REESE LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Accessions N 
 
 < 
 
 us No. 
 
STUDIES 
 
 IN 
 
 HISTORICAL METHOD 
 
 BY 
 
 MARY SHELDON BARNES 
 
 AUTHOR OF " STUDIES IN GENERAL AND AMERICAN HISTORY," AND 
 
 ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF MODERN HISTORY AT THE 
 
 L.ELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY 
 
 The essence of historical method is understanding by means of 
 
 investigation. 
 
 DROYSEN. 
 
 OF THE' 
 
 RSITY 
 
 BOSTON, U.S.A. 
 
 D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS. 
 1896 
 
COPYRIGHT, 1896, 
 BY MAUY SHKL.DON- BARNES. 
 
 C. J. PETERS & SON, TYPOGRAPHERS, BOSTON 
 
 ROCKWELL & CHURCHILL. 
 
'"""""X^ 
 
 ERSITTy 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 As TO THE INTENT OF THIS BOOK 1 
 
 Part I. METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE NATURE OF HISTORY .... 3-45 
 
 The Content of History . 3 
 
 The Sources of History 7 
 
 The Study of Contemporary Hi^tory^. 12 
 
 The Study of Local History 10 
 
 Special Study on Ballads as Historical Material. By Mrs. Ilattie Mason 
 
 Willard ' 23 
 
 v 
 
 The Relation of Travel to Historical Study 29 
 
 The Tools of History; Authorities; Libraries; Bibliographies; Maps 
 
 and Atlases; Chronologies and Summaries ; Note-books 32 
 
 The Relation of Adjunct Subjects to History, notably Biography . . 40*^ 
 
 Principles of Method deducted from Preceding Studies 4-'> 
 
 Part II. METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE 4G-105 
 
 The Historic Sense among Primitive Peoples . 4(5 
 
 The Historic Sense among Children 57 
 
 Special Study on the Historic Memory of Children. By Miss Anna 
 
 Kohler 81 
 
 Special Study on Children's Sense of Historical Time. By Miss Alma 
 
 Patterson 94 
 
 Principles of Method deduced from Part II 100 
 
V TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 'art III. METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE AIM OF HISTORICAL STUDY, 106-131 
 
 Special Study on the Making of Patriots 110 
 
 Special Study on the Philosophy of History 121 
 
 *art IV. PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES OF METHOD TO HIS- 
 TORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL 132-138 
 
 *art V. DESCRIPTIVE AND SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS ON 
 
 METHOD . . 139-144 
 
AS TO THE INTENT OF THIS BOOK. 
 
 THERE are many people who, perhaps, without being ambitious to 
 write books or become college professors, would like to be careful 
 and special students and teachers of the subject of history. For 
 them I write, and especially for the teacher who wishes to special- 
 ize his work, and to see the world from this particular point of 
 view. For as the material world grows smaller, and time and 
 space condense, our intellectual world grows greater, its points of 
 view become more numerous, more unobstructed, and so much more 
 extensive, that in order to have any point of view at all, or get on 
 top of the earth in any direction, we must choose some particular 
 height as our own ; do the best we can, it will take a good part of 
 life to attain any high outlook. 
 
 To what can the teacher of history in the secondary schools 
 aspire ? In the field of information, to a fair general view of 
 history plus a very special knowledge of some particlar topic, as 
 the history of his own locality if he is in the country, or as the 
 history of the Napoleonic era if he is in a great city where libraries 
 are rich and generous ; in the field of investigation he can add to 
 the sum of human knowledge along the lines indicated by the sub- 
 studies given in this book. The whole field of our study in the 
 direction of connecting the subject vitally with the pupil, as Miss 
 Kohler has tried to do in her study entitled How Children Remem- 
 ber History, or of exploiting the exact worth of this or that source, 
 as Mrs. Willard has attempted in the sub-study on the ballad, or of 
 determining with exactness the strength and form of the various 
 elements of the historical sense, as Miss Patterson has done in her 
 
 1 
 
2 AS TO THE INTENT OF THIS BOOK. 
 
 study on notions of time, is quite new, and invites attention from 
 the teacher who has either originality or leisure. 
 
 If, however, the teacher is not so much by nature a student or 
 investigator, but has rather the gift of adaptation, there is an- 
 other field open in the way of preparing and presenting historical 
 material in forms at once true to historical fact and to the nature 
 of the child. Miss Nina Moore, in Pilgrims and Puritans, has 
 given what seems an almost perfect model of this sort of work, 
 a piece of work scholarly, elegant, sympathetic alike to her sources 
 and her audience. 
 
 The curse of secondary teaching is often the fact that after a 
 year or two it provides no free outlet for the mind ; but with the 
 rapid development of departmental and individual work, the day is 
 not far off when every one who chooses to teach, and who can pro- 
 tect himself from the insanity of overwork and the frivolity of 
 scattered work, may hope to make his way out from the deadly 
 treadmill of routine to join the life and motion of the greater world 
 of knowledge. 
 
 My acknowledgments are due to Professor G-. L. Burr of Cornell 
 University, to Professor A. B. Show, and Mr. F. J. Teggart of 
 Leland Stanford Junior University, for assistance in the biblio- 
 graphical notes. 
 
PAET I. 
 
 METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE NATURE OP HISTORY, 
 THE CONTENT OF HISTORY. 
 
 History is past politics ; politics is present history. Freeman. 
 History is but the record of individual action. Froude. 
 
 History is humanity becoming and being conscious concerning itself. Droysen. 
 'lo-rwp one who knows law and right ; a judge ; a,witness. 
 
 'lo-ropia a learning or knowing by inquiry. Liddell and Scoffs Greek Dic- 
 tionary. 
 
 WHAT is history ? Is there such a thing ? After we have 
 taken out political science, sociology, ethnology, the comparative 
 study of literature, arts, and laws, does anything remain that we 
 may call distinctively history ? Is it the simple task of verify- 
 ing the documents and dates on which these other sciences rest ? 
 Even in this field distinct bodies of scholarship have grown up 
 about paleography, diplomatics, epistography, and chronology. The 
 School of Charters in Paris, and similar schools in other centres 
 of scholarship, are rapidly specializing all the study of evidence, 
 so that about the sources of history legally trained specialists be- 
 gin to swarm, and on them we must depend for the identification 
 of documents and dates, the reading of manuscripts, the value of 
 vocabularies. 
 
 Is there anything left after subtracting all these specialties which 
 may be called history ? Let us subject the remains of Greece to 
 the process. Here a philologist works his life out on the dialects, 
 fixes their relationships, develops the subtler meanings of the Greek 
 
 3 
 
4 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 vocabulary, discovers the origins of Homer with more certainty, and 
 has something authoritative to tell us of the early migrations ; here 
 the archaeologist grubs at Delphi, and from long-buried foundations 
 and remains reconstructs life on its material side ; the sociologist 
 and the student of institutions dissect the social and political struc- 
 ture distinctly out from the whole body of Greek literature and 
 law ; scholars edit exact texts from fragmentary inscriptions and 
 palimpsests ; every scrap of old Greek marble becomes inspiring 
 and instructive for the art student and the critic ; and yet in a 
 general way we say these specialists all deal with and elucidate 
 historical facts, as if there were some large inclusive unit called 
 history. What, then, is that large inclusive unit which makes the 
 buried tombs, the varying dialects, the Greek marbles, historic as 
 well as archseologic, philologic, aesthetic ? That large inclusive unit 
 (is the authentic and related story of action progressive through time. 
 When we know how the old Greek spoke, dressed, ate, governed, or 
 worshipped, there is still something left for us to know ; namely, 
 what he did, how he came to do it, and what good or harm resulted. 
 Neither sociology, political science, nor paleography, concerns it- 
 self greatly with the Persian War, for instance. They leave aside 
 all that class of events which we call action, that peculiar human 
 product which uses speech, art, government, faith, as tools with 
 which to work out a destiny, a character, a continuous change for 
 better or worse. These elements are but the stuff from which the 
 tools are made by which he builds an Athenian democracy, a Hel- 
 lenic empire, and makes himself a Greek, in short. The special 
 /^scholar gives us details. It is for the historian to use these in tejl- 
 ( ing the story of the march, with its goal, its hardships and hero- 
 isms, its success or failure, its continuity of cause and effect. The 
 ethnologist, philologist, and so on, bring stone and wood. It is for 
 the historian to build, to gather these studies on Greek dialects, 
 Greek antiquities, Greek art, into one proportioned and related 
 whole ; to wit, the history of the Greek. He is not to repeat what 
 they have told, but to relate it. To the philologist the Greek is 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OF HISTORY. j) 
 
 all mouth, he hears only his speech in Attic, Spartan, or Beotian 
 twang ; to the student of political science the Greek is but the 
 creature of the demos or the tyrant ; for the student of literature 
 and art he sits all day in the theatre, or works all day at the frieze 
 of the Parthenon ; to the student of comparative religion he is the 
 worshipper of Zeus, Athene, Dionysius ; to the historian he must be 
 all this, the Greek of Attic, Spartan, or Beotian twang, democra- 
 tized or tyrannized; now sitting all day in the theatre, now working 
 all day at the marble, now sacrificing to the great gods. But he is 
 besides all this, and because he is all this, the man of Marathon, 
 the support of Pericles, the forlorn hope of the Greek leagues, the 
 listener to Socrates, adding to human life an increment of freedom, 
 beauty, and temperance, acting as cause and effect back and forth 
 between the Greek generations. 
 
 History bears thus the same relation to the ^special studies of 
 society that biography bears to the special studies of the individual. 
 Anatomy, psychology, and a crowd of special inquiries, crowd about 
 impersonal man. Biography takes hold of the personal man, studies 
 this anatomy and psychology in its action, studies motive, prog- 
 ress, accomplishment, and method. So history deals with the social 
 unit ; it studies the progressive personality of a people, as it devel- 
 ops through environment and action into social success or failure. 
 Take a great historic fact, like the development of the German Em- 
 pire, and we find ourselves compelled to study institutions, envi-v 
 ronment, heredity, it is true, but to study all these things in the 
 play of action and motive, and, above all, in their relation to the 
 initiative of such forceful characters as Bismarck, an.d such un- 
 expected events as Waterloo. 
 
 Is not, then, the stream or events the peculiar content of his-) 
 tory ? The events are now literary, now political, now military, 
 as the people right, think, or feel ; but all surge together in the flow 
 of tne great stream, always running on, bearing with it the freight 
 of ages, to ages yet to come. 
 
 But is the historian to be the impassive spectator and impersonal 
 
STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 chronicler of the stream of events ? Even so, he belongs to 
 the ancient craft of Herodotus ; a mirror clear and true of the 
 sweep of the social stream. Better still if he have the power of 
 art, the power to see relation, proportion, light, and shade; best 
 of all if he have the power of insight, can see tendency and the 
 subtle spirit of the time, the larger, clearer vision the greater 
 master. 
 
 But the spirit of the modern age, which has specialized, which 
 looks after every detail with sharpest criticism, which has broken 
 up the old Greek philosophy into a hundred fields of science, seems 
 ready to turn its back on the old narrative history, and gives us, 
 instead, a mass of edited documents, a collection of verified frag- 
 ments, and says : There is all of the past that there is ; make what 
 you can of it. The time is surely gone by when the study of his- 
 tory can be pursued otherwhere than where the sources of history 
 spring ; documents and monuments mark the way. And the public 
 presses after the scholar; is never content to be put off with the 
 remains of yesterday : but, since it cannot spend all its time in the 
 great necropolis of humanity, it asks of the scholar : What have 
 you found that is of interest to us all ? what great mummied king, 
 what great word in the manuscripts ? How, then, work all these 
 fragments into a connected and related wliole ? And yet is it not by 
 the fragments alone that we know the course of the stream ? May 
 it not be that in the future the popular history will take the form 
 not so much of the narrative as of the drama ? A history of Greece 
 will open with a series of pictures which will give us the setting 
 of landscape and town in which the drama plays. Homer will begin' 
 the tale ; Herodotus and Plutarch carry it on ; Pericles, Socrates, 
 Thucydides, will each take his turn before the audience in his own 
 character and speech, while page after page pictures forth the glo- 
 ries of Greek art. Such a history is conceivable, although it will be 
 a new form of literature altogether, and the literary talent required 
 to produce it will be of the sort that feels sympathetically and surely 
 the type of life, the soul of an action, the harmony and proportion 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OF HISTORY. 7 
 
 of all parts, and which is dominated above all by the clear vision of 
 the whole stream of life, with an eye not to be caught too long by 
 flotsam and jetsam floating on its surface. 1 
 
 THE SOURCES OF HISTORY. 
 
 THE original materials from which historians work are called 
 sources. They correspond to fossils in geology, to cases in law, to 
 words in philology ; they are the remains of the past, from which 
 all our knowledge of that past is derived. They consist of the mass 
 of traditions, books, manuscripts, papers, relics, monuments, and 
 institutions in which a generation embodies itself tangibly and 
 visibly. 
 
 The animal mounds of Wisconsin, the graves at Gettysburg, the 
 cathedrals of Europe, these are monumental sources. All manner 
 of relics the Greek vase, the Irish bracelet, the old colonial uni- 
 form are intimate sources by which we- reconstruct personal life. 
 The English Parliament, the Russian mir, the ceremonies of religion, 
 are institutional sources : while of original written sources, the world 
 seems alarmingly full ; for here are classed letters, sermons, maps, 
 newspapers, church and town records, autobiographies, diaries, 
 inscriptions, the archives of governments. In short, the whole 
 embodiment of a generation in descendants, institutions, creeds, 
 and laws, in literature, speech, and set histories, in handiwork 
 and art, is our source for its history, even more than that set and 
 conscious product which it names its history. In this latter the 
 generation is reproduced according to some notion of it formed by 
 itself or others ; what seems unnecessary or undesirable is omitted, 
 because a history is necessarily written from some one point of 
 view, political, social, or religious. But in the sources, history 
 finds its immortal material for its ever-renewed product. For the 
 content and direction of history changes with every generation. If 
 
 1 This chapter is reprinted from the Annals of the American. Academy for July, 
 1895, with the kind permission of the publishers. 
 
 (UN: 
 
8 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 our ancestors, if the last generation, cared for political history, and 
 found in political history its needed pabulum, we who need a social 
 history need not despair because we find none written for our 
 need, for the sources still are ours, the forest, mine, and quarry, 
 whence every generation may hew and delve its own peculiar treas- 
 ure with tools that grow the sharper for the using, and a hand that 
 grows more deft and cunning ; and when Social history shall be 
 outgrown, there we shall find at our need the embodied life of the 
 intellect or the feelings. These sources are the mothers of history, 
 on which all historical narratives and judgments must rest, and to 
 which all historical narratives and judgments must appeal. 
 
 It at once appears that, to make these sources accessible and 
 intelligible, they must be collected and studied ; we speak, therefore, 
 first of collections, and second of schools. 
 
 Since the beginning of the eighteenth century, collections of 
 sources have been made in every country of Europe. Among the 
 most famous are the monuments of Germany (Monumenta, Ger- 
 maniae) and the Master of the Rolls series in England. These great 
 collections are made only by governments, or by societies that com 
 mand wealth and leisure. Their chief value is to advanced students 
 of history, and they are only accessible in great and wealthy libra- 
 ries. But within the last twenty years small collections of typical 
 sources have begun to appear in every country. The following bib- 
 liography of these select collections does not attempt to include Conti- 
 nental publications, but is as complete as I can make it for English 
 and American work. Additional titles will be gratefully accepted. 
 
 Gardiner, S. K., Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution, 1628-1660. 
 Macmillan. $2.25. 
 
 Hart, Albert Bushnell, and Channing, Edward (Harvard University), Ameri- 
 can History Leaflets, colonial and constitutional. Reprints of original docu- 
 ments that have become famous. 10 cents each. A. Lovell & Co., New York. 
 Published bi-monthly. 
 
 Henderson, Ernest F., Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages. George 
 Bell & Sons, London and New York, 1892. (In Bohn's Antiquarian Library.) 
 Translated. $1.50. 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OF HISTORY. 9 
 
 Masterpieces of American Eloquence and Illustrations of American History. Put- 
 nam. New York. $2.75, subscription. 
 
 Matliews, Shailer, Select Mediaeval Documents and Other Material Illustrating 
 the History of Church and Empire, 754 A.D.-1254 A.D. Silver, Burdett, & Co., 
 New York, Boston, Chicago. 1892. In Latin. $1.00. 
 
 Old South Leaflets. Published by Directors of the Old South Studies in History, 
 Old South Meeting House, Boston. 5 cents apiece. Edited by Edwin D. Mead. 
 
 These leaflets deserve special note as the first attempt in the United States to 
 popularize sources. The Old South Work, founded by Mrs. Mary Hemenway, and 
 still sustained by provision of her will, is a work for the education of the people, 
 and especially the education of our young people, in American history and politics; 
 and its promoters believe that few things can contribute better to this end than the 
 wide circulation of such leaflets as these. The aim is to bring valuable historical 
 documents, often not easily accessible, within easy reach of everybody. There are 
 at present fifty-five leaflets in the series, and others will rapidly follow. The fol- 
 lowing are typical titles : 
 
 No. 2. The Articles of Confederation. 5. Magna Charta. 7. Charter of Massa- 
 chusetts Bay, 1629. 12. The Federalist, Nos. 1 and 2. 17. Verrazzano's Voyage. 
 18. The Swiss Constitution. 20. Coronado's Letter to Mendoza, 1540. 21. Eliot's 
 Narrative, 1670. 31. The Voyages to Vinland, from the Saga of Eric the Red. 33. 
 Columbus's Letter to Gabriel Sanchez, describing the First Voyage and Discovery. 
 35. Cortes's Account of the City of Mexico. 42. Garfield's Address on the North- 
 west Territory and the Western Reserve. 50. Winthrop's Conclusions for the 
 Plantation in New' England. 
 
 Preston, Howard W., Documents Illustrative of American History, 1606-1863. 
 G. P. Putnam's Sons, 27 and 29 West 23d Street, New York. $2.50. 
 Contents: First Virginia Charter, 1606; Second Virginia Charter, 1609; Third 
 Virginia Charter, 1612; Mayflower Compact, 1620; Ordinance for Virginia, 1621; 
 Massachusetts Charter, 1629; Maryland Charter, 1639; Fundamental Orders of 
 Connecticut, 1039; New England Confederation, 1643; Connecticut Charter, 1662; 
 Rhode Island Charter, 1663; Pennsylvania Charter, 1681; Penn's Plan of Union, 
 1697 ; Georgia Charter, 1732 ; Franklin's Plan of Union, 1754 ; Declaration of Rights, 
 1765; Declaration of Rights, 1774; Non-Importation Agreement, 1774; Mecklen- 
 burgh Resolutions, 1775; Virginia Bill of Rights, 1776; Declaration of Indepen- 
 dence, 1776; Articles of Confederation, 1776; Treaty of Peace, 1783; Constitution, 
 1787 ; Alien and Sedition Laws, 1798 ; Virginia Resolutions, 1798 ; Kentucky Reso- 
 lutions, 1798; Kentucky Resolutions, 1799; Nullification Ordinance, 1832; Ordi- 
 nance of Secession, 1860; South Carolina Declaration of Independence, 1860; 
 Emancipation Proclamation, 1863. 
 
 Powell, F. York, English History from Contemporary Writers. A series pub- 
 lished in London by David Nutt; and in New York by Putnam's Sons. [Now 
 discontinued by the latter.] From the prospectus of its editor we quote the 
 following : 
 
10 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 " To each well-defined period of our history is given a little volume made up of 
 extracts from the chronicles, State papers, memoirs, and letters of the time, as 
 also from other contemporary literature, the whole chronologically arranged, and 
 chosen so as to give a living picture of the effect produced upon each genera- 
 tion by the political, religious, social, and intellectual movements in which it 
 took part." 
 
 Prothero, Select Statutes and Other Constitutional Documents Illustrative of the 
 Eeigns of Elizabeth and James I. Macmillan. $2.60. 
 
 Sheldon, Mary D., Studies in General History (1000 B.C. to 1880 A.D.). $1.75. 
 Studies in Greek and Roman History. $1.10. Studies in American History. 
 $1.25. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. 1885-1891. 
 
 These text-books are the only attempt made as yet to introduce sources into 
 a school manual. 
 
 Stedman, Edmund Clarence, and 'Hutchinson, Ellen MacRay, editors, Library of 
 American Literature from the Earliest Settlement to the Present Time. Pub- 
 lished by subscription, in 10 vols., by William Evarts Benjamin. $3.00 a 
 volume. 
 An invaluable collection for American history. 
 
 Stubbs, William, Select Charters and Other Illustrations of English Constitu- 
 tional History to the Reign of Edward the First. Oxford. 1874. $2.25. 
 
 University of Pennsylvania, Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources 
 of European History. Philadelphia, 1894, etc. Price 15 cents a number. For 
 prospectus, terms, etc., address Dana C. Munro, University of Pennsylvania, 
 Philadelphia, Pa. This series contains translations of original documents in 
 the fields of English and Continental history. Numbers have appeared al- 
 ready on the French Revolution, the Crusades, the Reformation, the English 
 Constitution, the Reaction after 1815, the Napoleonic Era, the Social Life of 
 England. 
 
 These small collections of select sources are found in Germany 
 under the title of Quellenbucher ; as an example, we instance the 
 Quellenbuch edited by Albert Richter, for instruction in German 
 history, and covering the whole period from Csesar to the Emperor 
 William I, published at Leipsic in 1885. A series has also been 
 selected and edited from the Monumenta Germaniae, under the 
 title : Scriptores rerum Germanicorum in usum Seholarum ex Monu- 
 mentis Germaniae Historicis Recusi, Hannover, 1878, etc. 
 
 In French history, the excellent series edited by B. Zeller, and 
 published by Hachette since 1880, under the general title, L'his- 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OF HISTORY. 11 
 
 toire de France racontee par les contemporains, covers the whole of 
 French history down to modem times, and is sold, in spite of many 
 original illustrations from the sources, at the price of half a franc a 
 number. 
 
 In American history, a bibliography of manuscript sources is 
 given by Winsor in volume viii of his Narrative and Critical His- 
 tory of America. The critical chapter following each narrative 
 chapter in this same work gives the best bibliography of printed 
 sources extant on the special topic treated. In English history, 
 Green, in his Short History of the English People, gives at the 
 head of each chapter short titles for the sources on which the chap- 
 ter is based. Much more exhaustive is J. Bass Mullinger's critical 
 and biographical account of authorities given in the latter half of 
 Samuel R. Gardiner's English History for Students . . . Kegan 
 Paul, London, 1881. The catalogue of the Bohn libraries, fur- 
 nished by Macmillan, will give a long and valuable list of trans- 
 lated sources illustrative of Greek, Roman, Mediaeval, and English 
 History. The best general bibliography of sources known to me is 
 that of Bernheim, who gives a very exhaustive list of collections of 
 sources, pp. 188-202, and 436-438 of his Lehrbuchder Historischen 
 Methode, Leipsic, 1894. 
 
 The study of the sources has developed new sciences : the com- 
 parative study of words, or philology; of manuscript writings, or 
 paleography ; of inscriptions, or epigraphy ; of official documents, 
 or diplomatics ; of remains, or archaeology. This growth of new 
 sciences in turn demands new schools and new apparatus. In gen- 
 eral, we may say that the German Seminarium is devoted to these 
 studies of sources. The key-notes of this institution are two : first, 
 that the material used consists of sources ; and, second, that the 
 work of the student is the independent, and, wherever possible, the 
 original investigation of these materials. The seminary is now 
 thoroughly adopted in our own country, and follows the same 
 ideal as in Germany. Johns Hopkins University was the first 
 to develop the seminary in the line of American local history, the 
 
12 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 field where the American student can most readily obtain access 
 to sources, and at the same time really add to the sum of human 
 knowledge. In Prance, the J^cole des Chartes in Paris is organized 
 with the aim of training young men who shall be able to edit, 
 verify, and interpret the sources of history. 
 
 Another form of school developed by the study of the sources 
 appears in the Archaeological Stations established at Rome, Athens, 
 and other places. These are but the beginnings of a great develop- 
 ment of such schools, to be stationed wherever the earth itself has 
 much to yield to the historical student. Such stations should in 
 our own country be established in Arizona, New Mexico, Guatemala, 
 Peru, and wherever the mass of sources is immovably local. 
 
