sealed despatch to the Mexican minister, which he requested the general to forward to its destination. The letter of the secretary of war could not be understood by General Scott without the explanations Mr. Trist was directed to give, but failed to make. General Scott very properly resented the conduct of Trist as an attempt to degrade him by making him subordinate to that personage, and in his reply to him de- clared that the suspension of hostilities belonged to the commander in the field and not to the secretary of war a, thousand miles away. Trist thereupon wrote to General Scott, giving a full explanation of his mis- sion, but did so in disrespectful terms. In conclusion he claimed to be the aid-de-camp of the president, and as such to possess the right to issue orders to the commander-in-chief. Scott referred the matter to the gov- ernment at Washington, maintaining in the meantime his independence of action as commanding general. In due time explanations came from Washington satisfactory to the general ; and Mr. Trist was sharply repri- manded by the secretary of state " for his presuming to command the general -in-chief." After his defeat at Cerro Gordo, Santa Anna repaired to Orizaba, THE WAR ^WITH MEXICO. where he organized a number of guerrilla bands to attack the American trains on the road between Vera Cruz and Scott's army. He then re- turned to the city of Mexico, where he was coldly received. by the people. The affairs of the Mexican nation were in the most hopeless confusion, and the people were utterly disheartened. Their army on which they had depended for the defence of the road to the capital had been routed at Cerro Gordo, and there was no force in existence with which to stay the advance of the victorious Americans. Had General Scott been able to advance upon Mexico immediately after his occupation of Puebla, the city would have fallen at once, and the war have been brought to an immediate close. A number of leaders contested the supremacy at the capital, and the quarrels of these factions paralyzed the efforts of the government. The most capable of these leaders was Santa Anna, and his strong qualities naturally attracted to him the largest following. By his extraordinary energy he suppressed the opposition to him, secured the money he needed by forced loans from the people, and raised an army of twenty-five thousand men and sixty pieces of artillery, and fortified the city of Mexico. The three months' enforced delay of General Scott's army at Puebla gave him time to carry out these measures, and he en- deavored to gain still further advantages by opening negotiations secretly with Mr. Trist, and pretending to be anxious for peace. He declared that he needed money to enable him to act with freedom in arranging a treaty, and succeeded in getting about ten thousand dollars from the secret service fund at the disposal of General Scott; but his designs were soon detected by the American commander, and the supply of money was discontinued. Reinforcements from the United States arrived at Puebla in July, and on the 7th of August General Scott resumed his advance 011 the city of Mexico, with a force increased to ten thousand men. The route lay through a beautiful upland country, abounding in water, and rich in the most picturesque scenery. The troops pressed on with enthusiasm, and on the 10th of August the summit of the Cordilleras was passed, and then almost from the very spot from which, more than three centuries before, the followers of Cortez looked down upon the halls of the Montezumas. the American army beheld the beautiful valley of Mexico stretching out for miles before them, with the city of Mexico lying in the midst, encir- cled by the strong works that had been erected for its defence. The passes on the direct road to the city had been well fortified and garrisoned by the Mexicans, but the country upon the flanks had been left unprotected, because Santa Anna deemed it utterly impossible for any troops to pass over it and turn his position. El Pefion, the must 728 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. formidable of these defences, was reconnoitred by the engineers, who re- ported that it would cost at least three thousand lives to carry it. Scott thereupon determined to turn El Pefion, instead of attacking it. The city and its defences were carefully reconnoitred, and it was discovered that the works on the south and west were weaker than those at any other points. General Scott now moved to the left, passed El Pefion on the south, and by the aid of a corps of skilful engineers moved his army across ravines and chasms which the Mexican commander had pronounced impassable, and had left unguarded. General Twiggs led the advance, and halted and encamped at Chalco, on the lake of the same name. Worth followed, and, passing Twiggs, encamped at the town of San Augustin, eight miles from the capital. As soon as Santa Anna found that the Americans had turned El Pefion, and had advanced to the south side of the city, he left that fortress and took position in the strong fort of San Antonio, which lay directly in front of Worth's new position. Northwest of San Antonio, and four miles from the city, lay the little village of Churubusco, which had been strongly fortified by the Mexicans. A little to the west of San Augustin was the fortified camp of Contreras, with a garrison of about six thousand men. In the rear, between the camp and the city, was a reserve force of twelve thousand men. The whole number of Mexicans manning these defences was about thirty -five thousand, with at least one hundred pieces of artillery of various sizes. General Scott lost no time in moving against the enemy's works. General Persifer F. Smith was ordered to attack the entrenched camp at Contreras, while Shields and Pierce should move between the camp and Santa Anna at San Antonio, and prevent him from going to the assistance of the force at Contreras. At three o'clock on the morning of August 20th, in the midst of a cold rain, Smith began his march, his men hold- ing on to each other, to avoid being separated in the darkness. He made his attack at sunrise, and in fifteen minutes had possession of the camp. He took three thousand prisoners and thirty-three pieces of cannon. The camp at Contreras having fallen, General Scott attacked the forti- fied village of Churubusco an hour or two later, and carried it after a desperate struggle of several hours. General Worth's division stormed and carried the strong fort of San Antonio, and General Twiggs cap- tured another important work. The Mexicans outnumbered their as- sailants three to one, and fought bravely. Their efforts were in vain, however, and late in the afternoon they were driven from their defences, and pursued by the American cavalry to the gates of the city. These two victories had been won over a force of thirty thousand THE WAR WITH MEXICO. Mexicans by less than ten thousand Americans, and a loss of four thou- sand killed and wounded and three thousand prisoners had been inflicted upon the Mexican army. The American loss was eleven hundred men. Santa Anna retreated within the city, and on the 21st of August the American army advanced to within three miles of the city of Mexico. Ou the same day Santa Anna sent a flag of truce to General Scott, asking for a suspension of hostilities, in order to arrange the terms of a peace. The request was granted, and Mr. Trist was despatched to the city, and began negotiations with the Mexican commissioners. After protracted delays, designed to erain time, the Mexican commissioners declined the American O O ' STORMING OF CHAPULTEPEC. conditions, and proposed others which they knew would not be accepted. Thoroughly disgusted, Mr. Trist returned to the American camp, and brought with him the intelligence that Santa Anna had violated the armistice by using the time accorded him by it in strengthening hip de- fences. Indignant at such treachery, General Scott at once resumed his advance upon the city. The Mexican capital was still defended by two powerful works. One of these was Molino del Key, " The King's Mill," a foundry, where it was said the church bells were being cast into cannon; the other was the strong castle of Chapultepec. General Scott resolved to make his first attack upon Molino del Key, which was held by fourteen thousand 730 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Mexicans. It was stormed and carried on the 8th of September, after 3 severe contest by Worth's division, four thousand strong. This was re- garded as the hardest won victory of the war. The Mexicans were nearly four times as numerous as the Americans, and their position was one of very great strength. The Americans fought principally with their rifles and muskets, their artillery being of but little use to them, owing to nature of the position. Their loss was seven hundred and eighty-sev killed and wounded nearly one-fourth of the force engaged. The castle of Chapultepec stood on a steep and lofty hill, and could not be turned. If won at all, it must be by a direct assault. On the 12th of September the American artillery opened fire upon it, and re- duced it almost to ruins. On the morning of the 13th a determined assault was made by the Americans, and the castle was carried after a sharp struggle. The fugitives from Chapultepec retreated to the city by the causeway leading to the Bel ,n gate, closely followed by Quitman's division. Worth's division was m Ved forward to attack the San Cosmo gate, while Quitman assailed t e Belen gate. The defences of the causeways were taken in sujcession, and by nightfall the Belen and San Cosmo gates were in possession of the Americans after a hard fight for them. The troops slept on the ground they had won. During .he night of the 13th Santa Anna, with the remains of his army, retreated from the city, leaving the authorities to make the best terms they could with the conquerors. The city officials presented them- selves before General Scott before daybreak, and proposed terms of capitulation. The general replied that the city was already in his power, and that he would enter it on his own terms. The next day, Septembei 14th, 184 , the American army entered the city of Mexico, occupied the grand square, and hoisted the stars and stripes over the government buildings. Santa Anna retreated with four or five thousand men from the capital to the vicinity of Puebla, which was besieged by a Mexican force. The city contained eighteen hundred sick Americans, and was held by a garrison of five hundred men under Colonel Childs. This little force held out bravely until the arrival of a brigade from Vera Cruz, under General Lane, on its way to reinforce General Scott. Lane drove off Santa Anna's army, and relieved Puebla on the 8th of October. Ten &tyd later Santa Anna was reported to be collecting another force at Ali.v^i. Lane set out immediately for that place, reached it by a forced irarch, and dispersed the Mexicans beyond all hope of reunion. Immediately after the capture of tho city of Mexico Santa Anna resigned THE WAR WITH MEXICO. 731 the presidency of the republic in favor of Senor Pefia y Pefia, president of the Supreme Court of Justice, but retained his position as coramander- in-chief of the army. The fall of the city was followed by the inaugu- ration of a new government, one of the first acts of which was to dismiss Santa Anna from the command of the army. He at once left the coun- try, and fled to the West Indies. The Mexican government was removed to the city of Queretaro, and a new congress was elected, which began its sessions in that city. Nego- tiations for peace had been opened in the meantime, and the meetings ol* the Mexican commissioners and Mr. Trist Avere held at the town of Gua- daloupe Hidalgo, where, on the 2d of February, 1848, a treaty of peace CAPTURE OF THE HELEN GATE. was signed by Nicholas P. Trist, on the part of the United States, and Senors Couto, Atristain and Cuevas, on the part of Mexico. Though Mr. Trist's powers had been withdrawn by President Polk some time before, he ventured to continue his authority on the ground that rue opportunity for bringing the war to a close was too favorable to be lost. The commissioners appointed by the president to supersede him reached Mexico a little later, but found the treaty signed and sealed. It was forwarded to Washington, and was laid by the president before the Senate, which body after a brief discussion ratified it. On the 4th of July, 1848, President Polk issued a proclamation announcing the return of peace. 732 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. By the terms of the treaty the Rio Grande was accepted by Mexico as the western boundary of the United States and of Texas, and that republic ceded to the United States the provinces of New Mexico and Upper Cali- fornia. For this immense territory the government of the United States agreed to pay to Mexico the sum of fifteen millions of dollars, and to assume the debts due by Mexico to citizens of the United States, amount- ing to the sum of three and a half millions of dollars. The treaty having been ratified, the American forces were promptly withdrawn from Mexico. By the cession of California and New Mexico, regions as yet unknown, HYDRAULIC MINING. a territory four times as large as France was added to the dominions of the United States. California bordered the Pacific coast for about six hundred and fifty miles, and extended inland for about the same dis- tance. It embraced an area of about 450,000 square miles, comprising what is now known as California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and parts of Colorado and New Mexico. At the close of the war it contained about 15,000 inhabitants. In February, 1848, occurred an event destined to change the whole history of the Pacific coast. A laborer on the plantation of Captain THE WAR WITH MEXICO. 733 Sutter, situated in Coloma county, California, on a branch 01 the Sacra- mento river, while working on a mill race, discovered gold in the sands of the little stream. The precious metal was soon found to be in abund- ance in the neighborhood, and the news spread rapidly. It reached the United States sflbout the time of the ratification of the treaty, and pro- duced the most intense excitement. In the course of a few months thou- sands of emigrants were on their way to California to dig gold. Some went in steamers and sailing vessels around Cape Horn ; some crossed the isthmus of Panama, and worked their way up the Pacific coast ; and thers, and by far the greater number, undertook the long and dangerous journey across the plains and the Rocky mountains, travelling generally hi caravans. In a short time multitudes came flocking from every coua- THE EMIGRANTS' CAMP ox THE PLAINS EN ROUTE TO CALIFORNIA. try in Europe to join the throng in search of the precious metal. Sau Francisco was the central point of this vast emigration, and that place soon grew from a village of a few miserable huts to a city of over fifteen thousand inhabitants. Within two years after the discovery of gold the population of California had increased to nearly 100,000; two years later, in 1852, it numbered 264,000. The influence of the discovery of gold in California was not limited to this country. It gave an impetus to the commerce and industry of the whole world. On the 21st of February, 1848, ex-President John Qnincy Adams, 734 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. then a member of the House of Representatives in Congress, was stricken with paralysis in his seat in the House. He was carried into the speaker's room, where he died two days later, at the age of eighty. On the 29th of May, 1848, Wisconsin was admitted into the Union as a State, making the thirtieth member of the confederacy. Before the return of peace with Mexico the slavery question had been revived in the United States, and had been the cause of an agitation full of trouble to both sections. On the 8th of August, 1846, President Poik sent a message to Congress asking an appropriation of three millions of dollars to enable him to negotiate a treaty of peace with Mexico, based upon the policy of obtaining a cession of territory outside the existing limits of Texas. During the debate upon a bill to grant this appropria- tion, Mr. David Wilmot, a representative from Pennsylvania, made the following amendment, known as the " Wilmot Proviso : " " Provided, That there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in any ter- ritory which shall hereafter be acquired, or be annexed to the United States, otherwise than in the pun- ishment of crimes, whereof the party shall have been duly con- victed : Provided always, That any person escaping into the same, from whom labor or service is lawfully claimed in any one of the United COAT OF ARMS OF WISCONSIN. _, , . . , btates, such fugitive may be lawfully reclaimed and conveyed out of said territory to the person claiming his or her labor or service." This amendment took no notice of the Missouri Compromise line, and was opposed with great warmth by the southern members, who declared it an attempt to rob the Southern States in advance of their fair share of the territory that might be won by the joint efforts of the States. The bill failed in the Senate; but the announcement of the Wilmot Proviso reopened the slavery question in all its bitterness, and plunged the country into a state of profound excitement. The agitation was renewed in January, 1847, when a bill for the or- ganization of a territorial government for Oregon was reported to the House with the Wilmot Proviso incorporated in it. Mr. Burt, of South Carolina, moved to amend the bill by inserting before the restrictive clause the words : " Inasmuch as the whole of said territory lies north of 36 30' north latitude." This was an effort to apply to the Oregon bill the principles of the Missouri Compromise ; but the friends of the restric- tion rejected the amendment. The bill passed the House, but was de- THE WAR WITH MEXICO. 735 feated in the Senate. During the next session the measure was revived > and a territorial government was organized for Oregon with an unqualified restriction upon slavery. In the fall of 1848 the presidential election occurred. The Demo- cratic party supported Senator Lewis Cass, of Michigan, for the presi- dency, and General William O. Butler, of Kentucky, for the vice-presi* dency. The Whig party nominated General Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, for the presidency, and Millard Fillmore, of New York, for the vice-presidency. The Anti-slavery or Free Soil party put in nomi- nation for the presidency Martin Van Buren, of New York, and for the vice-presidency Charles Francis Adams, of Massachusetts. In the elec- tion which followed the political campaign, the candidates of the Whig party were elected by decisive majorities. The Free Soil party failed to receive a single electoral vote, but out of the popular vote of nearly three millions, nearly three hundred thousand ballots were cast for its candi- dates, showing a remarkable gain in strength in the past fom years. CHAPTER XXXVIII. UiiB ADMINISTRATIONS OF ZACHARY TAYLOB AXD MIL LARD FILLMORE. Character of General Taylor Department of the Interior Death of ex-President Polk The Slavery Agitation Views of Clay and Webster California ask? admission into the Union Message of President Taylor The Omnibus Bill Effort? of Henry Clay A Memorable Debate Webster's " Great Union Speech " Death of John C. Calhoun Death of President Taylor Millard Fillmore becomes President Passage of the Coin- promise Measures of 1850 Death of Henry Clay Dissatisfaction with the Compromise The Fugitive Slave Law Nullified by the Northern States The Nashville Convention Organization of Utah Territory The Seventh Census The Expedition of Lopea against Cuba The Search for Sir John Franklin The Grinnel Expedition Dr. Kane's Voyages Inauguration of Cheap Postage Laying the Corner-stone of the new Capitol Death of Daniel Webster Arrival of Kossuth The President Rejects the Tripartite Treaty Franklin Pierce elected President Death of William E. King. I HE 4th of March, 1849, fell on Sunday, and the inauguration of General Taylor as president of the United States took place on Monday, March 5th. The new president was a native of Virginia, but had removed with his parents to Kentucky at an early age, and had grown up to manhood on the frontiers of that State. In 1808, at the age of twenty- four, he was commissioned a lieutenant in the army by President Jefferson, and had spent forty years in the military service of the countiy. His exploits in the Florida war and the war with Mexico have been related. His brilliant victories in Mexico had made him the most popular man in the United States, and had won him the high office of the presidency at the hands of his grateful fellow-citizens. He \vas without political expe- rience, but he was a man of pure and stainless integrity, of great firmness, a sincere patriot, and possessed of strong good sense. He had received a majority of the electoral votes of both the Northern and Southern States, and was free from party or sectional ties of any kind. His inaugural address was brief, and was confined to a statement of general principles. His cabinet was composed of the leaders of the Whig party, with John M. Clayton, of Delaware, as secretary of state. The last Congress had created a new executive department that of the interior to relieve the secretary of the treasury of a part of his duties, and President Taylor was called upon to appoint the first secretary of the interior, which he did in ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FiLLMORE. 737 the person of Thomas Ewing, of Ohio. The new department was charged with the management of the public lands, the Indian tribe*, and the issuing of patents to inventors. A few months after the opening of President Taylor's administration, ex-President Polk died at his home in Nashville, Tennessee, on the 15th of June, 1849, in the fifty-fourth year of his age. Since the announcement of the Wilmot Proviso, the agitation of the slavery question had been incessant, and had increased instead of dimin- ishing with each succeeding year. It was one of the chief topics of dis- cussion in the newspaper press of the country, and entered largely into every political controversy, however local or insignificant in its nature. The opponents of slavery regarded the annexation of Texas and thft Mexican war as efforts to extend that institution, and were resolved to put an end to its existence at any cost. The advocates of slavery claimed that the South- ern States had an equal right to the com- mon property of the States, and were entitled to protection for their slaves in any of the Territories then owned by the States or that might afterwards be acquired by them. The Missouri Compromise forbade the exist- ence of slavery north o$Pthe line of 36 30' north latitude, and left the inhabitants south of that line free to decide upon their own institutions. The Anti-slavery party was resolved that slavery should be excluded ,, ,, . . , ,, . , ZACHARY TATLOR. irom the territory acquired from Mexico, and in the Wilmot Proviso struck their first blow for the accomplishment of this purpose. We have seen that they succeeded in prohibiting slavery, by a special act of Congress, in Oregon, although the terms of the Missouri Compromise would have excluded the institution from that Territory. Their object was fully understood by the southern people, and was bit terly resented by them. The agitation of the subject aroused a storm of passion throughout the country, and produced a very bitter feeling between the Northern and Southern States. In his last message to Con- gress President Polk had recommended that the line of 36 30' north latitude be extended to the Pacific, and thus leave it to the people south of that line to decide whether they would have slavery or not. This proposition was acceptable to the south ; but it was rejected by the Anti- slavery party. The Missouri Compromise line had been limited to tlif Louisiana purchase, which was entirely slavehokling, and had made mort 47 738 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. than one-half of it free. To extend the line to the Pacific would be tc give the south a chance to establish slavery in territory which was free at the time of ite acquisition by the United States. The north would not listen to such a proposition. During the last session of Congress in Mr. Folk's administration, an effort had been made to establish territorial governments for Utah and New Mexico, but had failed in consequence of the inability of Congress to agree upon the question of slavery in these Territories. In the debate in the Senate upon these measures, Mr. Callioun and Mr. Webster took an active part, and each presented in a masterly manner the views of the section he represented upon this great question. Mr. Caihoun, speaking for the south, argued that the constitution recognized slavery; that as it was the supreme law of the land it was superior to any territorial law or act of Congress abolishing slavery ; and that the constitution clearly and unequivocally established and protected slavery in the Territories. Mr.. Webster, speaking for the north, declared that the constitution was designed for the government of the States, and not for the Terri- tories. Congress, he said, had the right to govern the Territories independently of the constitution, and he maintained that it often exer- cised this right contrary to the constitution, as it did things in the Terri- tories which it could not do in the States. He added : " When new territory has been acquired it has always been subject to the laws of Congress to such laws as Congress thought proper to pass for its imme- diate government and preparatory state in which it was to remain until it was ready to come into the Union as one of the family of States." He quoted in support of his position the clause of the constitution which declares that the " constitution and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, .... shall be the supreme law of the land." Congress having failed to make any provision for territorial govern- ments for Utah and New Mexico, those Territories were left in a condi- tion of anarchy. One of the first duties devolving upon the new admin- istration was the alleviation of this evil until it could be definitely settled by Congress. President Taylor instructed the federal officers in those Territories to encourage the people to organize temporary governments for themselves. California in the meantime had grown with such rapidity, and had experienced so much trouble from its sudden increase of population and the lack of a definite government, that its leading citizens determined to seek admission into the Union. In the autumn of 1849 a convention of the people was held, a constitution formed, and a State government 739 740 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. organized The action of the convention was promptly ratified by the people. Upon the assembly of the Thirty-first Congress in the winter of 1849, California applied for admission into the UniOii as a State, with i constitution forbidding slavery within her limits. The organization of the Thirty-first Congress was delayed for three weeks. Parties were about even'y divided, and sixty ballots were taken before a speaker could be chosea. The choice at last fell upon Howell Cobb of Georgia, who was elected by a plurality. Partisan bitterness ran high during this struggle. Upon the organization of the House President Taylor sent in his first and only message. He recognized the danger with which the sectional controversy threatened the country, expressed his views of the situation in moderate terms, and intimated that he should faithfully discharge his duties to the whole country. He recommended the admission of California with the constitution she had chosen ; and advised that Utah and New Mexico should be organized as Territories, with liberty to decide the question of slavery for themselves when they were ready to enter the Union as States. A dispute having arisen between Texas and New Mexico concerning the proper boundary between them, the president recommended that it should be settled by the courts of the United States, The other questions which demanded immediate settlement were slavery in the District of Columbia, and the demand of the Southern States for a more faithful execution of the provision of the constitution which required the arrest and return of fugitive slaves. The south opposed the admission of California with a free constitution, and the north demanded the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia, and the Northern States were unwilling to allow their officers to execute the Fugitive Slave Law within their limits. The excite- ment became intense, and threats to dissolve the Union of the States were freely indulged in by the extremists of both the north and the south. On the 29th of January, 1850, Henry Clay introduced into the Senate a series of resolutions designed to settle all the points in dispute by a general compromise. The resolutions were referred to a committee of thirteen, of which Mr. Clay was made chairman. In due time the com- mittee reported a bill known as the "Omnibus Bill " from its embracing in one measure all Mr. Clay's propositions. It provided for the admission of California as a free State ; the organization of the Territories of Utah and New Mexico, without reference to slavery ; the adjustment of the boundary between Texas and New Mexico by paying to the former (en millions of dollars; the abolition of the slave trade in the District of ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE. 74] Columbia ; and the enactment by Congress of a more stringent and effective law for the rendition of fugitive slaves. The Omnibus bill was warmly opposed in Congress and in the country at large. The debate in the Senate brought out the views of the leadir'g statesmen of the country.. Senator Jefferson Davis declared the bill in no sense a compromise, because it was unequal iu its provisions. The south he declared gained nothing by the measure, as the constitution already required the rendition of fugitive slaves. He proposed, therefore, that the Missouri Compromise line should be extended to the Pacific, " with the specific recognition of the right to hold slaves in the territory below that line." Mr. Clay replied to this that " no earthly power could induce him to vote for a specific measure for the introduction of slavery where it had not existed, either north or south of that line. . . I am unwilling that the posterity of the present inhabitants of California and of New Mexico should reproach us for doing just what we reproach Great Britain for doing to us. . , If the citizens of those Territories come here with constitutions establishing slavery, I am for admitting them into the Union; but then it will be their own work and not ours, and their posterity will have to reproach them and not us." Mr. Calhoun was too ill to take part in the debate in person, but he prepared a speech of great ability which was read for him in the Senate by Senator Mason of Virginia. He declared that the Union could l>e preserved only by maintaining an equal number of free and slave States, in order that the representation of the two sections of the country might fiqual in the Senate. Mr. Webster also took part in the debate, and on this occasion delivered what is known as his " great Union speech of the 7th of March," which occupied three days in its delivery. He expressed substantially the same views as those advocated by Mr. Clay. He opposed restriction of slavery in the Territories, and declared he would vote against the Wilraot Proviso. His speech created a profound sensation throughout the country, and did much to secure the final acceptance of the compromise measures. En the midst of this discussion John C. Calhoun died, on the 3 1st of March, 1850. He had entered Congress in 1811, and had been in pubJic life from that time until the day of his death. He had filled many high offices, both State and national, and had discharged the duties of each and all with disinterested fidelity and admitted ability. He was one of the first statesmen this country has ever produced, and was the acknowledged leader of the south in the sectional controversy with the north. Ilia character was above reproach, and he was a sincere and disinterested 'V- *s*5*n^^>Kicr | *Hr - ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND LLMORE. 743 patriot. His death was generally lamented throughout the country, and his political adversaries joined heartily in the tributes of the nation to his many virtues and great abilities. A few months later President Taylor was suddenly stricken down with a fever, which in a few days terminated fatally. He died on the 9th of July, 1850, amid the grief of the whole country, which felt that it had lost a faithful and upright chief magistrate. Thougli the successful candidate of one political party, his administration had received the earnest support of the best men of the country without regard to party, and his death was a national calamity. He had held office only sixteen months, but had shown himself equal to his difficult and delicate position. He was sixty-six years old at the time of his death. By the terms of the constitution the office of president devolved upon Millard Fillmore, vice-president of the United States. On the 10th of July he took the oath of office before Chief Justice Cranch of the District of Columbia, and at once entered upon the duties of his new position. Mr. Fillmore was a native of New York, and was born in that State in the year 1800. He had served his State in Congress, and as governor, and was personally one of the most popular of the Presidents. The cabinet of General Taylor resigned their offices immedi- ately after his death, and the new president filled their places by appointing a new cabinet with Daniel Webster at its head as secretary of state. Mr. Fillmore was in active sympathy with Mr. Clay in his efforts to secure the passage of the compromise measures, as he deemed them the best adjustment of the trouble possible under the circumstances. The compromise measures were warmly debated in Congress, the sessions of which extended through the summer into the latter part of September. The bill was then taken up and passed, article by article, by the House of Representatives, it having previously passed the Senate. The bill at once received the executive approval, and became a law. The clause admitting California into the Union as a State was adopted on the 9th of September, 1850. The course of Mr. Clay in securing the passage of the compromise measures of 1850 was justly regarded as the crowning glory of his life. It won for him the love and confidence of the whole country without regard to party, and the man who " had rather be right than be president " MILLARD FILLMORE. 744 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. had the proud satisfaction of seeing all the faults and mistakes of his earlier years forgotten in the confidence and gratitude with which his countrymen regarded him. He ceased now to take an active part in the questions of the day, for it was fitting that his life should close with this great service to his country. His health failed rapidly, but he continued to hold his seat in the Senate until the 29th of June, 1852, when he died at the age of seventy-five years. Honors were showered upon his memory in all parts of the Union, and he was laid to his rest amid a nation's unaffected mourning. There were still many extremists both north and south, to whom the compromise measures failed to give satisfaction. The Fugitive Slave Law was bitterly denounced by the Anti-slavery party in the north. As the Supreme Court of the United States had decided that the justices of the peace in the respective States could not be called upon to execute the law for the rendition of fugitive slaves, a clause was inserted in the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, providing for the appointment of United States oonmiiseioners, before whom such cases cculd be tried. The Northern States succes.jively enacted laws for the nullification the pro- visions of this law. All their jails and other State buildings were refused to the federal officers for the securing of fugitive slaves, and all State, county, and city officers were forbidden to arrest or assist in arrest- ing or detaining any fugitive slave. In many of the States severe punish- ments were denounced against masters coming within their limits to claim their slaves, and such fugitives entering these States were declared free. These laws were denounced by the slaveholding States as violative of the constitution of the United States, and gave rise to great bitterness of feel- ing towards the north. It was maintained that these laws were direct evidence of the intention of the northern people to rob the south of its property in negro slaves. The extremists of the south were equally dissatisfied with the compro- mise, 'ihcy declared that the South had sacrificed everything and gained nothing by it, and boldly avowed their intention to bring about the seces- sion of the Southern States from the Union. In the summer of 1350 a southern convention was held at Nashville, Tennessee. Its real end was the dissolution of the Union, and for that purpose it urged the Southern States to appoint delegates to a " Southern Congress." The legislatures of South Carolina and Mississippi alone responded to this invitation, but COAT OF ARMS OF CALIFORNIA. ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE. the great mass of the southern people turned a deaf ear to the appeals of the disuuionists, and the convention failed to accomplish its object. In the inauguration of a territorial government for Utah, the Mormons, whose settlement in that Territory while it was yet a possession of Mexico we have related, endeavored to frame their own government, and gave to the Territory the name of Deseret, which they declared was a word of their peculiar language meaning "The Land of the Honey Bee." President Fillmore set aside this name and carried out the act of Congress by which the Territory received its present name. Brigham Young, the Mormoc leader or prophet, was appointed governor of the Territory. In 1850 the seventh census showed the population of the United States to be 23,191,876 souls. In the early part of President Taylor's administration, General Lopez, a Spaniard, began to enlist men in the United States ostensibly for the purpose of aiding the people of the island of Cuba to throw off their allegiance to Spain and estab- lish their independence, but really for the purpose of driving out the Spaniards and securing the annexa- tion of Cuba to the United States. He succeeded in inducing a number of adventurous persons to join him. President Taylor, upon learning of the movement, issued a procla- mation forbidding citizens of the United States to engage in it. In spite of this warning, Lopez collected a force of six hundred men, and eluding the vigilance of the United States officers, sailed for Cuba. He landed at Cardenas, but received so little encouragement that the party sailed for Key West. In 1851, Lopez again entered Cuba, this time at the head of four hundred and fifty men. His party was captured almost immediately, and he and a number of his men were put to death by the Spanish authorities at Havana. In May, 1850, an expedition of a different character sailed from the United States. The fate of Sir John Frtmklin, who sailed from England in 1845, in search of the northwest passage, had long enlisted the sym- pathy of humane and generous souls. It was thought that the daring navigator might be confined to the Arctic regions by the loas of his ships, and that a well-executed search might either result in the discovery and f BRIGHAM YOUNG. 746 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. relief of Franklin or settle the question as to his fate. Mr. Henry Grinnell, a wealthy merchant of New York, fitted out an expedition at his own expense, and placing it under the command of Lieutenant De Haven, of the United States navy, despatched it to the Arctic regions to search for Franklin and his men, in May, 1850. De Haven was accom- ,panied by Dr. E. K. Kane, in the capacity of surgeon and naturalist. After a year's absence the vessels returned, the search having been unsuc- cessful. The general government despatched another expedition in 1851 on the same errand, and placed it under command of Dr. Kane. This expedition was absent four years, and the government, becoming appre- hensive of its fate, sent two vessels to search for Kane and his companions. They were found at the isle of Disco, in Greenland, having been forced to abandon their vessel in the ice. Nothing was learned by Dr. Kane con- cerning the fate of Sir John Franklin ; but the expedition resulted in the discovery of the open Polar Sea.* In the early part of 1851 Congress reduced the postage on prepaid letters to three cents to all parts of the United 'States, prepayment being made by means of stamps provided by the government. The result was a rapid and immense increase of the postal revenue of the country. On the 4th of July, 1851, the corner-stone of the extension of the capi- tol at Washington was laid by President Fillmore with appropriate cere- monies. The orator of the day was Daniel Webster. His address was one of his best efforts, but was delivered under great disadvantages. His health had been failing for some time past, and his weakness was so great that he could speak only with difficulty. This oration was one of the last public acts of the great statesman. On the 24th of October, 1852, he died at his home at Marsh field, Massachu- setts, aged seventy years, and in him perished the first statesman of America. He was large and stout in frame, of swarthy complexion, and slow and heavy in movement a man of noble and commanding appear- ance. His intellect was cast in the same gigantic mould as his body. His language was simple and chaste, and his arguments irresistible. His patriotism knew no sectional limits. "I am as ready," he once said, "to fight and to fall for the constitutional rights of Vir- ginia as I am for those of Massachusetts." Alexander H. Stephens has said of him : " He was too great a man and had too great an in- . * Nothing definite was learned of the fate of Sir John Franklin until 1859, when the steamer "Fox," despatched by Lady Franklin, made the melancholy discovery that Sir John Franklin died on the llth of June, 1847, and in 1848 the "Erebus" and "Terror" were abandoned in the ice The survivors of these disasters, one hundred and five in number, died one by one from cold and exhaustion on King William's island. ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORK 747 tellect not to see the truth when it was presented, and he was too honest and too patriotic a man not to proclaim the truth when he saw it, even to an unwilling people. In this quality of moral greatness 1 often thought Mr. Webster had the advantage of his great contemporaries, Messrs. Clay and Calhoun. Not that I would be understood as saying that they were not men of great moral courage, for both of them showed this high quality \:\ many instances, but they never gave the world such striking exhibitions of it as he did. . . . Webster . . . often passed this ordeal, and that he passed it with unflinching firmness is one of the grandest features in the general grandeur of his character. Even his detractors have been constrained to render him unwilling homage in this respect." * His memory was honored by appropriate demonstrations in all parts of the country, and it is said that the popular tributes on this occasion were equalled only by those of the nation at the death of Washington. In December, 1851, Louis Kossuth, the chief of the Hungarian insur- rection of 1848, visited the United States. His avowed object was to promote the cause of his countrymen, and he made frequent addresses in various parts of the Union, which were listened to by vast multitudes who were charmed with his eloquence. He visited Washington, and was granted a public reception by Congress. Tin; Austrian minister at Washington, the Chevalier Hulseman, protested against this reception, and his protest being unheeded, he withdrew from Washington for a while. The attempt of Lopez upon Cuba had greatly alarmed Spain for the safety of that island. England and France, sympathizing with her, and anxious to render the acquisition of Cuba by the United States impos- sible, proposed to the American government to join them in a "tripartite treaty," in which each should disclaim any intention to seize that island, and should guarantee Spain in her possession of it. In December, 1852, Edward Everett, who had succeeded Mr. Webster as secretary of state, by the direction of the president, replied to the proposition of England and France, declining to accept it. "The President," he said, "does not covet the acquisition of Cuba for the United States," but " could not see with indifference that island fall into the possession of any European gov- ernment than Spain." He stated that the situation of the island rendered it peculiarly interesting to this country by reason of its proximity to our coast, and its commanding the approach to the Gulf of Mexico and the mouth of the Mississippi. The European powers were thus given to understand that the United States would not tolerate their interference in a question purely American. * T/ie War Between the States, vol. i., pp. 405, 406. 748 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The year 1852 was marked by intense excitement consequent on the political campaign which terminated in the fall in the presidential elec- tion. The Democratic party made a strong and successful effort to re- cover its lost power, and nominated Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, for president, and William R. King, of Alabama, for vice-president. The Whig party nominated General Winfield Scott for president, and William A.. Graham, of North Carolina, for vice-president. The Anti-slavery party put in nomination John P. Hale, of New Hampshire, and George W. Julian, of Indiana. The election resulted in the choice of the candi- dates of the Democratic party by an overwhelming majority. The Anti- slavery party on this occasion polled but 1 55,825 votes, or a little more than half of the strength it had shown at the previous election. Mr. King, the vice-president elect, did not long survive his triumph. His health had been delicate for many years, and he was obliged to pass the winter succeeding the election in Cuba. Being unable to return home, he took the oath of office before the American consul, at Havana, on the 4th of March, 1 853. He then returned to the Uniter 1 States, and jied at his home in Alabama on the 18th of April, 1853. CHAPTER XXXIX. THE ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE. Dispute with Mexico The Gadsden Purchase Surveys for a Pacific Railway The Japan Expedition Treaty with Japan The Koszta Affair The " Black Warrior " seized by the Cuban Officials The "Ostend Conference" Dismissal of the British Minister The Kansas-Nebraska Bill History of the Bill Its Passage by Congress History of the Struggle in Kansas Conflict between the Pro-Slavery and Free Soil Settlers Lawrence Sacked Civil War The Presidential Campaign of 1856 Jamea Buchanan elected President of the United States Rapid increase of the Republican Party. [RESIDENT PIERCE took the oath of office at the capitol at Washington on the 4th of March, 1853, in the presence of an immense throng. He was in his forty-ninth year, and had won an enviable name by his previous services to the country. He was a native of New Hampshire, and had represented that State for four years in the lower House of Congress, and for nearly a full term in the Senate of the United States. He had also served with dis- tinction during the Mexican war as briga- dier-general. He placed William L. Marcy, of New York, at the head of his cabinet as secretary of state. The first question of importance the new president was called upon to settle grew out of a dispute with Mexico concerning the boundary between that country and the Ter- ritory of New Mexico. At the time of the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo the maps were so imperfect that the boundary line had not been drawn with sufficient exactness. Both countries claimed the Mesilla valley, which was said to be very fertile, but which was more important to the United States as affording what was generally re- garded as the most practicable route to California. Santa Anna was now president of the Mexican republic again, and sent a force of Mexican troops to occupy the region in dispute. The matter was settled by nego- 749 K PIERCE. 750 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. tiation, however, and the United States obtained the Mesilla valley and the free navigation of the Gulf of California and of the Colorado to the American frontier. For these concessions the federal government paid Mexico the sum of ten millions of dollars. The district thus acquired was known as the " Gadsden Purchase," and was subsequently erected into the Territory of Arizona. The necessity of more rapid and certain communication with Californ a had brought the nation to regard a railway between the Mississippi anc^ the Pacific as a necessity, and as such an undertaking was considered be- yond the resources (fa private corporation, it was believed that it should be built by the general government, or at least that the general govern- ment should bear a part of the expense. The year 1853 witnessed the first steps towards the construction of this great work. Two expeditions were despatched under the orders of the war department to explore the best routes for a Pacific railway. The acquisition of California brought the United States into new rela- tions with the nations of the eastern world, as it secured for them a base upon the Pacific from which a direct trade could be conducted with China and Japan. The empire of Japan, however, was closed to foreigners, and it was very desirable to open commercial relations with it. Towards the close of Mr. Fillmore's term of office, Commodore Perry, a brother of the hero of Lake Erie, was despatched to China with a fleet of seven war steamers to negotiate a treaty with the Japanese government. He arrived in the bay of Jeddo in the summer of 1853. The natives were greatly astonished at the appearance of his steamers, the first that had ever been seen in those waters, and at his boldness in venturing into their harbors. The Japanese officials ordered him to depart, but he refused, and insisted on seeing the emperor, and making known to him the object of his friendly visit. They at length decided to lay the matter before the emperor, who consented to grant an interview to the commodore, and named the 14th of July for that purpose. On the day appointed the commodore landed, accompanied by a strong body of marines. He was received with great ceremony by the Japanese, and delivered the presi- dent's letter, to which an answer was promised. The answer of the emperor was submitted to him several months later, and was favorable. A treaty was concluded between the United States and Japan, by which the former were allowed to trade in two specified ports Simodi and Hokadadi. American citizens were permitted to reside at these ports, and consuls were accepted for them. Thus the United States had the honor of being the first to open the rich markets of the island empire to the commerce of the civilized world. Since then the relations between the THE ADXISISTKATIOy OF FEASKLIX PIERCE. 751 two countries have steadily grown more cordial, and Japan has shown a remarkable rapidity and facility for adopting the civilization of the west. In July, 1853, occurred an event which did much to increase the re- spect for our navy among the powers of the world. Martin Koszta, a Hungarian, who had taken the preliminary steps to be naturalized in the United States, happening to be in Smyrna, in Asia Minor, on business, wae seized as a rebel and a refugee by order of the Austrian consul-general, and taken on board an Austrian brig. The United States sloop-of-war "St. Louis," Captain Ingraham, was lying in the harbor at the time, and Ingrahaui was appealed to for protection for Koszta. He at once demanded his release as an American citizen. The demand was refused by the authorities, and Ingraham at once called his crew to quarters and threatened to fire upon the Austrian ship if Koszta was not immediately released. The Austrians at once surrendered their prisoner, and he was placed in custody of the French consul to await the action of the govern- ment of the United States. The matter was settled by negotiation be- tween this country and Austria, and Koszta was released. Austria addressed to the government at Washington a remonstrance against the conduct of Captain Ingraham, but his course was warmly applauded by his countrymen and by disinterested persons in Europe. In February, 1854, the American merchant steamer " Black Warrior" was seized by the Spanish authorities at Havana, on the pretext that she had evaded or violated some uncertain revenue law, and the ship and her cargo were declared confiscated. This action of the Havana officials was regarded in the United States as unjust, and aroused a great deal of feel- ing against the Spaniards, and gave a sudden impetus to the national sentiment in favor of the acquisition of Cuba. The affair of the "Black Warrior" was satisfactorily settled by the Spanish government. While the feeling aroused by the affair was at its height a conference of some of the American ministers in Europe, including Mr. Buchanan, minister to England, Mr. Mason, minister to France, and Mr. Soule, minister to Spain, and some others, was held at Ostend, in Belgium, and a circular was adopted recommending the acquisition of Cuba by the United States. This measure attracted much attention, and elieiuxl con- siderable European criticism of the alleged ambitious designs of the United States. Mr. Soule*, on his return to Madrid, was stopped at Calais by order of the emperor of the French, who had personal reasons for dis- liking him. The emperor, however, reconsidered his action, and allowed Soule to pass through France to the Spanish frontier. In 1855 Great Britain, France, Sardinia, and Turkey being engaged in 752 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. a war with Russia, the agents of the British government undertook to enlist recruits for their army within the limits of the United States in defiance of the neutrality laws of this country. The matter being brought to the attention of the United States government, it was found that the British minister at Washington and the British consuls in some of the principal cities of the Union had encouraged, if they had not authorized, these enlistments. The government of the United States thereupon called the attention of Great Britain to the conduct of her minister, and requested her to recall him. The queen declined to comply with this request, and the minister and the consuls were promptly dismissed by the president. The matter caused considerable irritation in England for a while, but the good sense of the English people at length perceived the propriety of the course of the American government, and cordial relations were re-established between the two countries. The most important measure of Mr. Pieree's administration was the bill to organize the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska. The region embraced in these Territories formed a part of the Louisiana purchase, and extended from the borders of Missouri, Iowa, and Minnesota to the summit of the Rocky mountains, and from the parallel of 36 30' north latitude to the border of British America. The whole region by the terms of the Missouri Compromise had been secured to free labor by the exclusion of slavery. Until the year 1850 this vast area was called by the general and somewhat indefinite name of the " Platte Country," from the Platte river, which flows through it. Little was known concerning it save that it was a region of great fertility. It was mainly occupied by the reservations of the Indian tribes, which had been removed from the other States to make way for the whites. Across it swept the grand trails of the overland route to Utah and the Pacific. The people of the New England States were very anxious that the Indian reservations which covered the eastern part should be bought up by the general gov- ernment and the country thrown open to emigration. Petitions to this effect were presented to the Thirty-second Congress, but no action was taken upon them until December, 1852, when Mr. Hall, of Missouri, introduced a bill into the House to organize the " Territory of Platte." It was referred to the Committee on Territories, which in February, 1853, reported a bill organizing the "Territory of Nebraska." The bill was opposed in the House of Representatives by the full strength of the south, and in the Senate the only southern senators who voted for it were those from Missouri. The Missouri Compromise, as has been stated, secured the entire Nebraska region to free labor; but notwithstanding this the southern members of Congress were resolved to oppose the THE ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE. 75,') organization of a new free Territory, and to endeavor to obtain a footLn for slavery in at least a part of it. The matter was revived in the Senate on the 16th of January, 185), by Senator Dixon, of Kentucky, who gave notice that whenever the Nebraska bill should be called up Me would move the following amend- ment: "That so much of the eighth section of an act approved March 6, 1820, entitled 'An act to authorize the people of the Missouri Territory to form a constitution and State government, and for the admis- sion of such State into the Union on an equal footing with the original States, and to prohibit slavery in certain Territories,' as declares ' That, in all the territory ceded by France to the United States, under the name of Louisiana, which lies north of 36 30' north latitude, slavery and involuntary servitude, otherwise than in the .punishment of crimes whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall be forever pro- hibited,' shall not be so construed as to apply to the Territory contemplated by this act, or to any other Territory of the United States ; but that the citizens of the several States or Territories shall be at liberty to take and hold their slaves within any of the Territories or States to be formed therefrom, as if the said act, entitled as aforesaid, had never been passed." The announcement of this amendment startled the country as much as the Wilmot Proviso had done years before, and produced much angry excitement. It was a clear repudiation of the Missouri Compromise, which it did not even seek to repeal. Senator Douglas, of Illinois, chairman of the Committee on Territories,, on the 23d of January, 1854, reported a bill which provided for tl:e organization of the Platte country into two Territories. The southern portion, which lay directly west of Missouri, stretching to the Rocky mountains on the west, and extending from the thirty-seventh to the fortieth parallel of north latitude, was to be organized into a distinct Ter- ritory to be called Kansas. The remainder was to be called Nebraska, having the line of 43 30' for its northern boundary. Senator Douglas, in an evil hour for the country, incorporated in the bill the main fea- tures of Mr. Dixon's amendment. The bill contained the following provisions : "SECTION 21. And be it further enacted, That, in order to avoid mis- construction, it is hereby declared to be the true intent and meaning of this act, so far as the question of slavery is concerned, to carry into prac- tical operation the following propositions and principles, established by the compromise measures of one thousand eight hundred and fifty, to wit: 48 754 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. "First. That all questions pertaining to slavery in the Territories, and in the new States to be formed therefrom, are to be left to the decision of the people residing therein, through their appropriate represent- atives. "Second. That all cases involving title to slaves, and questions of per- sonal freedom, are referred to the adjudication of the local tribunals, with the right of appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States. "Third. That the provisions of the constitution and laws 01 the United States, in respect to fugitives from service, are to be carried into faithful execution in all the ' organized Territories/ the same as in the States." The section of the bill which prescribed the qualifications and mode of election of a delegate from each of the Territories was as follows : "The constitution, and all laws of the United States which are not, locally inapplicable, shall have the same force and effect within the said Territory as elsewhere in the United States, except the section of the act preparatory to the admission of Missouri into the Union, approved March 6, 1820, which was superseded by the principles of the legislation of 1850, commonly called il*> compromise measures, and is declared inoperative." Mr. Dixon declared that the oill, as reported by Senator Douglas, met with his hearty approval, and that he vould support it with all his ability. The debate on the bill began in the Senate on the 24th of January, and continued through several weeks. It was conducted with great ability on both sides, and engaged the earnest attention of the whole country. The Free Soil senators unanimously opposed the bill, which they denounced as a violation of the Missouri Compromise, by which the faith of the nation was pledged to the settlement then effected. The southern senators supported it with equal unanimity, as they held that the Missouri Compromise had been superseded by the compromise of 1850. On the 6th of February Mr. Chase, of Ohio, moved to strike out so much of the bill as declared the Missouri Compromise " superseded " by the compromise of 1850, but the motion was defeated. AVhereupon Mr, Douglas, on the 15th of February, moved to strike out the clause objected to by Mr. Chase, and insert the following : " Which being inconsistent with the principle of non-intervention by Congress with slavery in the States and Territories, as recognized by the legislation of 1850 (commonly called the compromise measures), is hereby declared inoperative and void ; it being the true intent and mean- ing of this act not to legislate slavery into any Territory or State, nor tc. exclude it therefrom, but to leave the people thereof perfectly free to form THE ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE. 755 and regulate their domestic institutions in their own way, subject only to the constitution of the United States." Mr. Douglas' amendment was at once adopted, and seemed fair enough on its face. Mr. Chase exposed the hollowness of it by proposing to add to it the following clause, which was promptly voted down : " Under which the people of the Territories, through their appropriate representa- tives, may, if they see fit, prohibit the existence of slavery therein." The bill was adopted by the Senate by a vote of thirty-seven yeas to fourteen nays, and by the House by a vote of one hundred and thirteen yeas to one hundred nays, and on the 31st of May, 1854, received the approval of the president and became a law. The whole country engaged warmly in the discussion aroused by the reopening of the question of slavery in the Territories. The north resented the repeal of the Missouri Compromise, and in the south a large and respectable party sincerely regretted the repeal of that settlement. By the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill the Thirty-third Congress assumed a grave responsibility, and opened the door to a bloody and bitter conflict in the Territories between slavery and free labor. The events now to be related were the logical consequences of the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. A few months before the final vote upon the Kansas-Nebraska bill the general government succeeded in purchasing the Indian reservations in those Territories, and removed the Indian tribes to new homes farther west. This action at once threw Kansas and Nebraska open to white settlers, and measures were set on foot in the New England States to encourage emigration thither. Kansas being a more fertile country than Nebraska naturally attracted the greater number of settlers. Before anything could be done by the Free Soil men the people living on the border of Missouri passed over into Kansas, and selecting the best lands, put their mark upon them, hoping in this way to establish a pre-emption claim to them. Their object was to organize and hold the Territory in the interest of slavery, but very few of them removed to Kansas, or had any wish to do so. In the meantime societies had been formed in the New England States for the promotion of emigration to Kansas. As the Pro-slavery settlers had come into the Territory so slowly, and in such small numbers, it seemed certain that the northern people could secure Kansas to free labor by sending out settlers to occupy the Territory in good faith. The Pro- slavery party in Missouri determined to prevent this. In July, 1854, a meeting was held at Wostport in that State, at which it was resolved that the persons taking part in the meeting would, " whenever called ti}K)n by 756 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. any of the citizens of Kansas Territory, hold 'themselves' in readiness together to resist and remove any and all emigrants who go there under the auspices of the Northern Emigrant Aid Societies." The first party sent out by the New England Aid Societies reached a point on the Kaw river, in Kansas, about the middle of July. There they pitched their tents and began the building of a town, which they named Lawrence, in honor of Amos A. Lawrence, of Boston. By the last of the month they were joined by seventy more emigrants, and the work of founding their town was pushed forward with energy. There was not a drone in the little community. They were all honest, intelli' F1KST HOTEL IN LAWRENCE. gent, God-fearing men and women, and they meant to succeed in the undertaking they had begun. They were in legal and peaceable pos- session of their settlement, and thus far had molested or wronged no one. They were not to live in peace, however. Before they had finished building their houses, they were startled by the announcement that two hundred and fifty armed Missourians had encamped within a short dis- tance of them for the purpose of driving them out of the Territory. The next morning the Missourians sent them a formal notice that "the Abolitionists must leave the Territory, never more to return to it." They THE ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE. 757 declared their desire to avoid bloodshed; but notified the settlers that they must be ready to leave the Territory, with all their effects, at one o'clock that day. This the settlers refused to do, and prepared to defend their homes. The messengers of the Missourians found them drilling behind their tents, and reported this fact to their leaders. The firm but quiet attitude of the people of Lawrence had a happy effect. The Mis- sourians made no effort to carry out their threat, but broke up their camp THE PEOPLE OF LAWRENCE DETERMINED TO RESIST. that night, and withdrew across the border, leaving the settlers in peace. Meanwhile the town of Lawrence grew and prospered, and the Xew England Societies continuing to^end other emigrants into the Territory other towns were founded. Settlers from the Southern States came into the Territory very slowly. The general government threw its influence" as far as possible in favor of the Pro-slavery party, in the organization of the Territory, by appoint- 758 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ing a majority of the territorial officers from the slaveholding States. A. H. lieeder was appointed governor by President Pierce. He endeav- ored to execute the laws faithfully, and ordered an election for members of a territorial legislature, to be held on the 30th of March, 1855. On that day large numbers of armed Missourians crossed the border, and, taking possession of the polling-places in Kansas, succeeded in returning a Pro-slavery legislature. Six districts at once forwarded protests to the governor against the elections, showing beyond all reasonable doubt that they had been con- trolled by citizens of Missouri. The governor, who was anxious to do justice to all parties, ordered a new election in these districts, each of which, with the exception of Lecompton, returned a Free Soil delegate. The new delegates, however, were refused their seats upon the assembling of the legislature, and the successful candidates at the original election were admitted. The governor had summoned the legislature to meet at Pawnee City, on the Kansas river, a town nearly one hundred miles distant from the border, and supposed to be far enough away to be free from intimidation by the Missourians; but the legislature, immediately upon assembling, adjourned to Shawnee Mission, on the Missouri border. The resolution for this purpose was vetoed by the governor, but was passed over his veto and was at once carried into effect. Upon reassembling at Shawnee Mission the legislature proceeded to adopt the laws of Missouri as the laws of Kansas, and to frame a series of statutes designedly cruel and oppressive. These laws were vetoed by Governor Eeeder, who was re- moved by the president. Wilson Shannon, of Ohio, was then appointed governor of Kansas. In the meantime the Free Soil settlers had increased so rapidly that they at length largely outnumbered the Pro-slavery settlers. They now felt themselves strong enough to resist the outrages of the Missourians, and accordingly, on the 5th of September, 1855, held a convention, in which they distinctly repudiated the government that had been forced upon them by men who were not residents of the Territory. They an- nounced their intention not to take part in the election of a delegate to Congress, which the territorial authorities had ordered to be held on the 1st of October, and called upon the actual residents of the Territory toi send delegates to a convention to meet at Topeka on the 19th of Sep- tember. This convention organized an executive committee for the Territory, and ordered an election to be held for the purpose of choosing a delegate to Congress. Governor Reeder was nominated and elected to Congress. On the 23d of October the convention adopted a Free State THE ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE. constitution, and forwarded it to Congress with a petition for the admis- sion of Kansas into the Union as a State. The struggle for the possession of the Territory now passed out of the area of politics. As we have said, the repeal of the Missouri Com- promise opened the way for, and was the direct cause of, the conflict between the Free and Pro-slavery settlers of Kansas. The outrages of the Pro-slavery men had forced the Free-Soilers into an attitude of direct and uncompromising resistance; and after the action of the latter, at Topeka, the struggle which had hitherto been comparatively bloodless changed its character and became an open and sanguinary war between the two parties. In this struggle the Pro-slavery men were the aggressors. Bands of young men, armed and regularly organized into companies and regiments, came into the Territory from South Carolina, Georgia and the extreme Southern States, with the avowed design of making Kansas a slaveholding State at all hazards. On the morning of May 21st, 1856, under the pretext of aiding the United States marshal to serve certain processes upon citizens of Lawrence, they captured that town, sacked it, burned several houses and inflicted a loss upon it amounting to $150,000. From this time the war went on in a series of desultory but bloody encounters, some of which assumed the proportions of battles. In the summer of 1856 Governor Shannon was removed, and John W. Geary, of Pennsylvania, was appointed in his place. He exerted him- self honestly to restore peace and execute the laws, and ordered "all bodies of men combined, armed and equipped with munitions of war, without authority of the government, instantly to disband and quit the Territory." In obedience to this order the Free Soil companies nearly all disbanded, but the Pro-slavery party paid scarcely any attention to it. They concentrated a force of two thousand men and advanced upon Lawrence to attack it. Governor Geary at once placed himself at the head of the United States dragoons stationed in the Territory, and by a rapid march threw himself with these troops between the town of Law- rence and the hostile force, and prevented another conflict. Matters hacl reached this stage when the presidential campaign opened in 1856. The struggle in the Territories had greatly weakened the Democratic party, and had given rise to a new party which called itself Republican, and which was based upon an avowed hostility to the ex- tension of slavery. A third party, called the American, or Know Nothing, also took part in the campaign, and was based upon the doc- trine that the political offices of the country should be held only by persons of American birth. The Democratic party nominated James 760 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, for the presidency, and John C. Brecken- ridge, of Kentucky, for the vice-presidency. The Republican nominee for the presidency was John C. Fremont, of California ; for the vice- presidency William L. Dayton, of New Jersey. The American party supported Millard Fillmore, of New York, for the presidency, and Andrew J. Donelson, of Tennessee, for the vice-presidency. The Whig party had been broken to pieces by its defeat in 1852, and had now entirely disappeared. The canvass was unusually excited. Slavery was the principal ques- tion in dispute. Party ties had little influence upon men. The sentiment of the nation at large had been outraged by the repeal of the Missouri Compromise, and thousands of Democrats, desiring to rebuke their party for its course in bringing about this repeal, united with the Republican party, which declared as its leading principle that it was " both the right and the duty of Congress to prohibit in the Territories those twin relics of barbarism polygamy and slavery." The elections resulted in the triumph of James Buchanan, the candi- date of the Democratic party. Mr. Buchanan received 174 electoral votes to 114 cast for Fremont. Though a majority of the American people sustained the action of the Democratic party, the significant fact remained that 1,341,264 of the voters of the country had recorded their condemnation of it by casting their votes for Fremont and Dayton. CHAPTER XL. THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN. Inauguration of Mr. Buchanan The Mormon Kebellion The Financial Crisis of 1857 Laying of the Atlantic Telegraphic Cable Minnesota admitted into the Union Th* San Juan Affair Admission of Oregon into the Union The Kansas question The Lecompton Constitution Its defeat The Wyandotte Constitution Admission of Kan- sas into the Union The John Brown Eaid Prompt action of the Government Brown and his Companions surrendered to the State of Virginia Their Trial and Execution Presidential Campaign of 1860 Rupture of the Democratic party Abraham Lincoln elected President of the United States Secession of South Carolina Reasons for this ' Act Secession of the other Cotton States Major Anderson occupies Fort Sumter Trying position of the General Government Course of Mr. Buchanan The " Star of the "West" fired upon by the South Carolina Batteries Organization of the Confederate States of America. Jefferson Davia elected President of the Southern Republic The Peace Congress Its Failure. AMES BUCHANAN, the fifteenth President of the United States, was inaugurated at Washington on the 4th of March, 1857. He was in his sixty-sixth year, and was a statesman of great accomplishments and ripe experience. He was born in Pennsylvania, in 1791, and was by profession a lawyer. He had served his State in Congress as a representative and a senator, had been minister to Russia under President Jackson, and had been a mem- ber of the cabinet of President Polk as secretary of state. During the four years previous to his election to the presidency he had resided aoroad as the minister of the United States to Great Britain, and in that capacity had greatly added to his reputation as a statesman. He avowed the object of his administration to be "to destroy any sectional party, whether North or South, and to restore, if possible, that national frater- nal feeling between the different States that had existed during the early days of the republic." The intense sectional feeling which the discussion of the slavery question had aroused had alarmed patriotic men in all parts of the Union, and it was earnestly hoped that Mr. Buchanan's ad- ministration would be able to effect a peaceful settlement of the quarrel. Mr. Buchanan selected his cabinet from the leading men of the Demo- cratic party, and placed at its head as secretary of state Lewis Case, of Michigan. 761 762. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. We have in a previous portion of this work noticed the rise and growth of the Mormon sect, and their settlement in the region of tht Great Salt lake, then a part of the Mexican republic. They were not at all pleased with their transfer to the United States by the cession of the territory occupied by them by the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo. Their object in emigrating to Utah had been to place themselves beyond the limits of the United States, where they could enjoy without molestation their religious practices, and especially the gross and immoral institution of polygamy, to which they were attached as the foundation of their faith. They were not disturbed by the Mexican government, which was indeed scarcely aware of their existence, and thus unnoticed devoted their energies to building up the country they had occupied. Their missionaries were sent into the various countries of Europe, and converts were made with extraordinary success, and rapidity. They built up a thriving town on the borders of the great lake, to whieh they gave the name of Salt Lake City, and founded other towns in various parts of the Territory. By the year 1850 the population of the Territory had increased to 11,380. Being on the highway to California, the greater part of the overland traffic and travel to the Pacific passed through Salt Lake City, and was a source of considerable profit to the Mormons. JAMES BUCHANAN. In 185 the Territory of Utah was or- ganized, and Brigham Young, who had suc- ceeded Joe Smith as the prophet or leader of the Mormons, was appointed by President Fillmore governor of the Territory. His ap- pointment was renewed by President Pierce, and the Mormons were left during these two administrations to manage their affairs very much in their own way. Relying upon the immense distance which separated them from the States, they paid but little regard to the authority of the United States, and finally ventured openly to resist the officers of the general government, and expelled the federal judge from the Territory. President Buchanan thereupon removed Brigham Young from his office, of governor, and appointed a Mr. Gumming his successor. The Mor- mons having declared that the new governor should not enter the Territory, General Harney was ordered to accompany him with a large body of troops and compel the submission of the people of Utah to the authority of the federal government. 7Uo 764 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Under the leadership of Brigham Young the Mormons took up arms and prepared to dispute the entrance of the troops into the Territory. They declared that their settlement and civilization of Utah had given them the sole right to the Territory, and that they owed no allegiance to the United States. Their resistance was so formidable that the force under General Harney was largely increased, and the command was conferred upon Brigadier-General Albert Sidney Johnston, who was considered the most efficient officer in the service. General Johnston joined his troops at Fort Bridger, about one hundred miles from Salt Lake City, in September, 1857. The Mormons in heavy force occupied SALT LAKE CITY (FEOM THE NORTH). the passes leading to the valley of the Great Salt lake. The season waa so far advanced at the time of his arrival that General Johnston concluded to pass the winter at Fort Bridger. The Mormons were very active during the winter in cutting off the trains of the federal troops. It was General Johnston's intention to move upon Salt Lake City im- mediately upon the opening of the spring, but before that season arrived the matter was settled through the efforts of a Mr. Kane, of Philadelphia He was sent out to Salt Lake City by the government, and succeeded in inducing the Mormons to lay down their arms and submit. Governor THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUOHANAN. 755 Gumming and the federal officers then entered Salt Lake City and assumed the offices to which they had been appointed, and a force of federal troops was encamped near the city to render them such assistance as should be found necessary. President Buchanan then issued a procla- mation granting a free pardon "to all, for the seditions and treasons by them committed." In the fall of 1857 the general business of the country was thrown into confusion by a sudden financial panic, which seriously embarrassed all commercial and industrial enterprises and caused general distress. On the 26th of September the banks of Philadelphia suspended specie payments ; and their example was followed by the banks of New York on the 13th of October, and by those of Boston on the 14th. The BRIGHAM YOUNft'S RESIDENCES, SALT LAKE CITY. failures in the United States for the year ending December 6th, 1857, are said to have reached the enormous aggregate of $291,750,000. The Western States suffered in a marked degree from the effects of this " crisis ; " but the south was comparatively unharmed by it. Various causes were assigned for the panic, the principal of which were the large speculations in western lands and a heavy fall in the value of railway stocks. The New York banks resumed specie payments on the 12th of December, 1857 ; the Boston banks on the 14th of December of that year; -and those of Philadelphia in April, 1858. Specie payments were gradually resumed in other parts of the country, but the depression of business continued until during the course of the year 1859. In 1858 occurred an event second only in importance to the invention of the electric telegraph. For some years it had been believed possible to 7G6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. connect tfce chores of Europe with those of America by means of a sub- marine telegraphic cable across the Atlantic. In 1857 an unsuccessful effort was made by a company of American and English capitalists to accomplish this object. The attempt was renewed in 1858. Two war steamers were furnished for the work of laying the cable the " Niagara " by I the United States, and the "Agamemnon" by Great Britain. The two vessels met in mid ocean, and sailed each to its own country, paying out the cable as they proceeded on their way. On the 5th of August, 1858, the " Niagara " entered Trinity bay, in Newfoundland, and made fast her end of the cable to the shore, and on the same day the "Agamemnon " reached Valentia bay in Ireland, having successfully accomplished her part of the work. The great work was thus ended, and on the 16th of August a message was received through the wires from the queen of Great Britain and Ireland addressed to the president of the United States, who at once returned a suitable reply. Other messages were exchanged between the two continents, and the practicability of the scheme was fully demonstrated. On the first of September the laying of the cable was celebrated with imposing ceremonies in New York, and rejoicings were held in other cities. The hopes aroused by the successful accomplishment of the great enterprise were soon disap- pointed, for after a short time the wires ceased to work, and no effort COAT OF ARMS OF MINNESOTA. - - could re-establish the communica- tion between the two ends of the line. The feasibility of the undertaking had been practically demonstrated, however, and the determined men who had carried it through to success were convinced that a new effort would be attended with more satisfactory results. On the llth of May, 1858, the Territory of Minnesota was admitted into the Union as a State. In the autumn of 1859 a dispute arose between the United States and Great Britain as to the ownership of the large island of San Juan lying in the strait which separates Vancouver's island from the territory of the United States. General Harney, commanding the American troops in the northwest, took possession of the island. Governor Douglass of British Columbia protested against this occupation, and for a while 4here was danger that the two parties would come to blows. The general government despatched General Scott to the scene of the controversy. anO he succeeded in bringing about an adjustment of the quarrel. On the 14th of February, 1859, Oregon was admitted into the Union $ a State, the Territory of Washington being separated from it. THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN. 7 67 During the whole of Mr. Buchanan's administration the question of Mvery in the Territories continued to engross the attention of the people. The struggle in Kansas went on with increased bitterness. In the sum- :uer of 1857 an election was ordered by the legislature of Kansas for delegates to a convention for the purpose of framing a constitution, and care was taken to arrange the matter so that a majority of Pro-slavery delegates should be chosen. For this reason, and others of equal force, the Free Soil men refused to take any part in the election, which conse- quently resulted in the choice of a Pro-slavery convention. The Free Soil party thereupon issued an address to the people of the United States, relating the wrongs they had suffered, and were still enduring. Governor Geary now resigned his position, and President Buchanan appointed, as governor of Kansas, Robert J. Walker, a man of great eminence and ability, who was in sentiment opposed to slavery. Mr. Walker sincerely desired to effect a settlement of the quarrel, and suc- ceeded in inducing the Free Soil party to vote at the coming election for members of the territorial legislature and a delegate to Congress. They did so, and a fair election was held, which resulted in the choice of the Free Soil candidates by overwhelm- ig|Bg^6'' A^^ Y'- ing majorities. In the autumn of 1857 the conven- tion elected, as we have seen, assem- bled at Lecompton, and framed a , . . _. . . COAT OF ARMS OF OREGON. btate constitution, inis instrument contained a clause adopting slavery, and the convention sub'mitted this clause only to the people of the Territory for ratification or rejection at the polls. The remainder of the constitution was withheld from the popular vote. The convention also ordered that all whose votes were challenged at the polls should be required " to take an oath to support the constitution if adopted," before being allowed to deposit their ballot. The Free State men refused to take part in the vote on the ratification of this constitution, and consequently all the votes cast were in favor of it. It was declared adopted, and was sent to Congress for the approval of that body. The discussion of the Lecompton constitution in Congress was marked by great bitterness. It was supported by the Democratic party and the administration, and was opposed with determination by the Republicans. The latter took the strong ground that the Lecompton constitution was not the work of the people of Kansas, but of a mere faction, and was distasteful to the majority of the citizens of that Territory, wiio were 768 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. opposed to slavery. Finally, on the 30th of April, 1858, a bill war passed to submit the Leeompton constitution to the people of Kansas. This bill declared that if they ratified the constitution, they should be given certain public lands for State purposes; but that if they failed to ratify it, Kansas should not be permitted to enter the Union until it had a population of ninety-three thousand. With these strange conditions, the constitution was submitted to the people of Kansas on the 2d of August, 1858, and was rejected by them by a vote of eleven thousand three hun- dred against it, to seventeen hundred and eighty-eight votes in its favor. In January, 1859, the civil strife having subsided in the Territory, and the Free Soil men having a majority in the legislature, a convention was summoned at Wyandotte. It met in July, and adopted a free State constitution, which was submitted to the people and ratified by a large majority. The " Wyandotte Constitution " was then laid before Congress, and a bill admitting Kansas into the Union as a State was passed by the lower House early in 1860. The Senate however failed to act upon the bill. At the next session the measure was revived, and on the 30th of January, 1861, the opposition of the south having ceased by reason of the withdrawal of a large number of the southern representatives and senators from Congress, Kansas was admitted into the Union as a free State. On the night of the 16th of October, 1859, John Brown, who had acquired a considerable notoriety as the leader of a Free Soil company during the war in Kansas, entered the State of Virginia, at Harper's Ferry, with a party of twenty-one companions, and seized the United States arsenal at that place. He then sent out parties to arrest the leading citizens of the vicinity, as hostages, and to induce the negro slaves to join him, his avowed object being to put an end to slavery in Virginia by exciting an insurrection of the slaves. Several citizens were kidnapped by these parties, but the slaves refused to join Brown, or to take any part in the insurrection. At daylight on the 17th of October the alarm was given, and during the morning the militia of the surround- ing country was ordered under arms to put down the outbreak. Brown's force was unknown, and was greatly exaggerated. The news of the seizure of the arsenal was telegraphed to Washington. and the government decided to recover it at once and confine the trouble to the spot on which it had originated. General Scott was absent from the capital at the time, and the president and secretary of war summoned COAT OF ARMS OF KANSAS. THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN. 759 Colonel Robert E. Lee, a distinguished officer of the army, to consult with them as to the best course to pursue. The interview resulted in the despatching of a battalion of marines to Harper's Ferry, under the com- mand of Colonel Lee. Orders were telegraphed to that point to suspend %11 operations there until Colonel Lee's arrival. He reached HarjK-i-'. Ferry on the night of the 17th. In the meantime, upon the appearance of the militia, Brown and his companions retreated to the fire-engine house in the arsenal yard. Thi> vvu.s a strong stone building, and they barricaded the doors, and during the day maintained a desultory fire upon the town. They had taken Colonel Washington, Mr. Dangerfield, and the other citizens kidnapped by them, into the engine house with them, where they held them, in the hope that the presence of these gentlemen would prevent the troops from firing upon them. As soon as Colonel Lee arrived at Harper's Ferry, he proceeded to surround the engine house with the marines to prevent the escape of Brown and his men, and deferred his attack upon them until the next morning, lest in a night assault some of the captive citizens might be injured. At daylight on the 18th, wishing, if possible, to accomplish the object in view without bloodshed, Colonel Lee sent his aid, Lieutenant J. E. B. Stuart, to demand the surrender of the insurgents, promising to protect them from violence at the hands of the citizens, and to hold them subject to the orders of the president. Brown refused the terms offered, and demanded to be permitted to march out with his men and prisoners, with the arms of the former, to be allowed to proceed, without being followed, to a point at a certain distance from Harper's Ferry, where he would free his prisoners. He was then willing that the troops should pursue him, and to fight if he could not escape. This proposition was inadmissible, but as a last resort, Colonel Lee directed Lieutenant Stuart to remonstrate with the insurgents upon the folly of their course. This duty Stuart performed, remaining before the engine house until his per- sonal danger compelled him to withdraw. Finding that nothing but force would avail, Colonel Lee gave the order for the assault, and the marines made a dash at the engine house, broke in the doors, and captured its inmates. Several of the insurgents wore killed and wounded, Brown himself being desperately hurt. The marim-.