 The worker in sources collects, classifies, dates, and places them, 
 verifies their authenticity, gives them a legible, clean, trustworthy 
 form. The historian then selects such materials as bear on his own 
 set work 5 from these, in turn, he chooses the forms most typical 
 and complete, and interprets them with such truth as his own 
 genius and sympathy permit. For instance, if he is a Parkman, he 
 will first collect all the relations of the Jesuits ; from these he will 
 take those which relate to old Canada ; from these he will select 
 those written by the most devoted and observing Jesuits, and by 
 those who were longest in their chosen field. From these selected 
 types he will render to the modern world that epic of heroism called 
 the Jesuits in North America. 
 
 THE STUDY OF CONTEMPORARY HISTORY. 
 
 IT will readily be seen that if any one wishes to study history 
 from the sources, he must either have recourse to collections ready 
 made, or to the field of local and contemporary history. In fact, 
 away from great libraries, these are th$ only possible openings for 
 original historical work. Contemporary history has the great 
 advantage of being living history, involving the questions of the 
 day ; its sources are those on which the adult citizen must contin- 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OP HISTORY. 13- 
 
 ually construct his own judgments, judgments which underlie the 
 history of the future. The newspaper, the magazine, the living 
 man and woman, the growing connection of events, all these are 
 our own constant sources of information and if the teacher himself 
 has had a good training in history, it is a part of his work to train 
 his students as far as he can to weigh this contemporary evidence, 
 estimate its comparative values, learn to judge of character, recog- 
 nize the causes and forms of personal bias, and form independent 
 and thoughtful judgments, or, what is sometimes more to the pur- 
 pose, learn to suspend his judgment altogether for want of sufficient 
 evidence. In such a course, too, the student should learn how to 
 help himself in a great library to the material which bears on the 
 most recent questions. He should learn the use of cyclopaedias, 
 atlases, catalogues, Poole's Index to Periodical Literature, with its 
 supplements, the Statesman's Year Book, and similar aids. 
 
 A former student of mine, Mr. Adrian Yarrington, has developed 
 this field very successfully in the Pratt Institute of Brooklyn. I 
 quote from the Brooklyn Citizen of May 22, 1895, the following 
 passage descriptive of his work : 
 
 Another room, No. 13, is given up to history and civics, of which Mr. A. M. 
 Yarrington is instructor. Almost the same system is adopted here, and the 
 boys and girls are made to think. When they get through, they can tell why 
 they are Democrats, Republicans, Mugwumps, Socialists, or Populists, or any- 
 thing else. They take up the President's speech, paste it on the edge of sheets 
 of foolscap, and annotate it. They draw maps of countries referred to, and 
 tell the history of those countries. Under the head of " Who was He, and 
 What did He do for Progress ? " is a collection of biographies of Jefferson, 
 Clinton, Madison, Lincoln, Jackson, and other well-known men; while down 
 in the corner of the blackboard is tacked a paper on the "Effect of High 
 Wages and Shorter Hours of Production," by " Wells," evidently a young man. 
 From a hasty glance at the contents, the writer is satisfied that Mr. Wells is 
 on the right path. There is exhibited a bunch of debates on " Free Trade 
 and Protection; " while a lot of charts show the " Rise and Fall of Political 
 Parties." 
 
 Mr. Yarrington has charge, also, of the News ; and the exhibit in the As- 
 sembly Hall is one of the most interesting in the school. Here is the Pratt 
 
14 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 Institute Daily News with illustrated blackboard supplements. The News 
 is written by some boys and girls assigned as editors. They arrive at school 
 early enough to read the papers, and write on the blackboard epitomes of 
 the larger news of the day. Then the editors have to answer questions 
 of history, and draw maps, and be subjected to criticism by the whole 
 school, very much like real editors ; the only difference being that real edi- 
 tors have the advantage of their critics, for they have waste-baskets for let- 
 ters and things. The visitor will see some examples of the news in the 
 " Growth of Our Navy," " Troubles in the Far East," " The Cuban Insurrec- 
 tion," " Trolley-Car Fenders," etc. In this hall, also, are ballots, returning- 
 forms, and voting-booths, used by the school in its annual election ; for there 
 is one held every year, previous to that of November, and it is usually a reflex 
 of what the older people feel. 
 
 I am inclined to think that some study of this sort should be 
 made in every school where history is taught. For assistance in 
 this work, the following bibliographical notes for helps in current 
 history may prove useful. 
 
 For official statistics, figures, and facts, see : 
 
 The Statesman's Year Book, Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the 
 World for the Year 1894. Edited by J. Scott Keltic, Assistant Secretary to 
 the Royal Geographical Society. Revised after official returns. London, Mao 
 millan. Published annually since 1863. $3.00. Indispensable for Europe. 
 
 The Annual Statistician and Economist. San Francisco and New York. L. P. 
 McCarty. Published annually since 1889. 
 
 American Almanac and Treasury of Facts, Statistical, Financial, and Political, 
 for the year 1894. Edited by Ainsworth R. Spofford, Librarian of Congress. 
 New York and Washington. Published annually since 1878. The continua- 
 tion of a similar publication begun in 1830, under the title of American 
 Almanac. Perhaps the most valuable single publication of this sort for the 
 American teacher. 
 
 IlazelVs Annual for 1894: A Cyclopaedic Record of Men and Topics of the Day. 
 Containing above 3,500 concise and explanatory articles on every topic of cur- 
 rent political, social, biographical, and general interest referred to by the press 
 and in daily conversation. Edited by E. D. Price, F.G.S., assisted by a large 
 number of contributors, and including some of the most eminent specialists of 
 the day. Sixth year of issue. London, 1891. 
 
 To keep track of government publications, see : 
 
 Ames, John G., Comprehensive Index of the Publications of the United States Gov- 
 ernment, 1889-1893. Washington, 1894. 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OF HISTORY. 15 
 
 Catalogue of Publications, issued by the Government of the United States, appear- 
 ing monthly. Washington, government printing-office. 
 
 Comparative Summary and Index of State Legislation in 1891. State Library Bul- 
 letin. Albany, N.Y. No. 5 appeared in January of 1895. 
 
 Eyre and Spottiswoode, East Harding Street, Fleet Street, E. C., London, will 
 send, on application, priced catalogues of the late important publications of 
 the English Government, or lists on special topics. 
 
 For current "biography, see : 
 
 The Century Dictionary of Proper Names. A pronouncing and etymological dic- 
 tionary of names in geography, biography, history, ethnology, art, archaeology, 
 fiction, etc. Edited by Benjamin E. Smith, Managing Editor of The Century 
 Dictionary. The Century Company, New York. $12.50. Second Edition. 
 
 Phillips, Laurence B., The Dictionary of Biographical Reference, together with a 
 classed index of the biographical literature of Europe and America. Philadel- 
 phia, 1889. 
 
 Thomas, Universal Pronouncing Dictionary of Biography and Mythology. Titled 
 on back as LippincotVs Pronouncing Biographical Dictionary. Philadelphia, 
 1886. One volume, $12.00 ; two volumes, $15.00. The standard dictionary of 
 this sort in English. 
 
 Wilson, James Grant, and Fiske, John, Appletoris Cyclopaedia of American Biog- 
 raphy. Appleton's, 18S8-1S8J). G vols. $30.00. 
 
 For geography, see : 
 
 Bartholomew, J., F.R.G.S., The Library Reference Atlas of the World. A com- 
 plete series of 81 modern maps, with geographical index to 100,000 places. 
 Folio, half morocco. $18.00, net. Macmillan's. There is also a small pocket 
 atlas, at $1.25, by the same author and publisher. 
 
 Rand, McNally, & Co.'s Atlases. These are practical, and generally accessible, 
 
 and range in price from 25 cents to $40.00. 
 [Since new editions are constantly appearing of the above works, care should be 
 
 taken in purchasing, to insist always on the latest in the market.] 
 
 Poole's Index, with, its supplements, is the standard guide to peri- 
 odical literature, and it is to be found in any library where any 
 number of periodicals is taken. Every great English review deals 
 with the questions of the day, and will keep its readers up to date. 
 For this specific purpose of the teacher of history, nothing will 
 serve his purpose better than the Review of Reviews. This not 
 only gives a view of the world's progress and change, but also gives 
 
1G STUDIES IK HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 short reviews of leading articles in the chief periodicals, and their 
 tables of contents month by month. It should be owned and read 
 by every teacher who undertakes any work in contemporary history. 
 Of the great English reviews, I am inclined to think that the Con- 
 temporary will be the most useful single one. Of newspapers, let 
 me recommend the London Weekly Times to one who would sweep 
 the world. 
 
 THE STUDY OF LOCAL HISTORY. 
 
 STUDIES in contemporary history are, from the nature of the case, 
 tentative, general, and fitted to train citizens rather than scholars. 
 The training for the scholar is rather to be looked for in the field 
 of local history, where he can most nearly come face to face with 
 all the sources, and obtain the best training that history has for 
 him in accuracy, the nice weighing of evidence, the sympathetic 
 interpretation of the past. In. the second place, through local his- 
 tory the citizen finds a close and intimate connection with general 
 history. The hills and valleys of his childhood take on the glam- 
 our of romance that always comes from the touch of a bygone life. 
 Here the Indians smoked about their council-fires ; here passed a 
 Spanish knight, armed cap-a-pie ; here a pioneer first broke the soil, 
 and stood ready, gun in hand, to protect his home from all inva- 
 ders, whether wild beasts or wild men ; here men sprang armed to 
 conflict; here they suffered and died for liberty, independence, or 
 perchance for human freedom. Memories like these add beauty, 
 pathos, and meaning to the poorest landscape, and give to common 
 life the touch of poetry. The traveller in Europe realizes this as 
 he sees the pride and love with which the common people look 
 upon their historic monuments. The great Cathedral of Siena, the 
 exquisite bronzes of Florence, the memories of Tell among the 
 Swiss mountains, of Napoleon and Louis the Great in Paris, 
 from these spring poetry and wonder for the child, and environ 
 life with an atmosphere of charm which always lingers in his mind 
 and eye. 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OF HISTORY. 17 
 
 In America our local history has not yet received its full develop- 
 ment. We have been careless of our monuments and relics, which, 
 to be sure, are of a different sort from those of Europe, though no 
 less interesting and important to preserve ; we have as yet no 
 growth of song and story clinging like green vines about the 
 broken fragments of the past ; worst of all, we do not know our 
 local history. All this the teacher can do much to change. 
 
 First, then, let him ask himself: What are the connections of 
 my city, town, or vicinity with the general history of the country ? 
 Take, for instance, my own native place, Oswego, a dull little city 
 on our northern frontier, lying asleep by the blue waters of Ontario. 
 Commonplace enough it looks, and no great man and no great deed 
 has signalized it ; but let me tell you its connections. First of all, 
 its Indians were the fierce Iroquois, best of all the fighting tribes : 
 their songs and traditions still live among their descendants ; their 
 manners and customs, their village and forest life, are minutely 
 described in the relations of the Jesuits ; in the soil are still found 
 their arrow-heads, and on their reservations they still make their 
 primitive wares and fabrics. In the Colonial period, we have con- 
 nections with Champlain, the Jesuits, and the fur-traders. There 
 was still a trace of the old French settlement left when I was 
 a child. There are old maps to be seen, showing Oswego as a 
 wilderness, with a fort, a river, a few canoes and huts. In the 
 French and Indian War we were an important frontier post, for 
 which the French and British fought back and forth. Of the old 
 forts there still remain the well-authenticated sites. With the 
 Revolution we had but little connection, but with its close the 
 period of our growth began. We were in the current of the great 
 commercial and industrial wave which came from the opening of 
 the AVelland and the Erie Canals. The lake was white with sails, 
 and every wind blew us in the lumber of Michigan and the wheat 
 of Ohio and Illinois. In memory of this time still stands our noble 
 lighthouse and the long stone pier, badly fallen to ruin, the green 
 grass springing up between the stones, and old wharves, grass-grown 
 
18 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 too, where idle boys fish long afternoons in the sun, while the tall 
 elevators have one by one been turned to other uses, or have fallen 
 to decay; for our importance and wealth passed away with the 
 opening of the railroad, whose great line of the Central passed to 
 the south of us. Our fine canal, with its locks, suffered decay as 
 well ; and the old taverns, with their wide piazzas, were deserted 
 and haunted places. Still life went on in Oswego, and when the 
 Civil War came we sprang to arms with the North. Our fields 
 were white with tents; in a long shed on the lake shore our soldiers 
 ate their rations ; along our streets they marched away with tears 
 and loud huzzas. To many and many a house came back the story 
 of its hero, freezing, fighting, starving, dying for what he deemed 
 the right. We children picked lint for the hospitals ; one of our 
 women marched away with her husband, and became a nurse, 
 well remembered and much beloved. A stanch old preacher, 
 white-haired and ruddy-faced, almost worshipped by his people, 
 prayed every Sunday to the God of battles to strengthen the 
 hands and the hearts of the North. 
 
 But I need g'o no further, though this by no means tells the 
 story of the dull little town. What I have said indicates the lines 
 of inquiry ; the next thing is to see what the Oswego teacher will 
 do with all this wealth at his command. We have already seen 
 the value and the power of the source in history; the Oswego 
 teacher in Oswego can use this for all that it is worth. In the 
 library he will find four great volumes of the documentary history 
 of New York. In these volumes the old maps, the old Jesuit 
 relations, the lists of New York governors, the old military reports, 
 are all embodied. He will set the children hunting there ; ask one 
 to find the first map which has Oswego placed upon it ; another to 
 find who were the first people who came there, and what they came 
 for ; suck these books dry of all they can tell about Oswego. He 
 will go with his pupils to the county clerk's office, and see what 
 they can find there of the early government, of the first mayor, of 
 the first common council, the first board of education; above all, 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OF HISTORY. 19 
 
 they will hunt up the old maps of the city. He will take his 
 pupils to the fort, let them see why it is placed well for defence ; 
 take them to the soldiers' graveyard, lying desolate on the hill, and 
 let them wander among the graves and read the old inscriptions ; 
 take them along the wharves and the pier, and, setting them in 
 the sun, let them write out, pencil and paper in hand, as well as 
 they can, a description of how it looked in 1830, what features of 
 the picture were emphasized then, and what have vanished ; what 
 have been added ; or perhaps a contrast of 1830 with 1896. He 
 will set them to ransack their own homes for old letters, old news- 
 papers, old relics, old bits of pottery, old costume, old weapons. 
 He will ask some old soldier of the Civil "War t come to the school 
 and tell his story of the camp and the field. 
 
 This work with the sources must precede all else, and much of it 
 is especially fitted to be the very first work done ift history. Even 
 young children will appreciate the expeditions to points of interest, 
 and will get something of ..the feeling of history. The next work is 
 for the teacher and his pupils to reconstruct the local history and 
 give it its connections. After the material is all gathered, comes 
 the time to question it, and embody the answers in essays, classi- 
 fied collections, public exercises, note-books, and all the rest of the 
 paraphernalia of study. 
 
 The questions which should guide this last work in the case of 
 Oswego would be something as follows : 
 
 What was the Indian population here ? What were their man- 
 ners and customs, their thoughts and beliefs ? What was their 
 welcome to the white man, and what has become of them now ? 
 
 Who were the first explorers and settlers ? Where did they 
 come from, and by what routes ? Why did they come ? Why did 
 they settle in this particular place ? What was their character, 
 their education, their ideals, their faith ? How did they make a 
 living in their new home ? 
 
 Had we any connection with any of the wars of the Eepublic ? 
 Were any of our people at Valley Forge, at Yorktown, at Lundy's 
 
20 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 Lane, at Gettysburg ? Who were our heroes in these wars ? 
 Again, What connections have we had with the political, intel- 
 lectual, and artistic world ? Has there been a scholar, a states- 
 man, a poet, who was born in Oswego, or who loved Oswego as 
 a home ? 
 
 I have been thus particular about questions which should be 
 asked, because I could thus most easily reveal the wealth which 
 this vein of local history may possess. 
 
 One important outcome of these local studies should be the for- 
 mation of local historical collections. These should be the result 
 of the joint labors of the pupils and teachers of the whole locality, 
 working together, in a club. This museum should gather to itself 
 the visible remains of the whole history. It should contain Indian 
 relics, pictures of native Indians, photographs of historic sites and 
 buildings, all the historic maps of the locality, photographs or other 
 pictures of citizens who have been prominent at critical periods, old 
 costumes and uniforms, old dishes, utensils, tools, coins, stamps, 
 and portraits, everything, in short, which serves as a material 
 link between then and now. There, too, should be found the files 
 of local newspapers, made as complete as possible, and as soon as 
 possible firmly bound. Letters, diaries, manuscripts, which have a 
 local historic value should be collected and bound, or preserved in 
 legible and authentic copies, the originals being preserved for the 
 occasional reference of scholars. All the literature that has gath- 
 ered about the place should also be gotten together, any poems, 
 novels, biographies, which celebrate the place or its citizens. The 
 old people, the old soldiers, should write out or dictate their recol- 
 lections, and these manuscripts be added to the local collections. 
 
 There is still another class of sources we should save from obliv- 
 ion, those of our foreign immigrants. In every town, in every 
 place, there is a large body of European immigrants. Where did 
 they come from ? Have they any pictures of their old homes ? 
 Why did they select this for their new home ? What differences 
 do they find between the old and the new ? Perhaps they were 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OF HISTORY. 21 
 
 Irish driven out by famine, Germans driven out by the conscrip- 
 tion, Italians by heavy taxes and an extreme of poverty of which 
 we do not dream. In nine cases out of ten their stories will be 
 found to have interest and meaning, and should find a niche of 
 their own in the museum and library of local history. 
 
 But should we, in local history, deal with <all the dull periods, 
 make it a point to know the history thoroughly year by year, or 
 deal with the salient points, the vital connections? Are we to 
 mention such details as the smuggling of a dozen silk handker- 
 chiefs or a bushel of salt, or the complaint of a citizen that his 
 street is not kept in good order, or that there was a squabble in 
 the court-room on such a day, or that John Mulligan, a native of 
 Tullybainman, Ireland, came to live in Syracuse ? 
 
 As teachers, we must deal with salient points, with points of 
 vital growth and large connection. But in order to gain these 
 points, to make these connections, somebody must search through 
 large masses of material that may seem of very little use, and may 
 yield little of significance. But there lies the way. If we are to 
 know that at a certain time, in a certain place, men lived without 
 law and order, until their misery and confusion drove them to some 
 effective government, you can only reach this conclusion, if you are 
 working with the sources, by reading in detail about this bushel of 
 salt smuggled in, that fatal quarrel that ended with a shot, the dis- 
 appearance of this herd of horses, rifling and murder on this or that 
 lonely ranch. Or if you would know that the population of a cer- 
 tain place came mostly from Ireland or from Spain, how can you 
 know it except from just such details as you may learn from the 
 tombstone or the marriage record, in short, from such details as 
 that John Mulligan, native of Ireland, came to live in Syracuse ? 
 The pettiness disappears when the petty detail is one of a thousand 
 strokes that paints a great and true picture. Or supposing that 
 the petty detail is essentially petty, has no significance in propor- 
 tion to the general whole, is but a splash of paint on the wall, 
 is it not worth something to learn what to reject as well as what to 
 
22 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 accept ? to know what has no worth as well as to know what has a 
 story to tell, a place in a picture ? 
 
 So local history has its place in study and teaching, a place which 
 nothing else can fill. There lies, finally, the labor, the reality, the 
 very ground of history. There the citizen finds his home in the 
 great world of time as well as in the great world of space. There 
 he learns how to interpret history through the toil and heroism of 
 some few men whose works he has seen, whose words he has read, 
 in whose footsteps he himself daily treads. 
 
 The Old South Work is the pioneer and feeder of all this local 
 work in connection with the schools and the general public, as 
 Johns Hopkins University has been for such work in the universi- 
 ties. Its founder, Mrs. Mary Hemenway of Boston, saw that the 
 life of history lay in its personal connections with what is here and 
 now and still alive in us. The Old South lecturers have told their 
 story in the very places where the story was enacted ; the Old 
 South Leaflets have given into every hand the very words of those 
 who saw or acted it; and historical pilgrimages and historical 
 explorations are following in the track of the lectures and the 
 leaflets. But local work, from its very nature, demands many 
 centres of independent life ; and perhaps we are waking even now 
 to the idea that not alone in Boston and Virginia, and not alone 
 by Puritans and Cavaliers, has our great past been lived ; but that 
 the hunters of Kentucky, the zealots of Kansas, the fur-hunters of 
 St. Louis, the miners of California, the farmer-pioneers of an ever- 
 advancing frontier, have also been our founders ; that not alone 
 to courtesy and thrift and upright piety were we born, but also 
 to independence, daring energy, bold invention, and adventure. 
 
 But shall we begin history here and now with the local and con- 
 temporary ? On the one hand, such reasons urge for it as have 
 been given above, reasons of interest, nearness, completeness, and 
 training. On the other hand, the logical connection of events 
 appears most simply and clearly in following their evolution 
 through time. So they happened ; so we wish to see them. The 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OF HISTORY. 23 
 
 inquiry after cause and effect, the sense of time, find a far greater 
 satisfaction in beginning as far back as possible, and in watching 
 the simple unit widen its life through generations. Again, early 
 life is simpler and more primitive, and so nearer the simpler, more 
 intense life of the young. The child can understand Jason going 
 after the golden fleece far better than he can the Tammany Tiger. 
 Again, local and contemporary history have no meaning without 
 some view of their connections through the long course of time, 
 and on the wide field of the whole earth. The teacher at least 
 must know these connections before making the least attempt at 
 local or contemporary history. But, after all, this is a priori rea- 
 soning; and the question is one to be settled by experiments and 
 observations, which capable persons are most sincerely urged to try. 
 According to Stubbs, even from the point of view of training citi- 
 zens, it is better to deal with ancient and mediaeval history, where 
 the judgment may strengthen itself outside the reach of prejudice. 
 
 SPECIAL STUDY ON BALLADS AS HISTORICAL MATERIAL. 
 REPORT BY MBS. HATTIE MASON WILLARD. 
 
 AMONG the tempting and accessible sources in English history 
 are the ballads. They are stirring and interesting; they purport to 
 be historical, but are they? How far are they safe to use as 
 sources ? One of my advanced students, Mrs. Hattie Mason Wil- 
 lard, made a special study of this question last year, taking nine 
 authentic ballads of the age of Queen Elizabeth, and comparing 
 each of them carefully with the most trustworthy historical sources 
 accessible. This study is based entirely on her work. 
 
 The comparative character of ballad and history appears clearly 
 in the following comparison of the ballad of Andrew Barton with 
 the parallel passages taken from the most authentic chronicles of 
 the period for the events treated. The material is taken from 
 Part vi. of The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, edited by 
 
24 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 Francis James Child, Boston (1889), pp. 335-342. The ballad runs 
 as follows : 
 
 1. As itt beffell in m(i)dsumer-time, 
 
 When burds singe sweetlye on euery tree, 
 Our noble king, King Henery the Eighth, 
 Ouer the riuer of Thames past hee, 
 
 2. Hee was no sooner ouer the riuer, 
 
 Downe in a fforrest to take the ayre, 
 But eighty merchants of London cittye 
 Came kneeling before King Henery there. . . . 
 
 4. ' To Ffrance nor Fflaiiders dare we nott passe, 
 
 Nor Burdeaux voyage wee dare not ffare, 
 And all ffor a ffalse robber that lyes on the seas, 
 And robb(s) vs of our merchants-ware.' . . . 
 
 6. ' He is a proud Scott that will robb vs all 
 
 If wee were twenty shipps and hee but one.' 
 
 7. The king looket ouer his left shoulder, 
 
 Amongst his lords and barrens soe ffree : 
 'Haue I neuer lord in all my realme 
 Will ffeitch yond traitor vnto mee ? ' 
 
 8. 'Yes, that dare I ! ' sayes my lord Chareles Howard, 
 
 Neere to the king wheras hee did stand ; 
 'If that Your Grace will giue me leaue, 
 My selfe wilbe the only man.' 
 
 9. 'Thou shalt haue six hundred men,' saith our king, 
 
 'And chuse them out of my realme soe ffree ; 
 Besids marriners and boyes, 
 To guide the great shipp on the sea.' . . . 
 
 17. With pikes, and gunnes, and bowemen bold, 
 
 This noble Howard is gone to the sea 
 On the day before midsummer-euen, 
 And out att Thames mouth sayled they. . . . 
 
 [As for Andrew Barton : ] 
 
 27. 'Hee is brasse within, and steele without, 
 
 And beanies hee beares in his topcastle stronge ; 
 His shipp hath ordinance cleane round about ; 
 Besids, my lord, hee is verry well mand. 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OF HISTORY. 25 
 
 28. 'He hath a pinnace, is deerlye flight, 
 
 Saint Andrews crosse, that is his guide ; 
 
 His pinnace beares nine score men and more, 
 
 Besids fifteen cannons on euery side. . , .' 
 
 36. 'Now by my ffaith,' sais Charles, my lord Haward, 
 
 'Then yonder Scott is a worthye wight.' 
 
 37. 'Take in your ancyents and your standards, 
 
 Yea that no man shall them see, 
 And put me fforth a white willow wand, 
 As merchants vse to sayle the sea.' 
 
 38. But they stirred neither top nor mast, 
 
 But Sir Andrew they passed by : 
 ' Whatt English are yonder,' said Sir Andrew, 
 ' That can so little curtesye ? 
 
 39. 'I haue beene admirall ouer the sea 
 
 More than these yeeres three ; 
 There is neuer an English dog, nor Portingall, 
 Can passe this way without leaue of inee. 
 
 40. ' But now yonder pedlers, they are past, 
 
 Which is no little greffe to me : 
 Ffeich them backe,' sayes Sir Andrew Bartton, 
 'They shall all hang att my maine-mast tree.' 
 
 41. With that the pinnace itt shott of, 
 
 That my Lord Haward might itt well ken j 
 Itt stroke downe my lords fforemast, 
 And killed fourteen of my lord his men. . . . 
 
 63. But att Sir Andrew hee shott then ; 
 
 Hee made sure to hitt his marke ; 
 Vnder the spole of his right arme 
 Hee smote Sir Andrew quite throw the hart. 
 
 64. Yett ffrom the tree he wold not start, 
 
 But he clinged to itt with might and maine ; 
 Vnder the coller then of his iacke, 
 He stroke Sir Andrew thorrow the braine. 
 
 65. 'Fnght on, my men,' sayes Sir Andrew Bartton, 
 
 ' I am hurt, but I am not slaine : 
 I'le lay mee downe and bleed a-while, 
 And then I'le rise and ffight againe. 
 
26 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 66. ' Ffight on, my men,' sayes Sir Andrew Bartton, 
 
 'These English Doggs they bite soe lowe ; 
 Ffight on ffor Scotland and Saint Andrew 
 Till you heare my whistle blowe ! ' 
 
 67. But when the [y] cold not heare his whistle blowe, 
 
 Sayes Harry Hunt, I'le lay my head 
 You may hord yonder noble shipp, my lord, 
 For I know Sir Andrew hee is dead. 
 
 68. With that they borded this noble shipp, 
 
 Soe did they itt with might and maine : 
 The ffound eighteen score Scotts aliue, 
 Besids the rest were maimed and slaine. 
 
 69. My lord Haward tooke a sword in his hand, 
 
 And smote of Sir Andrews head ; 
 The Scotts stood by did weepe and mourne, 
 But neuer a word durst speake or say. . . . 
 
 71. With his head they sayled into England againe, 
 
 With right good will, and fforce and main, 
 And the day beffore Newyeeres euen, 
 Into Thames mouth they came againe. . . , 
 
 Three contemporary chronicles record the same event. These 
 chronicles relate as follows : 
 
 I. Hall's Chronicle, 1548. In June (1511), the king being at Leicester, 
 tidings were brought to him that Andrew Barton, a Scottish man and a pirate 
 of the sea, saying that the king of Scots had war with the Portingales, did 
 rob every nation, and so stopped the king's streams that no merchants almost 
 could pass, and when he took the Englishmen's goods, he said they were 
 Portingales' goods, and thus he haunted and robbed at every haven's mouth. 
 The king, moved greatly with this crafty pirate, sent Sir Edmund Howard, 
 Lord Admiral of England, and Lord Thomas Howard, son and heir to the 
 Earl of Surrey, in all the haste to the sea, which hastily made ready two ships, 
 and without any more abode took the sea, and by chance of weather were 
 severed. The Lord Howard, lying in the Downs, perceived where Andrew 
 was making toward Scotland, and so fast the said lord chased him that he 
 overtook him, and there was a sore battle. The Englishmen were fierce, and 
 the Scots defended them manfully, and ever Andrew blew his whistle to 
 encourage his men, yet for all that, the Lord Howard and his men, by clean 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OF HISTORY. 27 
 
 strength, entered the main deck; then the Englishmen entered on all sides, 
 and the Scots fought sore on the hatches, but in conclusion Andrew was 
 taken, which was so sore wounded that he died there ; then all the remnant 
 of the Scots were taken, with their ship, called The Lion. All this while was 
 the Lord Admiral in chase of the bark of Scotland called Jenny Pirwyn, 
 which was wont to sail with The Lion in company, and ... he laid him on 
 board and fiercely assailed him, and the Scots, as hardy and well stomached 
 men, them defended ; but the Lord Admiral so encouraged his men that they 
 entered the bark and slew many, and took all the other. Then were these 
 two ships taken, and brought to Blackwall the second day of August, and 
 all the Scots were sent to the Bishop's place of York, and there remained, at 
 the king's charge, till other direction was taken for them. ... 
 
 II. Buchanan, about twenty years later, writes to this effect. . . . Henry 
 was easily persuaded, and dispatched his admiral, Thomas Howard, with two 
 of the strongest ships of the royal navy, to lie in wait at the Downs for 
 Andrew, then on his way home from Flanders. They soon had sight of the 
 Scot, in a small vessel, with a still smaller in company. Howard attacked 
 Andrew's ship, but, though the superior in all respects, was barely able to take 
 it after the master and most of his men had been killed. The Scots captain, 
 though several times wounded and with one leg broken by a cannon-ball, 
 seized a drum and beat a charge to inspirit his men to fight until breath and 
 life failed. The smaller ship was surrendered with less resistance, and the 
 survivors of both vessels, by begging their lives of the king (as they were 
 instructed to do by the English), obtained a discharge without punish- 
 ment. . . . 
 
 III. Bishop Lesley, writing at about the same time as Buchanan, openly 
 accuses the English of fraud. " In the month of June," he says, " Andrew 
 Barton, being on the sea in warfare contrar the Portingals, against whom 
 he had a letter of mark, Sir Edmund Howard, Lord Admiral of England, and 
 Lord Thomas Howard, son and heir to the Earl of Surrey, past forth at the 
 king of England's command, with certain of his .best ships; and the said 
 Andrew, being in his voyage sailing toward Scotland, having only but one 
 ship and a bark, they set upon at the Downs, and at the first entry did make 
 sign unto them that there was friendship standing betwix the two realms, and 
 therefore thought them to be friends; wherewith they, nothing moved, did 
 cruelly invade, and he manfully and courageously defended, where there was 
 many slain, and Andrew himself sore wounded, that he died shortly ; and 
 his ship, called The Lion, and the bark, called Jenny Pirrvyne, which, 
 with the Scots men that was living, were had to London, and kept there 
 as prisoners in the Bishop of Yorks house, and after was sent home in 
 Scotland." 
 
28 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 On comparing this ballad with the chronicles, it is seen that the 
 accounts differ widely in form and content. The chronicle has 
 the form of prose historical narrative, the ballad that of rhythmic 
 drama. The content of the chronicle is bare of personal and pic- 
 turesque detail, aims to explain carefully how it happened ; the 
 ballad consists largely of this personal and picturesque detail, 
 and aims to convey a picture and a feeling. We note certain inac- 
 curacies, too, in the ballad when we bring it to the square of 
 the chronicle. For instance, the name of the hero of the ballad 
 is Charles Howard, who stands for the Thomas and Edmund 
 Howard of the chronicles ; the number of ships engaged on either 
 side is one in the ballad as against two in the chronicles. Both 
 these changes can be explained on the ground of the greater unity 
 and simplicity demanded by the dramatic form. A third inaccuracy 
 seems simply careless, we can hardly see why the ballad should 
 date the return of the ships just before New Year's Eve, while the 
 chronicle brings them back on the second day of August. The bal- 
 lad, too, lets Sir Andrew go on in heroic speech in innocent uncon- 
 sciousness of the fact that he is shot through heart and brain. 
 Again, the ballad does not give the year, and it takes the Portu- 
 guese complication for granted as known, which may be forgiven to 
 a song sung for the men of the day, and forgetful of posterity. In 
 the incident of the whistle, the ballad sides with the older chronicle 
 as against the later, -and is more likely to be right. 
 
 But how is it when the comparison turns to larger matters of 
 time, to the general causes and results of events ? Here the ballad 
 repeats the history. In England, in the days of Henry the Eighth, 
 a Scotch pirate named Andrew Barton wofully harassed English 
 ships and merchants ; so that the king sent forth a nobleman, well 
 fitted out, to chase and catch this pirate. After a most manful fight 
 on either side, the pirate was suppressed. So far do ballad and 
 chronicle agree. The ballad supplies, besides, the " birds singing 
 sweetly on every tree," the passing of the Thames, the "brasse 
 within, and steele without," " Sir Andrew's crosse," the threats of 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OF HISTORY. 29 
 
 Sir Andrew, the blowing of his whistle shrilly until death, and the 
 bringing of his head up the Thames, things which might have 
 happened so, or otherwise, without affecting the main course or 
 point of the narrative ; that is, they are details not necessarily 
 historical in their nature. 
 
 On the side of actual history, many facts are given incidentally, 
 such as that in the time of Henry the Eighth there were many, 
 merchants in London who traded by sea to Flanders and France ; 
 that this trade was molested by pirates, and that it was the king's 
 business to protect it. Again, we see many details of living which 
 the chronicle takes for granted. Thus the merchants kneel before 
 the king ; the sailors are armed with pikes and guns and bows, the 
 ships with ordnance ; the Scot sails under St. Andrew's cross ; the 
 merchants sail with white willow wands in sign of peace. 
 
 Mrs. Willard then comes to this conclusion: that, where pictu- 
 resque and dramatic history is in order, the ballad will furnish it ; 
 that it will, besides, serve as a source even for the main narrative, 
 which it claims to give ; while for such matters as language, dress, 
 manners, equipment, range of trade, and all the contemporary envi- 
 ronment from which these details are necessarily drawn, and which 
 more serious chronicles neglect, the ballad takes its place as a rich 
 and accurate source. By its very nature it draws such matters as 
 these into its content ; just as more serious history, by its very 
 nature, draws into its content such matters, as names, dates, num- 
 bers, political relations, and terms of war and peace. 
 
 THE RELATION OF TRAVEL TO HISTORICAL STUDY. 
 
 PEOPLE often used to ask me, Why do you want to go abroad ? 
 and I had some difficulty in finding a respectable answer. Of course 
 it would be a great pleasure, and I thought I could see that the 
 sight of objects would clinch the scientific or historical information 
 which I happened to have about them; and I might even add to 
 
30 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 this stock. Still, although I felt, and everybody said, that there 
 was some peculiar educative value in foreign travel, I could never 
 exactly define in what it consisted ; and of course the idea of 
 going for pleasure only was entirely out of the question. 
 
 If, however, I were now asked the question, Of what use is 
 travel to the student of history ? I should say, To bring him into 
 contact with the sources of his subject. Not only books, but lands 
 and peoples, contain these records of the past. Travel instructs us 
 in environment, as books instruct us in thought and feeling. It 
 shows us, first, the physical environment of a people, the lay of 
 the land, its gifts of sun and air, of food and shelter ; further 
 travel shows us the industrial environment, the roads and cities, 
 the markets and factories, by which a people weaves its nest into 
 the wild tree of nature ; best of all, we see the people themselves, 
 as they move and speak and look. And here we come on the 
 prime source of all on the vital mass which makes history, which 
 urges itself" through all this inert environment, forcing from it 
 product, action, organization. The land, the people, the body of 
 life and product evolved by their interaction, these are the 
 sources with which travel acquaints us. 
 
 There is a large class of facts about these sources which books can 
 give us much more quickly and surely than travel ; indeed, all that 
 class of facts which may be described as exact 'information. The 
 traveller who hopes to depend upon what he sees or hears for this 
 kind of knowledge misses the value both of books and of travel, 
 and is deservedly a laughing-stock for gods and men. Travel ./gives 
 us something of a totally different sort ; something to be seized 
 ' by the heart and the senses rather than the intellect. For^instance, 
 the books will tell me all I want to know, all I can know, about 
 the pyramids, their size, history, use. I can become so learned 
 about them in any great library, that seeing can add nothing to 
 my intellectual knowledge of them. What is it, then, I gain as I 
 stand among the palm-trees by the Nile, and see them far across the 
 desert, clear outlines of pure form and warm color; or as, drawing 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OF HISTORY. 31 
 
 nearer, they tower above me, silent and solitary, on the edge of 
 Sahara, while the Sphynx crouches near? What do I gain but 
 some entrance into the spirit and sense of the old Egyptian, as he, 
 too, saw them shining and towering there four thousand years ago, 
 the self-same Sphynx crouching near ? His spirit and mine mingle 
 there by Sphynx and pyramid ; and I am richer, not in learning, 
 but in life. Or we are in France, in the midst of cheerful, con- 
 tented, happy people thronging the streets, chattering and laughing ; 
 or in Germany, running against boys with botany cases, and men 
 with spectacles, and always and forever against the army ; or here 
 on the desolate moor, with Stonehenge looming through the mist 
 alone in the wide horizon. What is it we are gaining? Ten to 
 one we know all we see beforehand ; but now our knowledge 
 enters through the senses, the common highway of the human 
 spirit, the same for all times and places, and a breadth and eleva- 
 tion of life itself, a widening of the personality, result. 
 
 But another thing results from this wealth of spiritual experi- 
 ences. Having acquired, we compare, test the spirits to know of 
 what manner they are. So we grow critical, learn to know more 
 exactly the worth and place of objects and people. Our standards 
 change, and change upward and outward. For instance, as soon as 
 we reached Rome we went to see Raphael's Transfiguration, a can- 
 vas famous through the world ; but in our secret hearts we only 
 wondered before it, and had dim suspicions that the genius of 
 Raphael was a kind of myth kept sacred by a tradition that no one 
 dared attack. But day after day passed, and not a day without its 
 vision of high art. The antique, in all its simple majesty, took us in 
 hand ; silently the great gods and heroes of the Vatican and Capitol 
 stood before us and said, " Look, look ! " and we looked until, little 
 by little, their beauty grew alive in our souls. At last, after two 
 months of such schooling, we went again to the little upper room 
 where the Transfiguration stood; and lo, the canvas was blazing 
 with life and motion and color, and we knew that Raphael was 
 in deed and truth the Raphael men said he was, an archangel of 
 high art. 
 
32 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 This rising standard of art carried other standards with it. 
 Raphael and his great peers taught us to seek and demand every- 
 where that same unity, purity, and strength which the classic pro- 
 ductions of art embody. So came another advantage of travel, 
 the growth of powers of comparison and criticism, and the forma- 
 tion of a higher standard. 
 
 To the child, too, we should bring such benefits, and plan little 
 journeys as part of his historical course. Hardly any school is 
 so placed as not to be within excursion distance of some site or 
 some collection of historical interest. Such sites, pictures, or col- 
 lections are precious additions to the historical apparatus of the 
 teacher. The way to the spirit of the child, as to that of the man, 
 lies through the sense and the thing. 
 
 THE TOOLS OF HISTORY. 
 
 Authorities. The authorities are based on the sources. If no 
 history of England had ever been written, the man who would write 
 it must go to the original sources : what is more, he must bring 
 these sources into evidence through the whole of his work ; for no 
 authority to-day is considered trustworthy unless he refers to his 
 sources. If he so bases his work, and does it well, he rises into 
 the first rank of historical workers ; if he bases his work on other 
 authorities instead of on sources, his work takes second rank, and 
 has no value for the scholar, except possibly as a handbook. A man 
 who writes without references, composing his history from unknown 
 or secondary authorities, is no longer respectable. A first-rate author- 
 ity should give. an accurate, interpretative account of what he finds 
 in the sources, and he should give us references by which we may 
 review or extend his work for ourselves! By the accuracy, com- 
 pleteness, and character of these references, the scholarly quality of 
 an author is largely determined ; his power as an interpreter can 
 be judged only by those who know his sources as well as he, and 
 who have an equal or greater power of interpretation. 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OF HISTORY. 33 
 
 Libraries. Libraries, as is often remarked, are the laboratories 
 of history ; therefore, the teacher or student of history should make 
 it his first business to learn the library facilities of his own imme- 
 diate vicinity, and to urge on every movement for their extension 
 and improvement. A library has two uses : one, to collect and pre- 
 serve books ; the other, to give them the greatest possible circulation 
 among the people. Fortunately, the second function of the library is 
 much emphasized lately, so that in our leading libraries not only are 
 monthly bulletins issued containing timely lists of books on current 
 topics, and of new accessions, but, thanks to the lead of the Worces- 
 ter library, the books on any special subject are lent in a body to 
 any public school for a limited period ; and, thanks to the lead of 
 certain British libraries, the experiment of admitting the public 
 directly to the shelves is being tried, it is to be hoped success- 
 fully. In addition to the facilities of public libraries, every teacher 
 of history should try to build up a select collection of books under 
 the direct ownership of the school itself. His own library should 
 serve as an extension of this, and vice versa. In general, it may be 
 said that the school library should contain general books of refer- 
 ence for his subject, while his own library should grow along some 
 particular line of interest, forming a special collection which will 
 grow in time to be a very desirable addition to any general library. 
 To effect this, one should look over the catalogues of second-hand 
 dealers as well as over the notices of new books. The reviews of 
 The Critic, The New York Nation, and The London Spectator, and 
 The London Weekly Times may be recommended. For statistics and 
 facts about American libraries, see the special report of the Bureau 
 of Education for 1876. A new one will appear the current year 
 (1896). 
 
 Bibliographies. The great need of bibliographies now appears. 
 The teacher cannot go far without asking, What are the books on 
 this topic ? What are my best sources, what my best authorities ? 
 In general, it may be said that the classified catalogue of any great 
 library will furnish a fair bibliography under its headings of coun- 
 
34 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 tries and men. The catalogues of the Boston Athenaeum, of the 
 Brooklyn Public Library, of the Peabody Institute in Baltimore, 
 and the Catalogue of History, Biography, and Travel, issued by the 
 Boston Public Library, may be named as very valuable. The last- 
 named catalogue contains a topical classification of books and arti- 
 cles, often with notes indicating the point of view. The monthly 
 bulletins, already referred to, often contain good special bibliog- 
 raphies, like that lately issued by the Providence library on the 
 subject of Napoleon. 
 
 Many of the articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in John- 
 son's Cyclopaedia, and in Lalor's Cyclopedia of Social and Political 
 Science, close with a selected bibliography of books bearing on the 
 topic treated. 
 
 The following bibliographical aids will prove of special use : 
 
 Adams, C. K., A Manual of Historical Literature. Comprises brief descrip- 
 tions of the most important histories, in English, French, and German, to- 
 gether with practical suggestions as to methods and courses of historical study 
 for the use of students, general readers, and collectors of hooks. Omitting the 
 suh-heads, the chapters are entitled : Introduction, On the Study of History, 
 Universal Histories, Histories of Antiquity, Histories of Greece, of Rome, of 
 the Middle Ages, of Modern Times, of Italy, of Germany, of France, of Russia 
 and Poland, of the smaller Nationalities of Europe, of England, and of the 
 United States. New York. $2.50. 
 The portion dealing with the United States is especially good, and the work 
 
 is indispensable for the beginner. 
 
 Allen, W. F., History Topics for High Schools and Colleges. Heath & Co. Boston. 
 This is accompanied by excellent reference lists. 
 
 Boston Public Library, Handbook for Readers. 
 
 Gardiner, S. R., English History for Students, with a critical and bibliographical 
 account of authorities, by J. Bass Mullinger. New York. 1881. 
 
 Hardy, Geo. E., Five Hundred Books for the Young. A graded and annotated 
 list. New York. 1892. Scribner's Sons. Invaluable for selecting school 
 libraries. 50 cents. 
 
 Sonnenschein, William Swan, The Best Books. A reader's guide to the choice of 
 
 the best available books in every department of science, art, and literature, 
 
 with the dates of the first and last editions, and the price, size, and publisher's 
 
 name of each book. London. 1891. $12.00. 
 
 As a supplement to The Best Books, Sonnenschein has published A Reader's 
 
 Guide to Contemporary Literature. Putnam's. $7.50. 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OF HISTORY. 35 
 
 The United States Bureau of Education published in 1893 as whole number 200, a 
 Catalog of A. L. A. Library ; 5,000 volumes for a popular library, selected by 
 the American Library Association, and shown at the World's Columbian 
 Exposition. This will prove of use to those selecting the beginnings of a 
 library. For history, see pp. 114 and 402. 
 
 Maps and Atlases. Three sorts of maps are needed for use in 
 history, outline maps, to record the results of study; reference 
 maps, containing the data for study ; and illustrative maps, which 
 are diagrammatic in character, and which result from filling in 
 an outline to illustrate a particular point. Thus an outline map for 
 the thirteen English colonies should contain merely the tracing for 
 the coasts, and the chief rivers and mountains, of the Atlantic sea- 
 board ; a reference map for them should contain, besides, every 
 named settlement, mountain, road, whose site can be determined. 
 A number of illustrative maps might be made for the thirteen 
 colonies : for instance, a simple outline, colored red over the 
 territory possessed by the English, and marking in bold lines the 
 charter-boundaries, would illustrate their territorial extent ; another 
 outline might indicate with various colors the race-elements enter- 
 ing into the settlement ; another, the lines which settlement took 
 from the seaboard to the interior. The maps described below 
 are of all three kinds ; maps of special countries and periods are 
 not given, except for England. 
 
 Droysen, Allgemeiner Historischer Handatlas. 69 Karten, mit Text. Velhagen 
 & Klasing. Leipsic, Germany. 25 shillings. No index. Excellent for 
 scholars' reference. 
 
 Freeman, E. A., Historical Geography of Europe. 2 vols. Longmans. London. 
 31 shillings, sixpence. First volume text; second volume illustrative maps for 
 political changes. Covers whole period of history. 
 
 Gardiner, S. R., A School Atlas of English History. Longmans. 5 shillings. 
 
 Hart, Albert Bushnell, Epoch Maps, Illustrating American History. New York. 
 
 Longmans, Green, & Co. 1891. 50 cents. 
 
 This is the most scholarly American historical atlas that we have, and has been 
 made carefully from original sources, texts of grants, charters, government instruc- 
 tions, etc. Reference maps. 
 
3 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 Wherever the bibliographical note refers to a book or article 
 which has been examined, it is useful to add short notes, like the 
 following : 
 
 Important article. Covers early part of period only. Komantic. 
 Useless. 
 
 If the book is not in your library, it will be also useful to add 
 the name of the library where it can be found. For the keeping 
 of bibliographical notes the teacher will find it perhaps most satis- 
 factory to adopt the same system of library cards as that in vogue 
 in most of our libraries. These cards are of uniform size, and in 
 three colors, and can be obtained from the Library Bureau, 146 
 Franklin Street, Boston, or from their agents in New York, Chicago, 
 Philadelphia, or London. They come from $1.60 to $3.75 a thou- 
 sand, according to style. 
 
 The sample on opposite page will show their size and arrange- 
 ment when filled. 
 
 These should be arranged alphabetically, under topical division 
 cards, in a long box or drawer placed conveniently for reference, 
 or on adjustable sheets in a binder. These also can be bought, if 
 desired, of the Library Bureau. 
 