- lost one man killed, and one wounded. Fortunately none of the citizens- captured by Brown were injured. Colonel Lee took care to protect his prisoners, and there is little doubt- that but for his precautions in their behalf they would have been shot down by the excited civilians. He telegraphed to Washington for* 49 770 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. instructions, and was directed to deliver the prisoners to Mr. Ould, the attorney for the District of Columbia, who was ordered by the govern- ment to take charge of them and bring them to trial. As soon as Mr, Ould arrived Colonel Lee turned over the prisoners to him, and being satisfied that the danger was over, went back to Washington. As Brown and his companions had committed their chief crime against the United States, by seizing the federal arsenal and resisting the troops sent to reduce them to submission, it seemed proper that they should be tried for their offences by the general government. The attempt to excite an insurrection of the slaves, however, was a crime against the laws of the State of Virginia, and the governor of that State demanded of the federal authorities the surrender of Brown and his fellow-prisoners for trial by the State courts. The demand was complied with, and the prisoners were arraigned in the court of the county of Jefferson, the county in which their offence was committed. They were given a fair trial, and were defended by able counsel from the free States, who came to Charlestown for that purpose. Brown frankly confessed that his object was to produce an insurrection among the slaves, and then carry them off to the free States. The prisoners were found guilty of treason, murder, and an attempt to excite insurrection, and wera sentenced to be hanged. Brown was executed at Charlestown on the 2d of December, 1859, and six of his companions, met the same fate a few weeks later. During his trial Brown steadily denied that he had been aided OP encouraged by any persons in the north. His denial was generally doubted at the time, and it is now known that he was assisted with monej and advice by some of the most respectable leaders of the extreme Anti- slavery party, and that several persons high in position knew of the designs of Brown, but failed to warn either the general government or the State of Virginia of the intended attack.* The execution of Brown and his companions drew upon the south a storm of furious denunciation from the Anti-slavery men. Brown was regarded as a martyr to the cause of freedom, and the day of his execution was observed in many of the towns of the Northern States by the tolling of bells, prayer in the churches, the firing of minute-guns, and other public demonstrations of sorrow and respect. The conservative class in the north, however, and in this number were included some of the firmest opponents of slavery, sincerely deplored Brown's course, and acknowledged his punishment as merited. Brown was a man of many good qualities, *Mr. F. U. Sanborn, one of Brown's confederates, in a series of papers published in Tfn Atlantic Monthly (vol. xxxv.) gives the details of this conspiracy, together with manj interesting incidents connected with it, which sustain the view of the case presented above THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN. 771 but the undertaking in which he met his fate was criminal in the extreme. Not even the intention of rescuing the slaves of Virginia from their bondage can excuse him for seeking to excite a servile war, in which mur- der and violence would have been inevitable, and in which the aged and ' O the helpless, the defenceless women and children, would have been the chief sufferers. The effect of Brown's attempt upon the southern people was most unfortunate. They regarded it as unanswerable evidence of the intention of the people of the north to make war upon them under the cover of the' Union. Regarding this view of the case as true, they came to listen with more favor to the arguments of the extreme class which openly favored a dissolution of the Union, and which asserted that the only safety of the south lay in pursuing such a course. The John Brown raid was the most powerful argument that had ever been placed in the hands of the dis- unionists, and in the alarm and excitement produced by that event the southern people lost sight of the fact that the great mass of the northern people sincerely deplored and condemned the action of Brown and his supporters. The voice of reason was drowned in the storm of passionate excitement which swept over the land, and the extremists on both sides were able to prosecute their unpatriotic work to gret.t advantage. While the excitement was at its height the presidential campaign opened in tlie spring of 1860. The slavery question was the chief issue in this struggle. The convention of the Democratic party met at Charleston, in April, but being unable to effect an organization adjourned to Baltimore, and reassembled in that city in June. The extreme southern delegates were resolved that the convention should be committed to the protection of slavery in the Territories by Congress, and failing to control it with- drew from it in a body, and organized a separate convention, which they declared represented the Democratic party, but which, in reality, as the vote subsequently proved, represented but a minority of that party. The new convention was joined by a number of delegates from the northern and western states. The original convention, after the withdrawal of these delegates, nomi- nated for the presidency Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, and for the vice- presidency Herschell V. Johnson, of Georgia. It then proceeded to adopt the platform put forward by the entire party four years before at Cincinnati, upon the nomination of Mr. Buchanan, with this additional declaration: "That as differences of opinion exist in the Democratic party as to the nature and extent of the powers of a territorial legislature, and as to the powers and duties of Congress under the constitution of the United States over the institution of slavery within the Territories, . . 772 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the party will abide by the decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States on the questions of constitutional law." The " Seceders' Convention," as it was commonly called, also adopted the Cincinnati platform, and pledged themselves to non-interference by Congress with slavery in the Territories or the District of Columbia This party held to the doctrine that the constitution recognized slavery as existing in the Territories, and sanctioned and protected it there, and that neither Congress nor the people of the Territories could frame any law against slavery until the admission of such Territories into the Union as States. The regular convention held that Congress had no right to interfere with slavery in the Territories, to legislate either for or against it ; that the regulation of that question belonged entirely to the people of the respective Territories acting through their legislatures. This doctrine was popularly known as " Squatter Sovereignty," and was credited to Mr. Douglas. The " Seceders' Convention " put forward as its candidate for the presidency John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky, and for the vice- presidency Joseph Lane, of Oregon. The Republican party took issue with both wings of the Democratic party. Its convention was held at Chicago, Illinois, and its candidates were, for president Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, and for vice-president Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine. The platform of principles adopted by the Chicago Convention declared that "the maintenance of the principle? promulgated in the Declaration of Independence and embodied in the federal constitution is essential to the preservation of our republican institutions. . . . That all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights. .. . . That the federal constitution, the rights of the States and the union of the States must and shall be preserved." The platform also declared that the rights of the States should be maintained inviolate, "especially the right of each State to order and control its own domestic institutions according to its own judgment exclusively." It asserted " that the normal condition of all the territory of the United States is that of freedom," and denied the right or "authority of Congress, of a territorial legislature, or of indi- viduals, to give legal existence to slavery in any Territory of the United States." A fourth party, known as the " Constitutional Union Party," pro- claimed as its platform the following vague sentence : " The constitution of the country, the union of the States, and the enforcement of the laws/' The convention of this party met at Baltimore, and nominated for the presidency John Bell, of Tennessee, and for the vice-presidency Edward Everett, of Massachusetts. THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN. 773 The contest between these parties was bitter beyond all precedent. When the election took place in November, the result was as follows: Popular vote for Lincoln, . . . 1,866,452 " Douglas, .... 1,375,167 " Breckenridge, . . . 847,953 " Bell, .... 590,631 The electoral vote stood as follows : For Lincoln, 180 ; for Breckenridge, 72 ; for Bell, 39 ; for Douglas, 12. Mr. Lincoln was thus elected by a plurality of the popular vote, which secured for him the electoral votes of eighteen States. These States were entirely north of the sectional line, and he received not a single electoral vote from a Southern State. The States which cast their electoral votes for Breckenridge, Bell, and Douglas, were entirely slaveholding. The division thus made was alarming. It was the first time in the history of the republic that a president had been elected by the votes of a single section of the Union. The state in which the presidential election left the country was most alarming. The excitement was higher than it had been before the strug- gle at the polls. The Gulf States had declared at an early period of the political campaign that they would withdraw from the Union in the event of the election of a Republican president. The people of the south gen- erally regarded the result of the election as an evidence of the determina- tion of the Northern States to use the power of the federal government to destroy the institution of slavery. The disunion leaders exerted them- selves to deepen this conviction, and to arouse the fears of the south. On the other hand, the Republican leaders took little pains to allay the ex- citement by declaring their intentions to execute faithfully the constitution and laws of the Union. Their declarations of fidelity to the Union were abundant, and were generally accompanied by equally plain assertions of their determination to oppose by force the withdrawal of the Southern States declarations which were ill-suited to calm the fears of the south, or to encourage the party in that section which desired a perpetuation of the Union. A statesman of the Henry Clay school was needed at this crisis of our country's history as he had never been needed before; but, alas! statesmanship of any kind was painfully wanting. As soon as the election of Mr. Lincoln was definitely ascertained, the legislature of South Carolina summoned a sovereign convention of the people of that State, which met on the 17th of December, 1860. This convention adopted an ordinance of secession on the 20th of December, and declared the State no longer a member of the Union. The reasons assigned for this action were thus stated by the convention : 774 HISTORY OF THE UNITED S1ATES. "An increasing hostility on the part of the non-slaveholding States to the institution of slavery lias led to a disregard of their obligations, and the laws of the general government have ceased to effect the objects of the constitution. The States of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massa- chusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Iowa, have enacted laws which eithei nullify the acts of Congress or render useless any attempt to execute i,hem. In many of these States the fugitive is discharged from the ser- vice or labor claimed, and in none of them has the State government com- plied with the stipulations made In the constitution. . . . Thus the constitutional compact has been deliberately broken and disregarded by these non-slaveholding States, and the consequence follows that South Carolina is released from her obligation. * * " We affirm that these ends for which this government was instituted have been defeated, and the government itself has been made destructive of them by the action of non-slaveholding States. Those States have assumed the right of deciding upon the propriety of our domestic institu- tions; and have denied the rights of property established in fifteen of the States and recognized by ihe constitution ; they have denounced as sinful the institution of slavery ; they have permitted the open establishment among them of societies whose avowed object ie to disturb the peace and to eloigne the property of citizens of other States. They have encouraged uud assisted thousands of our slaves to leave their homes ; and those who remain have been incited by emissaries, books, and pictures to servile insurrection. " For twenty-five years this agitation has been steadily increasing, until it has now secured to its aid the power of the common government. Observing the / rms of the constitution, a sectional party has found withiu that article establishing the executive department the means of subverting the constitution itself. A geographical line has been drawn across the Union, and all the States north of that line have united in the election of a man to the high office of president of the United States whose opinions and purposes are hostile to slavery. He is to be intrusted with the administration of the common government because he has declared that that ' government cannot endure permanently half slave, half free.' and that the public mind must rest in the belief that slavery is in the ixnirse of ultimate extinction. "This sectional combination for the subversion of the constitution has been aided in some of the States by elevating to citizenship persons who. by the supreme law of the land, are incapable of becoming citizens ; and THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN. 775 their votes have been used to inaugurate a new policy, hostile to the tsouth, and destructive of its peace and safety. "On the 4th of March next this party will take possession of the gov- ernment. It has announced that the south shall be excluded from the common territory; that the judicial tribunals shall be made sectional, ami that a war must be waged against slavery until it shall cease throughout 'Jie United States. " The guarantees of the constitution will then no longer exist ; the equal rights of the States will be lost. The slaveholding States will no longer have the power of self-government or self-protection, and the federal government will become their enemy." These reasons were substantially the same as those avowed by the other Southern States in support of their action, and therefore we have quoted them at length. The example of South Carolina was followed by the other States of the far south, which summoned conventions and adopted ordinances of seces- sion. Mississippi withdrew from the Union on the 9th of January, 1861 ; Florida on the 10th of January ; Alabama on the llth of January ; Geor- gia on the 19th of January; Louisiana on the 26th of January; and Texas ou the 1st of February. The forts, arsenals, and other public property of the United States within the limits of these States were seized by the authorities of the States in which they were situated, and were held by their troops, with the exception of Forts Moultrie and Sumter, in Charleston harbor, and Fort Pickens, at Pensacola. Fort Moultrie was occupied by Major Robert Anderson, of the United States army, with a garrison of eighty men. Becoming alarmed at the rapid concentration of troops in Charleston, Major Anderson evacuated the fort on the night of December 25th, 1860, and threw himself with his command into Fort Sumter, which was built in the bay at some dis- tance from either shore. The State troops at once occupied Fort Moul- trie, and began to erect batteries of heavy guns at different points along the harbor for the reduction of Fort Sumter. Fort Pickens was held by a garrison under Lieutenant Slemmer. The State of Florida occupied the navy yard at Pensacola and the other forts in that harbor with her troops. The property of the general government seized by the seceded States amounted to over twenty millions of dollars in value. The position of the general government was one of great difficulty. The president was called upon either to recognize the lawfulness of the acts of the seceded States, and thus to join in the work of dissolving the Union, or to maintain the authority of the federal government, and compel the submission 776 of the Southern States to the constitution and law.s of the land. The government was almost powerless to enforce its authority. The army, but sixteen thousand strong, \vas stationed upon the remote frontier, and the available vessels of the navy were nearly all absent on foreign ser- vice. Many of the most prominent federal officials, including several of the cabinet ministers, were in open sympathy with the seceded States. The president's position was unquestionably embarrassing, but he made no use of the means at his command. General Scotc, the veteran com- mander of the army, believed that prompt action on the part of the gen- eral government would confine the evil to the six cotton States, and urged the president to act with vigor. Mr. Buchanan was sorely perplexed, aud seemed chiefly anxious to postpone all definite action until the inau- THE CAPITOL AT MONTGOMERY, ALABAMA, PLACE OF MEETING OF THE FIRST CONFEDERATE CONGRESS. guration of his successor. He was in favor of conceding everything out separate independence to the south, failing to perceive that the leaders of the secession movement would accept nothing but separation ; and by his timidity lost the advantages which the government would have gained by a bold, firm course. As Major Anderson was short of supplies and needed reinforcements, the steamship " Star of the West " was despatched by the government to Charleston with provisions and a detachment of two hundred and fifty men to his assistance. She readied Charleston on the 9ih of January, 1861, and attempted to enter the harbor, but was fired upon by the South Carolina batteries, and turned back. THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN. 7/7 The president was urged by the friends of the south to order Major Anderson to evacuate Fort Sumter and return to Fort Moultrie, but re- fused to do so. South Carolina then offered to purchase Fort Sumter from the general government for its full value, but the president refused to make the sale. Immediately upon their withdrawal from the Union the six seceded States began to concert measures for their common protection. Delegates were elected to a convention which met at Montgomery, Alabama, on the, 4th of February, 1861, to devise a plan for this purpose. The conven- tion at once proceeded to organize a new republic, for which they adopted the name of The Confederate States of America. On the 8th of February, a provisional constitution having been adopted, the convention elected Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, president, and Alexander II. Stephens, of Georgia, vice-president of the Confederate States. The action of the convention was sustained by all the States comprising the new confederacy, and the provisional gov- ernment at once entered upon its duties. Jefferson Davis was a native of Ken- tucky, and was born on the 3d of June, 1808. His father had removed to Mis- sissippi during his early childhood, and he had grown up to manhood in that State. He was educated at the West Point Mili- tary Academy, from which he was grad- ated in 1828, and passed the next seven years of his life in the army. He served with distinction during the Black Hawk war and against the Indian tribes on the frontier. Entering into politics after his withdrawal from the army, he was soon sent to represent his State in Congress, in which body he served until the commencement of the Mexican war. During that struggle he commanded the Mississippi Rifles, and distin- guished himself greatly in the battles of General Taylor's army, and especially at Buena Vista. Upon his return home he was chosen to represent Mississippi in the Senate of the United States. Upon the inauguration of President Pierce he accepted a seat in the cabinet as secretary of war. Returning to the Senate after the close of Mr. Pierce's administration, he remained in that body until the secession of Mississippi, when he resigned his seat and re- turned home. He was now in his fifty-third year, and was regarded as one of the most brilliant public men in America. His election was gen- JEFFERSOK DAVIS. 778 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. erally looked upon in the south as a concession to the more conservative portion of the southern people, for he had not been considered as one of the original or most ultra secession leaders. The conservative elements of both sections made great efforts to bring about a reconciliation. The State of Virginia called upon all the States to send delegates to an informal peace congress to meet in Washington. This body assembled in February. Twenty States were represented in it thirteen northern and seven southern and the venerable ex-President Tyler was chosen to preside over its deliberations. Various plans of settlement were proposed, and a committee, consisting of one member from each State, was appointed to prepare a plan" upon which the congress could unite. In due time it made its report to the con- gress, and after a careful and elaborate discussion the resolutions were adopted, and were ordered to be laid before the rival governments. The congress then ad- journed. The plan proposed by this body pleased neither side. The Southern States were not satisfied with the guarantees it offered for the protection of their rights in the matter of slavery ; and the Northern States were unwilling to sanction a more rigid enforcement of the constitutional provision for the rendition of fugitive slaves. The effort to close the breach between the States only served to widen it. Matters were in this unhappy and excited condition when the admin- istration of Mr. Buchanan came to a close. After the inauguration of his successor, he retired to his home at Wheatland, near Lancaster, Penn- sylvania. A. H. STEPHENS. CHAPTER XLI. THE ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN THE CIVIL WAK. Inauguration of President Lincoln His History The Confederate Commissioners a< Washington Attack upon Fort Sumter by the Confederates The President call? foi Troops Response of the North and West Secession of the Bonier States Opening Events of the War in Virginia Withdrawal of West Virginia Admitted into the Union as a separate State Meeting of Congress The West Virginia Campaign Bat- tle of Bull Run The War in Missouri Kentucky Occupied T;ie Blockade Capture of Port Royal The " Trent " Affair Insurrection in East Tennessee State of Affairs at the Opening of the Year 1862 Edwin M. Stanton made Secretary of War Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson The Confederates fall back from Kentucky Battle of Shiloh Capture of Island No. 10 Evacuation of Corinth Capture of Memphis Bragg's Kentucky Campaign His Retreat into Tennessee Battles of luka and Corinth Battle of Murfreesboro', or Stone River Grant's Campaign against Vicksburg Its Failure The War beyond the Mississippi Battle of Pea Ridge-j-Capture of Roanoke Island Capture of New Orleans Surrender of Fort Pulaski The War in Virginia Johnston's Retreat from Centreville Battle between the " Monitor" and " Virginia" The Move to the Peninsula Johnston Retreats to the Chickahorainy Battle of Seven Pines Jackson's Successes in the Valley of Virginia The Seve/> Days' Battles before Rich- mond Battle of Cedar Mountain Defeat of General Pope's Army Lee Invades Maryland Capture of Harper's Ferry Battles of South Mountain and Antietam Retreat of Lee into Virginia McClellan Removed Battle of Fredericksburg. BRAHAM LINCOLN, the sixteenth president of the United States, was inaugurated at Washington on the 4th of March, 1861. As it was feared that an attempt would be made to pre- vent the inauguration, the city w*is held by a strong body of regular troops, under General Scott, and the president-elect was escorted from his hotel to the capitol by a military force. No effort was made to interfere with the ceremonies, and the inauguration passed off quietly. The new president was in his fifty-third year, and was a native of Kentucky. When he was but eight years old his father removed to Indiana, and the boyhood of the future pr-.ident was spent in hard- labor upon the farm. Until he reached manhood he continued to lead this life, and during this entire period attended school for only a year. At the age of twenty-one he removed to Illinois, where he began life as a storekeeper, Being anxious to rise above his humble position, he deter- mined to study law. He was too poor to buy the necessary books, auJ 779 780 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. so borrowed them from a neighboring lawyer, read them at night, and returned them in the morning. His genial character, great good nature,. and love of humor, won him the friendship of the people among whom he resided, and they elected him to the lower house of the legisla- ture of Illinois. He now abandoned his mercantile pursuits, and began , the practice of the law, and was subsequently elected a representative to Congress from the Springfield district. He took an active part in the politics of his State, and in 1858 was the candidate of the Republican party for United States senator. In this capacity he engaged in a series of debates in various parts of the State with Senator Douglas, the Demo- cratic candidate for re-election to the same position. This debate was remarkable for its brilliancy and intellectual vigor, and brought him prominently before the whole country, and opened the way to his nomina- tion for the presidency. In person he was tall and ungainly, and in man- ner he was rough and awkward, little versed in the refinements of society. He was a man, however, of great natural vigor of intellect, and was pos- sessed of a fund of strong common sense, which enabled him to see at a glance through the shams by which he was surrounded, and to pur- sue his own aims with singleness of heart and directness of purpose. He had sprung from the ranks of the people, and he was never false to them. He was a simple, unaffected, kind-hearted man; anxious to do his duty to the whole country ; domestic in his tastes and habits ; and incorruptible in every relation of life. He was fond of" humor, and overflowed with it; finding in his "little stories" the only relaxation he ever sought from the heavy cares of the trying position upon which he was now entering. He selected his cabinet from the leading men of the Republican party, and placed William H. Seward, of New York, at its head as secretary of state. Mr. Lincoln was sincerely anxious to avoid everything which might precipitate the civil strife; but at the same time was determined to main- tain the authority of the general government over the seceded States. In his inaugural address he declared his purpose to collect the public reve- nues at the ports of the seceded States, and to "hold, occupy, and possess States. Sumter and Fort Pickens were still held by the federal forces. The Confederate government was convinced that war was inevitable ; ABRAHAM LINCOLN. " the forts, arsenals, and other public property seized by those At the time of his entrance upon the duties of his office Fort THE ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 781 and since its inauguration had been preparing for the coming struggle Nearly all the officers of the array and navy of the United States, wh were natives of the seceded States, resigned their commissions in the olf May the Confederate gov- ernment was removed to that city. The western part of the State of Virginia refused to join the remainder of the State in its withdrawal from the Union. On the llth of June, 1861, the people of the western counties met in convention at Wheeling, declared their independence of the old State, organized a State govern- ment, and proclaimed their intention to remain faithful to the Union. The action of this convention was sustained by the federal government, and on the 26th of November, 1861, another convention met at Wheeling, and adopted a constitution for the new State of West Virginia. This constitution was ratified by the people at the polls on the 3d of May, 1862, and application was made for the admission of West Virginia into the Union as a State, which was accomplished by act of Congress on the 20th of June, 1863. In the meantime the federal government set to work with energy to prepare for the struggle before it. The call of President Lincoln for troops had been answered by three hundred thousand volunteers. On the 17th of April, two days after the president's proclamation, the Sixth Massachusetts regiment left Boston for Washington. In passing through Baltimore it was attacked by a crowd of citizens who sympathized with the south, and three soldiers were killed and eight wounded. Severn! citizens were killed and wounded. The regiment reached Washington the same day, and was soon joined by other troops from the Northern States. In a short time the force at the capital was sufficient to put an end to all fears for its safety. Alexandria and the Virginia shore oppo- site Washington were seized and fortified. Baltimore was occupied by a force under General Butler, and the communications of Washington with the north and west were made sure. On the 19th of April the president issued a proclamation declaring all the southern ports in a state of block- ade ; and on the 3d of May he put forth another proclamation ordering the regular army of the United States to be increased to sixty-four thou- sand seven hundred and forty-eight men, and the navy to eighteen thou- sand seamen. On the 10th of May he issued a fourth proclamation, suspending the writ of habeas corpus in certain localities, and authority to suspend this privilege was conferred upon the commanders of military departments soon afterward. Under the instructions of the government these commanders now pro- COAT OF ABM8 OF WEST VIRGINIA. THE CIVIL WAR, 737 ceeded to arrest great numbers of persons in various parts of the country who were suspected of sympathizing with the south. They were im- prisoned at the military posts, and were denied trial by the civil courts. John Merryman, a citizen of Maryland, was one of the persons so ar- rested. His friends applied for redress to the chief-justice of the United States, who held the suspension of the habeas corpus act by the president to be unconstitutional, and ordered the discharge of the prisoner. The government paid no attention to this decision, and held the prisoner in confinement. A little later the legislature of Maryland, which was strongly southern in its sympathies, was prevented from meeting by the sudden arrest and imprisonment of a large number of its members by order of the secretary of war. On the 4th of July, 1861, Congress convened in extra session at Washington, in accordance with the president's proclamation. This body proceeded to give to the government a prompt and effectual support. Resolutions were introduced to legalize the extraordinary acts of the pres- ident in setting aside the writ of habeas corpus, in ordering the arbitrary arrest and confinement of citizens, and in assuming certain other powers which belonged to Congress. Congress refused to throw over these acts, however necessary, the sanction of the law ; but in view of the necessity of prompt and vigorous action on the part of the president excused his acts on the distinct ground of the " necessities of war." Measures were adopted without delay for putting in the field an army of five hundred and twenty-five thousand men, and for equipping a powerful navy ; and the sum of five hundred millions of dollars was appropriated for the prosecution of the war. During this session Congress also adopted a solemn resolution declaring " that this war is not prosecuted on our part in any spirit of oppression, nor for any purpose of conquest or subjuga- tion, nor for the purpose of overthrowing or interfering with the rights or established institutions of those [the seceded] States ; but to defend and maintain the supremacy of the constitution and all laws made in pursu- ance thereof, and to preserve the Union with all the dignity, equality and rights of the several States unimpaired ; that as soon as these objects are accomplished the war ought to cease." In the meantime the Confederates had collected troops at important points to resist the advance of the federal troops into Virginia. A force under Brigadier-General Garnett was stationed in West Virginia to covet the approaches from that direction ; Harper's Ferry, which commanded the entrance into the valley of Virginia, was held by an army of seven thousand or eight thousand men, under General Joseph E. Johnston ; a much larger force, under General Beauregard, took position near Manas- v- 788 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. sas Junction, about thirty miles from Washington ; and a column of several thousand men, under General John B. Magruder, was stationed at York- town, on the peninsula between the York and James rivers, to cover Richmond from the direction of Fortress Monroe at the mouth of Hamp- ton Roads, which was still held by the federal troops. Norfolk was also held by a strong force. With the exception of that occupied by General Garnett's command, all these positions were carefully fortified. The Union army at Fortress Monroe numbered about twelve thousand men, and was commanded by General B. F. Butler. Early in June, Magruder moved a force of eighteen hundred men and several pieces of artillery from Yorktown, and took position at Bethel Church, about half STATE HOUSE, COLUMBUS, OHIO. way between Yorktown and Hampton. On the 10th of June he was attacked by a force of four thousand troops under General Pierce, of Massachusetts, but succeeded in repulsing the attack and maintaining his position. In the opposite quarter of the State, the Union forces were more suc- cessful. In order to prevent the Confederates from overrunning West Virginia, a strong body of Ohio and Indiana troops under General George B. McClellan was sent into that region. McClellan set to work at once to drive the Confederates out of West Virginia, and on the 3d of June a portion of his command under General Kelley defeated General THE CIVIL WAR. 739 Garnett at Philippi. McClellan now advanced against the main body of Garnett's forces. On the llth of July he attacked the command of Colonel Pegram at Rich Mountain, and defeated it. This defeat com- pelled General Garnett to fall back towards the valley of Virginia. He was pursued by McClellan and overtaken at Carrick's ford, on the Cheat river. In the battle which ensued here Garnett was killed, and the remnant of his command was driven beyond the mountains. The United States had assembled a considerable army of volunteers and regulars at Washington under Major-Geiieral Irwin McDowell. On the 24th of May Alexandria, on the Virginia side of the Potomac, nine miles below Washington, was seized by a detachment from this army. Its commander, Colonel Ellsworth, was killed by a citizen. Strong de- fences were erected on the Virginia shore between Washington and Alex- andria, and the army was encamped within these lines. Two mouths were passed in organizing and disciplining this force, and in the meantime the people of the Northern and Western States became impatient of the delay, and demanded an immediate advance upon the southern army and Richmond. Preparatory to his own advance General McDowell sent General Pat- terson with twenty thousand men to cross the Potomac at Williamsport, and prevent General Johnston from leaving the valley and joining Beau- regard at Manassas. Upon the arrival of Patterson on the upper Poto- mac, General Johnston evacuated Harper's Ferry and took position at Winchester. Patterson made a considerable show of force in the valley, but refrained from attacking Johnston, although the latter sought to in- duce him to do so. He took position about nine miles from Winchester, and remained inactive there. In the meantime the preparations for the advance of McDowell's army were completed, and on the 17th of July he began his march from the Potomac towards Bull Run, on the banks of which the Confederates were posted. His army numbered over fifty thousand men, and forty-nine pieces of artillery. As soon as the advance of this army was known to him, General Beauregard informed General Johnston of it, and begged him to come to his assistance. Johnston skilfully eluded Patterson's' army, and hastened to Bull Run, arriving there with a part of his com- mand in time to take part in the battle. The Confederate army had taken position behind Bull Run, and in advance of Manassas Junction. Including the force brought by General Johnston, who assumed the chief command by virtue of his rank, it consisted of thirty -one thousand four hundred and thirty-one men and fifty-five guns. f90 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. On the 18th of July General McDowell attempted to force a passage cf Bull Run at Blackburn's ford, but was repulsed. On the morning of the 21st, the Union army advanced in force, and endeavored to turn the left of the southern line. An obstinately-contested battle ensued, which lasted from sunrise until nearly sunset. It resulted in the total defeat of the federal army, which was driven back in utter rout upon Alexandria and "Washington, with a loss of between four and five thousand men in killed, wounded and prisoners, and twenty-eight pieces of artillery. For a while the eifects of this disaster upon the federal army were so great that Washington was almost defenceless; but the Confederates made no effort to follow up their victory. They were almost as badly demoralized by their success as the Union army by its defeat. Recovering from the dismay of its first great reverse, the government went to work with vigor to repair the disaster. The levy of five hun- dred thousand men ordered by Congress was raised promptly and without difficulty, so eager was the desire of the people to wipe out the dis- grace of Bull Run. At his own request General Scott, whose bodily infirmities were so great as to render him unable to discharge the duties of his position, was relieved of the command of the army. Major-General George B. McClellan was given the chief command of the armies of the GEN. p. G. T. BEAUREGARD. Union, and ordered to take charge of the force assembling before Washington, which was named the Army of the Potomac. He devoted himself with success to the task of organizing and disciplining the recruits which cams pouring in during the fall and winter. The remainder of the year 1861 passed away quietly on the Potomac, with the single exception of the battle of Leesburg. Colonel Baker with a force of two thousand men was sent by General Stone to cross the Potomac at Edward's ferry, and drive back the Confederate force under General Evans from its position near Leesburg. He made his attack on the 21st of October, but was repulsed with the loss of eight hundred killed and wounded, being himself among the slain. The Confederate army held its position at Centreville through the fall and winter, and at one time its outposts were pushed forward within view of the city of Washington. In the fall of 1861 an army often thousand men was sent by the Con- federate government into the valley of Virginia to prevent its occupation by the federal forces. The command of these troops was conferred upon THE CIVIL WAR. 791 General T. J. Jackson, whose conspicuous gallantry at Bull Run had won him the sobriquet of " Stonewall Jackson," by which he was afterwards known by both armies. He established his head-quarters at Winchester. In the meantime the war had been going on in western Virginia, ' After the transfer of General McClellan to Washington the command of the Union forces passed to Brigadier-General Rosecranz, an able officer. He had several indecisive encounters with the commands of Generals Floyd and Wise in the region of the Gauley and New rivers. General Robert E. Lee was sent by the Confederate government to assume the chief command in the west. He attacked the brigade of General Rey- nolds at Cheat mountain on the 14th of September, but was repulsed and obliged to retreat. On the 4th of October General Reynolds attacked a Confederate force under General Henry R. Jackson on the Greeubrier river, but was repulsed. The State of Missouri took no part in the secession movements of the spring of 1861. Her people were divided ; a large party sympathized with the south ; but a still larger party was determined that the State should remain in the Union. These parties soon came in conflict. The governor and leading officials of the State were in favor of secession, and used all their influence to bring about the withdrawal of Missouri from the Union. A camp of the State militia was formed near St. Louis, and was called Camp Jackson in honor of the governor. It was known that the force assembled at this camp was intended to serve as a nucleus around which an army hostile to the federal government might assemble. By extraordinary exertions Colonel Francis P. Blair, Jr., a member of Congress from St. Louis, and Captain Nathaniel Lyon, commanding the troops at the Jefferson barracks, near St. Louis, succeeded in collecting a force of five regiments of Union volunteers. On the 10th of May, 1861, Lyon with these five regiments suddenly surrounded Camp Jackson, and compelled General Frost, the commanding officer, to surrender his whole force, camp and equipments. By this prompt action the State forces were prevented from carrying out their plan for seizing the United States arsenal at St. Louis, which contained sixty thousand stand of arms of the latest patterns, and a number of cannon, and a large quantity of ammuni- tion. For this decisive action Captain Lyon was commissioned a briga- dier-general by the president. Satisfied that the desire of the southern party in Missouri to remain neutral was but a pretext to gain time to arm the State for a union with the Confederates, President Lincoln determined to compel all the State forces not in the federal service to disband. An interview was held at St. Louis on the llth of June between Governor Jackson and General 792 THE CIVIL WAR. 793 GEN. STERLING PlilCE. Lyon, now commanding the federal troops in Missouri. Governor Jack- son demanded that no United States forces should be quartered in or marched through Missouri. General Lyon refused to comply with this demand, and insisted that the State forces should be disbanded, pledging himself to respect the rights and privileges of the State. At the close of the interview the governor returned to Jeffersou City, the capital of the 1 State, and the next day, the 12th, issued his proc- lamation calling fifty thousand of the State militia' into active service for the purpose of driving the federal troops from the State, and protecting the " lives, liberty and property of the citizens." General Lyon at once marched upon Jefferson City, and occupied it on the 15th, the governor and his supporters having retired to the interior of the State. On the 17th Lyon pro- ceeded to Booneville and defeated the State troops stationed there under General Price. The southwestern part of Missouri is rich in deposits of lead, and val- uable mines of this mineral are worked there. The State authorities were anxious to hold this region, as it was of the highest importance to them to obtain the use of these mines to supply their army with lead. A column of federal troops under General Sigel was sent by General Lyon to intercept the retreat of the State troops. On the 5th of July Sigel attacked the State troops under Governor Jackson at Carthage, but was repulsed. The next day, July 6th, Governor Jackson wag joined at Carthage by General Sterling Price, of : the Missouri State Guard, and General Ben McCulloch, of the Confederate army, with sev- eral thousand men. The command of the whole force was conferred upon General McCulloch, . SIGEL. who had been ordered by his government to advance into Missouri. The southern army, according to General McCulloch's statement, numbered fifty-three hun- dred infantry, six thousand mounted men, and fifteen pieces of artillery. It advanced rapidly into the interior of the State, and on the 9th of August reached Wilson's creek, near Springfield. General Lyon had taken position there with a force somewhat smaller than that of the Con- federates. On the morning of the 10th he attacked the southern army. The battle lasted six hours, and was hotly contested. General Lyon was killed at the head of his troops while endeavoring to turn the left flank 794 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of the Confederates, and his army was forced back. His body was left in the hands of the Confederates, who treated it with becoming respect. Springfield was occupied by the Confederates the day after the battle t but McCulloch and Price being unable to agree upon the plan of the campaign, they soon withdrew to the Arkansas border. The Union army after the battle withdrew to Holla, near the centre of the State. A few weeks later General Price with a force of over five thousand Confederates laid siege to Lexington, on the Missouri river, which was held by about three thousand men under Colonel Mulligan. After a gallant defence Mulligan was forced to surrender on the 20th of Sep- tember. Major-General John C. Fremont was now appointed by President Lin- coln to take command of the western army. He forced Price's command back into the southwestern part of the State. Arriving near Springfield, Fremont prepared to bring the Confederates to a decisive engagement, but on the 2d of November was removed from his com- mand. He was succeeded by General Hunter, who abandoned the pursuit, and fell back to St. Louis. On the 18th of November Hunter was superseded by Major-General Halleck, who by a rapid advance drove Price once more towards the Arkansas border. This movement closed the campaign of 1861 in Missouri. The Union army had not only saved the State to the Union, but had confined the Confed- erates to the Arkansas border. In the meantime Governor Jackson had summoned the legislature of Missouri to meet at Neosho. It assembled at that place in October, passed an ordinance of secession, and elected delegates and senators to the Confederate Congress. Though this action was merely formal, and re- ceived the support of but a small part of the people of Missouri, it was recognized as valid by the Confederate government, and Missouri was proclaimed one of the Confederate States. The governor and State authorities of Kentucky attempted at the out- set of the war to hold the position of armed neutrality between the par- ties to the contest; but as in the case of Missouri, this effort failed. Neither the federal government nor that of the Southern Confederacy could, in the nature of things, respect this neutrality. The federal troops were poured into Kentucky, and the Confederates seized Columbus, on the Mississippi, Bowling Green, in the -centre of the State, and other positions in the western part. The southern party in Kentucky, within the protection of the Confederate lines, organized a provisional g3r a rn- THE CIVIL WAR. 795 ment for the State, sent senators and representatives to the Congress at Richmond, which formally recognized Kentucky as one of the Confederate States. The force at Columbus was commanded by General Polk of the Con- federate army. At Belmont, on the Missouri shore of the river, imnu - diately opposite Columbus, a body of Confederate troops was stationed. On the 7th of November, General U. S. Grant having descended the Mississippi from Cairo, attacked the force at Belmont with his command of three thousand men. After a sharp struggle he was repulsed, and forced to retreat to Cairo. At the outset of the war the Confederates occupied the principal ports of the south, and a number of prominent points on the Atlantic coast. STATE HOUSE, INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA. These were fortified by them as well as the means at hand would permit The general government resolved to capture these as rapidly as possible, as their reduction was necessary in order to render the blockade of the southern coast effectual. The first expedition was despatched from Fortress Monroe in August, 1861, under Commodore Stringham and General Butler, and was directed against the Confederate works r.t Hatteras inlet, which commanded the entrance to Albemarle and Pamlico sounds. These works were captured on the 29th of August. The great extent of the coast to be blockaded by the navy made it necessary that a good harbor at some central point should be secured, where supplies could be stored for the fleet, and where vessels could refill without returning to the northern ports. Port Royal Harbor i>i South 796 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. LIEUTENANT-GENERAL POLK. Carolina was selected as the best place for this purpose. It was defended by Fort Walker on Hilton Head and Fort Beauregard on the opposite side of the harbor. A powerful naval and military expedition under Commodore Dupont and General Thomas W. Sherman attacked these works on the 7th of November, and reduced them after a terrible bombardment by the fleet. Port Royal was at once occupied by the expedition, and during the war was the principal depot on the southern coast for the fleets and armies of the Union. It was not possible, however, to render the blockade effective. Great efforts were made to increase the number of vessels employed in this duty, but the Confederates succeeded in eluding the Union cruisers almost at pleasure, and a steady communication was maintained between the southern ports and England by way of the West Indies. A number of armed vessels in the service of the confederacy succeeded in getting to sea. By the close of the year they had inflicted severe damage upon the commerce of the Northern States, and had almost driven the foreign trade of the United States from the ocean. During the early part of the war the southern government was encour- aged to hope that the governments of England and France would recognize the independence of the Confederate States, and in the fall of 1861, James M. Mason of Virginia and John Slidell of Louisiana were ordered to proceed to Europe, as commissioners from the Confederate States, to secure this recognition. They sailed from Charleston on the 12th of October, and reached Cuba in safety. There they took passage for England on board the British mail-steamer " Trent." Hearing of this, Captain Wilkes, of the United States war- Bteamer "San Jacinto," overhauled the "Trent" upon the high seas, boarded her, and seized the two commissioners and their secretaries and sailed with them to Boston harbor, where they were imprisoned in one of the forts. The " Trent" in the meantime proceeded on her voyage, and upon reaching England her commander informed the British government of the outrage that had been committed upon its flag. The English government at once demanded of President Lincoln the immediate and unconditional release JAMES M. MASON. THE CIVIL WAR. 797 of the Confederate commissioners and satisfaction for the insult to its flag. It was understood that France was prepared to sustain England in her demands. The Federal government disavowed the action of Captain \Vilkes in seizing the commissioners, and those gentlemen were released and allowed to continue their voyage. They reached England in due time. Mr. Mason proceeded to London and Mr. Slidell to France. Neither the English nor the French governments would receive the commissioners officially. It was understood that the United States would regard the interference of either in the American quarrel as a cause of war, and neither power cared to join in the struggle. Tennessee seceded from the Union, as we have related, in the spring of 1861. The western and central portions of the State were unanimously in favor of joining the Southern States and gave a hearty support to the confederacy during the war, but East Tennessee, inhabited by a race of hardy mountaineers, was devoted to tho Union, and was unwilling to leave it. In the autumn of 1861 the East Tennesseeans took up arms against the Confederate government, and began to destroy the railway bridges in that part of the State. This movement was full of danger to the confederacy, as the principal line of com- munication between Virginia and the Missis- sippi passed through East Tennessee. A con- siderable force of Confederate troops was sent into East Tennessee to hold the people In sub- JOHK SMDEIX. jeetion and protect the railroads, but throughout the war the hostility of the people of this region was a constant source of langer and of weakness to the Confederates. When the year 1862 opened, the war had assumed colossal proportions. The military operations extended almost across the continent, and engaged a number of powerful armies, and a formidable navy. The call of Presi- dent Lincoln for troops had been cheerfully responded to, and the opening of the year found the United States provided with a force of over half a million of men, splendidly armed and equipped, and supplied with every- thing necessary for the successful prosecution of the war. The north had profited by its first reverses, and was resolved that its next effort, whi< li was to be made at the opening of the season for active operations, should find it thoroughly prepared for the task it had undertaken. A cordial support was given to the measures of the government by the people. Its wants were supplied by means of a heavy loan which was readily negoti- ated with the capitalists of the Eastern States. From the moment that 798 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the despondency caused by the reverse at Bull Run had subsided suffi- ciently to enable the people of the loyal States to face the situation calmly, every one saw that the work of preparation must all be done over from the beginning, and it was done bravely and thoroughly. During the fall and winter the army was rapidly increased ; vessels were purchased and built for the navy. The southern armies, on the other hand, had grown steadily weaker. The first successes of the Confederate troops had greatly demoralized the southern people. Volunteering soon ceased almost entirely. Even the heaviest bounties failed to bring recruits. There was a widespread delusion throughout the south that the war was practically ended. The measures of the Confederate Congress steadily thinned, instead of filling up the ranks of the southern armies, and when the new year dawned there was grave reason to fear that the spring campaign would find the south without an adequate army unless more vigorous measures were resorted to. It was exceedingly doubtful whether the troops already in the service would renew their enlistments, which expired in the spring of 1862. During the winter the Southern Congress adopted a law granting a fur- lough and a heavy bounty to every soldier who would re-enlist for the war. The furlough was to be granted during the winter ; the bounty to be paid at a later period. Many of those who went home on these fur- loughs did so with the intention of remaining there ; and the practical effect of the measure was to diminish the strength of the Confederate armies. At length the Confederate Congress was driven by the neces- sities of the situation to adopt a most stringent and sweeping measure. On the 16th of April, 1862, a conscription act was passed, giving to the president of the confederacy the power to call into the military service the entire male population of the various States between the ages of eighteen and thirty-five years. In September, 1862, a second act was passed extending the conscript age to forty-five years. The measure was acquiesced in by the southern people, but was never popular with them. It served the purpose for which it was intended, however, and enabled t'.ie Confederate government to collect a force of several hundred thousand men in the spring of 1862, and thus to fill up the ranks of its armies in the field, and to retain the regiments already in the service. When the spring opened, General Halleck, whose head-quarters were at St. Louis, held Missouri against the Confederates with a powerful army. General Buell, with a considerable force, was stationed in central Kentucky, In his front an inferior force of Confederates, under General Albert Sidney Johnston, held Bowling Green and covered Nashville and the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers. They also held Columbus and other prominent THE CIVIL WAR. 799 points on the Mississippi. The army of the Potomac, under General McClellan, lay along the Potomac, confronting the Confederate army of Northern Virginia, which held Centreville. A considerable force was collected at Fortress Monroe ; and an army of about ten thousand Con- federates, under Magruder, held a strongly fortified line extending from Yorktown across the peninsula to the James river. In addition to these forces, the Federal government had collected a powerful flotilla of steamers and gunboats at Cairo, the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, to assist in the operations of the western armies. The capture of New Orleans had been resolved upon, and a combined naval and military expedition under Commodore Farragut and General Butler was assembled for that purpose ; and another expedition was organized in the Chesapeake for the reduction of Roanoke island and the forts on the North Carolina coast. Soon after the opening of the new year, Mr. Cameron, whose adminis- tration of the war department had failed to give satisfaction to the country, \vas removed by President Lincoln, and sent to Russia as minister from the United States. The president on the 13th of January appointed' Edwin M. Stanton, of Ohio, secretary of war. The new secretary was confessedly one of the ablest men in America, and his accession to the control of the war department infused new life into the military prepara- tions of the government. During the remainder of the war he occupied this position, and it is not too much to say that his vigorous administra- tion of his department was one of the chief causes of the final success of the Union arms. Active operations were resumed earlier in the west than in the east. On the 19th of January General George H. Thomas drove the Confeder- ates under General Zollicoffer from Mill Spring in Kentucky. The defeated force had held the right of the Confederate line in Kentucky, the centre of which was at Bowling Green, and the left at Columbus, and its reverse was a serious disaster to the Confederates. The department of General Halleck embraced Kentucky in addition to the country west of the Mississippi. In order to hold the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers, which afforded water communication far back into the country in the rear of their line, the Confederates had built a work, known as Fort Henry, on the Tennessee, a little south of the Kentucky border, and another and a stronger work, known as Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland and a little below Nashville. At the solicitation of Brigadier-General U. S. Grant, commanding at Cairo, General Halleck determined to capture these forts, and so break the Confederate line, and compel their army to fall back from Kentucky. Fort Henry was to be first attacked. The fleet of gunboats under Commodore Foote and Grant's A * 800 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. troops from Cairo were sent against Fort Henry, which was captured on the 6th of February after a severe bombardment by the gunboats which had ascended the Tennessee. The garrison escaped to Fort Donelson, twelve miles distant across the country. The loss of Fort Henry compelled the Confederates to evacuate all their positions in Kentucky. General Beauregard fell back from Columbus to Corinth, Mississippi, and General Sidney Johnston slowly retired from Bowling Green upon Nashville, followed by General Buell with a vastly superior force. After the capture of Fort Henry the gunboats returned to Cairo, and, taking on board supplies and reinforcements for the army, ascended the Ohio and entered the Cumberland, up which they passed to Fort Donel- son. Grant in the meantime marched across the country from Fort Henry to Fort Donelson, and invested the latter work. The roads were so difficult that although the distance between the two forts was but twelve miles, Grant spent six days in marching it. This delay gave General Johnston an opportunity to reinforce Fort Donelson. He halted at Nash- ville with his main army to await the result of Grant's attack on the fort. The gunboats did not join Grant until the 14th of February, and the investment was not begun until their arrival. Fort Donelson was a stronger work than Fort Henry, and was held by a force of about thirteen ADMIRAL FOOTE. thousand men, commanded by General John B. Floyd. On the 14th of February the gunboats opened fire upon the fort, and at the same time the army of General Grant, reinforced to about thirty thousand men, began to occupy the positions assigned it in the investment. The operations of the 14th ended with the repulse of the fleet, Commodore Foote being severely wounded in the engagement. Satisfied of his inability to hold the fort against the over- whelming force of the Federal army, General Floyd resolved to cut his way through, and retreat upon Nashville. On the 15th he made a gallant attempt to break through Grant's lines, but was driven back, and a por- tion of the southern intrenchments remained in the hands of the Union array. On the night of the 15th a council of war was held by the Con- federate commanders. It was evident that escape was impossible and a surrender inevitable. General Floyd refused to surrender, and retreated from the fort with a considerable force of infantry and cavalry, with which he succeeded in reaching Nashville. General Pillow, who was left by Floyd in command, turned over the command to General Buckner, the THE CIVIL WAR. 801 next in rank, and joined Floyd in his flight. Being unable to offer further resistance, General Buckner, on the morning of the 16th, surren- dered the fort and his troops unconditionally to the Federal army. The capture of Fort Donelson was by far the most important success that had yet been won by the Union armies, and was hailed with rejoic- ings throughout the north and west. By this capture over five thousand prisoners, besides the Confederate wounded, fell into the hands of the Union forces. The Confederates also lost heavily in killed and wounded. General Johnston, upon learning of the fall of Fort Donelson, fell back from Nashville to Murfreesboro', from which place he subsequently con- tinued his retreat across the State, and eventually joined General Beaure- NASHVTLLE, TENNESSEE. gard, who had taken position at Corinth, at the junction of two important railway lines on the northern border of Mississippi. Beau regard, in falling back from Columbus, had left a force at Island No. 10, which had been strongly fortified, to hold the Mississippi against the efforts of the Federal fleet and army to obtain the control of the river. Nashville was occupied by the army of General Buell, and Grant's army was moved up the Tennessee as far as Pittsburg Landing. General Buell was ordered to march across the country from Nashville to the Tennessee, to unite his forces with Grant's, and attack the Confederates at Corinth. General Johnston, the Confederate commander, had feared this comvn- 51 802 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. tration, which would make the Federal power in this quarter irresistible, and had determined to attack Grant's army and crush it before Buell could arrive, after which he would be free to engage Bucll. His plan was ably conceived, but his march was delayed by the fearful state of the roads, and he did not arrive opposite the Federal position until two days after the time fixed for his attack. Grant was encamped at Shiloh Church, near Pittsburg Landing, with the Tennessee river in his rear. On the morning of Sunday, April 6th, his army was suddenly attacked by Johnston, and was driven steadily from its origi- nal position to the banks of the Tennessee, where it was sheltered by the fire of the gunboats. The battle was stubbornly contested, and the losses on both sides were very heavy. Late in the after- noon General Johnston was mortally wounded, and died soon afterwards. The command passed GEN. ALBERT s. JOHNSTON, to General Beauregard, who failed to follow up his advantage. During the night the army of General Buell arrived, and reinforced Grant. On the morning of the 7th, Grant attacked the Confederates and after a sharp fight drove them back. They retreated slowly, and returned to Corinth. \Vhiletheseoperationswere in progress, the gunboats under Commodore Foote and a strong force of western troops under General Pope laid siege to Island No. 10, on the Mississippi. After a bombardment of twenty-three days, the Confed- erate works were captured, together with five thousand prisoners, on the morning of the 7th of April, the day on which Beauregard was driven back from Shiloh. The Confederates still held Fort Pillow, a strong work a short distance above Memphis. If this could be captured, the Federal forces would obtain the control of the river as far south as Yicksburg. General Pope was anxious to move against it at once, but his army was ordered MAJ.-GEN. D. c. BUELL. to join General Halleck. Commodore Foote being disabled by his wound received at Fort Donelson was succeeded by Captain Davis, who descended the river and took position above Fort Pillow. General Halleck now repaired to the Tennessee, and took command of the Union armies there, amounting to more than one hundred thousand men. He moved forward leisurely towards Corinth, and laid siege to THE CIVIL WAR. 803 thnt place. Beauregard, seeing that it was impossible to hold Corinth against this greatly superior force, evacuated it on the night of the 29th of May, and retreated to Tupelo, Mississippi. The next day General Halleck occupied Corinth. The loss of Corinth compelled the evacuation of Fort Pillow, which was abandoned by the Confederates on the 4th of June. On the 6th the Union gunboats descended the river to Memphis and defeated the Confederate flotilla above that city. Memphis at once surrendered, and was occupied by the Union forces. All West Kentucky and West Tennessee were now under the control of the Union armies, which now occupied a line extending from Memphis, through Corinth, almost to Chattanooga. The Confederates still held East Tennessee in heavy force. Shortly MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE. after the evacuation of Corinth General Beauregard was removed from his command, and was succeeded by General Braxton Bragg. Bragg was strongly reinforced, and it was determined to make a bold effort to drive back the Federal advance and regain West Tennessee and, if possible, Kentucky. Bragg's army was concentrated at Chattanooga, and General Ivirby Smith at Knoxville was strongly reinforced. Smith was to move from Knoxville, while Bragg was to advance from Chattanooga, and the two armies were to unite in the centre of the State of Kentucky. Their combined forces amounted to over fifty thousand men, and it was hoped that this movement would compel the Federal army to abandon its advance, 804 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and fall back into Kentucky to protect that State and Ohio from the Confederates. Then by a decisive victory Bragg expected to be able to overrun and hold Kentucky and even to invade Ohio. The division of General Smith moved forward about the middle of August, and on the 30th of August defeated a Union force under General Manson at Richmond, Kentucky, inflicting upon it a loss of six thousand men. Smith then occupied Lexington and Frank- fort, and advanced towards Cincinnati ; but ascer- taining that a strong force was assembling at that city, under General Lewis Y/allacc, he fell back to Frankfort, where he joined General Bragg on the 4th of October. Bragg had begun his march as soon as Kirby Smith had gotten fairly started. His objective point was Louisville, and he hoped to be able to elude the army of General Buell which was at MAJ.-GEN. H. w. HAI/LECK. Nashville, and by a rapid advance seize Louisville before BuelPs arrival. By the 1 7th of September lie was at Munfordsville, Kentucky, which he captured after several slight encounters, taking forty-five hundred prisoners. Buell in the meantime had divined Bragg's purpose, and had set out from Nashville for the Ohio by forced marches. He reached Louisville before the arrival of the Confederates, and being heavily reinforced advanced to attack Bragg, who had turned aside and occupied Frankfort on the 4th of October. Bragg fell back slowly, ravaging the country along his route; and was followed by Buell with equal deliberation. On the 8th of October an indecisive battle was fought between the two armies at Perryville. After this conflict, in which both sides lost heavily, Buell refrained from attacking Bragg again, and the latter con- tinued his retreat leisurely into Tennessee, taking with him a wagon train forty miles in length, loaded with plunder captured in Kentucky. During this campaign the Federal army under General Grant had held its line in West Tennessee, extending fror Corinth to Memphis. A Confederate army under Generals Price ar Van Dorn was assembled in Mississippi in front of the Union position. Grant, who was now in command of the Federal forces in West Tennessee (Halleck having been summoned to Washington as commanding General), ordered General Rosecrans to his assistance. Upon the arrival of this GENERAL B. BRAGG. S06 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. commander with his troops, Grant advanced upon Price at luka, and defeated him on the 19th of September. He then repaired to Jackson, Tennessee, leaving Rosecrans with nineteen thousand men to hold Corinth against the Confederates. After his defeat at luka Price was joined by Van Dorn, whose troops brought the strength of the Confederate army to eighteen thousand men. They at once advanced upon Corinth, and on the 4th of October attacked that place. The battle which ensued was noted for the obstinacy with which it was contested by both sides. The Confederates were defeated LANDING AT LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY. with a loss of about three thousand killed and wounded, and were pursued for about thirty miles southward. The Union loss was about five hundred and eighteen killed, wounded, and missing. The Federal government was greatly dissatisfied with BuelPs failure io intercept Bragg, and upon his arrival at Nashville he was removed from the command of his army, which was conferred upon General Rose- crans, as a reward for his victory at Corinth. Bragg had taken position near Murfreesboro', about thirty miles distant from Nashville, and Rosc- crans, towards the last of December, moved upon that place to attack THE CIVIL WAR. 807 him. Bragg had at the same time completed his preparations to resume the offensive, and had begun his- advance upon Nashville, and the two armies encountered each other at Stone river, near Murfreesboro', on the 31st of December. They were about equal in strength, each numbering about forty thousand men. The battle was fiercely disputed, but at night- fall Rosecraus was driven back with heavy loss, and Bragg telegraphed to Richmond news of a great victory. Rosecrans, however, had merely fallen back to a new and stronger position. On the 2d of January, 1863, Bragg renewed his attack, but was repulsed with terrible slaughter. On the 3d a heavy rain fell and prevented all military operations, and that night Bragg retreated from the field. He retired in good order to Tulla- homa, about thirty miles from Murfreesboro'. The losses on both sides in this battle were heavy, ranging from ten thousand to twelve thousand men in each army. The Confederates, having lost the upper and lower Mississippi, had fortified Vicks- burg and Port Hudson, in order to main- tain their hold upon that stream, and to keep open their communications with the country west of the Mississippi. Vicks- burg had been made a post of extraordinary strength, and was garrisoned by a consider- able force of Confederate troops. Towards the last of the year General Grant deter- mined to undertake an expedition against it. MAJOE-GENEEAL w. EOSECEANS. He sent General Sherman, with forty thou- sand men, and a fleet of gunboats, under Commodore Porter, to descend the Mississippi and attack the southern works above the city; and advanced southward from Corinth with the main army by land. Grant had accomplished fully half the distance when a strong body of Confederate cavalry, under General Van Dorn, made a dash into his rear, and on the 20th of December captured Holly Springs, Grant's principal depot of supplies. This movement compelled Grant to abandon his advance upon Vicksburg, and to fall back and re-establish his com- munications with his base. Sherman, ignorant of this disaster, left Memphis on the 20th of December, and a few days later landed his troops on the banks of the Yazoo, from which he advanced upon the Confederate works at Chickasaw bayou, on the north of Vicksburg. On the 29th of December he made a spirited attack upon them, but was repulsed. He withdrew his troops to the boats, and retired to Young's Point, on the Louisiana shore, a short distance above Vicksburg. 808 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The Confederates were driven out of Missouri at the close of 1861, we have seen, and retired into Arkansas. General Van Dorn was now sent by the Confederate government to take command of the forces of Price and McCulloch, which numbered about sixteen thousand men. He reached the head-quarters of this force on the 3d of March, 1862. Th_ Federal army, under General Curtis, with General Sigel as his second in command, had taken position on the heights of Pea Ridge, around Sugar creek, in the northwestern part of Arkansas. It numbered about eleven thousand men. On the 7th of March Van Dorn attacked the Unioif army in this position, and after a bloody fight, which lasted for about seven or eight hours, drove it back. Curtis took up a new position dur- LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS. ing the night, and the next morning the Confederates renewed the attack, and were repulsed. After the battle of Shiloh the troops of Price and Van Dorn were withdrawn across the Mississippi to reinforce General Beauregard at Corinth. We have seen them bearing the brunt of the campaign in northern Mississippi against Grant's army. Towards the close of the summer, it being necessary to make a vigorous effort to hold the trans-Mississippi region against the efforts of the Union forces, the Confederate government sent Lieutenant-General Holmes to take com- mand of it. The operations in this region during the remainder of the year were of an unimportant character. The plan of the Federal government for seizing the prominent points on the coast wag carried forward with great energy during the year 1862. THE CIVIL WAR. 809 Between Albemarle and Pamlico sounds, on the coast of North Carolina, lies Roanoke island, famous as the scene of Sir Walter Raleigh's unfor- tunate attempts to colonize America, and commanding the entrance to Albemarle sound. The possession of this island by the Federal forces would give them the command of the rivers entering into the sounds, place the rear defences of Norfolk at their mercy, and afford them a safe base from which to attack the towns on the North Carolina coast. The Federal government having determined to obtain possession of Roanoke island, a powerful expedition against it was fitted out early in the year, under the command of Major-General Ambrose E. Burnside. The expedition sailed from Hampton Roads on the llth of January, 1862, and after narrowly escaping being scattered by a severe storrn passed through Hatteras inlet, and anchored in Pamlico sound on the 28th. On the 6th of February the fleet took position off Roanoke island, and on the 7th opened fire upon the Confederate works. Under the cover of this fire a force of over ten thousand troops was landed upon the island. On the 8th General Burnside attacked the Confederate intrenchments and carried them after a sharp contest. The entire Confederate force, numbering about twenty-five hundred men, fell into his hands as prisoners of war. On the 10th the Confederate squadron in Albemarle sound was attacked and destroyed, or captured. Having established himself firmly on Roanoke island, General Burn- side prepared to reduce the towns along the coast of North Carolina. On the 14th of March Newberne surrendered to him, and on the 25th of April Fort Macon, at the entrance of Beaufort harbor, one of the strongest works on the coast, capitulated. Some important successes were won on the coast of Florida during the spring of this year. An expedition from Port Royal captured Fernan- dina and Fort Clinch on the 28th of February, and a little later Jack- sonville, on the St. John's river, and St. Augustine passed into the hands of the Federal troops. Brunswick and Darien, important places on the coast of Georgia, were captured about the same time. The most important naval expedition of the year was that which resulted in the capture of New Orleans. The Federal government had recognized from the first the importance of regaining possession of the Mississippi, and, as we have seen, a large fleet of gunboats had been pre- pared on the upper waters of that stream to co-operate with the army i:i its efforts to capture the fortified posts along the river. All these efforts, however, were useless, as long as the Confederates n-taiix-d possession of the lower river or of the important city of New Orleans, the commer- cial metropolis of the south. It was resolved at an early period of the 810 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. struggle to wrest New Orleans from the Confederates, and a fleet of forty- five vessels of war and mortar-boats was assembled for this purpose, and placed under command of Commodore Farragut, an able and experienced officer. To the fleet was added a force of fifteen thousand troops, under General B. F. Butler. The expedition rendezvoused at Ship island, near the mouth of the Mississippi, in the early part of March. About twenty miles above the head of the passes of the Mississippi, and about seventy miles below New Orleans, the entrance to the river is defended by two strong works Fort Jackson on the right bank of the stream, and Fort St. Philip on the left both built before the war. The Confederates had further strengthened their position by stretching six heavy chains, supported on a series of dismasted schooners, across the river, from shore to shore, to prevent the passage of ships. Early in April the fleet sailed from Ship island, leaving the troops there to await the result of its operations, and entering the Mississippi took position below the forts. On the 18th the bombardment of the forts was begun by the ships and the mortar-boats, and was continued with great vigor until the 24th. The results of this bombardment were most discourag- ing, and Farragut became convinced that the forts could not be reduced by the fire of the fleet. He therefore determined to pass them with his vessels and so neu- tral ize them. The chain and raft barricade across the river had been broken by a severe storm, and Farragut sent a party to enlarge the gap made in it, so as to admit the passage of the fleet. This task was accomplished with great gallantry. At three o'clock, on the morning of the 24th of April, the fleet got under headway and began to ascend the river, the commo- dore in his flag-ship, the " Hartford," leading the way. The fleet con- sisted of seventeen vessels, carrying two hundred and ninety-four guns. As the vessels came abreast of the forts the Confederates opened a heavy fire upon them, to which they responded with vigor. The forts were passed in safety at length, and a short distance above them Farragut encountered the Confederate fleet, consisting of sixteen vessels, but eight of which were armed. Two of these were iron-clads, however. A des- perate battle ensued, which resulted in the total destruction of the southern fleet. When the sun rose on the morning of the 24th the forts ADMIRAL FARRAGUT. THE CIVIL WAR. 811 had been passed, and the resistance of the Confederate vessels had been overcome. There was nothing now between the Federal fleet and New Orleans, and Farragut, ascending the river slowly and cautiously, anchored in the stream, in front of the city, on the morning of the 25th. He at once demanded the capitulation of New Orleans, which had been evacuated by the Confederate troops on the previous day, and the city was surrendered VIEW IN ST. CHARLES STREET, NEW ORLEANS. to him by the municipal authorities. On the 28th Forts Jackson and St. Philip surrendered to Captain Porter, the commander of the mortar fleet. New Orleans being taken word was sent to General Butler, at Ship island, to hasten forward with his troops to occupy it. He arrived on the 1st of May, and at once took possession of the city. Baton Rouge, the capital of Louisiana, was occupied by the Federal forces, and Frrragnt pushed on up the river, and, passing the Confederate batteries at 612 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Grand Gulf and Vicksburg, joined the fleet of Commodore Davis at Memphis. The capture of New Orleans was a terrible blow to the south. It deprived the confederacy of the largest and wealthiest city within its limits, and wrested from it the whole of the lower Mississippi. Another success was gained by the Union arms on the southern coast. An expedition from Port Royal, under General Hunter, laid siege to Fort Pulaski, near the mouth of the Savannah river. This fort was con- structed by the Federal government previous to the war, and constituted one of the principal defences of the city of Savannah. On the llth of April, after a bombardment of fifteen days, it surrendered to General Hunter. Its capture closed the Savannah river to the entrance of the class of vessels known as blockade runners, and deprived the south of the use of one of its principal ports. The events of this year in Virginia were of the highest importance. The army of the Potomac, nearly two hun- dred thousand strong, was ready for active operations with the early spring. General McClellan was anxious to avail himself of the superior naval strength of the United States to transport his army to a point on the Chesa- peake bay, from which it could easily interpose between the Confederate army, under General Johnston, and Richmond. Suspecting such a MAJOR-GENERAL B. F. BUTLER, design on the part of McClellan Johnston abandoned his position at Centreville on the 8th of March, and fell back to the Rapnahannock, and a little later moved back still farther to the line of the Rapidan. McClellan advanced to Centreville as soon as informed of Johnston's withdrawal, but was too late to interfere with the movements of the Confederate army. Simultaneous with Johnston's withdrawal from Centreville occurred an incident which forms one of the most striking episodes of the war, and led to results of world-wide importance. Upon the evacuation of the Norfolk navy yard by the Federal forces, at the outset of the war, the splendid steam frigate "Merrimac" was scuttled and sunk. Th is vessel was subsequently raised by the Confederates, and rebuilt by them. Her upper deck was removed, and she was covered with a slanting roof. Both the roof and her sides were heavily plated with iron, and a long, stout bow was fitted to her to enable her to act as a ram. She was then armed with ten heavy guns, and named the "Virginia." Thus prepared she was the most powerful vessel afloat. THE CIVIL WAR. g!3 As soon as the "Virginia" was ready for service the Confederate authorities determined to test her efficiency by attempting to destroy the Federal fleet in Hampton Roads. On the 8th of March the "Virginia," accompanied by two small vessels, left Norfolk and steamed down the Elizabeth river into Hampton Roads. Her appearance took the Federal fleet by surprise, and a heavy fire was concentrated upon her from the fleet and the batteries on shore at Newport's News, at the mouth of the James river. Shot and shell flew harmlessly from her iron sides, and, firing slowly as she advanced, she aimed straight for the sloop of war "Cumberland" the most formidable vessel of her class in the navy and sunk her with a blow of her iron prow. The frigate " Congress," lying near by, was chased into shoal water and compelled to surrender, after which she was set on fire. The ram then endeavored to inflict a. similar fate upon the frigate " Minnesota," but that vessel escaped into water too shallow for the iron-clad to ven- ture into. At sunset the "Virginia" drew off, and returned to the Elizabeth river. She had destroyed two of the finest vessels in the Federal navy, and inflicted upon her adversaries a loss of two hundred and fifty officers and men. She was herself unin- jured, and had but two men killed and eight wounded. The success of the "Virginia" struck terror to the fleet in Hampton Roads, and it was by no means certain that the vic- torious vessel would not the next day MAJ.