 The three other sorts of notes should be kept on sheets of paper 
 of some uniform size, or in a series of indexed books. In the former 
 case, the sheets of paper on a single topic should be kept together 
 in some sort of neat portfolio, and thus index themselves ; they 
 can be easily shifted, rearranged, and superseded to suit the devel- 
 opment of the subject in your own mind. Stiff sheets of manilla 
 paper once folded make very cheap and handy covers for these 
 notes. The following general rules for their handling may prove 
 useful : 
 
 1. Write only on one side of the paper. 
 
 2. Write only TH^one topic on one sheet. 
 
 3. Never copy or summarize anything without making an exact 
 
 bibliographical reference to the place where you found it. 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATUBB OF HISTORY. 
 
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40 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 4. Keep all your notes on one topic together. 
 
 5. Leave sufficient margins for additional jottings. 
 
 6. By underlined words or marginal headings call attention to 
 
 the contents of your page. 
 
 If you choose to keep a series of books instead of loose sheets in 
 covers, the above rules also apply ; but in order to carry out 4, it 
 will be necessary to have the note-book paged, and to run an index 
 of some sort. Nearly all those whose experience I have consulted 
 prefer the system of cards and loose sheets ; many make more or 
 less use of color to indicate different varieties or sets of notes. 
 But while there is great room for variation, yet the general rules 
 here laid down are followed by nearly all those who make a serious 
 business of history. 
 
 THE RELATION OF ADJUNCT SUBJECTS TO HISTORY, 
 NOTABLY BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 BIOGRAPHY is so easy and so tempting, and so frequent an 
 approach to history, that it becomes important to define its rela- 
 tion to our subject. The subject-matter of history is woven by 
 the interacting lives of multitudes of men and women. Its value 
 lies in the chance it gives us to see how these lives evolve into 
 freedom and power ; its sources are the products of human lives. 
 Then, do we not find in a concrete human life of a given epoch the 
 most significant source of all ? Through the biography of Colum- 
 ,bus do we not most easily realize the actual conditions of his epoch ? 
 Do we not through him experience the government of kings and 
 courts ? through him become acquainted with noble, monk, burgher, 
 and serf ? through him see on one side of the water monasteries, 
 cathedrals, mediaeval towns with narrow streets and strong-built 
 walls, and on the other side of the water primitive America ? 
 To all this varied mediaeval setting his life gives unity and mean- 
 ing. At that one point we enter alive into a living world. 
 
 This argument leads to the use of biography quite apart from 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OF HISTORY. 41 
 
 the less pertinent ones of ease and interest. But in this use of 
 biography the nature of history must be strictly kept in mind. 
 One should dwell on those biographies which are historical or 
 typical, and should emphasize in these biographies their historical 
 and typical side, passing lightly over the accidental or personal. 
 Biography becomes historical in its value where it touches the 
 common life, or contributes to the social progress of its time.' 
 Thus, the costume, the house, the ship, of Columbus, are historical 
 in their interest, because they are typical, and illustrate the mode 
 of life which he shared with his contemporaries. Again, all the 
 events leading up to the discovery of America are historical, be- 
 cause they show the evolution of an event of the highest impor- 
 tance to social progress. On the other hand, the portrait of 
 Columbus, certain relations with his family, certain details of his 
 death, are personal in their interest, are neither typical nor im- 
 portant from, our point of view. Even these matters are often 
 valuable from the teacher's point of view, because, before histor- 
 ical connections are formed, they serve as personal points of con- 
 tact between Columbus and the pupil, and become attachments for 
 the memory. 
 
 Selected in this way, typical lives, like that of Benvenuto Cel- 
 lini, or lives which lead and collect the thought and will of masses 
 of men, like that of Luther, are perhaps the most valuable of 
 all the connective tissues of history, embodying as they do in a 
 single living person like ourselves in many ways the civilization, 
 tendency, and product of a different age. But the fact that these 
 lives are valuable because they are embodiments or instruments of 
 great societies should never be forgotten. Columbus was depen- 
 dent on the sum of human discovery and invention which he 
 found already in existence, on the mariner's compass, on Tosca- 
 nelli's map, on the ship developed by the Levantine trade, on the 
 discovery of printing, which gave him the books of Ptolemy, 
 D'Ailly, and Marco Polo ; dependent, too, he was, on a mass of 
 human belief and support sufficient to fit his ships and man 
 
42 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 them. He was dependent on society, past and present, for his 
 means. To these means he applied an individual genius and char- 
 acter. Thus history works. The past gives a treasure of invention 
 and product ; the present gives a workman, to whom invention and 
 product are but stuff and tools. From this union of treasure 
 and genius, history springs. If the treasure is rich and manage- 
 able, if the man has insight and power, and thousands of human 
 spirits at his call, the future springs mightily forward, and we get 
 an age like that of the Renaissance. If the treasure is meagre and 
 difficult of access, or if men's minds are sluggish and unbelieving, 
 a spirit of equal power, like that of Roger Bacon or Rlenzi, may 
 move the world but little; yet only so does the world move at all 
 by the application of individuals to the mass of historic and 
 natural environment. From this point of view, again, biography, 
 4 in its relation to human progress, gives us the vital chain by which 
 generations take their place in the evolution of humanity. 
 
 These same principles apply in using geography, literature, and 
 art in their contact with history; those parts of these subjects 
 must be chosen which belong to social progress. The prologue of 
 the Canterbury Tales is historical, because it is a faithful contem- 
 porary recqrd of typical forms of the social organism. William 
 Blake's poetry, on the other hand, has little historical importance, 
 since it is the record of a solitary and peculiar spirit. I say 
 " little/' rather than " 110 ; " since in the final analysis every human 
 product, every human life, finds its place, and much of its expla- 
 nation, in the social organism in which it grows. But some lives are 
 caught in the main current, while others are swirled off into 
 eddies more or less accidental in their nature ; and we must 
 never lose sight of the main current if we are to understand the 
 stream of history, even in its eddies. 
 
 And geography ? We often forget one main fact in regard to 
 geography ; namely, that it is only a part of the environment of 
 society, and is important for history only in this relation. As en- 
 vironment, geography is vastly more important to primitive than 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OF HISTORY. 43 
 
 to cultivated man. The Mississippi River was of immense impor- 
 tance to the Indians ; they could not develop life far from its 
 shores. To us, with our abundant means of transportation and 
 our engineering power, it makes little difference whether the Mis- 
 sissippi runs north or south, east or west, a thousand miles away, 
 or close at hand ; to us the transcontinental railroads, part of our 
 artificial environment, are much more important items. Much of 
 what is called historical geography is accidental and unimportant. 
 It mattered little whether the treaty that closed the Crimean War 
 was signed at Paris or London, whether the battle which ended 
 Napoleon's career was fought at AVaterloo or Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 Geography should be insisted upon in history where it has been 
 a people-making power, as in Greece, or where it has become a 
 record of growth and achievement, as in the British Empire. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF METHOD DEDUCED FROM PRECEDING 
 
 STUDIES. 
 
 THE materials of history are peoples, their environment, and their 
 products; and since books are the great treasure-houses in which 
 peoples have stored the records of their past, the library becomes 
 the chief laboratory and workshop of the historian. But, after all, 
 the student must remember that even books are but second-hand 
 records, ill understood without living contact with men and things. 
 For men and things are records, too, and the truest record of the 
 progress of humanity. We can neither understand the man of the 
 past without knowing the man of to-day, nor the man of to-day 
 without knowing the man of the past. 
 
 Since sources are the material from which historical judgments 
 are formed, since their value depends solely on their nature as evi- 
 dence, and since no historical judgments are permanent or complete, 
 but only relative to circumstance and knowledge, we should not 
 only work with sources as much as possible, but train ourselves as 
 carefully as possible to a critical consideration of their nature as 
 
44 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 evidence, as well as to a critical estimate of judgments based upon 
 them. 
 
 He should enter the field of history who understands and cares 
 for people, who has a good sense of proportion and a judicial mind. 
 Equipped thus by nature, the historical student should add as train- 
 ing the study of the rules of evidence and the ability to handle the 
 tools of his trade ; namely, sources, authorities, bibliographies, li- 
 braries, the knowledge and practice of the use of books. He 
 must not only be able to handle these tools, but with them to ex- 
 tract the answers to special problems ; an art which he will only 
 acquire by following up some particular problem to its sources. 
 In this sort of work he can be trained in any good university semi- 
 nary ; but if he does the work he will get the training, whether in 
 or out of a university, and from such work he should never allow 
 himself to be parted. The teacher must never cease to be a stu- 
 dent. By study alone can he keep his mind alert, his interest alive, 
 his companionship with scholars unbroken. A teacher who is a 
 student at fifty should be taken as a matter of course, and not as 
 a phenomenon. 
 
 History is not much longer destined to sleep while little books 
 and dogmatic teachers tell weary souls what history was and did. 
 Presently she will wake and enter into life. Then shall we see 
 that the past lives in the present, and only there ; that into the pres- 
 ent we must look, and look again, until we can discern the forms, 
 ideas, institutions, of the past in their vital connections with the 
 present. And as science has pushed her way out of the narrow 
 text-book and the common schoolroom, with its dogmatic teacher, 
 into the world of phenomena, and into special laboratories fitted 
 with work-tables, collections, and apparatus, with specialist-students 
 always at hand to assist and direct, so history is destined to push 
 its way out of that same narrow text-book and common schoolroom, 
 with its dogmatic teacher, into the world of human nature, and 
 into special seminaries, fitted with maps, pictures, and books, with 
 a work-table for every student, the whole presided over by a special- 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY NATURE OF HISTORY. 45 
 
 1st who can guide the student to his sources, and show him how to 
 interpret them truly and critically. The college will realize this 
 first ; but in time the seminary is as surely destined as the labora- 
 tory to work its way in modified forms into every place where his- 
 tory is taught. One aim will take us surely to this ideal end ; 
 namely, the endeavor to see, to feel, the real thing. 
 
PART II. 
 
 METHOD AS DETEKMINED BY THE HISTOEIO SENSE, 
 
 THE HISTORIC SENSE AMONG PRIMITIVE PEOPLES. 
 
 STUDIES of method have been in the past mostly deductive in 
 character. This study is inductive, and seeks to find principles 
 by the observation and comparison of such facts as relate to the 
 historic sense among children and primitive peoples. 
 
 The historic sense, as we have seen, has its elements. It is born 
 wherever the human mind attains the conception of making a true 
 record of real and concerted human action, progressive through 
 time, and connected by cause and effect. Take the Sagas of the 
 North, Herodotus, the Books of the Kings, Mommsen's Rome, 
 take anything you will that men call history, and you will find this 
 to distinguish it from myth and story, that it is considered as 
 true ; this to mark it off from biography, that it relates to groups 
 of men ; this to separate it frcftn sociology, philosophy, or literature, 
 that actions are its theme, and these actions are related by 
 cause and effect acting through continuous time. Wherever, then, 
 in our, examination we are led toward the ideas of a true record, 
 of continuous time, of cause and effect, of the social unit, we are 
 led on toward the historic sense. 
 
 According to its desire and objects, this historic sense embodies 
 itself in different forms. If it wishes a record for the memory, it 
 appears as mnemonic or reference history, as lists of kings, priests, 
 in some sort of chronology, embodying what is striking or easily 
 
 46 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 47 
 
 memorable. If it wishes for glory or power, it appears as aesthetic 
 narrative or incident, choosing what is splendid, terrible, appealing 
 to the senses. If it wishes to instruct, or develop a certain type of 
 character, it becomes didactic history, choosing such material as 
 may serve the purpose of its ideal ; it becomes the history of the 
 good and bad. If it wishes to explain, to connect the social unit 
 with the world of being, it becomes philosophic or theologic history. 
 If it wishes to discover simply what is true, it becomes scientific. 
 
 We have hardly yet become conscious of the value and power 
 of the historic sense. Yet it is the sense by which we enter into 
 the life of universal man; by which we see him crunching his 
 half-burned bones in his hidden cave, see him sitting on thrones 
 of gold, exulting in slaughter, or by which we join the heroes of 
 Thermopylae. Wherever man has lived, we live and feel and know : 
 our own personality is widened by the personality of ages and races, 
 until we run back for thousands of years, and out into thousands 
 of souls ; and equipped with this wider personality, this new en- 
 vironment of intellectual and spiritual existence, we find ourselves 
 able more deftly and certainly to understand the present and fore- 
 see the future. Through the historic sense humanity becomes self- 
 conscious and self-directing. 
 
 How, then, does this precious historic sense arise, this self-con- 
 sciousness of humanity, this organ by which we seize on the past 
 and future of man ? How shall we discover its dim, psychologic 
 origins, its overgrown path ? We must look in two ways, to 
 primitive peoples and to children. 
 
 The Bushmen are reckoned as being in the lowest known stage 
 of human culture. Let us start there. The Bushmen do not count 
 above three, have no known traditions of origin, nor any known 
 myths. In them we find the example of a people with no historic 
 sense. Other Australian tribes rarely count beyond three, although 
 they can go as high as seven. They have no way of marking time ; 
 they have traditions of origin, and represent past events by dra- 
 matic dances. Here we find a general sense of past time, a notion of 
 
48 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 a swarm of men hanging together, while the dramatic dance gives 
 a primitive record of single events. In this case, then, we get all 
 the beginnings of the historic sense, in vague ideas of time, of a 
 social unit, of ^ause and effect, and of a record. 
 
 The Veddahs of India count as high as five, have a tradition of 
 origin, and worship their ancestors. Here, again, we meet the 
 notions of cause and effect, and of a social unit enduring through 
 time. This latter idea here enters the domain of faith ; an impor- 
 tant point to note later on. 
 
 Let us strike a little higher in the range of culture, among the 
 Polynesians. The Sandwich Islanders counted by tens, and recorded 
 time by knotted cords or quipos, divided the year into months by 
 the moon, worshipped their ancestors, deified national heroes, whose 
 relics they sacredly preserved, had dramatic dances and epic songs 
 representing incidents in the lives of their kings. Here we get the 
 idea of continuous time, marked into definite periods which are 
 recorded. The idea of the social unit has broadened from the tribe 
 to the nation ; the power to record appears in quipos, dances, and 
 fixed epics, all under sacred guardianship, in order to keep them 
 true and fixed from generation to generation. 
 
 Let us try the Dakotas. They have a decimal notation going as 
 high as a thousand. They have a calendar called a winter-count, 
 divided into winters, marked by events and running back a hundred 
 years, kept by pictographs on hides ; they divide the year itself 
 into moons ; they have dramatic dances and legends of origin. 
 Here we get all the beginnings of history ; but more strongly than 
 before, they appear to be bound together into a large unit of contin- 
 uous time. The Chippewas, Creeks, Iroquois, were about equally 
 advanced. 
 
 How is it with the Esquimaux ? They can count by tens into 
 thousands. They reckon time by winters and nights ; reckon the 
 time of night by the position of the constellations; keep count of 
 time by notched sticks ; have traditions running back for hundreds 
 of years; celebrate the heroic deeds of their ancestors by poems. 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 49 
 
 Here history has become conscious of itself, and the poem gives a 
 record fixed more or less firmly by its rhythmic nodes. 
 
 Let us rise to another stage of culture. The ancient Mexicans 
 counted on by fives indefinitely. They marked months and years 
 by astronomical observations, and recorded them by a highly devel- 
 oped calendar ; had a geographical knowledge as extensive as the 
 range of their merchants ; recorded past events by picture-writing, 
 which aided and fixed the oral tradition, while their calendar fur- 
 nished exact dates. They worshipped national heroes, while songs 
 and hymns embraced mythical legends. 
 
 The peoples of Yucatan, Guatemala, and Peru were similarly 
 advanced. . Among the Peruvians, ancestor and hero worship was 
 highly developed into a national cult, preserving fixed records of 
 origin, and of sacred events and persons. Such are the facts which 
 appear. What do they tell us of the evolution of history ? 
 
 The first attempt at historical narrative appears in the myths of 
 origin. In these, three elements of the historic sense appear, 
 the notion of past time, the notion of the social unit, and the notion 
 of cause and effect. The notion of time is obscure and vague. The 
 social unit appears in the conception of a tribe or people hanging 
 together by itself. The idea of cause and effect appears in the 
 attempt to explain this common swarm, who speak and look and 
 act alike, by reference to some common origin. In its form this 
 myth must be classed as philosophical. 
 
 Let us see how each of these ideas grows. The notion of the 
 social unit develops through ancestor worship into the worship of 
 national heroes or gods, who embody themselves as national and 
 divine rulers. This line of development embodies itself mostly in 
 aesthetic history, the history that adorns the individual by the glory 
 of his family, tribe, or nation ; that adorns him with an aureole of 
 antiquity, splendid deeds, heroic character. Didactic history also 
 springs from this same root, the sense of the social unit, and the 
 wish to keep it a unit bound together by the same ideals. Thus 
 Clavigero tells us of the ancient Mexicans : 
 
50 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 " We cannot express too strongly the care which parents and masters took 
 to instruct their children and pupils in the history of the nation. They made 
 them learn speeches and discourses which they could not express by the pen- 
 cil; they put the actions of their ancestors into verse, and taught them to sing 
 them. This tradition dispelled the doubts, and undid the ambiguity, which 
 paintings alone might have occasioned ; and by the assistance of these monu- 
 ments perpetuated the memory ot their heroes and of virtuous examples, their 
 mythology, their rites, their laws, and their customs." Clavigero, ii. 11. 
 
 The second notion which appears in the myth of origin, that of 
 cause and effect, cannot be claimed by history alone ; this attempt 
 to answer how and why is the mother of science as well, and along 
 this line finds a rich development in a whole range of nature myths, 
 developing into natural philosophy, and finally into natural science. 
 On the side of attempted history, it gives us all the myths of the 
 culture-heroes, stories of migrations, of the founding of towns, 
 of the making of laws ; a mass of pure fancy, most of it, historical 
 critics discover. Yet this is the most creative of the historic 
 notions ; the myths exploded, the old stories discredited, the 
 mind still asks how and why, and so develops, first, historical 
 philosophy, and at last, and painfully, historical science. 
 
 The notion of continuous time appears later than either of the 
 other historic notions, and seems more difficult to attain. The first 
 step toward it is taken by the power to count ; the next, by the 
 continuous observation of sun, moon, and stars, reaching over peri- 
 ods of not less than a year ; and the last, by the invention of some 
 way of recording time. This invention appears as a notched stick 
 or bone, a knotted cord, a winter-count kept by events. This last 
 form of the invention is of a special interest, as it is at the same 
 time a calendar and a chronicle, sure to lead, if uninterrupted, to 
 mnemonic and chronologic history. The Homeric catalogue of ships 
 in the second book of the Iliad is a familiar example of this form. 
 
 But how does that special element of the historic sense, the idea 
 of a truthful record, develop ? From three needs, the need of 
 recording property, the need of remembering ancestors, and the 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 51 
 
 need of conveying information. The notched stick may tell you 
 how many oxen you own, how many ancestors you reckon, or how 
 many enemies are on the warpath. In all these cases the record 
 may be false ; but its value depends on its being considered true, 
 since it forms a last court of appeal. Hence the pains that are 
 taken in early times to keep a record fixed, by giving it a permanent 
 material like bone or stone, by embodying it in rhythmical songs 
 and dances, or in conventionalized groups of knots or lines or pic- 
 tures. As a further development, these are placed under the guar- 
 dianship of priests and temples, where they may be protected by 
 superstitious awe. In every such attempt we recognize a sense of 
 truth, a sense of the value of evidence, of the preciousness of the 
 relic, the song, or tradition that was once contemporary. 
 
 All the elements on which history is founded appear, then, among 
 primitive peoples, the sense of the social unit, the power to 
 reason, the sense of continuous time, the invention of a true and 
 permanent record, as well as the sense of its value. 
 
 Let us test our conclusions by some special instances. Let us 
 study first the winter-count of the Dakotas. This was a chrono- 
 logical calendar, invented by the Dakota, Lone Dog, and consisted 
 of a buffalo-skin, on which were painted pictographs, each repre- 
 senting the most notable event of one year. About seventy years 
 were reckoned backward, and the events to mark them were chosen 
 by consultation with the oldest and most influential men of the 
 Dakotas. What material did they choose as worthy of remem- 
 brance ? Of the seventy years, nineteen are marked by biographic 
 details concerning warriors or unusual men of some sort ; twenty- 
 one by events that concern the tribe as a whole. Among these we 
 note two years of famine, two of epidemics, two of dancing and 
 feasting, a great eagle-catch, a great buffalo-catch, the building of a 
 great lodge. Thirty-three years are marked by inter-tribal wars ; 
 five by inter-tribal peace ; one by a pestilence striking many tribes 
 in common ; three by inter-tribal stealings. Three years are marked 
 by notable events among white men ; and these are specially note- 
 
50 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 " We cannot express too strongly the care which parents and masters took 
 to instruct their children and pupils in the history of the nation. They made 
 them learn speeches and discourses which they could not express by the pen- 
 cil ; they put the actions of their ancestors into verse, and taught them to sing 
 them. This tradition dispelled the doubts, and undid the ambiguity, which 
 paintings alone might have occasioned ; and by the assistance of these monu- 
 ments perpetuated the memory ot their heroes and of virtuous examples, their 
 mythology, their rites, their laws, and their customs." Clavigero, ii. 11. 
 
 The second notion which appears in the myth of origin, that of 
 cause and effect, cannot be claimed by history alone ; this attempt 
 to answer how and why is the mother of science as well, and along 
 this line finds a rich development in a whole range of nature myths, 
 developing into natural philosophy, and finally into natural science. 
 On the side of attempted history, it gives us all the myths of the 
 culture-heroes, stories of migrations, of the founding of towns, 
 of the making of laws ; a mass of pure fancy, most of it, historical 
 critics discover. Yet this is the most creative of the historic 
 notions ; the myths exploded, the old stories discredited, the 
 mind still asks how and why, and so develops, first, historical 
 philosophy, and at last, and painfully, historical science. 
 
 The notion of continuous time appears later than either of the 
 other historic notions, and seems more difficult to attain. The first 
 step toward it is taken by the power to count ; the next, by the 
 continuous observation of sun, moon, and stars, reaching over peri- 
 ods of not less than a year ; and the last, by the invention of some 
 way of recording time. This invention appears as a notched stick 
 or bone, a knotted cord, a winter-count kept by events. This last 
 form of the invention is of a special interest, as it is at the same 
 time a calendar and a chronicle, sure to lead, if uninterrupted, to 
 mnemonic and chronologic history. The Homeric catalogue of ships 
 in the second book of the Iliad is a familiar example of this form. 
 
 But how does that special element of the historic sense, the idea 
 of a truthful record, develop ? From three needs, the need of 
 recording property, the need of remembering ancestors, and the 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 51 
 
 need of conveying information. The notched stick may tell you 
 how many oxen you own, how many ancestors you reckon, or how 
 many enemies are on the warpath. In all these cases the record 
 may be false ; but its value depends on its being considered true, 
 since it forms a last court of appeal. Hence the pains that are 
 taken in early times to keep a record fixed, by giving it a permanent 
 material like bone or stone, by embodying it in rhythmical songs 
 and dances, or in conventionalized groups of knots or lines or pic- 
 tures. As a further development, these are placed under the guar- 
 dianship of priests and temples, where they may be protected by 
 superstitious awe. In every such attempt we recognize a sense of 
 truth, a sense of the value of evidence, of the preciousness of the 
 relic, the song, or tradition that was once contemporary. 
 
 All the elements on which history is founded appear, then, among 
 primitive peoples, the sense of the social unit, the power to 
 reason, the sense of continuous time, the invention of a true and 
 permanent record, as well as the sense of its value. 
 
 Let us test our conclusions by some special instances. Let us 
 study first the winter-count of the Dakotas. This was a chrono- 
 logical calendar, invented by the Dakota, Lone Dog, and consisted 
 of a buffalo-skin, on which were painted pictographs, each repre- 
 senting the most notable event of one year. About seventy years 
 were reckoned backward, and the events to mark them were chosen 
 by consultation with the oldest and most influential men of the 
 Dakotas. What material did they choose as worthy of remem- 
 brance ? Of the seventy years, nineteen are marked by biographic 
 details concerning warriors or unusual men of some sort ; twenty- 
 one by events that concern the tribe as a whole. Among these we 
 note two years of famine, two of epidemics, two of dancing and 
 feasting, a great eagle-catch, a great buffalo-catch, the building of a 
 great lodge. Thirty-three years are marked by inter-tribal wars ; 
 five by inter-tribal peace ; one by a pestilence striking many tribes 
 in common ; three by inter-tribal stealings. Three years are marked 
 by notable events among white men ; and these are specially note- 
 
54 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 about the chosen people of God as the historic unit or swarm. Bu 
 the interest is carried into Egypt and Assyria with the journey; 
 and wars of their heroes ; the narrative is carried on in chrono 
 logic order by the names and deeds of a genealogic succession o: 
 patriarchs, kings, and prophets ; it is kept true and unchanged bj 
 records on stone, skin, and brick, placed under the guardianshi] 
 of priests. It is mnemonic in its genealogies, sesthetic and didac 
 tic in its narrative. These narratives, then, display the furthes 
 development of primitive peoples in the field of history ; and fur 
 ther we will not look. 
 