-GEN. GEO. B. M'CLELLAN. either attack Fortress Monroe, or pass by it and ascend the Chesapeake, in which case both Washington and Baltimore would be at her mercy. During the night, however, a most unlooked-for assistance arrived. The " Monitor," an iron-clad vessel of a new plan, invented by Captain John Ericsson, entered Hampton Roads on her trial trip from New York. Upon learning the state of affairs her commander, Lieutenant Worden, determined to engage the "Virginia" the next day. On the morning of the 9th the "Virginia" again steamed out of the Eliza beth river into Hampton Roads. The " Monitor," though her inferior in size, and carrying but a single gun, at once moved forward to moot her. An engagement of several hours' duration ensued, in which both vessels were fought with great gallantry ; and at the end of this time the "Virginia" drew off, and returned to Norfolk severely injured. The j^rival of the " Monitor" was most fortunate. It saved the Federal fleet i: R14 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Hampton Roads from total destruction, and prevented the "Virginia" from extending her ravages to the ports of the Union. The battle between the "Monitor" and the "Virginia" will ever be famous as the first engagement between iron-clad vessels. It inaugurated a new era in naval warfare. In spite of the result of the battle, however, the prasenoe f the "Virginia" at Norfolk deterred the Federal forces from risking an ittack on that place, and prevented them from making any effort to ascend the James river with their fleet. In the meantime the army of General McClellan had returned to its position near Alexandria, after the retreat of the Confederates to the Rapidan. General MoClellan now proposed to move the bulkof his army to Fortress Monroe, and to advance from that point upon Richmond by way of the peninsula between the York and James rivers. About seventy- five thousand men were left on the Potomac to cover Washington, and the remainder, about one hundred and twenty thousand in number, were transported by water to Fortress Monroe. This movement was accom- plished by the 2d of April. On the 4th the army of the Potomac began its march towards the lines of Yorktown, which were held by about eleven thousand five hundred men, under General Magruder. The Con- federate commander had passed the first year of the war in fortifying his position, and had constructed a series of powerful works which enabled him, with his small force, to hold McClellan's whole army in check. On the 5th and 6th of April McClellan made repeated attempts to force the southern lines, and failing in these decided to lay siege to them. The time thus gained by Magruder enabled General Johnston to move his army from the Rapidan to the peninsula. It was in position on the lines of Yorktown by the 17th of April, making the force opposed to McClel- lan about fifty-eight thousand strong. The Confederates did not expect to hold their position on the peninsula, but from the first intended to move back nearer to Richmond, and occupy the line of the Chickahominy. When their preparations were completed they fell back from the lines of Yorktown, on the night of the 3d of May, just as McClellan was about to begin his bombardment of their position. The Federal army discovered the retreat on the morning of the 4th of May, and moved forward promptly in the hope of intercepting the southern army. On the morning of the 5th the advanced forces attacked the rear-guard of Johnston's army at Williamsburg. The Confederate commander held his ground until his trains had gotten off in safety, and then resumed his retreat, and reached the Chickahominy about the 10th of May without further molestation from the Union forces. General McClellan, following leisurely, took position on the left bank of the Chickahominy, with the river between the two armies. THE CIVIL WAR. 815 In accordance with General McClellan's urgent request, President Tjincoln decided to order the force left to cover Washington to join the array of the Potomac, before Richmond, by way of Fredericksburg. With his force thus augmented the Union commander had no doubt of his ability to capture Richmond. Alive to this danger General Johnston directed General Jackson, who had been left to hold the valley of Vir- ginia, to manoeuvre his army so as to threaten Washington, and compel the Federal government to retain the force intended for McClellan for the defence of Washington. While awaiting the arrival of this force McClellan threw his left wing across the Chickahominy, and lodged if in a position nearer to Richmond. The Federal lines now extended from Bottom's Bridge, on the Chickahominy, to Mechanics ville, north of that stream. The evacuation of the peninsula compelled the Confederates to abandon Norfolk also. They withdrew their troops from that city on the 9th of May, and sent them to reinforce General Johnston. On the 10th Norfolk and Portsmouth were occupied by the Federal forces under General Wool. Bafore leaving the Confederates had set fire to the navy yard, which was destroyed. The iron-clad steamer " Virginia " was taken into the James river, and on the llth was abandoned and blown up. The loss of this steamer, which could have held the James against the whole Union fleet, left the river open to within eight miles of Richmond. The gunboats, in- cluding the " Monitor," were sent up to try to force their way to Richmond, but on the 15th of May were driven back by a battery of heavy guns located on the heights at Drewry's bluff, eight miles below Richmond. They were badly injured by the plunging fire of the Confederates. The river was securely obstructed at this point to prevent a passage of the batteries by the Federal fleet. Having been heavily reinforced, General Johnston determined to attack McClellan's exposed left wing, and on the 31st of May fell upon it at Seven Pines, and drove it back with heavy loss. General Johnston was severely wounded towards the close of the day, and was unable to carry out the plan upon which he had begun the battle. The next day there was heavy skirmishing until about ten o'clock in the morning, but nothing of a more serious nature was attempted by either side. General McClellan, warned by the narrow escape of his left wing, now proceeded to fortify his position on the south bank of the Chickahominy. While these events were in progress on the Chickahominy, General Jackson carried out with brilliant success the movements assigned him in the valley of Virginia. His task required the exercise of the greatest skill and determination. He was to neutralize the forces of Fremont, 616 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Banks and McDowell, and prevent them from rendering any assistance lo McClellan. Jackson's army fell back from Winchester on the llth of March, and retired as i'ar as Mount Jackson. Then rapidly retracing its steps it attacked Banks' forces at Kernstown, near Winchester. Though repulsed in this engagement, it succeeded in alarming the Federal govern- ment for the safety of Washington. Banks' command was therefore re- tained in the v.alley to watch Jackson, and the force under McDowell was not allowed to go to McClellan's assistance on the peninsula, lest by so doing it should uncover Washington. After the battle of Kernstown, Jackson retired up the valley, and a season of comparative quietude ensued. The Federal government even believed that his troops had been sent to Richmond. Fremont's army was ordered to move from LIEOT.-GEN. T. j. JACKSON, western Virginia into the valley; Banks was directed to march to Manassas and cover Washington ; while McDowell, with forty thousand men, was ordered to move to Fredericksburg, from which he was to march across the country and unite with McClellan's left wing, which was thrown out far to the north of Richmond to meet him. These orders were in process of execution when Jackson, who had been reinforced by a division under General Ewell, destroyed the whole Federal plan of campaign. Knowing that he could not possibly resist the combined forces o( Fre- mont and Banks, Jackson determined to beat them in detail. Marching rapidly westward, he crossed the mountains, fell upon the advance guard of Fremont's army at McDowell, on the 8th of May, defeated it, and drove it back into western Virginia. Then retracing his steps with remarkable speed, he returned to the valley, and on the 23d of May attacked Banks' outlying force at Front Royal, and drove it in upon the main body at Strasburg. Banks at once broke up his camp, and fell back down the valley, pursued by Jackson, who dealt him a terrible blow at Win- chester on the 25th. By extraordinary exertions Banks succeeded in escaping across the Potomac, but left about three thousand prisoners., sev- eral pieces of artillery, nine thousand stand of arms, and the greater part of his stores in the hands of the Confederates. This bold advance greatly alarmed the government at Washington, and MAJ.-GKN. K. P. iJANKS. THE CIVIL WAR. g 17 the president ordered Fremont to move with speed into the valley, and directed General McDowell to suspend his movement to the assistance of McClellan, and send a force of twenty thousand men to gain Jackson's rear, and prevent his return up the valley. McDowell sent the required force under General Shields, and Fremont hurried on to gain the upper valley in advance of Jackson. These movements entirely prevented McClellan from receiving the assistance of McDowell's corps, and saved Richmond from capture. Jackson was too good a general to be caught in the trap so skilfully laid for him. He retired up the valley with the greatest speed, and having interposed his army between Fremont and Shields, turned upon the former, and with a part of his force attacked him at Cross Keys on the 8th of June, and checked his advance. Then reuniting his forces he fell upon Shields at Port Republic on the 9th of June, and drove him back with heavy loss after one of the hardest-fought battles of the war. Having thus put an end to the pursuit of his antagonists, Jackson withdrew to a safe position, from which he could hold them in check or go to the aid of the army defending Richmond. The latter move being decided upon, he eluded the Federal forces in the valley, and marched rapidly to the Chickahominy. Be- fore his absence from the valley was suspected, he had joined General Lee. His campaign in the valley is justly regarded as one of the most BRIO.-OEK. JAS. SHIELDS. brilliant of the war. With less than twenty thousand men he had neutralized a force of sixty thousand Union troops, and prevented the execution of McClellan's carefully laid plans for the capture of Richmond. Upon the fall of General Johnston the command of the Confederate army before Richmond was conferred upon General Robert E. Lee, whom subsequent events proved to be the ablest of the southern leaders. Troops were drawn from every possible point to reinforce General Lee's army, and by the middle of June his forces, including Jackson's army, amounted to ninety thousand men. The Federal army was one hundred and fifteen thousand strong. Both armies were in fine condition. Gen- eral McClellan, finding it impossible to obtain the assistance of McDowell's corps, and fearing for the safety of his communications with his base of supplies, which was at West Point, at the head of the York river, pre- pared to move his army to the south side of the Chickahominy, and establish a new and more secure base upon the James river. Before he 52 818 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. could put this design in operation he was attacked by General Lee, who, on the 25th of June, fell upon the right of the Union line at Mechanics- ville, and forced it back upon the centre at Cold Harbor. On the 26th the position at Cold Harbor was attacked and carried by the Confederates afler a desperate struggle. With great difficulty McClellan secured his retreat to the south side of the Chickahominy, and destroyed the bridges in his rear. Having decided to retreat to the James river rather than attempt to KICHMOND, VIRGINIA. retain his communications with West Point, McClellan destroyed his stores, and on the 28th began his retreat from the Chickahominy by way of White Oak swarnp. As soon as his movement was discovered pursuit was made by the Confederates, who attacked his rear guard under General Snmner at Savage Station late in the afternoon of the 29th. Sumnerheld his ground until the darkness put an end to the action, and during the night of the 29th withdrew across White Oak swamp, destroying all the THE CIVIL WAR. bridges after him. On the 30th General Lee made a last effort to pre- vent McClellan from reaching the James, and towards the close of the afternoon the bloody battle of Frazier's Farm was fought. It was con- tinued until nine o'clock. The Federal force at Frazier's Farm held its ground until the remainder of McClellan's army had safely traversed White Oak swamp. The object of the battle having been accomplished, McClellan resumed his retreat to the James river, and took position upon Malvern hill, within a short distance of that stream. Here he massed his artillery, and the gunboats in the James river moved up to a point from which they could throw their shells into the Confederate lines. On the afternoon of the 1st of July the Confederates made a gallant attempt to carry Malvern hill, but were repulsed with severe loss. The next morning the Federal army withdrew to Harrison's Landing on the James river. 'Thus ended the " Seven Days' Battles," during which the Federal army lost about twenty thousand men in killed, wounded and prisoners, fifty-two pieces of artillery, thirty-five thousand stand of arms, and an enormous quantity of stores of all kinds. The Confederate loss was nineteen thousand five hundred and thirty-three killed, wounded and missing. The retreat of McClellan's army threw the north into the deepest despondency. On the 2d of July President Lincoln issued a call for three hundred thousand fresh troops. The necessities of the struggle, however, made this force insuffi- MAJ.-OEN. E.V. STMKEE. cient, and on the 4th of August the president or- dered that a draft of three hundred thousand militia should be made and placed in the service of the United States for a period of nine months unless sooner discharged. The States complied with the requisitions upon them, and in the brief period of three months the enormous mass of six hundred thousand fresh troops was raised, armed, and placed in the field. For the protection of Washington the Federal government now collected the commands of Banks, Fremont and McDowell in one army, and placed it under command of Major-General John Pope, whose capture of Island No. 10 and other points in the west had given him a fair reputa- tion. He assumed his new command with a profusion of boasts, and promised to succeed where McClellan had failed. According to General Pope the capture of Richmond was the easiest undertaking in the world. His army towards the latter part of July advanced to the Rapidan. To watch this force General Lee, late in July, sent General Jackson's 820 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. corps to the Rapidan. On the 9th of August Jackson attacked the ad vanced corps of Pope's army at Cedar mountain, and defeated it. This defeat suspended General Pope's forward movement. General McClellan now received orders from Washington to evacuate Harrison's Landing and to reinforce General Pope with his army. He at once put this order in execution. The withdrawal of his troops was detected by General Lee, who rapidly reinforced Jackson, and ffnally moved with his whole army to the Rapidan. About the same time Burnside's corps, which had been withdrawn from the southern coast, and was awaiting orders in Hampton Roads, was directed to move into the Potomac and reinforce Pope. General Pope had now under his command a force of over one hundred thousand men. The Confederate army, which was concentrated upon the Rapidan by the 18th of August, numbered about seventy thousand men. Its strength was greatly overestimated by General Pope, who deemed* it most prudent to retire behind the Rappahannock, which he did on the 18th and 19th of August. His new position was well chosen. His right was at Rappahannock Station, and his left at Kelley's ford, some distance lower down the river. General Lee now resolved to attack Pope before he could be joined by McClellan's troops. He divided his army into two columns, and sent Jackson's corps by a circuitous route, by way of Thoroughfare gap, to gain the rear of the Federal army. This daring flank march was accom- plished by Jackson, and on the 26th of August he captured Manassas Junction, Pope's main depot of supplies, with an enormous quantity of stores of all kinds, and several railroad trains loaded with supplies. Upon learning of this movement Pope at once fell back from the Rappa- hannock, intending to crush the isolated corps of Jackson, and at the same time Lee set off rapidly by way of Thoroughfare gap to join his endangered lieutenant. Pope's army had been reinforced by the corps of Porter and Heintzelman, and Reynolds' division of McClellan's army, and was at least one hundred and twenty thousand strong. He moved back rapidly to attack Jackson, and encountered Ewell's division near Manassas Junction on the 27th. Ewell held his ground, and at night rejoined Jackson, who moved swiftly from Manassas to a new position near the old Bull Run battle-field. This brought him nearer to Lee, and secured his retreat in case of a defeat. Ewell's resistance deceived Gen- eral Pope, who had posted McDowell's and Porter's corps to hold the road from Thoroughfare gap, by which Lee must advance to Jackson's assistance. Supposing that Jackson meant to make a stand at Manassas, Pope ordered these troops to move from the positions they had taken and to advance upon Manassas Junction. Manassas was reached at noon on THE CIVIL WAR. 821 GENERAL. R. E. LEE. the 28th, and then General Pope saw for the first time how he had been deceived by Jackson, and how he had blundered in leaving the road from Thoroughfare gap open to Lee. He endeavored to repair his error by attacking Jackson at once. He did attack that general in his new position late in the afternoon of the 28th, but was repulsed with severe loss. On the same afternoon General Lee with Longstreet's corps forced the passage of Thoroughfare gap, and bivouacked that night in the open country beyond it. On the morning of the 29th he pushed forward with speed, and by noon his advanced division reached Jackson's position. By four o'clock in the after- noon the Confederate army was reunited under the command of General Lee. About three o'clock in the afternoon General Pope made a heavy attack upon Lee's position, but was re- pulsed. On the 30th, having reunited all the corps of his army, General Pope determined to risk the fate of the campaign upon a decisive engagement. The Confederates held a large part of the old battle-field of Bull Run, and the conflict which ensued is usually known as the second battle of Bull Run. It resulted in the defeat of General Pope, who was driven back to the heights of Centreville with heavy loss. On the 31st Jackson attacked the Federal rear-gua d at Chan til ly. A spirited encounter took place, and the Federal troops were slowly forced back, losing General Phil Kearney, one of the most accomplished officers in the service. General Pope now withdrew his army within the lines of Washington. He had lost since the opening of the campaign over thirty thousand men, including eight generals killed, thirty pieces of artillery, over twenty thousand Btand of arms, and an enormous quantity of stores. The Confederate loss was nine thousand one hun- dred and twelve, including five generals. The defeat of the Union army and the presence of the Confederates on the Potomac placed the city of Washington in great danger. The government acted with vigor and decision in this emergency. The losses of Pope's army were made up by reinforcements. General Pope was relieved of his command, and General McClellan was restored to the command of the army of the Potomac. He set to work with energy to reorganize the broken masses of Pope' army into an effective force. MAJ.-GEN. PHIL KEARNEY. 822 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. General Lee now crossed the Potomac and invaded Maryland, hoping to be able not only to remove the war from the soil of Virginia, but also to obtain large reinforcements from the southern sympathizers in Mary- land. In this he was disappointed, as scarcely any one joined him. On the 5th of September he crossed the Potomac, and on the 6th occupied Frederick City. Harper's Ferry was held by a force of eleven thousand men under Colonel Miles, and it was necessary to reduce this post in order to preserve the communications of the Confederate army with its own country. General Jackson was despatched with his corps to capture Harper's Ferry. He promptly carried the heights overlooking the town, and on the 15th of September the town and garrison surrendered to him after a feeble resistance. General Lee in the meantime had taken position at South mountain to await the issue of Jackson's attack upon Harper's Ferry. McClellau, advancing slowly from Washington, reached Frederick on the 12th of September. There he found a copy of General Lee's confidential order to his corps commanders, which had been lost by some one. This docu- ment gave the Confederate plan of operations, and enabled McClellan to act with certainty in directing his own movements. Hastening for- ward he attacked General Lee at South moun- tain on the 14th of September, and after a stub- born fight Lee fell back behind Antietam creek, and on the morning of the 17th was joined there MAJ.-GEN. JOHN A. BIX. by the troops of Jackson, who had made a forced march from Harper's Ferry. The Confederate army numbered about forty thousand men, having been terribly reduced by the straggling of the men on the march through Virginia. The Federal army numbered over eighty thousand men, and was eager for a contest. The prolonged resistance of Harper's Ferry, and the losses of his army by straggling, had defeated Lee's plan of campaign. He was now compelled to retire across the Potomac, and he halted on the Antietam only to secure the reunion of Jackson's corps with his army and a safe passage of the Potomac. On the morning of the 17th of Septem- ber General McClellan attacked the Confederate army in force, but it held its ground during the day, both armies at nightfall occupying about the same positions they had held in the morning. The Federal loss was twelve thousand four hundred and sixty-nine, including thirteen generals wounded, one mortally ; that of the Confederates eight thousand seven hundred and ninety, including three generals killed, five wounded. THE CIVIL WAR. 823 The 18th passed quietly away, and that night Lee silently withdrew from his position and retreated across the Potomac. He retired up the valley to Winchester. The Federal army moved to the vicinity of Harper's Ferry, and did not cross the Potomac until the 2d of November. Upon entering Virginia General McClellan moved towards the Rap- pahannock with the design of interposing his army between Lee and Richmond. General Lee at once left the valley where he had been de- tained by the necessity of watching McClellan, and by a rapid march to Warrenton placed his army between Richmond and McClellan. The Federal army continuing to advance, he fell back to Culpepper Court- house, and McClellan moved forward to the vicinity of Warrenton. On the 7th of November, when about to resume his advance, McClellan, whose conduct of the campaign had not pleased either President Lincoln or the people of the north, was removed from the command of the army of the Potomac, which was conferred upon General Ambrose E. Burnside. Burnside at once advanced to the banks of the Rappahannock opposite Fredericksburg, intending to pass the river at that place and move upon Richmond. Upon his arrival at Falmouth, opposite Fredericksburg, he found the Confederate army strongly posted on the heights in the rear of the latter place, prepared to dispute his advance. He crossed the Rap- pahannock on the llth and 1 2th of December, and on the 13th attacked the Confederate posi- MAJ.-GEN. A. E. BURNSIDE. tion, which had been strongly intrenched. He was repulsed with a loss of eleven thousand men, and compelled to retreat across the Rappahannock. This terrible reverse greatly disheartened the army of the Potomac, and destroyed its faith in its commander ; and so the year closed gloomily for the Union cause in the east. In the fall of 1862 President Lincoln took the bold step of issuing a proclamation announcing that if the seceded States did not return to their allegiance to the Union he would declare all the negro slaves within their limits free from the 1st of January next. This proclamation waa issued on the 22d of September, immediately after the battle of Antietam. The army and navy of the United States were to enforce the terms of this proclamation, and from the new year there was to be no more slavery within the limits of the Union. The proclamation was avowedly a war measure, but it was sustained by Congress by appropriate legislation during the ensuing winter. 824 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. When the year 1862 closed the Federal government, in spite of its re- verses in Virginia, had great cause for hope. It had effected lodgments of its forces at important points on the southern coast, had captured New Orleans, the largest and wealthiest city of the south, and had opened the Mississippi as far as Vicksburg. West Tennessee, Kentucky and northern Missouri were overrun and held by the Union forces. A decided gain had been made, and there was reason to hope that the next year would bring more favorable results. The Confederates were greatly elated, however, by their succesess in the east, which they regarded as counter- balancing their disasters in the west, and were more than ever resolved to continue the war " to the bitter end/' CHAPTER XLII. THE ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN THE CIVIL WAR CONCLUDED. The Emancipation Proclamation Battle of Chancellorsville Death of Stonewall Jackson Invasion of the North by Lee's Army Battle of Gettysburg Retreat of Lee into Virginia Grant's Army crosses the Mississippi Baltic of Champion Hills Investment of Vicksburg Surrender of Vicksburg and Port Hudson Battle of Chickamauga Rosecrans shut up in Chattanooga Grant in command of the Western Armies Battles of Lookout Mountain and Mission Ridge Defeat of Bragg's Army The Campaign in East Tennessee Retreat of Longstreet Capture of Galveston Attack on Charleston- Capture of Fort Wagner Charleston Bombarded State of Affairs in the Spring of 1864 The Red River Expedition Grant made Lieutenant-General Advance of the Army of the Potomac Battles of the Wilderness, Spottsylvania, and Cold HarborSheridan's Raid Death of General J. E. B. Stuart Battle of New Market Early sent into the Valley of Virginia Butler's Army at Bermuda Hundreds Grant crosses the James River The Siege of Petersburg begun Early's Raid upon Washington Sheridan defeats Early at Winchester and Fisher's Hill Battle of Cedar Creek The final Defeat of Early's Army Sherman's Advance to Atlanta Johnston removed Defeat of Hood before Atlanta Evacuation of Atlanta Hood's Invasion of Tennessee Battle of Franklin Siege of Nashville Hood defeated at Nashville His Retreat Sherman's "March to the Sea" Capture of Savannah Battle of Mobile Bay Attack on Fort Fisher The Confederate Cruisers Sinking of the "Alabama " by the " Kearsarge " Re-election of President Lincoln Admission of Nevada into the Union The Hampton Roads Peace Conference Capture of Fort Fisher Occupation of Wilmington Sher- man advances through South Carolina Evacuation of Charleston Battles of Averas- boro' and Bentonville Sherman at Goldsboro' Critical situation of Lee's Army Attack on Fort Steadman Sheridan joins Grant Advance of Grant's Army Battle of Five Forks Attack on Petersburg Evacuation of Richmond and Petersburg Retreat of Lee's Army Richmond occupied SURRENDER of General Lee's Army Rejoicings in the North Assassination of President Lincoln Death of Booth Execution of the Con- spirators Johnston Surrenders Surrender of the other Confederate Forces Capture of Jefferson Davis Close of the War. N accordance with his proclamation of September 22d, 1862, President Lincoln, on the 1st of January, 1863, issued his procla- mation of emancipation, in which he declared all the slaves within the limits of the Confederate States free from that day. The plan of campaign adopted by the Federal government for 1863 was very much like that of the previous year. In the east the army of the Potomac was to push forward towards Richmond ; and in 825 S26 H1STUHX OF THE UNITED STATES. the west the army of General Grant was to capture Vicksburg, and thus open the Mississippi, after which it was to inarch eastward, unite with the forces of General Rosecrans and occupy East Tennessee, thus cutting the communication between the Border and the Gulf States. In addition to these operations an expedition against Charleston, South Carolina, was to 4 be attempted. The army of the Potomac was greatly disheartened by its defeat at Fredericksburg, and had lost confidence in General Burnside. That commander, at his own request, was removed from the command, and was succeeded by General Joseph Hooker on the 25th of January. Hooker at once began the reorganization of his army, and soon brought it to a splendid state of efficiency. By the opening of the spring it numbered one hundred and twenty thousand men and four hundred pieces of artil- lery. General Lee had remained in his position back of Fredericksburg all winter, and his army had been weakened by the withdrawal of Gen- eral Longstreet's corps, twenty-four thousand strong, by the Confederate government, leaving him about fifty thousand men. General Hooker, upon learning of Lee's weak- ened condition, determined to attack him. He divided his army into two columns. One of these, consisting of the Second, Fifth, Eleventh, and Twelfth army corps, under his own command, was to cross the Rappahannock above Fredericksburg MAJ.-GEN. jos. HOOKER, and turn the Confederate position. The other column, consisting of the First, Third, and Sixth corps, under General Sedgwick, was to cross the river at Fredericksburg and attack the heights. Between these forces it was believed that Lee's army would be crushed. On the 27th of April Hooker moved off' with the first column, crossed the river on the 28th and 29th at Kel ley's ford, and on the 30th took position at Chancellorsville, on the left and in the rear of Lee's fortified line. On the 29th General Sedgwick crossed his column about three miles below Fredericksburg, and during that day and the 30th made demonstrations as though he intended to assault the southern position in the rear of the town. General Lee's situation was now critical, and demanded the most extraor- dinary exertions of him. Leaving a small force to hold the heights in the rear of Fredericksburg, he moved with his main body towards Chan- cellorsville, where Hooker had intrenched himself with about eighty thousand men. His only hope of safety lay in defeating this force before Sedgwick's column could arrive to its assistance. On the 2d of May he THE CIVIL WAR. 827 sent Jackson's corps to turn the Federal right, and with the remainder of his force deceived Hooker into the belief that he meant to storm the in- trenched position of the Federal army. Jackson performed his flank march with success, and on the afternoon of the 2d of May made a fierce attack upon the Federal right, and drove it in upon its centre. In this attack he received a mortal wound, of which he died on the 10th of May. The next day, the 3d, having reunited Jackson's corps with his main force, Lee attacked Hooker at Chancellorsville, and drove him back to the junction of the Rappahannock and Rapidan rivers. He was pre- paring to storm this new position when he learned that Sedgwick had defeated the force left to hold the heights of Fredericksburg on the 3d of May, and was marching against him. His danger was now greater than ever. Leaving a part of his army to hold Hooker in check, he marched rapidly to meet Sedgwick. He encountered him at Salem heights on the 4th of May, and compelled him to recross the Rappahannock at Banks' ford. Then moving back towards Hooker's position Lee prepared to storm it. General Hooker, however, disheartened by Sedg- wick's defea:, withdrew his army across the Rap- pahanuock on the night of the 5th, and returned to his old position on the north side of that stream, having lost twelve thousand men and fourteen pieces of artillery in the battle of Chan- cellorsville. The Confederate loss was also heavy. Out of an army of about fifty thousand MAJ.-GEN. j. SEDGWICK. men, ten thousand two hundred and eighty-one were killed, wounded and captured. The victory was dearly bought by the Confederates by the death of Stonewall Jackson, who was worth fully fifty thousand men to their cause. At the moment of his success against the Federal right, he was shot down by his own men, who mistook his escort for a party of Federal cavalry. The success of the Confederates in Virginia was more than counter- balanced by their reverses in the west and southwest. The southern gov- ernment, anxious to change the course of the war by a bold stroke, de- cided to follow up the victory at Chancellorsville by an invasion of the north by Lee's army. This army was reinforced heavily, and by the last of May numbered seventy thousand infantry and artillery, and ten thou- sand cavalry. General Hooker's army on the other hand had been re- duced by desertions and expirations of enlistments to about eighty thousand men, making the two forces about equal. On the 3d of June, 1863, Lee began his forward movement, and 828 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATUS. R. S. EWELL. marching through the valley of Virginia, captured Winchester, which was held by General Milroy's command, on the 14th, taking four thousand prisoners, and twenty-nine pieces of cannon. On the 22d of June the Potomac was crossed at Williamsport, and the Confederate army moved towards Hagerstown, Maryland. General Hooker had followed Lee from the Rappahannock, and had manoeuvred his army so as to interpose it between the Confederates and Washington. On the 23d the advanced corps of Lee's army under General Ewell occupied Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, and on the 25th and 26th General Hooker crossed the Potomac at Edward's Ferry, and marched to Frederick, Maryland. He was anxious to withdraw the garrison of Harper's Ferry, which had retired from that place to the Maryland heights, opposite the town, but the war department refused to allow him to do so. Hooker thereupon relinquished the command of the army, and was succeeded by Major-General George G. Meade, the senior corps commander, and a soldier of genuine ability. General Lee now moved his army east of the mountains, and directed his advance towards Gettysburg. In ignorance of his adversary's design, General Meade hastened forward to occupy the same point. The invasion of Pennsylvania by the Confederate army aroused the most intense excitement in the north. President Lincoln called out one hundred thousand militia to serve for six months, unless sooner discharged, and as far north as New York preparations were made to re- ceive the Confederate army with a stubborn resistance should it succeed in penetrating so *ur. Every effort was made to raise troops icrward them to General Meade in time 0c c . ervice to him. On tne morning of the 1st of July the ~ving of the army of the Potomac under Qereral Reynolds and the advanced corps ->f Lee's army under Generals A. P. Hill and Ewell encountered each other at Gettysburg. General Reynolds was forced back and killed. General Hancock was at once sent by General Meade to assume the com- mand of the left wing, and upon his arrival he at once recognized the importance of the position at Gettysburg, and occupied it. He was MAJ.-GEN. GEO. G. MEADE. 830 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. promptly reinforced by General Meade, and by the afternoon of the 2d of July the army of the Potomac was securely posted on the heights known as Cemetery Ridge. The Confederate army took position on the opposite hills known as Seminary Ridge. Between the two armies lay the battle-field on which the engagement of the 1st of July was fought. Heavy skirmishing prevailed throughout the day on the 2d, the advantage being with the Confederates. On the 3d of July General Lee made a general attack upon the Federal position on Cemetery Ridge, which, very strong by nature, had been rendered impregnable by intrenchments. His attack was made with determination, and was a splendid exhibition of American courage, which won for his troops the generous admiration of their adversaries ; but it was unsuccessful. The grand charge of the Con- federates was made in the afternoon, and was repulsed with terrible slaughter. Still Lee's position was so strong, and the morale of his army so unimpaired, that General Meade deemed it best to remain satisfied with his victory, and not to risk its fruits by an attack upon the Confederate lines. The victory was de- cisive. It put an end to the Confederate inva- sion. On the night of the 4th of July General Lee withdrew from Seminary Ridge and retreated to the Potomac, which he crossed on the 13th and 14th wit.iout serious opposition from the Federal army. On the 15th Lee moved back to Win- chester. The Federal loss at Gettysburg was MAJ.-GEN. j. F. REYNOLDS, twenty-three thousand, and that of the Con- federates about the same. On the 17th and 18th of July General Meade crossed the Potomac below Harper's Ferry, and moving east of the Blue Ridge, endeavored to place his army between Lee and Richmond. The Confederate commander by rapid marches reached Culpepper Court-house in advance of him, how- ever, and ahput the 1st of August occupied the line of the Rappahannock. The remainder of the year witnessed but one important operation by the armies in Virginia. In October General Lee made a sudden forward movement for the purpose of throwing his army between Meade and Washington, but the latter eluded him and reached Centreville in safety. Lee then withdrew to the Rapidan, and the army of the Potomac took position on the north side of that stream. Both armies passed the winter there. In the west and southwest success crowned the Federal arms. At the opening of the year the army of General Grant lay on the Mississippi above Vicksburg, assisted by the fleet of gunboats under Admiral Porter. 832 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The first three months of the year were passed by the Federal army in a series of movements along the Yazoo river, the result of which was to convince General Grant that Vicksburg could not be taken from that quarter. He therefore determined upon a new and more daring plan of operations. He decided to march his army across the Louisiana shore from Milliken's bend, above Vicksburg, to New Carthage, below that city, and to run his gunboats and transports by the batteries. Should the boats succeed in passing he meant to cross his command to the Mis- sissippi shore, and attack Vicksburg from the rear. By investing the city from the land side his flanks would rest upon and be covered by the Mississippi, and he could re-establish communication between his right wing and his base of supplies at Milliken's bend. The plan was daring in the highest degree, and required the greatest skill and resolution in its execution. In order to retain their hold upon the Mississippi the Confederates had fortified Vicksburg with great care. Port Hudson, about two hundred and forty miles lower down the river, had also been fortified, but not so strongly as Vicksburg. As long as the Confederates held these points they were able to keep a considerable extent of the river open to themselves and closed to the MAJOR-GENERAL j. A. LOGAN. Union gunboats. Thus they were enabled to cross in safety the enormous herds of beef cattle which they drew from the rich pastures of Texas for their armies east of the Mississippi. A strong force held the works at Port Hudson. Vicksburg was occupied by a large garrison, and was under the command of Lieutenant-General John C. Pemberton, who, with an army of about thirty thousand men, independent of the garrison of Vicksburg, held the country in the rear of that city. Appreciating the importance of defeat- ing the Federal army in this quarter the Confederate government, in the spring of 1863, sent General Joseph E. Johnston to take command of all the forces in Mississippi. It failed to supply him with a proper force of troops, and General Pemberton treated his orders with open defiance. Grant having completed his preparations moved his army from Millk ken's bend to a point on the Louisiana shore, opposite Grand Gulf. On the night of the 16th of April a division of gunboats and transports ran by the Vicksburg batteries, suffering severely from the heavy fire to which they .were exposed for a distance of eight miles. On the night of the 22d a second division passed the batteries with similar loss. Once THE CIVIL WAR. 833 below Vicksburg, however, the boats were safe. They then proceeded to Grant's position on the river below. On the 29th of April the gunboats attacked the batteries at Grand Gulf, but were repulsed. The troops were then rarfrched to a point opposite Bruinsburg, Mississippi, and the gunboats and transports were run by the Grand Gulf batteries. On the 1st of May the Federal army was ferried across to the Mississippi shore, and at once began its march into the interior. Near Port Gibson a part of Pern ber ton's army was encountered and defeated on the same day. This success compelled the evacuation of Grand Gulf by the Confederates. Grant now boldly threw his army between Johnston's forces at Jackson and Pemberton's army, intending to hold the former in check, and drive the latter within the defences of Vicksburg. On the 14th of May he JACKSON, MISSISSIPPI. attacked Johnston at Jackson, tire capital of Mississippi, and forced him to retreat northward towards Oanton. Then turning upon Pemberton he attacked him at Champion Hills, or Baker's creek, on the 16th, and inflicted a severe defeat upon him. Pemberton withdrew towards the Big Black river, and the next day met a second defeat there. He now retreated within the defences of Vicksburg, which place was promptly invested by Grant's army. On the 19th of May Grant attempted to carry the Confederate position by assault, but was repulsed with heavy loss. The assault was repeated with a like result on the 22d. There remained then nothing but a regular siege. This was pressed with vigor, and the city was subjected to a terrible bombardment, which caused groat suffering to the people. While the siege was carried on Johnston's army was held back, and prevented from undertaking any movement for the 53 834 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. relief of Vicksburg. At length, reduced to despair by the steady approach of the Union trenches, Pemberton surrendered the city and his army to General Grant on the 4th of July. By this surrender thirty thousand prisoners, two hundred and fifty cannon, and sity thousand stand of arms, together with a large quantity of military stores, fell into the hands of the Union forces. It was justly esteemed the greatest victory of the war. While the siege of Vicksburg was in progress General Banks ascended the Mississippi from New Orleans and laid siege to Port Hudson. Upon hearing of the fall of Vicksburg, the Confederate commander surren- dered the post and his army of sixty-two hundred and thirty -three men to General Banks, on the 8th of July. These victories wrested from the Confederates their last hold upon the Mississippi, They created the most intense rejoicing in the Northern and Western States, and a corresponding depression in the south. Being simultaneous with the defeat of the southern army at Gettysburg, they were regarded as decisive of the war : as indeed they were. From this time we shall trace the declining fortunes of the southern confederacy and the gradual but steady re-establishment of the authority of the Union over the Southern States. After the battle of Murfreesboro', or Stone river, the army of General Rosecrans remained quietly in winter quarters at Nashville and Mur- freesboro'. Bragg's army passed the winter at Chattanooga. Towards tae last of June Rosecrans moved forward from Nashville, and advancing slowly threatened Bragg's communications with Richmond. The Con- federate commander had no wish to emulate the example of Pemberton at Vicksburg, and at once evacuated Chattanooga, on the 8th of September, and retired towards Dalton, Georgia. This movement, which was inter- preted by Rosecrans as a retreat, was designed to secure the union with Bragg's army of Longstreet's corps, which had been detached from Lee's army and sent to join Bragg. This junction was effected on the 18th, and other reinforcements arrived from Mississippi. Thus strengthened Bragg suddenly wheeled upon Rosecrans, and on the 19th of September attacked him at Chickamauga. The battle was severe, but indecisive, and was renewed the next day. Towards noon, on the 20th, Rosecrans having greatly weakened the other parts of his line to help the left, which was hard pressed, Longstreet made a furious dash at the weakened part, and in an irresistible attack swept the Federal right and centre from the field. Rosecrans endeavored to stop the retreat, but was borne along in the dense crowd of fugitives. Only the left wing, under the command of General George H. Thomas, remained firm. Had that given way the THE CIVIL WAR. 335 rout would have been complete; but all through the long aftcrnooi? Thomas held on to his position vvitli a grim resolution which nothing could shake. After nightfall he withdrew his corps in good order and retired upon Chattanooga. The Union loss at Chickamauga was six- . teen thousand men and fifty-one guns ; Bragg's about eighteen thousand men. Bragg advanced at once upon the defeated army of Rosecrans, wind; had taken refuge in Chattanooga, occupied the heights commanding the city, and seized the communications of the Federal army with Nashville. Thus closely besieged the Union forces suffered considerably from a scarcity of provisions. General Rosecrans was now removed from the command of the army of the Cumberland, and General Grant was appointed to the chief com- mand of all the western armies. He at once set to work to extricate the army of the Cumberland, to tta command of which General Thomas had succeeded, from its perilous situation. Hooker was sent with twenty- three thousand men from Meade's army to his assistance, and Sherman was ordered to march with the force which had taken Vicksburg along the line of the railway from Memphis to Chattanooga. The arrival of these reinforcements soon changed the aspect of affairs. On the 23d of November the army of the Cumberland made a vigorous sortie and drov? the Confederates from the important position of Orchard Knob. On the: 24th Hooker stormed Lookout mountain, the left of the Confederate line, and carried it after a hard fight. The investment was now thomnghty broken, and the Confederates were confined to Mission Ridge, which had formerly constituted the right of their line. On the 25th this position was assaulted by the whole strength of the Federal army, and was carried after a stubborn fight. Bragg, beaten at all points, with heavy loss, retreated into Georgia, where he was soon after removed from his command and succeeded by General Joseph E. Johnston. During the progress of this campaign General Burnside had moved from Kentucky with a force of about twenty-five thousand men, about the time that Rosecrans began his advance from Nashville in June. The strong position of Cumberland gap was surrendered to him with scarcely an effort for its defence by the Confederates, and he moved into East Tennessee. Driving back the Confederate forces, which sought to stop his march, he occupied Knoxvillc. The object of his expedition was to afford a rallying point for the Union men of East Tennessee. After tin; battle of Chickamauga, and the investment of Chattanooga, President Jefferson Davis visited Bragg's army, and being convinced that the rap- ture of Rosecrans' force was inevitable, decided to withdraw General THE CIVIL WAR. 837 Txmgstreet's corps from Bragg, and to send it to drive Burnside out of East Tennessee. Longstreet's men were in no condition to undertake such a campaign, but under their energetic commander succeeded in con- fining Burnside's army to the defences of Knoxville. The siege of that place was formed, and several assaults were made upon the Union works, but were each repulsed with heavy loss. Burnside's men were reduced almost to starvation, but held out with unshaken resolution. After the defeat of Bragg at Mission Ridge Grant ordered Sherman to march with his corps to the relief of Knoxville. Upon the approach of this force Longstreet, on the 4th of December, raised the siege and retreated into Virginia. Beyond the Mississippi the war was carried on with varying success throughout the year 1863, but to the general advantage of the Federal forces. On the 3d of July the Confederates, LIEUT.-GEN. j. LONGSTREET. under General Holmes, attacked Helena, Arkan- sas, but were repulsed. By the close of the year the Confederate forces had been pressed back as far as the Red river. On the 1st of January, 1863, Galveston, Texas, which had surrendered to the Federal forces in the fall of 1862, was recaptured by the Confeder- ates, under General Magruder. By the capture of this place the Con- federates obtained one more port from which they could maintain communications with and receive supplies from Europe. In the spring of 1863 a powerful naval expedition, under Admiral Dupont, was des- patched against Charleston. On the 7th of April Dupont attempted to foree his way into the harbor, but was driven back by the forts and batteries, and nine of his iron-clads were severely injured. Early in July a force of land troops, under General Gilmore, effected a lodg- ment on the south end of Morris' island,. and secured their position by intrenchments. The Union parallels were pushed forward steadily towards Fort Wagner at the north end of the island, and a final assault of that work was ordered. Before the order could be executed Fort Wagner was evacuated on the night of the 6th of September. The Federal batteries on Morris' island now maintaised a heavy and constant fire upon Fort Sumter, and reduced it to a shapeless ADMIRAL DUPONT. 838 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. mass of rubbish on the land side. Yet in this condition it was stronger than at first, the mass of rubbish offering a more effectual resistance to shot and shell than the walls. The long-range guns on Morris' island threw shells into the city of Charleston, which was regularly bombarded from this time until its fall, in 1865. The capture of Fort Wagiu-r enabled the Federal forces to close the harbor of Charleston effectually against blockade runners. In spite of the victories of Chancellorsville and Chickamauga, and the invasion of the north, the close of the year found the south fairly on the downward road to final failure. Missouri was freed from the presence of the Confederate army, and the greater part of Arkansas was held by the Federal troops. The Mississippi was lost to the south, and GALVESTON, TEXAS. the immense supplies from the trans-Mississippi region were no longer available to tire Confederate forces east of the great river. Tennessee was occupied by the Federal forces, and the invasion of the north had ended in disaster. The resources of the south were gradually becoming exhausted, and the supply of men was falling off. The north on the other hand was increasing in determination. The war had opened new channels of industry, and these had more than repaid the losses of the first period of the struggle. The north was growing richer, in spite of the war, while the south was growing poorer because of it. At the end of 1863 the Federal debt had reached the enormous total of $1,300,000,000, with the certainty of a heavy increase during the coming year. Still the people of the loyal States responded with heartiness to the heavy Demands of -the .Federal government for men and money. Specie had THE CIVIL WAR. 839 BKIG.-GEN. Q. A. GILMORE. long since disappeared from circulation, but a system of treasury notes, which were made a legal tender, had replaced coin as a circulating medium. The new paper money was abundant, and the north gave few outward signs of distress. Everything spoke of prosperity. The con- trast between the condition of the Union and the confederacy \\-~ striking and most suggestive. Early in the spring of 1864 an expedition was sent into that part of Louisiana known as the Red river country? It consisted of a force of ten thousand troops, under General Smith, from Vicksburg, and a fleet of gunboats, under Admiral Porter. On the 14th of March Fort de Rnssy was captured by the troops, and on the 21st Natchitoches was occupied. General Banks now arrived with a strong reinforcement of troops from New Orleans, and took com- mand of the expedition. About the 1st of April he set out for Shreveport, at the head of navigation on the Red river, his army marching along the shore, and the gunboats ascending the stream. The Confederates gathered in heavy force, under the command of General Kirby Smith, to oppose his advance. On the 8th of April the Confederate army attacked Banks at Sabine Cross-Roads, near Mans- field, and inflicted a stinging defeat upon him. The Union forces were rallied at Pleasant Hill, where they were attacked by the Confederates on the 9th. The Confederates were repulsed, but Banks continued his retreat, and reached Alexandria on the 25th of April. The expe- dition then returned to the Mississippi. Banks was relieved of the command at New Orleans, and was succeeded by General Canby. General Steele, commanding the Union forces in Arkansas, had moved from Little Rock, on the 23d of March, towards Shreve- port, to co-operate with General Banks. He was attacked by the Confed- erates and driven back to Little Rock, which he reached on the 2d of May. The Red river expedition was thus a total failure, and was a source of great mortification, as well as serious loss, to the Federal government. Early in March General Grant was raised to the grade of lieutenant- general, that rank having been revived by act of Congress to reward Inn?- MAJOR-GENERAL E. CANBY. 840 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. for his great services during the war. It had been held only by Wash- ington, General Scott having been given only the brevet rank. He was also appointed commander of all the armies of the United States. He decided to assume the immediate direction of the campaign in Virginia, and established his head-quarters with the army of the Potomac. At the same time General W. T. Sherman was appointed to the command of the military division of the Mississippi, in which were included the armie of the Cumberland, of the Ohio, and of the Tennessee. The supreme control of the military operations both east and west was vested in Gen- eral Grant a great gain, inasmuch as the operations in the two quarters of the Union could now be made to assist each other. The plan of the campaign smbraced a simultaneous advance of both armies ; the army of the Potomac was charged with the task of defeating Lee and capturing Richmond ; the western army, under Sherman, was to force Johnston back into Georgia. The army of the Potomac numbered one hundred and forty thousand men on the 1st of May, 1864; the Confederate army, under General Lee, about fifty thousand. General Meade retained the immediate com- mand of the army of the Potomac, but General Grant accompanied it, and directed its movements. On the morning of May 4th -just three days before Sherman moved from Chattanooga the Federal army crossed the Rapidan, and, turning the right of Lee's position, entered tho region known as the Wilderness. General Lee determined to attack this force and prevent it from reaching the open country beyond the Wilderness. On the 5th of May he encountered the army of the Potomac in the Wilderness, near the old battle-field of Chancellorsville. The attack was made by the Federal forces, which endeavored to drive off Lee's army, which blocked the route by which they were advancing. Lee held his ground during the day, and that night both armies bivouacked upon the field. The battle was renewed on the 6th, but Grant failed to force the Confederate position. The fighting during these two days was carried on in a thickly-wooded region, in which the artillery of the two armies could not be used to advantage. On the 6th the Confederates suffered a serious loss in the person of General Longstreet, who was severely wounded. The losses in killed and wounded were very heavy on both sides, as the fighting was of a desperate character. On the 7th General Grant moved his army around Lee's right, and marched rapidly to seize the strong position of Spottsylvania Court- house, which would have placed him between the Confederates and Richmond. Lee at once divined his purpose, and fell back rapidly to the heights around Spottsylvania Court-house, which he occupied on the THE CIVIL WAR. 841 8th. Upon arriving before this position Grant found his enemy strongly intrenched in it, and at once resolved to drive him from it. On the 10th of May he made a determined attack upon the Confederate line, but failed to carry it. At daybreak on the 12th a furious assault was made by Hancock's corps upon the right centre of Lee's line, which was carried in handsome style. Grant at once followed up Hancock's success by vigorous attacks upon the other part of the southern line ; but Hancock was unable to advance beyond the works he had captured in his first attack, and the other assaults were repulsed by the Confederates. It was evident that the Confederates could not be dislodged from their position without a still heavier loss to the Union army, and General Grant de- termined to draw them from the heights of Spottsylvania by another flank march to the right. The losses of the Union army since the opening of the campaign had been enormous, but undismayed by them, General Grant wrote to the war department, after the battle of the 12th of May : " We have now ended the sixth day of very heavy fighting. The result to this time is very much in our favor. ... I propose to fight it out on this line, if it takes all summer." On the 21st of May the army of the Potomac moved from Spottsyl- vania to the banks of the North Anna river, and reached that stream on the 23d. Lee had inarched rapidly by a shorter route, and his army was in position on the south side of the river when Grant reached the northern shore. Lee had chosen a position of very great strength in front of Hanover Junction, and had covered it with earthworks. On the 25th Grant crossed a large part of his force to the south side of the North Anna, and endeavored to force the Confederate lines, but discovering its remarkable strength, withdrew his troops to the north shore, and on the 26th moved around Lee's right in the direction of the Chickahominy. Lee followed him promptly and took position at Cold Harbor, on the north side of the Chickahominy, and within nine miles of Richmond, oc- cupying very much the same position held by McClellan's army in the battle of Cold Harbor, on the 27th of June, 1862. He covered his entire line with strong earthworks. On the 1st of June a sharp encoun- ter occurred between the Federal right and the Confederate left wings, and on the morning of the 3d of June Grant made a general assault upon the Confederate works. The attack was made with great gallantry, but was repulsed with a loss to the Federal army of thirteen thousand men. The losses of the army of the Potomac since the passage of the Rapidan had reached the enormous total of over sixty thousand men. The Con- federate loss during the same period was about twenty thousand. Failing vo force the Confederate line at Cold Harbor, General Grant drew off 842 THE CIVIL WAR. 813 leisurely towards the James river at Wilcox's Landing, intending to cross that river and attack Richmond from the south side of the James. In the meantime, upon reaching Spottsylvnnia Court-house, General Grant had sent General Sheridan, with ten thousand cavalry, to destroy the railroads connecting Richmond with Leo's army and the valley of Virginia. Sheridan executed his orders with complete success, and went within seven miles of Richmond. On the 10th of May he reached Ash- l.ind. He was attacked there by the Confederate cavalry under General Stuart, and moved off towards Richmond. Stuart, marching by a shorter route, threw his cavalry between Sheridan and Richmond, and again en- countered him at the Yellow Tavern, on the Brook turnpike, seven miles from the city. Stuart was mortally wounded, and Sheridan secured his retreat across the Chickahominy and down the peninsula. In General Stuart the Confederates lost their only great cavalry leader. Had Sheridan, instead of halting at Ashland, pushed straight on to Richmond, the Confederate capital must have fallen into his hands. On the 25th of June he rejoined General Grant. At the opening of the campaign General Butler, with a force of about thirty thousand men, known as the army of the James, was sent up the James river to attack the de- fences of Richmond on the south side of that river. He occupied City Point and Ber- MAJOR-GENERAL w. s. HANCOCK. muda Hundreds on the 5th of May, and a few days later advanced up the neck of land lying between the James and the Appomattox rivers. To oppose him the Confederates collected a force of about eighteen thousand men under General Beaure- gard, and posted them in a fortified line extending from the James to the Appomattox, in front of the Richmond and Petersburg railroad. On the 16th of May Butler's army, having advanced within a short distance of this line, was attacked by the Confederates and driven back to Ber- muda Hundreds. The Confederates then formed their lines across the narrow peninsula, and kept Butler's force enclosed between their work? and the two rivers until the crossing of the James river by the army of the Potomac. The Federal plan of campaign also included the seizure of the valley of Virginia, and of the railway connecting Virginia with East Tennessee and Georgia. On the 1st of May General Sigel, with an army of ten thousand men, advanced up the valley towards Staunton. On the 15:1; 844 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. he was defeated with considerable loss by the Confederates under General Breckenridge at New Market, and was driven back down the valley General Hunter was appointed in Sigel's place, and succeeded in forcing his way to the vicinity of Lynchburg. Lee, becoming alarmed for the safety of that place, sent General Early, with twelve thousand men, to its assistance. Early at once attacked Hunter, and forced him to retreat by a circuitous route into West Virginia. In the meantime General Grant had reached the James river, where his army was reinforced to one hundred and fifty thousand men. On the loth and 16th of June he crossed his troops near City Point, and advanced upon Petersburg. At the same time General Butler moved forward with the army of the James against the southern MAJ.-GEN. BRECKENRIDGE. works between the James and Appomattox. On the 16th, 17th, and 18th, Grant made repeated attempts to storm the Confederate works before Petersburg and south of the James, but was repulsed with a total loss of nine thousand six hundred and sixty-five men. Being unable to carry the southern works by storm, he began the siege of Petersburg. His right rested on the James above Bermuda Hundreds, and from this point his line ex- tended across the Appomattox, with his left thrown out towards the Weldon railroad. During the summer and fall he continued to extend his left until he had seized the Weldon road. From this point he sought to extend his left still farther and to seize the South Side railroad, Lee's only remaining line of communication with the south and southwest. Frequent encounters oc- curred between the two armies during the summer and fall, a number of which attained the pro- portions of battles, but we have not space to relate them all. On the 30th of July a mine was sprung under one of the principal works of Lee's line, and the explosion was followed by an MAJOR-GENERAL HUNTER. assault by Burnside's corps. The attack was re- pulsed with a loss of over five thousand men to the Union troops. During the early autumn General Grant extended his lines across the James river, and established a force on the north side of that river to lay siege to the defences of Richmond. The right of this force was extended as far as the Williamsburg road. This was the situation ./f the two armies at the close of the year. THE CIVIL WAR. In the meantime Early had advanced into the valley of Virginia after the defeat of Hunter. The retreat of that commander into u , . t Virginia had left the Potomac unguarded, and Washington City exposed to attack. General Lee at once reinforced Early to fifteen thousand men, and ordered him to cross the Potomac and threaten Washington, hoping by this bold movement to compel Grant to weaken his army for the pro- tection of the capital, if not to raise the siege of Petersburg. Kirk moved rapidly, crossed the Potomac near Martinsburg on the 5th of July, and on the 7th occupied Frederick City in Maryland. On the 9th he defeated a small force under General Lewis Wallace at Monocacy Bridge and advanced upon Washington. The Nineteenth army corps of the Fed- eral army was at Fortress Monroe, where it had just arrived from \, \\- Orleans, en route to join Grant's army. It was at once ordered to Wa.-h- ington, which, until its arrival, was held by a small garris6n, and Grant at the same time embarked the Sixth corps, and sent it with all speed around to the Potomac. These troops reached Washington before the ar- rival of Early, who appeared before the defences of that city on the llth of July. He found the works too strongly manned to be attacked by his force. After skirmishing for several days before them, he withdrew across the Potomac on the 14th, and retreated to the neighborhood of Winchester. Early 's movement so alarmed the Federal MAJ.-OEN. LEW WALLACE. government for the safety of Washington that a force of forty thousand men, ten thousand of which were the splendid cavalry of Sheridan, was stationed in the valley, and Major-Genera 1 Sheridan was appointed to the command of this army. Had Grant been able to retain these troops with his own army, it is safe to say that Lee would have been forced to abandon his position at Petersburg in the autumn of 1864. Their absence in the valley enabled the Confederate leader to prolong his defence through the winter. As soon as he had gotten his forces well in hand, Sheridan advam-ru upon Early, and on the 19th defeated him at Winchester, and drov< bin; back to Fisher's Hill, where, on the 22d, he again defeated him and drove him out of the valley, pursuing him as far as Staunton. By the orders of General Grant, General Sheridan now laid waste the entire val- ley of the Shenandoah, destroying all the crops, mills, barns, and farming implements, and driving off the cattle with his army as he moved ba-k. Early was reinforced after his retreat to the upper valley, and about 846 HISTORY OF THE USITZD STATES. MAO. GEX. PHIL SHERIDAN. the middle of October advanced down the valley towards the Federal position with a force of nine thousand men and forty pieces of cannon. The Union army lay at Cedar creek, and was under the temporary coni' maud of General Wright during the absence of General Sheridan. On the 19tii oi October Early attacked this force, and drove it back for sev- eral miles. Instead of continuing the pursuit, his troops stopped to plunder the Federal camp, which had fallen into the!/ hands. General Wright rallied his men and re-formed them in a new position, and at this moment General Sheridan arrived on the field. He had heard the firing at Win- chester, "twenty miles away," and had ridden at full speed from that place to rejoin his army. He at once ordered it to ad- vance upon Early, whose men, laden with the plunder of the captured camp, wcie driven back with terrible force and pursued up the' valley for thirty miles. This success cleared the valley of the Confederate forces, for Early M r as not able after this to collect more than a handful of men, and Lee had no troops to spare him. Sheridan's brilliant victories cost him a total loss of seventeen thousand men. The western army under General Sherman was increased to one hundred thousand men, and was concentrated in and around Chattanooga about the last of April. Op- posed to this force General Joseph E. John- ston had collected an army of fifty thousand men at Dalton, Georgia. The objective point of Sherman was Atlanta, Georgia, the key to the railroad system of the south. On the 7th of May the Federal army began its advance. The position at Dalton being too strong to be assaulted, Sherman turned it by a flank movement upon Resaca, to which place Johnston fell back. On the 14th and 15th of May Sherman endeavored to force the Confederate lines near Resaca, but without success. He therefore moved around Johnston's lelt again, and compelled him to fall back to Dallas. Severe fighting oc- curred on the 25th at New Hope Church, but Johnston maintained 1m position. Heavy skirmishing ensued until the 28th, when Sherman GEN. W. T. SHERMAN. THE CIVIL WAR. 8-17 having turned Allatoona pass, Johnston occupied a new position, em- bracing Pine, Lost, and Kenesaw mountains. Between the 15th of June and the 2d of July Sherman made several attempts to force this position, which was one of the strongest yet occupied by the Confederates, and failing to carry it, again moved to the left and turned it. Johnston at once fell back across the Chattahoochee and within the lines of Atlanta. .He had prepared this city for a siege, and had strongly fortified it. He had his army well in hand, and he was determined as soon as the Federal army had passed the Chattahoochee to attack Sherman and force him to a decisive en- counter. He hoped to defeat him, and had purposely avoided a general battle until now. Should he succeed in his attempt the defeat of the Federal army at such a great distance from its base might result in its ruin, and at all events would be decisive of the campaign. At this juncture, however, he was removed from his com- mand on the 17th of July by the Confederate president, who was greatly dissatisfied with the results of the campaign, and who, it was generally believed, was influenced by his personal hos- tility to Johnston. General John B. Hood, a gallant soldier, but unfit for the great task imposed upon him, was appointed to succeed General Johnston. In Johnston General Sherman had recognized an antagonist of the first rank, and had conducted the campaign accordingly He re- garded the appointment of General Hood as greatly simplifying the task before hm. The Federal army had already paid the heavy price of over thirty thousand men for its advance to Atlanta, while Johnston had lost less than ei^ht thousand men. The conditions were now ic Ix reversed. On the 17th of July the Union army crossed tho Chattahoochee, and advanced towards Atlanta On the 20th and 22d Hood attacked the F. ,1,-ra! lines on Peach Tree creek, but only to i>e GEN. JOS. E. JOHNSTON. MAJ.-GEN. M'PHERSON. oac k with a loss of over eight thousand men, without inflicting anv serious injury upon tha Union army, which, however, lost Geneial MePh.-i>..n. one of its ablest commanders. Sherman now drew in hi. lines el,,,, r t-- Atlanta, and by a skilful movement thrust his army between the tw,i wings of Hood's forces, thus exposing them to the danger of being b-n' 848 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. GEN. JOHN B. HOOD. in. ietail. This movement sealed the fate of Atlanta, which was evacu- ated by the Confederates on the 31st of August. On the 2d of Septem- ber Sherman occupied the city. Hood retreated towards Macon. The loss of Atlanta was a serious blow to the south. It placed the Federal army in the heart of Georgia, and destroyed the principal source from which the Confederate armies were supplied with military stores, which had been manufactured in great quantities at Atlanta. Rome, Georgia, which was captured by Sherman's army during the campaign, was also largely engaged in the manufacture of arms and ammunition. General Sherman was now anxious to march his army through Georgia, and unite with the Union forces on the coast, but he was unable as yet to undertake this movement, as Hood with an army of thirty-five thousand men lay in his front, and his communications with Chattanooga and Knoxville were exposed to the raids of the Confederate cavalry. He now learned that the Confederate government had ordered General Hood to invade Tennessee for the purpose of drawing his army out of Georgia, and concluded to make no effort to prevent this movement. The task of watching Hood was confided to the army of the Tennessee, under General George H. Thomas, who was given a sufficient force to hold Tennessee, and Sherman set about pre- paring his army for his march to the sea. Thomas was heavily reinforced from the north. Hood began his forward movement tow- ards the last of October, and on the 31st of that month crossed the Tennessee near Flor- ence. He remained on this river until the middle of November, and on the 19th marched northward, forcing back the com- mand of General Schofield, and effecting a passage of Duck river on the 29th. Scho- field fell back to Franklin, eighteen miles south of Nashville. He \v;;s attacked on the 30th by the Confederates and forced back to Nashville, within the defences of which city General Thomas had collected an army of about forty thousand men. Hood invested the city, and hastened for- ward his preparations to assault the Federal works. General Thomas. MAJ.-GEN. GEO. H. THOMAS. THE CIVIL WAR. 849 however, anticipated him, and on the 15th of December attacked tin- Confederate army and forced it back at all points. The next day, tlm 16th, the battle was renewed, and Hood was completely routed. On the 17th the Union army set out in pursuit of Hood's broken columns, and followed them for over fifty miles. But for the gallantry of a small rear- guard, which preserved its discipline and covered the retreat to the lu-t, the Confederate army would have been scattered beyond all hope of re- union. Hood recrossed the Tennessee with barely twenty thousand men out of the thirty-five thousand with which he had begun the campaign. He had lost half of his generals, and nearly all of his artillery. He fell SAVANNAH, GEORGIA. back 1o Tupelo, Mississippi, and on the 23d of January, 1865, was, at Ma own request, relieved of his command. In the mean time General Sherman, leaving Thomas to deal with Hand, luul begun his march through the State of Georgia. Satisfied that the war was practically decided in the southwest, he proposed to march to tin- sea near Savannah, and thence through the confederacy to the position of General Grant's army. This movement would compel the Confeder- ates to mass their forces in his front, and would confine the derisive OIK.TU- 54 850 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. MAJ.-GEN. O. O. HOWARD. tions of the war to the country between his own and Grant's armies, between which it was believed the southern forces could be crushed. Everything being in readiness, Sherman cut loose from his communica- tions with Chattanooga and set fire to Atlanta. On the 14th of November ie set out on his " March to the Sea," at the head of a splendid army of sixty thousand men. He ravaged the country as he went, leaving behind him a broad belt of desolation, sixty miles in width and three hundred in length. The Confederates had not sufficient force to offer serious opposition to his march, and in about four weeks he reached the coast near the mouth of the Savannah river. On the 13th of December he stormed and cap- tured Fort McAllister, which commanded that river. The city of Savannah was thus left at Sherman's mercy, and was occupied by his army on the 22d of December. By this suc- cessful march to the sea, General Sherman had not only gotten his army in a position to co-operate with Grant in the final struggle of the war, but had struck terror to the south. The most hopeful Confederate now saw that the triumph of the Union cause was inevitable and close at hand. During the year important operations had been undertaken by the Federal forces on the coast. In July a powerful fleet under Admiral Farragut, accompanied by a strong force of troops under General Granger, was sent against Mobile. This city was one of the principal ports of the confederacy and was strongly fortified. The entrance to the bay was commanded by Forts Morgan and Gaines, two powerful works built before the war, and a num- ber of batteries, and a Confederate fleet under Admiral Buchanan who had commanded the " Virginia" in her fight with the " Monitor" lay beyond the forts ready to contest the possession of the bay. On the 5th of August Farragut passed the forts with his fleet with the loss of but one iron-clad, and entered Mobile bay. He immediately attacked the Confederate fleet, the ftag-ship of which was a powerful iron-clad ram the " Tennessee." After one of the most desperate fights in naval annals, the entire fleet was destroyed or captured by the Union vessels. Fort Powell was evacuated and blown up by its garrison on the same day. On ADMIRAL PORTER. THE CIVIL WAR, S5i the 7th of August Fort Gaines surrendered to General Grange., and MII the 23cl Fort Morgan also capitulated. These sum- tj mud.; the Veai-rai forces masters of Mobile bay, and closed the port to blockade runners ; but the city, which was strongly fortified, was not taken until the m-.\t year. \\ ilmington, on the Cape Fear river, was now the only port in tie confederacy remaining open to blockade runners. It was defended 1,\ Fort Fisher, an unusually formidable work near the mouth of the Cape Fear. A larger fleet than had yet been employed during tie war was assembled in Hampton Roads under Admiral Porter. A fow of eiirht THE LANDING AT MOBILE, ALABAMA. thousand troops under General Butler was embarked, and the expedition sailed to the Cape Fear. Fort Fisher was subjected to a vigorous l>on: brirdment, which was begun on the ?4th of December, and the troop were landed; but at the last moment General Butler decided that the fort was too strong to be assaulted, and the expedition returned to Hampton Roads. Since the opening of the war the Confederate cruisers had nean\ driven the commerce of the Northern States from the ocean. These vessels were !>uilt in England, and were usually manned by crews of English seamen under Confederate naval officers. One of these, the " Florida,'' put t/j 852 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. sea in the summer of 1862, and succeeded in reaching Mobile in August of that year. In January, 1863, she ran the blockade, and in three months captured and destroyed fifteen merchant vessels. She was at length seized in the harbor of Bahia, in Brazil, by a Federal man-of-war, and taken to Hampton Roads. The Brazilian government, resenting this 1 breach of its neutrality, demanded the release of the " Florida," but while the negotiations \vere in progress, she was sunk in Hampton Roads by a collision with another vessel. The most famous of all the Confederate cruisers was the " Alabama." She was built at Liverpool, and was suffered to go to sea in spite of the protest of the American minister at London. She was commanded by Captain Raphael Semmes, and during her long career captured sixty-five merchant vessels, and destroyed over ten millions of dollars worth of property. During her entire career she never entered a Confederate port. In the summer of 1864 she put into the harbor of Cherbourg, in France, and was blockaded there by the United States war-steamer "Kearsarge," Captain Winslow. The French government ordered the " Alabama " to leave Cherbourg, and she went to sea on the 19th of June. She was at once attacked iy the " Kearsarge," and was sunk by the guns of that steamer after an engagement of an hour and a quarter. Semmes was saved from drowning by an English yacht that had witnessed the battle am! ADMIRAL WINSLOW. was set ashore. The destruction of the "Alabama " was hailed with delight throughout the north. In the fall of 1864 the presidential election was held in the State? remaining faithful to the Union. The Republican party nominated President Lincoln for re-election, and Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, for the vice-presidency. The Democratic party supported General George B. McClellan for the presidency, and George H. Pendleton, of Ohio, for the vice-presidency. Mr. Lincoln received at the polls 2,213,665 votes to 1 ,802,237 cast for McClellan ; and the electoral votes of every State save those of New Jersey, Delaware, and Kentucky, were cast for him. On the 31st of October, 1864, Nevada was admitted into the Union as s, separate State. The year 1864 closed brilliantly for the Union cause. Though the Confederates had gained a number of important victories during the year, they had, on the whole, steadily lost ground. Virginia, Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida were overrun by the Federal THE CIVIL WAR. 853 armies, and on the coast there was not a single port remaining open to the Confederacy save that of Wilmington, which was blockade- 1 by a powerful fleet. It was evident that the coming spring campaign would end the war. The Federal forces had been increased to the enormous total of one million of men. The Confederates could bring into the field .scarcely two hundred thousand men, and for these it was difficult to find subsistence. The vicious financial system adopted by the Confederate government had run its appointed course, and the notes of the Confederate treasury were worth scarcely three or four cents in the dollar. The year 1865 opened with an effort to secure the return of peace without further bloodshed. In January Mr. F. P. Blair, Sr., came from Washington to Richmond, and on his own responsibility proposed to the Confederate government the appointment of commissioners to negotiate with the Federal government for the close of the M-ar. The following commissioners were appointed by the Confederate government: Alexander H. Stephens, vice-president of the Con- federate States ; R. M.T. Hunter, senator from Vir- ginia in the Confederate Congress, and John A. Campbell, assistant secretary of war. They pro- ceeded to City Point under a safe conduct from General Grant, and were conveyed from that place to Hampton Roads in a government steamer. On the 3d of February President Lincoln and Secretary Seward having reached Hampton Roads, an informal conference was held between the president and the commissioners. The president refused to entertain BRIG.-<.I\ \.TKRRY. any propositions which were not based upon the unconditional submission of the Southern States to the authority of the Union, and as the commissioners had no authority from their government to enter into any such arrangement, the conference accomplished nothing. In the meantime, however, Admiral Porter, undaunted by the failure of Butler to take Fort Fisher, had remained off the fort with his fleet :nil had asked for troops to renew the attempt. The same force that limit r had commanded, with fifteen hundred additional men, was placed under General Terry's command and ordered to join Porter. This force arrive i off Fort Fisher on the 12th of January, and on the morning of the l-".th accomplished its landing with success. A terrible fire was rained upon the fort by the fleet during the 13th and 14th, and on the 1 1th a daring reconnoissance of the Union force revealed the fact that the fort had been severely damaged by this bombardment. The trenches of the Union army were pushed rapidly through the sand to within two hundred yards 854 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. BRIG.