 To sum up : First, the knowledge which we call history resti 
 upon the sense of cause and effect, the sense of the social unit 
 the sense of time, the sense of the value of a true record. Thes< 
 all appear early in vague forms, as in myths of origin ; and al 
 advance together, now this idea, now that, leading, but no one ides 
 allowed to get positively ahead. Of the four, the idea of time am 
 of the true record lag ; and yet we find even these well developec 
 among peoples as advanced as the Polynesians. 
 
 Second, the whole mass of primitive historic material is essen 
 tially personal and actual ; it commemorates the tribe, the hero, th< 
 ancestor, with which there is a personal connection. This inter 
 est widens as actions and events connect the tribe with the large 
 world. Thus the Indians become interested in the whites througl 
 their horses ; the Polynesians in the English through Cook ; th< 
 Jews in the Egyptians through Joseph. 
 
 Third, the mass of primitive history appears in three character 
 istic forms : in myths, explaining the reason why, a primitiv< 
 philosophy, often permeated with primitive theology ; in lists, usec 
 as a chronologic string to assist the memory; in sesthetic and di 
 dactic narratives, intended to dazzle, terrify, or instruct. A mosi 
 pointed instance of this last purpose is given by Gill (p. 336) 
 where he tells us that one of his deacons confessed to having pro 
 voked a fight " in order that his name might go down to posterity 
 with glory." 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 55 
 
 But how can scientific history evolve ? The notions on which it 
 is based, time, the social unit, cause and effect, the true record, 
 all exist among primitive peoples ; but how do they learn to 
 combine these notions ? 
 
 Mnemonic history cares only for memorable events, and pays 
 little attention to cause and effect ; didactic and philosophic his- 
 tory selects those events which are useful as examples for conduct, 
 or which illustrate a theory of history ; while aesthetic history 
 preserves only what is beautiful, glorious, and striking. Add to 
 that, that the three last forms are often protected by the whole 
 force of a faith and a social and moral system, and you have some 
 notion of the difficulty in the way of the development of scientific 
 history. A primitive people feels that the story must be beautiful 
 and worthy, the great man wholly admirable a divine ideal, 
 beyond question. The story thus becomes fixed and sacred, so 
 that it may be preserved in its pure and original form. But, alas ! 
 that original was not true ; and now, confirmed by the faith of gen- 
 erations, it is an almost impossible task to change, alter, or add in 
 behalf of what may prove to be the truth. How, then, does the 
 truth arrive ? Through war, trade, and those endless questions of 
 the critical mind, why and how. The sacred quiet of the tem- 
 ple is broken by conquest and the rude irruption of the unbeliev- 
 ing heathen. Once broken, the clashing of national myths and 
 legends arouses scepticism, the mother of truth, and history be- 
 comes broader in its outlook and truer to its records. The trader 
 goes afield with his wares and his traditions. He finds other tra- 
 ditions, upheld with as sacred energy as his own, perhaps more 
 reasonable on their face ; he doubts, he modifies, he questions his 
 facts, and so comes to have a sense of evidence which enables him 
 to distinguish between the false and the true. After the Greeks 
 trade to Egypt they begin to be historians ; the father of history 
 was a traveller living in the days of the Persian wars. 
 
 Trade and war are two ways which lead to historic criticism. 
 The development of natural science brings us into a third way. 
 
54 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 about the chosen people of God as the historic unit or swarm. But 
 the interest is carried into Egypt and Assyria with the journeys 
 and wars of their heroes ; the narrative is carried on in chrono- 
 logic order by the names and deeds of a genealogic succession of 
 patriarchs, kings, and prophets ; it is kept true and unchanged by 
 records on stone, skin, and brick, placed under the guardianship 
 of priests. It is mnemonic in its genealogies, aesthetic and didac- 
 tic in its narrative. These narratives, then, display the furthest 
 development of primitive peoples in the field of history ; and fur- 
 ther we will not look. 
 
 To sum up : First, the knowledge which we call history rests 
 upon the sense of cause and effect, the sense of the social unit, 
 the sense of time, the sense of the value of a true record. These 
 all appear early in vague forms, as in myths of origin; and all 
 advance together, now this idea, now that, leading, but no one idea 
 allowed to get positively ahead. Of the four, the idea of time and 
 of the true record lag ; and yet we find even these well developed 
 among peoples as advanced as the Polynesians. 
 
 Second, the whole mass of primitive historic material is essen- 
 tially personal and actual ; it commemorates the tribe, the hero, the 
 ancestor, with which there is a personal connection. This inter- 
 est widens as actions and events connect the tribe with the larger 
 world. Thus the Indians become interested in the whites through 
 their horses ; the Polynesians in the English through Cook ; the 
 Jews in the Egyptians through Joseph. 
 
 Third, the mass of primitive history appears in three character- 
 istic forms : in myths, explaining the reason why, a primitive 
 philosophy, often permeated with primitive theology ; in lists, used 
 as a chronologic string to assist the memory; in aesthetic and di- 
 dactic narratives, intended to dazzle, terrify, or instruct. A most 
 pointed instance of this last purpose is given by Gill (p. 336), 
 where he tells us that one of his deacons confessed to having pro- 
 voked a fight " in order that his name might go down to posterity 
 with glory.' 7 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 55 
 
 But how can scientific history evolve ? The notions on which it 
 is based, time, the social unit, cause and effect, the true record, 
 all exist among primitive peoples ; but how do they learn to 
 combine these notions ? 
 
 Mnemonic history cares only for memorable events, and pays 
 little attention to cause and effect ; didactic and philosophic his- 
 tory selects those events which are useful as examples for conduct, 
 or which illustrate a theory of history ; while aesthetic history 
 preserves only what is beautiful, glorious, and striking. Add to 
 that, that the three last forms are often protected by the whole 
 force of a faith and a social and moral system, and you have some 
 notion of the difficulty in the way of the development of scientific 
 history. A primitive people feels that the story must be beautiful 
 and worthy, the great man wholly admirable a divine ideal, 
 beyond question. The story thus becomes fixed and sacred, so 
 that it may be preserved in its pure and original form. But, alas ! 
 that original was not true ; and now, confirmed by the faith of gen- 
 erations, it is an almost impossible task to change, alter, or add in 
 behalf of what may prove to be the truth. How, then, does the 
 truth arrive ? Through war, trade, and those endless questions of 
 the critical mind, why and how. The sacred quiet of the tem- 
 ple is broken by conquest and the rude irruption of the unbeliev- 
 ing heathen. Once broken, the clashing of national myths and 
 legends arouses scepticism, the mother of truth, and history be- 
 comes broader in its outlook arid truer to its records. The trader 
 goes afield with his wares and his traditions. He finds other tra- 
 ditions, upheld with as sacred energy as his own, perhaps more 
 reasonable on their face ; he doubts, he modifies, he questions his 
 facts, and so comes to have a sense of evidence which enables him 
 to distinguish between the false and the true. After the Greeks 
 trade to Egypt they begin to be historians ; the father of history 
 was a traveller living in the days of the Persian wars. 
 
 Trade and war are two ways which lead to historic criticism. 
 The development of natural science brings us into a third way. 
 
56 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 From the beginning, men try to account for things, to give a reasi 
 If they do not know one, they invent one. If they iind huge fos 
 bones in the earth, they tell stories of giants; if they live in a la 
 called Hellas, they invent a first settler called Hellen; if tli 
 find themselves sowing wheat in a land where no wheat gro^ 
 they tell of the goddess who brought it from heaven and sho\\ 
 them how to sow it. These myths, half history and half science 
 their form, are a large part of tradition ; and as they are tested 
 long experience, by wider knowledge of geography, zoology, ph 
 ics, they break down, knowledge supplants belief, and men tr 
 more to law, to reason, to experience ; and so the scientific spi 
 comes to the aid of the sense of evidence, and both develop tl 
 sense of truth which is sooner or later applied to history. 
 
 SOURCES USED IN THIS STUDY. 
 
 Clavigero, Francesco S., The History of Mexico. Translated by Charles Cul 
 London, 1787. 2 vols. 
 
 Gill, Rev. W. W., From Darkness to Light in Polynesia. With illustrative c. 
 songs. London, 1894. 
 
 Mallery, Garrick, Picture-writing of the American Indians, in Tenth Ann 
 Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1888-1889. Washington, 1893. 
 
 Mallery, Garrick, Pictographs of the North American Indians. A prelimir 
 paper in Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1882-1883. W; 
 ington, 1886. 
 
 Chaillu, Paul du, The Viking Age. New York, 1889. 
 
 Reeves, Arthur Middleton, The Finding of Wineland the Good. London, 1890. 
 
 Spencer, Herbert, Descriptive Sociology ; or, groups of sociological facts classi 
 and arranged. London and New York, 1873, etc. Eight numbers publisl 
 Used here : No. 2, on Ancient Mexicans, etc. ; No. 3, on Types of Lowest Ra 
 etc. ; No. 4, on African Races ; No. 5, on Asiatic Races ; No. 6, on Ameri 
 Races. (Most valuable collection for general studies of this sort.) 
 
 Studies on this same subject are the following : 
 
 Hewitt, F. J. ; Historical Methods of Record before the Use of Written Charact 
 
 Westminster Review, January, 1895. 
 Spencer, Herbert, Professional Institutions, Popular Science Monthly, 1895. Cl 
 
 ter iv. in the August number, on the Orator, Poet, Actor, and Dramat 
 
 chapter v. in the September number, on the Biographer, Historian, and 
 
 terateur, contain much on primitive history. 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED UV THE HISTORIC SENSE. 57 
 
 Peet, Stephen D., Culture Heroes and Deified Kings, American Antiquarian, May, 
 1894. 
 
 Bancroft, H. H., The Native If aces of the Pacific States of North America. 5 vols. 
 New York, 1875. Vol. in., on Myths and Languages, and vol. v., on Primi- 
 tive History, are storehouses of material. 
 See, also, chapters in Tylor, Mallery, Brinton, Spencer, and other writers on 
 
 primitive man. 
 
 THE HISTORIC SENSE AMOXG CHILDREN". 
 
 What is true of the historic sense among children ? Thanks 
 to the kindness of the superintendents and teachers of Oakland, 
 Santa Rosa, Napa, and Santa Paula, Cal., we have been allowed the 
 opportunity to make tests of some 1,250 school children, in order 
 to answer this special inquiry. 
 
 The first test was given to discover what questions children would 
 spontaneously ask if given a story without a date, a place, a name, 
 or a moral. This test is supposed to throw light upon the compar- 
 ative curiosity of children as to personalities, time, cause and effect, 
 and truth. The story was the following, given verbatim, without 
 remark on the part of the teacher, the children writing down the 
 questions they would like to have answered : 
 
 There was a king who had a beautiful wife whom he dearly loved. But a 
 fair prince came and took her away to a far country. Then the king and all 
 his men went to fight the prince, who lived in a great city, all walled ahout 
 with stone. For many a day the king and his men tried in vain to enter it; 
 but at last, by a clever trick, some of his men got into the city, and burned 
 it to the ground : and so the king got his wife once more. 
 
 The following sample lists of questions, printed exactly as 
 worded and spelled, will give an idea of the sort of returns which 
 we obtained : 
 
 1. Average set from boy of eight. How did the king get his wife when 
 town was burning, wouldn't she get burnt ? Did the first king fight with 
 the second ? Why did the second king want wife. Did the First king go 
 strait after the other king as soon as he got the wife ? Did the king weep. 
 
58 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 2. Average set from girl of nine. Did the king have a beard ? How 
 many years was the king married when his wife was taken away ? What 
 kind of a dress did the wife wear when she was married ? What was the name 
 of the city that the prince lived in ? What was the name of the stone that was 
 put around the great city ? What was the name of the prince ? 
 
 3. Very complete set from girl of ten. What was the skillful trick done ? 
 What did the second king want with the first king's beautiful wife that he 
 took her to a far country ? Was the wife vain of her beauty ? Was she kind 
 and good to her husband ? How long did the king fight to get back his wife ? 
 Where was the wife when they were fighting ? Where was the first king when 
 the second king was stealing his wife ? Couldn't the king see the other taking 
 her away ? Or was he not strong enough to fight the king ? Or was it night ? 
 Was it night or daytime when the soldiers burned the city ? In what year 
 was this when they fought ? How long was it before he commenced to fight ? 
 Did the king cry or feel sorry when he found his wife taken away ? What 
 were the two kings names ? 
 
 4. Average sets from (a) boy of thirteen and (6) girl of fourteen : 
 
 (a) Where did the King live ? What was his name ? Over what country 
 did this King reign ? What was the Prince's name Where did he take the 
 King's wife ? What kind of a trick did the King's men make up to get into 
 the city ? Is this Story a fable ? What did the Prince take the King's wife 
 for? 
 
 (6) What right had this prince, to take the king's wife away ? For what 
 reason did this prince take her ? Who was this king ? Did the king's wife 
 want to go with the prince ? Wheat country did this king rule ? Where did 
 the prince take this Queen ? What was the prince's name ? How long were 
 the men and the king trying to get into the city ? What man discovered the 
 way into the city ? Why did they burn down the whole city ? How did the 
 king get his wife from the prince ? 
 
 On collating the answers, we found that they classified themselves 
 under the headings, who, where, how, why, result, personal detail 
 and feeling, general detail, ethics, time, number, truth. The results 
 of the classification appear in the accompanying charts 1-9. 
 
 On examining our catch, we note the following phenomena : 
 that the bulk of the questions appear under the rubrics of who, 
 where, and cause and effect; how, why, and result being massed 
 under this latter heading. Of the three, cause and effect lead in 
 point of interest j who comes second, and where follows as a close 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 59 
 
 X 
 
 gg Chart 1. Who 
 
 
 
 
 
 /' 
 
 , 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 \ v 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Age 8 
 
 Boys 
 Girls 
 
 10 11 12 13 
 Chart2. Where 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 Age 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 
 
60 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 Chart 3. .How 
 
 -Boys 
 Girls 
 
 Age 8 
 
 Boys 
 
 Girls 
 
 10 
 
 11 12 13 
 
 Chart4. Why 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 Age 8 
 
 10 11 12 13 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 61 
 p y S Chart 5. How Why 
 
 .Girls Result 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 \ 
 
 / 
 
 ^s.^ 
 
 X 
 
 N x 
 
 X 
 
 \ 
 
 s 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 Aqe 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 
 
 .Boys 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,' 
 
 
 
 
 x 
 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 '' 
 
 
 
 
 } 
 
 ~-^_^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
62 
 
 Boys 
 Girls 
 
 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 Chart 7. General detail 
 
 Age 8 9 
 
 Boys 
 
 Girls 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 Charts. Time 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 Age 8 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 63 
 
 .Boys 
 
 Chart 9. Truth of Narrative. 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 third. The interest in time is comparatively slight, but very steady. 
 The same is true as to the interest in the truth of the narrative. 
 The interest in general and personal detail is very much less than 
 one might previously expect. The main interest, after all, follows 
 the strong lines of action, and asks for a clear presentation of per- 
 sons, places, relations of cause and effect; to which may be added 
 , in due but slight proportions, time, ethics, expansive detail. 1 
 
 This point of interest has also been examined in our experi- 
 
 1 Since these tests were made, two new studies have been made which throw 
 a decided light upon the interest which children have, not only in persons and 
 places, but in names as such. Clara Vostrovsky, in a study on children's own 
 stories, and Agnes Holbrook, in a study on memories of things read, both found 
 names to be a very prominent element. This relates itself, again, to the interest 
 which primitive peoples have in names, and the great importance they attach 
 to them. This is a subject which will repay further investigation. The indica- 
 tions are at present that names should by all means be emphasized in our histor- 
 ical work. See Studies in Education, ed. by Earl Barnes, Stanford University, 
 Calif., July, Aug., 1896 
 
64 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL, METHOD. 
 
 mental school at Stanford in another way. A new story was told 
 the children containing all the above particulars, fully expanded. 
 After the lapse of a week or two the children were asked to re- 
 produce it. The result of this test was very confirmatory of 
 the test of the tale of Troy. A full account of it is given in her 
 special study on the historic memory of children, by Miss Anna 
 Kohler, p. 81. 
 
 Not only does this test reveal the comparative interest in histori- 
 cal elements, but it seems to indicate certain sex differences in 
 the matter of curiosity. Boys appear more curious in regard to 
 who, where, and how ; girls show a greater curiosity as to why ; 
 and the curiosity of boys, with this one exception, is not only 
 greater than that of girls, but culminates later. In regard to 
 matters of time, truth, and general detail, we cannot see any differ- 
 ence between the sexes. 
 
 In order to make a special test of the power of inference, the 
 children were asked to write down their answers to the following 
 question : 
 
 If you were shipwrecked on an island in the middle of the sea, and you 
 found in one corner of the island an old house of logs, and part of an old 
 wooden boat, with broken arrows in the bottom of it, what would these things 
 tell you ? 
 
 The following are typical examples of our returns : 
 
 1. Inferences of a boy of eight. If you was shipwrecked on a island you 
 would be in a fix. Were there Indains on the island, aiid Soldiers might have 
 been on to. 
 
 2. Inferences of girls of nine. (a) If I saw a house on the island it would 
 show me someone lived there; and if I saw a boat I would think it was a 
 fisherman's house, and the broken arrows lookes like the fisherman had been 
 whaling. (6) The old boat I would of taken away and form the house some 
 logs to fix the bottom of the boat and sailed to shore but if the tide was to high 
 I would of taken the logs of the house and build it higher so as not to let the 
 waves get over the boat and with the rest of the logs made oars. 
 
 3. Inferences of girl of ten (somewhat above average"). I should think 
 that there were Indians wrecked and that they built a log house for shelter until 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. G5 
 
 somebody might come to rescue them, and the boat was theirs; the arrows 
 were the only weapon they had to defend themselves. They might have lived 
 there a good many years and might have been rescued or they might have died 
 of starvation, before I had started with my crew of men and before I had been 
 wrecked. 
 
 4. Inferences of boy of eleven. The house of logs would tell me that some 
 civilized person lived there that knew how to build. The arrows would tell 
 me that they had no firearms and had to have some kind of a weapon. The 
 wooden boat would tell me that whoever lived there was not afraid of drowning 
 and that he had some means of fishing. All of them together would tell me 
 that some one else had been shipwrecked before that he had been gone a long 
 time by the decayed look. 
 
 5. Inferences of girls of twelve and thirteen. (a) I could tell by those 
 things that there have been people living on the island. I can tell by the logs, 
 trees have been growing there. I can tell by the boat there have been people 
 that go out in the boat and catch things. I can tell by the arrows they have 
 shot something. (6) If I were shipwrecked on an island in the middle of the 
 sea, and found a log house and part of an old wooden boat with broken arrows 
 in the bottom of it, I would think that many years ago, some one had been 
 cast on the island and built himself the house. For the presence of the arrows, 
 I would account by saying, that part of the crew of a ship had gone on an island, 
 for the purpose, as the captain thought, of gathering cocoanuts, but in 
 reality of planning how to take the ship. One man, suspecting their intentions, 
 waits till they have gone into the interior of the island, then springs into the 
 boat, reaches the island in safety; and, having found out the mutineers' plans, 
 is about to return secretly to the ship, when he is discovered, and pursued. He 
 reaches the water's edge, jumps into the boat, and escapes the flying arrows 
 shot after him. Darkness falling, he cannot determine the position of the 
 ship, and after being tossed fora few days on the waves, he reaches this island, 
 builds himself a house, and lives here until he is rescued by a passing ship. 
 
 0. Inferences of boys of twelve and thirteen. (a) If I was shipwrecked on 
 an island and saw these things they would tell me that some man many year's 
 ago was shipwrecked and had built a hut to live in. He built a boat and very 
 often went out for a sail. One day when he just pulling in his boat, a band of 
 indians sprang out from the bushes and sent a volly of arrows at him. The 
 only weapon he had was a revolver, running behind a tree beat them back. 
 A few days after thinking all was well he launched his boat, when, as suddenly 
 as before a much greater body rushed in on him. Before he had time to load 
 the Indians had sent hundreds of arrows, he fought bravely with sticks and 
 stones but it was no use and was soon killed and his body taken to another 
 island and eaten. (b) These things would tell me that somebody had lived 
 
66 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 there a long time ago. I think that they had been partly civilized because the 
 log house would be made by a civilized person. The arrows might and they 
 might not indicate that they were savage because people a long time ago used 
 arrows before guns were ever thought of. 
 
 7. Good critical inference of girl of fifteen. That somebody had been there 
 before me. That they must have been there a long while ago. That they 
 must have been warriors, or else contended with some people who were war- 
 riors. That they knew how to build houses out of logs, and must have had 
 something to cut the trees down with. That they knew how to build boats, 
 and had probably explored a little in one. That they must have known how 
 to cultivate the land and to raise grain or such things. 
 
 8. Good critical inference of boy of fifteen. It had been inhabited by 
 Indians. That they knew something about houses. That they knew how to 
 make boats. That the island had trees on it. That they had no fire arms. 
 That the people had tools. 
 
 9. Poor critical inference of girl of sixteen. I should at first think .some 
 other poor creature had shared my fate, but on further consideration, my 
 thoughts turn to pirates and Indians, and I wonder which of these three, 1 am 
 correct about. The last two are more probable, as a shipwrecked man would 
 have a hard time making these things, without tools, which would have been 
 impossible for him to bring with him. So I come to the conclusion that this 
 island was either inhabited, at one time or other, by pirates or Indians. 
 
 Every one of these papers would repay critical individual study ; 
 but looking at the mass, the inferences class themselves under 
 the following rubrics : 
 
 1. As to persons formerly on the island, shipwrecked, savage, civilized; 
 indefinite, special, and imaginary characters. 2. As to the house, built, 
 found. 3. As to the boat, built, used for hunting or fishing, used for pleas- 
 ure, brought people to shore. 4. As to the arrows, made, used in fighting or 
 in hunting. 5. As to the desertion of the island, on account of violent death, 
 departure, natural death. 6. As to time. 7. As to a personal relation to 
 objects. 8. Imaginary inferences. 9. Miscellaneous. 
 
 The accompanying chart, No. 10, shows the result of this test as 
 to the number of inferences made. It will be noted that this num- 
 ber rises decidedly at the ages of twelve for boys and thirteen for 
 girls, to an average which is kept fairly steady within the ages 
 examined, with a constant tendency to rise, which calls for further 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. G7 
 
 investigation within the higher ages. As to the character of infer- 
 ence. Chart 11 shows the number of legitimate inferences decidedly 
 pronounced at twelve for boys and thirteen for girls, and this devel- 
 opment continues fairly steady, with some superiority on the side 
 of boys, until the age of fifteen, thus supporting the curves showing 
 number of inferences. 
 
 .Boys 
 Girls 
 
 Chart 10. Number of Inferences 
 
 /Age >8 
 
 10 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 15 16 
 
 Aside from the common, legitimate inferences, such as, " Some 
 savage race must have lived here because there are arrows," there 
 are three classes of inferences which deserve special attention : The 
 personal, as in examples 1 and 2 b ; the imaginative, as in examples 
 5 b and 6 a ; the critical, as in examples 6 b, 7, and 8. 
 
 One may say that the personal inference, strongest with young 
 children, disappears, to all intents and purposes, by the age of ten 
 or eleven. Even at the age of eight it does not compare with the 
 impersonal and legitimate inferences. 
 
 r ^ y ^\ 
 
 UNIVERSITY) 
 
 
68 
 
 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 The appearance of imaginative inference, as we might expect, fol- 
 lows the general rule for inference, developing strongly at eleven 
 with boys, and steadily increasing with girls, with no marked vari- 
 ation. (See Chart 12.) 
 
 The cases of violent death may also be taken as inferences, 
 which show the presence and development of the fancy. The 
 
 Boys Chart 11. Legitimate and Critical Inference. 
 
 Girls 
 
 Legiti- 
 mate 
 
 Critical 
 
 Age 8 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 U 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 legitimate inference is that the people have disappeared in some 
 way : without further evidence, we cannot say how ; and if we do 
 gay how, as that they were killed by savages, or starved to death, 
 or drowned, it is by force of fancy. The series of figures for this 
 particular run as follows : 
 
 Age . 7 
 BOYS 
 GIRLS 
 
 8 
 
 
 75 
 
 33 
 
 JO 
 
 67 
 
 11 
 
 120 
 91 
 
 12 
 230 
 125 
 
 13 
 224 
 
 120 
 
 14 
 220 
 121 
 
 15 
 264 
 180 
 
 16 
 250 
 
 75 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 69 
 
 This series confirms the notion that the imagination and the 
 power of inference run parallel. Here, again, we find a series in- 
 creasing up to the age of sixteen more regularly with girls, more 
 irregularly in boys, and superior in the latter. 
 
 As for critical inferences, such as we find in examples 7 and 8, 
 their number is small ; and within the ages examined, the boys are 
 slightly but distinctly superior to the girls. (See Chart 11.) 
 
 Girls Chart 12 Imaginative Inference. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,-" 
 
 
 --''" 
 
 "~---.,.^ 
 
 Age 8 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 One day we tried this same test orally in the experimental school 
 at Stanford. I had expected interest from my former experience, 
 but I was greatly struck by the eagerness which the children dis- 
 played. It was as if I had opened a gate, and they ran wildly 
 out hither and thither, making new discoveries. They not only 
 wanted to tell me that there were people who lived there before, 
 but that they were civilized, that they fished and hunted, and went 
 
70 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 in boats on the sea. They also wanted to tell me how they might 
 have disappeared, by drowning, starvation, or slaughter. One 
 boy said that perhaps we could find their bones, and then we would 
 know how old they were. I assented to this, and happened to 
 speak of the teeth, whereupon another boy capped the climax by 
 saying quite soberly that perhaps they had false teeth. Their 
 minds simply ran from inference to inference without effort, but 
 with very little critical power. These children were mostly below 
 twelve years of age. 
 
 Summing up our evidence as to inference, then, the power is 
 present at the earliest age examined; it develops strongly into 
 legitimate and imaginative inference at the ages of twelve and thir- 
 teen. On the critical side the power is rare, but, when present, 
 clear and strong from the age of thirteen upward. 
 
 In general, I have noticed this point in regard to this study in 
 inference : that it varies more from school to school, in regard to 
 number and character of inferences, than any other test set ; from 
 which I take it that inference is subject to great modification by 
 teaching. 
 
 A study by Mr. M. A. Tucker of Stanford University on this 
 same subject shows that doubt begins to show itself about the age 
 of thirteen, which is another way of saying that criticism begins at 
 that age. His work also confirms the observation that personal 
 inference ceases about twelve or thirteen. 
 
 The sense of evidence was examined by the two following tests : 
 
 1. Write down something that happened before you were born, and that you 
 know is true, and tell me how you know it is true. 
 
 2. How do you know that such a man as George Washington ever lived ? 
 
 Even at the age of eight the children seem to show in hazy forms 
 all possible variations of the sense of evidence. The following ex- 
 amples will illustrate : 
 
 1. GirVs evidence from family hearsay or tradition. My mother's grand- 
 father got killed in the battle of waterlue. I know it is true because my 
 mothers mother told her when she was a little girl and she told me. 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. < 1 
 
 2. Girl's evidence from general hearsay. Because I have heard things 
 about things that he did. 
 
 3. GirVs evidence from a relic. I know that George Washington lived 
 because I saw a picture of him. 
 
 4. GirFs evidence from general reading. I know that George Washington 
 lived because it was in the geography. 
 
 5. Girl's evidence from logic. I know that my mother was in Berkeley 
 before I was. The reason I know it is because she is older than me. 
 
 6. Boy's evidence from logic. I know that such a man as George Wash- 
 ington lived because he fought bravely in many battels. And another reason 
 he never told a lie. 
 
 Another amusing example of this is the following : 
 
 I know that George Washington lived because he did not get killed by the 
 Indins. 
 
 7. Boy's evidence from eye-witness. This school was built before I was 
 born. Because I know a lady went to this school before I was born. 
 
 The following are typical answers from children above the age of 
 eight : 
 
 1. Evidence from the Bible by a girl of nine. Before I was born Adam 
 and Eve died, and thats why everybody else dies. The way I know it is true 
 because it tells in the Bible. 
 
 2. Evidence from an anniversary by a boy of ten. I know that George 
 Washington lived because if he dident they wouldnt celebrate his birthday. 
 
 3. Evidence from logic by a boy of ten. I know why such a man as 
 George Washington lived, because he was so good and true, and would sooner 
 die than stain his lips to tell a lie. 
 
 4. Evidence of a boy of ten drawn from reason, hearsay, and reading. 
 I know because there are so many books written about him, and I've heard 
 so much about him, and it must be true. 
 
 5. Evidence of boy of ten resting on family hearsay or tradition. My 
 mother had $> brothers fighting in North and South war, to get slaves free. 
 One of them got wounded and died but the other got out all write but he only 
 lived about one year after he came out of the war. I no that was true because 
 my mother told me. 
 
 6. Evidence from relics of boy of eleven. I know that such a man as 
 George Washington lived because I saw his knives and forks and all such 
 things that belonged to him at Smith's Sonian Instute in Washington D.C. 
 and he is the farther of our country because he at war wone it, 
 
72 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 Another example is the following : 
 
 I know that such a man as George Washington lived, because while coming 
 from the east we went past Mt. Yernon and we seen the place where he used 
 to live. 
 
 7. Evidence from history by a boy of eleven. I know that George Wash- 
 ington lived because it tells us in history about him and history tells the truth. 
 
 8. Evidence from relics of boy of twelve. I know that Indians inhabited 
 our land before I was borne because I have seen Indians skulls in wells and 
 have found old arrows in the hills. 
 
 9. Critical treatment of evidence by a boy of twelve. The Battle of Ticon- 
 derago, that happened before 1 w r as born, I don't know it is so only what 
 people have told me. I didn't see it so I had to believe what people tell me. 
 
 10. Evidence from relics of a girl of twelve. I know that the War of 
 1812 is true, because my grand-father fought in it, and before he died, he had 
 badges remaining, which he wore at the time. 
 
 11. Critical sense as to authorities expressed by a girl of thirteen. Before I 
 was born, the Acadians were banished from Acadia because our best historians 
 say they were. We know that Washington lived because our very best his- 
 tories say that he did. 
 
 12. Evidence from eye-witnesses and relics by a boy of thirteen. The war 
 of the Rebellion was fought before I was born. I know this to be a fact, 
 bacause I know several men who fought in it, and my father was a boy when 
 it was fought, and I have an old piece of Confederate money. 
 
 13. Critical treatment of evidence by a girl of fourteen. I know that such 
 a man as George Washington lived, since all histories, books of any foundation, 
 and all people agree upon that fact. This is the only proof that I have. 
 
 14. Evidence from relics by a girl of fourteen. A thing that happened 
 before I was born was the Civil War. I know it is true for my uncle was 
 in the war and we have a peace of the American flag and my uncle's badge 
 and we have the .papers to show also. 
 
 The whole mass of material was classified under the rubrics, and 
 gave the results seen in Charts 13, 14, 15. 
 
 The results of this study, then, appear to be the following : 
 
 1. That even at the age of eight the dependence on hearsay is not strikingly 
 greater than the dependence on eye-witnesses and relics; and that this depen- 
 dence constantly declines, being from the age of nine onward distinctly less 
 and less than the dependence on historic sources. 
 
 2. That the dependence on an expert authority, as shown in distinguishing 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 73 
 
 Boys 
 
 Girls Chart 13. Evidence from Hearsay 
 
 Age 8 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 .Boys 
 
 -Girls Chart 14. Evidence from Histories 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 /' 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Age 8 9 10 11 12 13 H 15 16 
 
74 
 
 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 Girls Chart 15. Evidence from Sources 
 
 
 Age 8 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 histories from other books, and in distinguishing the very best from inferior 
 histories, grows steadily and rapidly from the time of its first appearance. 
 
 3. That the dependence on original sources, such as eye-witnesses, relics, 
 documents, decidedly present at the earliest age examined, constantly develops 
 until, at the age of thirteen, it takes and keeps the lead over all other sorts of 
 evidence. 
 
 4. That there is no marked sex-difference in regard to the sense of evidence. 
 
 The sense of evidence was still more exactly examined by the 
 following test. The children were given the two following ac- 
 counts of the fall of Fort Sumter : 
 
 (a) The defence of Fort Sumter by Major Anderson was brave and stubborn. 
 The garrison was under fire for thirty-four hours, the quarters being entirely 
 burned, and the powder-magazine surrounded with a ring of fire; starvation, 
 too, was staring them in the face. Anderson therefore surrendered, saluting 
 his flag, as he marched out, with guns and drums and flying colors. 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 75 
 
 (fr) Despatch from Major Anderson to Washington: 
 
 SIR: Having defended Fort Sumter for thirty-four hours, until the quarters 
 were entirely burned, the main gates destroyed, the powder-magazine sur- 
 rounded by flames, and no provisions but pork remaining, I accepted terms of 
 evacuation offered by General Beauregard, and marched out of the fort with 
 colors flying and drums beating, saluting my flag with fifty guns. 
 
 ROBERT ANDERSON. 
 
 After writing down these two tests, the children were asked to 
 write further in answer to the questions : Which of these two ac- 
 counts is the better, and why ? Which of these two accounts would 
 you keep if you could only keep one, and why ? It was found that 
 children below the age of nine could do nothing with this test. The 
 following are fair samples of answers received above that age : 
 
 1. From boys of ten. (a) I think the second account is the best and 
 should be kept because it is the best. (6) I think it would be best to keep 
 Anderson's because he knew more about it and because he was in the war 
 and was the Captain. 
 
 2. From girls of eleven. (a) I think the first account is the best because 
 the men are the bravest. (6) I think that Robert Anserson's aought to be 
 kept. Because Anderson was the General and he would know more about it 
 so I think Anderson aought to be kept, (c) If these were the only two 
 accounts in the world, about this matter, I think I would like to keep "B", 
 because Major Anderson wrote it. I think it would give me pleasure, to think 
 that I own'd something, which one of the brave men who fought in battle, 
 wrote. 
 
 3. Critical answer of girl of twelve. I think the second one is the best, 
 because we don't know who wrote the first, and we know that Major Anderson, 
 who was in the battle, wrote the second. 
 
 The following answers show a discriminating critical sense be- 
 tween an original document and a narrative drawn from it : 
 
 1. From a boy of fourteen. I would keep Major Anderson's dispatch tell- 
 ing about it because it is the base upon which the other is obtained from. 
 
 2. From a girl of fifteen. The dispatch is also the very words of the gen- 
 eral himself while the other might contain incorrect statements, as it is simply 
 a discription written by some one no one knows whom. 
 
76 
 
 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 A boy of fifteen discusses the matter at length : 
 
 If these were the only accounts published, I should accept the last, because, 
 coming as it does, from one who had the best chance of knowing about every 
 part, it is more likely to be correct. Then again, it is, apparently, the official 
 report of Major Anderson to headquarters, and such a report is sure to be true. 
 And also, the well known fine character of Major Anderson would insure its 
 truthfulness, while, not knowing the authorship of the other, I do not know 
 
 Boys Chart 16. Comparative choice of 
 Girls Dispatch and Narrative 
 
 Choice 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .--***"" 
 
 
 
 
 of < 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dispatch 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Choice 
 
 X 
 X 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Narra- 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 'x. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tive 
 
 ^~~^ 
 
 \. 
 
 ^< 
 
 ' --^ 
 
 -^^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Age 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 whether to believe it or not, without additional testimony, while the latter 
 needs nothing but Major Anderson's word. 
 
 The development of the feeling for the relic is thus well expressed 
 by another boy of fifteen : 
 
 I like the dispatch from General Anderson to Washington, better than the 
 historian's story about it, for the reason that General Anderson put it in his 
 own words and was there and in danger of his life every moment and saw every- 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 77 
 
 thing and done everything, and the historian only heard about it. I would 
 rather hear a story from a man who has heen there and seen it all, that to 
 hear one from a man who has heard it, and then told me. 
 
 The results of this study are clearer and more satisfactory than 
 of any other, probably because the test is so simple that its results 
 are not clouded by obscuring sidelights on a variety of other sub- 
 
 Boys 
 Girls 
 
 Chart 17. Chosen for Style 
 
 Age 9 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 jects ; they appear graphically in Charts 16-19, and may be summed 
 up as follows : 
 
 1. We find very slight traces of sex-difference. 
 
 2. From the age of nine onward, original material is preferred to secondary. 
 
 3. This choice rests on three bases : 
 
 (a) The love for a relic, a visible connection with the past. 
 (6) The desire for a genuine piece of evidence. 
 
 (c) The critical sense of difference between an original and a de- 
 rived account. 
 
T8 
 
 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 The first two bases shade into each other imperceptibly; the 
 third is rare, but present in clear and definite form from the age of 
 thirteen upwards, being slightly superior in boys. Its rapid in- 
 crease upward indicates that it does not reach its limit within the 
 ages examined. This curve confirms those given in connection with 
 critical inference, as well as those resulting from the general test 
 on evidence. 
 
 Boys Chart 18, Dispatch chosen because Tmie, signed etc. 
 
 Girls 
 
 Age 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 15 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 The following questions of reminiscence and observation were 
 also sent out with the tests to be answered by adults : 
 
 1. Describe any plays which you have seen children play, into which his- 
 torical scenes, characters, or events entered ; as playing war, making a voyage 
 of discovery, playing George Washington, and the like. 
 
 2. Note any historical questions which you hear children ask : as, What 
 made the people come here to live ? How long have people lived here ? Note 
 any remarks or questions which show a total misconception of historical facts. 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 79** 
 
 3. Note any historical poems, pictures, stories which you have known a 
 child to produce naturally. What themes were chosen ? 
 
 4. Note any cases of the preservation of relics in a child's collection, and 
 what reason he gives for their preservation. Are they there as mere curiosi- 
 ties, or because he feels that they are old, and belong to a past time ? Notice 
 particularly what reasons are given for keeping Indian arrowheads, stamps, 
 coins. The contents of a child's scrapbook may also be investigated from 
 
 Chart 19. Telegram chosen because Source from which the Narrative 
 
 Boys is drawn (Note magnified scale] 
 
 Girls 
 
 Age 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 this point of view, to see what selections are historical. A list of such selec- 
 tions as are historical, together with the statement of their comparative num- 
 ber, and the age at which they were selected, would be very useful. 
 
 The material collected in answer to this request was very meagre, 
 but indicates three things : First, a clear discrimination on the part 
 of children between true and made-up stories, and a keen interest 
 as to which class any particular story belongs ; second, a tendency 
 
'80 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 among children to picture, poetize, or dramatize their history ; and 
 third, a keen interest on the part of children in historical relics. 
 This last observation is further confirmed by a reminiscent study 
 on children's collections made here at Stanford University by Earl 
 Barnes. Mrs. Dubois of Oakland, and Mrs. Hattie Mason Willard 
 of Pasadena, have contributed to our collections interesting poems 
 written by children under twelve years of age. Mrs. Willard and 
 Miss Wilmattie Porter have given us some original historical pic- 
 tures by children of the same age ; while the tendency to dramatize 
 history appears in numerous historical plays of the Indians, Brit- 
 ishers, and the like. The following charming instance is given in 
 Mrs. Frances Hodgson Burnett's story of The One I knew the Best 
 of All: - 
 
 "What tragic historical adventures the Doll passed through in these days ; 
 how she was crowned, discrowned, sentenced, and beheaded, and what horror 
 the Nursery felt of wretched, unloved, heretic-burning, Bloody Mary! And 
 through these tragedies the Nursery Sofa almost invariably accompanied her 
 as palfrey, scaffold, dungeon, or barge from which she ' stepped to proudly, 
 sadly, pass the Traitors' Gate.' " Scribner's Monthly, January, 1893, p. 77. 
 
 Of the interest in relics Miss Alma Patterson contributes the 
 following instances : 
 
 1. The children of the second and third grades, seven to ten years old, 
 evinced a lively interest in the old cannon which had been used in taking San 
 Diego from the Mexicans. Several told me of the fortifications on Mission 
 Heights, of seeing the cannon half-buried in earth, and what they had heard 
 of the Mexican life at Old Town at the time of the siege. They asked who 
 took Old Town, how many ships he had, where he landed, and how he reached 
 the town, and if any one was killed. 
 
 2. In response to a request for flags for a special occasion, a little boy of 
 eight years brought me a flag which his father had carried through the Civil 
 War. He recounted the battles in chronological order, told me a little of the 
 geography, and related an incident which I knew to be true. He seemed much 
 interested in the flag, and very proud of the fact that his father had held it 
 when one of the bullet-holes was made in it. The class of forty boys and girls, 
 seven to nine years old, asked questions eagerly about the flag; " Where did it 
 come from ? " " What makes it so dirty ? " " What made the holes in it ? " 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 81 
 
 "Were they real bullets out of a gun ?" "What did they want to shoot at 
 the flag for ? " "Do you think it was right to have a war ? " One boy said 
 afterward, "Couldn't it tell a lot of stories, though!" The children seemed 
 to feel still more interest after I had given them a brief account of it, and sev- 
 eral lingered to see it more closely, and one to " touch the old flag." 
 
 Th'e results of this study indicate 
 
 1. A main interest in persons and actions, causes and results. 
 
 2. A good power of inference developing at about the age of thirteen. 
 
 3. A strong interest in original sources, developing into a conscious sense 
 of evidence about the age of thirteen. 
 
 Conclusions as to method are summed up on pp. 100-105. 
 
 SPECIAL STUDY ON THE HISTORIC MEMORY OF CHILDREN. 
 
 BY 
 ANNA KOHLER. 
 
 FOR a year past a little class in historj^ has been taught in the 
 Experimental School connected with the Department of Education 
 in Stanford University under the direction of Mary Sheldon Barnes. 
 Tests have been given from time to time to show the progress 
 of the children and the success of the methods employed. One of 
 these is here presented as illustrating a method of investigation, 
 u nd as throwing some light on the question as to what elements 
 in an historical story most strongly appeal to children and take 
 most lasting hold upon their memories. 
 
 The story of Charlemagne was first carefully written by the 
 teacher, and then told to the class on two successive days, taking 
 a half-hour each day. After an interval of a week, during which 
 time no mention was made in the class of Charlemagne, the chil- 
 dren were asked to reproduce his story. All the time desired was 
 given to them, the class finishing in an hour and a half. Five 
 children took the test, three boys and two girls. It is to be noted 
 that this test differs from those before reported on, in being given 
 to a small number of children, each well known to the teacher. 
 
82 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 The following is the story as given to the children : 
 All of the country called France, and part of Germany and 
 Switzerland, was ruled over by a people called Franks. In the 
 year 750 the king of this country died, and left the empire to be 
 divided between his two sons, Carloman and Charlemagne. Charle- 
 magne, of whom we are to learn the most, was at this time thirty 
 years old, and seven times as tall as his foot was long. He was 
 a very strong man, with light hair and beard, and a laughing ex- 
 pression on his face. He wore a linen shirt and trousers, shoes 
 and stockings, and over his linen suit a tunic trimmed with silk. 
 On cold days he wore an extra coat made out of the skins of otters, 
 and then over all this he wore a blue cloak with -his sword at his 
 belt. This was his everyday dress for of course on festive days 
 he w r ould dress better, with jewels and more silk. When the 
 country was divided, he received the part which is now Germany, 
 and part of north-eastern France ; and Carloman, his brother, had 
 the land in the north and south of France. The western part of 
 France was divided equally between them ; but there were some 
 people there who did not like to be ruled over at all, so they re- 
 volted, and Charlemagne had to march to the western part of 
 France with an army to make them behave. Carloman went too, 
 as part was his land ; but he got mad on the way down, and went 
 back, leaving Charlemagne to fight all alone. He quieted the 
 people, and soon after this his brother died ; and the brother's wife, 
 who thought Charlemagne did not like her, took her two little sons 
 and went into Italy to live. The people now made Charlemagne 
 king over all the empire 4 of France. About this time Charlemagne 
 promised to marry a princess who lived in the northern part of 
 Italy ; but he changed his mind, and said he wouldn't marry her. 
 This made the people in northern Italy, or Lombardy as the place 
 was called, very angry that their princess should be treated thus ; 
 and they asked the Pope of Kome, Hadrian, who was the head 
 of everything, to put one of the sons of Carloman back on the 
 throne of his father, and take it away from Charlemagne. But 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE, 83 
 
 Pope Hadrian would not do this, and the Lombards marched down 
 and began to attack Rome. The Pope had to send for Charle- 
 magne to come to help him ; and with an army Charlemagne 
 marched over the Alps, and conquered the Lombards, making many 
 of them prisoners. Charlemagne was now king over Italy as well 
 as France, and this added much to his power. To the Pope, Char- 
 lemagne gave some cities and presents, and made him think that 
 he had more power than he really had. 
 
 Charlemagne was a Christian, and built a beautiful church at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle,.with doors of gold and silver, marble and granite 
 pillars, and he hired a great many men to do this work for him. 
 There were so many things to do in this big empire that Charle- 
 magne could not stay at one place to see that things were going 
 on as he wished, so he had to give the work into the hands of 
 some one else. The building of the church he left to a monk, who 
 was to pay the workmen, and furnish the gold and silver needed. 
 But this monk discharged a lot of the men, and kept the money, 
 and piled it in chests until he had a big fortune. One day the 
 house where he kept all his wealth caught on fire, and he came 
 running in to save some of his chests. He was not satisfied with 
 taking out one, but piled three on his shoulders, and on going out 
 a beam of the burning house fell upon him and killed him ; so Char- 
 lemagne got all of his gold and silver again. Another time Charle- 
 magne wanted a beautiful bell for this church, and one man told 
 him he would make the most beautiful bell in the world if he 
 would give him silver enough with which to make it. Charle- 
 magne, not caring for money, gave the man all he needed to make 
 a fine silver bell. But the man used only a little of the silver, and 
 made the bell mostly of copper. When it was finished, Charle- 
 magne was called to sound it ; and, as it sounded very well, the 
 men raised it up in the belfry, and one man tried to ring it by 
 pulling the rope. He couldn't make the bell ring, and many other 
 men tried : no one could make it sound, so the man who made the 
 bell was sent for; and when he pulled the rope the bell fell down 
 
84 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 on his head and killed him. Then Charlemagne found all of the 
 silver that had been stolen. Charlemagne furnished the church 
 with beautiful things, and no one was allowed to work around the 
 church with poor clothes on ; for all were furnished with good 
 things to wear. 
 
 In the part of Germany bordering on eastern France lived the 
 Saxons, and they were not Christians. They made raids upon the 
 Franks, and tormented them so, that for thirty years Charlemagne 
 was fighting them. Finally they agreed to become Christians if 
 Charlemagne would not fight any more. 
 
 In the year 800 Charlemagne went to Rome to pray in the 
 great church of St. Peter's ; and, when he entered the church, 
 Pope Leo, who was the Pope after Pope Hadrian, placed a crown 
 on his head, and all the people shouted, " Long live Charles the 
 Great, crowned Emperor Augustus of Rome." 
 
 When he was seventy years old he died, and was buried in a 
 tomb in the beautiful church at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a gilded tower 
 was erected over his tomb. 
 