-GEN. SCHOFIELD. of Fort Fisher in order to attract the attention of the garrison, and on the 15th a feint was made by a force of sailors and marines from the fleet in this direction. At the same time the troops under General Terry stormed rhc fort from the land side, and after a hard hand-to-hand struggle of ulxmt five hours, during which each traverse was carried in succession by u separate fight, Fort Fisher was captured. On the 16th and 17th the Confederates blew up their other works at the mouth of the Cape Fear and retreated towards Wilmington. The mouth of the river was now in the possession of the Federal forces, and the last port of the south was closed. A number of blockade runners, ignorant of the capture, ran into the river and fell into the hands of the victors. Later in ths month, General J. M. Schofield was placed in command of the department of North Carolina, and on tho 22d of February occupied the city of Wilmington with his troops. Sherman, after the capture of Savannah, allowed his army a month's rest on the coast, and towards the end of January moved northward through South Carolina towards Virginia. His force was sixty thousand strong and moved in four columns covering a front of fifty miles. His route was marked by the same desolation he had spread through Georgia. The roads were in a horrible condition, and in mary places the men were forced to wade through the icy waters up to the arm- pits. Still he pressed on right into the heart of the confederacy. On the 17th of February he reached Columbia, South Carolina, having destroyed the railroad leading north from Charleston. General Hardee, commanding the Confederate forces at Charleston, apprehensive of being shut up in that city, which was utterly unprepared for a siege, evacuated Charleston and its defences on the 1 7th of February and retreated northward to join General Johnston in North Carolina. The next day Charleston was occupied by the Federal forces. Fort Sumter was also taken possession of at the same time. The fort was a mass of ruins ; the city was not much better off. It had suffered severely from the bombardment to which it had been subjected since the fall of Fort Wagner, and the Confederates upon their withdrawal had set fire to a considerable part of it. From Columbia, Sherman moved towards Fayetteville, North Carolina, LIETJT.-GEN. W. HARDEF. THE CIVIL WAR. driving back the Confederate forces that resisted his progress, and entered that place on the 12th of March. From Fayetteville he moved toward* Golds, boro'. The Confederate government, in the emergency to which it was reduced, was obliged to reappoint General Joseph E. Johnston to the command of the force assembling in Sherman's front. Johnston succeeded in collecting about thirty- five thousand troops, with which he attacked Sherman at Averasboro' on the 16th of March, and again at Bentonville on the 19th. The Confederates fought with their old enthusi- asm in these encounters, but were unable to stay the progress of the Federal army, and on the 23d of March Sherman occupied Golds- boro'. Johnston withdrew towards Raleigh. At Goldsboro' Sherman was joined by the forces of Generals Schofield and Terry which MAJOR-GENERAL H. o. WRIGHT. had come up from the coast. The armies of Grant and Lee had lain confronting each other during the winter. General Lee had little hope of maintaining his position ai'ur the opening of hostilities. His army was growing weaker from sickness and desertion, and no more men could be obtained. The Confederate Congress made a feeble effort during the winter to enlist negro troops in its service, but with a singular recklessness refused to offer the boon of freedom to such of the blacks as would take up arms. That body believed that the negroes would fight for their own enslavement. Early having been driven out of the valley, General Sheridan was ordered to start from Winchester with a column of ten thousand cavalry, and cut the communications of Lee's army by railroad and telegraph north and eat of Richmond. He left Winchester on the 27th of February, and defeating Early V small force at WayneslwW, broke the Virginia Central railroad at that point ami in>\.,l t Charlottesville, which surrendered to him. He then divided hi.s force into two columns and resumed his "ride "on the 6th of March. He thoroughly destroyed the railroad between Charlottesville ami Lyiu-h- burg for about forty miles, and the canal between Ki.-hmond and Lynchburg shared the same fate for a considerable distance. Being MAJOR-GENERAL WARREN. 856 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. unable to cross the James above Richmond on account of the high water, he moved around the north of Richmond, crossed the river at Deep Bottom, and joined Grant before Petersburg on the 26th of March. lie had utterly laid waste the country along his route. The arrival of this splendid force of cavalry was of the greatest service to Grant, as we jhall see. < The situation of General Lee's army was growing more critical every day. He had less than forty thousand troops. He was fully convinced of the necessity of abandoning Richmond and Petersburg, and was anxious to do so at once, and unite his army with that of General Johnston and occupy a new position in the interior of the south. In order to secure the withdrawal of his army he determined to make a vigorous attack upon Grant's right, hoping to compel him, in order to help his right, to draw back his left wing, which was in dangerous proximity to the road by which Lee wished to retreat. Could he succeed in this effort, he meant to evacu- ate his position at Petersburg and retire towards Danville, where he hoped to unite with General Johnston. On the 25th of March he made a heavy attack upon Fort Steadman on the right of Grant's line, and captured it. The Federal forces rallied, however, and drove the Confederates from the captured works back to their own line, inflicting upon them a loss of three thousand men. Lee had now no alternative but to await the movements UEUT.-GEN. A. p. HILL, of General Grant, as he could not afford to make the sacrifice of men which a renewal of his efforts would require of him. General Grant lost no time in taking the field. By the last of March his army, numbering about one hundred and seventy thousand men, including Sheridan's magnificent cavalry division, was in readiness to begin the campaign. On the 29th of March the advance of the Federal army was begun. Leaving the bulk of his army before Petersburg, Grant sent a column of twenty-five thousand men to turn the Confederate right and seize the Southside railroad, Lee's only means of communication with Johnston's army and the country in his rear. By the morning of the 30th the Federal left had gotten fairly to the right of the Confederates. On the 30th a heavy storm prevented a further advance, and Lee took advantage of the delay to reinforce his right wing with all the troops he could spare. On the 31st he attempted to drive back the Federal left, but without success. While this battle was going on, Sheridan swung around the Confederate right and seized the important position of Five THE CIVIL WAR. 357 Forks. Lee then sent Pickett's and Johnston's divisions to recover this point, and they drove off the cavalry, and occupied Five Forks at night- fall on the 31st. Being joined by the Fifth corps, Sheridan attacked tin- Confederates on the morning of the 1st of April, and defeated them nt'n -r a determined encounter, taking over five thousand prisoners. As soon as Sheridan had secured Five Forks, Grant opened a heavy artillery fire upon the lines of Petersburg along his whole front, and con- tinued the bombardment through the night. On the morning of the 2d of April he made a determined attack upon Lee's line, and broke it at several points. General Lee was now forced to assume a new and shorter line immediately around Petersburg. The Federal army made a vigorous effort to force its way into the city, but \vas unsuccessful. The fate of Petersburg was now decided. It was impossible to hold it longer. On the night of the 2d of April General Lee withdrew his army from Richmond and Petersburg, and retreated in the direction of Amelia Court-house. His intention was to move towards Danville, and endeavor to join Johnston. His retreat was discovered on the morning of the 3d of April, and the Federal army, leaving a small force to occupy Petersburg, set off in pursuit, fol- lowing the line of the Southside railroad. On the morning of the 3d the withdrawal of the Confederates from the lines of Richmond was discovered by General Weitzel, commanding the Federal forces on the north side of the James. MAJOB-OENERAL E. o. OBD. He at once advanced and occupied the city of Richmond, a large part of which was in flames as he entered it, having been set on fire by the Confederates upon their evacuation of it. Thus fell the Confederate capital after four long years of bloody war for ite possession. Upon reaching Amelia Court-house, General Lee found that the sup- plies he had ordered to be sent there from Danville were not to be had. The trains sent from Danville by his instructions had been ordered Richmond to remove the property of the Confederate government, and had not been allowed to unload their stores at Amelia Court-house. 1 was a terrible blow to Lee, who was now unable to furnish f troops, who had eaten nothing since the commencement of the Parties were sent into the surrounding country to obtain i|,,.l-s, ai this consumed the whole of the 4th and 5th of April which Lee hoped to spend in pushing on beyond his pursuers. The delay e Sheridan, with eighteen thousand mounted men, to seize the ( 858 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. line of retreat at Jetersville. This movement put an e&d to Lee's hope of reaching Danville and joining Johnston. A battle was impossible, for Sheridan had a force nearly equal to his own, and Grant was hurrying on with the rest oi' the Federal army. General Lee therefore turned off and retreated towards Farmville, hoping to be able to reach Lynchburg, but iSlieridan, after passing Farmville, pushed forward again, and by a forced march reached Appomattox Station, on the Southside railroad, on the night of the 8th, and planted his force squarely across the Confederate line of retreat. The next morning Lee, when near Appomattox Court- house, discovered this obstacle in his way, and about the same time Sheridan was joined by the army of the James, under General Ord, while the army of the Potomac, under General Meade, was closing in fast upon Lee's rear. General Lee had now but eight thousand men with arms in their hands. The bulk of his forces, being too much broken down by fatigue and hunger to keep their places in the ranks, accompanied the regiments in a disorganized mass. As soon as he discovered Sheridan in his front, Lee attempted to cut his way through his lines, but failing in this effort, and being convinced that further resistance would merely be a useless sacrifice of his men, he asked for a suspension of hostilities, and went to meet General Grant. The two commanders met at a house near Appomattox Court-house, and after a brief interview arranged the terms of the surrender. General Grant treated the beaten army with great liberality. The hungry Con- federates were fed by the victors, and after laying down their arms were permitted to return to their homes. In order that the men might betake themselves as soon as possible to the cultivation of the soil, and so avoid the suffering which the failure of the harvest would entail upon the south, General Grant released all captured horses which were identified as the property of the soldiers surrendering them. The terms of the surrender were arranged on the 9th of April. On the 12th the army of northern Virginia formed in divisions for the last time, and marching to a designated spot near Appomattox Court-house, laid down its arms, and disbanded. About seventy-five hundred men with arms, and about eighteen thousand unarmed 'stragglers, took part in the surrender. The o oo / i Federal troops treated their vanquished opponents with true soldierly kindness, and carefully refrained from everything which might seem to insult the valor that had won their earnest admiration. The news of the capture of Richmond and Petersburg and the sur- render of Lee's army was received in the north with the greatest rejoicing. Bells w'ere rung, cannon fired, and illuminations flashed from every town and village, for it was understood that these great successes were decisive of the war. SURREXDEH OK GENERAL LEE. SCO HISTORY OF THE UNU.ED STATES. In the midst of these rejoicings occurred a terrible tragedy, which plunged the country into mourning. President Lincoln, whose re-elec- tion we have related, entered upon his second terra on the 4th of March, 1865, amid the congratulations of the country. On the evening of the 1 4th of April he attended a performance at Ford's theatre, in the city of Washington. During the midst of the performance the report of a pistol rang through the house, and the next moment a man leaped from the president's box upon the stage, and waving a pistol over his head, shouted "Sic semper tyrannis" (Thus always with tyrants), and disap- peared behind the scenes. The cry was raised that the president had been killed, and in the commotion which ensued the assassin escaped. The murderer had entered the lobby of the theatre, and had fired from the door of the private box upon the unsuspicious president, who was sitting with his back to him. Mr. Lincoln fell heavily forward and never spoke again. He was conveyed to a house on the opposite side of the street, and the highest skill was exerted to save him; but all in vain. He died on the morning of the 15th, surrounded by his family and the leading men of the nation. Appropriate funeral services were held on the 19th, and the body of the martyred president was conveyed through the principal cities of the north and west to Springfield, Illinois, where it was buried. Along the entire route it was received with the evidences of the nation's grief. Cities were draped in mourning, and dense crowds poured out to greet the funeral cortege and testify their love and sorrow for the dead man. Even in the south, which had made the election of Abraham Lincoln the occasion of the dissolution of the Union, the unaf- fected and manly virtues of this simply great man had conquered the people, who had come to regard him as their best and truest friend. His death was sincerely lamented there, and in the lamentation of the south Abraham Lincoln had his proudest triumph. His death was a crushing misfortune to the whole country. He was the only man capable of carry- ing out a policy of generous conciliation towards the south, and he had resolved upon such a course. He was sincerely desirous to heal the wounds of the war as soon as possible, and was strong enough to put down all opposition to his policy. His untimely death, as well as the manner of it, threw back the settlement of our national troubles fully five years. As he leaped from the president's box to the stage the assassin's foot caught in an American flag with which the box was draped, and he fell heavily, breaking his leg. He managed to escape, however. It was im- mediately ascertained that the assassin was John Wilkes Booth, a younger son of the famous actor Junius Brutus Booth. Almost at the same time THE CIVIL WAR. 861 MONUMENT TO ABRAHAM LINCOLN IN FAIRMOUNT PABK, PHILADELPHIA. that the president was shot, another assassin, one Payne alias Powell, entered the residence of Secretary Seward. Proceeding to the chamber where the secretary was confined to a sick-bed, he attacked the two attend- ants of the invalid, and his son, Frederick W. Seward, and injured them severely, and then attempted to cut Mr. Seward's throat. He succeeded in gashing the face of his intended victim, but fled before further harm could be done. Booth, who was most probably insane, had drawn quite a number of persons into a conspiracy, which had for its object the murder of the president and vice-president, Secretaries Seward and Stanton, and Chief Justice Chase. The plot failed through unexpected movements of some of the intended victims and the cowardice of some of the conspirators. Booth and a young man named Har >ld fled into lower Maryland, from which they crossed the Potomac into Virginia. They were pursued l-y the government detectives and a squadron of cavalry, and were tnx k Union. Vinrini:i. Mississippi, and Texas, having refused to ratify the amendment, were denied admission into the Union. The fourteenth amendment having been adopted by the requisite. THE ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSON. 873 number of States, was formally declared a part of the constitution on the 28th of July, 1868. In the meantime the quarrel between the president and Congress came lo a decisive issue. The extreme or radical wing of the Republican party, comprising the majority in Congress, was anxious to remove Mr. Johnson from his position. Could it succeed in doing so, Benjamin Wade, of Ohio, the president of the Senate, would, by virtue of his office, become president of the United States. As Mr. Wade was one of the ex- treme radical leaders, this would place the whole power of the govern- LAKE STREET, CHICAGO. ment in the hands of that party. A quarrel between the president and Mr. Stanton, the secretary of war, furnished the occasion for this effi On the 12th of August, 1867, Secretary Stanton was removed from the war department by President Johnson, who appointed General Grant secretary of war ad interim. Upon the meeting of Congress in Pcoetu ber, 1867, the president's course was denounced as a violation of tenure of office act, and on the 12th of January, 1868, the Senate re- fused to sanction the removal of Mr. Stanton. Mr. Sianton theroupoi demanded of General Grant the surrender of the war department, and the 874 HISTORY OF TUE UNITED STATES. latter at once complied with the demand. On the 21st of February, President Johnson again removed Mr. Stanton, and appointed General Lorenzo Thomas, adjutant-general of the United States, secretary of war ad Interim. He held the tenure of office act to be unconstitutional, and an invasion of his lawful powers as chief magistrate of the republic. This second removal of Mr. Stanton brought matters to a crisis, and on the 24th of February, 1868, the House of Representatives, by a strict party vote, ordered the president to be impeached of high crimes and mis- demeanors.* The Senate, sitting as a high court of impeachment, met on the 5th of March, 1868, under the presidency of Chief-Justice Chase. The impeachment was conducted by managers appointed by the House, and the president was defended by able counsel. On the 26th of May, the case being closed, the vote was taken, with the following result : For conviction, 34; for acquittal, 19. There not being the requisite two- thirds vote for conviction, the president was acquitted. Jefferson Davis had been confined in Fortress Monroe since his capture by the Federal forces, in May, 1865. All the Confederate officials taken by the Union forces had been released within a year after their capture on giving their parole to answer any prosecution that might be brought against them by the Federal authorities. Mr. Davis was excepted from this clemency, and remained in prison for two years. A prosecution for * The charges against the president may be summed up as follows : 1. Unlawfully order- ing the removal of Mr. Stanton from the office of secretary of war, in violation of the pro- visions of the tenure of office act. 2. The unlawful appointment of General Lorenzo Thomas as secretary of war ad interim. 3. Conspiring with General Thomas and other persons to prevent Edwin M. Stanton, the lawfully appointed secretary of war, from hold- ing that office. 6. Conspiring with General Thomas and other persons to hinder the operation of the tenure of office net ; and in pursuance of this conspiracy attempting to prevent Mr. Stanton from acting as secretary of war. 6. Conspiring with General Thomas and others to take forcible possession of the property in the war department. 7. The president was charged with having called before him the commander of the troops in the department of Washington, and declaring to him that a law passed on the 30th of June, 1867, directing that " all orders and instructions relating to military operations, issued by the president or secretary of war, shall be issued through the general of the army, and in case of his inability through the next in rank," was unconstitutional, and not binding upon the commander of the department of Washington, the design being to induce that com- mander to violate the law, and obey orders issued directly from the president. 8. That in a number of public speeches the president had attempted to set aside the authority of Congress, to bring it into disgrace, and to excite the hatred and resentment of the people against Congress and the laws enacted by it. 9. That in August, 1866, in a public speech in Washington, the president had declared that Congress was not a body authorized by the constitution to exercise legislative powers. Then followed a specification of alleged at- tempts on the part of the president to prevent the execution of the laws of Congress. The impeachment articles were eleven in number. The othar two were simply repetitions of tome of the above charges, THE ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOILMsOS. 375 treason was instituted against him in the district court of Virginia, but he was not brought to trial. A number of prominent citizens of the north who had been so active in their support of the war that their motives could not be suspected, exerted themselves to procure his release on bail, and became his sureties. He was accordingly released on bail on the 13th of May, 1867. During the following year the indictment against him was quashed by the government. During the latter part of the civil war a vexatious and bloodv warfare with the Indians broke out on the frontier. It began in 1864, and ex- tended through 1865 and 1866, and until the fall of 1868 its ravages were spread along the frontier through Southern Colorado into the Indian Ter- ritory, causing severe suffering to the settlers of this region. By the winter of 1865-'66 the war had assumed such formidable proportions that General Sheridan was sent with a considerable force against the savages. The vigorous measures of Sheridan, and General Ouster's victory over the band of Black Kettle at Wacheta, brought the war to a close in the fall of 1868. While the civil war was at its height, France, England and Spain became involved in a quarrel with Mexico concerning the non- payment of certain claims due citizens of those countries by the Mexican republic, and a joint expedition was despatched to Mexico in the fall of 1861. Discovering that France was MAJ.-OEK. OEO. w. CTBTER. seeking to use the expedition to destroy the in- dependence of Mexico, England and Spain settled their claims with the republic by the convention of Solidad, on the 4th of March, 1862, and withdrew their forces. The French, however, continued the war, and after a hard struggle, during which the Mexicans fought gallantly for their country, Mexico was conquered, and early in June, 1863, the French army entered the capital. The emperor of the French now pro ceeded to overthrow the republic, it being his intention to replace it with an empire which should be dependent upon France. An election ww held and under the intimidation of the French, resulted in a major, favor of the abolition of the republic and the erection of the ern Through the same influence the Mexicans chose Maximilian, arch, of Austria, emperor of Mexico, and in an evil hour for himself amiable and high-soulecl prince accepted the crown. The government of the United States had viewed the interference France in Mexican affairs with marked displeasure, but being too mucb 376 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. engaged in its efforts to bring the civil war to a successful close to under- take any new difficulty, simply entered its protest against the action of France. The civil war having been brought to a close, however, it took a bolder stand, and demanded of the French emperor the withdrawal of his troops from Mexico. The action of the government was sustained by the great mass of the American people, and it was believed by many that a foreign war would be a sure and speedy way of bringing about the restoration of the Union. The Emperor Napoleon hesitated for a while, but finally acceded to the American demand. The French troops were recalled at the close of the year 1866, and the Emperor Maximilian was left to face the Mexican people alone. They at once rose against him, de- feated his forces, and took him prisoner. On the 19th of June, 1867, he was shot by order of the Mexican government, in spite of the efforts of the United States to save him. Thus ended the hope of reviving the dominion of France on the American continent. The efforts of the gentlemen interested in the laying of a telegraphic cable across the Atlantic did not end with their failures in 1858. In 1865 the same company succeeded in laying a cable for about fourteen hundred miles from the Irish coast, when it suddenly parted and sank into the sea. The expedition then returned to England. Undismayed by this failure, Mr. Cyrus "W. Field, of New York, to whose courage and determination the final success of the scheme was due, succeeded in persuading capitalists to make one more effort, and in July, 1866, a cable was laid from Valentia bay, in Ireland, to Heart's Content, in Newfound- land, a distance of eighteen hundred and sixty-four miles. It was found to work to the entire satisfaction of all parties, and the great enterprise was now an accomplished fact. The fleet then sailed from Newfoundland to the spot where the cable of 1865 had parted in mid-ocean, and pro- ceeded to grapple for it. It was recovered and raised from a depth of over two miles, and was then spliced to the coil on board the " Great Eastern," the ship employed in the undertaking. The huge steamer then put about, and completed the laying of the cable to Heart's Content, thus giving the company two working lines. The completion of the work was hailed with rejoicings in both America and Europe. On the 29th of March, 1867, a treaty was concluded between the United States and Russia, by which the latter power sold to the United States for the sum of seven million two hundred thousand dollars, all of the region in the extreme northwestern part of the American continent known as Russian America. The treaty was ratified by the Senate on the 9th of April. The new territory added to the area of the United States a dis- trirt of about five hundred and seventy-seven thousand three hundred THE ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSOX. 8 77 and ninety square miles. In July, 1868, Congress extended over tin- region the laws of the United States relating to customs, commerce and navigation, and established a collection district. In August, 1868, the military district of ALASKA was organized, and attached to the department of California. With the exception of about ten thousand whites, the in- habitants were, at the time of the purchase of Alaska, all Indians. The region is chiefly valuable for its furs and fisheries, and for its harbors*, which afford a safe retreat for the American whalers in the Pacific. In 1868 a treaty was negotiated between the United States and the North German Confederation, by which the latter power recognized the right of German emigrants to the United States to renounce their alle- giance co the countries of their birth, and become citizens of the United States by naturalization. In the same year a treaty was negotiated with China, through an em- bassy from that country, which visited the United States under the charge of Anson Burlingame, formerly the American minister to China. It was the first instance in which that exclusive nation had ever sought to nego- tiate a treaty of commerce and friendship with a foreign nation. Liberty of conscience to Americans residing in China, protection of their property and persons, and important commercial privileges were secured by this treaty. In 1866 the Fenians, a secret society organized for the purpose of de- livering Ireland from British rule, invaded Canada in large numbers from Buffalo, New York, and St. Albans, Vermont. President Johnson at once issued his proclamation declaring the Fenian movement a violation of the neutrality of the United States, and sent General Meade with a sufficient force to the border to execute the laws. This decisive action put an end to the hopes of the Fenians of embroiling this country in hostilities with Great Britain, and after some slight encounters with the British troops in Canada they abandoned the expedition. During President Johnson's administration, two distinguished public servants passed away. On the 29th of May, 1866, Lieutenant-General Winfield Scott, the veteran conqueror of Mexico, died at the age of eighty .years. On the 1st of June, 1868, ex-President James Buchanan died at his home at Wheatland, near Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in the gevrnty- eighth year of his age. In the fall of 1868 the presidential election was held. The Republican party nominated General Ulysses S. Grant, the commanding-general of the army, for the presidency, and Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana, for the vice- presidency. The Democratic party nominated Horatio Seymour, of York, for the presidency, and Frank P. Blair, of Missouri, for the vice- 878 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. presidency. The election resulted in the choice of General Grant by a popular vote of 2,985,031 to 2,648,830 votes cast for Mr. Seymour. In the electoral college Grant received two hundred and seventeen votes and Seymour seventy-seven. The States of Virginia, Mississippi and Texas were not allowed to take part in this election, being still out of jthe Union. In February, 1869, the two houses of Congress adopted the fifteenth amendment to the constitution of the United States, and submitted it to the various States for ratification by them. It was in the following words : " The right of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." CHAPTER XLIV. THE ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. Early Life 01 Vresident (frant Completion of the Pacific Railway Death of ex-President Pierce Tne Firteenth Amendment Ratified Prosperity of the Country The Enforce- ment Act The 'leal-oath Abolished The Constitutionality of the Legal Tender Act Affirmed Death of Admiral Farragut Death of General Lee The Income Tax Re- pealed The Alabama singers and invited guests who were to take part in the rejoicings. A new bell of vast proportions the gift of a patriotic and public-spirited citizen was hung in the State House tower, ready to join its deep tones to the shouts of the multitude when the moment of rejoicing should arrive. Being anxious that the Centennial celebration should do Its share in cementing the reunion of the Northern and Southern States, the Com- mission began, at least a year before the occasion, the formation of a " Centennial Legion," consisting of a detachment of troops from each of the thirteen original States. The command of this splendid body of picked troops was conferred uj>on General Ambrose 'E. Burnside, of Rhode Island, and General Henry Heth, of Virginia, was chosen Lieutenant-Colonel. Both were veterans- of thb late civil war. IQQ HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Legion was readily made up, the best volunteer commands of the Original States being eager to serve in it. For a week previous to the 4th of July crowds of people began to pour steadily into Philadelphia. Volunteer organizations from the various States were constantly arriving, and were either encamped at various points in and around the Exhibition grounds or were quartered at the various hotels. The city was gayly decorated with flags and streamers, and the view down any of the principal streets was brilliant by reason of the clouds of bunting with which it was decorated. The principal buildings were almost hidden by the flags which adorned them, or were ornamented with patriotic inscriptions, and at various points on Chestnut street triumphal arches were erected. By the night of the 3d of July it was estimated that at least 250,000 strangers were assembled in Phila- delphia. The Centennial ceremonies were begun on the morning of Saturday, the 1st of July. The leading writers of the Union had been invited to prepare memoirs of the great men of our revolutionary period, which were to be deposited among the archives of the State House, and all who were able to accept the invitation assembled in Independence Hall at eleven o'clock on the morning of July 1st, 1876, where they were joined by a number of invited guests. The ceremonies were opened by an address from Colonel Frank M. Etting, the Chairman of the Committee on the Restoration of Independence Hall, and a prayer by the Rev. William White Bronson. Whittier's Centennial Hymn was then sung by a chorus of fifty voices. The names of the authors were then called, to which each responded in person or by proxy, and laid his memoir on the table in the hall. The exercises were then brought to a close, and the company repaired to the stand in Independence Square, t where a large crowd had assembled. The ceremonies in the square were begun at half-past twelve o'clock with Helfrich's Centennial Triumphal March, performed by the Centen- nial Musical Association. Mr. John William Wallace, the president of the day, then delivered a short address, after which Whittier's Centennial Hymn was* sung by a chorus of one hundred and fifty voices, and Mr. William V. McKean reviewed at some length the great historical event in commemoration of which the ceremonies were held. After the band had played "God Save America," the Hon. Leverett Saltonstall, of Massachusetts, delivered an address, which elicited warm applause. " The Voice of the Old Bell," a Centennial ode, was then sung, and Governor Henry Lippitt, of Rhode Island, made a short speech. The band followed with a number of patriotic airs, and Mr. Wallace an- THE ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 9Q1 nounced the unavoidable absence of General John A. Dix, and introduced in his place Frederick De Peyster, President of the New York Historical Society, who made a few remarks. After a Centennial Ode, by S. C. Upham, had been sung by the chorus, the Hon. Benjamin Harris Brewster delivered an eloquent address, at the close of wfiich anotl i the city resumed their wonted appearance. The lull in the festivities was not of long duration. The day was at hand, and it threatened to be mercilessly hot, as indeed it was. As the sun arose in his full-orbed splendor the thunder of cannon from the Navy Yard, from the heights of Fairmount Park, and from the Swedish, Brazilian, and American war vessels in the Delaware, and the clanging of bells from every steeple in the city, roused the few who had managed to snatch an hour or two of sleep after the fatigues of the night, and by six o'clock the streets were again thronged. In view of the extreme heat of the weather the military parade had en ordered for an early hour of the day. At a little after seven o'clock the line was formed, the right resting on Chestnut street, facing west, in the following order : Governor Hartranft, of Pennsylvania, Commander-in-Chief, and Aides ; General Bank- son, commanding First Division N. G. P., and Aides; Philadelphia City Troop; Black Hussars; Keystone Battery; Brigadier-General Thayer, Second Brigade, First Division, N. G. P., and Aides ; Cadets United States Military Academy; United States Marines; Second Brigade, First Division, N. G. P. ; Third Pennsylvania Regiment, Colonel Ballier ; Sixth Pennsylvania Regiment, Colonel Maxwell; Gray Invincibles (Pa.), Captain Jones- First Brigade, First Division, N. G. P.; Brigadier-General Brinton and Staff; Second Pennsylvania Regiment, Colonel Lyle; United Train Artillery, Providence, R. I. ; Detroit National Guards, Captain O'Keefe ; First Regiment Pennsylvania Infantry, Colonel Ben- son ; Twenty-second Regiment New York N. G,, Lieutenant-Colonel Camp ; Albany Zouave Cadets, Captain Reynolds ; Weccacoe Legion, Captain Denny ; B Company First, Regiment N. G., District of Columbia; D Company Eighth Regiment N. G. P., of Harris-, burg; Washington, D. C., Grays; Pierce Light Guards of Boston; Centennial Legion; Three companies Virginia National Guards, Colonel Ordway ; Seventh National Guards, New York, Colonel Clark ; Twenty-third National Guards, New York, Colonel Ward ; Two companies First Regiment N. G. of Vermont ; Two companies Detroit Independent Cadets; Visiting troops from Texas; Cadets of Northern Home; Girard College CadeU; Ywiting Governors and their Staffs. THE ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSKS 8. GRANT. 903 The Centennial Legion, composed of detachments from the thirteen original States, occupied a prominent place in the line. It was com- manded by General Henry Heth, of Virginia, and was composed as follows : Rhode Island, Light Infantry Regiments; Georgia, Clinch Rifles; New Jersey, Pl.ii Kearney Guards; Delaware, American Rifles; Maryland, Detachment Fifth Regiment; Massachusetts, Boston Light Infantry; South Carolina, Washington Light Infantry; New York, Old Guard; North Carolina, Fayetteville Light Infantry; New Hampshire, First New Hampshire Battery; Connecticut, New Haven Grays; Pennsylvania, State Fencibles ; Virginia, First Light Artillery Blues. The troops numbered about ten thousand men, rank and file, and the- whole column was under the chief command of General Hartranft, Gov- ernor of Pennsylvania, and a gallant veteran of the civil war. The command was made up of troops who during that bloody struggle had fought each other gallantly, and who had now come to testify their devo- tion to their common country, and to show to the world that in trusting its defence to its well-regulated militia the American republic is stronger than the most powerful monarchies of the old world. At half-past eight the column began to move down Chestnut street towards Independence Hall, in front of which the troops were reviewed by General W. T, Sherman, the Commanding General of the armies of the United States; the Secretary of War; Prince Oscar of Sweden ,- Lieutenant-General Saigo, of the Imperial army of Japan ; the officers of the Swedish men-of-war in the harbor ; the governors of several ot the States; and General Hawley, the President of the Centennial Commission. As the troops passed along they were greeted with enthusiastic cheers by the crowds on the street. The Centennial Legion and the troops from the Southern States were the objects of an especially hearty demon- stration. The route chosen was a short one, the extreme heat forbidding an extended parade, and by ten o'clock the military ceremonies were over. As soon as the parade was ended the crowd turned into Independence Square, which was soon filled. The approaches to the building by way of Chestnut and Sansom streets were kept clear by the police, in order that those who were entitled to seats on the stand might reach their places. Four thousand persons were given seats on the stand, and a vast 2rowd filled the square. As the invited guests appeared and took their seats on the platform the prominent personages were cheered by the crowd. The Emperor of Brazil received a welcome that was especially noticeable for its heartiness. It was hoped that the President of the United States would be present 904 HISTORY OF THE VNITED STATES. and preside over the ceremonies; but General Grant declined tlie invita- tion to do so, which it was at once his privilege and his duty to accept, and remained in Washington, preferring his selfish ease to a little patriotic exertion and exposure to the heat on this grandest of his country's festi- vals. ' His absence was generally remarked and severely condemned by his countrymen. At a few minutes after ten o'clock General Hawley, the President of the United States Centennial Commission, appeared at the speaker's stand and signalled to the orchestra to begin. The opening piece, which wan an overture entitled " The Great Republic," based on the national air, " Hail Columbia/' and arranged for the occasion by Professor George F. Bristow, of New York, was rendered in fine style by the orchestra under the leadership of Mr. P. Gilmore. As the music ceased General Hawley again came forward and introduced as the presiding officer of the day the Hon. Thomas W. Ferry, Vice-President of the United States, who was received with loud cheers. After a few remarks appropriate to the occasion Vice-President Ferry presented to the audience the Right Reverend William Bacon Stevens, D. D., the Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Pennsylvania, whom he introduced as the ecclesiastical suc- cessor of the first chaplain of the Continental Congress. The bishop was in his canonical robes, with prayer book in hand. He delivered a solemn and impressive prayer, during the utterance of which the whole audience stood with uncovered heads, silent and attentive, unmindful of the blazing sun which poured down upon them. When the prayer was ended the "Hymn, 'Welcome to All Nations/ words by Oliver Wendell Holmes, music, 'Keller's Hymn/" was sung. The Vice-President then announced that Richard Henry Lee, of Vir- ginia, a grandson of the patriot of the Revolution who offered the reso- Jution in Congress that "these United Colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent States," would read the Declaration of Inde- pendence from the original manuscript, which the President had in- trusted to the mayor of Philadelphia. The faded and crumbling manuscript, held together by a simple frame, was then exhibited to the crowd and was greeted with cheer after cheer, Richard Henry Lee, a Goldierly-looking Virginian, then came forward and read the Declaration ; but the enthusiasm of the crowd was too great to permit them to listen to it quietly. At the close of the reading the orchestra performed a musical composi- tion entitled "A Greeting from Brazil," a hymn for the first Centennial of American Independence, composed by A. Carlos Gomez, of Brazil, at -the request of His Majesty Dora Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil. It VIEW OF THE INTE )F NINTH AND CHESTNUT STREETS, PHILADELPHIA, 905 906 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. was received with cheers by the crowd, which were repeated for the Brazilian Emperor, whose hearty interest in the Centennial celebrations and the Exhibition had made him a favorite in Philadelphia. Mr. John Welsh, Chairman of the Centennial Board of Finance, then, at the suggestion of Vice-President Ferry, introduced Bayard Taylor, the poet of the day, who recited a noble ode, which \vas listened to with deep attention, the audience occasionally breaking out into applause. When the poem was ended the chorus sang " Our National Banner," the words by Dexter Smith, of Massachusetts, the music by Sir Julius Benedict, of England. As the music died away the Vice-President introduced the Hon. William M. Evarts, of New York, the orator of the day. Mr. Evarts was greeted with hearty cheers, after which he proceeded to deliver an eloquent and able address, reviewing the lessons of the past century and dwelling upon the great work America has performed for the world. When Mr. Evarts retired from the speaker's stand General Hawley gave the signal to the leader of the orchestra, and the "Hallelujah Chorus,' v from " The Messiah," was sung ; after which the vast audience, at the request of the Vice-President, joined in the One Hundredth Psalm, with which the memorable ceremonies came to an end. At night the city was brilliantly illuminated, and a magnificent display of fireworks was given by the municipal authorities at old Fairmount. The year 1876, however, was not destined to be entirely a period of peace. In 1867 the Government of the United States made a treaty with the Sioux Indians, by which the latter agreed to relinquish to the United States all the territory south of the Niobrara river, west of the one hun- dred and fourth meridian of longitude and north of the forty-sixth par- allel of latitude. This treaty secured to the Sioux a large reservation in the southwestern part of Dakota, and they agreed to withdraw to this reservation by the 1st of January, 1876. A few years later gold was discovered in the Black Hills country, a very desirable region situated in southwestern Dakota, and lying within the Sioux reservation. The announcement of this discovery produced great excitement among the mining class. In the summer of 1874 an expedition under General Custer was sent by the War Department to explore the Black Hills region, partly for the purpose of ascertaining the character of the country, and partly to discover practicable military routes between Fort Lincoln, in the Department of Dakota, opposite the terminus of the Union Pacifio Railway, and Fort Laramie, in the Department of the Platte. The report of this expedition confirmed the stories of the discovery of gold, THE ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES a'. GRANT. 907 and immediately preparations were made by parti PS of miners to prooppd to the favored lands for the purpose of working the gold mines. Those expeditions being reported to the government, measures were taken bv the War Department to prevent any intrusion into the Indian reserva- tion. Notwithstanding this prohibition, private expeditions were fitted out, and started for the Black Hills. Some of these were driven back by the Indians, with loss of life and property, but others succeeded in reach- ing the Black Hills. It was now evident that a systematic and determined effort would be made to settle the Black Hills, in spite of the opposition of the armv; and the government decided to endeavor to purchase the region from the Sioux and throw it open to emigration. Efforts were made during the year 1875 to induce the Sioux to sell their lands, but the weak and vacil- lating course pursued by the government simply disgusted the Indians, and they refused to make the desired arrangement. The Sioux had never been really willing to retire to the reservation to which the treaty of 1867 confined them, and now took advantage of the intrusions of the whites into their territory to gratify their long-cherished wish for war. They broke away from their reservation, and made re- peated forays into Wyoming and Montana, laid the country waste, car-, ried off the horses and cattle, and murdered such settlers as ventured to oppose them. This brought matters to a crisis, and early in 1876 the government re- solved to drive the Sioux back upon their reservation. A force of regular troops, under Generals Terry and Crook, was sent into the difficult moun- tainous region of the Upper Yellowstone, and an active campaign was begun against the Indians. The force was too small, however, for the work required of it. A large part of the army had been stationed by the President in the States of the South, for the purpose of carrying those States for the Republican party in the approaching Presidential election, and President Grant, when required to choose between the reinforcement of the troops on the frontier and the continuance of his disgraceful and unconstitutional policy in the South, decided to sacrifice the brave fellows in the field rather than lose the least party advantage that could be gained by preventing the free expression of the will of the States of the South. In spite of the smallness of its numbers, the army on the frontier suc- ceeded in forcing the savages, who were led by Sitting Bull, their most famous chief, and who num.bered several thousand fighting men, back to the Big Horn mountains. The Indians now took up a strong position in the mountains, and on the 25th of June, 1876, the Seventh Cavalry, under Generals Custer and Reno, were sent forward to ascertain the 008 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. whereabouts of the enemy. They found the savages encamped on the left bank of the Little Horn river, and occupying a large village some three miles in length. General Ouster, with his little command, at once made a gallant attack upon the Indian village, hoping that General Reno would be able to come up in time to support him. Reno was unable to advance, however, and Custers little band was soon surrounded by several thousand of the bravest Sioux warriors. The conflict which ensued was one of the most heroic in the annals of the American army, and one of the most disastrous. Custer was slain, together with every man who ac- companied him into the fight, but not until they had exacted a fearful price for their lives at the hands of the savages. General Reno, in the meantime, had become engaged at the opposite end of the town, and was so hard pressed by the Indians that he was unable to advance to Ouster's assistance. He succeeded in drawing off his men, and in retiring to the bluffs of the Little Horn, where he held his position until the arrival of General Gibbon with reinforcements compelled the savages to retreat, and saved the remnant of the Seventh Cavalry from destruction. The disaster of the Little Horn was the most terrible defeat ever inflicted upon the United States army by the savages, and was directly due to the criminal folly of the administration in sending a mere handful of troops to meet a strong body of the bravest Indian warriors on the continent. The disaster aroused such a storm of indignation throughout the country that the government hastily forwarded reinforcements to the frontier, and Generals Terry and Crook were able to conduct their cam- paign with more vigor. The Indians were beaten in a number of en- gagements, and on the 24th of November suffered a decisive defeat in a battle with the Fourth Cavalry, under Colonel McKenzie, at one of the passes of the Big Horn mountains. Negotiations were in progress during the summer and autumn for the removal of the Sioux to the Indian Ter- ritory, and by the beginning of the winter the greater part of the savages had surrendered. A few bands under Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse continued in the field. They were not allowed to remain in security during the winter, and on the 8th of January, 1877, a decisive victory was won over the band of Crazy Horse, at Wolf mountains, in Montana Territory, by General Miles, with a force of infantry and artillery. This victory led to the surrender of other bands of Indians, and early in 1877 the operations against Sitting Bull obliged that chief to take refuge in the territory of British America. By the spring of 1877 the war had been practically brought to a close. The question of the reconstruction of the Southern States was one of the legacies which President Grant received at the hands of his prede- THE ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 909 cessor. It was fondly hoped by the country at large that under the new administration "the work of reconstruction would be accomplished, and the wounds of civil war healed." The utterances of President Grant upon entering upon his new duties justified these expectations, as it was not believed that he cherished extreme views, or that he harbored vin- dictive feelings. "Nor is it probable," says a distinguished northern writer,* "that those who relied upon the President's disposition to deal fairly, and even liberally with the Southern States, were at all mistaken in that regard ; but his ignorance in civil affairs, which in some cases was conspicuous and mortifying, seems very early to have thrown him into the hands of managing politicians, and these were mainly of the extreme type, who made up in bitterness what they lacked in breadth. The poli- ticians from the South who were most about him were generally adven- turers, who found the power of the government a convenient instrument for the furtherance of personal schemes, and who did not scruple to make use of their influence with the President to that end. Among these was one of the President's brothers-in-law, who amazed the country by his daring disregard of the rights of the State which he had chosen as the scene of his operations. The northern politicians who surrounded the President were largely of a similar stripe Was it to be expected of such men that they would deal generously with a fallen foe, or was it within the compass of partisanship like theirs that their opponents should be treated with judicial fairness? llepublican leaders who were disposed to amnesty and a real oblivion for past offences, were elbowed out of place, and at last driven to the rear." The labors of reconstruction were nominally completed in 1870. " Had the course of the managing men of the party in power been wise and conciliatory, had it been actuated by high motives and statesmanlike views, and had the men who represented the party in the Southern States been men who were laboring for the good of their section, rather than for the advancement of their own personal interests, it is not to be doubted that the administration would have been able to attach to itself the sup- port of a majority of the southern people. The colored people were naturally its friends. The patronage of the administration was large, and it would have drawn a strong support to the party had it been distributed wisely and from an evident desire to accomplish only the purposes for which offices are created. Moreover, the southern people needed peace and quiet to recuperate their exhausted interests ; and while many hot- heads were supposed to be violent and troublesome, the best and most * Charles Francis Adams, Jr. 910 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. influential of them, of whom the late Vice-President of the Confederacy was an example, were disposed to accept with gratitude such advances of their late enemies as promised to render peace possible and permanent. But as, unfortunately, all were not of this class, the persons who had the President's ear, and who assumed to speak for the party in Congress, found it convenient for their purpose to present the impracticable and violent as the proper representatives of southern sentiment, and to speak of and deal with the southern people as unrepentant rebels, who were to be held down by the strong hand. That the white people of the South were alienated from the Republican party was not surprising. It was almost a matter of course that the control of the Southern States should pass to the Democratic party, for it was quite impossible to retain all the freedmen in one party, while their late masters, the persons upon whom they now relied for employment, were mainly to be found in the other. The 'color line' was drawn when the narrow policy of extreme partisans among the Republican leaders arrayed against them southern whites; the drawing of it indeed left some white leaders among the freedmen, but it did not prevent a still greater number of the latter following the political fortunes of those with whose material interests their own were so closely identified; and the political ascendency of the Republican party in the Southern States was lost permanently." * The President, however, could never be made to see the great error he was committing. He who had been so generous a foe to the people of the South, when commanding the armies of the Union, he who had made so emphatic an indorsement of the good intentions of those people in his report to President Johnson upon the condition of the Southern States, now, strange to relate, became the bitterest partisan that ever occupied the Executive chair. He turned a deaf ear to the representations of those best qualified, both by their knowledge of the subject and by their love of constitutional liberty, to advise him, and would listen only to the men whose interest it was to maintain the era of misrule which he had allowed to grow up in the South. The most unconstitutional acts received the President's sanction, and the whole Executive power was used to sustain the men who were enriching themselves at the cost of the people of the States upon which the President forced them. This interference of the President in the affairs of a State was brought to a crisis in the winter of 187475, in the State of Louisiana. At the election for members of the Legislature, held during the fall of 1874, both the Republican and Conservative parties claimed the victory. The * Charles Francis Adams, Jr. THE ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. Legislature met in New Orleans, on the 4th of January, 1875, and a struggle ensued for the control of the organization of the lower House. By their superior strategy the Democrats, or Conservatives, were suc- cessful, and proceeded to organize the House and seat five members of their own party, who had contested as many Republican seats in the House. The Democratic triumph was of short duration, however, for in a few moments General De Trobriand, of the United States army, entered the hall and announced that he had orders to remove the five members sworn in. The Democratic Speaker and the five members themselves protested against this interference on the part of the Federal troops, and declared that they would not leave their seats until forced from them. General De Trobriand immediately summoned a file of soldiers, and the five members were removed from their seats and expelled from the hall. The Democratic Speaker and members at once withdrew from the hall, and the House was organized by the Republicans. This strange and inexcusable spectacle of the interference of the Fed- eral troops in the domestic affairs of a State had then no parallel in American history. It aroused a feeling of general indignation through- out the North, and the President was sharply denounced, even by men of his own party, for his interference with the organization of a State Legislature. Several governors addressed special messages on the subject to the Legislatures of their respective States, and legislative resolutions were passed denouncing the course pursued by the Federal government. The indignation which thus expressed itself was greatly increased by a despatch from General Sheridan, commanding at New Orleans, to the War Department, dated 5th of January, 1875, advising the general gov- ernment to declare the people of Louisiana banditti, and to turn them over to him and to his troops for punishment. This savage suggestion was deeply resented by the people of the whole country, who had by this time good cause to deplore any interference of the military in civil affairs. There is reason to believe that the public indignation was felt by even the President, for, in a message to Congress upon the subject, he made this admission, while defending the course of the administration : " I am well aware that any military interference by the officers or troops of the United States with the organization of a State Legislature or any of its proceedings, or with any civil department of the government, is repug- nant to our ideas of government. I can conceive of no case not involving rebellion or insurrection where such interference by authority of the general government ought to be permitted or can be justified." And yet, with this conviction, so strongly expressed, President Grant never 912 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. hesitated to use the military force of the government to secure a party advantage whenever he thought it could be done with safety. In the summer of 1876 the various political parties of the Union met in their respective conventions to nominate candidates for the Presidency and Vice-Presidency of the United States, which officers were to be chosen at the general election in November. The Republican Convention as- sembled at Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 14th of June, and resulted in the Domination of Governor Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, for President of the United States, and of William A. Wheeler, of New York, for Vice- President. The Democratic Convention was held at St. Louis, on the 27th of June, and nominated Governor Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, for the Presidency, and Governor Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, for the Vice-Presidency. A third convention, representing the Independent Greenback party, met at Indianapolis, on the 18th of May, and nomi- nated Peter Cooper, of New York, for President, and Samuel F. Gary, of Ohio, for Vice-President. The campaign which followed these nominations was one of intense bitterness, and was in many respects the most remarkable the country hns ever witnessed. A most discreditable feature of it was the appearance of Mr. Chandler, the Secretary of the Interior, as the chief manager of the Republican party. It was the first time in the history of the country that a member of the President's Cabinet had ever held so questionable a position ; the first time that the patronage of the government had ever been used so openly in behalf of a political party. Under the leadership of Secretary Chandler, the manly and conciliatory letter of acceptance of Governor Hayes was ignored, and a campaign of great bitterness was in- augurated. The old wounds of the civil war were torn open; the people of the South were denounced as traitors, ready to plunge the country into a new war upon the slightest pretext, and the people of the North were urged to treat them as enemies, and save the government from the hands of traitors. This method of conducting the campaign received the cordial indorsement of President Grant, and, as far as he could give it, his active aid. The election was held on the 7th of November. The popular vote was as follows: For Samuel J. Tilden 4.284 205 " Rutherford B. Hayes 4,033,-J ( J5 " Peter Cooper 81,7:37 Tilden thus received a popular majority of 250,970 votes over Hayes, and a majority of 169,233 votes over both Hayes and Cooper. THE ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 913 In the Electoral Colleges 185 votes were necessary to a choice. Of this number Governor Tilden received 184, and Governor Hayes 163 undisputed votes. The votes of the States of Florida, Louisiana, Oregon and South Carolina, twenty-two in number, were claimed by both parties for their respective candidates. It was declared by the Democrats that, even conceding the votes of Oregon and South Carolina to Governor Hayes, Mr. Tilden had fairly carried both Florida and Louisiana, and was entitled to 196 electoral votes. The revision of the vote in Florida and Louisiana had been confided, since the reorganization of those States, to Returning Boards, which bodies had power to manipulate the votes of the people of their respective States to an extent sufficient to make the result what they pleased. In consequence of this, it had several times happened in Louisiana that the Returning Board had, after canvassing the vote, announced a result entirely at variance with the vote at the polls. In the present case the Florida and Louisiana Returning Boardt were Republican in their composition. In the Florida Board there was one Democratic member, but in the Louisiana Board the place of the Democratic member was vacant, and the board refused to fill the vacancy, leaving it entirely Republican. It was evident from the first that each of these boards would return the vote of its respective State for the Republican candidate, and it was feared that this interference with the will of the people would be pro- ductive of trouble. Immediately after the election, therefore, President Grant appointed a number of prominent Republicans to proceed to Florida and Louisiana to watch the counting of the votes of those States; and a number of prominent Democrats repaired to Tallahassee and New Orleans for the same purpose. These gentlemen had no official charac- ter, and were without power to interfere in any way with the counting of the vote. It was hoped, however, that their presence as witnesses would act as a check upon the boards, and thus a fair count be secured. This hope was not destined to be realized. The Louisiana Board in par- ticular was composed of reckless and disreputable men, and, in spite of the presence of the gentlemen referred to, some of the most prominent of whom gave open encouragement to the course of the board, returned the vote of the State for Hayes, thus setting aside the popular majority at the polls of over 10,000 for the Democratic candidates. A similar course was pursued in Florida, which State was also returned for Hayes. Investigations showed that the electoral vote of South Carolina had l>een fairly cast for Hayes, and it was generally conceded to him by both parties. The Democratic Governor of Oregon attempted by a trans- parent fraud to give the electoral vote of that State to Tilden, and thus 58 914 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. elect him; but it came to be the general sentiment of the country that the electoral vote of Oregon should rightfully be cast for Hayes. This confined the real struggle to the votes of Florida and Louisiana. It was the general conviction of the country that both of those States had been fairly carried by the Democratic party, and many earnest Republi- cans gave open expression to this belief. The action of the Return Boards, however, though so evidently in defiance of the will of the people, was still within the letter of the laws under which they had acted. The Republican party, therefore, claimed that, as such action was not contrary to the laws of Florida and Louisiana, it must stand; that neither Congress nor any other body had power to go behind the certificate of the electoral vote of a State, properly signed and authenticated by the State officials; and that when such certificates were presented to the two Houses of Congress, at the counting of the electoral votes of the States, they must be accepted without question, and the electoral votes of Florida and Louisiana be counted for Hayes. They declared that the States had power to make any laws they might see fit for the counting of their popu- lar vote, and that for Congress to seek to interfere with such laws would bo to illegally trespass upon the reserved rights of the States. They held, therefore, that as the action of the Return Boards was within the letter of the laws of their respective States, Florida and Louisiana must be counted for Hayes; and in order to maintain this position the Republican party was compelled to assume the strange and inconsistent role of the champion of States' Rights, the doctrine against which it had waged a relentless war of nearly twenty years. The Democrats, on the other hand, maintained that the popular majority for Tilden in Florida and Louisiana was too evident to be doubted, being simply overwhelming in the latter State, and that the Return Boards had overcome these majorities only by a fraudulent use of their powers in throwing out Democratic votes to an extent sufficient to give Florida and Louisiana to the Republicans. They declared, moreover, that, as the Louisiana Board had refused to appoint a Democratic member to the vacancy in that body, as required by the law under which they acted, their action was necessarily illegal. They held that, as both Florida and Louisiana had been wrongfully and fraudulently given to the Republicans by the Return Boards, in defiance of the will of the people of those States, as expressed at the polls, the electoral votes of both of those States should not be counted by Congress. Such action on the part of Congress would have resulted in a declaration by that body that there had been no popular choice of a President and V ice-President, and the election of the President would have devolved upon the House of Representatives, and the choice of the Vice-President upon the Senate, THE ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 91$ in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution. The Democrats, therefore, declared that they would insist upon the rejection of the votes of Florida and Louisiana, upon the ground of fraud on the part of the Return Boards; and the Republicans announced their decision to insist upon the counting of the votes of those States as certified by the State officials. Each party denounced the other with great bitterness; the country was deeply agitated, and threats of armed resistance were freely indulged in by both parties. The crisis was the most alarming that had threatened the country since the outbreak of the civil war. A feeling of general uneasiness prevailed throughout the Union, which showed itself in the depression of business in all sections. Congress met on the 4th of December, 1876. The House of Repre- sentatives WOA organized by the Democratic majority by the election of Samuel J. Randall, of Pennsylvania, as Speaker. Immediately upon the organization of Congress the question of the manner of counting the electoral votes of the States came up in that body. The Republican ma- jority in the Senate claimed that, by the terms of the Constitution, the Vice-President was compelled to open the certificates of the States in the presence of the two Houses of Congress, in joint convention, and declare the result, the two Houses being present merely as witnesses of the count by the Vice-President. With this view the Republicans in the lower House agreed. The Democrats in both Houses maintained that while the Con- stitution required the Vice-President to open the certificates and count the electoral votes, the two Houses of Congress were made the judges of the legality of those certificates, and that, in the case of the presentation of two certificates from the same State, the two Houses were the rightful judges of which was the proper one; and that, in the event of a failure of the two Houses to agree in such a decision, the vote of such State must be rejected. In support of this view they brought forward the Twenty- second Joint Rule of Congress, adopted February 6th, 1865, by a Re- publican Congress, and under which the counting of the electoral vote in 1865, 1869 and 1873 had been conducted. This rule was designed to secure a Republican triumph at the time of its passage, but in January, 1876, when it was evident that, the House of Representatives having- become Democratic, the rule would be used by the Democrats for their own advantage, the Senate, still Republican, passed a concurrent resolu- tion adopting the joint rules of the previous session of Congress as the joint rules for that session, "excepting the Twenty-second Joint Rule." The House failed to act upon the resolution. At the opening of the ses- sion in December, 1876, the President of the Senate ruled that there were uo joint rules in operation. The Speaker of the House, on the other 016 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. hand, ruled that the joint rules previously existing still existed. Thus the issue between the two Houses was distinctly made. The House declared its intention of insisting upon the right secured to it by the Twenty-second Joint Rule of objecting to the vote of a State, and that it would withdraw from the joint convention if this right were denied it by the Senate. The Senate declared that, in case of such withdrawal by the House, the count would be continued by the Senate, and the result proclaimed by the Vice-President. The House, on the other hand, an- nounced its intention of acting in such a case as if there had been no choice by the electoral vote; it would at once proceed to elect the Presi- dent as required by the Constitution. Each House was firm in its reso- lution, and the breach between them widened daily. Angry speeches and threats were made by members of Congress, and the general alarm and uneasiness deepened throughout the country. The time appointed by the Constitution for counting the electoral vote was rapidly drawing nigh, and it seemed likely that an era of anarchy was about to ensue. Each House would act for itself; two Presidents would be declared elected. There was no doubt that President Grant would sustain the choice of the Senate with the army. In such an event civil Avar was inevitable. The danger was so great that patriotic men of both parties in Congress set to work to devise some means of settlement. It was plain that this could be accomplished only by a compromise. A conference committee was appointed by each House, which committee, after a long deliberation, reported to the two Houses of Congress a bill providing for the appoint- ment of a commission, to consist of fifteen members. Five of these were to be appointed by the Senate, and five by the House of Representatives. The remaining five were to be chosen from the Justices of the Supreme Court. Four of the justices were designated by the bill ; the fifth was to be chosen by the justices named in the bill. The bill provided for the meeting of the two Houses of Congress in joint convention on the first Thursday in February. The votes were to be opened by the Vice- President, and counted by tellers appointed for the purpose. Each House was to have the right to object to the vote of a State, but in cases where only one certificate was presented the objection must be sustained by the affirmative vote of both Houses. If not so sustained, the objection must fall and the vote be counted. Section II. of the bill provided, " That, if more than one return, or paper purporting to be a return from a State, shall have been received by the President of the Senate, purporting to be the certificates of electoral votes given at the last preceding election for President and Vice-President in such State (unless they shall be duplicates of the same return), all such returns and papers shall be opened by him THE ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 917 in the presence of the two Houses when met as aforesaid, and read by the tellers, and all such returns and papers shall thereupon be submitted to the judgment and decision, as to which is the true and lawful electoral vote of such State," of the commission appointed by the bill. The de- cision of the commission, with the reasons therefor, was to be submitted to the two Houses of Congress. Should objection be made by five senators and five representatives to the report of the commission, the two Houses were to separate and discuss the said objections, the time allowed for debate being limited by the bill ; but unless both Houses should agree to sustain the objections, the decision of the commission should stand. This plan met with considerable favor from the conservative element of both Houses, but was strongly opposed by the more ultra of both parties. It was debated at length and with great vigor. It passed the Senate on the 25th of January, 1877, by a vote of 47 yeas and 17 nay? ; ten senators not voting. The vote in the House was taken the next da), and stood, yeas, 191 ; nays, 86 ; fourteen representatives not voting. The vote in the Senate was divided as follows: Yeas Republicans, 21; Democrats, 46. Nays Republicans, 16; Democrats, 1. In the House it stood : Yeas Democrats, 159 ; Republicans, 32. Nays Democrats, 18; Republicans, 68. The bill was immediately signed by President Grant, who had from the first given it his warm encouragement. The members of the commission were promptly appointed. They were as follows: Justices Clifford, Strong, Miller, Field and Bradley, of the Supreme Court; Senators Edmunds, Morton, Frelinghuysen, Thurman and Bayard ; and Representatives Payne, Hunton, Abbott, Garfield and Hoar. The two Houses of Congress met in joint convention on the 1st of February, 1877, and began the counting of the electoral vote. When the vote of Florida was reached, three certificates were presented and were referred to the Electoral Commission. This body, upon hearing the arguments of the counsel of the Democratic and Republican parties, de- cided that it had no power to go behind the action of the Return Board, and that the certificate of that body giving the vote of that {State to Hayes must be accepted by the two Houses of Congress. The vote by which this decision was reached stood eight (all Republicans) in favor of it, and seven (all Democrats) against it. The party line appearing thus so sharply in the commission mortified and disgusted the whole country, which had looked to the commission for a decision that should be beyond question. A similar conclusion was come to in the case of Louisiana. Objections were made to the reception of the votes of Oregon and South Carolina. In the Oregon case the decision was unanimously in favor of 918 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. counting the votes of the Hayes electors. In the South Carolina case the commission decided that the Democratic electors were not lawfully chosen ; but on the motion to give the State to Hayes, the vote stood 8 yeas to 7 nays. So South Carolina was counted for Hayes. Objection was made, on the ground of ineligibility, to certain electors from Michigan, Nevada, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont and Wisconsin, but the objections were not sustained by the two Houses. The final result was reached at ten minutes after four o'clock on the morning of the 2d of March, 1877. The counting of the votes of the States having been concluded, Mr. Allison, one of the tellers on the part of the Senate, announced the result of the footings; whereupon the pre- siding officer of the two Houses declared Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, the duly elected President, and William A. Wheeler, of New York, the duly elected Vice-President, for the term of four years, commencing on the 4th of March, 1877. The country had watched the proceedings of the Electoral Commission with the deepest interest, and with feelings of pain and disgust at the strong partisan bias which marked all of its decisions. For a while there was a disposition to reject its award ; but the conservative sentiment of the nation prevailed, and it was finally resolved to accept the decision as the only escape from worse trouble. The sentiment of the best element of the country was thus summed up by a leading journal : " The Electoral Commission has completed its work, and we do not believe there is one candid and competent person outside of the heated circle of partisans of the ' successful ' party who will hesitate, after a careful examination of its formal judgments submitted to Congress, to say that its official record disgraces every member of the majority of that body. The task which this majority had to perform as a partisan body was a difficult one, and the necessity of presenting reasons, as judges, for action taken simply as politicians, involved its members in a maze of contradictory opinions to justify contradictory judgments. In the Florida case it compelled them te hold that evidence to prove the ineligibility of an elector was admissi- ble, and, in that case, the eligibility of Humphreys was decided on its merits. In the Louisiana case, on the other hand, it compelled them to declare that all evidence as to the eligibility of two of the Hayes electors was aliunde, and that their eligibility was a presumption of law. In the Oregon case, again, they were forced to take evidence touching the in- eligibility of Watts, and a decision was made on the point pronounced immaterial in the Louisiana case, the court actually going so far as to show what course of election, resignation, and reappointment it was necessary for Watts to go through with in order to make himself eligible! THE ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 919 In the Florida case, the governor's false certificate, based ou what the courts of the State had declared a false canvass, was pronounced final and unassailable. In the Oregon case, the certificate of the governor, based on a true canvass and on his interpretation of the laws of the State affect- ing it, was held to be void and of no effect. In the Louisiana case it was held that the commission could not inquire whether the Returning Board was legally constituted or had obeyed the statute creating it, nor yet whether the persons to whom the governor gave certificates received a majority of the votes cast in the State or not. But in the Oregon case it was decided that the act of Governor Grover, ' in giving to E. A. Cronin a certificate of his election, though he received a thousand votes less thau Watts, on the ground that the latter was ineligible, was without authority of law, and is therefore vacant.' This establishes in effect the principle if such it can be called that, while a governor's certificate is not gooti against a Republican elector in Oregon, who has one thousand votes and the equities in his favor, a governor's certificate is valid against a Demo- cratic elector in Louisiana who has eight thousand votes and the equities in his favor. The many absurdities and inconsistencies put forward by the commission to serve as legal excuses for its partisan action come to their zenith and consummation in the South Carolina decision and the resolutions upon which it is based. Taken all in all, it is not too much to say that no such hasty and ill-digested opinions were ever before offered by a set of judges in defence of a series of dishonest decrees." CHAPTER XLV. THE ADMINISTRATION OF RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. Inauguration of President Hayes Sketch of the New President Civil Service Reform Settlement of the Troubles in South Carolina and Louisiana Tenth Census of the United States Election of General Garfield as President. B. HAYES, the nineteenth President of the United States, was publicly inaugurated at Washington on Monday, March 5th, 1877. As the 4th of March fell on Sun- day, the President-elect simply took the oath of office on that day. The inaugural ceremonies were carried out on the 5th at the capitol with the usual pomp and parade, and in the presence of an enormous multitude of citizens and visiting military organizations from all parts of the country. After the customary reception by the Senate, the new President was escorted to the eastern portico of the capitol, where he delivered his inaugural address to the assembled multitude, after which the oath of office was publicly administered to him by Chief- Justice Waite. The new President was a native of Ohio, having been born at Dela- ware, in that State, on the 4th of October, 1822. He graduated at Kenyon College, Gambier, Ohio, and obtained his professional education at the Cambridge Law School. He began the practice of the law at Cincinnati in 1856. He was shortly afterwards made city solicitor, which office he held until the beginning of the civil war in 1861. Soon after the opening of the war he enlisted in the Twenty-third Ohio Volun- teers, with which regiment he served as major, lieutenant-colonel and colonel. He led his regiment, which formed a part of General Reno's division, at the battle of South Mountain, in September, 1862, and was severely wounded in the arm in that engagement. In the fall of 1862 he was made colonel of the regiment, and in 1864 was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general of volunteers, "for gallant and meritorious services in the battles of Winchester, Fisher's Hill, and Cedar Creek," and was brevetted major-general, " for gallant and distinguished services during the campaigns of 1864 in West Virginia, and particularly in the battles of Fisher's Hill and Cedar Creek." At the time of this last 920 THE ADMINISTRATION OF RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. 921 promotion he was in command of a division. He served until the close of the war, receiving four wounds and having five horses shot under him during his military career. In the fall of 1864 he was elected to Con- gress, and was returned a second time in 1866. In 1867, before the expiration of his Congressional term, he was elected Governor of Ohio, and was re-elected to that office in 1869, being each time the candidate of the Republican party. In 1870 General Hayes was again elected to Congress, and in 1874 was nominated for a third term as Governor of PRESIDENT HAYES. Ohio. His opponent was Governor William Allen, one of the most popular of the Democratic leaders of Ohio. General Hayes was elected by a handsome majority. He resigned this office in March, 1877, to enter upon his new duties as President of the United States. President Hayes, in his letter accepting the nomination of his party for the Presidency, declared that if elected he would earnestly and faithfully seek to do justice to the States of the South, and reform the civil service of the country by ridding it of corrupt men, and requiring a faithful dis- charge of duty at the hands of every public officer. Immediately upon 022 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. his inauguration he set to work to make good his promises. He selected his Cabinet from among the ablest men in the country, making ability, and not partisan service, the test of the fitness of the persons selected. William M. Evarts, of New York, was made Secretary of State, and the existence of the Southern States as members of the Union was recognized by the appointment, as Postmaster-General, of Mr. Key, of Tennessee, who had sustained the Democratic ticket in the canvass of 1876. Except to the extreme partisans who had done the country so much harm under the last administration, the appointments of the new President gave great satisfaction to the entire nation. Measures were promptly set on foot for the inauguration of a better civil service system. It is yet to( oon to predict the result, but there seems to be good reason to believe that the President's plan will be successful. The most important matter which presented itself to the new Presi- dent for settlement was the condition of the States of Louisiana and South Carolina. Under President Grant the troops of the United States had been freely used to control the political affairs of those States. In the fall of 1876 an election for governor and other State officers was held in each of these States. The result at the polls was in favor of the Demo- cratic or Conservative candidates. In each State the revision of the vote was controlled by the most ultra Republicans, some of whom were candi- dates for re-election. The Returning Boards, therefore, made such changes in the popular vote as they found necessary for their own success, and announced the triumph of the Republican tickets in Louisiana and South Carolina. The outrage was too transparent this time, and the patience of the people was exhausted. The Republican party of the North declined to sustain their southern associates any longer. In South Carolina the Conservatives resolved to inaugurate General Wade Hampton, their candidate, as governor. All investigations into the election made it evident that Hampton and his associates had been fairly chosen by the people at the polls, and the party which had elected him, and which represented the property and intelligence of the State, determined not to submit to the rule of the men whom they had defeated. The Governor of the State was Mr. Daniel H. Chamberlain, who had been the Republican candidate for re-election. Upon learning the intention of the Democrats to inaugurate their governor, Mr. Chamber- lain applied to President Grant for military aid. He hoped to repeat in South Carolina what had been done in Louisiana to organize his Legis- lature under the protection of the troops of the United States, declare the result of the election in his favor, and compel the people to submit on THE ADMINISTRATION OF RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. 