 This story consists of nine general groups of detail : 
 
 1. Personal description of Charlemagne. 
 
 2. Division of empire between him and Carloman. 
 
 3. Revolt of people, death of Carloman, and sole reign of Charlemagne. 
 
 4. Charlemagne's relations with Italy. 
 
 5. Chapel of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 6. Story of bell. 
 
 7. Relations of Saxons to the Franks. 
 
 8. Crowning of Charlemagne. 
 
 9. Charlemagne's death and burial. 
 
 These groups, analyzed and collated with the reproductions of the 
 children, are to be seen in the accompanying table of groups. The 
 total number of details contained in these nine groups, and col- 
 lated from the original story, is one hundred and thirty-two. Fort}*- 
 nine of these is the highest number remembered by any one child, 
 and nineteen the lowest number, thirty-three being the average ; 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 85 
 
 Biny apnui 
 
 suos oai) pun 9/1 
 
 rii-Du of szoB a/z^i 
 
 
 
 nq uoio 
 
 UOWWOQ 
 
 fund s^u 
 
 3j.id.wg; 
 /o itoisiai(j 
 
 -SSZJ.P wnsw 
 
 sjiv?9p n'ssaup flvp fLiaag 
 
 UlVff 
 
 31UVX 
 
 
 vil 
 
86 
 
 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 aefqj of ^uasaud 
 
 uosiad qooj; 
 
 spuvquwj 
 
 9WO& 
 
 vqwoi 
 
 SS90UUJ 
 
 Jo 
 
 putm 
 
 8,9 UB 
 
 tuinq asnojf 
 
 quom o). 
 
 SUV22JJ 
 
 -h 
 
 ld 
 
 Re 
 
 le 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 87 
 
 9UBVIU.31J.VQ 
 
 UVJff 
 
 umu oj d,ivf) 
 
 9t/ pins unj\[ 
 
 ld 
 
 il 
 
 GO 
 
 HV fo 
 
 sail Bucrj 
 
 P3UOIOJ.Q 
 
 III 03? 
 
 008 
 
 aiuoodq of ps3j.By 
 
88 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 sixteen details (marked with a -f-) were remembered incorrectly, 
 and six new ones were added. 
 
 In the first group there are fifteen items, as given in the table. 
 Comparing these with the details remembered, we find that all the 
 personal details are omitted by every child except one, who notes 
 the age. All remembered the name Charlemagne ; four remem- 
 bered the father ; three remembered his death ; three remembered 
 the time ; two remembered the place ; one remembered Carloman, 
 but only as brother of Charlemagne, " Charles had a brother ; 
 they became kings after their father died." 
 
 The second group contains five details relating to the division of 
 the empire. All but one recall the items, and two errors occur. 
 
 The revolt and the establishment of Charlemagne's rule is the 
 third group, and contains twelve details. Only three make an 
 attempt to recall these details, four of which are given incorrectly 
 by Reginald, who, in addition to his mistakes, puts the whole 
 group at the end of his story. 
 
 The fourth group, in regard to Charlemagne's relations to Lom- 
 bardy, and his becoming King of Italy, containing in all twenty 
 details, was not dealt with connectedly by any one ; and, of the 
 sum of seven details remembered collectively, two were errors. 
 Melvin and Reginald confused this group with the crowning of 
 Charlemagne ; and Helen made one error in regard to the Lom- 
 bards attacking Rome. 
 
 Twenty-eight items made up the fifth group, the building of 
 the chapel at Aix-la-Chapelle. All but one reproduced this group ; 
 and the details remembered by the children stand as follows : 
 
 1. Charlemagne built a chapel. 
 
 2. Put man in charge. 
 
 3. Gave him money to pay the men. 
 
 4. Man put the money in a house. 
 
 5. House burned. 
 
 6. Saved three chests. 
 
 7. Beam fell. 
 
 8. Killed man. 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 80 
 
 In the sixth group, giving the story of the bell, the details are 
 twenty-five in number, of which from twelve to sixteen were 
 remembered, as seen in the table. 
 
 It will be noted that the mass of detail omitted in this group is 
 connected with the description of the chapel. This reminds us of 
 the omission of the personal description of Charlemagne, and is 
 further emphasized by a previous study on Alfred the Great, where 
 all detailed descriptions of Alfred and the peasant's hut were 
 omitted. 
 
 The next group, relating to the Saxons, was omitted by all. 
 
 The eighth group, relating to the crowning of Charlemagne, 
 although it must be said that it consists mainly of dramatic action, 
 is but lightly touched by two. 
 
 The ninth group, in regard to the death and burial, is entirely 
 omitted. 
 
 We can conclude from the facts revealed by the above study : 
 
 1. Children remember that which is necessary to the progress of 
 an action, rather than word-pictures descriptive of conditions. Thus, 
 details connected with personal appearance seem to make a slight 
 impression on children. Has this any relation to their contentment 
 with rude drawings of people ? 
 
 2. It will be seen by the accompanying chart that the children 
 remembered items by groups ; the details were not related to the 
 story as a whole, but to the groups in which they occurred. This 
 is seen again in the fact that whole groups are omitted. As with 
 details in the groups, so with the groups, those containing the most 
 action are the best remembered. 
 
 3. The chart also shows that what the children remember at all 
 they remember quite accurately. 
 
 4. In examining the sort of details remembered, the chart indi- 
 cates that those are best remembered which are connected with the 
 objects or actions within the children's experience. A further test 
 might well be made of this point. 
 
 In turning from the general to the particular study of the chil- 
 
AGE. 
 
 DUMBER 
 DETAILS 
 
 DETAILS 
 INCORRECTLY 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 
 REMEMBERED. 
 
 REMEMBERED. 
 
 ADDED. 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 26 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 49 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 40 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 38 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 90 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 dren, we note first the number of details given by each child. The 
 record stands as follows : 
 
 Reginald, 
 
 Anita, 
 
 Helen, 
 
 Melvin, 
 
 Darwin, 
 
 Reginald shows the weakest memory, remembering only nineteen 
 details ; he also confuses this story with that of Haroun-al-Raschid, 
 given some days before. He puts the division of the empire at the 
 end of his story, showing he had not a clear idea of the sequence 
 of events ; and he begins the story, " There was once a King who 
 had two sons," instead of using the original form, thus throwing 
 the story at once into the natural personal form it assumes in his 
 memory. 
 
 Anita remembers twenty-six details, of which one is a mistake. 
 She changes " once he wanted a fine bell made " to the more dra- 
 matic form, " Charlemagne told the man to make a fine bell." 
 She makes an inference when mention is made in regard to the 
 bell being all right, saying, " it rang clear and sweet " when they 
 sounded it. She particularizes the man who made the bell as a 
 monk. In one instance she adds a definite time-limitation, " one 
 Sunday," and adds as a moral, "so some bad people get the worst 
 of it." 
 
 Darwin makes five errors in the thirty-nine details remembered. 
 He and Helen speak of the man putting the silver into a house, 
 and complete the description, Helen by " locking the house," and 
 Darwin by making it a " little house.' 7 Darwin inserts the word 
 dishonest before monk ; he makes the doors of the chapel of tin in- 
 stead of gold and silver. In. speaking of the man who made the 
 bell, Darwin, as well as Anita, describes him particularly as a 
 t( monk." Darwin adds in reference to the bell, u the man wanted 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 91 
 
 to keep the silver ; " also " at one time they couldn't get the bell 
 to ring." He, as well as the others, shows a tendency towards 
 dramatic action, as seen in such expressions as, " He thought to 
 himself," " Hurrah for Charlemagne ! " 
 
 Melvin is next to Helen in the number of details remembered, 
 recalling forty. Of these, two are errors : he makes the doors 
 of the chapel of copper instead of gold and silver ; and the bell 'of 
 brass instead of copper and silver. In order to explain matters, 
 he uses such turns of phrase as, " Charlemagne had to go down 
 to. fight," "the man did not want to put all the gold in the chapel," 
 " People liked Charlemagne," " the man thought he would keep the 
 silver." He further defines the relationship of the parties by say- 
 ing, " he gave the man who was at the head of his workmen a lot 
 of silver." 
 
 Helen remembers the highest number of details. She has a 
 tendency to note the element of time, as seen in the phrases, " after 
 a while," " came right away," " once." As a reason for discharging 
 his assistants in the chapel story, she inserts, " the man thought he 
 would like the gold and silver ; " in the story of the bell, again, she 
 says, " the man thought he would keep the bell." She gives as a 
 cause of Carloman's return, " Carloman got afraid." Helen calls 
 the man who pulled the rope the "sexton," and adds, "servants 
 to bring the man who made the bell to Charlemagne." Further 
 additions are the expressions, "So he came and said, ' Oh it's all 
 right,'" and, "'the man pulled hard." Helen not only remembers 
 most, but most accurately. In the division of the empire she states 
 definitely the share of each, and where an exact term is not given 
 she is inclined to supply one ; as, " when Carloman was half there." 
 She also shows the greatest desire for understanding the causation 
 of events. This, together with the facts noted above, indicate that 
 Helen is the child Avith the best natural historic sense. 
 
 The value of these special studies of individual children lies in 
 learning how each of them is related to the general statements 
 as to average, so that we may know how to apply our generalities 
 
92 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 of method to each particular case. Thus, we learn that in the 
 case of Helen we have little to do save in the way of furnishing 
 opportunity ; with Reginald, we will insist not on his remember- 
 ing much, but on his remembering well, and will take particular 
 pains to see that he understands what he reads or is told in this 
 subject. 
 
 This study of the individual children has also revealed two or 
 three other general points : one is, a tendency toward dramatic 
 expression ; another, that where reasons are not given, the children 
 seek to supply the deficiency ; and possibly a fondness on the part 
 of children for definite detail is seen in such changes as that of 
 man to " monk " or " sexton.-' 7 
 
 The points as to the historical memory developed by this study 
 as a whole are : 
 
 The number of details which a child can carry away from a con- 
 nected narrative is not much above fifty, and their number should 
 be accordingly limited. In the story of Charlemagne, as at first 
 told, nearly three times as many details were given as could be 
 remembered ; the name, however, was not forgotten. 
 
 Be careful to tell the story accurately the first time, since the 
 memory of the children is remarkably exact in the field covered 
 by it. 
 
 Mass the details in groups about central characters or incidents, 
 since the memory holds them in these connected units. 
 
 Let action lead the story, which should be dominated by some 
 leading character or event ; omit detailed descriptions of buildings, 
 dress, and persons which are aside from the main line of the story. 
 
 Make the connections of cause and effect, since the minds of the 
 children demand this sort of connection, and this connection will 
 undoubtedly assist the memory. 
 
 Dramatize the form wherever possible, since the children natu- 
 rally remember the action in this form. 
 
 The original story, modified by these criticisms, stands some- 
 thing as follows : 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 
 
 In the year 750 there was a king who ruled over the countries we Know 
 now as France, Switzerland, and part of Germany. He had two sons, called 
 Charlemagne and Carloman. Before he died he called these two sons to him, 
 and said, " Carloman, you are to have the northern and southern parts of 
 France for yours; and, Charlemagne, you are to have all the eastern kingdom. 
 I leave the western part to both of you; " and then he died. 
 
 The people who lived in the western part of France did not like to be ruled 
 over by these young kings, so they wouldn't do anything they were told to do; 
 and Charlemagne and Carloman inarched there with some soldiers to make 
 them behave. Soon after this Carloman died; and his wife, thinking Charle- 
 magne did not like her, took her two sons and went to live in Italy. Then 
 the people said, "We will make Charlemagne king over all the country." 
 After a while Charlemagne built a beautiful chapel at Aix-la-Chapelle, and, 
 having more work to do than he could himself attend to, he put the building 
 in charge of a monk. He gave the monk money to buy things for the work- 
 men to use, and to pay the men when they were through. But the monk 
 piled the money in some chests, and put it away in a house for himself, 
 instead of using it as Charlemagne told him. One day the house where the 
 chests were caught on fire, and the monk ran to save the money. He caught 
 up one chest, but that was not enough; a second and a third one he took, 
 and, piling them all on his sjioulders, was just going out when a beam of the 
 burning house fell upon him and killed him. 
 
 It was for this same chapel that Charlemagne wanted a bell. A man came 
 to him, and said, "I can make you the finest bell in the world, King Charle-' 
 magne, if you will give me silver enough to make it of." This pleased Charle- 
 magne. He wanted the finest bell in the world, and he had plenty of silver, 
 so he said, " Here is silver. Make me a fine bell, and use all you want." 
 The man went to work on the bell ; but he used copper, and made only the 
 outside of silver. When it was finished it looked like silver, and when Char- 
 lemagne sounded it no one would have guessed it was not silver. The bell 
 was raised to the belfry, and a man pulled the rope to ring it. But the bell 
 would not ring; another man tried, and still another, and finally a lot of men 
 pulled the rope, but not a sound came from the beautiful bell. What was to 
 be done? " Send for the man who made the bell," suggested some one; so 
 off they went, and brought back the man. He stepped up to the rope, and 
 said, "This bell is all right; I'll make it ring," and with this he pulled very 
 hard, and down came the bell with a great crash right on top of his head, and 
 killed him. 
 
 In the year 800 Charlemagne went to Rome to pray in the church of St. 
 Peter's. While he was in church Pope Leo III. put a crown on his head, and 
 the people about all shouted, " Long live Charles the Great, crowned Emperor 
 Augustus of Rome." 
 
94 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 [The following questions in connection with the historic memory 
 present themselves as matter for further investigation : 
 
 Are the errors and additions of children's reproductions in the 
 direction of vagueness or definiteness ? That is, are such changes 
 and errors as the following typical : " bell of tin ; " " monk " in- 
 stead of "man;" the addition of a sexton to pull the bell, and a 
 servant to call the man ? 
 
 Do children remember best what is told them last, or what is told 
 them first, in a story ? or simply what is best connected ? 
 
 What further modifications will the last form of the story of 
 Charlemagne receive in some school where it is entirely new ? 
 M. S. B.] 
 
 SPECIAL STUDY ON CHILDREN'S SENSE OF HISTORICAL 
 
 TIME. 
 
 BY ALMA PATTERSON. 
 
 ONE of our advanced students, Miss Alma Patterson, has during 
 the past year examined the general subject of the time-sense as a 
 special study in the department of education; and with her permis- 
 sion I publish here that part of her work which bears particularly 
 on the sense of historical time. In order to test this, the question 
 "What does 1895 mean?" was sent to teachers of California 
 through the medium of an educational journal. Answers were 
 sent in from the city and country schools in various parts of the 
 State, so that all classes of children were represented. One hun- 
 dred and twenty children who could not write gave individual oral 
 answers to the teacher who made the test. Miss Patterson reports 
 as follows on the results of these papers : 
 
 Papers were collated from 2,237 children, 974 being boys ranging 
 in age from six to twenty-two, and 1,263 from girls of six to nine- 
 teen years. The answers, when classified, fall under five general 
 heads : 1. Don't know. 2. Name or number of the year. 3. Cor- 
 rect historical knowledge. 4. Incorrect historical ideas. 5. Mis- 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HlSTOUIC SENSE. 
 -Boys 
 
 -Girts 
 
 Chart 1. Don't Know 
 
 AgeQ 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 
 
 Boys 
 
 Chart 2. Name or Number of the Year 
 
 Boys 
 Girls 
 
 \ 
 
 AgeQ 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 H 15 16 17 
 
m 
 
 STUDIES IX HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 Boys 
 Girls Chart 3. Correct Historical Knoivledge 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 < 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 Age 
 
 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 
 
 -Boys 
 
 -Girls Chart 4. Incorrect Historical Ideas. 
 
 Age 6 
 
 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 
 
 cellaneous. The miscellaneous answers were so few that it seemed 
 unnecessary to chart them. 
 
 Under the heading "Don't Know/' summarized in Chart 1, are 
 included those papers that frankly state, "I don't know;" those 
 that say, " 1895 is a number," or, " The number of our house ; " and 
 those that number and leave space for the answer, but omit it. 
 The striking thing that appears in this chart is the increase of 
 knowledge during the first school-years, shown by the rapid fall of 
 the " Don't-know " line between six and eight years. There seems to 
 be no legitimate reason for the rise of the boys' line at eight, unless 
 self-consciousness and timidity influence them, which may have 
 been the case, as answers at that age were many of them taken 
 orally, and by a stranger. Another noticeable fact is the closeness 
 with which the two lines coincide. At fifteen years the papers of 
 both boys and girls contain many omitted answers, owing to lack 
 of confidence in the correctness of their ideas, or perhaps to indif- 
 ference to so simple an inquiry. The rise of the line at fifteen 
 years is almost wholly due to these omissions, so that in all the 
 charts the lines are scarcely reliable after that age. Chart 2, en- 
 titled, " The Name or Number of the Year," is based upon those 
 papers that recognize the time element in 1895, and attempt to 
 identify it by saying: "1895 means the year/' "this year," "The 
 New Year," " It is the name of the year," " The number of the 
 year," " The date of the year," " Present time." The state of mind 
 which produces these papers shows no trace of the sense of histori- 
 cal time, except as seen in a vague notion of named time. The 
 chart shows that boys of six years have this idea more clearly than 
 girls of that age. The fall of the boys 7 line at seven corresponds 
 in part with the rise of the " Don't-know " line; and it is to be 
 noticed that as a rule from that time the girls' line runs above 
 that of the boys', except from eleven and a half to thirteen and a 
 half. Does this indicate that on the whole the girls take hold of 
 the name more readily than boys, and that a name seems an ex- 
 planation to them ? Or does it indicate an agreement with other 
 
98 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 studies of this sort, which show the more rapid development of 
 girls at certain ages ? 
 
 Chart 3, entitled " Correct Historical Knowledge," includes such 
 answers as, " 1895 means the number of years since the birth of 
 Christ ; " " It means the nineteenth century and 95th year A.D. ; " 
 " 1895 years ago it was not Christ-time, and now it is ; " " It is the 
 age of Christ." At six years none of these answers appear, but 
 from that time up to the age of fourteen for girls, and fifteen for 
 boys, the lines show a uniform rise. The following table shows the 
 exact numbers giving these answers at each age : - 
 
 Age 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 U 15 
 
 Boys 3 9 16 20 37 48 52 66 79 
 
 Girls 3 6 12 23 37 46 56 66 66 
 
 According to the proportions shown on the chart, the boys lead 
 up to nine and a half years ; the girls are then ahead until eleven ; 
 the lines almost coincide at twelve ; the girls are again ahead up to 
 fourteen. The boys' line now soon crosses that of the girls', keep- 
 ing above it as far as the indications go. 
 
 A chart to comfort teachers is No. 4, entitled, " Incorrect Histori- 
 cal Ideas," indicating, as it does, that the historical ideas of children 
 are largely correct. At six years, as we have seen, no histor- 
 ical knowledge, right or wrong, exists. At seven, the interest of 
 the children in George Washington is apparent, 8 boys and 2 
 girls stating that 1895 means the number of years since George 
 Washington was born, or lived, or died. The rise of the boys' line 
 at ten comes from their interest in the creation of the world, men- 
 tioned by 5 ; and in the discovery of America, mentioned by 4. One 
 says 1895 " is the number of years since the war ; " and another, 
 " since George Washington was born." Of the girls of this age, 4 
 mention the creation of the world; 2, the discovery of America; and 
 1, the Flood. At twelve years the highest point of incorrect histori- 
 cal ideas is reached for both boys and girls, the girls leading. At 
 this age 5 boys and 7 girls mention the creation of the world ; 2 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 
 
 boys and 2 girls, the discovery of America ; and 2 girls, George 
 Washington. Of boys at sixteen years, 3 give discovery of Amer- 
 ica ; 3, " The people became civilized ; " and 3, " Adam and Eve." 
 
 In all, 31 boys and 31 girls mention the creation of the world ; 
 16 boys and 8 girls, the discovery of America j 5 boys and 4 girls, 
 Adam and Eve ; 13 boys and 2 girls, George Washington ; making 
 a total of 65 incorrect answers for boys, and 45 for girls. It is 
 to be noted, however, that even in these answers the idea always 
 appears that the year is reckoned from some very great event. 
 
 In the miscellaneous class, 53 answers are given by boys of all 
 ages, and 36 by girls. These answers fall into two groups, one of 
 indefinite time, as that " 1895 means days," " A month of days," 
 " February," " Easter." These indefinite answers are frequent 
 with boys of six, and disappear entirely at thirteen. Among girls 
 these answers, most frequent at seven, have disappeared at nine. 
 
 The second group of miscellaneous answers shows an unexpected 
 moralizing tendency : 2 girls of seven, 2 of nine, and 1 of ten, say, 
 " 1895 means that we must die ; " 4 eight-year-old boys say, " It 
 means that the year is going ; " 1 boy of nine gives the same 
 answer. A girl of eleven writes, " 1895 means that more years have 
 passed from our life than we think ; " and 2 twelve-year-old girls 
 reflect, " One more year of life is gone." A girl of thirteen says, 
 " 1895 means that I am getting old ; " 3 boys of seventeen and 
 older express a similar thought. This pensive, half-moralizing 
 tendency appears most frequently before the thirteenth year, and 
 more noticeably with boys than girls. 
 
 In conclusion, these charts indicate that the sense of historical 
 time is altogether lacking with children of seven, and may be de- 
 scribed as slight up to the age of twelve. They also show that 
 dates are understood by few before that age ; by boys rather better 
 than by girls, and that they are not 'demanded by the children. 
 The sense of historical time on the whole seems somewhat stronger 
 with boys than with girls before nine and a half and above four- 
 teen and a half. 
 
100 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF METHOD DEDUCED FROM PART II. 
 
 To sum up, What do these studies on children and primitive 
 peoples indicate as to the development and treatment of the his- 
 toric sense, granting that this sense was correctly analyzed in the 
 beginning as consisting in the notions of time, of cause and effect, 
 of the social unit, and of a truthful record ? The way is long, the 
 goal is but a point ; the study is tedious, the conclusion short. 
 
 1. As to the order in which these notions appear, we see that 
 among savages they appear all together in the rudimentary form 
 of the myths of origin, which, unplaced in space, vaguely placed in 
 time, attempt to give some true account of the beginnings of man 
 and of the world. Such are the tales of Prometheus, of the Under- 
 World of the Zuni, the Midgard and Yggdrasil stories of the 
 North. As the notions appear together, so they progress, none 
 of them missing, now this one, now that one leading ; but within 
 the forms of primitive history we find small indication of a 
 critical sense. History, then, appears early as a consciously sepa- 
 rate field of human knowledge. 
 
 Among children we find the same fact. From the age of seven 
 onward we find them inquiring after time, cause and effect, the 
 social unit, and the truthful record, that is, all the elements of 
 history lie within the field of the child's curiosity ; and it is inter- 
 esting to note how early they inquire after origin : Who made us ? 
 Where did we come from ? 
 
 The plain conclusion as to method here is that history is a suit- 
 able subject for children from the age of seven at least. 
 
 2. As to the sense of time, we see that this sense with savages 
 is based on the power to count, and the power to record that count 
 concretely, either with the fingers, the notched stick, or the knotted 
 cord, and that it develops along with the development of the in- 
 ventions for keeping count ; in other words, that this sense requires 
 much objective assistance. With children we have seen that the 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 101 
 
 sene seems slight, and that time is badly understood until the age 
 of twelve or thirteen. The conclusion as to method is that the 
 child should be assisted, as the savage was, by some concrete sym- 
 bol or invention by which he can keep his counts in sight, and 
 reckon time visibly. I think, then, that in teaching history one 
 should always have by him a chart or net of centuries, as one has 
 a map of the world, so that the children may place their heroes 
 in time, as they do in space. In the Stanford experimental school, 
 when such a chart for time was made by each child, one little girl 
 of nine made the following enthusiastic statement to her mother 
 about it : 
 
 " I shall always try to keep my history book, because it has something very 
 precious in it. It has a long line running through two or three pages all 
 marked off in pieces, and each piece is a hundred years, and it tells you just 
 where people are. The first part has Christ and Paul in it, and. Hollo is in 
 one part and a lot of other people." 
 
 3. As to the notion of cause and effect, or, to put it differently, 
 the power to infer, we see that both with savages and children it 
 is present from the beginning, but that it is unconscious with 
 primitive peoples, and that with children the power does not be- 
 come at all critical before the age of twelve or thirteen, and that it 
 seems then to receive a positive impulse, becoming stronger as well 
 as more exact. The conclusion as to method is clear, that children 
 should not be especially trained or urged in inference until the 
 ages of twelve or thirteen, and that then we may reasonably en- 
 courage them to draw independent and correct conclusions from 
 given premises. 
 