923 pain of a conflict with the United States. His application to President Grant was promptly responded to, and General Ruger, commanding the Department of the South, was ordered to place the troops stationed in Columbia at Governor Chamberlain's disposal. Having secured the aid of the troops, Governor Chamberlain now proceeded to take the first step in his plan. On the night of the 27th of November the State House was occupied by a detachment of troops, which was posted so as to command all the approaches to the halls of the Legislature. The 28th of November, 1876, was the day appointed for the meeting WILLIAM A. WHEELER. of the Legislature. The Democratic members met in caucus at ten o'clock in the morning, and proceeded in a body to the State House. Arriving there they found the building occupied by the troops, and were compelled to submit their credentials to the officer of the guard, who ad- mitted such as had papers which he pronounced satisfactory. Passing through the troops the members of the Legislature reached the door of the hall of the lower House, which they found guarded also by troops. The doorkeeper, backed by the military force, refused to admit certain of the delegates whose credentials he declared were null and void. The entire body of Democratic members then withdrew, after protesting 924 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. against the interference of the military. Under the protection of the troops the Republicans organized the Legislature. The interference of the troops aroused the most intense excitement in Columbia, and it was with difficulty that an outbreak was prevented, mainly through the influence of General Hampton. This indignation spread throughout the country, and the unwarrantable interference of President Grant in the domestic affairs of a State was sharply denounced. The Democrats, on the 29th of November, succeeded in gaining admis- sion to the State House, where they organized the House of Representa- tives. After a struggle of a week with the Republicans, they withdrew to South Carolina Hall, and conducted the sessions of their Legislature there, gaining members by degrees from Chamberlain's Legislature at the State House. The Republican Legislature declared the election of Governor Chamberlain, and on the 7th of December he was sworn into office, under the protection of the Federal troops. The Conservative Legislature continued its sessions at South Carolina Hall, and on the 14th of December Governor Hampton was publicly in- augurated amid the greatest enthusiasm. He at once set to work, with his associates, to administer the government of the State. He was recog- nized by the vast majority of the people of South Carolina, by many even who had voted against him. His authority was everywhere respected ; and his calls upon the people to advance a portion of the taxes to enable him to carry on the government were cordially and promptly responded to. The authority of Governor Chamberlain was not recognized beyond the limits of the State House in which the Federal troops were quar- tered; the people refused to pay their taxes to his government, and his governorship was a mere name. In view of this state of affairs President Grant was repeatedly urged to withdraw the troops from the State build- ings to their barracks; but, as he knew that such a step would result in the downfall of the Chamberlain government, he persistently refused to do so. Such was the state of affairs in South Carolina at the inauguration of President Hayes. The new President, with characteristic caution, pro- ceeded to investigate the matter. After a patient and thorough inquiry he found that the Federal troops were quartered in the State House of South Carolina in an unlawful manner; that the Constitution gave to the Federal government no authority to interfere in the domestic concerns of a State, leaving the decision of disputed elections to the State courts for settlement; and that no such state of lawlessness or insurrection as would justify Federal interference existed in South Carolina. In view of these facts, his duty in the case was plain. It was to restore the proper THE ADMINISTRATION OF RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. 925 relations between the Federal government and the State of South Caro- lina, and to put an end to the unlawful and unjustifiable interference with the affairs of that State. The matter was laid before the Cabinet and on the 2d of April, 1877, it was resolved to order the troops to withdraw from the State House to their barracks at Columbia. The order was at once issued, and was carried into effect on the 6th of April. The troops were withdrawn, and Soutli Carolina was left to settle her own affairs. This step was followed by the speedy withdrawal of Gover- nor Chamberlain from the contest. The Hampton government was soon installed in the State House, and its authority was firmly established in all parts of the State, to the great joy of its people. The State buildings of Louisiana had been held by the Federal troops ever since the expulsion of the members of the Legislature by General De Trobriand, in 1873. At the election, in 1876, Mr. Stephen B. Pack- ard was the Republican candidate for Governor, and Mr. H. T. Nicholls was the candidate of the Democratic party for the same office. The elec- tion resulted in the choice at the polls of Governor Nicholls by an over- whelming majority. The Returning Board, however, so manipulated the popular vote as to make it appear that Mr. Packard had been chosen Governor. This fraudulent return was supported by the Federal government, and under the protection of the troops Packard was in- augurated. The substitution of Mr. Packard for Mr. Kellogg as Governor of Louisiana did not touch the evils from which the people of that State had been suffering for so many years. Their patience was exhausted, and they resolved to repudiate the men that had been forced upon them and to sustain the government of their choice. The Conservative Legis- lature was accordingly organized, and on the 8th of January, 1877, Governor Nicholls was publicly inaugurated. On the same day Mr. Packard was sworn into office under the protection of the troops. The Nicholls government got to work as soon as possible; its authority was recognized throughout the State by the courts and people; taxes were paid to it, and it' was indorsed and supported by a vast majority of the people of Louisiana. President Grant was urged to remove the troops from the State House and other buildings belonging to Louisiana, and was assured that the Packard government would fall to pieoes for lack of support as soon as he should take the troops away. He refused to do so, however. President Hayes found Louisiana in this condition when he entered upon his duties as Chief Magistrate. He selected a commission, consist- ing of four Republicans and one Democrat, and these gentlemen, at his 926 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. request, proceeded to New Orleans to investigate and report to him the real state of affairs in Louisiana. They made an investigation of the af- fairs of the State, and found Packard a governor in name only, while the authority of the Nicholls government extended throughout the State. They found also that the condition of affairs in Louisiana was not such as to justify the further interference of the Federal government in the domestic concerns of the State. The conclusions of the commission were reported to the President on the 19th of April, and the next day he issued the order to withdraw the United States troops in New Orleans from the State buildings to their barracks. The troops were withdrawn at noon on the 24th of April, amid the rejoicings of the people. Governor Pack- ard at once abandoned the contest. The members of his Legislature joined the Nicholls Legislature, and the affairs of the State were once more placed in her own hands. The action of the President in withdrawing the troops from South Carolina and Louisiana gave great satisfaction to the country at large. A small class of extreme politicians were disposed to denounce it, but their partisan outcries were silenced by the general voice of approval which came from all parts of the Union. The nation was sick of civil war and partisan strife, and hailed the action of the President as the beginning of the long-hoped-for, long-delayed era of peace and good-will. In the year 1880 the Tenth Census of the United States was taken, and showed the population of the country to be 50,152,559. In the summer of 1880 the various political parties of the country met in Convention to nominate candidates for the Presidency and Vice- Presidency of the United States. The Republican Convention met at Chicago on the 2d of June, and nominated James A. Garfield, of Ohio, for President, and Chester A. Arthur, of New York, for Vice-President. The Democratic Convention met at Cincinnati, on the 22d of June, and nominated Winfield Scott Hancock, of Pennsylvania, for President, and William H. English, of Indiana, for Vice-Prcsident. The Greenback Convention met at Chicago, on the 9th of June, and nominated James B. Weaver, of Iowa, for President, and B. J. Chambers, of Texas, for Vice- President. The election was held on the 2d of November, and resulted in the choice of General James A. Garfield, who received 214 electoral votes to 155 electoral votes cast for General Hancock. The popular vote was as follows: Garfield, 4,437,345; Hancock, 4,435,015; Weaver, 305,931. CHAPTER XLVI. THE ADMINISTRATION OP JAMES A. OARFIELD. General Garfield Declared President Inaugural Ceremonies Sketch of the New Presi- dentContest with the Stalwarts The Star Route Cases Assassination of President Garfield His Illness Removal to Long Branch Death of President Garfield Removal of the Remains to Washington and Cleveland Interment at Cleveland Inauguration of President Arthur. |N the second Wednesday in February, 1881, the two Houses of Congress met in joint-session in the hall of the House of Repre- sentatives, for the purpose of counting the electoral vote. The certificates of the Electoral colleges of the various States having been opened and read, with the result mentioned above, the Vice-President announced that James A. Garfield had been duly elected President of the United States, and Chester A. Arthur Vice-President, for the term of four years, from the 4th of March, 1881. The result of the election was cordially accepted by the conntry, and the nation began to look forward to a new era of prosperity and happi- ness. On Friday, March 4th, 1881, the inauguration ceremonies took place upon a scale of unusual magnificence, and were participated in by numer- ous military and civic organizations, and by thousands of citizens from all parts of the country. After the new Vice-President had taken the oath of office, President-elect Garfield was formally received by the Senate, and escorted to the eastern portico of the capitol, where, in the presence of an immense multitude of citizens and soldiery, he delivered an able and eloquent inaugural address, and took the oath of office at the hands of Chief-Justice Waite. The new President had been long and favorably known to his coun- trymen. He was in his fiftieth year, and in vigorous health. A man of commanding presence, he was dignified and courteous in his demeanor, accessible to the humblest citizen, and deservedly popular with men of all parties. Born a poor boy, without influential friends, he had by his own efforts secured a thorough collegiate education, arid had carefully fitted himself for the arduous duties he was now called upon to dis- 927 928 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. charge. Entering the army at the outbreak of the civil war, he had won a brilliant reputation as a soldier, and had been promoted to the rank^of major-general of volunteers. Elected to Congress from Ohio, in 1862, he had entered the House of Representatives in December, 1863, and JAMES A. GARFIELD. had seen almost eighteen years of constant service in that body, in which he had long ranked as one of the most brilliant and trusted leaders of the Republican party. Early in 1880 he had been chosen a United States Senator from Ohio, but had been prevented from taking his seat in the Senate by his election to the Presidency. Immediately after his inauguration he sent to the Senate for confirmation the names of the THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES A. GARFIELD. 929 members of his Cabinet. They were chosen from among the leading members of the conservative portion of the Republican party, and were headed by James G. Elaine, of Maine, as Secretary of State. They were at once confirmed by the Senate, and the new administration embarked upon its short-lived career. Very soon after entering upon his duties, President Ga'rfield found MKS. LUCRETIA R. OARFIKLI), WIKK OF THE PRESIDENT. that the Executive chair was by no means a bed of roses. The Republi- can party soon divided into two sections, one, .known as the " Conserva- tive," supporting the administration, and the other, known as " the Stal- warts," opposing it. A bitter partisan quarrel sprang up between these two wings of the party, and prolonged the Executive session of the Senate until late in June. The quarrel was the fiercest over the appoint- ment of a new collector for the port of New York, and culminated in 59 930 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the resignation of their seats in the Senate by Senators Conkling and Platt of New York, on the 16th of May. The resignation of these gen- tlemen was based upon the ground that the President had nominated Judge Robertson to be collector of the port of New York, without con- sulting or yielding to the wishes of the senators from that State, the said senators in effect claiming the right to determine what appointments should or should not be made by the President in their State. The President, on his part, insisted upon his right to nominate to office any man whom he should deem worthy of the trust. The struggle was in reality a contest for the independence of the Executive in the matter of public appointments, and President Garfield was warmly supported by the great mass of the nation without regard to party. He, therefore, pursued with unshaken firmness the policy he had determined upon. After the resignation of Senators Conkling and Platt, the nomination of Judge Robertson was confirmed by the Senate. As the time wore on, President Garfield gained steadily in the esteem of his countrymen. His purpose to give to the nation a fair and just administration of the government was every day more apparent, and his high and noble qualities became more conspicuous. Men began to feel for the first time in many years that the Executive chair was occupied by a President capable of conceiving a pure and noble standard of duty, and possessed of the firmness and strength of will necessary to carry it into execution. The country was prosperous, and there was every rea- son to expect a continuance of the general happiness. Soon after the opening of President Garfield's administration, the Postmaster-General discovered that certain contracts for carrying the mails on what are known as "The Star Routes," were fraudulent, and that the persons interested in them were defrauding the government of large sums of money. The President, Postmaster-General and Attorney- General, sustained by the other members of the Cabinet, without excep- tion, thereupon resolved to bring the guilty parties to justice. The lat- ter being men of wealth and position, bitterly resented the course of the government, and violently denounced it. Nevertheless the President caused measures looking to the punishment of the accused parties to be begun, and only the unexpected adjournment of the grand jury and court prevented a formal indictment from being brought against them. Before other measures could be taken, the attention of the entire nation was occupied by an event of graver importance. While these matters were still in progress, President Garfield began preparations for a brief pleasure trip to Long Branch, where Mrs. Garfield was recovering from a severe illness ; intending from that point to visit 932 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. New England, and be present at the commencement exercises of his alma mater^ Williams' College, in Massachusetts. He was to be accompanied by a distinguished party, including several members of the Cabinet. On the morning of the 2d of July, the party proceeded to the Baltimore and Potomac depot, where they were to take the cars, in advance of the President, who arrived soon after in company with Secretary Elaine, who came simply to see him off and say good-bye. They left the President's carriage together, and sauntered arm-in-arm through the depot towards the cars. In passing through the ladies' wait ing-room, the President was fired at twice by a man named Charles J. Guiteau. The first shot inflicted a slight wound in the President's right arm, and the second a terrible wound in the right side of his back, between the hip and the kidney. The President fell heavily to the floor, and the assassin was secured as he was seeking to make his escape from the building, and was conveyed to a police station, from which he was subsequently taken to prison. The President lay helpless upon the floor of the waiting-room, the blood flowing copiously from both his wounds. As soon as those near him recovered from the dismay into which the tragedy had thrown them, he was placed upon a mattrass, physicians were summoned, and he was conveyed to an upper room in the depot. He bore his sufferings with great firmness, and from the first displayed a cool courage that won the warm admiration of the country. The surgeons summoned were soon at hand, and found that the President's injuries were very critical. It was decided to remove him to the Executive Mansion, and he was carried down the stairs, placed in an. army ambulance and driven rapidly to the White House. Arriving there he was conveyed to his wife's chamber, overlooking the Potomac, and placed in bed. Two attempts were made by the surgeons to find the ball one at the depot, and one at the White House after his arrival there but both were unsuccessful. Grave fears were entertained by the surgeons for the President's life, and Mrs. Garfield was summoned by telegraph from Long Branch. She arrived during the evening. The news of the attempt upon the President's life spread rapidly throughout the Union, and was everywhere received with horror and indignation. During the afternoon his condition became more alarming, and bulletins were issued by the surgeons in charge at frequent intervals, giving the latest news of the state of the illustrious sufferer. These were telegraphed to all parts of the country, and were watched with eager im- patience by vast crowds, of citizens wherever they were posted. The sym- pathy of the whole nation went out warmly towards the wounded Pres- ident and his afflicted family, and from the governments and nations of 933 934 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Europe messages of inquiry and sympathy were constantly received through the Atlantic cable. During the entire period of the President's illness the official bulletins were issued three times each day, and t^e nation was thus kept informed of his condition. The best medical and surgical skill of the country was employed in the effort to save the President's life, and throughout the whole period of his illness he never lost his calm courage, but displayed a firmness and cheer- fulness that astonished his attendants, and encouraged them to hope for a favorable result. The afternoon of the 2d of July wore anxiously away, no signs of a reaction being manifested, but after the arrival of Mrs. Garfield, in the evening, the President began to rally slightly. The night was passed in anxious suspense. On the morning of the 3d, the President was calm and cheerful, though he fully realized the gravity of his situation. He told Dr. Bliss, the surgeon in charge of his case, that he wished to know exactly what his chances for life were ; that while he desired to live, he was prepared to die, and did not fear to learn the worst. Dr. Bliss replied that though his injuries were formidable, he had, in his judgment, a chancre for his life. " Well, Doctor," exclaimed the sufferer, with a cheerful smile, " we'll take that chance." The day passed away without any event of importance, and the anxious nation as well as the President's attend- ants drew some hope from the fact that he continued " to hold his own." The popular anxiety and sympathy were strikingly manifested on the 4th of July, the anniversary of the National Independence, in the listless and careless manner in which the day was celebrated. The people were too much engrossed with their anxiety to take part in any demonstration of joy. The two months following the wounding of President Garfield dragged wearily away, the patient at times showing symptoms of marked improve- ment, and at others experiencing dangerous relapses. The nation alter- nated between hope and despair, and was kept all the while in a most painful suspense. The surgeons in charge, however, recognized the true character of the wound from the first, and while they hoped for a recovery, could not conceal from themselves the fact that such a result would be almost miraculous. The President's sufferings were very great during this period, and were increased by the intense heat of the season and the unhealthy surroundings of the White House. Yet he bore them all with unshaken firmness ami unalterable cheerfulness. Dr. Bliss, his chief surgeon, writes of him during this period : " The time which passed until the 23d of July, when the first rigor occurred, was chiefly remarkable for the quiet, cool determination of the sufferer. Quite ready for, and evidently expecting the worst, his demeanor was that of the man whose 936 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. great intellect and wonderful will enabled him to give the most intelli- gent aid to the physician. Apparently indifferent as to the result, so far as it should affect him alone, he still watched every symptom, even mak- ing inquiry after each examination as to the temperature, pulse and res- piration, and every measure of relief adopted, with evidently firm deter- mination to live for others if possible." Towards the last of August, the surgeons in attendance upon the Pres- ident resolved to remove him from the White House to a more healthful locality. The removal was a risk, but not so great a risk as to permit him to remain in the malarious atmosphere which surrounded the Exec- utive Mansion, and which was rapidly destroying the little strength left him. It was decided to convey him to Long Branch in the hope that the pure and bracing air of the sea would enable him to regain some of his lost vitality. Accordingly, on the 6th of September, the Presi- dent, accompanied by his family, his surgeons, and attendants, was conveyed to Long Branch in a train especially prepared for the purpose. The journey was made quickly and successfully, and after reaching Long Branch the President seemed to rally. For the first few days after his arrival at the seashore his symptoms were so much better that renewed hope sprang up in the hearts of his countrymen. It was only for a brief period, however. On the 16th of September there was a marked change for the worse, with unmistakable evidences of increasing weakness in / O mind and body. On the 17th the President sank still lower, and in the fdrenoon was seized with a severe rigor. On the evening of the 18th another alarming rigor occurred, followed by other grave symptoms. From this time the President continued to grow worse. On the morning of the 19th he was attacked with another severe rigor, but after that had passed away appeared more comfortable, and his attendants were hopeful of a quiet night for him. Towards nine o'clock in the evening he fell into a quiet sleep, from which he awakened, shortly after ten o'clock, in great pain. General Swaim, who was watching by him, alarmed by the President's symptoms, hastily summoned the family and the surgeons. The President was unconscious when they arrived, and continued to sink rapidly. Efforts were made to revive him with stimulants, but in vain, and at thirty-five minutes after ten o'clock, the brave struggle was brought to an end, and the soul of James A. Garfield passed into eter- nity. The sad news of the death of President Garfield was at once tele- graphed to New York, and by eleven o'clock the whole country was aware that its Chief-Magistrate was dead. Bells were tolled in every city, town, and village of the Union, and everywhere citizens draped 937 938 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. their houses in mourning. Such a display of national sorrow had never been witnessed before. The news of the death of President Garfield was at once transmitted by telegraph to Vice-President Arthur by the members of the Cabinet present at Long Branch, and he was advised by them to take the oath of office as President without delay. Accordingly, Justices Brady and Donahoe of the Supreme Court of New York were at once summoned by the Vice-President, and at a little after two o'clock on the morning of the 20th of September, he took the oath of office as President of the United States before them at his private residence in New York. On the 20th of September arrangements were made for removing the body of the late President to Washington City, and on the same day an autopsy was held upon the body by the surgeons who had been in at- tendance, upon the President, assisted by several others. The autopsy revealed the fact that the wound had been fatal from the first. On the morning of the 21st, funeral ceremonies were held in the cottage at Long Branch in which the President died, and at ten o'clock the remains were placed on board of a special train, and conveyed to Washington, and ac- companied by the family and friends of the dead President, and by President Arthur and a number of distinguished personages. Wash- ington was reached at 4.35 in the afternoon, and the body was escorted by a detachment of military and Knights Templar to the Capitol, where it was laid in state until the 23d. During the 2'2d and 23d it was visited by over one hundred thousand persons. On the afternoon of the 23d, the public funeral services were held in the rotunda of the Capitol, after which the body was escorted to the Baltimore and Poto- mac depot, and conveyed to Cleveland, Ohio, by a special train. Cleve- land was reached the next day, and the remains were laid in state in a structure especially prepared for them until the morning of the 26th, when they were buried with the most imposing ceremonies in Lake View Cem- etery, in the suburbs of that city. Business was suspended and memorial services were held during the day in all parts of the United States. On the 22d of September President Arthur again took the oath of office, this time at the hands of the Chief-Justice of the United States, and was quietly inaugurated in the Vice-President's room, in the Capi- tol, delivering upon this occasion a brief inaugural address. Soon after the attempt upon the life of President Garfield, a popnln. subscription was set on foot to provide a fund for the support of hLs family in the event of his death. The movement was successful, and over $330,000 were raised, and invested in United States bonds for the benefit of the widow and children of the "Martyred President." ADMINISTRATION OF CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 939 President Arthur entered quietly upon the duties of his administra- tion, and his first acts were satisfactory to a majority of his countrymen. As he had been the leader of "the Stalwart" section of the Republican party, it was felt by the members of the Cabinet of the late President that he should be free to choose his own advisers. Therefore, immediately upon his accession to the Executive chair, Mr. Blaiue and his colleagues tendered him their resignations. They were requested, however, by the new President to retain their offices until he could find suitable successors CHESTER A. ARTHITB. to them. To this they agreed, but before the year was out several impor- tant changes had been made in the Cabinet. The principal of these were the substitution of Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey, for Mr. Elaine, as Secretary of State, and the appointment of Judge Charles J. Folder to the Treasury Department. One of the first acts of the new administration was to cause the indict- ment of Charles J. Guiteau for the murder of President Garfield. The grand jury of the District of Columbia met on the 3d of October, 1881. 940 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and promptly found a true bill against Guiteau, who was arraigned in the Criminal Court of the District on the 14th of October. After some delay the trial of the assassin began on the 14th of November. The first three days were consumed in selecting a jury, and then the trial began in ear- nest. It ended on the 25th of January, 1882, in the conviction of Gui- teau for the murder of the late President. The prisoner was defended by able counsel, and was allowed many privileges never before granted to persons on trial for so grave an offence. The plea upon which the defence was based was insanity, but the evidence entirely destroyed this assump- tion, and the verdict of the jury was received throughout the country as just and proper. An effort was made by Guiteau's counsel to obtain a new trial for him, but this was denied by the court, and on the 4th of February Guiteau was sentenced to be hanged on the 30th of June, 1882. The counsel for the prisoner still continued his efforts to secure a new trial, but these being unsuccessful in each and every instance, his only resource was an appeal to the clemency of the Executive. The President declined, however, to interfere with the sentence. During the interval between his sentence and his execution, Guiteau was confined in the jail of the District of Columbia, at Washington. His conduct during this interval was in keeping with that which had marked his trial vain, egotistical, and blasphemous. To the last the prisoner was confident that President Arthur would interfere in his behalf, but the result proved this to be a vain hope. The execution took place in the District jail on the 30th of June, 1882, and was witnessed by about two hundred people, nearly all representa- tives of the press. Guiteau displayed more firmness than had been expected of him. He walked to the gallows without making the violent scene which had been anticipated by many, and ascended it with a firm step. Upon the scaffold, however, he displayed considerable emotion, which he quickly subdued. His religious adviser, Rev. Dr. Hicks, offered a short prayer, and Guiteau read a selection from the Holy Scrip- tures. Then he read a prayer, strangely at variance with his religious professions, in which he called down the curse of the Almighty upon all who had been engaged in his trial and execution, and upon the nation at large, and denounced President Arthur as a coward and an ingrate. Finally he chanted a poem which he had written during the morning. . Vt the close of this singular recital the trap fell, precisely at forty-three minutes past twelve o'clock, and the great crime against the American people was avenged. Guiteau's neck was broken by the fall, and his death was painless. He died without a struggle, and with scarce a tremor. CHAPTER XLVII. CONCLUSION. I E have now traced the history of the republic from its settlement through the first century ^f its national existence, and from the point we have reached may look back over the long period we have traversed, and mark the results accomplished by the nation and the lessons which our history teaches. In material growth our country has surpassed every nation upon the globe. At the beginning of the Revolution, nearly two centuries after the settlement at Jamestown, th a population of the thirteen colonies was a little more than three millions. By 1790, the year after the inauguration of the republic, it was 3,929,827. In 1880 it had reached the enormous figure of 50,152,559. In 1776 the area of the States comprising the Union was less than one million square miles, embracing only a narrow strip of country along the Atlantic from Georgia to Canada. It has grown by successive additions until it is now nearly four millions of square miles, and stretches from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic ocean. In 1776 but a few wretched roads connected the distant parts of the country. Now all points are brought into close and intimate relations with each other by lines of railway and canals. Splendid steamers navi- gate our bays, lakes and rivers, and the feeble and precarious trade of colonial days has expanded into a mighty and growing system of com- merce which is rapidly enriching the country. In 1880 there were about seventy thousand miles of railway in operation in the United States. The telegraph was unknown at the commencement of our existence. Over seventy thousand miles of wire are now in operation in this country. In 1776 the manufactures of the country were few, and were limited to one or two necessary articles. In 1870 there were 252,148 establish- ments in the United States, employing a capital of $2,11.8,208,769, and producing manufactured articles to the value of $4,232,325,442 annually. In 1790 the tonnage of the United States engaged in foreign trade was only a little over half a million. In 1860 it exceeded six millions. It 941 942 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. fell off during the war, in consequence of the depredations of the Anglo- Confederate cruisers, but it now amounts to 4,068,034 tons, and ranks next to that of Great Britain. In 1880 the total value of goods imported into the United States from foreign countries was $667,885,565; the total value of exports for the same year was $835,793,924. In 1790 the cultivation of cotton was just being introduced in the South. In 1860 the cotton crop amounted to 5,198,077 bales, and con- Ktituted the principal article of export at that period. In 1880 the crop amounted to 5,737,257 bales. Besides the larger crops, the value of orchard and market garden pro- SCENE ON THE HUDSON RIVEK IN 1875. ductd in 1870 was $68,054,418. In the same year the value of home- made articles was $23,433,332 ; the value of slaughtered animals, $398,- 956,376 ; the cash value of farms, $9,262,803,861 j and the value of farming implements and machinery, $336,878,429. The inventive genius of the country has supplied every demand which its rapid development has created. To Americans the world owes the application of steam to navigation, the invention of the electric telegraph, the sewing machine, the cotton gin, the reaping machine, the discovery of the use of ether as an anaesthetic, and the great improvements in the steam-engine and the printing-press. " The States were behind us in CONCLUSION. 943 invention," says Mr. Charles Reade. "They soon advanced upon us, and caught us, and now they head us far. . . Europe teems with the material products of American genius. American patents print English newspapers, and sew Englishmen's shirts. A Briton goes to his work by American clocks, and is warmed by American stoves, and cleaned l>\ American dust-collectors. . . In a word America is the leading nation in all matters of material invention and construction, and no other nation rivals nor approaches her." Nor is it only in material wealth that the improvement of our country ST. PAUL, JHXITESOTA. lias been so remarkable. In the higher departments of intellectual effort it has kept pace with its growth in riches In 1800 there were but two hundred newspapers published in tho United States. In 1880 the number of daily newspapers was 5,670, and their circulation amounted to 3,581,187 copies. At the opening of the century there were few libraries in this country, and these were chiefly in the hands of private individuals. In 1870 there were in the United States 164,815 public and private libraries, con- taining 45,528,938 volumes. 9-14 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Tn 1790 there were not more than a dozen colleges in the Union, and the common schools were confined to the New England States. In 1870 there were 2454 colleges and professional and scientific schools in tht United States, with an attendance of 255,190 pupils. The private school" in the same year numbered 14,025, with 726,688 pupils, and the free public schools 125,059, with an attendance of 6,228,060 pupils. The total income of all these establishments in 1870 was $95,402,726. In the same year there were but 748,970 white males and 1,145,718 white females, of twenty-one years and over, who could not read, among the inhabitants of the United States. The public schools exist now in every State, and liberal provision is made for their support, in order that the blessings of education may be diffused among the entire population. At the beginning of the century the number of churches was limited, and in many communities there was not a single religious establishment. In 1870 there were 63,082 religious edifices in the Union, with sittings for 21,665,062 worshippers. In this year the value of church property was $354,483,581. Such are some of the results of a century of free government. Few persons, one hundred years ago, would have believed them possible. The American republic was an experiment, and its establishment and first steps were watched with the keenest anxiety by the friends of kuman freedom in all parts of the world. Even the founders of our system of government were painfully apprehensive of the future, while from mo- narchical Europe came hosts of predictions of failure. The wisest states- men of Europe had grave doubts whether a nation established upon prin- ciples such as ours could long endure. They predicted that in a short time we would be involved in wars with foreign powers ; that our gov- ernment, unable to give security to life and property, would end in anarchy, and that we would at last be driven into monarchy as the only solution of the troubles that would afflict us before the end of the century. Time, the great solver of all problems, has demonstrated the wisdom of the fathers of the republic, and has confounded the predictions of their opponents. Republican institutions have been tested, and have been found sufficient to all the wants of a free people. Let us compare the predictions of our adversaries at the commencement of our existence with the actual facts as they have occurred. It was predicted that we would be involved in ruinous foreign wars, as our weakness would tempt stronger nations to acts of aggression. We have had but two foreign wars one with England and the other with Mexico from both of which we have emerged successfully and with in- creased strength. In the same period England has engaged in four VIEW ON THE COLORADO RIVKB. 945 946 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. foreign wars, besides her wars in India, China and Persia. France has had ten, Prussia six, Russia ten, Austria five, and Italy six foreign wars in the same period of time. With the exception of England every one of these nations has been beaten in some of its wars. Thus it appears that republican institutions have not only given us success in war, but have secured for us a longer period of unbroken peace than any European power has enjoyed. It was predicted that we would be torn by internal dissensions, and that our government would end in anarchy. During the entire period of our national existence we have had but one serious internal disturbance the civil war which has been happily overcome, and the wounds of which are being healed by the virtues of our free institutions. During this same period England has had two insurrections, Prussia one, Austria two of great severity, Russia one, France seven revolutions, each of which has been accompanied by a change in the form of government, and Italy and Spain an indefinite number. Our government has been strong enough to put down the most formidable civil war of history, and yet at the same time to preserve the institutions of the republic unimpaired. The result has shown that we are less inclined to civil wars and revolu- tions than monarchical Europe. Our government has never been overthrown, while those of many European states have been overturned by revolutions since the establish- ment of our cwn. France has never been able to maintain a system of government for a quarter of a century since the great Revolution. In Austria, Bavaria and Greece, the sovereign has been forced to abdicate, and in France he has several times been riven from the throne and country. Even Prussia has been forced to submit to the demands of the revolutionary spirit, as when, in 1848, she changed her form of govern- ment from an absolute to a constitutional monarchy. Our confederation of States has never been broken up. Germany has witnessed the destruction of the Holy Roman Empire, the downfall cf the system established by Napoleon, and the destruction of the German confederation. The Austrian state has been several times overthrown. Italy has been changed from a kingdom to a collection of detached states, and then to a kingdom again. France has lost her possessions of Holland and Belgium and the Rhine provinces. During this period our govern* ment has prospered and grown great, and at the same time the various States, as many in number as all the countries of Europe, have retained their independence and the sole management of their internal affairs. We have gained ground steadily. Our territory has increased rapidly by conquest, purchase, or cession, and we have never at any time parted CONCLUSION. 947 with a foot of land belonging to the republic. During this period scarcely a state of Europe has failed at some time or other to lose a material part of itself. Thus republican institutions have enabled us not only to retain our original possessions, but to aggrandize ourselves beyond the wildest dreams of any European monarchy. Our growth in material wealth and in the higher departments of civil* ization has been shown. It was argued at the commencement of our existence that our republican ideas would lead us to run into licentious- ness and infidelity. To-day we have more churches than any nation in ' Europe, and our people are a more practically religious people than any European nation. Foreign writers often admit that this is the only country whose civilization is based on personal religion. Yet we have no state religion or religious laws, but leave matters of conscience to be settled between the man and his Creator. Our benevolent institutions are equal to those of any European country in number, efficiency and the liberality with which they are supported. Crime is not more frequent here than in other lands ; and it is a notorious fact that our criminal and pauper classes are almost entirely composed of foreigners. Thus we have proved to the world that republican institutions can make a country as great, as strong at home and respected abroad, as pros- perous and as stable, as enlightened and as virtuous as the most powerful monarchy, and by far freer and happier. Such a destiny could not be worked out by any but a free people. The supremacy of the law in this country leaves the citizen free and untram- melled. We have dispensed with large standing armies, which eat up the life of states, and the safety of the republic and our institutions is intrusted to the whole body of citizens, each of whom is vitally interested in maintaining it. We have no class interests to array our people in hostile divisions. Church and state are separate ; neither intrudes upon the domain of the other ; and the result is to the advantage of each. All men are equal before the law, and personal merit is the only badge of distinction among us. Men are trained to regard themselves as free citi- zens of a free land, a title more precious than all princely rank. Such a state of society can exist only among an educated people. An ignorant man can never be a good citizen. This was the deep conviction of the Pilgrim fathers, and it led them to undertake the great experi- ment of educating the people at the expense of the state, in order that they might properly discharge their obligations of citizenship. Their de- scendants have continued their work, and have extended the work begun by them throughout the entire country, and have wisely made the five school the basis of our whole political system. There, free from ssctariau 948 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. influence or teachings, the young citizen receives the training which fite him to appreciate and enjoy in after years the blessings secured to him, and to labor for their perpetuity. If any man seek the reason of the remarkable prosperity of our country, he will find it in the general in- telligence of our people. As a whole our people are more intelligent than those of European states. The education of our women is higher than that of any other nation. For this we are indebted to the free school. If, then, the story of our first hundred years teaches us any lesson, or conveys any warning, it is that we should guard with jealous care our system of free public education, and resist any and all efforts to impair its usefulness, or to give to it a sectarian character. It is the most precious heritage that has come down to us from our fathers the corner-stone of republican liberty. It is worth fighting for, worth dying for, if need be. APPENDIX. THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. S the close of the first century of the independence of the United States drew near, it was generally regarded as the duty of the nation to celebrate it in a manner worthy of the great fame and wealth of the republic. Various plans for accomplishing this object were suggested, but none met with a national approval. In 1866, a number of gentlemen conceived the idea of celebrating the great event by an exhibition of the progress, wealth, and general condi- tion of the republic, in which all the nations of the world should be invited to participate. The honor of originating and urging this plan upon the public belongs to the Hon. John Bigelow, formerly minister from the United States to France ; General Charles B. Norton, who had served as a commissioner of the United States at the Paris exposition of 1867; Professor John L. Campbell, of Wabash College, Indiana; and Colonel M. Richards Mudde", of Philadelphia. The plan proposed by these gentlemen was not generally received with favor at first. It was argued in opposition to it that the great exhibitions of Europe were the work of the governments of the countries in which they were held ; that under our peculiar system the government could not take the same part in our exhibition ; and that it would thus be thrown into the hands of private parties and would result in failure. The city of Philadelphia was designated as the place at which the exhibition should be held. This feature of the plan aroused considerable opposition growing out of local jealousies. It was argued by the friends of the scheme that Phila- delphia was fairly entitled to the honor, inasmuch as it had been the scene of the signing of the declaration of independence ; and that the city was also admirably located for such an exhibition, being easily accessible from all parts of the Union and from Europe. The friends of the scheme labored hard to overcome the objections urged against it, and had the satisfaction of seeing their plans become more popular every day. The matter was ably discussed in the press of the country, and at length was taken in band by the Franklin Institute 949 950 APPENDIX. of Philadelphia, which body petitioned the municipal authorities to grant the use of a portion of Fairmount Park for the purposes of a centennial celebration. This petition was laid before the select council by Mr. John L. Shoemaker, one of that body, who offered a resolution providing for the appointment of a joint commission of seven members from each chamber to take the subject into consideration. The resolution was adopted, and Mr. Shoemaker was appointed president of the joint com- mission. After a careful consideration of the subject, the commission decided to lay the plan before Congress. The legislature of Pennsylvania now came to the assistance of the commission, and adopted a resolution requesting the Congress of the United States to take such action as in its judgment should seem wise in favor of an international celebration in the city of Philadelphia of the one hundredth anniversary of American independ- ence. The legislature also appointed a committee of ten to accompany the Philadelphia commission to Washington to present a memorial upon the subject to Congress. The memorial of the committees was presented to Congress by the Hon. W. D. Kelley, a representative from Pennsyl- vania, who urged its adoption by that body, and the selection of Phila- delphia as the scene of the celebration, as that city had witnessed the adoption, signing, and proclamation of the declaration of independence. Early in March, 1870, Mr. Daniel J. Morrell, of Pennsylvania, pre- sented a bill in the lower House of Congress, making provision for the proposed exhibition. The bill was several times amended, and was finally adopted by Congress on the 3d of March, 1871. It provided for the appointment by the president of the United States of a commissioner and alternate commissioner from each State and Territory of the Union, who were to be nominated by the governors of the States and Territories from which they were appointed. Philadelphia was selected as the place at which the exhibition should be held ; and it was expressly declared that the United States should not be liable for any of the expenses attending the exhibition. The president having approved the bill, it became a law. During the year 1871 he appointed the commissioners provided for by the act of Congress. They were invited to assemble at Philadelphia on the 4th of March, 1872; and on that day commissioners from twenty-four States, three Territories and the District of Columbia met at the Continental Hotel, in Philadelphia. A temporary organization was effected by the election of David Atwood, of Wisconsin, as chairman, and J. N. Baxter, of Vermont, as secretary. The commissioners then repaired in a body to Independence Hall, where they were officially received and welcomed APPENDIX. by Mayor Stokley. General Joseph R. Hawley, of Connecticut, responded to this address on behalf of the commissioners, who then repaired to the chamber of the common council. After a prayer by the Rev. Dr. Hutter, the commissioners proceeded to business. On the 5th, a permanent organization was effected, officers were elected, nine standing committees were appointed, and the United States Centennial Commission was defi- nitely organized. In order to provide the necessary funds for the Exhibition, Congress, on the 1st of June, 1872, adopted a bill creating a "Centennial Board of Finance," who- were authorized to issue stock in shares of ten dollars each, the whole amount issued not to exceed ten millions of dollars. The subscriptions to the stock were opened November 2 1st, 1872, and were continued for one hundred days. The members of the Centennial Board of Finance were appointed by the stockholders at a meeting held in April, 1873. A majority of the members of the board were chosen from Philadelphia in order that, these gentlemen being residents of the city, there might always be a quorum for the transaction of business present at the meetings of the board. The board was authorized to issue bonds to an amount not to exceed the capital, to be secured upon the exhibition buildings and other property in possession of the commission, and upon its prospective revenues. The board was also ordered to begin at once the work of preparing the grounds and ei acting the necessary buildings for the exhibition. On the 4th of July, 1873, the commissioners of Fairmount Park formally surrendered to the Centennial Commission the area of four hundred and fifty acres that had been set apart by the city government for the purposes of the exhibition. The transfer was made in presence of an immense throng of citizens, and with imposing ceremonies in which the military and civic organizations of Philadelphia took part. The ceremonies were opened with a prayer by Bishop Simpson of the Method- ist Episcopal Church, after which Hon. Morton McMichael, president of the Park Commission, formally surrendered the grounds to General J. R. Hawley, president of the Centennial Commission, who accepted thsm in an appropriate address. As he closed his address, General Hawley exclaimed, " In token that the United States Centennial Com- mission now takes possession of these grounds for the purpose we have d -scribed, let the flag be unfurled and duly saluted." The stars and stripes were then raised, and at the same moment the trumpeter of the City Troop gave a signal which \vas answered by a salute of thirteen gun? from the Keystone Battery. A grand military review succeeded these cere- monies, and the festivities were closed by'a display of fireworks at night. On the 3d of July, 1873, the president of the United States issued a 952 APPENDIX. proclamation in which, after stating the action of Congress with reference to the exhibition, and declaring that he had received official notice that the grounds had been secured and that the buildings vould be imine- .liately commenced, he declared: "Now, therefore, I, Ulysses S. Grant, President of the United States, in conformity with the provisions of the Act of Congress aforesaid, do hereby declare and proclaim that there will be held, at the City of Philadelphia, in the State of Pennsylvania, an International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, and Products of the Soil and Mine, to be opened on the 19th day of April, Anno Domini eighteen hundred and seventy-six, and to be closed on the 19th day of October in the same year. "And, in the interest of peace, civilization and domestic and inter- national friendship and intercourse, I commend the celebration and exhibition to the people of the United States ; and in behalf of the gov- ernment and people, I cordially commend them to all nations who may be pleased to take part therein." On the 5th of July, the secretary c,f state of the United States for- warded the president's proclamation to the various foreign ministers resid- ing in the United States, together with an official note, from which we make the following extract : " The president indulges the hope that the government of will be pleased to notice the subject, and may deem it proper to bring the exhibition and its objects to the attention of the people of that country, and thus encourage their co-operation in the proposed celebration. And he further hopes that the opportunity afforded by the exhibition for the interchange of national sentiment and friendly intercourse between the people of both nations may result in new and still greater advantages to science and industry, and at the same time serve to strengthen the bonds of peace and friendship which already happily subsist between the govern- ment and people of and those of the United States." In order that the Federal government shall be fully represented in the exhibition, the president of the United States, on the 23d of 'January, 1874, issued an order that there should be displayed in the exhibition such objects appertaining to the executive departments of the government as should "illustrate the functions and administrative faculties of the government in time of peace and its resources as a war power, and thereby serve to demonstrate the nature of our institutions, and their adaptations to the wants of the people." To carry out the requirements of this order the president directed that each of the departments participating in the exhibition should appoint one person to take charge of its property and arrange for its proper display and safe-keeping. APPENDIX. 953 CENTENNIAL MEDAL OBVERSE. On the 5th of June, 1874, Congress adopted a resolution requesting the president to extend, in the name of the United States, " a respectful and cordial invitation to the governments of other nations to he repre- sented and take part in the Cen- tennial Exposition." In accord- ance with this resolution the in- vitation was extended by the president, and was accepted by nearly all the European govern- ments. On the 16th of June, Congress passed a bill authorizing the Cen- tennial Commission to cause to be prepared and struck at the Mint at Philadelphia, medals commem- orating the one hundredth anni- versary of the Declaration of Inde- pendence. The said medals were to be furnished to the Commission by the Mint " upon the payment of a sum not less than the cost thereof." On the 18th of June, 1874, Congress passed an act for the admission, free of duties, of all articles from foreign countries intended for the Inter- national Exhibition. The work upon the buildings and grounds of the Exhibition was begun immediately after the trans- fer of the grounds to the Centennial Commission, and was pushed for- ward steadily. The enterprise re- ceived the cordial indorsement and hearty support of the people of the United States, and ample funds were provided to insure its success. The buildings were all completed in time for the reception of the goods intended for exhibition, and the work of installation was begun at the appointed day, and was carried forward rapidly and promptly. On the 10th of May, 1876, the Exhibition was formally opened with imposing ceremonies by the Presi- dent of the United States in the presence of a vast throng of citizens. Among the visitors were the Emperor and Empress of Brazil. CENTENNIAL MEDAL REVERSE. 954 APPENDIX. The grounds appropriated to the Exhibition comprise a tract of four hundred and fifty acres situated within the well-known and beautiful Fairmount Park, the total area of which is three thousand acres. They extend from George's Hill almost to the Schuylkill river, and northward almost to the Belmont mansion. Of this tract two hundred and thirty- six acres have been occupied by the Exhibition buildings and the open spaces between them, and have been enclosed with a stout picket fence. The tract thus enclosed is admirably adapted to the purposes of the Exhibition. It is an elevated plateau, with three spurs jutting out toward the river, separated from each other by deep, wooded ravines, through which flow small streams. The ravine nearest the southern end of the grounds is called the Lansdownc valley, the other the Belmont valley. The Lansdowne valley is spanned by two handsome bridges, the Belmont valley by one, these bridges affording an _ easy communication between the various portions of the grounds. The Exhibition plateau stands one hundred and twenty feet above the Schuyl- kill, and is always swept by a delightful breeze. The view from either of the spurs is exquisitely beautiful, embracing as it does the river, the park, and the distant city. The most northern of these spurs is occupied by the Agricultural Building, the central one by Horticultural Hall, and the southern by Memorial Hall. The three unite in a broad plain, which contains the Main Building, Machinery Hall, the United States Govern- ment Building and a number of smaller structures. The sides of the ravines and the spaces between the more prominent edifices are also thickly covered with buildings. Thirteen places of entrance and exit to and from the grounds have been selected by the Board of Finance. The.se are located at points convenient to the main roads and nearest to the places at which the horse and steam railways and steamboats will set down their passengers. Each entrance is provided with a patent registering apparatus, which is connected by an electrical wire with a dial in the office of the Bureau of Admissions, and registers each visitor as he passes in. / TRANSCONTINENTAL HOTEL, OPPOSITE MAIN BUILDING. APPENDIX. 955 The principal buildings are five in numtar, and consist of the Main Hall of the Exhibition, the Memorial Hall or Art Gallery, the Agricul- tural Hall, the Horticultural Hall and the Machinery Hall. These cover a total area of about forty-eight acres, and constitute the principal edifices. The Main Exhibition Building is a parallelogram in shape, 1880 feet in length by 464 fiet in width, and 70 feet in height, with central towers 120 feet high. Including its towers and projections, it covers an area ot twenty-one and a half acres. At the centre of the longer sides are pro- jections 416 feet in length, and in the centre of the shorter sides or ends of the building are projections 216 feet in length. In these projections, in the centre of the four sides, are located the main entrances, which are provided with arcades upon the ground floor, and central fagados extend- ing to the height of 90 feet. The building is of iron and glass, and in the interior shows a grand hall 70 feet in height, with a central pavilion rising to a height of 96 feet. A magnificent central avenue 120 feet wide extends through the entire length of the building, and there are two side aisles of equal length and 100 feet wide. Three transepts or cross avenues intercept the three long avenues, and divide the plan into nine open spaces, free from supporting columns. A number of lesser aisles traverse the building. The latter are 48 feet in width. The edifice was erected by Mr. R. J. Dobbins, one of the most eminent builders of Philadelphia. He was the constructor of the Public Ledger Building, and his two great works in the Exhibition grounds, the Main Building and Memorial Hall, are enviable monuments of his skill and energy. In "the construction of the Main Building 7,000,000 feet of lumber, and nearly 8,000,000 pounds of iron were used, and the services of three thousand men were employed. Underneath, and ex- tending through the edifice, are four miles of water and drainage pipes, the service in this respect being perfect. Gas pipes are introduced through the building, which is lighted at night by " reflectors " suspended from the roof, and placed beyond the possibility of communicating fire to the structure or itvS contents. Hydrants are placed at numerous points in the hall, and are so arranged that the water can be turned directly upon a fire, which can be extinguished before it has gained any advantage. The light in the building is excellent, and all exhibitors are placed on an equality for showing their goods by the admirable arrangement of the hall in this respect. The cost of the Main Building was $1,580,000. The foundations of the building were begun in the autumn of 1874. On the 8th of May, 1875, the erection of the iron work was begun, and was completed on the 2d of December, 1875. The other work was carried on with rapidity, 956 APPENDIX. and the building was completed early in February, 1876, and on the 14th of that month was delivered by the contractor to the Board of Finance. The Main Building is in all respects the most imposing structure of the Exhibition. It is not as beautiful as Memorial Hill, but is superb in its massiveness and in the perfection of its details. In spite of its immense size, it is light and graceful in appearance, and seen from any commanding point, with its thousands of flags and streamers fluttering in the air, its beautiful proportions rising grandly and clearly against the sky, it constitutes an object which long holds the gazer's eye and elicit? his warmest praise. The exterior is painted in light brown colors, with tasteful ornamental lilies in red and other harmonizing hues. VIEW OF THE SCHtJYLKILL FROM LAUREL HILL, SHOWING THE FALLS BRIDGE. The interior is decorated handsomely. The prevailing colors are the lightest shade of blue and cream color, and the decorations are in bright, cheerful tints v. T hich blend w r ell with these hues. There is nothing sombre or gloomy about the edifice, and the taste displayed in the selec- tion and arrangement of colors is highly to be commended. Around the inner cornice small circular panes of stained glass have been set, decorated with the arms of the United States, the various States and Territories of the Union, and the different nations of the world, and with subjects relating to the arts and sciences. The four sides of the central transept are ornamented with elaborate APPENDIX. 957 pieces representing America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Each of these paintings is forty feet in width and fifty feet in height, and embodies a group emblematic of one of the four quarters of the globe. The building is provided with every possible comfort for visitors. Seats are scattered through the aisles, and at the ends of the main aisle and cen- tral transept are water-closets and wash-rooms for visitors. Cloak-rooms and umbrella-stands, provided by the Department of Public Comfort, are located under the arcades at the four main entrances to the building. Umbrellas, water-proofs, or parcels of any kind are received at these stands, and taken care of for a small sum. The owner is given a metal check for his property, and this must be presented when the article is claimed. Restaurants are located at the north and south ends of the central transept. They are provided with lunch counters as well as the ordinary tables. Soda-water stands are established at several prominent points in the main aisles and the central transept. Wheel-chair stations are located at each end and near the centre of the main aisle. In the main aisle, also, are stands for the sale of the official catalogues and guide books. Telegraph offices are established at one or two points in the main aisle, from which messages may be sent to any part of the world. Scattered through the building are a number of iron letter boxes, estab- lished by the United States Post-Office Department, from which collec- tions are made at stated times. In the centre of the building a large music-stand has been erected. Concerts are given here daily. On the south side of the main aisle, about half-way between the eastern entrance and the transept, is the establishment of the Centennial Safe Deposit Company. The company receive on deposit valuables and papers, and guarantee their safe return upon demand. A charge is made for the keeping of each article according to a fixed tariff. The safes of the company are fire-proof. In one of the central towers a steam elevator conveys visitors, who may wish to make the ascent, to the roof or to the galleries of the tower. Stairways are provided for those who do not wish to use the elevator. The elevator is of the most approved construction, and is exhibited as one of the most perfect specimens of its kind. In a work like this it is simply impossible to describe each feature of the Exhibition in detail. We can only refer to it in general terms, dwell- ing merely upon the objects which constitute its principal attractions. At least one-third of the twenty-one and a half acres of the floor-space of the Main Building is occupied by the United States. These seven acres are filled with a rich and beautiful display, and the national pride of the native visitor is sure to find satisfaction in the imposing and spk-n- 958 APPENDIX. did appearance made by his country. In one department especially, the show-cases in which the articles on exhibition are displayed, the United States lead the world. The United States. We begin our inspection of the contents of the Main Building in our own country, and in doing so glance first at the great gallery which crosses the eastern end over the entrance doors. Stairs ascend to this gallery from either side of the entrance. A sign over the doorway at the foot of the stairs informs us that the gallery is occupied mainly by the Educational Department of the Sfate of Massachusetts. This display occupies the northern and southern sections of the gallery, the central portion being given to the well-known Boston organ- builders, Hook & Hastings, who display here one of their grand organs and a number of smaller instruments. In the two rooms on the right and left of the great organ, the Com- monwealth of Massachusetts displays her public school system, and does so by exhibiting models and specimens of the furniture, apparatus, and text-books used in her schools of all grades, and by showing the actual work of the pupils of the various schools as set forth in their examination papers. These papers are bound in handsome volumes, each of which is prefaced by a sketch of the system used in the various classes, and the questions propounded to the pupils at the examinations. The result is highly creditable to the State. The gallery at the south end of the central transept contains the educa- tional departments of a number of the States. These are Maryland, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Maine, New Jersey, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Iowa, Wisconsin, Tennessee and Connecticut. The system adopted for showing the workings of their school systems is similar to that of Massachusetts. Nearly all the States mentioned show models, plans, or photographic views of their public schools of various grades. Samples of school furniture are also shown, and some of the States exhibit models of their educational buildings so constructed as to display the interior ao well as the exterior arrangement. At the eastern end of the gallery the colored schools of the South make a creditable showing of their progress. The gallery at the north end of the transept is occupied by the second of the great organs of the Exhibition. This is the Roosevelt Organ. Having finished our glance at the galleries, we now descend to the floor" and begin our inspection at the eastern end of the American department, which is also the eastern end of the building. Near the eastern doors the manufacturers of paper display their wares. The exhibit is very good, and the articles are arranged in the most taste- APPENDIX. 959 ful and attractive manner. The show-cases used are beautiful specimens of skill in cabinet-making. The Philadelphia and New York stationers also exhibit fine specimens of book-binding. Close by, Lange & Little, of New York, exhibit some beautiful specimens of fine printing. We now reach the main aisle, near the eastern doors. Here is collected the display of cotton, woollen and silk goods of American manufacture. In all three departments the exhibit is very fine. Nearly all the great New England factories are represented in some cases by separate ex- hibits, and in others by collective exhibits of the products of all the mills in a single town. The group is the largest in the building, and, with the exception of a few from Philadelphia, the exhibitors are mainly from New England. The cotton and woollen mills of the West and South are but poorly represented, and this is all the more to be regretted, as they have made such marked progress of late years as to render them for- midable rivals of the Eastern mills. A contrast between the articles displayed here and those exhibited in similar sections by the foreign countries cannot fail to be gratifying to the American visitor. To the north of this section the carpet-makers of New England, New York and Pennsylvania have erected a triple row of pavilions, open on one side, in which an extensive and beautiful collection of American- made carpets is shown. Except in the most costly styles, woven in a single piece, this young American industry compares more than favorably with its older competitors from Europe. The designs are handsome and tasteful, the workmanship good. On the south side of the main aisle, above the department of textile fabrics, the hardware and cutlery firms of the country make their display. The collection of cutlery compares well with that of the great English manufacturers, and few visitors will fail to notice the immense Centennial knife and fork exhibited by the Beaver Falls Cutlery Company, of Pennsylvania. The exhibit of tools and hardware of all kinds is complete and attractive, and merits a careful study. Alongside of the hardware men, Mr. Charles W. Spurr, of Boston, has erected a small but handsome pavilion, the inner walls of which are decorated with polished woods prepared by a patent process. The wood is sawed to the thinness of soft paper and is then glued to harder paper, which is pasted on the walls in the usual manner, after which the wood surface is subjected to a high polish. This system of house decoration is very beautiful, and is rapidly becoming popular in this country. On the south side of the hall, near the eastern end, is the display of American pottery and porcelain. It is creditable on the whole, but does not compare with the display made by either of the leading European 960 APPENDIX. nations, or by China or Japan. The exhibits in this line are therefore modestly placed in a corner. Below the pottery collection are a number of tall marble and granite shafts and monuments, and beyond these are the carefully executed maps and charts of the Geological Survey of New Jersey, with a number of specimens of the geological formations of the State. Close by, the Stephens Institute of Technology, of Hoboken, New Jersey, displays an interesting collection of scientific apparatus. The iron, steel and slate men of the country make an imposing display of ores and manufactured metals. The Cambria Iron Works of Penn- sylvania has a stately Masonic arch constructed of solid T rails ; and close by the famous Lucy Furnace, of Pittsburgh, is shown in a small but complete model. The display of ores, pig-metals, manufactured articles, nails, bars and other products, is extensive and interesting. The Keystone Bridge Company, of Pittsburgh, exhibit alongside of the irons a fine model of the famous draw-bridge constructed by them over Raritan bay for the Central Railroad of New Jersey. Crossing towards the main aisle again, we notice a handsome case in which the American Watch Company, of Waltham, Massachusetts, display an extensive assortment of handsome watches in gold and silver cases. A few feet north of this case the Elgin Watch Company, of Elgin, Illinois, exhibit their watches and a number of samples of the wheels and other movements used in them. In Machinery Hall we shall see the process by which these watches are made by machinery. This is one of the most interesting features of the whole exhibition. Crossing the *main aisle we notice along its northern side a formidable row of Gatling, Parrott and breech-loading guns. The cannon are all fine specimens of the classes to which they belong, and attract much attention. The display of small arms is also very fine, and shows some interesting improvements in sporting weapons. North of the arms collection are the burglar and fire-proof safes. All the principal safe makers are represented, and the display is exceptionally good and interesting. To the west of this stand is a large case containing a handsome display of military uniforms and ornaments, passing which, we enter a region of ready-made clothing and ladies' costumes. Continuing on the north side we notice a handsome display of terra cotta ware. Galloway & Graff, of Philadelphia, exhibit some beautiful vases, tazzas, pedestals and fountains. The collection of articles for homelier uses is also very good. APPENDIX. 961 Along the western end of the American department on the north side is a capital exhibit of ropes and cordage, from the most delicate pack- thread to the stoutest cables. We have now reached the extreme limit of the American department on the north side, and returning to the main aisle cross to the south side at the soda fountain which stands opposite the Mexican court. In the front line on the south side of the main aisle are the vaults of the Centennial Safe Deposit Company, looking the very picture of strength and security, and next above this the Seth Thomas Company, of Thomaston, Connecticut, display a large collection of American clocks. Immediately above the clocks is the Telegraph Department, fronting also on the main aisle. The Western Union Telegraph Company exhibit here a complete collection of telegraphic apparatus, and a thorough illus- tration is given of the system by which the extensive lines of this company are operated. The display of glassware along the main aisle is very beautiful and quite extensive. The finest specimens of cut and ground glass are to be seen here. This department extends southward from the main aisle, and embraces also a large collection of plainer and more substantial articles of glass. Wheeling, West Virginia, and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the two principal seats of American glass manufacture, are well represented, and New Jersey and Massachusetts also make excellent displays. Just beyond the glassware, on the main aisle, is a magnificent display of fine gas fixtures by the leading mafanucturers of New York and Phila- delphia. This is one of the most notable features of the American department, and many of the articles exhibited are exceedingly beautiful. No foreign country has anything to compare with us in the extent of the display in this line. The next department is that of the silver and plated ware. The firms represented here are principally from the Eastern States, and the display of the finest grades of plated ware is large and magnificent. The various manufacturing firms represented appear to have exhausted their ingenuity in the production of rare and beautiful articles for display at the great Exhibition. The cases are rich and massive, and are in strict accordance with the beautiful objects they contain. The jewellers make a fine exhibit of their wares. Bailey & Co. havt a handsome pavilion, in which is a large and beautiful collection of jew- elry and precious stones. At the intersection of the main aisle with the central transept is a crescent-shaped Moorish pavilion of beautiful design, and ornamented in warm, rich colors. It is in all respects the most beau- tiful structure in the Exhibition, and is occupied by Messrs. Tiffany & 61 OG2 APPENDIX. Co., and Starr & Marcus, of New York, Caldwell & Co., of Philadel- phia, and the Gorham Manufacturing Company, of Providence, R. I. These houses display the richest and most costly articles to be seen in the Exhibition. The finest jewels are to be seen here in profusion. The cameos exhibited by Starr & Marcus are among the most exquisite in the world, and are selected with skill and taste. Tiffany & Co. exhibit a superb collection of precious stones in the most beautiful settings, and Caldwell & Co. display a line of beautiful jewelry and silver ware which are the envy of many a fair gazer upon them. The Gorham Manufac- turing Company, famous as the first manufacturers of silver and fine plated ware in America, fully sustain their well-earned reputation by their display here. The principal object of their exhibit is the magnifi- cent "Century Vase," which stands at the entrance to their section. It is of solid silver, and is four feet two inches in height. The length of the vase is five feet four inches ; its cost was $7000. Passing to the southward we find near the central transept an exten- sive display of chemicals and paints. These are grouped tastefully, and with their brilliant hues constitute one of the most attractive features of the American department. Going eastward again we notice the handsome display of the cologne and perfume makers of this country. The firms represented are from New York and Philadelphia chiefly. Burnett has a pretty black marble fountain which sends up a constant jet of cologne water, and where the tired visitor may enjoy the delightful privilege of bathing his forehead with the refreshing liquid. AVenck, of New York, has a handsome bam- boo pavilion, from which perfumexl sprays are thrown, filling the air with their delicious fragrance. Lundborg, of New York, has a tall, gayly decorated Moorish pavilion, in which he makes an extensive and attractive show of his perfumes. Going eastward still we enter the furniture department, and it requires but a glance to see that the West has offered a sharp competition to the East in this, its specialty. There are some fine specimens of furniture from the West, the State of Michigan being especially well represented in this respect. The display of furniture is very large, and some of the finest specimens are from Columbus, Ohio. The makers of the finest grades of furniture in New York and Philadelphia have gone to great expense in setting up their exhibits. Many of them have constructed' rooms of the usual size, which are handsomely carpeted, provided with curtains, doors, frescoed ceilings and walls, and superb gas fixtures and mantel -pieces. The rooms are open on one side. With the homelike surroundings thus provided the furniture shows to the best possible APPENDIX. 960 advantage. It is of the most elaborate description, and is richly uphol- stered. North of the furniture collection is the display of philosophical and surgical instruments. It is quite large, and the articles compare well tVith those in the English, French and Swiss departments. From the scientific department we pass on and find ourselves in th;. STUDIO OP THE NATIONAL PHOTOGRAPHIC COMPANY. piano-forte collection. All. the principal firms are represented. Stein- way, Chickering, Weber, Kuabe, and a score of well-known names greet us at every turn. Each maker has sent his best instruments, and th highest skill has been exercised in the construction of the beautiful frames in which these are placed. All the spaces occupied by the piano makers are enclosed, and many of them are covered with elegant pavilions, richly carpeted, and provided with seats for visitors. Several of the leading 964 APPENDIX. firms have engaged distinguished performers to show off their instruments, and one is sure of always hearing some brilliant pianist while lingering in this department. The collection covers a large area and is very complete. Alongside of the pianos is the display of cabinet organs, which, though smaller, is quite as handsome as that of the stringed instruments. Two pipe organs are on exhibition close by. Great Britain and Ireland. First among the foreign nations is the kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the mother land of our young republic. The space occupied by the British section lies north of the main aisle and west of the central transept, and is not enclosed by a pavilion or any other structure. Each exhibitor was obliged to provide and set up his own show-case, and these, while always executed in a thorough and workmanlike manner, are as simple and unadorned as possible. They are painted black with gilt mouldings. A banner of red, with the words "Great Britain and Ireland," is suspended from the roof over the entrance. At the entrance, opposite the music stand in the central transept, is a rich display of silver and plated ware by Elkington & Co., silversmiths, of Birmingham. The collection embraces many articles of great value and beauty, and is the gem of the British exhibit. Some splendid bronzes are included in it, and one may pass hours in inspecting the objects displayed by this enterprising firm, whose exhibit is valued by the London Times at $500,000. One of the most beautiful articles to be seen here is the " Helicon vase," in repousse" and richly enamelled, which is valued at $30,000. The reproductions in electro-deposit of ancient works of art from the South Kensington and British Museums are espe- cially interesting. Adjoining this splendid display is the space occupied by Messrs. Cox & Co., of London, who exhibit a large and handsome collection of church plate, wrought-iron and brass work, church furniture of various kinds, and some fine ebonized and carved oak furniture. Going north, along the eastern end of the British section, we reach the display of porcelain, pottery and majolica ware. In her porcelain Eng- land fairly rivals France, the first nation in Europe in the extent and beauty of this manufacture, and in pottery and majolicas leads the world. In pottery, England excels all the nations in her display. The collection includes vessels of all kinds for household, scientific and commercial uses, drainage and objects of ornament, statuary, etc. Some of the statues and busts are remarkably fine, and the display, on the whole, is beautiful and creditable in the highest degree. APPENDIX. 965 The tile makers have a fine collection. Sereral of the structures enclos- ing the spaces of the exhibitors are constructed entirely of tiles bear- ing handsome paintings, and finished in the most ]>erfect style of the art. There is also a fine show of geometrical mosaic, encaustic, and majolica tiles, among which are a number of fine reproductions of ancient works, as well as modern designs. The collection of tiles is chiefly near the north side of the British sec- tion, at its eastern end. Returning from this to the front line, we notice the exhibit of ornamental iron-work, made by Barnard, Bishop & Bar- nard, of Norwich. The most prominent object of this collection is the fine pavilion of iron-work filled with the wares of the firm. The South Kensington Museum has purchased duplicate portions of this building as specimens of the finest styles of ornamental iron-work of the nineteenth century. Passing northward, we reach the collection of furniture. A special feature of this department consists of the handsome and comfortable- looking brass bedsteads, of which quite a number are displayed, Here is a handsome pavilion divided into a number of chambers furnished with exquisite taste in the Anglo-Indian style. These cozy apartments are exceedingly attractive, and visitors are loud in their praise of their arrangement. Here, also, is some fine furniture of the Jacobean and Queen Anne styles. A fine display of decorative furniture is also made. The furniture exhibit includes many beautiful specimens of interior decoration and adornment, and is a fair representation of a school from which our own decorators might learn much. The collection of ornamental mantels, fire-places, and heating apparatus stands in the rear of the furniture. It is handsome, but in point of con- venience and completeness is inferior to that displayed by our own country in the annex to the Main Building. A conspicuous feature of the British collection is the magnificent tent, or booth, constructed of purple velvet hangings, and ornamented with a superb collection of specimens of embroidery and needlework. An exquisitely worked scroll over the entrance tells us that this is the pavil- ion of the " Royal School of Art and Needlework." This school is under the especial patronage of Her Majesty, Queen Victoria, and the greater part of the embroideries displayed are the work of the royal family or of ladies of noble birth. Returning once more to the main aisle, we enter the department of cotton and woollen goods. The exhibit in those lines is immrnsi-, and extremely varied. The articles are of the best quality, and are displayed in the most artistic manner. Linens also abound here, and excite, as 966 APPENDIX. they well deserve, the praise of all visitors. A rase of magnificent Irish poplins is exhibited by Pirn Brothers, of Dublin. They are among the most beautiful fabrics on exhibition in the Main Hall, and a crowd of visitors is always collected around them. The famous Bulbriggan Hose Manufacturers make an interesting and complete exhibit near by. The display of laces, silks, ribbons and silk fabrics is also very fine. The NEW JERSEY STATE BUILDING. department of textile fabrics includes England, Scotland and Ireland, ;iiu\ .fully sustains the claims of the British kingdom with regard to th:;> branch of her manufactures. Farther north is the collection of jewelry. This is handsome in many respects, but is not such a display as was hoped for from Great Britain. One or two cases are especially noticeable. The exhibit of cutlery, tools, and hardware is large, and includes APPENDIX. 967 London, Sheffield, and Birmingham. The articles offered are of the finest quality, and are tastefully arranged. In this department the Tele- graph Construction avid Maintenance Company exhibit a collection of ~r>eet incus of the different submarine cables laid by them in various parts of the world. The display of scientific and philosophical instruments is extensive ar.d unusually good. All the leading makers are represented, and the speci- mens on exhibition are among the very best in the building. Some fine watches and chronometers and a number of musical instruments are to be seen near by. In the alcoves along the northern wall of the building the carpet makers display their finest products. Here are to be seen the most beautiful Axminster, Wilton, and Indian carpets and rugs that Great Britain has ever sent to this country. The larger ones, woven in a soamless piece, are suspended against the wall, and may be examined readily by the lovers of these beautiful fabrics. A fine collection of fire-arms is to be seen near by, together with appar- atus for hunting and fishing, a collection deeply interesting to sportsmen. At the western end of her section Great Britain has grouped the exhibits of her publishers, and her educational display. The latter is not large, and does not do justice to the country which has done so much for the cause of knowledge. Her great universities are not represented at all, and her excellent school system is scarcely shown, a circumstance much to be regretted. The display of stained glass windows is more complete and beautiful than has ever been made by England at any International Exhibition. These exhibits are to be found chiefly in the windows of the gallery at the south end of the transept, where they show to the best advantage. India. The exhibit made by British India is under the control of the British Commissioners, and is chiefly from the India Museum in London. It is neither as extensive nor as fine as the exhibit made at Vienna. Specimens are exhibited, showing everything the natives eat, wear or use. The grains of India, the cotton, and other products are arranged in cases according to a regular classification, and are deserving of a careful study. Native dyes are also shown, together with a quantity of silks, raw, floss, spun, and woven, and the cocoon from which the silk is obtained. Some of the silks are beautifully embroidered, and some fine specimens of gold and silver cloth are to be seen here. The collection of laces and shawls is very attractive. A set of magnificently carved black furniture is included in the collection, and attracts much attention. Jewelled weapons and native arms are among the showiest features of the display. A col- 968 APPENDIX. lection of native pottery and metal work, lacquered ware, boxes made of porcupine quills and sandal wood, some magnificent native fans inlaid with ivory and precious stones, some singular drawings in mica, and a number of Hindoo antiquities are also to be found in this department. Some fine India carpets are displayed. Delhi sends some handsome embroidered work, and Bombay a rich collection of jewels. Along the sides of the space are photographs of scenes in India, and of the native races of that country. From the display made here one may gather a fair idea of the people of India and their habits, and contrast them with those of other lands. This, indeed, should be the main object of the intelligent visitor, and the various Commissions have arranged their exhibits for the purpose of facilitating this study. The Dominion of Canada. Canada occupies almost as much space as the mother country. The exhibit is made under the direction of three Commissioners from the Dominion and one from each of the Provinces. The extent and variety of the exhibition of Canadian manufactures will surprise even those who suppose themselves well versed in these matters. Cotton and woollen goods, hosiery, boots and shoes, drugs and chemicals, sewing machines, hardware, saws, pianos, and wearing apparel of all kinds, are displayed in profusion and of admirable qualities. The leading ship-builders on the coast send models of the vessels they have constructed, and Quebec and Toronto send fine specimens of furniture. The Canadian potters send handsome specimens of stoneware, which they claim is equal to the best Staffordshire ware; and from Montreal there are finely wrought marble mantels, which the exhibitors assert are equal in quality and workmanship to anything produced in Italy. A large display of furs is made, the Hudson Bay Company taking the lead in this respect. A specialty is the exhibit of the geological department, in which the ores and petroleum of the Dominion are most prominent. A lump of plumbago, six feet by four in size, is exhibited. It is said to be the largest ever mined. New Brunswick contributes some fine speci- mens of red granite. A case of clothing of skins ornamented with bead- work, and articles of adornment of bead-work, made by the Indians of Canada, attracts much attention. The Province of Ontario displays with great pride and minuteness her educational system. The plan adopted is similar to that of the States of the American Union, and no pains have been spared to make the showing complete. Models and drawings of the principal educational establishments are exhibited, together with the text-books used, and specimens of the pupils' work. A handsome collec- tion of philosophical apparatus and maps is embraced in the exhibit. Neiv South Wales. The Australian colonies exhibit many interesting APPENDIX. 969 objects. New South Wales has endeavored to show by her display the extent and variety of her resources. Fine photographs of Sidney, the capital, said to be the largest ever taken, constitute a prominent part of the exhibit, and show to the visitor what a stately city has grown up in the far-off country. The exhibit of wool is very large, and fairly repre- sents the extent and importance of this branch of Australian industry. An extensive collection of mineral specimens, including copper, antimony, iron, gold, and kaolin, is shown, among which is a pyramid formed of blocks of coal and samples of all the carboniferous specimens discovered in the country. A number of lumps of tin ore, and blocks of refined tin, show what New Zealand can do in the mining of this metal, and a lofty obelisk of gilt shows the amount of gold that was taken from the country from 1851 to 1874, which was 8,205,232,598 ounces, valued at $167,949,355. Samples of silk and silk cocoons, and a number of speci- mens of the work of the natives of the country, are shown. The fine timber which forms so prominent a part of the exports of the colony is shown in a number of excellent specimens of sections of trees. A large block of kerosene shale is to be seen, from which the kerosene oil used in the colony is manufactured. Queensland. The exhibit from Queensland is contained in an enclosed apartment, on the north side of the British space, immediately opposite the New South Wales section. The visitor's attention is at once drawn to a tall obelisk covered with gilt, which shows the amount of gold exported from Queensland between 1868 and 1875. It was sixty-five tons forty-one pounds and six ounces, and was valued at $35,000,000. A fine collection of gold-bearing cpiiartz is arranged around this obeli.-k. The collection of minerals is very complete, and embraces all that are found in the colony. There are specimens of tin, copper, arrowroot, woods, oils, silk, timber and antimony. The production of tin is increasing every year, and now exceeds that of gold. Indeed, the principal supply of the tin used by the civilized world is now drawn from Queensland. Several lumps of copper ore are exhibited, weighing five tons in the aggregate, and twenty-two different kinds of wood are shown. The botanical collection is very rich. Some fine native sugars are exhibited, and the display of wool is large and of an excellent quality. A case of native implements and clothing, exhibiting the dress and habiu; of the native Australian, forms an interesting part of the collection. Black wall tablets are suspended around the enclosure, showing the mining, grazing, agricultural and geological statistics of the colony, and below these is an extensive array of paintings and photographs illustrative pf the country and its inhabitants. APPENDIX. Victoria. The exhibit of the colony of Victoria comprises a display of her mineral resources, including fac-si miles of enormous nuggets of gold found in her rich gold fields; a classified collection of rocks, minerals and fossils, illustrative of the geology, mineralogy and mining resources of Victoria; and a collection of gems and precious stones, consisting of diamonds, blue sapphires, oriental emeralds, rubies, aqua marines, topazes, spinels, beryls, opals, garnets, tourmalines, etc. A number of specimens of chemical preparations from Australian products will be found in this section, and the display of home-made pottery is excellent. Specimens also are shown of the manufactures of the colony in cotton and woollen goods, and silk threads and raw silk produced in Victoria. Samples of paper made from different barks are shown, also a collection of fine photographs. The Australian climate 1 is the most favorable in the world to photography, and all the specimens from that continent are very fine. The grains and other agricultural products, the wools, coffee tfnd native wines, are also well displayed. A sijmll exhibit is made of the educational system of the colony, and also of the work of the penal institutions. Around the walls of the enclosure are hung a number of photographs and paintings of places and scenery in Victoria. South Australia. The exhibit of the colony of South Australia includes specimens of gold quartz, copper ores, iron ores, bismuth and malachite, olive oil, native wines, the native woods, barks, grains, and other vege- table products, wools and raw silks. Articles made by the native Australians are also exhibited. Fine photographs of Adelaide, the capital, and various places in South Australia, are hung around the enclosure. New Zealand. The exhibit of the colony of New Zealand is not very large, but includes specimens of the ores- such as copper, lead, zinc, manganese, iron and coal found in the islands. The principal feature of the exhibit, however, is the display of paintings and drawings repre- senting the country and its inhabitants; the models of its public works and the large photographs of scenery and places in the colony. There is also an interesting collection of Maori weapons and implements. The Cape of Good Hope. The arrangements of the exhibit of this colony are exceptionally good. The display includes some rich specimens of copper ore, black oxide of manganese, diamonds, saltpetre and coal ; native articles of dress; native jewelry and weapons; specimens of the wines and brandies made in the colony ; leather, wool, mohair, agricul- tural products, ivory, skins, and specimens of the birds and animals of the Cape. Here also are photographs and paintings of the scenery of the country. APPENDIX. 97 j The Gold Const. The exhibit of the Gold Coast colony is small, but well arranged. It embraces some fine specimens of gold dust and native ornaments of gold ; skins of the wild animals of the African coast; native idols, clothing, weapons, and other articles. Jamaica. The island of Jamaica has fitted up a small pavilion, in which it displays its favorite rums and sugars, its coffee, cotton, medicinal barks, hemp and native woods. ARKANSAS STATE BUILDING. The Bermudas. In the small pavilion appropriated to the Bermuda islands a handsome collection is gathered, consisting of shells, corals of the most exquisite forms, palm-leaf baskets, mats and fans, and native woods. The Bahamas. The Bahama islands display some beautiful specimens of shell work, large shells, native woods, tobacco, cotton, beeswax, and tough fibres of the native trees of the islands. 972 APPENDIX. Trinidad. Trinidad's display is small, and consists mainly of specimens of the agricultural and mineral products of the colony, and a number of samples of the native manufactures. British Guiana. The exhibit of this colony consists principally of sugars, rums, and specimens of the reptiles found in the colony. Tasmania. The collection of Tasmania is small, but interesting, and represents the native products, the mineral and the agricultural resources of the colony, with photographs and paintings of scenes and places in the island. France. The space occupied by France lies on the north side of the building, immediately east of the central transept, extending from the main aisle to the north wall. It is about one-half as large as the space assigned to Great Britain. The section is unenclosed, and the cases are simple but perfectly constructed. They are invariably painted black, with ornamental lines of gilt, and with the names of the exhibitors above in gilt letters. This uniformity and simplicity were prescribed by M. de Somerard, the Director-General of France, for all International Exhibi- tions. He established this regulation at the Paris Exposition in 1867, and has enforced it ever since. The principal entrance to the French section is at the intersection of the main aisle with the central transept,, opposite the music stand. Here, in a semi-circular space, is a collection of exquisite bronzes and articles in gilt and verd antique. The gem of the whole collection is a mantel- piece of black marble fifteen feet high, ornamented with statues and high reliefs in gilt and verd antique bronze. It has no rival in the Exhibi- tion. Back of the front line one finds a rich and beautiful display of antique furniture, cabinets, etc., all of which are very attractive, and many of which are of great value as works of art. Close by is the display of porcelain and pottery. This is the largest portion of the French exhibit, and by far the most attractive. There are four collections of porcelain proper, and six of faience and majolica. The porcelains are arranged along the central transept, and face the English display in friendly defiance, being separated from it only by the broad walk. In this department France is absolutely peerless among the nations of Europe, and the rare beauty and extent of her display will delight all lovers of beautiful objects. The front line along the main aisle is taken up principally with a display of cloths, cotton goods, silks, velvets, gloves, laces and wearing apparel. The goods displayed in this department are exceedingly beauti- ful, and the exhibit is very large. Here are silks, velvets and satins, ribbons and silk threads of every conceivable hue and texture. The eye APPENDIX. 973 is dazzled by the brilliancy of the collection, and at the same time one is charmed with the perfect good taste of the arrangement. The clothing department is also extensive and includes wearing apparel of every description. Some of the costumes for ladies are superb, and are not excelled by any in the Exhibition. The display of laces and lace fabrics is very fine, and is also quite extensive, and includes a number of superb lace shawls which receive, as they deserve, general admiration. Going back from the front line, near the western end of the French court, we find a handsome display of Aubusson tapestries, worked by hand, in which the weaver has introduced as many as three thousand shades of wool. They are woven into fine pictures, which at a distance resemble paintings, and the shadings are as delicate and as perfectly laid on as if the work had been done with a brush. Raffl & Co., of Paris, make a showy display of statues for churches, of painted plaster. The centre piece is a group representing the Ador- ation of the Infant Saviour by the Shepherds and the Wise Men. Opposite this enclosure is the pavilion of the Paris book publishers. Several of the great houses are represented. Hachette & Co. show a number of fine illustrated works, including Bida's beautiful etchings of the Four Gospels. An interesting exhibit is also made of educational and scientific works. Ducher & Co., of Paris, exhibit a fine collection of works on architecture, and at the centre of the pavilion is a superb reproduction of an oil-painting in colored lithography. To the north of the booksellers' pavilion are a number of handsome carriages, made principally in Paris. They are elegant and costly vehicles, and are fitted up in the most sumptuous style. Among them are a steam velocipede and two velocipedes worked by dog-power. In the carriage department will also be seen a handsome array of trunks, saddles and harness. Just beyond the carriages is the exhibit of cutlery. This is very fine, and the articles are beautifully displayed, but the exhibit is not equal to that of Great Britain. The chemists also make an attractive display, and beside them are the glass-makers, whose collection extends up to the central transept and for some distance northward. Conspicuous among the articles exhibited are several immense sheets of plate glaas, which tower towards the roof. They are said to be the largest specimens of plate glass in the world, and their transportation from the steamer to the Exhibition grounds was effected with extreme difficulty. Near the western end the perfumers make a capital display of their wares, but do not dispense them to the public as lavishly as do the ex- hibitors in the same line in the American department. 974 APPENDIX. The display of that large class of objects known on the continent of Europe as Articles de Paris is extensive, and occupies a very considerable part of the French space. It covers a wide range of articles, and may be said to include every object that can be used in the adornment of the jK-rson or of the house. The jewelry is a notable feature, and several rich exhibits are made, and are characterized by the peculiar loveliness and originality which belongs to the metropolis of European civilization. The department of engineering and architecture includes a series of finely executed maps and plans of the Suez Canal, a fine model of the steam- ship "Pereire," plying between New York and Havre, and a number of maps and plans and finely illustrated works and reports upon subjects belonging to this department. The collection of scientific and philoso- phical instruments is excellent, and represents the best work of the best makers. The musical instruments are chiefly horns, flutes, violins and music-boxes, though a few pianos and parlor organs are included in the collection. Germany. Like her neighbors, England and France, Germany has left her space unenclosed. It lies on the west side of the central transept, and extends from the main aisle to the south wall of the building, covering a little more than one-half the space occupied by France. The display is ; very fine, and the cases in which it is contained are more varied than those of the other European nations. The principal display, and the most beautiful single exhibit in the building, is made by the Royal Prussian Factory, of Berlin. It stands at the intersection of the main aisle with the central transept. At each end of the case is a tall column of ebony and gold, surmounted by a Prussian eagle in gilt. On the shelves of the case, which rise one above the other, is collected a rare and beautiful display of porcelain. Vases, cups and saucers, plates, statuettes, busts, and other articles of the most exquisite shapes, ornamented with the most delicate and carefully ex- ecuted paintings, are gathered here. Here are also framed paintings on flat plates of porcelain, each of which is worthy of the most careful study. At the front line of the collection stand three massive vases, its master pieces, which are not equalled in the Exhibition for richness of decoration or the artistic merit of the paintings upon them. The Ger- man exhibit is a collection of all the important industries of the Father- land, and includes articles in daily use by tht lower as well as the upper classes. Immediately west of the porcelain exhibit, along the front line, is a fine display of plate-glass, and boyond this is the collective exhibit of the German jewellers. It includes many objects of great value and beauty, APPENDIX. 975 but does not compete with the exhibit of either the United States, France, or England. Going west still, along the front line, \ve notice a considerable collection of bronzes, the principal object of which is a copy of the monument to Frederick the Great in Unter den Linden at Berlin. Still going west, along the front line, we come to the collective display of the toy-makers of Nuremberg. Magdeburg has also a case of toys exhibited through a Philadelphia importer, who is singularly enou_-li named Doll. INTERIOR OF THE MAIN BUILDING. Beyond the toys is a fino display of rich silks and satins of all hues, and in the next line of cases Saxony displays her hosiery, her yarns, and her gloves in thread, wool and kid. Still farther west, on the front line, is the collective exhibit of cloths made by the manufacturers of the Rhine land, and beyond this Elberfeld makes a collective exhibit of Italian cloth and tailors' trimmings. A prominent feature of the Elberfeld collection is a case of. handsome prints illustrative of a new process of dyeing goods. Nuremberg has a spare on the front line, just beyond Elberfeld, in which she shows a collection of fine linens and damasks. Close by, Saxony has a similar collection, and that country brings up the rear of the German line upon the main aisle with an attractive exhibit of laces and embroidery, together with a number of illustrations of the process of lace making. We pass now from the front line to the aisle immediately south of it, 976 APPENDIX. and beginning at its western end, work our way eastward again. We first notice some specimens of woven wire goods from Dresden, close by which is a handsome display of woollen articles from Berlin. The next prominent object is a tall and elaborate ebony show-case ornamented with ivory. It contains a beautiful exhibit of ivory articles, showing the different uses to which that substance is put. To the east of this is . handsome case containing the collective display of the Bavarian makers of metal-leaf and bronze colors. A pyramid of printing inks stands at the eastern end of the aisle, and above and below it two of the Farinas, both hailing from the bad-smelling city of Cologne, exhibit their per- fumes. Turning southward, we find a number of cases along the central tran- sept devoted to the collective exhibit of the German manufacturing chemists. The preparations displayed are exceedingly interesting, and are among the best of their class in the Exhibition. Going wast from the chemicals, we notice a tall pagoda constructed of velvet, gilt, and glass, containing a beautifully arranged display of bril- liant-hued fabrics of cotton-velvet from Linden, in Hanover. Opposite this pagoda is a beautiful collection of Berlin worsteds and wools of the most exquisite shades arranged in an attractive and artistic manner. We have now reached the western end of the German exhibit once more, and turning southward enter the department of musical instruments. The display of brass, reed and stringed instruments is quite large. Ad- joining it on the east is a considerable exhibit of German pianos. They are mostly in cases of ebony, some of which are richly carved. Two makers exhibit cabinet organs, and one a large pipe organ. Several orchestrions are also included in the collection. Close by are the scientific and philosophical instruments, the leading makers of Germany being represented. In the rear of this, against the southern wall, is the collection of appliances illustrating the hospital system of the German army. The whole system of German military surgery and hospital management is well shown in this little corner which stands by itself. Beyond the hospital department is a tower clock exhibited by a firm from Hoyerswerda, in Upper Lansitz. The bell is so arranged that it can be rung in the usual style, and is handsomely chased. Adjoining this is the collective display of the clock-makers of the Black Forest. Some of the clock cases are finely carved and very beautiful. To the east of the piano department, a Munich house exhibits a large collection of church ornaments and figures of the Madonna and the saints. APPENDIX. 977 Eacli figure i.<; gayly painted, and each is ticketed with its price in true business style. Opposite is a fine display of lead pencils, crayons and colors. The hand.some pavilion containing the collective exhibit of the German booksellers stands at the south side of the German section, in front of the Cafe Leland, and is black, with ornamental gilt lines and mouldings. The cases are arranged around the outer walls, and upon entering through either of the four portals the visitor finds himself in the midst of a dis- play of books to which the array on the outer side was but an introduc- tion. The exhibit is very extensive and very complete, and is the only thing in the building that can rival the display of the American book trade. All the leading German publishers are represented, Leipzig and Berlin contributing the greater part of the collection. The collection is miscellaneous in its character. The display of leather goods is large and excellent. Leipzig sends some elegant furs ; Stuttgart many specimens of inlaid wood work, and some fine furniture in ebony and oak ; and Dresden some handsome furniture. Austria Hungary. The Austrian section lies along the main aisle, and adjoins that of the German empire on the west. Like the German section it is unenclosed. It is handsome in many respects, and much resembles the display from Germany, but cannot, on the whole, be con- sidered a fair showing of the great industries of the Austrian empire. Hungary is scarcely represented at all. Commencing at the west end of the front line we notice a fine display of cut and stained glass. There are other cases of fine glassware at other points along the front line, and these, as is proper, are arranged as con- spicuously as possible. The glassware is mostly from Bohemia, and constitutes one of the largest portions of the Austrian exhibit. It is arranged on broad counters with mirror tops, and makes a brilliant and attractive show. It is of the finest and most delicate quality, and is beautifully ornamented. The colors are of the rarest hues, and are superior to anything of the kind to be seen in the building. The next display along the front line is of work in amber and meer- schaum. Austria has no rival in this class of work. The amber speci- mens are principally mouth-pieces for pipe-stems, and the meerschaum work consists chiefly of ornamental pipes, which are often very artistic and of great variety. East of the pipes is a handsome collection of porcelain. It is attractive, but cannot compare with the neighboring exhibits in this line. Con- tinuing on our way we notice sonic handsome laces which attract con- siderable attention. 62 978 APPENDIX. This brings us to the German section, and we turn off to the southward and notice the extensive display of gloves of kid and leather which come principally from Prague. Close by are the displays of the Vienna manu- facturers of articles in Russia leather. Another specialty of Viennese industry is the manufacture of dress buttons, and these are extensively and handsomely shown here. The display of cloths is principally from Moravia, and is well worth examination, but does- not fairly represent the great Moravian industry. The silk-weavers of Vienna have a large and handsome exhibit, tastefully arranged in rich cases of ebony and gold. The exhibit of jewelry is small, but contains some beautiful ornaments and some fine precious stones. A Vienna house shows some pretty orna- ments of mother-of-pearl, and one from Prague some splendid garnets. In the furniture department there are a number of iron sets worthy of notice. The display of musical instruments is large and showy ; and the scientific and philosophical instrument makers make a creditable exhibit. The carpets shown do not compare with either England, France or the United States, but are very good. A considerable section is devoted to a display of books, paper, litho- graphs, and photographs. The principal feature of this is the collective exhibit of engineering and architectural photographs, models, designs, and reports. Italy. The Italian section occupies the west end of the Main Building, and lies north of the main aisle. The space is enclosed with a light frame- work, with three tasteful arches fronting on the main aisle. Over the central arch rises a shield bearing the white cross of Savoy surmounted by a trophy of national flags, and above each of the other arches is a shield with the arms of the kingdom and a trophy of flags. Entering the enclosure we notice first a collection of fine bronzes, some of which are half life-size, and are reproductions of ancient works of art. Beside them is a considerable display of furniture. Some of the pieces are heavy and elaborately carved. Venice has a case of cherubs carved in wood, which are very pretty. Milan has a number of inlaid tables, ornamented with exquisite pictures in papier-mache. One of these represents the Milan Cathedral, and another St. Mark's, at Venice. The exhibit of jewelry is not large, but contains many handsome and valuable objects. Pio Siotto, of Rome, exhibits a case of cameos, show- ing the various stages of cameo-cutting, from the shell to the completed gem. In this collection are some of the finest cameos in the Italian exhibit. Venice sends a number of exquisite specimens of her glassware, and APPENDIX. 979 also some beautiful mosaics and corals. A prominent feature of this col- lection consists of the handsome mirrors of all sizes, which are in the best style of Venetian workmanship. There is a pretty exhibit of pottery and majolica ware. It is not very large, but is very attractive. Alongside of it are a number of statues, statuettes and busts in terra cotta and baked clay. Milan, Modena, Turin, Rome, Palermo and Lucca, send a fine collec- tion of raw and spun silks and silk goods, and Tuscany sends a creditable display of her world-renowned straw goods. A conspicuous object near the centre of the eastern side of the Italian section is a large bell made in Venice and delicately chased. A good showing is made of musical instruments. Italy also sends a fair contri- bution of the plainer and more necessary articles of household use, show- ing that her genius is being directed towards the more prosaic as well as to the fine arts. Along the northern end the photographers make their display, exhibit- ing, among other pictures, a number of rich "moonlight effects." Belgium, the busiest country in Europe, is well represented in the Exhibition. The Belgian section lies immediately west of the Brazilian court, and north of the main aisle. Along the front line the glass-makers have the post of honor. A number of cases are filled with handsome specimens of plate and colored glass, and several immense oval and rec- tangular mirrors stand towering to the ceiling at the very front of the section. At the western end of the front line stands a large wooden pulpit elaborately and beautifully carved with scenes in the life of the Saviour and figures of the saints. Back of the front line we enter a region devoted to cloths and woollen fabrics, of which a large and excellent exhibit is made. Close by are the ebony and gilt cases filled with snowy linens from Brussels. The skill and artistic taste of the Belgian wood-carvers is shown in a collection of carved furniture and a massive mantelpiece, and in some excellent statues of this material. Belgium is largely engaged in the manufacture of fire-arms, and con- sequently her display in this department is extensive and valuable. Near the centre of her section Belgium displays a model of one of her public schools. The building is about twenty feet in height, is con- structed of native pine, and is divided into several apartments. The school is admirably arranged, and gives one a clear and comprehensive understanding of the system of primary education in Belgium. Close by the school-house are some marble mantels of beautiful work- 980 APPENDIX. manship. They arc in both white and colored marble. We notice here, also, a number of marble slabs, on which some curious landscapes and figures are etched with aqua-fortis. A fine display is made of articles of embossed leather, a number of paintings upon wood, jewelry, priests' vestments of cloth of gold em- broidered with silk, and fancy articles. A small court is formed of the cases containing the laces of Brussels and Mecklin. The display is large and magnificent, and excels anything of the kind in the building. The fabrics are of an infinite variety in form and texture, and range from the most delicate laces to curtains heavy with embroideries. An excellent display of books and scientific and philosophical apparatus is made, and musical instruments form a small part of the exhibit of the " republican kingdom." The iron and steel exhibit is not entirely satisfactory. It consists of a few car-wheels, a small display of bar-iron, and principally of small sections of rail bars, steel ingots, and iron girders for bridges. An exhibit is made, close by the iron, of liquors and cordials manu- factured in the kingdom. At the upper end of the section are a number of beautiful tapestries from Malines, equal in beauty and workmanship to those we have noticed in our account of the French exhibit. One of them is a portrait of Rubens; another a portrait of Cousin in Arabian costume; and a third a full-length painting in the style of Louis XVI. Eight panels, grouped together, represent the eight gods of Olympus, with all their attributes. The Netherlands. The Dutch section lies on the north side of the main aisle, between the Brazilian and Mexican courts. It is one of the most ornamental in the building, and is enclosed with a light arched frame- work, painted in cream-color and gold, and hung with heavily draped curtains of maroon-colored velvet. There are three entrances in the front line and several at the sides. In the section devoted to the department of public works a number of finely executed plans, models and photographs are shown, from which one can learn how the work of reclaiming land from the ocean is carried on, and the system by which the little kingdom is protected from the inroads of the sea. Models are exhibited which show at a glance the change t/hat has been made in the surface of the kingdom. The docks, railroads, bridges and other public works of the kingdom are shown by a series of photographs, drawings and models. Passing out of the department of public works into the general exhibit of the kingdom, we notice near the entrance some beautiful specimens of APPENDIX. 981 inlaid furniture. One of these is a screen decorated with scenes from Faust, in papier-mache. Delft sends a fine collection of carpets woven each in a single piece, in imitation of the Smyrna carpets, and softer, thicker and richer in color than those famous fabrics. Alongside of these is a collection of fine blankets, some of which are nearly an inch in thickness, and all as soft and delicate as down. With them are displayed coverlets, thickly wadded and delicately quilted, which are the housewife's delight. The display of woollen and cotton cloths, of mattings and nettings, is also exception- ally good. Jute goods form a specialty of this collection. The Dutch army exhibits samples of the fire-arms used by it. A col- lectio.i of tiles and oil cloths is also shown, in which the different marbles and woods are perfectly imitated. The agricultural system of the kingdom is displayed by the exhibition of a model farm in miniature. It is no doubt well adapted to the needs of the country, but shows few details that our own farmers will care to copy. A number of models of Dutch houses are exhibited, among which is the model of an eating-house, showing the whole interior arrangement. A special pavilion is used for the exhibit of the Dutch publishers. Here are to be seen a number of fine illustrated works. The exhibit of school apparatus, text-books, desks, maps, etc., is admirable, and shows what good work Holland is doing in the cause of knowledge. The colonial department is exceedingly interesting and very complete. All the colonies are represented, and the products of each are shown. The collection includes grains, woods, barks, fruits, oils, metals and other minerals in great abundance. The weapons and clothing of the native tribes are also shown, and include curious filigrees and some rich silks and embroideries and silver cloths. The principal display is from Java, and the cinchona trade of that colony is illustrated profusely by means of photographs, specimens of bark, leaves, etc. Coffee forms a large part of the exhibit. Switzerland. The Swiss section lies on the north side of the main aisle, between France and Belgium. On the front line is arranged a large collection of watches, the most important article of the Swiss export trade. Nearly all the leading makers are represented, and back of these cases are displayed the tools by which the watches are made. A number of clocks, including a large electrical clock, form a part of this exhibit. Musical boxes and mathematical, scientific and philosophical instruments come next, and the display of these is excellent and extensive. They are 982 APPENDIX. of the finest quality, the Swiss being as proficient in the manufacture of them as they are in the making of watches. Back of this line is a large pavilion, the entrance to which is through an archway in the front. On one side of the arch is a splendid map of the geological survey of Switzerland, and on the other a fine geographical map, each richly worthy of study. The pavilion is devoted to an exhibi- tion of the educational system of Switzerland, and consists of charts, models and apparatus used in the system of object-teaching. Drawings, text-books and specimens of the pupils' work in the common schools are also shown. The Swiss publishers make their exhibit here, and in this pavilion are displayed fine photographs of scenery and of the cities and EASTERN ENTRANCE TO THE SWEDISH COURT. public works of Switzerland. One of the most notable features of the Swiss exhibit is the display of embroidered lace curtains from the canton of St. Gall. These curtains are made by hand ; the patterns are rich and artistic, the workmanship of the finest quality, and the completed fabric constitutes a genuine work of art. A large exhibit is made of coarse woollen goods for peasant wear, and some good silks and fine straw work are shown. The wood-carvers, who are so numerous in Switzerland and R famous for their skill, make a large and attractive display. Sweden. The Swedish court is situated on the north side of the main aisle, to the west of the space occupied by the British colonies. It is enclosed along the sides, but the front is open and is marked merely by & series of tall, ornamental flag-staffs, bearing banners of blue with the Swedish cross in yellow. Festoons of blue and yellow streamers are APPENDIX. 983 suspended between the flag-staffs, and give to the entrance a light and graceful appearance. Six groups of figures are placed at the sides of the entrances to the court, illustrating some of the habits and the dress of the peasantry. The . igures in all the groups are life-size, and are clad in the national dress jf the classes they represent. The faces preserve the characteristics of each class. The Swedish exhibit is one of the most complete and tastefully ar- ranged in the Exhibition. At the entrance stands a rich display of beautiful porcelain. The articles are delicate and the tints exquisite. Floral decorations are much used in these, and with more than ordinary taste. The exhibit of pottery and glassware is also attractive. Furs and leather goods form a considerable and interesting part of the display. One of the most prominent features of the Swedish collection is the exhibit of Bessemer steel, in which the principal part is taken by the Sandvik & Fagaster works. The articles exhibited cover a wide range. The largest is a piston-rod fifteen feet in length, for a five-ton steam hammer, and the smallest a delicately-polished hand-mirror for a lady's toilette-table. The workmanship in all these articles is masterly. The remarkable bending power of the Bessemer steel under a great strain is shown by a railway axle five inches in diameter, double cold, which was bent under a fifteen-ton hammer. Match-making is a prominent industry in Sweden, and is represented by an extensive display of safety matches from Johnkoping. The educational exhibit is well arranged, and a number of illustrated works are shown as specimens of Swedish printing. A fine map of the geological survey of the kingdom and a large topographical map are included in this display. The woollen manufactures of the kingdom make a fair exhibit, and the show of silks is especially good. On the south side of the main aisle, diagonally opposite her principal exhibit, Sweden has an additional space, between the Japanese and Danish sections, in which she displays her military equipment. Here are several wax figures showing the costume of her men-at-arms in the time of the great Gustavus, and the .uniforms of the officers of several branches of her service at the present time. Here are exhibited samples of the cannon and small arms used in the Swedish army, and the equip- ments of the artillery and hospital services. In the rear of the military exhibit she displays specimens of the work of the pupils of her technical schools, and illustrates in a happy manner the admirable operations oj these establishments. 384 APPENDIX. Norway. The Norwegian court is situated on the north side of the main aisle between the Swedish and Italian sections. The space is enclosed by a handsome framework of native pine ornamented with red lines. Over the entrance from the main aisle is the name " Norway," and a trophy formed of the national arms and colors. At the front, immediately within the enclosure, are three handsome cases containing a fine display of jewelry and silverware. Here are some beautiful specimens of filigree- work from Christiana, which would not shame Venice itself. Immediately back of these .cases are two groups of figures similar to those in the Swedish court. Back of these figures is a small but beauti- ful collection of glassware from Christiana. Adjoining it Norway exhibits several home-made pianos, and then comes an exhibit of cloths, both cotton and woollen, cordage, threads and skins. There is also a case of fine shoes, another of silverware, another of ancient coins and medals, and an imposing display of cod-liver oil. Specimens of ancient armor and weapons form a most interesting exhibit, and contrast strikingly with the handsomely-carved modern furniture which stands near them. The iron manufacturers make a large and interesting exhibit, showing both the ores and the manufactured iron in various forms. A large case of silver ingots stands near by, and opposite are several queer little Nor- wegian carriages, each with a perch behind in which the postilion sits, and sometimes stands, to drive. A model of a Norwegian school is shown, with books and apparatus illustrating the mode and course of tuition, and a map of the geological survey of the kingdom is close by. Denmark. The Danish section lies on the south side of the main aisle, immediately west of the Turkish court, and is enclosed by a triple court. The entrance to the first court consists of a triumphal arch richly decor- ated. The pavilions are draped with warm red curtains, which give to them a rich effect. The front or northern court is devoted to a display of Etruscan imita- tions in terra cotta. These are exquisite works, and are generally admired. Here also is a fine collection of silverware by a Copenhagen silversmith. The principal object is a large vase of solid silver valued at $4290 gold and the duty. The vase is one of the most beautiful in the building. o In the central court some handsome furniture made of the wood of i pear tree is exhibited. Here is shown a collection of Esquimaux clothing, and in the southern court is a model of an Esquimaux house and an Esquimaux boat, all from Greenland. The exhibit includes specimens of the woollen manufactures of Denmark, a collection of furs and skins, chemicals, geographical charts, and native Danish woods. APPENDIX. 985 Spain. The Spanish section extends from the main aisle to the south wall of the building, and adjoins the Egyptian court on the east. It is enclosed by an elaborately ornamented wall finished in imitation of gran- ite, with two tall archways on each side. The fa9ade which stands upon the main aisle is one of the most imposing structures in the building. A triple arch painted in imitation of porphyry supports a heavy entablature which is decorated with shields emblazoned with the arms of all the Spanish provinces, with the arms of the kingdom over the central arch. Standards and trophies of the national colors complete the ornamentation of the top of the structure. The arches are hung with rich curtains of ENTRANCE TO THE SPANISH COUBT. velvet. The \vord " Espana " is blazoned across the entablature in gilt capitals. In the show-cases at the sides of the central portal are rich specimens of silver and gold work, and ornamental work in iron and steel, with fragments of armor and photographs of the government museums of ancient armor. In the show-cases built in the walls of the court are specimens of the mineral ores of the kingdom, silver, copper, lead, iron and coal, and samples of Spanish marbles, all admirably arranged. , The woollen, cotton and silk fabrics displayed here arc attractive as a rule, and many of them very elegant. A sumptuous exhibit is made of tapestries, velvets, brocades, laces, shawls, scarfs and light dress goods. They are distinct from those of either France or Belgium, and the elegance and beauty which characterize them are peculiarly their own. 986 APPENDIX. A considerable display is made of glassware and pottery of excellent qualities, and the painted porcelain tiles in this group are noticeably well executed. Chemicals are also exhibited in great abundance and variety; and marbles, building stones, and large blocks of coal show that this branch of the wealth of the kingdom is still vigorous after so many centuries have dawned upon it. There are a number of specimens of arms, works in metal and inlaid work, the principal display being made by the province of Catalonia, the people of which are the most enter- prising of the inhabitants of the Peninsula. Hats, shoes, fine woollen blankets, articles of wearing apparel and carpets are also shown. Egypt. The Egyptian court stands south of the main aisle and to the east of the Danish section. It is enclosed by a high wooden structure resfimbling an ancient temple of the land of the Nile, and the facade is massive and attractive. It is painted in imitation of stone, and resembles the portal of a temple. Upon the sides of the entrance are inscribed the words : " Egypt Soodan the oldest people of the world sends its morn- ing greeting to the youngest nation." As you enter, you notice on your right a small model f the great Pyramid of Gizeh, and opposite this is a plaster head of Rameses II., who is declared by all the great masters of Egyptian science and history to be the Pharaoh of the Exodus, the new king which knew not Joseph. Around the walls of the court are hung plain and colored photographs and draw- ings of places and scenery in Egypt. On the east side of the court is a case containing magnificent saddles and furniture for horses. These were formerly used by the pashas of Egypt, and are now the property of the Khedive. They are used only upon occasions of the greatest ceremony. Their hangings are of crimson velvet, covered with heavy embroideries of gold. The harness and trappings are of pure bullion, and are heavy and costly. A fine exhibit is made of oriental and drawing-room furniture, a prominent object of which is a cabinet of ebony beautifully inlaid with ivory and mother-of-pearl, the designs being in imitation of those in the ancient mosques. The display of ornaments for the household and person is very rich, and includes a large quantity of jewelry, precious stones, work in iron and copper, both ancient and modern ; fancy articles dress adornments, fans, walking-canes, sun-shades, and pipes of ever} description, many of which are ornamented with jewels. Two large cases contain a collection of stuffs woven of silk and gold and silver thread. These are of the most gorgeous and brilliant character, and it is impossible to convey in words an accurate idea of them. Between these cases lies stretched at full length a large crocodile oi the Nile. APPENDIX. 987 Close by are a number of dromedary saddles; and near these a number of specimens of red pottery-ware. There are cases of beautiful and curious Arabic books and manuscripts, some of them bound in covers of velvet, embroidered with gold thread. Articles of ivory, horn, and metal for household use are shown, and a number of native musical instruments. r Jne of the rear courts contains a fine exhibit of Egypt's chemical products. A good display of porcelain and table-ware of solid gold is made. We next notice an exhibit of silk and silken fabrics, an industry which is carried on upon a large scale in Egypt, A prominent feature is a display of coc9ons, arranged in neat patterns according to tints. The rugs and carpets of Egyptian manufacture form an interesting part of the exhibit, and will compare well with those of Turkey. ENTRANCE TO THE EGYPTIAN COURT. The Khedive makes a collective exhibit of over two thousand samples of native cotton, representing the crops of eight years. A collection of photographs exhibits the Egyptian system of public works, bridges, railroads, etc., and is of great interest and value. The nigar, leather, gums, barks, nuts, wheat and other grains and the grasses if Egypt are shown by numerous well-arranged samples. A large col- lection is shown of the rude arms and armor, the rough wooden sandal-, the hats woven of reeds, the noisy tomtoms, and a barbaric canopy for the chief or monarch of the tribes of Soudan in Central Africa. The educa- tional system pursued in the schools established by the Khedive is shown by a collection of Arabic text-books and mechanical instruments executed by the pupils of the Polytechnic School at Cairo. 988 APPENDIX. Japan. The Japanese section is on the south side of the main aisle, east of the Chinese court, and immediately opposite the Swedish section. It is enclosed with a light bamboo framework, and is ornamented with a profuse display of Japanese flags. Just within the entrance from the main aisle is a display of superb Dronzes and cf porcelain ware. A number of bronze vases are included in this collection. They are of beautiful shapes, and are ornamented with such a profusion of engraving and chasing the conceptions of which are so droll and intricate that a photograph would be necessary to give an accurate idea of them. The work is unique and cannot be reproduced by the most skilful artificer in either Europe or America. The cheaper vases are cast, but the more elaborate ones are worked out with the hand. The art is peculiar to Japan, and has flourished there for several centuries. It is carried on in sixteen different places in the empire. The porcelains of the Japanese department are fully equal to the bronzes. This is an old art, and attained perfection in Japan long before it was known in Europe. The Japanese designate their works of this kind by the names of the cities in which they were manufactured, or by the peculiarities of manufacture or decoration. The display of porcelains in this single department surpasses in beauty of forms and ornamentation the combined exhibit of every other nation in the building. The display of lacquered ware is. immense, and one of the marvels of the Exhibition. The manufacture of this ware is a specialty in Japan, and has attained perfection. The articles displayed here range from the tiniest trays, which may be bought for about fifty cents, to large and costly cabinets. The gem of the collection is a cabinet said to be two hundred and fifty years old, which is as exquisitely beautiful and as free from signs of wear as on the day it came from its maker's hands. It is valued at $5000. There are some curious vases made of elephants' tusks ornamented with lacquered work, and some other fine work in ivory. The inlaid work is very fine, and a large collection of cabinets, work- boxes and European furniture ornamented in this manner is shown. These articles are not as expensive as the lacquered wares, but equal them in beauty and delicacy of finish. A considerable display is made of richly carved furniture, wood-carving being an art in which the Japanese excel. Going southward we come now to the display of screens. These are of silk on light frames, and are painted and embroidered with scenes in the daily life of the people. The outlines of the figures and the landscapes are painted, and the costumes, faces, animals, and houses, etc., are worked out in relief with embroidery. One may find in these screens abundant means for a study of Japanese life and manners. APPENDIX. 989 A fine collection of rich silks and embroideries is shown, one exhibit from Yokohama being superb. Cotton and woollen goods are exhibited of an admirable quality. Samples of matting, which is largely manu- factured in Japan, are also to be seen. Specimens of the papers made in the empire, the leathers, the inks, and the coloring materials of Japan are shown, as are also samples of the woods, grains, and grasses of the country. The mineral products are also shown by numerous specimens, and the native animals and birds are treated in the same way. Immediately behind it is an enclosure in which the Imperial Govern- ment exhibits its educational system. Here are models of the desks and school apparatus used, the work of the pupils, the text-books, philosoph- ical instruments, and photographs and colored sketches of the principal schools. Compositions by the pupils in English, French, German, and Japanese are shown, and one is made fairly acquainted with the progress made by the empire in its effort to introduce the learning and civilization of Europe. China. The Chinese section is not quite half as large as that of Japan, and lies immediately west of it on the south side of the main aisle, extend- ing buck to the south wall of the building. It is enclosed by a pavilion, the entrance to which is a copy of the portal of a celestial pagoda, gaudily painted and ornamented with hideous curled-up dragons, which, though ugly, are well carved. Every part of the enclosure is of the gaudiest character, and here and there rise tall pagodas and towers ornamented with the most brilliant colors. At the front entrance is a collection of fine vases of exquisite China ware, and opposite these a row of screens of the finest silk, covered with designs in embroidery, and having richly carved frames. Close by these, begins the display of inlaid tables and stands and other articles of household use which runs through the whole exhibit. Just within the enclosure is a tall show-case in the form of a pagoda, in which are displayed some superb silks, gold cloths and embroideries. The silks are of the most delicate shades of color, and are of the finest quality. There is a large exhibit of carved furniture, all in the Chinese style. The carvings are both artistic in design and well executed. The display of porcelain and pottery is large and handsome, and fully sustains the reputation of the celestials for skill in this branch of their industry. The lacquered wares shown are also very beautiful, but are not equal to those in the Japanese collection. The bronzes, many of which are old and curious, make up an extensive and interesting collec- tion, and there is also an exhibit of rare old Chino.se coins. A tall pagoda or joss-house, in imitation of such buildings in China, 900 APPENDIX. forms a conspicuous part of the display. Near it are some fine porcelain tiles ornamented with queer Chinese figures. Cotton and hemp cloths, and cotton prints, stockings, Chinese shoes, hats, articles of clothing; fancy leather work, trunks and toilette-- boxes, and samples of native paper, musical instruments, minerals, specimens of native woods, wines, grains, flour, honey, wax, cotton, hemp, wool and hair make up a large and interesting exhibit. The Orange Free State. The Orange Free State is a Dutch republic situated in the southeastern part of Africa. Its section in the Exhibition hall lies back of the Peruvian court, in the southwestern corner of the building. It is enclosed by a handsome pavilion decorated with the national colors of white and yellow, and red, white and blue streamers. The exhibit is entirely governmental, and is handsomely and com- pactly arranged, rendering the little court one of the brightest and most pleasing nooks of the " great show." The design is to show the resources, products and natural wealth of the country. Specimens of minerals, grains, leather and skins, and samples of mohair, native woods, specimens of coal, and samples cf wool make up the principal part of the exhibit. Cases of stuffed birds of rare and beautiful plumage, and collections of insects are placed at various points in the court, and a number of superb ostrich plumes are exhibited. An interesting feature is a case of the cream tartar fruit. There are also to be seen specimens of ivory, including two enormous elephant tusks, and a collection of pipes and other articles of native manufacture. Tunis. The Tunisian court stands in the rear of the Danish and Turkish sections on the south side of the building. It is small, but is brilliantly ornamented, the principal structure being a large show-case at the rear end of the court on which the goods are arranged. The exhibit is largely the property of the Bey of Tunis. His Highness exhibits some pretty gilt furniture, a collection of fine woollen blankets and shawls, woven silks, jewelry,' national costumes, native arms richly ornamented, some superb decorated saddles, resembling those of the Egyptian collec- tion. In the Exhibition grounds he also exhibits two Arab tents, illustrating the domestic life and customs of the Arab sheiks and Bedowin. The Bey also sends a number of antique relics dug from the ruins of old Carthage, which is situated in his dominions. Mexico. The space assigned to the Mexican republic lies on the north side of the main aisle, and adjoins that of the United States on the west. It is enclosed by a handsomely ornamented pavilion of light wood, painted in a s'oft cream color, and designed in the Aztec style of architecture, APPENDIX. go! The Mexican exhibit is not as large as had been hoped. A very consid- erable part of the display consists of Mexican historical remain* of the most interesting character. The mineral exhibit is very large and very good, and shows the wealth of the leading mines of the country. A large specimen, weighing 1300 pounds, and composed of quartz and bromide of silver, is a prominent object in this collection, and large lumps of lead ore, iron ore, specimens cf coal, native marble, a sample of a new mineral called libinstone, and specimens of the matter thrown up by the volcano of Ceboruco during a recent eruption, and specimens of native woods are tastefully arranged and constitute an instructive display. There is a considerable exhibit of ready-made clothing, dressed and undressed leather, kid gloves, straw hats, woollen and cotton cloths, and papers ; and some porcelain is shown which marks the beginning made by Mexico in this beautiful art. There are also some pretty silks in the collection. A full display is made of the medicinal plants of Mexico, and of the fibres of all the varieties of the aguave. The native wines and cordials are also well represented. A great variety of ancient and modern national costumes is shown, including those of the Indians and mixed races. A number of educational and scientific works illustrate the efforts being made to diffuse knowledge among the Mexican people. Brazil. The Brazilian court is situated on the north side of the main aisle between the Dutch and Belgian sections. It is enclosed by one of the most brilliant and noticeable structures in the building. It is a pavilion built in the Moorish style, and consists of a colonnade of wooden pillars, with brightly ornamented capitals and arches, supporting a super- structure of wood painted in various bright colors. This colonnade sur- rounds the entire Brazilian section. The pavilion is painted in the gayest colors, the principal being the national colors, green and yellow, and red and blue. Brazilian flags and streamers are draped along the front and fly from the prominent points of the structure. At the entrance stands a very large show-case placed on a square ppace paved with marble. It contains a beautiful display of artificial flowers made of the gay and brilliant plumage of the birds of Brazil, arid near it is a collection of butterflies and brilliant insects. Around the court are displayed photographs showing the geological formation and thj scenery of the empire, and a series of topographical maps. The public works are exhibited in a number of finely-executed charts and plans. The native -nod net? of the empire are largely represented, and among them coffee holds the chief place, being the great staple of the country. Rice, cocoa, mandioc, ginger, yams, sarsaparilla, and many other tropical 992 APPESDIX. products, are shown in great abundance. The native woods are also largely shown, and among them we find the castor tree, rosewood, Brazil- wood, caoutchouc, cedars, logwood and mahogany. An excellent display of furniture is also made, and the specimens are both wooden and wicker. The rising manufactures of the empire are shown in the fine exhibit ot woollen and cotton cloths, dress goods, laces, embroideries, silks and straw a id wool hats. A considerable display is also made of chemical manufac- tures. The display of porcelain and glassware is small. Leather, boots and shoes, saddles and skins, form a considerable part of the collection. ESTRAXCE TO THE B&AXTLIAX COrKT. There are also a number of antiquities ; and the Indian tribes are repre- sented by hammocks and other articles peculiar to themselves and their ancestors for centuries. Argentine Confederation, The section assigned to the Argentine Con- federation is on the south side of the main aisle and next to its western end. It is enclosed, and at the front stands a handsome circular pavilion. The mineral exhibit includes the ores of gold, silver, lead, copper, and iron, galena, kaolin, sulphate of lime, quartz, marbles, coal, building stones, gypsum, clays for the manufacture of crockery, tiles and bricks, graphite, soapstones, and other varieties. Specimens of the principal metals are also shown. There is a large collection of chemical mannfao- APPENDIX. 993 tures, and a small one of glassware, porcelain and pottery. The depart- ment of textile fabrics includes cotton and woollen goods, mats woven by State prisoners, fabrics made by Indians from native plants, clothing, laces, and embroideries. Silk spun and in cocoons is also exhibited in considerable quantities. Wool hats, and boots, shoes, and other leather goods, and samples of leather and skins make up a large part of the collection. The bows, arrows, clubs, and lances of the various Indian tribes, slings used by the hunters to catch cattle and alpaca on the " plains," and lassos used by the hunters of Buenos Ayros are also shown. A number of figures of Argentine peasants form an interesting part of the exhibit. Chili. The Chilian section stands at the western end of the Main Building, on the south side of the main aisle. At the front, which faces the main aisle, is a circular pavilion, gayly painted, around the sides of which are arranged show-cases containing an extensive and valuable collection of the minerals of the republic. The animals of the country are represented by stuffed hides of the cougar, jaguar, llama, guanaco, and monkeys. There is also an exceedingly valuable and interesting display of old pottery and domestic utensils, agricultural implements, and weapons of war used by the Indian tribes. Specimens of Chilian silks, ra\y and manufactured, are shown, and also some fine worsted work. A classified exhibit is made of the vegetable products, the native wines, and the leather of Chili. Peru. The Peruvian court is enclosed by a neat and tasteful pavilion decorated with the arms of the republic and the national colors, and stands at the western end' of the building, immediately in the rear of the Chilian and Argentine sections. The entrance is from the west. Around the sides of the pavilion the mineral wealth of the republic is faintly shown by a number of specimens. Gold, silver, and precious stones are included in the collection. Quicksilver, copper, iron, lead, sulphur, faltpetre, and salt are exhibited in a variety of forms. The principal manufactures shown are leather, soap, and sugar. The native wines and liquors are also extensively displayed. Cotton, cocoa, coffee, cinnamor, pimento, pepper, tobacco, Peruvian bark, indigo, sarsaparilla, vanilla, caoutchouc, and a variety of drugs and dyestuffs are shown. There is a large display of ancient pottery, the work of the aboriginal inhabitant, of Peru, showing that they were far advanced in the arts and customs of civilization ; and by the side of these is an exhibit of the dresses and . weapons of the Indian tribes. Hawaii. The kingdom of Hawaii, better known as the Sandwich Islands, has a handsome pavilion, with two arched entrances, situated 63 994 APPENDIX. against the south wall of the building, immediately back of the Tunisian court. The exhibit includes several specimens of native sugar, coffee, and native woods. The fibres of a number of trees strong and tough ~ are also shown, and a considerable quantity of straw work makes up the display. There are a number of specimens of lava thrown out by the volcano of Kilauea, the largest now in action in the world. Manufac- tured articles from the native woods, and calabashes used by the natives to hold their food are among the articles exhibited. A fine collection of specimens of lava, mosses, and ferns is shown, and was made by Mr. Hitchcock, the special commissioner, during a residence of fourteen years in the islands. There are cases of beautiful native birds, and a rich display of pink and white corals, .hells, and seaweed. Queen Emma exhibits a case of fans and feather-work, native millinery, and historical curiosities. Photographs of scenes in the islands are displayed about the enclosure. Russia. The Russian space is situated on the south side of the main aisle, between the Spanish and Austrian sections, and extends back to the south wall of the building. It is unenclosed, and but little effort has been made to ornament it. At the western end of the front line, Sazikoflf, of Moscow, has two handsome cases containing a magnificent display of gold and silver articles for table service, personal use, and household ornament. They are richly carved, and some of them are enamelled in a masterly manner. There are a number of statuettes of solid silver, prominent among which is one of Peter the Great. The gem of the whole collection is a superb work in repousse, representing the "Adoration of the Magi." It is one of the most perfect specimens of this school of art in the Exhibition. Near the east end of the front line, P. Ouchinnikoff, of Moscow and St. Petersburg, makes an equally handsome display of richly chased articles in gold and silver and enamels on gold and silver. Prominent in the collection is a fine altar-piece, representing the Saviour with the Gospel in his hand. At the east end of the line, Felix Chopin, of St. Petersburg, displays a collection of fine bronzes in the best style of the art. They represent scenes from the life of the Russian peasantry, and are much admired. Opposite is a gilt clock of peculiar design, about four feet high. Along the eastern border of the Russian section, Messrs. Hoessrich and Woerffcl, of St. Petersburg, have an extensive and valuable display of articles in malachite and lapis lazuli. These are of an infinite variety, consisting of cabinets, mantels, tables, statuettes, clocks, caskets, cande- labra, and some beautiful jewelry and small articles for personal use. APPENDIX. 995 Just back of the front line is a rich and large display of silks and velvets magnificently embroidered with gold, and cloth of gold with decorations of silver worked into it. These fabrics are superb, and are equal to anything in the Egyptian or Turkish exhibits. Back of these is a large exhibit of furs, equal in quality and beauty to anything in the building ; and stuffed specimens of fur-bearing animals THE SPANISH BUILDING. are shown in connection with this display. There is a good exhibit of cotton and linen goods, and of hats and military caps. In the centre of the section, the Russian-American Rubber Company, ot St. Petersburg, have a fine octagonal pavilion of ebony and plate-glass, containing a handsome collection of their goods. The exhibit of mathematical and philosophical instruments is small but very interesting, and is located near the southwest corner of the court. Immediately to the east of it is a case of ornamental cast-iron work. The 996 APPENDIX. collection consists of a number of statuettes, busts, vases, etc., the principal object being a copy of the statue of Peter the Great, at St. Petersburg. The paper makers have a small exhibit, and close by is an extensive and valuable collection of the minerals of the Russian empire. At the south end of the court is a case of inlaid caskets, boxes, waiters, etc., the work upon which is exceedingly beautiful. In the next case a book--, binder shows specimens of his work. The books are merchants' account books, and show the Russian system of bookkeeping. At the southeast corner of the court is a fine carved oaken billiard table, one of the hand- somest in the Exhibition. There is an excellent though small exhibit of cutlery, and several excellent pianos form a part of the Russian exhibit. A number of carved oaken cabinets stand along the eastern line,* where also may be seen a case of rich embroideries, worked on colored cloths with gold and silver threads. There is a small exhibit of perfumes and soaps, and a few pieces of porcelain and majolica-ware complete the display. Portugal. The section assigned to Portugal is on the south side of the hall, and immediately in the rear of the Turkish and Egyptian courts. It' is enclosed with a line of handsome show-cases of wood, stained in imitation of black walnut, with entrances at the north, east, and west ends. Along the southern wall the Portuguese department of public works exhibits a collection of topographical and geological maps and charts of the kingdom, with drawings of the principal harbors. In this section of the space is the display of glassware, pottery, and porcelain, which, though not large, is very good. Some fine dyes and specimens of woollen fabrics dyed in them are also shown. The cases which form the east and west sides of the enclosure are filled with cotton and woollen goods, generally of a coarse texture. The blankets shown here are very good. A good display is made of silk fabrics of various kind , and a c .se is also shown of cocoons and raw silk. Some of the silks are beau/ (fully embroidered. A number of excellent specimens of w< od-carvi jg are shown, and a series of photographs of places in Portu *al sho 1 / some admirable work in this line. A case containing flowers , basket , ships, and other objects made of the fibre of the fig tree, from < he islai d of St. Michael, in the Azores, attracts great attention. The mater; il is ex- quisitely beautiful and the work very fine. There ai ) a n imber ol statuettes in colored plaster, representing different type ; of J 'ortuguese brigands and peasants. At the northern end of the secti n is t collection of tinware, showing the fine quality of the native tin < f PC rtugal, and here is to be seen the finest porcelain and glassware of tl is e? hibit. The Mineral Annex. The space in the main hall beiu j fil' ad, a couple 0.13 APPENDIX. of long, narrow wooden buildings were erected on the south side of the Main Building. In these structures is shown a large and interesting collection of the minerals of the United States, prominent in which are a number of immense blocks of coal taken from the mines of Pennsylvania and some of the Western States. The Carriage Annex. The annex to the Main Building, devoted to the display of carriages and other articles, is situated on the north side of the Avenue of the Republic, just north of Memorial Hall. It is built of INTERIOR OF A PARLOB CAR EXHIBITED IN THE CARRIAGE BUrLDINQ. corrugated iron and glass, and is 346 feet long and 231 feet deep. The greater part of the space is taken up by American exhibitors. The display of carriages in the American department is very fine, and includes vehicles of all classes, and several old-fashioned Concord stages. Wheels, hubs, spokes, harness, carriage hardware and fixtures, springs, etc., are displayed here, and make a handsome showing. The collection of carriages for children is also very pretty. A number of railroad cars are exhibited in this building. The Pull- APPENDIX. 999 man Palace Car Company show one of their handsomest parlor cars, and a .superb hotel ear, to both of which visitors arc admitted. The latter shows the entire arrangement for providing passengers with meals cooked to order while the train is in motion. Several magnificent street railway cars stand by the side of the larger coaches, and are beautiful specimens of workmanship. A large part of the American department is devoted to an exhibition of stoves and heating apparatus of various kinds, tin and ironware, and house-furnishing goods. These make up a pretty and attractive display, and draw many visitors. In the English department we notice several fine drags of the most elaborate style, and a number of broughams, coup6s and a species of one- horse barouche. The English vehicles are all substantially made and are elegant and tasteful. Canada exhibits her fine sleighs, which are much admired. Italy sends two specimens of a curious little closed carriage. Machinery Hall is next to the Main Building in size. It stands west of the intersection of Belmont and Elm avenues, on a line with the prin- cipal building and 542 feet from it. The building consists of the Main Hall, 1402 feet long by 360 feet wide, and an annex of 208 by 210 feet. It contains about fourteen acres of floor space. The principal portion of the edifice is one story in height. The main cornice is forty feet from the ground. The aisles are forty feet in height in the interior, and the height of the central avenue is seventy feet froru the floor to the ven- tilators. The main entrances are finished with handsome facades rising to a height of seventy feet. The building is constructed of glass and iron. Along the south side is the boiler-house and other buildings. A special room is set apart for the display of steam and rotary pumps and turbine water-wheels. The building is fitted up with especial care for the comfort and con- venience of visitors. Water-closets are placed at the east and west ends, with attendants. Rolling-chair stations are located at the main entrances, and telegraph offices are established at prominent points. Stands for the sale of the official catalogue are placed in the central aisle, and letter- boxes* are scattered throughout the building. The fire service is perfect alarm stations being placed at regular intervals, each with its proper number, and Babcock extinguishers are scattered over the building read' for instant use. At the north end of the transept is a restaurant, the proprietor of which promises to furnish a good dinner for the moderate? sum of fifty cents. Adjoining the restaurant is a confectionery, and by the side of this the pop-corn man has a tasteful stand, from which he 1000 APPENDIX. 1001 does a thriving business in this peculiarly American eatable. Soda- fountains are placed at several points in the building, and are under the same management as those in the other halls. The interior decorations are simple, the rcof and pillars being painted in light colors, the object being to render the interior as light ao possible. Machinery Hall was the first completed of all the Exhibition build ings. It cost $542,300. From the gallery one looks down upon a bu.-v scene. The great engine in the centre drives several miles of shafting and belting, and the hall resounds with the hum and click of the machinery in motion. No fires or furnaces are allowed in the hall. The boilers of the great Corliss engine are placed in a separate building on the south side of the hall, and steam is introduced into the hall by a service of pipes. The motive power for all the machinery in motion in this vast hall is a double-acting duplex vertical engine, erected by Mr. George H. Corliss, of Providence, Rhode Island, its inventor. It stands in the centre of the hall, and is built upon a platform fifty-six feet in diameter, and three and one-half feet above the floor of the hall. The engine rises to a height of forty feet above the platform, and is the most conspicuous object in the hall. "It has cylinders of forty-four inches in diameter and ten feet stroke, the peculiar variable cut-off' arrangement being actuated by the governor, as common in the Corliss engines. Between the vertical engines is a fly- wheel of fifty-six tons weight, thirty feet in diameter and twenty-four inch face; it makes thirty-six revolutions per minute, the rate being kept equal by means of the governor cut-off, which immediately responds to any change in duty, owing to the throwing off or on of machines either singly or embraced in a whole section of the building. The tubular boilers are twenty in number, in a separate building, and each represents a nominal power of seventy horses, the work of the engine at sixty pounds pressure being about 1400 horse-power. The fly-wheel has < on its periphery, which match with cogs on a pinion which rotates a Hue of underground shafting, and this by means of mitre-gearing rotates othri underground shafts, so that motion is communicated to eight points in the ground-plan at the transept, at which are pulleys from which belt* rise through the floor and thence pass around primary pulleys on the eight principal lines of shafting, which reach from the transept to the extremities of the east and west end of the building. The sunk shafting, its mitre-gears, pillow-block? and pulleys, weigh 200 tons." The w^rk on the engine was completed on the 10th of April, the day promised by 1002 APPENDIX. its inventor, and the entire cost of its construction $200,000 was borne by Mr. George H. Corliss. Eight main lines of shafting are provided for the machinery in the avenues and aisles, the larger portion being speeded to 120 revolutions per minute, and one line to 240 revolutions per minute, principally for the wood-working machines, which occupy the larger part of the west end of the southern aisle. With the subsidiary lines, the length of shafting THE CORLISS ENGINE IN MACHINERY HALL. is estimated at 10,400 feet, each main line of 650 feet transmitting 180 horse-power to the various machines connected with it. The United States.' The space occupied by the United States coverc about three-fourths of the area of Machinery Hall, and extends from the western end entirely across the hall to a point nearly half way between the transept and the eastern docvs. The machinery displayed covers a wide range, extending from the most delicate machines for the manu- facture of watches to the most powerful trip-hammers and rolling-mill). APPENDIX. 1003 We begin our inspection at the west end of the building, and start from the western end of the south aisle and pursue our way eastward along this aisle. On the south side we notice an extensive collection of gas meters and kindred machines. The whole system of registering the consumption of gas is shown. A large collection of machines for making illuminating gas from naphtha is shown beyond the gas meters. Beyond the gas machines the Hagner Drug Milling Company, of Philadelphia, exhibit a pair of double-run flaxseed chasing mills, which attract considerable attention by their size and excellent workmanship. To the east of this is a large frame model of an anthracite coal-breaker, showing the process of crushing coal and separating the different sizes for the market. A fine display of steam-drills comes next, and below these is a blast- furnace, with plans showing its operation. A capital display is made of steam-engines, stationary and portable. The Atlantic Mills, of Phila- delphia, show some powerful machinery, and below these the scroll-saw men are at work with their machines, cutting out scroll work in wood. Some of these saws are driven by steam and some by foot-power. We have now reached the transept, and turn back to examine the display along the north side of the aisle. We are attracted at once by the exhibit of barrel, hoop and stave-making machinery in operation. These machines cut out the staves and hoops and set up the barrels and head them in an exceedingly short space of time. Close by is an automatic shingle-maker, which can turn out 25,000 shingles in a day. Beyond these machines William Cramp & Son, of Philadelphia, exhibit two fine marine engines. In the next space J. W. Griffiths, of New York, exhibits a machine for bending wood, and shows by its operation the process of bending stout wooden beams for ships' frames, or for arches. We are at the west end once more, and pass into the south avenue. As we move down this avenue we confine our inspection to its south side, and notice first a large road steam-engine of American make. Adjoining this space is one occupied by Wm. Andrews, of Williamsport, Pennsyl- vania, who exhibits a number of circular and straight saws of the best workmanship. We now reach an extensive collection of saws, moulding-machines and .^team-engines, noticeable among the latter being the splendid automatic cut-off and throttling steam-engines of the Buckeye Company, of Salem, Ohio. In the midst of this group Cornell University displays some of the results of her department of mecli.-'.nical engineering in the work of her students and in a fine collection of machinery. Here are a foot- 1004 APPENDIX. lathe, magneto-electrical machine, measuring machine and steam-engine, all of which are handsome pieces of workmanship. Having reached the end of the avenue, which is here closed in by the space assigned to an exhibitor, we notice on the north side a section of the first steam-engine ever introduced into the United States. Leaving the south avenue at its western end, we pass around into the central aisle and continue our inspection on the south side of that aisle. We pass a number of vertical and other steam-engines, and pause to examine the immense high speed blowing engine erected by the Weimar Machine Works, of Lebanon, Pennsylvania. This fine engine has a capacity of 5000 cubic feet per minute at ten pounds pressure. The same company also exhibit a section of an apparatus for charging a blast furnace. Below this is a display of fire-engines, three of which are handsome steamers, and a case of firemen's hats, overhauls, etc. Beyond the engines a fine hook and. ladder carriage is placed. Several old-fashioned hand- engines are included in the display, and look odd indeed beside the glittering steamers. Passing on we come to the display of chemical fire extinguishers. Farther on, I. P. Morris & Co., of the Port Richmond Iron Works, Philadelphia, exhibit a large and complete blast furnace, which towers to the roof, high above all the surrounding objects. Near the intersection of the aisle with the transept, E. M. Boynton, of New York, has a handsome pavilion of black walnut, velvet and gilt, ornamented with specimens of his saws. The north side of the central aisle, from the transept westward, is taken up almost entirely by the exhibit of the sewing machine manufac- turers. All the sewing machines of the country are represented here, and the display made by them is one of the most attractive features of the Exhibition. The spaces occupied by the various manufacturers stand side by side, and are fitted up in the handsomest style. Rich native woods and costly hangings are used in the construction of the enclosures and pavilions of the various manufacturers, and neither expense nor taste has been spared to render these as brilliant and imposing as possible. Each firm exhibits its best machines, finished in the handsomest style, ?..nd displays conspicuously samples of fine needlework done by its Dperators. The machines are operated by a number of young ladies, and are shown to all who are disposed to examine them, To the west of the sewing machines are the knitting machines, the workings of which attract much attention ; and beyond these is a hand- some model of a steam tug, with an exhibit of improved screw propellers APPENDIX. ]005 for steam vessels, and we enter once more the space devoted to steam- engines. Among these we notice a machine for ditching and draining, exhibited by Randolph Brothers, of New Jersey. Several sizes of this machine for horse and steam power are made. The largest size will dig eight cubic yards per minute in clay soil, or as much as a single man c:i; dig in a day. The next space is occupied by Pusey, Jones & Co., of Wilmington, Delaware, with a large display of machinery of various kinds ; and just beyond N. W. Twiss & Co., of New Haven, exhibit a number of beautiful vertical engines. We are at the west end of the aisle, and pass around to the north avenue, at the western end of which, on the south side, Messrs. Poole & Hunt, of Baltimore, have a large display of machines of various kinds. Eastward of this exhibit, on the same side of the avenue, the steam- engines stretch away for a considerable distance. Beyond these the American Iron Works of Pittsburgh make an extensive display of wheels, shafting, pulleys, bar, sheet, plate iron and T rails. Below the American Iron Works is one of the handsomest displays in the hall. It is the exhibit of the John A. Roebling's Sons Company, of Trenton, New Jersey, manufacturers of wire rope and suspension bridge cables. Here are shown sections of the cables of the suspension bridges over the Niagara at Niagara Falls, and those over the Ohio at Pittsburgh and Cincinnati, which were made by this firm. Handsome drawings of these bridges are displayed. Beyond this space is an enormous direct acting steam and hydraulic cotton press, from the Taylor Iron Works, of Charleston, South Carolina. It is constructed entirely without pumps, and has but a single valve. It is the most powerful cotton press in the world, and among its other feats is said to have recompressed a bale of cotton into two-thirds of its original size. We now enter a region of looms and cotton machinery, and pause to notice the process of making and winding spool cotton as shown by the Willimantic and Hopedale Companies, of Connecticut and Rhode Island. Beyond these machines a large power-loom is weaving corsets for the United States Corset Company. A lady operates the machine, and a number of her sex are generally interested lookers-on. Next dooi a larger-sized loom is weaving jute cloth. Both of these machines are the Lyall Positive Motion Loom, the accuracy and rapidity of the work of which are wonderful. Next below is one of the most interesting exhibits in the hall. The American Watch Company, of Waltham, Massachusetts, have a work- shop, in which a number of their most experienced and skilful workers 1006 APPENDIX. i are engaged in the manufacture of watches by machinery. Every part of the process is illustrated by the work done here. The machines used are of the most delicate and perfect character, and the operations are marked by an accuracy and skill which elicit the warm praise of the interested spectators who surround the workshop. The Waltham watches have long been regarded as the best of American manufacture, and the universal testimony of all who have used them is that they are unexcelled by any in the world. The transept is reached again, and we turn back westward again. On the right, opposite the Waltham shop, the Nonotuck Silk Company, of Florence, Massachusetts, show the process of labelling spools and winding machine twist and sewing silk for the market. In the next space beyond William Wood & Co., of Philadelphia, have a loom at work weaving cotton cloths ; and above this the Monitor Carpet Mills, of Philadelphia, have a power-loom at work weaving carpets without the use of a shuttle. Two power-looms are engaged, beyond this one, weaving Brussels carpets. The Falls of Schuylkill Carpet Mills operate one of these looms, and thus illustrate the process by which the beautiful carpets displayed by them in the Main Building are woven. Going westward we pass several looms engaged in weaving cloth, and a number of wool-carding machines, and notice a fine Murkland power-loom at work weaving ingrain carpets for Messrs. John Bromley & Sons, Philadelphia. The rapidity with which this loom does its work is surprising. With a competent operator it will run off thirty-five yards of carpeting in a working day. Beyond this is the Garnett machine, which takes the waste of woollen factories and works it up into fibre again, washing it clean at the same time. An interesting display is made of meters for registering the consump- tion of water ; and the exhibit of steam-gauges is both large and hand- somely arranged. From the western end of the avenue we have been traversing we pass into a small aisle to the north of it. The first notable exhibit is that of the Backus Water Motor, which would seem to be the long desired motive power for running sewing machines. Beyond this is a most interesting exhibit of asbestos, a mineral which has the peculiar property of being a non-conductor of heat. Farther on the Westinghouse Air-brake and Henderson's Hydraulic Brake for railroad cars make large and interesting displays of the merits of their respective machines. At the lower end of the aisle, on the south side, is a tall machine for drying paper collar stock, and below this machines for drying cotton and worsted dyed goods. We have reached the transept once more, and enter upon the section devoted to the display of locomotives, wl>>ch is one of the most prominent APPENDIX. 1007 as well as one of the most attractive features of the Exhibition. About ten locomotives built by the Baldwin Works, the Pennsylvania ami Heading Railroad Companies, and other well-known manufacturers, make up the collection, in which the latest improvements and the highest skill in this branch of the mechanic arts are shown. A narrow gauge loo - motive and one for mining purposes are included in the collection. Tiu finishing of these splendid machines is handsome, but substantial. They are no finer in appearance than is usual, and represent faithfully the superior appearance as well as construction of the American locomotive. Leaving the locomotives behind, we pass to the north aisle, where we notice a large display of machinery for mills by J. T. Noye & Son, of Buffalo, New York, beyond which is an immense hoisting engine for ' ' / O O mines, and a display of mining machinery, including a powerful Cornish pumping engine made by the Dickinson Manufacturing Company, of Scranton, Pennsylvania. Both sides of the aisle are now occupied by the display of the scale makers. All the principal manufacturers are represented, and this de- partment is one of the largest and handsomest in the hall. Then follows, on both sides of the aisle, a collection of car-wheels, trucks, springs, rail- road iron and rails, switches, seats for cars, and other railroad material. On the left hand side, above the Wharton Switch, the Baxter Steam- Engine Company make a handsome exhibit of their famous engines. On the north side of the aisle, at the western end of the building, is a huge vacuum pan for clarifying sugar, exhibited by the Col well Iron Works, of New York. It towers to a height of thirty-five feet above the floor of the hall, and the vacuum pan has a diameter of ten feet. There are two platforms or stories one above the other. The whole apparatus is of the most complete description, and is a fair sample of the vacuum pans used in the largest sugar refineries in Cuba or Louisiana. We pass around into the north aisle and start eastward again, noticing first, on the right, or south side of the aisle, a large collection of washing, wringing and mangling machines of every kind and description, to run by hand or by steam-power. On the opposite side of the aisle a large machine for printing wall paper is shown by Messrs. Ilowell & Brothers, of Phil- adelphia, the largest manufacturers of wall paper in the United States. The left hand side of the aisle is taken up for a considerable distance by machinery for making paper in operation, and on the other side a cracker- making machine is at work. Below the last are several machines engaged in the manufacture of fine candy bon-bons, and beyond these, on both sides of the aisle, we notice machines for butchers, bakers and flour mills. 1008 APPENDIX. Opposite these, on the north side of the aisle, is a small model of an old Virginia tobacco factory. All the operations of manufacturing chewing tobacco are shown here, with the exception of the flavoring process. Below the tobacco factory is a pretty display of small mills for grinding coffee and spices, below which the butchering machinery greets us again and still farther east, on the north side, the process of making India rubber shoes is illustrated by machinery at work. The south side of the aisle, opposite the tobacco and India rubber works, is occupied by an exhibit of French burr millstones and wheat- cleaning machines. Below these is a large centrifugal sugar draining and ilrying machine in operation. Diagonally opposite, on the north side of the aisle, below the rubber works, Messrs. Whitman & Son, the well- known Philadelphia confectioners, make a practical exhibit of their process of preparing their bon-bons and fine candies. These are made and sold here daily. We cross the transept, and continue on our way down the north aisle. On the east side of the transept and extending eastward along the north aisle for some distance is the exhibit of the Massachusetts marine prepared by the Commissioners of that State. It occupies a large stand hand- somely draped with flags and streamers, and consists of models of all the various kinds of sailing and steam vessels, both old and new style, owned in the ports of Massachusetts. Passing on we enter the department of printing machinery. Here are presses of all kinds and of every make, from the little hand press designed for amateurs, to the great Bullock machines which strike off 20,000 copies of the New York Herald in an hour. The presses .stand on both sides of the aisle, and extend over to the north avenue. In a prominent space near the northern wall we notice a splendid six roller stop cylinder press, a roller-drum press, and a perfecting press for illustrated cut work, all made and exhibited by Messrs. Cottrell & Babcock, of New York. We are now at the end of the American department, and pass into the north avenue to complete our examination of the printing machinery, W^e notice two large presses at the eastern end of that avenue made by the Bullock Printing Press Company. They are in daily operation, anc every afternoon a number of copies of the New York Herald and Sun are struck off from stereotype plates sent over from New York in the morning. The papers are distributed among the. visitors. These presses have a capacity of 20,000 impressions per hour. Paper-cutting machines stand on the north side of the avenue, and in APPENDIX. 1009 this department are book binders' machinery, presses for steel and copper plate and lithographic printing, and machinery for stereotyping and electrotyping and for type founding. On the north side of the aisle Messrs. R. Hoe & Co., of New York, show several of their improved presses, one of which is engaged in printing the fine illustrations contained in " Picturesque America," thus giving a practical demonstration of its excellence; and at the western end of their space is the venerable hand press at which Benjamin Franklin worked as a journeyman printer during his first visit to London. On the south side of the avenue opposite these presses is a fine ice yacht, a peculiarly American institution, and above it an American double life-boat with its equipments, beyond which is a collection of boats and shells, and a half-size model of the famous Monitor life-raft. Beyond this is a full-sized steam yacht exhibited by Baird & Huston, of Philadel- phia, showing an improvement in the arrangement of the propeller. At the head of the north avenue, and along the transept, John Roach & Sons, the famous shipbuilders of New York and Chester, Pennsyl- vania, exhibit a handsome collection of models of the noted iron-steam- ships they have built for the Pacific Mail Company and other shippers, and models of the ironclads Puritan and Miantonomoh, built by them for the United States. They exhibit also a sample of armor plating, and other work for iron vessels. Passing along the transept into the central aisle, we notice a number of models of vessels, life-saving apparatus, rafts, etc., and turn into the central aisle. To the eastward of this stand we enter a region of machinery of various kinds for weaving cotton, woollen and silk cloths. On the left hand side of the aisle the Phoenix Manufacturing Company, of Paterson, New Jersey, have a Jacquard loom at work weaving Centennial badges in silk. Opposite the loom A. F. Prentice & Co., of Worcester, Massachusetts, exhibit a fine collection of machinists' tools, with a number of presses, dies, and other machines for working in metal. On the left hand side of the aisle, the Dan forth Machine Company, of Paterson, New Jersey, exhibit three fine machines for spinning silk thread. All the stages of the manufacture of this article, from the raw silk to the complete thread, are shown here. Below this is a self-feeding machine for the manufacture of pa]>r envelopes. The machine is almost entirely automatic, and cuts, folds, gums and counts 120 envelopes per minute. By the side of this machine 64 1010 APPENDIX. is another for printing envelopes, which prints 60,000 per day.* A third machine is engaged in making paper collars. On the next space below, the process of making paper boxes by machinery is shown, and farther on is a brick-making machine which works the clay, moulds the bricks and turns them out ready for baking. At the end of the aisle, William Sellers & Co., of Philadelphia, make an extensive exhibit of powerful machinery for certain lines of work. They have a complete machine shop, which could at any moment be started upon the most difficult and the heaviest work. In the next space Pratt & Whitney, of Hartford, Connecticut, exhibit a number of machinists' tools, somewhat similar to, but of a smaller class than, those of Sellers - & Co. We are now at the end of the American department, and pass over to the south avenue, and work our way westward along it. On the right is the machine shop of Sellers & Co., and on the left an extensive exhibit of valves and steam pipe connections, steam-fittings of various kinds, and nuts, bolts and screws. Immediately on the west of the Sellers machinery, the Midvale Steel Works, of (Nicetown) Phila- delphia, make a splendid display of specimens of steel, including large axles and shafts of finely forged metal, and twisted and cold chilled bars. An axle is shown which was tested at the United States navy yard at Washington, D. C., and which required a strain of 122,300 pounds to the square inch to snap it. Diagonally opposite, on the south side of the avenue, the Pittsburgh foundry shows some fine rollers of chilled iron for rolling brass, with a broken section of a roller, showing the depth of crystallization. Both sides of the aisle are now taken up with a collection of machinery of various kinds. On the north side of the aisle the Pennsylvania Tack Works, of Norristown, have six of their machines at work cutting tacks out of thin strips of metal. The machines used are " Weaver's patent," which make 400 tacks per minute, and over 2500 different kinds and sizes. In the next space below, the Duncannon Iron Company of Philadelphia show the process of making nails by a machine operated by a nail cutter. Immediately back of this is an automatic nail cutter, which does not require the services of a man to turn the metal plate as in the ordinary machine. The remainder of the aisle is taken up with machinery for charging soda-fountains. Having now finished our inspection of the American department in the main hal^ J^e go back to the Corliss engine, and examine the Hydraulic Annex, wi-yvii is a prolongation of the south transept, as we have stated elsewhere On the ricjht hand of the aisle, the Silsby Manufacturing Company APPENDIX. of Seneca Falls, New York, display several handsome steam fire-engine*, and horse and hand hose-carriages, and close by the same company have one of their famous rotary steam-pumps. The central portion of the annex is occupied by a sunken tank, 106 feet long by sixty feet wide, which is filled with water to a depth of about ten feet. At the south end of this tank is a smaller tank raised about forty feet from the floor of the hall, from which a steady sheet of water-'pours in a cascade down into the pool below. The water is raised by two rotary pumps, driven by a steam-engine of 150 horse-power, which raise 30,000 gallons of water per minute to the upper tank. The effect is very fine, and the cascade forms one of the principal attractions of the hall. The pumps and hydraulic machines are grouped around the lower tank, and discharge steady streams of water into it. Here are hydraulic rams, presses, steam and hand pumps, pumps for mines, sugar refineries, and other special uses, turbine water-wheels and blowing machines and ven- tilating apparatus. Great Britain and several foreign nations participate in the exhibit, their machines being located on the east side of the annex. Great Britain and Ireland. The space assigned to Great Britain and Ireland covers about one-third of the area occupied by the foreign exhibits. Banners of red with letters of white suspended from the roof mark the British section. We begin our tour through it in the southern aisle, at its eastern end, just above the German section. On the south side of the aisle are two of the famous traction engines made by Aveling & Porter, of Rochester, England. They attract much attention, and have no superiors in the world. Across the aisle Messrs. Howard & Bullough exhibit some fine cotton machinery, including a large carding machine. In the next space is a display of submarine armor and diving apparatus, made by Siebe & Gorman, of London. We cross now to the south avenue, on the south side of which several steam-hammers are displayed by B. & S. Massey, of Manchester. This firm exhibit also steam-stamps, and circular-saws for cutting hot iron and steel. A section of nine-inch iron armor-plate is also exhibited, in which are several deeply-indented shot holes, which show tbe severity of the test to which it was subjected. On the opposite side of the avenue is another section of iron plate, 21| inches in thickness, which is polished on one face. The outer edge shows the manner of building up. plate upon plate to gain the required thickness. On the south side of the avenue we pass a group of machinery for weaving cotton cloths, and come upon two im- mense steam-cranes made by Appleby Brothers, London. Opposite the cranes, Thomas Gadd, of Manchester, has a fine machine for printing salicoes, which prints eight colors at once, and an engine for running it ; 1012 APPENDIX. and below this, Clarke, Stanfield & Co., of London, show a pretty model of a floating dry-dock, with a steamship drawn up on one, to illustrate its workings. We are at the eastern end of the British section once more, and pass northward into the central aisle, and turn westward again. On the north side of the aisle Messrs. Newton & Wilson, of London, make a large dis- play of their sewing machines, many of which are operated by the hand instead of the foot, a style very popular in England. The machines are handsome, and are displayed in an attractive manner. On the opposite side of the aisle, a Jacquard loom is weaving badges of silk, and above the loom is another exhibit of sewing machines. Immediately on the west of these machines, the well-known cotton-spinners, J. & P. Coats, of Paisley, Scotland, have machines at work winding and spooling cotton thread, which finds a ready sale to visitors to the hall. At the west end of the British section in this aisle we notice a large table on which Messrs. Brierly Sons & Reynolds, of London, have a beautiful model of a railway junction, by means of which they illustrate the English system of managing railway switches and signalling the move- ments of trains. A similar exhibit is made immediately north of this one by Messrs. Saxby & Farmer, of London, who also show photo- graphs and drawings of the workings of the switch system of the great depots of London. Adjoining Saxby & Farmer's model, the Inman Steamship Company exhibit a full-rigged model of their fine steamer, the City of Berlin. To the east of the railway model, Mr. John Walter, of the London Times, exhibits the printing press which bears his name. It is a fine machine and a worthy rival of the great American presses. It prints a daily edition of the New York Times, and attracts much attention from visitors. On the east of the Walter press, Messrs. Mirlees, Tait & Watson, of Glasgow, make an extensive display of machinery in motion, consisting of a sugar mill, and a valveless engine working an air-pump for a vacuum- pan, and driving centrifugal machines. This is one of the largest exhibits in the hall, and the machinery is all of the largest class. Canada. Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia make a collective exhibit under one general title, as above. They have planing and mould- ing machines, two kinds of turbine wheels, horizontal and radial boring mills, from Dundas, stationary, vertical, horizontal, and portable steam- engines, and seamless lead trap machines from Montreal ; car-wheels, soda-water apparatus, and marbles, from Toronto ; and railway signals from Belleville, in Canada. Nova Scotia sends quartz-crushers from Halifax : and New Brunswick, vertical steam-engines and circular-saws APPENDIX. 1013 from St. John's. Lathes, drills, brick-making machinery, a steam fire- engine, sewing machines, from Canada, canoes, and boats of various kinds, make up the remainder of the exhibit. The Canadian section is at the eastern end of Machinery Hall, and in the centre of the building. Germany. The German section occupies the southeast corner of Ma- chinery Hall, and is about one-half as large as that assigned to Great Britain. The German display is neither very large nor very varied, and does not give the visitor a fair idea of the resources of Germany, or the progress made by her in mechanics. Upon entering the southeastern doors of Machinery Hall, the visitor's attention is at once drawn to two immense breech-loading siege guns that are mounted on carriages of a peculiar construction. These are the famous 1200-pounder breech-loud ing Kruppguns, from the foundry of that maker, at Essen. A number of smaller rifled steel-guns of the same maker, for field uses, are grouped about the base of these monsters. On the north of the Krupp guns is a tall column of exhibits from the iron mine from which the metal for these guns is drawn. The base of the column is of crude iron ore, and the shaft of the smelted ore. It is a conspicuous object in this part of the hall. To the north of it is a fine collection of copper and iron wire piled in pyramidal form. On the south side of the space occupied by the Krupp guns a large machine is at work making full-sized bricks of a fine quality. It is exhibited by C. Schlick- eysen, of Berlin. Prussia makes a fine exhibit of sulphur and copper ores, and on the south of this are a number of railroad car-wheels, a rail- road switch, and machinery for railroad cars. Along the south aisle several gas-engines of a peculiar construction are i^ operation, showing how a steady motive power is derived from the explosive force of ordinarv burning gas. They are exhibited by the Gas Motor Factory, of Deutz At the eastern end of the German section a collection of steam gauges from Hamburg and Magdeburg is shown. The German sewing machine manufacturers make a collective display, and Aix la Chapelle shows her needles in handsome style. There are printing presses from Leipzig, steam-engines from Bremerhaven, and machinery of various kinds from Hamburg and Berlin in the remainder of the collection. France. The French section occupies the northeastern corner of Ma shinery Hall, and is equal in size to that of Germany. At the eastern end of the north avenue of the building, A. Gurnet & Co., of Lyons, have a loom, for the illustration of the process of weaving silk ; and beyond the loom E. Secretan, of Paris, has an exceptionally elaborate pavilion, constructed of brass and copper, in v\hich he exhibits specimens of his work in those ruetals. To the north of this pavilion, the French choco- 1014 APPENDIX. late and bon-bon makers are at.work, making and selling their finest con- fections ; and the same firm have a set of machines turning out their fine soaps, which find a ready market. On the north side of the aisle, near the east door, F. Arbey, of Paris, exhibits a collection of wood- working machinery, and to the west of this Morane, of Paris, exhibits some admirable machinery for making stearine candles. In the north aisle, near the western end of the French section, P. Alauzet & Co., of Paris, have a series of lithographic printing machines. One of these is a railway printing machine, the 'bed of which is carried on wheels, which run on tracks. Around the sides of their space are displayed specimens of their lithographic printing. The remainder of the French exhibit consists of a variety of machines. A fine apparatus for making beet- root sugar is shown by Beyer Brothers, of Paris. A Charleville house exhibits portable forges ; Sascole, of Paris, has an interesting machine for making illuminating gas ; D. Scgat, of Paris, exhibits a machine for sewing straw hats ; E. Comely, of Paris, a machine for embroidering; E. Carr6, also of Paris, a machine for making ice ; and Leon Edoux, of Paris, a special system for mountain railways. Belgium. The Belgian exhibit is small, but very complete, and occupies a space about one-third as large as that of Great Britain. It is situated on the north side of the hall, immediately west of the French section. One of the largest single machines in the hall is a Belgian well-borer, exhibited by Joseph Chamlron, of Brussels. It is an enormous leg of iron, with a foot having a row of chisels on the side, used to stamp holes into the ground. Louvain sends a fine exhibit of railway car-wheels and axles ; Marie- mont, railway stock of various kinds; Verviers, wool-cleaning and card- ing machines and looms; and Brussels, embroidering and sewing machines. Auguste De Tomboy, of Marcinelle, near Charleroi,exhibits the model of a trip-hammer and one of steam shears, and close by is a collection of machinery for making bolts. Ernile Van Flaecht, of Haercn, near Brussels, shows some beautiful models of fat-rendering works, with samples of stearine and oleine. One of the finest of the Belgian exhibits is that of P. Van der Kerchove, of Ghent, and consists of a beautiful horizontal Corliss engine, built for the Belgian mint, at Brussels, and a smaller one with Rider valves. Verviers sends beautiful machines for working in wool ; and Celestine Martin, of the same city, has a ring and traveller spinner. Brussels, Namur and La Louviere send multitubular filters, rotary pumps and punching machines. APPENDIX. 1015 Sweden. The Swedish space is less than a third as large as that of Belgium, and lies along the north side of the north aisle, immediately opposite the Belgian space. The tall sfoves of the country form con- spicuous portions of the exhibit. The machines for working in wood and ,metal are among the very best in the hall, and there are quite a number :)f them. Norway has some fine machinery for the same purpose, her collection being shown with that of Sweden. There are several trip- hammers in this section, and machines for making bricks of peat ; also two stationary horizontal, and one vertical steam-engine. Sewing ma- chines, a fire-engine, railway axles and springs, and fire-escaping apparatus are exhibited. A small narrow gauge locomotive, called the " Nyhammer,' stands at the western end of the Swedish space, and is a singular-looking machine. Russia. Russia does not make much of a display in Machinery Hall She has two sections, one of which is situated on the north side of the north aisle, on the west of the Swedish space, where she displays some fine brass mortars and naval guns ; and another between the central aisle and northern avenue, and between the American and British sections, in which some interesting machinery is shown. Brazil. The Brazilian section lies between the north avenue and nortl. aisle, to the west of the Belgian space. It contains one of the most com- plete displays made by any of the foreign nations in this hall. One of the most conspicuous objects of the collection is a stationary engine of very peculiar construction, which can be constructed for either high pressure or low pressure, and is said to be very simple and easy to keep in order. There are also several models of marine engines. There are models of men-of-war, representing different styles. One of these is to represent a ship carrying a square battery amidships, being almost as wide as the vessel itself, and pierced for four guns, one on each face. The second carries amidships a turret that is flat on the sides and circular on the ends, at one of which is the porthole for the single gun it carries. The machine shop at the arsenal of Marinha, at Bahia, is here beauti- fully represented by a miniature model, in which are represented the engines and boilers and all the different pieces of machinery. Here we ?an see, all arrange:! in methodical order, planes, upright drills, borin. machines and several lathes. Small as these latter are, and all are madu to scale, they show every part as perfect as in the larger machines. Be- sides the engines and boilers and the shafting, there are twenty-one dif- ferent machines represented, and also the rail tracks with the two turn-tables and two trucks. There are also two models of stone dry 1016 APPENDIX. 1017 docks, l>eing made to scale from those at Santa Cruz and the Imperial dry dock. A pin-making machine is shown, completed, and a series of the different pieces are also shown, both complete and in section, so as to give a per- fect idea of the entire construction. A couple of the machines used in the Imperial mint are also shown, one of which is for stamping the coin. The army and navy of Brazil are represented by full suits of the uni- forms of the several grades of the service, a large case full of the various small arms, rifles, carbines, swords and pistols, and a number of pieces of artillery ready for service. Quite a number of brass pumps are here on exhibit, as well as two or three stationary fire-engines. On the south side of Machinery Hall, and west of the Hydraulic An- nex, are three substantially built structures, smaller than, but similar in outward appearance to, the principal edifice. These are the Annexes for the display of boilers and quartz-crushing machinery, which may be seen in operation here. The Agricultural Hall lies north of the Horticultural Building, on the eastern side of Belmont avenue. It is constructed chiefly of wood and glass, and consists of a long nave crossed by three transepts; nave and transepts being all composed of truss-arches of Gothic form. The length of the nave is 820 feet; its width 125; and its height from the floor to the point of the arch seventy-five feet. The central transept is of the same height and is 100 feet wide. The two end transepts are seventy feet high and eighty feet wide. At the point of intersection of the nave and central transept a hand- some cupola rises from the roof, surmounted by a weather vane. The nave and transepts are co.nposed of Howe truss-arches of a Gothic form. The height of the nave and central transept from the floor to the point of the arch is seventy-five fet , the two end transepts are seventy feet in height to the point of the arch. The interior of the hall is simply decorated, the roof, arches and col- umns being covered with a plain coating of whitewash, which color :: much to the air of spaciousness which is a characteristic of the hall. The view is broken at intervals by the bases of the Howe truss-arches an 1 slender columns of wood. Overhead is a bewildering network of trusses and beams. The ground-plan of the building, including the courts and corner spaces, is a parallelogram of 820 by 540 feet, covering an area of about ten acres. The contract for the erection of the building was made on the 26th of 1018 APPENDIX. July, 1875, and the work was begun in the following September, and finished about the middle of April, 1876. The cost of the building was $2CO,000. Stock-yards for the exhibition of horses, cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, etc., are provided in the vicinity of the Exhibition grounds. Tha display collected within this hall is the largest and most complete ever attempted at any of the World's Fairs, and is by many considered the most striking and original feature of the whole Exhibition. We enter the building at the north door of the nave, and turning to the left make our first inspection in the northeastern quarter of the hall, which is devoted exclusively to a display of agricultural machinery and fanning implements. Near the north door is a handsome display of famous plows, each of which is brought to the highest stage of perfect workmanship and artistic finish. Passing the plows we enter the line of wheat-cleaning machinery, fans, etc., which brings us to the eastern end of the building. Here is a hand- some exhibit of spades, shovels, rakes, and hoes. We turn into the court to the north of the first transept, and return towards the nave. We pass through a row of drills, horse-rakes and threshing machines, and notice a fine machine for taking up hay and loading it on the wagon in the harvest field. We are now at the nave again, and turn into ihe northeast transept and follow it eastward. Here is a fine display of plows, in the midst of which is a venerable plow made in Connecticut in the year 1756. The contrast between this and the splendid plows exhibited by this company is striking. On the south side of the transept we notice a collection of threshing machines and portable steam-engines for operating them. A collection of butchers' and meat-packers' machinery occupies the eastern end of the transept, and passing through this we reach the eastern door, and turn off to the right into the court immediately south of the northeast transept. A little way down, on the left, is a large space devoted to the display of reapers and threshers. On the opposite side of the court are steam- threshers and corn-planters. We are at the nave again, and turn off" into the next court on the south and go eastward again. On the north side of the court is a large and handsome display of reapers and mowers. One of these machines is so arranged that it can be used either as a mower or as a reaper at the pleasure of the operator. A most ingenious and valuable improvement to some of these machines is the automatic binder, by which bundles of grain are taken up from the cradle of the APPENDIX. 1019 machine, bound, and distributed at regular distances. The remainder of the court, on both sides, is taken up with harvesting machines of various kinds. We are now at the east door, where a horizontal engine is at wor!: 7 O supplying power to the line of shafting which turns the agricultural machinery in this quarter of the building. We pass by it and enter the next court on the south. This court, like the preceding one, is filled with harvesting machines of various kinds, cultivators and sulky plows. Being at the nave again, we pass to the central transept and go east, noticing on the left a handsome exhibit of horse-rakes. Passing through a collection of reapers and rakes, we come to a handsome pavilion of black velvet, ornamented with pitchforks, hoes, rakes, scythes, cutting- knives, etc. Harvesting machinery occupies the transept to the eastern end. We are now at the east wall again, and pass into the court on the south of the central transept. At the eastern door of this court is a vertical engine for running the machines in the southeastern section of the building. On the south side of this court, at its eastern end, is an immense cider- mill in operation. The apples are ground by a grating machine which has a capacity of five hundred bushels an hour. It is claimed for this press, which is the most powerful of its kind in the world, that it extracts more of the juice of the apples than any other. The whole process of cider-making is shown here. Beyond the cider-mill, on the south side of the court, is a display of portable steam-engines, and farm saws for steam or horse-power ; and to the west of these is a collection of meat- chopping machinery. On the south side of the aisle, opposite the scales, is an exhibit of ice-cream freezers, churns and wooden ware; and fronting these, on the north side of the aisle, is a collection of lawn-mowers of various patterns. These make up a pretty display, and bring us to the nave once more. We turn into the next court on the south and go east again. On the north side of the court is a handsome exhibit of a model stable of three stalls, and a quantity of ornamental iron-work for farm and stable use. Above the stable is a collection of machinery for making ice-cream 1>\ steam power, churns, butter tubs and other wooden ware ; and on tin, south side of the court, immediately opposite, is a display of threshing- machines. A farm saw-mill is shown on the north side of the aisle; and above this an improved press for baling hay, straw, broom-corn, hemp, cotton, wool and hair. It may be operated by either hand, horse, or steam-power. At the eastern end of the court is a fine iron stable, with 1020 APPENDIX. a patent flooring. It is complete in every detail, and has stalls for four horses. Immediately opposite, on the south side of the court, is a collec- tion of the largest and finest power-threshing machines and horse-powers in the hall. Having reached the east wall again, we pass into the next court on the south. On the south side of this court are the Canadian and Liberia n exhibits, the north side of the court being the limit of the American department in this quarter of the building. It is an unbroken line of threshing machines for steam and horse-power, and of portable engines. Passing by these, we find ourselves in the nave once more. We turn northward now and pass up the nave towards the north door. For a while our inspection is confined to the east side, as the opposite side is taken up with several foreign departments. We enter at once upon the exhibit of the native wines of the United States. These are handsomely displayed in bottles, each wine-grower having his own booth, or stall, some of which are finely fitted up. Here are the wines of Cali- fornia, Ohio, Missouri, and central New York, consisting of champagne, still and sparkling wines, port and claret. The exhibit here is most encouraging. At the intersection of the nave and the central transept stands a hand- some bronze fountain, which throws its waters almost to the roof. North of the fountain the American department extends along both sides of the nave. The western side is occupied by the exhibits of the starch-makers. The Glen Cove Company have a beautiful Moorish pavilion with an imitation stained glass roof and tile-work at the base, one of the handsomest structures in the building, in which are displayed in a most attractive manner specimens of their starch, and illustrations of the process of manufacture. Above the starch-makers is a display of extracts of hops and malt, and a line of canned goods, all tastefully shown. On the opposite side of the nave is an exhibit of cologne spirits and whiskeys, in glass and wood. Diagonally opposite, on the west side of the nave, is an extensive assortment of famous canned meats, fish, shell-fish, fowls and soups. On the opposite side of the nave the bakers make one of the handsomest exhibits in the hall. Their crackers, cakes, bread, biscuit and other products are displayed in ornamental cases, and are often arranged in tasteful and sometimes artistic designs. A large windmill stands in the nave at this point. It is built in the old style, is about thirty feet in height, and its sails reach nearly to the roof of the hall. It bears the date 1776, and is complete in all its arrangements. If a sufficient force of wind could be obtained in the it could be put to work at any moment. APPENDIX. 1021 Along the eastern side of the nave is a large exhibit of stuffed animals and birds. Some of these are American, others are natives of foreign countries). Here are a large Bactrian camel, a giraffe thirteen feet high, and a number of casts of celebrated fossils. The collection is the best of its kind in the Exhibition, and is deeply interesting to the masses as well ws the appearance of the meal at the different stages of grinding. To the right of the oatmeal is an exhibit of meat extracts, soups and potted meats. The Colonial Produce Company, of London, exhibit specimens of their patent tea, milk and sugar, and patent coffee, milk and sugar. These are reduced to a powder and wrapped in air- tight gelatine envelopes, which readily dissolve with the powder in hot water. A package will make three cups of tea and coffee. An exhibit of ginger ales and aerated waters now follows, beyond which is a display of the well-known Burton ale. In the next space is one of Aveling & Porter's road steam-engines which we noticed in Machinery Hall. By the side of it is a large wagon for road locomotives. Farther on is an exhibit of ornamental iron work for farm and stable, ase. From the east end of the transept we pass to the next court on the APPENDIX. 102o south. Half way down this is a portable engine for farm use, different in style from those used in this country and occupying less space. Below it the exhibit of ales is continued. On the south or opposite side of the court is a collection of reaping-hooks and other edge tools used in agri- culture. Lower down are the confectioners, who show their goods in handsome cases, and to the south of them is an exhibit of the world- famed Worcestershire sauce. Passing to the most southern court of all we notice a handsome case of walnut, containing a large display of ales, Dublin stout and whiskey. Farther eastward is an apparatus for suckling young calves, sheep and pigs. Beyond this a potter, too late for a place in the Main Building, exhibits a collection of porcelain and plain whiteware. Then follow some ornamental work, ditching tiles, drains, etc., in terra cotta, and several French burr millstones for hulling rice and grinding flour. Canada. The Canadian section lies in the southwest quarter of the hall, opposite that of Great Britain, and extends from the nave back to the Liberian section. The front line along the nave is taken up with an extensive display of the agricultural products of the Dominion, consist- ing of the grains, beans, peas, roots and flour grown and made in Canada. Immediately back of these is an exhibit of Canadian wool. The quality is very fine, and the length of the wool is notable. In the next line, going eastward, is a row of tall cases, in which are shown prepared specimens of the birds, animals and insects of Canada. The exhibit of insects is by the Entomological Society of London, Ontario ; the birds and animals are exhibited by individuals from London, Toronto and Halifax. In the rear of these collections is a number of fine fleeces, showing a remarkable length and thickness of wool. Then follows an exhibit of vinegar in barrels, native fruits, macaroni, flour, salt, pickles, cheese, cured fish and canned goods of various kinds, which take up con- siderable space, and show the progress of the efforts of our Northern cousins in this direction. A pyramidal stand, of considerable size, contains a display of the agricultural products of British Columbia. Some very fine wheat is included in this exhibit, and samples of this grain and oats on the stalk show the size and vigor which they attain in this high north- ern latitude. Specimens of the woods and barks of the country are also shown, and there are two blankets of variegated colors, woven by the Indians. We now enter the department of agricultural machinery, in which over one hundred exhibitors take part. The collection is similar to that in the American department, and is particularly rich in reapers, mowers, 65 1026 APPENDIX. plows, "harrows, root and straw-cutters and horse-powers. The variety in plows is, if anything, greater than our own, but the number of plows is much smaller. The collection includes also portable engines, cider- presses, potato-diggers, snow plows for breaking winter roads, grain-dr ; lls uul hay-loaders. France. The French section lies west of the nave and along the southwest transept. The most prominent feature of the French exhibit is the display of wines. Every grade of wine made within the limits of the French republic is shown here. We find champagnes in abundance, and the dainty and delicious wines of the south of France are well repre- sented. Here are Burgundies, clarets, red and light wines, and brandies and liquors of every description. The front line along the nave is occupied by a row of handsome show- cases, principally of ebony and gilt, in which are displayed champagnes, brandies, liquors and olive oils, and fine chocolates. Immediately back of the front line, the south side of the section is occupied for some distance by a triple row of handsome oak stalls, in which the great Paris seedsmen, "Vilmorin & Andrieux, exhibit photo- graphs of flowers, vegetables and plants, and samples of seeds. Passing this we reach the principal exhibit of wines, brandies, liquors, cordials in glass bottles and small stone jugs, which takes up the entire space south of the transept, back to the Dutch section. On the north side of the transept is an extensive collection, by a number of exhibitors, of the famous pate de foigras of Strasburg, pickles, preserves, mustards, jellies and prepared food of various kinds. Preserved fish and sardines in oil form a prominent part of the collection, and candied fruits, dried fruits and vegetables, and prepared soups are extensively displayed. A number of French burr millstones of a fine quality are shown near the northern border of the court, and near these are some fine crucibles, and specimens of various kinds of cements, hydraulic lime and artificial stone. The Roquefort cheese factory exhibits specimens of its famous cheese; the tanners have an extensive exhibit of leather; and the silk-growers of southern France show their raw silk in cocoons. Artificial manures, phosphates and animal charcoal are also shown. Geiinany. The German section lies on the south of France and extends to the south wall of the building. It fronts on the nave and extends westward to the Austrian court. At the nave the Rhenish Sparkling Wine Company, of Schielstein, have a large pavilion in which they display their famous wines. Back of this pavilion is the collective exhibit of Rhine wines, in which the finest as well as the ordinary grades are shown. Alongside of these wines the German brandies, liquors, ex- APPENDIX. 1027 tracts and essences are displayed. A fair exhibit is also made of Bavarian and Prussian beer and hops, and of samples of the malt from which these are made. The confectioners, makers of wax. and manufacturers of smoking and fine-cut tobacco for chewing, cigars and cigarettes, make a large display ; and there is a fair exhibit of prepared mustard, sugar and starch. Frankfort sends samples of curled hair, and Prussian Silesia some fine wool. The wines are the strong feature of the German exhibit, and no effort has been made to show the agricultural system or resources of that country. Austria Hungary. The Austrian section is situated immediately west of the German court. The display is not large, but is interesting. On the eastern border of the court, fronting Germany, is a collection of raisins and other dried fruits, beer, wine, vinegar and mustards from Bohemia. Beyond this space is an exhibit of Austrian and Hungarian wines; and at the north end of the court a fine collection of the fruits and nuts of Hungary and the Danubian provinces. To the north of this collection is a display of candied fruits from Vienna, near which are specimens of hemp of an excellent quality grown in Hungary. Samples of fine Hungarian wool are also shown; and near the west end is a collection of the grains of all the different provinces of the Austrian empire. Specimens of flax from Austria and Hungary are included in the exhibit, and a number of samples of leather from Austria and Bohemia. Russia. The Russian court lies on the south side of the central transept, immediately west of the Spanish court, and extends back to the western wall. It is unenclosed, and occupies about one-third as much space as France. It is filled with one of the handsomest and most in- teresting collections in the Agricultural Building, and one that is richly worth studying carefully. The wheat, oats, barley, rye and other grains of the empire are shown in the most tasteful manner. They are arranged upon pyramidal stands, bags of the grains being collected about the base of the stands, while stalks with the ripened ears are placed in handsome majolica vases at the top. Large frames are filled with hemp suspended from the top of the frame, in order to show the length of the fibre. The agricultural products of the various portions of the empire are shown according to a systematic classification, and many illustrations of Russian farm-life are given. A number of the agricultural implements of the country are exhibited. Candied and dried fruits, preserves, crackers and confections are exhibited in glass cases, and the liquors and wines of the country are also shown. Italy. The Italian court is situated in the southeast corner of the 1028 APPENDIX. hall, and covers but a small space. Along the east wall are samples of raw and combed hemp, and adjoining these are a number of specimens of leather and boots and shoes. The principal portion of the exhibit consists of wines, liquors, cordials and olive oil, representing all the grades of these articles made in the Italian Peninsula and in Sicily. They are exhibited in bottles, and make an attractive display. In the southeast corner of the court the soap-makers have a creditable display. Large blocks of Castile and olive oil soap are among the most con- spicuous objects in the court. A collection of grains, peas, beans and nuts, principally from Sicily and central Italy, is arranged along the southern side of the court, and rice from Piedmont is also shown here. There is a handsome display of confectionery and candied fruits from Turin ; and a case of the minerals found in the Peninsula is shown near the centre of the court. At the western end of the court are a number of specimens of manganese and iron ores from the mines at Monte Argentine, in Tuscany. Milan sends Parmesan and Gorgonzola cheese ; Ancona and Turin, leather and hides; Palermo, Rome and Sienna, honey; Bologna, her world-renowned sausages and salted meats; Naples and Sicily, macaroni and dried fruits; Syracuse, nuts; and the other Sicilian cities, oranges, lemons, olives and figs. Sicily also makes an exhibit of a case of the essential oils of fruits, and of some fijie liquorice. Sardines are to be seen here in quantities, and in glass and tin, in oil and pickled. Along the northern side of the court are several plows from Ancona, Cremona and Pisa, and a harrow from Venice. They are heavy and clumsy in appearance, and in striking contrast with the fine plows to be seen in the American or Canadian departments. Spain. The Spanish court is situated on the south side of the central transept, and extends from the nave back to the Russian section. As in the Main Hall, Spain makes here one of the handsomest exhibits in the building. Her section is surrounded with a high wall of yellow wood, in the sides of which are set small glass-covered panels, which are filled with collections of the grains, beans, peas, nuts, fruits, and other agricul- tural products of the Spanish kingdom. Entering the court we find ourselves in the midst of one of the most extensive and best arranged collections in the hall. Immense logs of mahogany and rosewood lie on the ground, and festoons of tobacco leaves and sheaves of grain ornament the pillars, while from the roof along the sides of the court are suspended specimens of skins and Spanish leather. On each side of the entrance stand pyramids of the finest wools of Spain, and along the sides of the court the rich wines of the country are displayed in bottles arranged on shelves rising one above another. At the south- APPENDIX. 1029 east corner of the court the Valencian Society of Agriculture show a col lection of the agricultural products of that province. There is a large display of Manilla hemp, and cordage made from it, from the Philippine islands, In the centre of the court is a rustic structure of rough wood, containing specimens of resinous pine and the gums and resins extracted from it; and to the east of this the agricultural products of the Philippine islands are exhibited in glass jars. Near the south end, the cigar-makers of Havana and Manilla have a large and handsome exhibit of cigars, cigarettes and tobaccos. They are displayed in ornamental cases of mahogany mounted upon standards. A large collection of chocolates occupies the northwest corner of the court, and close by it is a tall metal stand containing large jars and bottles of olive oil. Portugal. The Portuguese exhibit fairly rivals that of Spain both in size and variety. It is distributed in two parts of the hall. The principal section assigned to Portugal lies on the south and west of the Spanish court, and is filled with a large and varied exhibit of the products of the kingdom. In the section on the south of the Spanish court, the little kingdom displays her oils and wines; the south side of this section being entirely taken up with bottles of Port and Madeira wines. Here also are to be seen the raw silk and cocoons, which form a part of the Portuguese exhibit. In the section to the west of the Spanish court is a very extensive collection of the agricultural products of the kingdom, arranged on shelves and in glass jars. These consist of the grains, roots, fruits, nuts, olives, raisins, dried fruits, and spices of the different provinces of Portugal. Some very large potatoes and turnips are preserved in alcohol. Pickles, preserves, and canned meats, vegetables, and fish are exhibited in large quantities. The products of the Portuguese colonies are displayed in a similar manner in a small court in the southeast corner of the hall, between the Italian and English sections. The Netherlands. The section assigned to the Netherlands lies south of the southwest transept. Starting from the west end of the section we notice the collective exhibits by the agricultural societies of Guelderland and Zealand, of the products of those provinces, including seeds, speci- mens of grain, plants, dye-woods, photographs of cattle, beans and peas, and a model of a thatched hay-cock. In this exhibit are shown the wooden shoes worn by certain classes of the Dutch peasantry. Close by is an exhibit of a peculiar kind of flour which has the property of keeping pure and sweet for years. Adjoining this is the exhibit of the makers of chocolate and cod-liver oil. A collection of round Edam cheeses is shown to the east of these ; and then come specimens of fine flax. Opposite the flax is the exhibit of cigars and manufactured tobacco. On the north side, of the court are a number of models of old and new style Dutch 1030 APPENDIX. fishing vessels, from Scheveningen, with a collection of fishing-tackle. Large seines for deep-water fishing are suspended overhead. We come next to the collection of pickles, canned meats, fish and vegetables, which is large and well displayed. Adjoining this are jars containing samples of different grades of beet -sugar from the Beet -Sugar Factory of Arnhem. The remainder of the section is taken up with the exhibit of Holland gin, cordials and liquors, which is very large. The principal display is made by the liquor-makers, who occupy a handsome pavilion of wood ornamented in maroon-color and gilt. Opposite this pavilion, on the north side of the section, the Dutch Agricultural Society make a collective exhibit of all the agricultural products of Holland. Norway. The Norwegian court lies immediately west of that of Brazil, and is enclosed with a light and tasteful railing. Along the front line is a collection of heavy, clumsy-looking plows, such as are used for breaking the rugged soil of this northern land. The exhibit is small, but consists of pale ales and a strong liquor called punch, which is much used in Norway and Sweden, as a stimulant against the intense cold of those countries. Wines, brandy, cordials, tobacco, cigars, confectioneries, essences, and canned meats and fish make up the display. There is a fine exhibit of leather at the back of the court, and specimens of the water- birds of Norway are shown. In the northwest section of the building, Norway has another space enclosed with a light railing and handsomely draped with seines and the national colors. Here she makes an exhibit of the products of her fisheries, and shows models of her fishing vessels of all kinds and their equipments, specimens of fishing-tackle, and samples of dried and pre- served fish, anchovies, etc., as they are prepared for the market. For the purposes of this display, some of the larger kinds are preserved in alcohol. Sweden. The Swedish court lies immediately west of that of Norway. Along the north side are a number of fine plows, every part being of metal. They are intended for deep plowing, and seem capable of doing good work. The liquors, especially bottled punch, are a strong feature of the display. Here are also confections, prepared coffee, crackers, snuffs and chewing tobacco. Towards the west end of the space are models of the various kinds of vessels used in the Swedish fisheries, with samples of fishing-tackle, and overhead are suspended the seines used by the Swedish fishermen. Specimens of the fish of the country are exhibited in alcohol. A number of samples of leather hang against the wall. The exhibit of native woods is complete and interesting. The grains of the country are shown in glass jars and also in the stalk and sir, and close by are a number of covered earthen jars containing samples APPENDIX. 1031 of flour made in Sweden. Sardines, anchovies, herrings, and potted meats, scythes, and dairy utensils complete the collection. Denmark. The Danish section lies west of the Norwegian and south of the Swedish court. It is small, and the exhibit is made up of Danish punch, grains in the blade and in small canvas bags, brandies, pickles, preserves, and potted meats and fish. Belgium. The Belgian section lies wesfc of the nave, and immediately east of the Spanish and Portuguese courts. The exhibit is very small, but thirty-eight persons taking part in it. It comprises chiccory, raw, in the pod, and manufactured, chocolate, and the details of chocolate manufacture, specimens of fine leathers and kid, candies, cordials, gin, flax, wool, and millstones. Japan. The Japanese court is situated in the southwest corner of the hall, immediately west of the Austrian section, and is divided into small passage-ways by canvas screens. Along the south wall, samples of native tobacco are shown ; but the greater part of this section of the court is devoted to an exhibit of the teas of Japan. Specimens of tea are shown, and the process of tea-culture is illustrated by a number of drawings of the different stages of the growth of the plant. Along the west wall is a display of the fishing-tackle, nets, etc., used in Japan, with specimens of cured fish, some of which are put up in canvas, like bacon. Fishing-nets are suspended overhead, and a part of the space along the west wall is given to an exhibit of the few simple agricultural implements used in Japan, a primitive-looking plow and harrow, a scythe and cradle. Oil the north side of the south aisle of this court is a beautiful exhibit of the culture of silk as carried on in Japan. It is shown by specimens of the worm and cocoon, and of floss silk, and by models and drawings with explanations in English. In the next aisle on the north is a large col- lection of skins of fish and animals, and of shells, also samples of cotton from the government manufactory. In the last aisle on the north the grains and other agricultural products of Japan are shown according to a systematic classification, and on the southern wall of this aisle is a display of the native woods of the empire. Brazil. The Brazilian section lies west of the nave and extends back to the Norwegian court. In front of the court in which the principal display is made stands one of the most unique structures in the building. It is a rustic pavilion, the posts and rafters of which are wrapped in native cotton, giving to it at a distance the effect of an immense house of snow. The different grades of Brazilian cotton are shown in bales arranged around the sides of the pavilion. Within the pavilion die 1032 APPENDIX. different grades of Brazilian coffee are shown in jars and boxes of fanciful design, the Mocha and Rio being conspicuous among the other grains. Samples of native leaf tobacco are also shown in this pavilion. The principal court lies immediately in the rear of the cotton pavilion, and is THE WISCONSIN STATE BUILDING. enclosed by a brilliantly ornamented railing, decorated with streamers of green and yellow and national flags. The collection of native woods comprises over one thousand different woods, among which rose- wood and mahogany are conspicuous, and is arranged along the entire court. A considerable display is also made of leather and skins, which APPENDIX. 1033 are suspended overhead around the court. The wines and liquors of the empire are shown, though these do not as yet constitute a very prominent Brazilian industry. Twelve different kinds of sugar are shown in this court. The exhibit includes cocoa in the nut and prepared for the market; rice from Maranhao; starches; rubber, ready for the market and in the crude gum ; ninety different varieties of edible beans; Brazil ian teas, the culture of which is as yet in its infancy ; gums, resins, canned goods; hemp, vegetable fibres for making rope, and a finer fibre which can be worked up into a sort of wool ; wax, pickles and preserves. The tobacco exhibit is large, and besides smoking tobaccos, cigars and cigar- ettes, includes fourteen different kinds of snuff. The Brazilian silk-worm and its habits are shown in an admirable manner. Venezuela. The Venezuelan exhibit arrived so late that it could not 6e given a place in the Main Exhibition Building, and was assigned a section in Agricultural Hall. This section lies in the southwest quarter of the hall, north of Japan and west of Austria. It is enclosed by a tasteful railing, ornamented in red and blue. The collection is almost entirely agricultural in its character, and includes the grains, vegetables, fruits and barks of the republic. A large exhibit of coffee is made, and cochineal forms a considerable part of the display. A collection of oils, balsams, rum and bitters is also exhibited. The skins of the native animals of Venezuela are suspended overhead, and samples of native tobacco are affixed to the pillars of the court. Pine-apples and other large fruits are shown in alcohol. A cabinet of very rich gold-bearing quartz and other minerals stands on the north side of the section, arid on this side are also exhibited specimens of Venezuelan printing and book- binding, chocolates, boots and shoes, fruits in wax, embroideries, leather, and flowers made of the feathers of native birds. Samples of sugar and dye-woods complete the collection. The Argentine Republic. The section assigned to the Argentine Republic lies back of Portugal and south of the Russian court. It is enclosed with a light wooden railing, ornamented with the national colors. Festoons of the leaf of the native tobacco are hung about the court, and the skins of the native wild animals of the country are sus- pended overhead. The collection is very large, and comprises the native woods, barks, gums, resins, dye-woods and seeds of forest products ; the grains, sugars, beans, peas, fruits, tobacco, coffee, chocolate, wines, dried fruits, nuts, liquors, leather, starch, flour, wax, honey, cotton and wool of the country. An exhibit is made of the silk grown in the republic, and several grades of sugar are shown. t6eria. The Liberian section is located at the east end of the hall, 1034 APPENDIX. north of the southeast transept, and to the east of the Canadian section. It is the only display made by Liberia in the entire Exhibition, and is due entirely to the energy of Messrs. E. S. Morris & Co., of Philadelphia, who are extensive growers of coffee in that far-off land. All the proceeds of the sales of Liberian coffee at this stand during the Exhibition are devoted to the building of school-houses. Messrs. Morris & Co. intend to supply the deficiency from their own means. They hope to make Liberia a great coffee-growing country, and to extend the production of that article among the native tribes of the interior of Western Africa. The collection exhibited here consists of coffee principally. This is of an excellent quality, as the writer can testify from a personal knowledge of it. Palm soap is the next exhibit in importance. Palm oil is shown in glass jars hermetically sealed. Lime-juice, chocolate, arrow-root, sugar, indigo, ivory and iron ore make up the list of Liberian products. A coffee-hulling machine forms a part of the exhibit, and there are a good many curiosities in the way of implements and clothing made by the native tribes. The cap and robes of an African king are also shown. The Pomological Annex. To the east of the Agricultural Hall is a large wooden building intended for the various displays of ripe fruits tnd vegetables which are to be made from time to time during the progress of the Exhibition. The Wagon Annex is situated to the north of Agricultural Hall, and is simply a series of rough sheds, whitewashed. It contains a fine display of farm wagons and carts, bakers' and milk carts and ice wagons. The Horticultural Building is the smallest of the five principal edifices of the Exhibition. It stands on the Lansdowne terrace, a short distance north of the Main Exhibition Building, from which it is separated by the Lansdowne valley. The design of the building is in the Mauresque style of architecture of the twelfth century, the edifice being 'constructed principally of iron and glass. The exterior is painted in variegated colors, which give to the building a light, fairy-like aspect, in perfect keeping with its graceful design. The length of the building is 383 feet, the width 193 feet, and the height to the top of the lantern, sixty-nine feet. The main floor is occupied by the central conservatory, 230 by eighty feet, and fifty-five feet high, surmounted by a lantern 170 feet long, .wenty feet wide and fourteen feet high. Running entirely around this conservatory, at a height of twenty feet from the floor, is a gallery five feet wide. On the north and south sides of this principal room are four forcing-houses for the propagation of young plants, each of them 100 by thirty feet, covered with curved roofs of iron and glass. Dividing the 55 w M w) -a S i ;i gi 1035 1036 APPENDIX. two forcing-houses in each of these sides is a vestibule thirty feet square. At the centre of the east and west ends are similar vestibules, on either side of which are the restaurants, reception room, offices, etc, From the vestibules ornamental stairways lead to the internal galleries of the con- servatory, as well as to the four external galleries, each 100 feet long and ten feet wide, which surmount the roofs of the forcing houses. These external galleries are connected with a grand promenade, formed by the STAIRWAY IN HORTlCtJLTtTRAL HALL. roofs of the rooms on the ground floor, which has a superficial area o:f 1 800 square yards. The east and west entrances are approached by flights of blue marble steps from terraces eighty by twenty feet. In the centre of each stands an open kiosque, twenty feet in diameter, Each entrance is adorned with ornamental tile and marble work, and the angles of the main conservatory are provided with eight ornamental fountains, APPENDIX. 1037 The basement is of fire-proof construction, and contains the kitchen, the heating apparatus, store-rooms, coal -houses, etc. Mounting the marble steps and passing through the vestibule to which they lead, the visitor finds himself in the main conservatory, a spacious and beautiful hall, which elicit* the admiration of every beholder. In the centre of the hall is a large fountain of marble, executed by Miss Margaret Foley, an American artist, in Rome. From the fountain walks radiate to the north, east, west and south, and divide the floor of the conservatory into beds. Around the hall is a row of corridors, from which the arches which support the inner gallery open into the conservatory. The Horticultural Building is the property of the city of Philadelphia, and will remain a permanent ornament of the park after the close of the Exhibition. It cost $300,000, which sum was defrayed by appropriations by the City Councils. The ground was graded and the foundations laid on the 1st of May, 1875, and the building was completed April 1st, 1876. It covers an area of about an acre and a half. The conservatory, or main hall, of the building is filled with a superb collection of rare and luxuriant tropical trees and shrubs. The side spaces of the hall are filled with statuary. The collection of plants is deeply interesting, and is deserving of careful study. Here are the broad fan palm, the sago, date and cocoa palms, all of full size, and as graceful as a dream of Eastern romance. The orange and lemon trees, with their rich golden fruit, the camphor tree, with its luxuriant growth of sharply cut leaves ; the eucalyptus, which is said to have the property of neutralizing the malarial poisons of the air; the guava; the mahogany, and the India rubber tree, with its thick, heavy leaves, all make up a rich and beautiful display of foliage, which is charming from whatever part of the hall it is viewed. A banana, with its fat, sturdy branches of fruit, forms a conspicuous object of the collection, and a number of fine cacti are scattered through the hall. The rooms at each end of the building are handsomely frescoed, and are filled with a variety of horticultural appliances. The room on the north side of the western entrance is the office of the chief of the Bureau of Horticulture. About twenty-five acres of ground immediately around the Horticul- tural Hall have been laid off as an ornamental garden by Mr. C. H. Miller, the Chief of the Bureau. These grounds are filled with a beau- tiful display of native and foreign flowers, which give to them an exceedingly brilliant and charming appearance. A broad sunken garden 1038 APPENDIX. leads from Belmont avenue to the western door of the Horticultural Building. It is bright with flowers of a thousand different hues, and sparkles with handsome fountains. The flowers of England, France, Germany and the tropics grow side by side with those of our own country in the beautiful garden, in the midst of which the grand Conservatory stands like a central jewel in the midst of a thousand gems of various hues. THE FOKCINO-HOUSE, HORTICULTURAL HALL. At the north 3ide of the Horticultural Building is a large tent-like structure, consisting of a series of wooden arches covered with canvas. It is designed for the exhibition of flowers in bloom. The Art Gallery or Memorial Hall is located north of the Main Exhi- bition Building. It is situated on the most commanding portion of the Lansdowne plateau, 116 feet above the Schuylkill river, and looks down over the lower park and the city. It is built in the style of the modern renaissance. It is intended to remain as a permanent art gallery after the Exhibition is closed, and is therefore constructed in the most substan- APPENDIX. 1039 tial manner. The materials are granite, iron and glass, no wood being used, in order that the edifice may be as nearly fire-proof as possible. The building is 365 feet long, 210 feet wide, and 59 feet high. From the central portion of the roof a graceful dome rises to a height of 150 feet. The dome is surmounted by a colossal ball upon which stands a figure of Columbia with protecting hands. At each corner of the base of the dome stands a gigantic figure typifying one of the four quarters of the globe. In the centre of the south or principal front of the edifice is situated the main entrance, consisting of three colossal arched doorways of equal proportions. At each end is a pavilion connected with the centre by arcades. The main entrance is approached by thirteen massive steps seventy feet wide. The entrance is by three arched doorways, each forty feet high and fifteen feet wide, opening into a hall. Between the arches of the doorways are clusters of columns terminating in emblematic designs illustrative of science and art. The doors are of iron, and are relieved by panels of bronze having the coats of arms of all the States and Territories of the Union. The coat of arms of the United States is in the centre of the main frieze. The cornice is handsome in design, and is surmounted by a balustrade with candelabra. At each end is an allegorical figure representing science and art. In the front of each pavilion is a window thirty feet high and twelve wide. Each pavilion is also ornamented with tile work, wreaths of oak and laurel, thirteen stars in the frieze, and a colossal eagle at each corner. The arcades are designed to screen the long walls in each gallery, and give an air of lightness and grace to the front. They consist of five groined arches and four promenades looking outward over the grounds and inwards over open gardens which extend back to the main wall of the building. These garden flats are each ninety feet long, thirty-six feet deep, and are ornamented in the centre with fountains. They are designed for the display of statuary. From the gardens a stair- way leads to the upper line of the arcades, where there is a magnificent promenade thirty-five feet above the ground. It is protected by a balus- trade ornamented with vases and designs for statues. The building covers an acre and a half of ground. The main entrance opens into a hall decorated in the renaissance style, eighty feet long by sixty feet wide. The sides form two long galleries over 200 feet in length. The cost of this superb edifice was $1,500,000. The hall will be seen to most advantage after the Exhibition is over, when the other structures are cleared away, and its main front is seen across a broad level lawn covered with verdure and flowers. The work on Memorial Hall was begun on the 4th of July, 1874, and the building was completed on the 1st of March, 1876. 1040 APPENDIX. At an early period of the work on Memorial Hall it was found that the applications for space in it were so numerous that the building would not accommodate the works of art to be exhibited in it. An extension, or annex, was therefore built immediately north of the hall. It is of brick and iron, and harmonizes well with the principal building in design and color. It is intended to be permanent. The principal build- ing gives 75,000 feet of wall space for painting, and 20,000 feet of floor space for statuary, etc. The annex affords 60,000 square feet of wall space for paintings, and contains thirty galleries, each forty feet square, besides four galleries each one hundred feet long by fifty-four feet wide, and two transverse central corridors twenty feet wide. The exhibition of photographs is so large that a third building was provided for it. From the main entrance the visitor passes into the south hall or vestibule of the building. The wainscoting is of colored marble, but the remainder of the hall is finished in simple white. It is in the modern renaissance style, and is elegant and tasteful. A magni- ficent crystal chandelier hangs from the ceiling. At the north side three massive arches open into the central hall, and at the east and west sides doors lead to the gardens lying within the arcades of the southern front of the building. The hall is filled with statuary in marble and bronze. The gardens and arcades on the east and west sides of the main entrance are prettily ornamented with flowers, and contain a small collection of statuary. In the eastern arcades is a fine bust of Dante, and another of Michael Angelo. In the garden on the west side are some interesting specimens of statuary and vases in spelter. Passing through the arches at the north end of the south hall, we enter the central hall, a spacious and beautifully proportioned apartment lighted from the dome overhead. It is finished in simple white, and it is to be regretted that its beauties were not enhanced by a judicious use of color in its decorations. The hall is devoted to statuary. The halls on the east and west of the central hall are divided by parti- tions into smaller apartments, which are assigned to the various countries EAGLE USED IN ORNAMENTATION OF MEMORIAL HALL. APPENDIX. 1041 taking part in the- Exhibition. The corridors which lead east and west from the central hall are thus merely temporary. They are lined with paintings. It will not be possible to give a complete list of the works of art in the Memorial Hall and the annex, nor to describe them. Such a task would require a volume. We can only state that in the American department the exhibit consists of several thousand pictures by the best-known artists of our country; and while it contains works that have been the objects of much hostile criticism, it can also boast many of which the country has reason to be proud. The English collection is placed entirely in Memorial Hall, and occupies two rooms and the northwest corridor lying between them. It is in every respect the best and most judiciously arranged portion of the Art Exhibition. No such showing of English art has ever been made before in any foreign country. It is a better display than was made by England at Paris in 1867, or at Vienna in 1873." The French section occupies several galleries in Memorial Hall and in the annex. But few of the leading artists of France are represented, and the collection contains none of her great names in art. It has a number of fine pictures, however. The German collection is confined to Memorial Hall, and is good in many respects. It is not very large, but embraces some pictures that are richly worth studying. The Austrian collection occupies the eastern gallery of Memorial Hall, and consists of 163 paintings, etchings, and statues. It is very good as a rule. Italy sends a large number of pictures, and scarcely any -.vorthy of note. The collection of Italian statuary is very large and embraces many excellent works by the most famous modern sculptors. In the northeast section of Memorial Hall Italy has several small rooms which are occu- pied with the famous Castellani collections of classic and medieval antiquities. These consist mainly of ancient marbles, bronzes, Italian majolica, gold work, and personal ornaments. The collections are unique in many respects, and are among the richest and most valuable in the world. Our limits do not allow a description or even complete list of the treasures here exhibited. They comprise seventeen portrait busts and heads in marble from the Greek mythology; twelve of the exceedingly rare bronze dressing-cases of the Etruscan ladies, of which there are but one hundred now in existence ; a large and valuable collection of old porcelain and majolica ware, the glory of which is a case of superb Gubbio ware; and many gold ornaments and gems of Phoenician, Etruscan and 66 1042 APPENDIX. Greek workmanship. Some of the gems aie unequalled by anything in .nodern art. Spain makes a small exhibit, including a few works of her great masters; and Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium and Denmark are each well represented by the works of their best modern artists. Brazil and Mexico also show a few pictures which give promise of future excellence in this department. The Photographic Annex. The space in Memorial Hall and the annex ITALIAN STATUARY IN THE ANNEX TO THE ART GALLERY. being taken up, a third building was erected for the exhibition of photo- graphs. It is of wood, stuccoed, and is situated on the Avenue of the Republic, east of Memorial Hall and north of the Main Exhibition Building. It contains a large collection of fine photographs from the United States, Great Britain, Germany, Austria, France, Italy, Russia, Canada, Denmark, Sweden and Mexico. Many of these are views of the scenery of the countries to which they belong. The collection may not fairly represent the progress made by foreign nations in the photographic 1043 1044 APPENDIX. art, but such as it is, it shows the United States far in advance of all the competing countries. A specialty of the American display is the series of splendid views of the scenery of the Pacific coast. A large exhibit is also made of photographic apparatus and material, and magic lanterns of the better class. Next in size and importance to the five Exhibition buildings already described is the edifice erected and controlled by the general government of the United States. It is located on Belmont avenue, north of Machinery Hall, from which it is separated by the lake. It is constructed in the form of a cross, with offices built in the concavities of the angles. The main stem of the cross, or nave of the building, is four hundred and eighty feet long, and the arms, or transept, three hundred and forty feet long. This is clear of the entrance, which will protrude ten feet farther on each end. The building rises to a height of two stories in the main portions of the cross, the upper story having for its sides long rows of windows which act as skylights for the building. The outside is handsomely painted, the prevailing tints being brown and wood-color. The lower portion, or main body of the structure, has a stripe of red at the top ; beneath this are the windows, which are con- tinuous all around. Then comes a broad band of wood-color, with a neat yellow figure placed at intervals in it; next a band of dark red, and then the lower band plain. The dome is of wood-color, and these, with the black composition roof, give a subdued but pleasing effect at a distance. The prevailing color inside is wood-color, all the lower part being so; but it is relieved by small red bands, interspersed with neat geometrical figures. The ceilings of both the building and dome are painted a dark blue. The main feature, however, consists of the sides of the building, which are divided into panels, and these again are subdivided into dia- mond shape. Each panel covers much space, and in the centre of each of its diamonds or lozenges is painted the emblem of the department of the government there represented. The main entrance is quite handsome. It rises to a peak, and has an immense window and circular top. Columns stand on each side, resting on large pedestals. In the columns are panels, and on these, in relief, is a group of standards crossed over a drum, on each side of which are cannon balls. The doors of the main entrance stand out from the build- ing, and are fifteen feet high. This edifice is designed for the exhibition of the resources of the United States as a war-power and its internal resources in time of peace. The grounds around the building are handsomely laid off. The space APPENDIX. 1045 immediately adjoining the edifice is occupied with a display of heavy ordnance and other objects too large for exhibition within the building. Near the southeastern corner of the building the Post-Office Depart- ment exhibits two postal-cars, one of the style used by the New York 'Central, the other the car used by the Pennsylvania Railroad. Thesa show the style of car used by the great trunk roads of the Union for the fast mail service, and illustrate the entire method of assorting, receiving and delivering the mails while the train is in motion. On the north side of the building the engineer section of the War De- partment makes an interesting exhibit of a bridge train, with pontoons, wagons, etc., and a large display of army wagons is made by the quarter- master's branch of the service. On the east side of the building the "NVur Department exhibits its heavy ordnance. At the northeast corner of the building are two vertical engines which supply the motive power for the machinery within the hall. The cost of the building and of the display of the articles it contains was provided for by an appropriation by Congress on the 3d of March, 1875. The amount appropriated was $505,000,' and it was expressly provided that not more than $150,000 should be expended in the con- struction of the building. The actual cost of the edifice was $110,000. Entering the building we find it one of the handsomest and most attractive of the great halls of the Exhibition. It is tastefully painted, as has been said, and is gayly dec-orated with flags and streamers, draped and festooned overhead. The Post-Office Department. Commencing our tour of exploration at the south door, we give our attention first to the Post-Office Deportment, which occupies a portion of the southeastern section of the building. It lies east of the transept, but does not reach quite to the nave of the ouilding. The principal portion is taken up with the Post-Office of the Centeimhif Exhibition. It is constructed of black walnut and plate glass, and is fitted up in the handsomest style. All letters for the army of exhibitors and employes engaged within the grounds are received and delivered from this office. There is a system of lock-boxes, a general delivery and a carrier's department, each of which is designed as a specimen of this branch of the service. The Topographical Division exhibits a series of splendid railway an 1 general postal route maps, and maps showing the location of the momy order offices. The Division of Books ami Muni:* exhibit.- specimens of all the books, blanks, etc., letter scales, marking and rating stamps u-ed by the department. The Mail Equipment Division exhibits leather pouches ORNAMENTAL FOUNTAIN IN THF MAIN BUILDING. 1046 APPENDIX. 1047 for letter mails, canvas bags for printed and miscellaneous matter ; also registered tetter mail bags, mail locks of the pattern now in use, and those which were formerly used but have been thrown aside by the depart- ment. From the Stamps, Stamped Envelope and Postal Card Division we have a complete exhibit of all the stamps, stamped envelopes and postal cards ever used by the department, and specimens of registered letter envelopes and post-office official envelopes now in use. The Agricultural Department. The exhibit of the Agricultural De- partment is large and exhaustive, and is made mainly in handsome glass show-cases of large size. The Statistical Division exhibits large outline maps of the United States, .showing forest areas ; the extent and value of farming lands, and amount of production, by counties; charts and diagrams ^sho wing the amount of special products, by sections, and statistics of farm animals, and other matters relating to the agricultural industries of the country. The Chemical Division exhibits specimens of soils arranged in the order "of their geological formation, comprising marls, calcareous earths, green sand and phosphatic marls. Then come phosphatic rocks, animal and vegetable fertilizers, and a combination of the three in a manufactured state. The next feature, the utilization of vegetable products, is illus- trated by means of specimens, beginning with the product in its natural state and proceeding through the various stages of manufacture to the finished article." The Botanical Division is perhaps the richest and most complete in the department. The display of the wood growth of the country is exhaustive. At the foot of the cases stand many hundred sections of logs, overhead in the case being specimens of the foliage of their respective trees. Next to Horticultural Hall and grounds this spot affords the botanist the greatest delight which the Centennial can give him. From the subtropical growth of the Gulf and Southwestern States up to the hardy conifers of Maine and the Northwest there is not a tree of importance which is not here represented. The Microscopical Division exhibits a series of water-color drawings representing the family of cryp- togamia, with magnified spores, showing the several stages of the various diseases to which they are subject; also preparations illustrating the characteristics of poisonous and edible mushrooms common to the United States; illustrations displaying the varied character of the starch granules of plants ; drawings and illustrations explaining the method of distin- guishing vegetable and animal fibres, their kind and quality ; drawings displaying vegetable and animal cellulose and starches, and illustrating methods of detecting them in organizations. The Entomological Division contains collections of models of the fruits and vegetables of the United 1048 APPENDIX. States; stuffed specimens of birds, beneficial and injurious to farmers and orchardists; stuffed specimens of the various types of poultry of this country ; a collection of the grains and cereals of the Union ; a collection of the textile fabrics of the United States, with specimens of their manu- facture; specimens of tobacco from different tobacco-producing sections of the United States; and a mounted collection of beneficial and injurious insects. The Hwticultural Division exhibits specimens of economic and utilizable plants, showing methods of growth, culture, etc., grapes, cotton, tobacco, flax, broom corn, jute, corn, sorghum, yucca fibres, etc. The Interior Department. The exhibit of the Interior Department occu- pies the southwest section of the building, and is large and interesting. The most of the articles are shown in glass cases. The Patent Office. The display made by this, the oldest and best known branch of the Interior Department, is large and exceedingly interesting. First of all are shown the publications of the office, consisting of the annual reports, official gazette ; index to patents, general and yearly ; volumes of patents, monthly and weekly; decisions of the Commissioner of Patents; mechan- ical dictionary; and official classification. A selected series of 60,000 drawings of models, and a selected series of 5000 models, all carefully chosen from the vast collections of the Patent Office, are shown to serve in illustration of the work of the office. The National Museum makes a deeply interesting exhibit of a case filled with relics of the illustrious Father of his Country. They consist of the camp equipage and other articles used by General Washington during the Revolution. They are just as he left them at the close of the war, and were given to the general government for safe-keeping after his death. The Pension Office exhibits its annual reports, and the statistics of its operations, together with some collections of historical interest relating to the war of the Revolution. The General Land Office exhibits its annual reports, volumes of the laws of Congress relating to the public lands, digests of the decisions of the Commissioner, and other documents. It displays also maps, charts, and atlas of surveys, miscellaneous collections, and instruments and processes employed in the land survey. The Indian Office makes the largest and most interesting exhibit in this section of the building. It embraces the reports and other publications of the office, maps of the Indian reservations, photographs and paintings of the Indians, their mode of life, habits, etc., costumes of males and females, weapons of war, models of wigwams, tents, canoes, domestic utensils, and specimens of the arts and manufactures of the tribes. The Education Office is in charge of its Commissioner, General John Eaton. It makes an interesting exhibit of models of country and town school-houses of the past and APPENDIX. 1049 present times, and college buildings; specimens of school furniture ami apparatus ; a collection of school text-books, showing the progress made in these works from those used at the opening of the century to those in use to-day ; catalogues of colleges, schools, and charitable and benevolent institutions; statistics of education in the United States; the reports and publications of the office; and a number of other matters of interest con- nected with the progress and present condition of the educational systems of this and other countries. The Census Office exhibits a complete sot of the Decennial censuses of the United States from 1790 to 1870, with the " Statistical Atlas of 1870." The Geological and Geographical Sur- vey of the Territories is shown by the reports and bulletins of the various expeditions, topographical and geographical atlases, wall-maps and charts, panoramic photographs, paintings, etc. The windows in this section of the hall are filled with photographs of the scenery and geological forma- tions of the vast region between the Rocky and Sierra Nevada mountains. The geological formation of noted peaks, plateaux, and valleys of this region is shown by means of topographical plaster work, variously colored, the colors being numbered with reference to an explanatory schedule. There are also models of the present condition of the ancient cliff habita- tions of the aboriginal inhabitants of Arizona and New Mexico and models of the same restored. The Smithsonian Institution and Commission on American Food Fishes. The exhibit of the Smithsonian Institution is full of interest to the ordinary sight-seer, as well as to the scholar. The publications of the institution, its contribution to general knowledge, and its method of exchange with foreign institutions are shown. Then follows an exhibit of the Collection to Illustrate the Animal Resources of the United Stales. This is very complete, and is in charge of Mr. G. Browne Goode. The exhibit is divided into four sections. The first section includes North American animals which are directly beneficial or injurious to man. The species which supply food, clothing, shelter, implements, materials, or amusement, are classed as useful, while those which endanger the life or personal comfort of man, or destroy those animals or plants which are of direct benefit to him, are considered injurious. In addition to a full display of water and land animals there are also exhibited the various means employed in their pursuit and capture by hunters, trappers, and fishermen of North America, aboriginal and civilized. This collection may be regarded as a monograph of all matters relating to the chase and the fisheries of the country. The Collection to Illustrate the Fishery Resources of the United States is exhibited in connection with the display of the Smithsonian Institution, 1050 APPENDIX. and is partly covered by tne collection just described. It is very large and valuable, as it embraces photographs or plaster casts of almost all the fishes found in the lakes, rivers, streams, buys, and coasts of North America. All the apparatus used in the capture of these animals is exhibited in another part of the building, and this display includes angling tackle of all kinds, from the delicate fly to the shark gear, set tackle, such as surface, floating trowl, and bottom set lines, together with all the parts and accessories of angling apparatus and of harpoon and seine lines. A most interesting subdivision of this department is a collec- tion of boats used in fishing. These include birch canoes and the whaling canoes used by the Indians of the northwest coast, Kyaks, Umiaks, Indian raft-boats, launches, ancient "dug-outs," scows, oyster-boats, seine-boats for lake and sea use, Potomac seine-boats, dorys, sharpnis, dingies, the Italian fishing-boats now used in California, Adirondack, and Alexandria bay boats, and mackerel and oyster smacks. In one large, handsome case is exhibited by models the means of pursuit and capture of the whale, and the manner in which it is prepared for market. In the centre of a green, wavy surface, representing the o^ean, is a beautiful model of a full- rigged whaler, while a little farther off is a whale-boat and a crew in pursuit of their prey. The Collection to Illustrate the Ethnology of the United States is exhibited conjointly with that of the Indian Bureau of the Interior Department, and is in charge of Dr. Charles Row. It comprises objects of flaked and chipped, and pecked, ground and polished stone, used by the primitive inhabitants of America, such as arrow and spear-heads, perforators and scrapers, cutting and sawing implements, chisels, gouges, axes, hammers, adzes, ceremonial weapons, stone vessels, pipes, tubes, ornaments and sculptures; objects of copper, bone, shell, pottery and terra cotta ware; carvings on wood ; skulls ; mummies ; samples of food, and models, draw- ings and samples of articles of common use to illustrate the habits, daily life, pastimes, religion and warfare of the ancient Indian tribes. The Collection to Illustrate the Mineral Resources of the United States is in charge of W. P. Blake. The principal objects of this collection of the useful ores and minerals of the country have been to illustrate: 1st. The nature and variety of the mineral resources of the United States ; 2d. The geographical distribution and geological associations of the minerals; 3d. The extent to which they have been utilized; 4th. The mechanical, metallurgical, and chemical processes by which they are extracted or con- verted into useful products; 5th. The inherent and comparative qualities of the extractive products. A portion of the collection is arranged according to the nature of the objects, irrespective of locality, hut the 1051 1052 APPENDIX. bulk of the exhibition is grouped geographically by States. There is also a section devoted to models and drawings, and one to geological maps and graphic charts. This collection occupies the northeast portion of the Government Building, upon the right of the main aisle. The Treasury Department. The exhibit of the Treasury Department is small, and is located in the north end of the building. It is confined chiefly to the Revenue Departments. Specimens of all the treasury notes, fractional currency and other bills issued by the government, and notes of various denominations issued by national banks, are displayed by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. In a small but handsomely fitted- up court the Supervising Architect of the Treasury exhibits a fine plaster model of the Custom House and Post-Office at Nashville, Tennessee, and drawings of the custom houses and post-offices of the principal ports of entry of the Union. Here is a case of all the medals struck at the United States Mint at Philadelphia, and here are samples of all the revenue stamps used by the Treasury in its various branches. Samples of liquors in barrels, and tobacco in packages are exhibited, in order to show the mode of collecting the revenue upon these articles ; and here are samples of the testing apparatuses and scales, and the locks used by the depart- ment. The Coast Survey Office exhibits maps and charts of the coast and the various rivers, bays, harbors, etc., of the country, with models of the appliances by which the work of this branch of the public service is carried on. The Lighthouse Board exhibits specimens of the various lights used on our coast, and of the means employed to supply the various light stations both ashore and afloat. The Navy Department. The Navy Department occupies the southeast section of the Government Building, and makes a large and attractive display of the workings of its various branches. At the western end of the section, fronting the transept, are two powerful marine engines, one a compound screw engine of 800 horse-power, the other a back-acting con- densing engine of 500 horse-power. Immediately in the rear of these are two compound marine boilers, each eight feet in diameter; and close by are specimens of the cutter engine with vertical boiler. These are exhibited by the Steam Engineering Branch of the Department. The Ordnance Branch displays its publications and reports, which hold a high rank among professional men. It exhibits a number of torpedoes, both automatic, stationary and movable. This branch also exhibits specimens and models of the various guns used in the naval service, and of small arms. Prominent in the formidable array of heavy guns are the Catling battery gun, firing from sixty to eighty shots a minute; and the terrible, raking Billinghurst battery, consisting of a horizontal layer of twenty- APPENDIX. 1053 five guns, which are all fired simultaneously. Near these is an immense area of wall covered with shelving, upon which are specimens of all the varieties of guns used now or ever used by the United States marines; scabbards and swords, modern and ancient, handsome and ludicrously odd ; also an almost endless variety of murderous-looking shells, grape- shot, canister and solid round shot some new, others having been fired, but retaining perfect shape, and still others cracked, broken in pieces, dented or battered, the lot having doubtless maimed many a goodly ship, made daylight shine through stone walls and carried off many a poor tar's head. Elsewhere there are large and handsome glass cases, containing thousands of models of forts, batteries, ordnance and weapons of all kinds used in naval service, torpedoes and the rigging and machinery of men- of-war. The two most curious features of the section are rusty and half- decayed weapons obtained from sunken war ships, and full uniformed figures representing Jack Tar in all the transformations he has undergone during the last hundred years. Instruments for inspecting heavy guns and for gauging and inspecting shot and shell are shown ; also samples of gunpowder, percussion powder, cartridges, rammers, scrapers, sponges, grenades, war rockets, and all the various articles which are used for the armament of a fighting ship, the old and new styles being shown side by side in many cases. The ordnance branch also exhibits papier-mach6 figures clad in the dress of the sailors and marines of the navy at the various periods of its history; and a number of interesting and valuable naval relics. The Navigation Branch exhibits navy bunting and navy flags. Specimens of logs to be used by hand or steam, with an exhibit of the miprovements in Sir William Thomson's Sounding Machine, and the various devices for detaching sinkers and bringing up specimens of bottom, water, etc. An ingenious apparatus for displaying signal-lights at night is also shown, and close by are cases of compasses for various uses, instruments for testing them, adjustable binnacles, sextants, quad- rants, and the various apparatus used for determining latitude and longi- tude. The observatory having for some time past been intimately con- nected with Arctic expeditions, and Rear-Admiral Davis, Superintendent of the Naval Observatory, being engaged in preparing an official narra- tion of the expedition of the " Polaris," a design was formed and carried out for a collection of relics of the celebrated Arctic and Antarctic ex- plorers. The Hydrographic Office exhibits the charts, books and other publications issued by it, which are of interest chiefly to professional seamen. The Yard and Docks Branch exhibits handsome and carefully prepared plans of the ns x Portsmouth, New Hampshire, 1054 APPENDIX. 1055 Boston, New York, Washington, Norfolk, Ponsacola, and Mare Island, California. Here are also plans of the machinery in use at the principal navy-yards, photographs of the buildings, and perfect and elaborate! v executed models of the dry-docks at the Boston, Ne\v York, Norfolk and Mare Island navy-yards. The Equipment and Recruiting Branch ex- hibits a specimen of Young's Ship Galley, with utensils for cooking for five hundred men ; life-lwats, lanterns, and the various articles needed for the fitting up of a ship. The Construction and Repair Branch ex- hibits against the eastern wall models of the hulls of the " Constitution" and a number of the other famous vessels of the navy, and in the nave fronting the War Department is a full-rigged model of the United States sloop-of-war "Antietam." The model is forty-one feet in length ; is perfect from water-line to rail ; is fully rigged with sails, and carries twenty-two broadside guns. The Medical and Surgical Branch makes a complete exhibit of the medicines and hospital stores used in the navy. Here are cases of the surgical instruments supplied in the service; cots and stretchers for the transportation of the wounded in action; beds with woven wire mattress; arrangements for ventilating the holds of ships; a model, one thirty-second part the size of the original, of the "sick bay" of the famous ship " Hartford," which, it will be remembered, was Farragut's flagship during the late civil war. On the south wall of the section are photographs of the naval hospitals of the United States, and of the homes for disabled sailors and marines. A sectional model of the hospital ship "Idaho," showing all three decks, is included in this Col- lection. The Pay, Provision and Clothing Branch exhibits clothing and materials for making the same issued in the navy ; a package showing the manner of packing clothing for sea ; and specimens of rations and stores of all kinds issued to the men. Here also are specimens of the blanks, books, iron safes and locks used in the Paymaster's department. The War Department. The exhibit of the War Department occupies the northeast section of the building. It is quite large and includes every branch of the military service, the thoroughness and efficiency of which were so well tested during the late civil war. The Signal Service claims our attention first. The exhibit is in charge of Lieutenant Grugan, and the principal part of it is a signal or weather station fully equipped and in operation, with recording instruments, tele- graph wires, a printing press and a full corps of observers. One set of instruments will be in actual service, and other instruments will record changes in the weather, which are wholly artificial, exaggerating their natural action so as to show the principle upon which they work. The field work of the Signal Service is of little consequence in time 1056 APPENDIX. of peace, but during a war it is of the highest importance, as it is by means of it that distant portions of the army communicate with each other in the presence of an enemy. The display of it is made partly in the building and partly in the grounds to the westward of the building. The Quartermaster's Department exhibits a number of figures clothed in the uniforms used at various times in the American army from the Revolution to the present day. In this section are shown the tents, cooking utensils and tools, musical instruments, blankets and beds, and machinery for cutting out clothing and making shoes used in the army. Here also are the portable forges, and the horse-shoes, in use at present, and a complete exhibit of the system of farriery practised in the service. The wagon train is placed out of doors to the north of the building, and lias been already referred to. The Engineer Corps make one of the most interesting exhibits in the building. Maps and drawings of the great works constructed on the coast, the improve- ments of rivers, lakes and harbors, from 1776 to 1876, are shown. A complete display is made of the various articles needed for the equipment of the Engineer Corps of the army in active service. The pontoon train is exhibited in the grounds north of the building. In the hall are field photographic instruments, siege and mining tools, and reconnoissance instruments. The Ordnance Service exhibits its large guns outside of the building, as has been stated. The display within the hall is large, and merits the most careful study. The manufacture of arms is shown in the most admirable manner. Here is seen in practical operation all the rifle-making machinery which the Government Armory at Springfield, Massachusetts, could crowd into the limited space. The skilful men operatives begin with the round bars of steel and the long blocks of black walnut, turning out complete the handsome weapons of death almost as rapidly as the latter could be made to end human lives. In the adjoining section the manufacture of cartridges and bullets is in progress. Here are models of gun-plants and forges, illustrating the whole process of cannon-making. Gatling and other battery guns are shown, and small models of field artillery as well as the guns themselves. Caissons and artillery forges, models of sea-coast and siege guns, showing the manner of using them in barbette and casemate batteries, and a series of "Whitworth, Sutcliffe, Mann, Moffat, and Hotchkiss breech-loading field rifle-guns are exhibited. Along the wall is arranged a collection of all the various styles of guns and pistols ever used in the United States army, from the old flint-lock of the Revolution up to the splendid breech-loading rifle of to-day. Pyramids of shot and shell stand about the section, showing all the various projectiles used in warfare. Here APPENDIX. 1057 are mountain howitzers, their carriages and also ammunition chests all on pack-saddles -just as they are carried over mountains or bad roads on the backs of mules; stuffed uniformed figures of cavalrymen on the backs of papier-mache horses; the mortal and stuffed remains of the famous trotter George M. Patchen, hitched to a carriage containing a Gatling gun; a Hotchkiss revolving cannon (for field use, discharging eighty rounds of shells or can iste. '-shot per minute), and a section of oak which stood inside the iutrenchments near Spottsylvania Court House, and was cut down by musket balls in an attempt to recapture the works previously carried by the Second Corps, Army of the Potomac, May 12th, 1864. Plans of the United States arsenals are exhibited, and at the western end of the section is a handsome model of the arsenal and grounds at Rock Island, Illinois. The Pott Hospital. The Medical Section of the army makes no exhibit in the Government Building, but confines its display to the Post Hos- pital, which stands in the government grounds to the north of the principal building. The hospital is a plain but neat frame structure, two stories in height, with a wide piazza running all around it. It is designed to show a complete post hospital of twenty-four beds of full size. The Laboratory. Between the Government Building and the Post Hospital is a small frame building intended for a laboratory for the manufacture of cartridges and other dangerous compounds. It forms a part of the exhibit of the Ordnance Department. The Lifjhthouse. In addition to the display made in the Government Building, the Lighthouse Board of the Treasury Department has erected opposite the northeast corner of that building an iron lighthouse, such as is used on the dangerous shoals of our coast. In the centre of this tower is placed a revolving or flash-light of the fourth grade, and over one of the dormer windows is suspended a fog-bell weighing 4950 pounds. The light is revolved and the bell is struck by clock-work, the flashes of the light and strokes of the bell being regulated at the will of the light- keeper. Near the lighthouse is "The Syren," or fog-horn, which is simply an enormously long horn blown by steam. It emits a most deafening sound, and has been heard for a distance of thirty-five miles. A smaller horn is also shown. It is operated by a caloric engine, and is intended for a light-ship. The Woman's Building owes its existence entirely to the efforts of a number of ladies known as the " Women's Centennial Executive Com- mittee." It is devoted exclusively to the exhibition of the results of 67 .1058 APPENDIX. 1050 v/oman's labor. The building stands on Belmont avenue, at tlic western end of the Horticultural grounds. It covers an area of 30,000 square feet, and is formed by two naves intersecting each other, each 11)2 feet long and sixty-four feet wide. At the end of these there is a porch eiu r ht by thirty-two feet in size. The corners formed by the intersection of the two naves are filled out by four pavilions which are included in the hall.' Each of these pavilions is forty-eight feet square. The whole structure is of wood, the architecture being of the modern style. The centre of the edifice is twenty-five feet higher than the rest of the building, and is sur- mounted by a lantern with a cupola on top of the same, giving to this part of the building a total height of ninety feet. The most striking feature of the plan is that there are in the whole interior but f >ur sup- porting columns to the roof, all the rest being trussed over from the outside walls. The exterior is painted a light bluish gray color, and the interior is finished in the softest shade of light blue. Work upon the building was begun about the middle of October, 1875, and it was turned over to the " Women's Committee," completed, early in January, 1876. The cost of the building and its internal ar- rangements was $30,000, which sum was raised through the exertions of the ladies having the enterprise in charge. At the north side of the building is the engine house, in which a Baxter portable engine of six horse-power supplies the motive power for a number of spinning frames and power looms in the hall, which are constantly at work, in charge of female operatives. It runs also a small Hoe cylinder press, on which the journal issued from this build- ing is printed. The display within the hall is quite large, and includes nearly every- thing of woman's work or invention that could be collected. I'aintiiurs and statuary by female artists arc shown in the northern section of the hall, but the collection falls short of illustrating the highest triumphs achieved by the sex in these departments of art. A most interesting exhibit is made, in the southeastern section of tiie building, of the inventions of women in machinery and other fields of labor. The majority of these are designed to economize household labor. In the southeastern section is a large collection of embroideries by iiand, the most of it in glass cases. Here are a number of portraits worked in silk or embroidered in worsted. In the northwestern section there are some fine wood-carvings by ladies, and sets of chamber furni- ture designed by them. Close by are sets of porcelain ornamented by lady artists, some of which are very beautiful. 1060 APPENDIK. The southwestern section- of the hall is taken up almost entirely by exhibits from foreign countries. The hulies of Great Britain, Canada, Sweden, France and the Netherlands, and other countries have sent con- tributions to this department, which are among the handsomest articles displayed in the hall. The Royal School of Art and Needlework, under I. ic patronage of her Majesty the Queen of England, the exhibit of which we noticed in our account of the Main Exhibition Building, has here several cases of superb embroideries and needlework. Egypt also sends several specimens of rich embroideries in gold and silver thread. Here are a set of velvet covers for doors richly em- broidered in quaint designs with gold thread, by the wife of the Bey of MARYLAND STATE BUILDING. Tunis. They are among the most beautiful specimens of needlework in the entire Exhibition. From the Netherlands are some beautiful silk embroideries and some feather-work, and from France silk embroideries and specimens of the drawings of the pupils of the female art schools of Paris. In the Canadian department are a number of finely executed and beau- tiful specimens of needlework, including a picture in worsted of the Lord's Snpper, and cases of silk dresses, flowers, and a carved picture- irame. There are also in this exhibit many handsome pieces of straw- work, silk flower-work, laces, anti-macassar and cretonne work. Norway and Sweden each send embroideries, flowers, and articles made from fish-scales, articles ornamented with moss, clothing, and articles of household use. Their displays resemble each other very closely. 1061 10G2 APPENDIX. Japan fully sustains her reputation by her display here of articles in the manufacture of which the women of that country have attained great skill. The ladies of Brazil make a handsome exhibit of table covers, embroi- dery, and fancy work, many of the articles being the contributions of the inmates of the Brazilian Orphan Asylums. Among these the most noticeable exhibit is a cabinet of gold lace-work. / DELAWARE STATE BUILDING. Near the centre of the building is a small printing office in which female compositors are engaged in setting up the tyjx? of The New Century for Women, a journal conducted entirely by women, and issued from this building. The State Buildings were erected by the commissioners of the respective States to which they belong, the cost being defrayed by appropriations by APPENDIX. 1063 the Legislatures of those States. The majority are located on State avenue, in the northwestern portion of the Exhibition grounds, but a few are in other parts of the enclosure. All but the Ohio building are con- structed of wood. They contain the offices of the State Commissioners, ^and reception rooms for the governors of the respective States, and parlors for ladies and gentlemen. They are handsomely furnished, and are PENNSYLVANIA STATE BUILDING. designed as places of rendezvous for visitors from the various States, to whom special facilities are offered without any charge. The States thus represented in the Exhibition are New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachu- setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia, Mississippi, Arkansas, Missouri, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Iowa, Kansas and Col- 1064 APPENDIX. orado, and California and Nevada. The States of West Virginia, Arkansas, Kansas, Colorado, Missouri and Maryland make special exhibits in their building? of their agricultural and mineral resources. All the State Buildings have large registers in which visitors from the respective States may record their names and addresses. Nearly all are provided with files of the State newspapers, and with baggage and coat COLORADO AND KANSAS STATE BUILDING. rooms, where visitors may leave their valises, bags, and useless wraps, without charge. A number have special j*ost-offices, and at all visitors may find facilities for writing and despatching letters. They can also liave their letters sent to their State Buildings during their visits to the Exhibition. Several of the foreign nations have erected handsome edifices within the grounds. The most elaborate of these is St. Georyes House, situated APPENDIX. lOCo on the slopes of George's Hill, south of the State Buildings, and consti- tute the head-quarters of the Commissioners from Great Britain and her colonies. They stand in their own grounds, which are enclosed with a pretty rustic fence, and in the yard before the principal edifice is a tall flagstaff from which floats a large English ensign. The French Government Building stands north of the Main Building and east of Memorial Hall, near the entrance gate which faces the Reading Railroad Depot. It is sixty feet long by forty feet wide, and is built entirely of brick and iron, the facing being highly ornamental. The top is of glass and iron, and the entrance is finished with iron. The building is intended for an exhibit of the public works of the French Republic, and the articles displayed within it consist of models, charts, and drawings of bridges, aqueducts, railways, docks, and improvements to navigation. THE BRITISH BUILDINGS. The German Government Building stands on the northern slope of Lansdowhe valley, at its head, and east of Belmont avenue. It is built of brick, and is stuccoed in imitation of stone. A spacious portico leads into the main hall, which is handsomely finished in stucco work, and the Avails and ceiling are highly frescoed. This hall serves as a reception and reading-room. On one side of it are the offices of the German Com- mission, and on the other the ladies' and gentlemen's parlors. Ths building is the head-quarters of the Imperial German Commission, and is intended as a rendezvous for visitors from the German Empire. The Spanish Government Building is a large frame structure, situated on the slopes of George's Hill, west of the Total Abstinence Fountain. It is a large wooden edifice with a basement beneath it, and is eighty by one hundred feet in size. It contains a handsome display of models and 1066 APPENDIX. 1067 drawings of the public works, fortifications, and historical buildings of Spain, exhibited by the Spanish government. It is similar to the French exhibit referred to above. The Spanish Guard Home adjoins this hall, is constructed of wood, and is occupied by a detachment of Spanish engineers, who have charge of the various exhibits of the kingdom. The Portuguese Government Buildiny is a plain wooden cottage, and is situated on the southern slope of the Lansdowne valley, east of Agricul- tural avenue. It is furnished simply, and serves as the head-quarters of the Portuguese Commission, and as a place of resort for visitors from Portugal. The Swedish School-House is a pretty little building constructed of native woods. It was built in Sweden and brought over to this country in sections. It is one story in height, and is situated west of the Carriage BUILDING OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. Building and north of the building of the Department of Public Comfort. No paint is used in the building, but the native wood shows everywhere, fresh and brought to a high polish. The building is a model of the public or national schools of Sweden. It is fitted up with the furniture used in such buildings, and with the philosophical and other apparatus prescribed for the higher schools. Specimens of the text-books and books of reference used are shown, and there are models exhibited here of the great schools of the cities of Sweden. The Canadian Log House is exhibited by the government of the Dominion of Canada. It is situated near the British Buildings, and is constructed of logs and timber of every variety, and represents the portaJ of a classic temple. 1068 APPENDIX. The Brazilian Government Building stands on a wooded knoll on Agricultural avenue, east of the German Government Building. It is built of wood, octagonal in form, and has a light open piazza around it, the roof of which forms a balcony. The main entrance faces the south, and opens into a large hall which extends the whole depth of the building. Two rooms open upon the hall on each side. They are used for the offices of the Brazilian Commission and reception-rooms for visitors. / The Japanese Dwelling is situated on the eastern slope of George's Hill, north of the Spanish Buildings. It is built of wood, is a low struc- ture, two stories in height, and is covered with a roof of heavy tiles of an ornamental shape. The sides of the building arc made of movable panels, over the entrances are curiously carved timbers, and the grain and :DISH SCHOOL-HOUSE. finish of the wood are very beautiful. The interior is richly furnished. The building is the private residence of the Japanese Commissioners, and visitors are not admitted to it. The Japanese Bazaar stands immediately north of the building of the Department of Public Comfort. The grounds around it are enclosed, and are laid off as a garden in the Japanese style. The building is a low, rambling structure built around three sides of a court, is constructed entirely of carved wood, and is covered with a roof of heavy corrugated earthen tiles. The ceilings, walls and floors are painted in imitation of tile work, and many of the counters on which the goods are displayed are richly ornamented and grotesquely carved. The building is intended for the sale of Japanese articles, consisting chiefly of antique bronzes. APPENDIX. 10C9 curious specimens of porcelain and pottery, wood and ivory carvings, and lacquered ware. The Turkish Coffee Home and Bazaar is located on the Avenue of the Republic, north of Machinery Hall. It is a large and richly ornamented pavilion, with a dome-like roof surmounted by the crescent and the star. Opening upon the porches are four small bazaars, in which a large stock THE JAPANESE DWELLING. of pipes, carpets, rich dresses, swords, daggers, jewelry, and other articles from the Turkish empire are sold. The cafe* occupies a large and well- lighted room in the centre of the building, like which it is octagonal in shape. Coffee is made and served here in the peculiar Turkish style, the cups being the most fragile shells of exquisite porcelain, placed in silver holders. Turkish liquors and preserves are also sold here. The attend- 1070 ants arc all Turks and dress in their native costume. The building is under the control of the Turkish Commission. ^ The Tunisian Coffee House and Bazaar stand on the north side of Fountain avenue, north of Machinery Hall. The coffee house is octagonal in shape, and is ornamented with odd designs. The cafe" is an elaborately ornamented room, supplied with tables, chairs and divans, and at one RESTAURANT OF THE TROIS FRERE3 PROVEN^EAUX. end is a raised and cushioned platform, on which musical performances are given. Coffee is made and served here in a manner similar to that employed in the Turkisli cafe. The attendants are Tunisians, and wear their native dress. The Bazaar adjoins the cafe" on the west, and is a smaller structure a mere shed supported by slender pillars. 1071 On the opposite side of Fountain avenue, a kittle to the west of the Tunisian buildings, are three small wooden booths. These are Eastern bazaars on a small scale. In the last two some enterprising Syrian mer- GRAXD AMERICAN RESTAURANT. chants offer for sale articles of olive wood and mother-of-pearl from the Holy Land. The United States Centennial Commifision Offices are located on the right of the main entrance to the Exhibition grounds at Elm and Belmonf avenues. They are established in a low cne-story frame building with a wide piazza running around it. The Centennial Board o/ Finance Building is situated on the left of PHILADELPHIA U.S. AMERICA the main entrance to the grounds, immediately opposite the Centennial Commission building, and is an exact copy of that structure. It contains the business offices of the Board of Finance. APPENDIX. The Judges' Hall. This is a large and handsome wooden pavilion, one hundred and fifty-two by one hundred and thirteen feet in size, and is situated on the Avenue of the Republic, north of the Main Exhibition Building. It is tastefully ornamented without, and constitutes one of the most attractive structures connected with the Exhibition. The interior U handsomely fitted up. The building is for the use of the international juries charged with the determination of the prizes to be awarded by the Centennial Commission. The Restaurants. Besides the restaurants and lunch-rooms in the Exhibition buildings, there are seven first-class restaurants located within THE SOUTHERN RESTAURANT. the grounds. These are among the largest and most completely appointed eating-houses in the United States, and are required by the Centennial Commission to conduct their affairs in such a^ manner that visitors to the Exhibition may be able to obtain the best fare at moderate prices. They are "The American " and " The Southern," representing the American system ; the Restaurant of the Trois Fr&res Provengeaux, and the Res- taurant Lafayette, repiesenting the French system ; and Lauber's Restaurant, representing the German system. Besides these the George's Hill Restaurant is intended to meet the wants of Israelitish visitors. The Vienna Bakery and the Dairy make up the 1st. The Shoe and Leather Building. This building was erected by the 6hoe and Leather Trade of the United States. It is built of wood, is APPENDIX. 1073 very plain in design, is one story in height, ami is 300 by 160 feet in size. It is situated south of Machinery .Fill, and the main entrance faces the grand plaza between Machinery Hall and the Main Building. At this end of the building are the offices and committee rooms. The building contains a large hall, at each end of which is a gallery, and .smaller rooms at each extremity of the edifice. The hall contains a com- plete exhibit of all the materials which enter into this large American industry, from the heavy and intricate machinery for cutting and finish- ing the leather down to the blacking for polishing it. The Brewers' Industrial Exhibition Building is situated near the north- eastern corner of the Exhibition grounds, and immediately east of the Agricultural Building. It is 272 feet in length and ninety-six feet in width, and was erected at a cost of" $30,000. It is a large and conspicu- ous wooden building. Hop vines are trained along the south front, and the grounds on this side are tastefully laid off as a hop vineyard. The building is devoted to a display of the processes of making malt, and brewing beer, ale and porter. Samples of hops, barley and other cereals from which malt liquors are made, are shown, one firm displaying five varieties. Samples of malt liquors of all kinds, in glass and wood, are also exhibited. The Butter and Cheese Factory is a large wooden building situated near the northeastern end of the Exhibition grounds and east of the Brewers' Building. It is 116 by 100 feet in size, and is two stories in height. It contains a special exhibit of the dairy products of the United States, and illustrations of the processes of making butter and cheese. The Department of Public Comfort is a peculiar and very important branch of the great Exhibition. As its name indicates, it is designed to supply additional comforts and conveniences to visitors to the Exhibition. The principal building of the Department of Public Comfort stands on the corner of the Avenue of the Republic and Agricultural avenue. The central building is used by the department, and contains a large re- ception-room for visitors, which is abundantly supplied with chairs and sofas, and is free to all who choose to avail themselves of its facilities. A register is kept here, free of charge, in which visitors may enter their names, address in the city, and date of intended departure, so that friends may readily learn of their whereabouts. Special arrangements may be made for the reception of visitors' letters addressed to the care of the Department of Public Comfort. These will be kept until called for, or forwarded to any desired point. Reserved scats at the theatres and prin- cipal places of amusement in the city may be obtained here. At the north end of the reception-hall is a lunch-counter, at which refreshments 68 1074 1075 are sold at moderate prices. Stands for the sale of fancy articles, news- papers, periodicals, etc., are to be found in the wept ion-room, and attached to it are barber-shops for gentlemen, dressing-rooms for ladies, water-closets, lavatories, boot-blacking rooms, and mil uiul baggago- rooms, where baggage and other small articles may be left at a snui! cost, the owner receiving a check for his property. The eastern wing is occupied by the General Telegraph Office of tht. THE SINGER SEWING MACHINE BUILDING. Exhibition, aleo under the control of the Department of Public Com for* Messages may be sent, from here to all parts of the world. The root, contains an exhibit of the various instruments used in telegraphing, the greater number of which may be seen in operation. The Singer flaring ^^s. All the various processes of pressing, blowing and cutting glass are carried on here by a corps of experienced workmen. The CamjibcU Printing Press Jlnit Tlie Live-Stock Displays. The arrangements for the display of Live- Stock, in connection with the Centennial Exhibition, were intrusted by the Executive Committee to the Bureau of Agriculture. The grounds assigned for the Live-Stock displays were situated about five hundred yards south of the main Exhibition enclosure. They comprised twenty acres in the form of a trapezium with the wider end in front, bounded on the north by the Pennsylvania Railroad, on the south by Westminster avenue, on the east by Forty-first street, and on the west by Boliwmt avenue. They were surrounded by a high wooden fence, containing three groups of entrances similar to those at the main Exhibition enclosure. VIEW OF THE INTERIOR OF THE WOMKX's PAVILION. Two of these groups were on Belmont avenue, and the other at the cor- ner of Westminster avenue and Forty-first street. The buildings and improvements cost over $25,000. There were 826 stalls for cattle and 540 stalls for dogs. All these were comprised in twenty-nine frame buildings, each 170 by 14 feet in size, and having a roof projecting four feet on each side and end. The offices of the superintendent and the judges were in a frame building fronting on Belmont avenue, and two stands for the judges were erected in the centre of the largo area between the sheds. This area was left open for the purpose of exercising the animals and exhibiting their performances to the judges and spectators. The Horse Show. The exhibition of horses, mules, and asses was 1084 APPENDIX. opened on the 1st of September, and was closed on the 14th of that month. The palm was worthily borne off by the Canadian exhibitors, whose stalls were located immediately on the left of the entrance. The animals here exhibited consisted mainly of Clydesdale and English draught horses, which are a specialty of Canadian stock-raising. There are two branches, if we may so express it, of the Clydesdale breed. One of these is known as the English Clyde, the other as the Scotch. Both branches are originally from Scotland, but the English breeders have made certain modifications in the horse. Both branches were well repre- sented at the Exhibition. All the animals exhibited there in the imported class were of the very best specimens of the breed. INTERIOR OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT BUILDING. The exhibit of horses from the United States was, on the whole, very creditable, and included not only draught horses, but trotters and thoroughbreds of the best blood. Prominent among these was a small hut beautiful Arabian, a very, light gray, almost white, delicate in all his proportions, but perfection in form. There were a number of trotters worthy of mention, but our space forbids us to name them. The display of draught horses was very fine. The most noticeable was the Duke de Chartres, probably the finest Percheron stallion ever imported, light dapple gray in color, sixteen and a half hands high, weight 2,050 pounds, lirnbs and muscles of enormous size, but perfect symmetry, and, despite his enormous size, active as a mustang. APPENDIX. 1085 At ten o'clock in the morning and again at four o'clock in the after- noon, during each day of the horse show, the animals were led out in the ring, and were there, either in harness, or under the charge of attendants, put through the performances best calculated to show their speed and display their most attractive and valuable qualities. The sight at such times was beautiful and inspiriting, and drew large numbers of persons to witness it. The number of horses entered was 246, of which 170 belonged to the United States ; the remainder to Canada. The Dog Show. The dog show was opened, according to arrangement, on the morning of the 4th of September, and was closed on the evening THE STARCH PAVILION, IN AGRICtTLTtTRAL HALL. of the 8th. It was a perfect success, and was pronounced, by competent judges, the most complete and satisfactory exhibition of its kind ever held. The entries numbered 722, of which 681 were American, twenty- six English and Irish, and fifteen Canadian dogs. The collection cm- braced sporting and fancy dogs, imported and domestic English and Irish Jordan setters, and pointers of fifty pounds weight over and under. Harriers, beagles, Chesapeake Bay dogs, Irish water spaniels, and A large variety of hounds and terriers of all sizes and colors made up the list, with a liberal display of Newfoundlands, St. Bernard's, mastiffs, bull- dogs, poodles, etc. The different breeds were classified according to sections, and by reference to the catalogue the visitor was enabled to 108G APPENDIX. familiarize himself with the distinguishing characteristics of the breeds. W'th the list of entries was incorporated a description of typical charac- teristics, and a scale of points such as is made use of in judging dogs in .England. The Cattle Show. The display of horned cattle began on the 21st of September and lasted until the 4th of October. The entries numbered 550 head of cattle, and the display was a gratifying success. Among the animals on exhibition were four large buffaloes from Colorado, which were especially noticed by reason of their immense size. The largest animal displayed was the General Grant, whose weight was almost five GENERAL VIEW OP THE INTERIOR OF AGRICULTURAL HALL. thousand pounds. There were also shown two steers, one from Kentucky, the other from Canada, whose weight was almost equal to that of the Gen- eral. Two rows of sheds were set apart for draught cattlo, of which a fine display was made. All the oxen on exhibition were thoroughly trained to the voice of the driver, and the greater part of them belonged to the finest breeds of this country. Among the entries were 150 Jersey milch 'cows from various parts of the United States, and twelve from England; about seventy Shorthorns from Canada and Pennsylvania, principally for beef; fifty Ayrshires, for dairy purposes; a large number of Devons, intended for both the dairy and the meat market; and a number of fine specimens of Hereford, Galloway, Kerry, Holstein, and APPENDIX. 1087 Dutch breeds, most of which were bred for the market. The display of fat cattle for beef was also fine, although the entries from each State was small. A number of the more valuable Shorthorns were imported from England by a well-known Kentucky cattle-raiser. They were valued at from $4,000 to $9,000 apiece, and one of them, a gigantic bull, \v;i valued at 10,000. The Display of Sheep, Swine, and Goals, began on the 10th of October, and lasted until the 18th. The entries were as follows: sheep, 400 j swine, 375. The American animals were exhibited by prominent breeders in New York, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Maryland, New Jersey, Wis- consin, Iowa, Illinois, Massachusetts, and Virginia. Canada sent a con- siderable number of sheep of the breeds of Cotswolds, Leicester, South- downs, and Oxford-downs, and some fine swine of the Suffolk, Yorkshire, Berkshire, Essex, and Chester white breeds. Among the Southdowns were some of the most valuable specimens of sheep in existence, some of which were valued as high as $6,000 apiece. One of the largest was a breeding ram weighing 400 pounds, whose hire for a single season is about $250 gold. Mr. Russell Swanwick, of England, exhibited some noticeable Cots wold sheep, the average weight of which reached the rare figure of 300 pounds, a weight not often attained by this breed. Among the swine the finest animals were imported Berkshires, all of which are said to have carried off" premiums at various European exhibitions. The Poultry Shoiv. The exhibition of poultry was held in the Porno- logical Annex to the Agricultural Building, and was opened on the 27th of October, and closed on the 6th of November. The large hall was specially fitted up for the occasion with long rows of coops. Above those were placed a number of cages containing Canaries. The entries of chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, and birds amounted to more than six thousand, but the fowls present fell short of this number. The finest displays were from Pennsylvania, New Y"ork, New Jersey, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Michigan. A considerable number of fine fowls from Canada and England were also on exhibition. The majority of the States of the Union were well represented, and the visitor was afforded a fair idea of the excellence and variety of the fowls raised in this country. The State Days. In order to add to the attractiveness of the Exhibi- tion, and more especially to carry out the design of making it a mi-im- of celebrating the Centennial period of our National history, the Execu- tive Committee at an early day determined to inaugurate a series of " State Days," on each of which a special celebration should be held in 1088 APPENDIX. the Exhibition grounds in honor of the State of the Union to which the day should be assigned. It was decided that the ceremonies on these occasions should consist of an address devoted to a review of the history and progress of the State holding the celebration, a reception by the Governor of such State at the State building in the Exhibition grounds, and such other festivities as should be decided upon by the committee. It was understood that these celebrations would of necessity be confined to the States nearest Philadelphia, as it would be comparatively easy for their people to be present in force on such occasions. New Jersey Day. The first State to engage in these special celebrations INTERIOR OF THE BRAZILIAN COURT, IN THE MAIN BUILDING. was New Jersey, to which Thursday, the 24th of August, was assigned. The day was bright and fair. All through the morning trains were arriv- ing from points in New Jersey, bringing thousands of visitors, and other thousands came by way of Camden, the Delaware river ferries, and the city car lines. By eleven o'clock the grounds were thronged, and the various buildings of the Exhibition were filled with a merry, eager crowd of "Jer- sey folks," bent on seeing the beauties and wonders of the "Centennial." About twelve o'clock Governor Bedle, accompanied by his staff and a number of distinguished citizens of New Jersey, reached the grounds, escorted by the Centennial authorities, headed by President Hawley and Mr. John Welsh. The procession repaired to Judges' Hall, where an APPENDIX. 108 g eloquent address upon the history of New Jersey was delivered by the Hon. Abram Browning. At the close of the address the company re- paired to the New Jersey State building, where a public reception was held by the Governor. The day was a success in every respect. The total attendance was 67,053. The receipts were $28,063.75. Connecticut Day. The day selected by the authorities of Connecticut for their State celebration was Thursday, September 7th. On the 6th Governor Ingersoll reached Philadelphia. The 7th was an exceedingly disagreeable day. A dull and cheerless rain fell all through the day, and compelled the abandonment of a portion of the ceremonies that had been determined upon. In spite of this, however, the crowd of visitors poured steadily through the gates, and long before twelve o'clock the principal buildings and all the main avenues were thronged. At one o'clock Governor Ingersoll held an informal reception at the Connecticut State building on State avenue, which was largely attended. It was estimated that fully ten thousand citizens of Connecticut were present at the Exhibition during the day. The attendance was 75,044 ; the receipts were $30,853.75. Massachusetts Day. Thursday, September 14th, was Massachusetts Day. The chief interest of the occasion centred about the Massachusetts building, on State avenue. All the surrounding buildings, American and foreign, displayed their bunting, while from the cupola of the Massa- chusetts house floated the old Pine Tree flag, an emblem of colonial days, with the national colors from the flagstaff in front, and a pretty collection of many colored ensigns tastefully arranged above the main entrance. The doorways of the interior were decorated with flags. During the afternoon an orchestra, stationed in the hall, furnished the music for the occasion, while from the towers of Machinery Hall the chimes rang out the national airs, and gave a salute on the bells thirteen times, in honor of the day. At one o'clock Governor Rice, attended by his staff, took his stand in the Governor's room of the building, and held a formal reception, which was largely attended. It was estimated that fully ten thousand visitors from Massachusetts were present in the grounds during the day. The attendance was 97,868 ; the receipts were $41,193. New York Day. Thursday, the 21st of September, was set apart for New York Day, the fourth of the scries of State celebrations. It was a beautiful day. Thousands of visitors came from New York city and other points in the Empire State, and by noon the grounds were crowded. At one o'clock Governor Tilden arrived at the Exhibition grounds in a carriage, and was received by the Centennial authorities and escorted to the New York State building. He was greeted with a tremendous out- 69 1090 APPENDIX. burst of enthusiasm by the multitude in the grounds. Arriving at the State building he held a formal reception, which he was obliged to bring to an end in the course of an hour in consequence of fears that the build- ing was not strong enough to stand the strain put upon it by the crow 1 ; that poured in to welcome the Governor. At the close of the reception the Governor inspected the various Exhibition buildings, and reviewed visiting detachment of the New York City Police. It was estimated that forty thousand persons from New York were present in the grounds during the day. The attendance was 134,588 ; the receipts were 59,986. Pennsylvania Day. Thursday, the 28th of September, was set apart by the Centennial authorities for the celebration of the State of Penn- fJENERAL VIEW OF THE INTERIOR OF HORTICULTURAL HALL. sylvania. The day was particularly well chosen, inasmuch as it was the one hundredth anniversary of the adoption of the first Constitution of Pennsylvania. It was declared by special proclamation of the Governor of the State to be ailegal holiday, and in all parts of the State prepara- tions were set on foot and enthusiastically carried out to make it the most memorable occasion in the history of the Exhibition. It was not doubted that the State which had been the mainstay of the Exhibition in all its trials, and which, more than any other, had carried it through to success, would eagerly avail itself of this opportunity of testifying emphatically and unitedly its approval of the manner in which the great enterprise had been carried out. 1091 1092 APPESDIX. With the rising of the sun on the morning of September the 28th the city of Philadelphia was astir. Business was generally suspended, and thousands of citizens and visitors sojourning in the city took the early trains for the Exhibition. All through the day the steam and horse rail- roads, and the various vehicles engaged in the work of transporting pas- sengers, were crowded to their utmost capacity. Trains were arriving all the forenoon from distant points in the State, each bringing hundreds of visitors to swell the great throng. The entrances to the Exhibition grounds were opened at half-past eight o'clock, and at one o'clock the reports from the turn-stiles showed that 175,000 paying visitors had passed the gates, and still the crowd kept pouring in. Various entertainments were offered to the visitors during the day. THE CHINESE COURT, IN THE MAIN BUILDING. There were concerts and musical recitals at the music stand in the Main Building, and performances upon the great organs. The various exhib- itors of musical instruments gave performances at their respective stands. The chimes of Machinery Hall were rung at frequent intervals, patriotic and other airs being executed upon the bells by Professor Widdowcs. The little folks were amused by the frequent ascent of paper balloons from the open space in the rear of Agricultural Hall. The day was glorious, the beautiful autumn weather being all that could be desired. At ten o'clock in the morning Governor Hartranft left his quarters at the Globe Hotel, accompanied by a number of distinguished citizens of the State, and proceeded to the Exhibition grounds, under the escort of the .First Regiment of Pennsylvania Infantry. The Governor's party and his APPENDIX. escort entered the Exhibition grounds by the principal gates on Belmont avenue, and proceeded at once to the Pennsylvania State building. There they were formally received by President Hawley and Mr. John Welsh, on behalf of the Centennial authorities, and were at once conducted to Judges' Hall, where in the presence of a brilliant and numerous audi- ence a number of speeches were made, and the Hon. Benjamin Harris Brewster, the orator of the day, delivered a lengthy oration upon the history and resources of Pennsylvania. Later in the day, Mrs. Gillespie and the ladies of the Women's Cen- tennial Executive Committee held a reception in Judges' Hall, which was GENERAL VIEW OF THE INTERIOR OF MACHINERY II ALL. largely attended, many of the most distinguished men of the country being present. In the afternoon Governor Hartranft held a reception at the State build- ing, which was attended by more than 10,000 persons, and was one of the most brilliant features of the day. The Mayor of Philadelphia also held a formal reception at the Municipal building, near the Horticultural Hall. At night a superb display of fireworks was given on George's Hill, by Messrs. Brock & Co., of London. It was one of the finest exhibitions ever seen in this country, and was witnessed by about 175,000 people 1094 APPESD1X. within the grounds, and a larger crowd outside. The Exhibition grounds were beautifully illuminated by colored tires. In spite of the immense crowd present during the day not a single act of lawlessness or violence marred the festival. The attendance was 274,- 019. The receipts were $118,673.75. Rhode Island Day. Thursday, October 5th, the day appointed for the Rhode Island celebration, was cold and raw, but in spite of this the Ex- hibition grounds were crowded at an early hour. The Rhode Island State building was handsomely decorated with flags and bunting. At half-past eleven, Governor Lippett and staff entered the grounds, escorted THE HYDRAULIC BASIN, IN MACHINERY HALI* by General Hawley, Mr. John Welsh, and the Centennial authorities, and proceeded to the Rhode Island building. The building being too small to accommodate the crowd present, Governor Lippett held a reception on the porch of the house. He was enthusiastically welcomed. The recep- tion ended at three o'clock. Governor Lippett and party then repaired to Machinery Hall, where they were received by Mr. George H. Corliss, Centennial Commissioner from Rhode Island, who explained to them the construction and working of the great engine. The attendance \vas 100,- 946. The receipts were $44,496. New Hampshire Day. Thursday, October 12th, was celebrated as ISTew Hampshire Day. At a quarter to eleven in the morning, Governor APPENDIX. HO", Cheney and staff, the latter being in full uniform, with the Amoskeag Veteran Corps, numbering ninety-six men, in Continental uniform com- manded by Colonel Wallace, as the Governor's body-guard, the 'entire party being escorted by the cadets of the Virginia "Military Institute numbering one hundred and eighty-five youths, under the command of Colonel Scott Ship, left the United States Hotel, where the gubernatorial party were quartered, marched up Elm avenue, entered the Exhibition grounds by the main entrance, and were there received by the Centennial authorities, and escorted to the New Hampshire State building. Here EXHIBIT OP GARDEN SEED, IN AGRICULTURAL HALL. the Governor was introduced by General Hawley to the vast throng which surrounded the building, and was received with hoarty cheers. He re- sponded in a brief but eloquent address. A prayer followed, and Professor .E. D. Sanborn, of Dartmouth College, delivered a lengthy oration on the history of New Hampshire. Brief addresses followed from ex-Governor Straw and others, after which the Governor took his stand in the recep- tion-room and the formal reception of visitors began. It lasted a little more than an hour, and at its close Governor Cheney and staff took part in the dedication of the Columbus Monument, erected in the Exhibition 1096 APPENDIX. grounds, by the Italian Societies of the United States, and inaugurated on this day. The attendance was 113,422. The receipts were $50,536. Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia Day. The 19th of October, the anniversary of the surrender of the army of Lord Corn wall is to General Washington, at Yorktown, was set apart for the joint celebration of the States of Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia. The State government of t Virginia declined to take part in the celebration, so that the participation of the "Old Dominion" in it was purely informal. It was resolved by the authorities having the affair in charge that the occasion should be one SILVER PITCHER, EXHIBITED BY THE GORHAM MANUFACTURING COMPANY. of the most memorable in the history of the Exhibition, and extensive preparations were made for it. A display of fireworks was announced for the night of the 18th of October, while the 19th was to be taken up with the State celebrations and a grand tournament and ball. The Fireworks. The second grand display of fireworks was given on the night of the 18th of October, on George's Hill, by Messrs. Brock & Co., of London. It was witnessed by about 60,000 persons within the grounds and a much larger number outside. The Delaware Celebration. Thursday, October 19th, was a beautiful APPENDIX. 1097 day, and as bright and balmy as the loveliest Indian summer weather could make it. About eleven o'clock the State authorities of Delaware, and the city officials of Wilmington, arrived at the main entrance to tlio Exhibition grounds, where they were received by the officials of the Cen- tennial Exhibition, and escorted by them to the Delaware State buildin- , adjoining the Maryland building on the east, and which, like the lattc , was profusely and tastefully decorated with State and national color-. Above each building floated the flag of its State, and the Delaware struc- ture displayed the coats-of-arms of the Old Thirteen. The line having drawn up along State avenue, in front of the Delaware building, where some 10,000 people had assembled, the gubernatorial party repaired to the porch, and were greeted with cheers. General Hawley then formally welcomed Governor Cochran and all the people of Delaware to the Exhibition, and the Governor responded in an appropriate speech. The Hon. William G. Whiteley then delivered an eloquent address upon the history of Delaware. This being ended, Governor Cochran began his reception of visitors, receiving first the Centennial Commission and the other prominent officials of the Exhibition, and then all who chose to pay their respects to him. The reception was continued until some time after the exercises in the Maryland building had begun, when it was brought to a close. The Maryland Celebration. At a quarter past twelve o'clock the partici- pants in the Maryland celebration entered the Exhibition grounds by the main entrance, and proceeded to the Maryland State building in the follow- ing order : Detachment of the Centennial Guard, under Major E. H. Butler ; First Brigade Band, Governor Carroll and staff, on horseback, the staff' being in full uniform and the Governor in citizen's dress; Second Brigade, Maryland National Guard, under General James R. Herbert, and composed of the Fifth and Sixth Regiments, commanded, respectively, by Colonel H. T. Loney and Colonel Clarence Peters. As the procession entered the grounds it was reviewed by Presidents Hawley and Welsh, with other representatives of the Centennial Commission and Board of Finance, who afterwards fell in line at the head of the people of Mary- land, who brought up the rear of the line. Governor Carroll ami Mall' halted in front of the Maryland building and reviewed the military, which marched past and up George's Hill, the First Brigade Band performin- martial and patriotic airs. The marching of the Fifth was noticeably fine, and elicited great applause. The Governor and staff then dismounted, and were received by Presi- dent W r elsh and other meml>ers of the Board of Finance, who escorted the gubernatorial party to the porch of the Maryland building, amid the 1098 APPENDIX. strains of " Maryland, My Maryland/' and the enthusiastic cheers of the crowd. Governor Carroll was now joined by Governors Hartranft, of Pennsylvania, and Cochran, of Delaware, and the exercises began. General Hawley, on behalf of the Centennial authorities, welcomed the Governor and people of Maryland, and was replied to in eloquent terms by Governor Carroll. Mr. J. G. L. Findlay, the orator of the day, delivered an address upon the history and resources of Maryland, and was followed by the Hon. Thomas Wilson, Centennial Commissioner of the District of Columbia, who gave an elaborate review of the history of the District, from its organization. After the close of Mr. Wilson's address, Governor Carroll took his DEPARTMENT OP PRINTING MACHINERY, IN MACHINERY HALL. stand in the reception-room, where over 5,000 persons desirous of giving his hand a friendly shake availed themselves of the opportunity to do so. About three o'clock Governor Carroll was obliged to welcome, en masse, the thousands awaiting outside to grasp his hand. Then he and his staif proceeded on horseback to witness the tournament, which had begun some time previously on the eastern slope of George's Hill. The Virginia Celebration. The Virginia celebration was entirely informal, there being^no official representation of the State at the Exhibi- tion. At the Virginia building there was open house and lunch for nli visitors from the Old Dominion who wished to partake of it. The num- ber of Virginians present on the grounds was about 5,000. In addition APPENDIX. 1099 to these there were about 800 visitors from West Virginia, who rendez- voused at their State building, but took no part in the ceremonies of the day. The Tournament. The great feature of the day was the tournament, which consisted of riding at a series of rings by a number of knights, in regularly laid-off lists. The tournament was held on the slopes of George's Hill, and was witnessed by fully 60,000 persons. There were fifteen knights, representing the thirteen original States, the Union, and the Centennial, and the day's work before them was to ride INTERIOR OF ROTUNDA OP MEMORIAL HALL. over a given course, thrust their spears through diminutive rings and enjoy the plaudits of the multitude. Thecourse proper at the foot of George's Hill was about three hundred yards long ; at intervals of fifty yards were threo arches, fifteen feet high by ten or twelve feet wide. From the horizontal bar forming the top of each frame hung a wooden rod, ending in a piece of iron a footer more in length, and from each of these three iron endings was suspended a small red ring, an inch and a half or thereabouts in diameter. The rules of the tournament required that each knight should ride at a full run, and that each knight's spear should be at least six 1100 APPENDIX. feet long. Every rider, then, must start a hundred yards or more from the first ring, control his horse, poise his spear, and be in perfect condi- tion when the first arch was reached. To knock a ring from its frail fastening availed the knight nothing; a breath of wind or a touch witli the lance would do that; but each rider must thrust his spear through tlu> ring, or through all three of them, if he could, and bring it still impaled upon his spear, to be laid at the feet of the judges. The rings used were much smaller than is customary. Three inches in diameter, and even four inches, is not an unusual size, and a two-inch ring is considered uncommonly difficult to capture. But the rings used on this occasion were smaller than any of these ; bringing into play all the nerve and THE ITALIAN DEPARTMENT, AGRICULTURAL HALL. ekill that the riders possessed, and this fact was not appreciated by the seventy thousand spectators, who could not know the extreme difficulty of impaling so small a ring when going at full speed. The exercises began shortly after two o'clock in the afternoon. The riding was very fine, and was heartily cheered. The exercises lasted for more than two hours, and the prizes were won in the following order : RINGS. First prize; Delaware 8 Second prize, Centennial 6 Third prize, Connecticut 6 Fourth prize, South Carolina 6 Fifth prize, Maryland 5 APPENDIX. 1101 The standing of the other knights was announced as follows : New Jersey, five; New Hampshire, five; Rhode Island, four; Pennsylvania, three; Virginia, three; North Carolina, three; New York, three; Georgia, two; Union, two; and Massachusetts, one. The prizes contested for by the knights consisted of gold and silver tea-sets, elegant bronzes, richly carved pitchers, breech-loading rifles, etc., etc. The crowning of the Queen of Love and Beauty, by the successful knight, took place in the evening, at the Judges' Hall, and was witnessed by a large and brilliant audience. Miss Perkins, of Buckingham county, Virginia, was crowned Queen of Love and Beauty by the victorious knight of Delaware. The ceremonies ended with a ball. The attendance on the 19th of October was 176,407, being, next to Pennsylvania Day, the largest number of admissions during the Exhibition. The receipts were $80,367.50. THE SEWING MACHINE SECTION, MACHINERY HAUL Ohio Day. Thursday, October 26th, was assigned to the State of Ohio for her special celebration. Governor Rutherford B. Hayes arrived in Philadelphia on the afternoon of the 25th, and took up his quarters at the Transcontinental Hotel, opposite the Exhibition. On the morning of the 26th large crowds poured into the Exhibition grounds, and by ten o'clock a dense mass of people had assembled around 1102 APPENDIX. the Ohio State building for the purpose of doing honor to the Governor of the Buckeye State. It was estimated that at least 30,000 people of Ohio were present on the occasion. The Ohio building was gayly decor- ated with flags and bunting, and presented a handsome and attractive appearance, At eleven o'clock, Governor Hayes, accompanied by his staff, left his quarters and repaired to the main entrance to the Exhibition grounds, where he was met by the Centennial authorities, headed by General Hawley, and escorted to the Ohio State building. He was loudly cheered as he passed through the grounds, and his appearance on the portico of the State building was the signal for the most enthusiastic applause from the crowd which surrounded it. When this had sub- sided, General Hawley came forward and introduced Governor Hayes to the multitude. The Governor was received with enthusiastic cheers, and when these had died away delivered an eloquent address, which was fre- quently applauded. The Governor then took his stand in the reception- room, and the people filed in rapidly, took him by the hand, and passed out. The reception continued for two hours, and was marked by the greatest enthusiasm. The reception being over. Governor Hayes made a tour of the various Exhibition buildings and the grounds, and visited the reunion of the mer- chants of the leading cities of the country, which was being held in the Philadelphia Municipal building. The attendance was 135,661 ; the receipts were $61,029.50. Vermont Day. The 27th of October was observed as Vermont's day. Governor Fairbanks, the chief magistrate of the State, being unable to attend through illness, deputed ex-Governor John B. Page to represent him. The Vermont State building, which was located on the Avenue of the Republic, just west of the Pennsylvania building, ,was handsomely decorated. At ten o'clock ex-Governor Page held a reception at the State building, which was attended by about two thousand citizens of Vermont. From the State building the guests marched to Judges' Hall, where at eleven o'clock, Hon. Henry Clarke, by appointment of the Governor of Vermont, delivered the formal address. The orator stated that the State was the first to be admitted into the Union formed by the original thirteen, and proceeded to review her history from colonial days down through the Revolution to the present time. The attendance was 108,080; the receipts were $47,485. Announcement of the Au-ards. The awards of medals and diplomas to successful competitors in the Centennial Exhibition Were announced in APPENDIX. 1103 Judges' Hall with appropriate ceremonies on the evening of the 27th of September. No event during the course of the Exhibition was looked forward to with as much interest by the exhibitors as this one. At times many of them were impatient at the unavoidable delays, and disposed to murmur at the management of this important branch of the work; but the manner in which the judges performed their duties, the discrimination with which their reports were prepared, and the enhanced value of their awards over those made at any former International Exhibition, finally caused all dissatisfaction to disappear. Gratification at the success of the new American system of awards was universal. Judges' Hall was beau- tifully decorated for the occasion. General Lewis E. Merrill, U. S. A., acted as master of ceremonies, and VIEW OP THE INTERIOR OP THE GLASS-WORKS. announced as they entered the following-named bodies of gentlemen : The Centennial Commission, the Board of Finance, and the United States Government Board; General Walker, Chief of the Bureau of Awards and the Board of Judges; the Director-General of the Exhibition and the Foreign Commissioners; the officers of the Centennial Guard, tin 1 Presidents of the Centennial Commission and the Board of Finawe, and the Governors of States and the Diplomatic Corps. After these had nil passed to the places assigned them, prayer was offered by the Rev. Dr. Henry A. Boardman, of Philadelphia, in response to which the Temple Quartette of Boston sang a selection from Schubert's Mass for male voices, APPENDIX. United States Commissioner Daniel J. Morrell, who presided, then made a short address. The music which followed consisted of selections from the national airs of many countries, performed by the Centennial orchestra. Director- General Goshorn then delivered a brief address, reviewing the work of the Exhibition, and was followed by President Hawley, who explained the system of awards and the work of the Judges, and of the Centennial Commission in preparing them. The names of the several countries were then called, and their repre- sentatives came forward and received the lists of awards prepared by the Centennial Commission. Each one was greeted with loud applause. Especially was this true in the cases of Brazil, Egypt, France, Germany, Japan, Russia, Turkey, Great Britain and Victoria, and the United MACHINERY SECTION, AGRICULTURAL HALL. States. In some instances the whole audience rose to its feet, and the slapping of hands and shouts of "Bravo" continued for several seconds. The exercises of the evening were closed by the singing of Dudley Buck's Serenade by the Temple Quartette Club, and music by the First Brigade Band. The method of awards adopted by the American Centennial Commis- Bion differs from the preceding systems. It dispenses with the interna- tional jury, and substitutes a body of judges, one-half foreign, chosen in- dividually for their high qualifications. It dispenses also with the system of awards by graduated medals, and requires of the judges written reports on the inherent nnd comparative merits of each product thought worthy of an award, setting forth the properties and qualities, presenting the con* APPENDIX. 1105 siderations forming the grounds of the award, and avouching each report by the signature of their authors. Thus the volumes of reports will form a complete encyclopaedia of the Exhibition, which can be consulted on all disputed questions as to the relative merits of objects of like char- acter, and will be an authority to settle the quarrels of rival manufac- turers and inventors about the value of their premiums. The medals awarded by the Commission were of bronze, round iu CENTENNIAL AWARD MEDAL (OBVERSE.) shape, four inches in diameter, very chaste in appear? .100, and the largest of the kind ever struck in the United States. The stamps were engraved by Henry Mitchell, of Boston, and the medals were struck at the United States Mint at Philadelphia. In the centre of the face is a female figure, representing America, seated on an elevation, and holding a crown of laurels over the emblems of industry that lie at her feet. At equal dis- tances apart on the outside zone of the fare are four other female figures in bas-relief, which with appropriate symbols represent America, Europe, 70 1106 APPENDIX. Asia, and Africa, respectively. The reverse side has in the centre the words: "Awarded, by the United States Centennial Commission," and, on the outside zone: "International Exhibition at Philadelphia. MDCCCLXXVI " all in raised letters. The zone on each face is sep- arated from the inner area by a wreath of laurels. All the medals of award were of the same size, weight, material, and design. About twelve thousand were presented to deserving exhibitors. The Closing Ceremonies. The morning of the 10th of November, the CENTENNIAL AWARD MEDAL (REVERSE. day appointed for the formal closing of the Exhibition, opened with clouds and rain, and during the day a cold, disagreeable storm prevailed. In spite of this, however, the early trains and street cars were crowded with visitors, and every available vehicle was pressed into service by the multitude. As soon as the entrance gates were opened there was a rush for them by the crowd that had gathered about them. This stream of people continued to pass through the turn-stiles until late in the afternoon without intermission. APPEM>1X. 1107 It had been intended to hold the closing ceremonies in the open air at the western end of the Main Building, but the steady rain which fell during the day rendered a change in this part of the programme imper- ative. Judges' Hall was therefore chosen as the most suitable place for these* exercises. A vast crowd collected around the hall, and the disap- pointment at not being' able to witness the closing ceremonies was gen- eral. A broad passageway was kept open in front of the building by two long lines of the Centennial Guard, which effectually barred the entrance of any one unless provided with the proper card of admission. Twelve o'clock struck, but the rain continued to fall steadily, and there were no signs of a change of weather, no hope that the rain would cease VIEW. OF THE LOOMS, MACHINERY HALT* and permit the ceremonies to take place in the open air. Word was accordingly ssnt to the distinguished personages to repair to the Judges* Hall, there to participate in the ceremonies which were formally to close the grand Exhibition. The arrangements, everything consider. -d. wnv admirable. The First City Troop, under Captain Fairman Rogers, anil supported by a strong detachment of Centennial Guards, kept back the ever-increasing crowds, and formed an avenue between the thousands of visitors who were at least determined to see if they could not hoar; and carriage after carriage rolled up to the entrance, and their occupants, pro- vided with the open sesame in the shape of a ticket marked "Admit to the Judges' Pavilion," quickly passed into the interior. By two o'clock all the visitors had arrived, and were in the places assigned them. 1108 APPENDIX. On the platform sat President Grant. To his right were General Hawley, Director-General Goshorn, Secretary of War J. Donald Cameron, and George W. Childs, Esq. To the left were Commissioner Daniel J. Morrell, Secretary of State Hamilton Fish, Rev. J. H. Seiss, John Welsh, sq., and General Robert Patterson. Immediately back were Governor Hartranft, Governor Rice, of Massachusetts ; Governor Bedle, of New Jersey ; Governor Cochran, of Delaware ; Chief-Justice Waite, Asso- ciate Justices Davis and Bradley, and Mayor Stokley, Sir Edward EXHIBIT OF SEEDS IKT AOKICTTLTtrRAI> HALL. Thornton, the British Minister, had donned his court dress to do honor to the occasion. General N. P. Banks, displaying unaffected interest, stood near her Majesty's envoy, Thomas A. Scott chatted to Bishop Simpson, whose fine features were lit up with a feeling of interest at the scene. Asa Packer, millionnaire and philanthropist ; Frederick Fraley, who handled the Centennial receipts with the ability of an accomplished financier; U. S. Grant, Jr. r the President's private Secretary ; Aristarchi Bey, saturnine and cynical in appearance ; Bayard Taylor, the Centen- nial poet j ex-Governor Straw, of Kew Hampshire ; Professor Blake, of APPENDIX. H09 the Smithsonian Institute; S. M. Felton, President of the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad, and others, formed a background which was thoroughly representative in its character. To the right -at the members of the staffs of the Governors, and a number of distinguished army and naval officers, and on the left were accommodated the Centen- nial Commissioners, the members of the Board of Finance, and a num- ber of the Diplomatic Corps. In front, and filling every vacant seat, were the privileged personages admitted to witness the closing scenes. At two o'clock the Centennial Inauguration March, written by the great German composer, Professor Wagner, for the opening ceremonies of the Exhibition, preluded the formal exercises, and its now familiar notes were greeted with enthusiastic applause. When, on the opening day, this composition was for the first time publicly performed, the effect was rather disappointing, as in the open air only the wind instruments could" be clearly heard. So far as the music was concerned the change of programme to the Judges' Hall proved a decided advantage, for the massive chords of the " Centennial March "rolled out upon the air in waves of richest harmony, while every note of the most intricate evolu- tions was distinctly marked. General Hawley, President of the Centen- nial Commission, who acted as the presiding officer, then introduced Rev. Joseph A. Seiss, who offered a fervent prayer. A chorale and fugue from Bach were then performed by the orchestra, after which the Hon. D. J. Morrell, Chairman of the Executive Committee of the United States Centennial Commission, delivered a.i address review- ing the history and career of the Exhibition. When Mr. Morrell ceased Theodore Thomas gave a signal to the Cen- tennial Chorus in the western balcony, and the orchestra and chorus rendered, with fine effect, Dettingen's Te Deum. The next speaker was Mr. John Welsh, the President of the Centen- nial Board of Finance, whose appearance was the signal for the most enthusiastic applause. When quiet was restored Mr. AVelsh briefly and eloquently summed up the results of the Exhibition. Director-General Goshorn then followed in an address devoted to a review of the Exhibi- tion. As the Director-General concluded, chorus and orchestra burst forth in the glorious " Hallelujah " from Handel's " Messiah." At the conclusion of the chorus President Hawley arose and delivered the closing address with characteristic grace and eloquence. At the conclusion of General Hawley's address the audience and chorus united in singing the national anthem, " My country, 'tis of thee," the full orchestra accompanying the voices. Never was the sweet hymn sung with more patriotic fervor than yesterday, for as the simple yet majestic 1110 APPENDIX. Vielody filled the air the original flag of the American Union, first dis- played by Commodore Paul Jones on the "Bon Homme Richard," was unfurled from a window above the stage, and as its hallowed folds floated in the air all eyes gazed upon the relic with reverence, and while a thousand throats sang "America" with still deeper feeling, all present united in applauding by a brisk clap- ping of hands this most happy addition to the pro- gramme. At twenty-three minutes of four o'clock Gen- eral Hawley announced that General Ulysses S. Grant, President of the United States, would now formally close the Exhibition. The President here arose and said "LADIES AND GENTLEMEN:! have now the honor to declare the Exhibition closed." The President then turned to the left, and waved his hand as the signal to the operator at the telegraph in- strument, immediately behind him, to give the signal for stopping the Corliss engine and the machinery in the hall. Mr. Robert B. Manley, the general director, touched the key, and the characters "7-6 "were signalled to the main telegraph office. The same current caused the ham- mer to strike the special gong stationed alongside the Corliss engine, which was the signal to stop, and at the same time all the gongs in the Machinery Hall felt the effect of the elec- FEATHER, CONTAINING THE FAMOUS " BRUNSWICK " DIAMOND, AND OVER 600 SMALL DIAMONDS, EXHIBITED BY TIFFANY & CO. APPENDIX. 1111 trical current, and gave notice to the exhibitors that the official fiat of the President, that the Exhibition had been declared closed, was promulgated. At the instant the instrument ticked in the main telegraph office, the fol- lowing despatch was placed on the wires and sent to London, Liverpool, ^Paris, and the principal cities of Europe, the United States, and Canadas: INTERNATIONAL CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION GROUNDS, PHILADELPHIA, November Wth, 1876. The President has this moment closed the International Exhibition 3.37 P. M. W. J. PHILLIPS, Telegraph Director, U. S. International Exhibition. THE NEW ENGLAND LOG CABIN AND MODERN KITCHEN. All present then united in singing the long metre doxology to the words, " Be Thou, O God ! exalted high, And as Thy glory fills the sky, So let it be on earth displayed, Till Thou art here a there obeyed." And soon afterwards the assemblage dispersed. A large crowd gath- ered about the pavilion to witness the departure of the President, wh*. stepped into his carriage at about four o'clock, and drove back to tin residence of his host, Mr. George W. Childs. Though the Exhibition was thus formally closed, only a small proportion of the exhibits wero covered up, and the grounds remained thronged with visitors until evening. 1112 APPENDIX. The record of admissions by months is as follows: Months. May June.... July. Days. ...19 ...26 ...26 August 27 September 26 October 26 November 9 159 Paid. 378,980 695,666 636,518 908,684 2,130,991 2,334,530 918,956 8,004,325 Total. 613,495 952,177 906,447 1,175,314 2,439,689 2,663,879 1,038,391 9,789,392 Receipts. $189,490.35 347,833.40 318,199.25 415,659.25 928,056.00 1,160,811.50 453,700.00 $3,813,749.75 A recapitulation of the above shows the following: Number of days open Paid admissions Free admissions Total admissions Grand total of receipts , 159 8,004,325 1,785,067 9,789,392 5,813,749.75 THE PERMANENT EXHIBITION S the close of the Centennial Exhibition drew near there was everywhere expressed a feeling of regret that the magnificent structures erected for it should be torn down at its close, and a general desire was manifested that as many of them as possible should be preserved as memorials of the great Exhibition. Some of these were destined to stand. Machinery and Horticultural Halls, being the property of the city, were erected as permanent ornaments to Fairmount Park, and the beautiful Memorial Hall was to be converted into the Pennsylvania Museum of Industrial Art at the close of the Ex- hibition. The Main Building, however, was doomed to destruction. There was a widespread desire that this fate might be averted, and that the superb structure might be preserved. Out of this feeling grew the suggestion that a second Exhibition, permanent in character, and arranged somewhat after the plan of the Crystal Palace, at Sydenham, in England, might be successful, and that the Main Building could be used for this purpose and thus preserved. The suggestion was eagerly welcomed by the public, and was carefully considered by a number of prominent citizens of Philadelphia, many of whom were closely identified with the Centeii-