 4. As to the sense of the social unit, we have seen that with 
 primitive peoples this sense concentrates itself about ancestors, 
 heroes, kings, developing into a sense of wider personality as their 
 history, that is, their experience, widens. The interest of children, 
 according to the indications, follows the same order ; but, since 
 education partially takes the place of experience, we cannot yet 
 say positively at what age we may develop the larger interest ; at 
 
102 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 present we may say not before the ages of eleven or twelve. The 
 application to method is that history should first interest itself 
 with the biographies of heroic and striking characters who are 
 connected with the previous knowledge or life of the child ; they 
 may be connected with the myths he already knows, like those 
 of the Greek or Norse heroes; they may be connected with the 
 country, as Charlemagne with France, Columbus with America ; 
 they should always be connected with that life of action which 
 belongs to children and primitive people alike. These biographies 
 should be of men who fight and hunt and build, rather than of 
 men who write or think or legislate. John Smith is nearer to the 
 child than William Bradford. This biographic life may be drawn 
 from many different sources, and thus lay the foundation for that 
 comparative and critical history which is the next stage of vision. 
 With children, we may allow instruction to take the place of war 
 and trade in widening their narrow world. 
 
 5. The sense of a truthful record seems to be quite positive with 
 savages, although it does not occur to them to substantiate that 
 truth by any searching criticism of evidence. Children, too, are 
 very anxious to know whether a record or a story is true or not, 
 although they are largely contented with being told that it is true 
 by a person in whom they have faith, not showing a tendency to 
 inquire critically into the matter until the ages of twelve or thir- 
 teen. The efforts of savages, however, to preserve the original 
 record or relic by every means in their power, as well as the in- 
 terest shown by children in an original record or relic, indicates 
 strongly the possibility, if not the desirability, of connecting his- 
 tory from the beginning with original records, scenes, and objects, 
 thus giving the children that material tie with the past which they 
 desire as much as savages, and, in fact, as much as any one who 
 has the least historic sense. 
 
 6. As to the forms of history, we have seen that critical history 
 develops last in the history of the race, being preceded by beau- 
 tiful history, moral history, and mnemonic history, all these forms 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE}. 103~ 
 
 running along contemporaneously. With children we see that his- 
 tory finds natural expression in stories, pictures, dramatic plays 
 and poems, with or without a moral. From both these sets of 
 facts I conclude that we should seek our history for children in 
 Plutarch, Homer, and Shakespeare, before seeking it in edited 
 documents with notes and criticisms of the modern school of his- 
 tory. Nor must we forget that primitive history shows a large 
 mnemonic element, appearing in lists and genealogies. This arises 
 from the fact that the memory requires an artificial cog, and these 
 lists and genealogies supply the place of the earlier knotted cord. 
 Here, again, we are supported in the opinion that the teacher of his- 
 tory to children should not neglect this indication, but should al- 
 ways have at hand some form of chart or list or century calendar 
 which can constantly be used, as a map would be, for reference 
 in matters of time, until it becomes, as maps or words themselves 
 become, a part of our symbolic mental equipment. The wide 
 employment of aesthetic and didactic forms of history indicates that 
 they should form a large element in the early presentation of our 
 subject. On the aesthetic side, Homer, Ossian, the Nibelungenlied, 
 on the didactic side, Plutarch and the Bible, give us plenty of 
 appropriate material. The scientific forms must wait on the de- 
 velopment of material, and also on the development of the critical 
 sense ; that is, until the ages of twelve and above. 
 
 7. As to the content of history, the instant widening of interest 
 and curiosity among primitive peoples when brought into contact 
 with new objects and people, and the instant awakening of interest 
 in children at the sight of a strange relic or picture, indicate 
 that we may widen the field of history as fast as new experience 
 or knowledge can widen it. 
 
 8. As to the sex-difference revealed in the directions o^. curiosity 
 and inference, they are not pronounced enough to warrant a separa- 
 tion of boys and girls; in fact, it is probable that no artificial 
 method of stimulating these powers will equal the natural rival- 
 ries of the schoolroom and the sexes. 
 
104 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 The points as to succession of methods revealed by this in- 
 ductive investigation are as follows : 
 
 Introduce the subject of history into the curriculum as early 
 as the age of seven or eight, or soon after children can count and 
 read, making no difference between boys and girls. Up to the age 
 of twelve or thirteen, history should be presented in a series of 
 striking biographies and events, appearing as far as possible in 
 contemporary ballads and chronicles, and illustrated by maps, 
 chronologic charts, and as richly as possible by pictures of contem- 
 porary objects, buildings, and people. This series should appear in 
 chronologic order, the biographies themselves forming the basis of 
 the chronology. These biographies should be chosen from the field 
 of action and interest allied to children's lives ; that is, they should 
 be chosen from the personal, military, and cultural aspects of his- 
 tory, and scarcely at all from the political or intellectual life. Great 
 pains should be taken with the first presentation, since it plays so 
 important a part in the historic memory. The whole field of gen- 
 eral history should be covered in this way, and should be taken 
 from such sources as the Bible, Homer, Plutarch, the Norse Sagas, 
 tales of Indian warfare and pioneer life, voyages of great discov- 
 erers. These should be given in their original forms, only modified 
 by such omissions as are demanded by youth and inexperience. 
 These primitive texts should be illustrated as richly as possible 
 by portraits, pictures of relics and monuments, maps, charts, bal- 
 lads, stories. 
 
 At the age of fourteen or fifteen another sort of work should 
 appear. Original sources should still be used, selected with the 
 utmost critical care, so as to furnish pure material ; these sources 
 should illustrate, however, not the picture of humaij society moving 
 before us in a long panorama, but should give us the opportunity 
 to study the organization, thought, feeling, of a time as seen in 
 its concrete embodiments, its documents, monuments, men, and 
 books. Now come the statesmen, thinkers, poets, as successors to 
 the explorers and fighters of the earlier period; and they speak 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE HISTORIC SENSE. 106 - 
 
 more seriously in documents and literature : so once more the mind 
 reviews the great field, but applies new powers to new material. 
 Sources, of course, should still be used, but used with reflection; 
 and the children should be encouraged not only to understand and 
 remember them, but to interpret and criticise them. They should 
 learn to read with increasing accuracy and fulness between the 
 lines for the li^e and thought of the people they study, and for 
 the standpoint of the narrator. They may also be led more and 
 more to answer the questions : How do we know that this is 
 true ? What part is true, and what not ? and how do you distin- 
 guish between these true and untrue parts ? 
 
 Again, the fact that scientific history is based in the actual 
 course of development upon comparative history as presented by 
 trade and war, shows us that we must prepare the way for scientific 
 history in education by separate special studies; while the study 
 of children shows that we must not begin the work of compari- 
 son before the age of twelve or thirteen, and probably not until 
 fifteen or sixteen, since the constantly rising curve of the critical 
 power indicates that it is still in rapid evolution at the latter age. 
 
 In college still more advanced work follows, the collection, com- 
 parison, criticism of sources themselves, as well as their most 
 critical interpretation. It is the age of monographic special study. 
 This is the work that fe'eds the former sorts, giving purer, clearer 
 sources for our service, and^nore and more sympathetic interpre- 
 tations. The former sorts of work, in turn, give a background and 
 an atmosphere for the latter ; add warmth, color, distance, light and 
 shade. How many a child longs to know something true and old ; 
 how many a college student finds his thesis a disconnected fragment, 
 torn he cannot clearly see from where, and related he scarcely 
 knows to what. 
 
PAET III. 
 
 METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE AIM OP HISTORICAL STUDY, 
 
 As we have seen, method has limitations imposed upon it by the 
 nature of our study, and it has limitations imposed upon it by 
 the laws of the historic sense. These two limitations are fixed ; 
 but a third limitation is one which varies from place to place, and 
 from time to time, according to the stage of culture and the ideal 
 sought. It is the limitation of use or aim. 
 
 (' ." The aims with which we study history to-day may be classified 
 as follows : To add to the sum of human knowledge ; to add to the 
 diffusion of human knowledge ; to form intelligent and patriotic 
 citizens. In other words, we study history in order to discover 
 new truth, to popularize truth, or to shape character and action ; 
 with the last aim the teacher actively deals. Let us take the ex- 
 ample of a teacher in London, since he is far enough away to 
 be seen in due perspective, and let us see how these considerations 
 of action and character will determine his answers to a number 
 of questions. 
 
 First, What history will he choose ? English history, because 
 he wishes to form the character and guide the action of English 
 people ; and evolution 'teaches .that we must connect what is with 
 what has been if we are to determine what shall be. 
 
 Second, What period will he choose ? The immediate past and 
 the present, because out of these the immediate future is to grow. 
 
 Third, What aspect of history will he take, political, military, 
 intellectual, social, industrial ? Industrial and social, because the 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE AIM OF STUDY. 10T~ 
 
 questions of our age primarily concern themselves with these as- 
 pects, and the problems upon us are industrial and social. 
 
 These are rude and narrow answers ; but I have put them rudely 
 and narrowly in order to call attention to their essence. But let 
 it be understood that the better English people understand their 
 Norman and Saxon and Celtic forbears, the better they will under- 
 stand themselves ; and the more they see of the Frenchman and 
 the German, the Roman and the Greek, the better they will know 
 the virtues, vices, powers, and limitations of the Englishman. The 
 better the English boy understands the methods by which politi- 
 cal and religious peace and freedom have been won, the better he 
 can see how to win social peace and freedom. So I would answer 
 again, keeping the gist of the former reply, Let the English boy 
 study the social and industrial history of his own England without 
 fail; let him join to that, without fail, enough other history to 
 make that history intelligible, and to connect it with the great 
 movements and the great peoples of the whole world ; added to 
 that, let him study all the history there is time for, but study it 
 all from the point of view of the young Englishman who is about 
 to encounter social and industrial problems at the beginning of the 
 twentieth century. 
 
 Strange to say, our teachers of history, even college professors, 
 never seem to sit down thoughtfully for an hour, and ask them- 
 selves such fundamental questions as, What is history ? Why 
 do I teach it ? and, How can I attain my aim ? f The result of 
 this thoughtlessness is that the student too often leaves school 
 without even the knowledge of the problems of his own day, to 
 say nothing of his ignorance of those parts of history which apply 
 to those problems, or of his ignorance of how those parts of his- 
 tory which he has happened to study do apply. It is as if we 
 had been called on important business from Boston to New York, 
 and went by way of the Canaries. 
 
 But to return once more to our London teacher. If he is to 
 guide action and form character, will he present his history from 
 
108 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 the sources or from the authorities ? Will he try to have his 
 pupils see how things really happened, or will he conceal certain 
 actions and motives as immoral and cowardly, and unbefitting an 
 Englishman ? In other words, will he have his pupils learn by 
 investigation or by authority ? Here, a^ain, his aim determines 
 his method. His pupils are to be English people, surrounded by 
 men and actions both moral and immoral, heroic and cowardly. 
 They will read the last bill before Parliament, and the discussions 
 upon it, which will contain arguments partly inane and partly to the 
 purpose. He will read the last news from Africa, part of it true 
 and part of it false ; he will read the popular books of the day, 
 some of them enervating, some of them manly. From these vari- 
 ous scattered sources of his own time he must help to make the 
 history of England in the twentieth century. Good and bad will 
 not be served up on special and separate dishes, but will grow in 
 some great common field, from which he must select for himself 
 what is food and what is poison. So the London teacher of his- 
 tory must bring to his pupils the sources as he finds them, choos- 
 ing those most apt to the present. He will take his pupil to the 
 Houses of Parliament, the Tower, to Whitehall. He will visit 
 the British Museum to see Magna Charta, the Roman mosaics 
 dug up in Kent, the plunder of India and the Pacific, so as in 
 every possible way to connect the life of the past and the distant 
 with that of the present and the near. He will bring in the con. 
 flicting contemporary accounts of Cromwell and his Ironsides, and 
 the various judgments of men as to the marriages of Henry the 
 Eighth, or the life of Mary Queen of Scots ; and through the inter- 
 pretation of such conflicting sources of the past he will train his 
 pupils to interpret the conflicting sources of the present. 
 
 The advantages which these sources of the past have over those 
 of the present, are, first, that they eliminate the element of passion, 
 and help to form a judicial habit of mind ; second, that we know 
 with greater certainty how to interpret them, because we have, in 
 the succeeding age, the answers to the problems they present. 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE AIM OF STUDY. 
 
 But how much are these interpretations worth ? and what is the 
 nature of the historical judgments in which they are embodied ? 
 As we have seen, the worker in the laboratories of history must 
 elaborate a product quite his own, with his own tools, from his own 
 materials, and according to his own needs and powers. He must 
 reach his own conclusions, solve his own problems, make his own 
 book ; his history of England will be no other man's. Of course 
 he will agree that Henry the Eighth was King of England in the six- 
 teenth century ; but, according to his need or interest, he will study 
 Henry the Eighth as the first head of the English Church, as the king 
 struggling with Parliament, or as the husband of a series of wives ; 
 according to his knowledge of the other parts of history, he will 
 form his judgment of Henry the Eighth, a judgment which will 
 necessarily change with every new perspective, and which has no 
 absolute, but only a relative value as a part of the tissue of his indi- 
 vidual knowledge. It follows from this point of view, then, as well 
 as from former points of view, that we should work with sources 
 as much as possible, and that we should learn to criticise them as 
 carefully as possible, since they are the lasting bases on which all 
 historical judgments rest. The judgments, on the other hand, are 
 temporary and changeable, but are not on that account to be 
 despised. They are rather to be recognized as the living product 
 which history leaves in our minds. They are what we see ; they 
 are influences working on ourselves and others ; vital things destined 
 in their turn to shape and measure progressing history : made, they 
 become, like every other human product, a source of human history. 
 They are partial, but to that extent they may be true, if based on 
 sound and truly criticised sources ; and these partial truths become 
 the vital path in which fuller truth may follow. Browning, in The 
 Ring and the Book, gives us a noble illustration of the relations of 
 human judgment to fact and truth, and shows us how alone history 
 can be justly wrought to the perfect ring. 
 
 To sum up, the consideration of aims then leads the teacher to : 
 1. Choose history which develops from local and contemporary 
 needs. 
 
110 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 2. Teach that history from the sources. 
 
 3. Train his pupils to form their own judgments, and to recognize 
 these judgments as necessarily partial, and only to be improved by 
 wider knowledge of the sources from which they are drawn. 
 
 SPECIAL STUDY ON THE MAKING OF PATRIOTS. 1 
 
 FIRST of all, what is a patriot ? He appears dumb and uncon- 
 scious in the man who loves his land and folk ; that is, the soil that 
 feeds him, the roof that shelters him, the parents, children, comrades, 
 that come and go about him, the church, the marketplace, the long 
 roads out into the world, that have become a part of his every-day 
 life. All this he loves, he Clings to, and in time of need will fight 
 and die for, why not ? it is his life, his world. But this love of 
 land and folk is but a sort of vegetable inertia of the spirit, fed from 
 the soil and air, inevitable to the creature who feeds and breathes. 
 
 Even so we give the name of patriot. But there is a higher patri- 
 otism in the hearts of men to whom life has come to mean, not 
 only food and home and love, but self-government and justice ; that 
 is, independence and fair play, a chance to embody their own labor 
 and thought, untrammelled, by outside interference. To patriots in 
 this sense, not merely land and folk are dear, but the nation, which 
 embodies land and folk in a conscious, self-governed brotherhood, 
 living securely under free and equal laws, by which it can develop 
 their own peculiar character and work. This is what Fichte calls, 
 in his famous lectures on the German nation, " the consuming flame 
 of the higher patriotism which conceives the nation as the embodi- 
 ment of the eternal." How can such a flame be lighted ? How does 
 the concept of the nation rise? How was it that France, Italy, 
 England, Germany, and Spain came to be inhabited by homogeneous 
 peoples, each people marked with its own physique, temper, and 
 style, and each developing a distinct, valuable, and attractive type ? 
 
 1 Much of this chapter is reprinted from The Citizen, Boston, January-Feb- 
 ruary, 1887. 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE AIM OF STUDY. 114 
 
 How was each people bound together in intimate union oy common 
 sympathies and common " points of view," and, above all, by that 
 common devotion to the " fatherland " and the " mother-tongue " ? 
 Did it all come about through some resistless natural law, beyond 
 the shaping of human energy ? Or were these strong, fine nation- 
 alities partly artificial, and so far imitable by so young and bright 
 a folk as we Americans ? Such questions are of value as well as 
 interest. 
 
 France and Spain were from the first noble natural estates for 
 noble nations. They had mountains for miners and shepherds, 
 valleys and plains for herdsmen and farmers, harbors for merchants 
 and sailors ; and all their rich resources were rendered interchange- 
 able within by lojig and easy waterways, and defended without by 
 barren wastes of sea and mountain. Nature having thus provided 
 place, Rome came and added to the network of rivers a network of 
 roads ; gave the uneasy, fighting tribes a common speech and faith, 
 and, above all, a peaceful, fixed abode in which she held them and 
 defended them till generations of intermarriage brought forth the 
 Frenchman and the Spaniard. 
 
 Roman dominion faded and fell, barbarians harried and tore away 
 whole provinces for themselves, a thousand barons cut the land into 
 petty fiefs, but still the common race, the common speech and faith, 
 survived ; and when the greater mediaeval wars arose, and the Moors 
 grew strong in the better part of Spain, and England tried to wrest 
 away the half of France, the names of France and Spain sprang into 
 powers, the people knew and felt the stir of patriotism, and roused 
 in healthy hatred against " outlandish " foreigners. National heroes 
 appeared ; the " Cid " became a name of Spanish pride ; the faith 
 and loyalty of France rallied about the Maid of Orleans; a thou- 
 sand songs and stories began to gather about and glorify national 
 deeds and names, and dignified and inspired the popular dialect in 
 every countryside and mingled marketplace, until, from the Alps 
 to Brittany, and from Gibraltar to the Pyrenees, two great nations 
 had each its own common stock of glorious tradition and stirring 
 
 jX"*^C^ P 1 1 RP Trs^^ 
 
 (UNIVERSITY 
 
112 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 song. It was now that^he kings began to embody the national name 
 and the national unity. Sprung from some strong stock of the com- 
 mon race, their saintly, brave, or gay and gallant figures became 
 more and more the centres of common interest and devotion. Con- 
 centrating the forces of the people, they won their way alike against 
 the foreigner and the feudal lord ; and by the end of the fifteenth 
 century France and Spain were fully formed, consolidated nations. 
 
 In wind-bound, sea-bound England, nature provided a national 
 retreat even more complete than in France or Spain ; there, even 
 earlier than on the Continent, Alfred gathered all hearts in common 
 love for a single English name, while constant war with Kelt or 
 Dane compacted the folk into thorough, conscious distinctness. 
 Song and story wrought their magic here as on the Continent, 
 while a long succession of strong, if not always upright, sovereigns 
 boldly sustained the name of England in all men's sight. 
 
 But England, Spain, and France were mediaeval growths, and 
 must yield in vivid interest to Germany and Italy, which have 
 nationalized in our own generation and before our very eyes. In 
 the long peninsula of Italy, Alp-defended northward, we find again 
 a natural unit, full of varied industry and resource, and long ago 
 unified in faith and speech by Koman occupation ; a land, too, rich 
 beyond all others in great names, great deeds and songs. Material 
 unity existed in the highest degree ; but the spiritual unity of a 
 national Consciousness was lacking, nor had the people any centre 
 about which to rally. For Italy was full of proud and disunited 
 powers, each sustaining long historic memories of its own ; and the 
 larger Italy was overborne by the local interests and glories of 
 Home and Florence, Venice and Genoa. Thus it came about that 
 she became the common plunder of Europe, and was torn asunder 
 by pope and king and emperor. Napoleon was the first to rouse 
 her to genuine, national consciousness, and to show her the vision 
 of a united Italy, free from foreign intermeddling. But with 
 Napoleon's exile, Austria and Spain fell again upon their ancient 
 booty; sword and spur rattled through the peninsula; the hated 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE AIM OF STUDY. ITS ~ 
 
 foreigner was everywhere, with his treacherous, boorish tyranny. 
 But little Piedmont still nestled at the foot of the Alps, indepen- 
 dent under the native rule of Savoy ; in Victor Emmanuel and 
 Piedmont, Italy found at last a true national centre, as in Austria 
 she found a true national foe. Then, at last, local hate and jeal- 
 ousy vanished in the larger hate and jealousy of Austria; then, at 
 last, local pride was merged in the larger pride of Young Italy, 
 while all names yielded to the first of great Italian names, the 
 name of Victor Emmanuel. 
 
 The story of Germany is most significant of all. Through causes 
 too long to deal with here, Germany had, in the eighteenth century, 
 become a loose congeries of stubborn; petty states, of all sizes and 
 sorts. In the days of Napoleon, the conqueror had Dictated terms 
 to Austria and Prussia, while the remaining German states formed 
 the Confederation of the Rhine under his protectorate. It was 
 just then that the conscious naturalization of Germany began, and 
 that, too, in Prussia. Now, Prussia was in impossible debt to Na- 
 poleon. French troops were quartered in her fortresses ; her army 
 was reduced to a paltry forty-two thousand ; half her land had been 
 torn away and divided as booty. Since the days of Frederick the 
 Great the upper classes had admired and followed all that was 
 French in fashion and thought, and had not merely ignored, but 
 had been ashamed of, all that was distinctively Prussian ; to the 
 lower classes the name of Napoleon stood for " Liberty, Equality, 
 Fraternity." These were the circumstances under which men, 
 whom events proved neither fanatics nor fools, dreamed of resist- 
 ing Bonaparte, and, stranger yet, dreamed of a united Germany. 
 That the dream should come true is hardly more wonderful than 
 that it should be dreamed at all. But the dreamers were active, 
 resolved, and silent in the time for silence ; among them Stein was 
 first and greatest. His first measures were in memory of the fact 
 that a land must be lovable to be beloved. Prussia, like France 
 before the Eevolution, was under the " Old Kegime " of an absolute 
 king and a feudal aristocracy ; there was no free trade in land ; the 
 
STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 peasants were serfs ; no man could leave the trade or the station 
 of his father. By a few strokes of the pen, Stein accomplished 
 a revolution ; the serfs were freed, land was thrown into an open 
 market, men were free to choose their own work without limit of 
 rank or heritage. Thus, at one stroke, every available economic 
 resource was opened to the poverty-stricken state, and the reason- 
 able desires of men for a French Revolution were a long way met 
 by the government itself. Scharnhorst made similar reforms in 
 the army, abolished degrading punishments, and opened every 
 honor to merit, and merit alone. Meanwhile, one of the Hum- 
 boldts undertook to organize a system of public and universal edu- 
 cation, by which all the members of the state might become its 
 intelligent citizens ; " Father Jahn " founded the Turnverein or 
 gymnastic unions, which rapidly became ardent centres of patriotic 
 enthusiasm ; Fichte lectured in Berlin on German history and phi- 
 losophy with set purpose of rousing a distinctive pride in German 
 thought and action. Such the men and such the powers that began 
 to form a modern Prussia as the worst foe of the Napoleons ; and 
 again, as at ancient Marathon, justice, skill, intelligence, spirit, 
 overcame the tyrannous material might of arms. The "War of 
 Liberation " proved the strength of the new-born state. From that 
 day on, a united Germany passed out of the realm of dream, and 
 became the talk of the streets, the teaching of universities, the 
 agitation of courts ; secret societies gathered their forces about 
 the names of Teutonia and Germania ; the great generation of 
 poets, scholars, and thinkers that closed the eighteenth century 
 gave to all who spoke and read the German tongue a common stock 
 of thought and feeling; now, moreover, men needed no longer to 
 look to France or England for the splendor of human achievement; 
 the names of. Goethe, Schiller, Humboldt, and Kant the heroes 
 and honors of the epic War of Liberation were already immor- 
 tally and gloriously German. 
 
 It was not for that generation to see the completion of the form- 
 ing state ; but men's minds were riddled with ideas of a united 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE AIM OF STUDY. 
 
 fatherland, their hearts were full of feeling and longing ; and when 
 Bismarck's policy ended at Sadowa the long strife of Austria and 
 Prussia, the time was fully ripe. Then came the call to war against 
 a new Napoleon. Germany coalesced against France, in the su- 
 preme hour of victory elected Prussia as her leader, and the Ger- 
 man Empire stood revealed to all the world, a fully equipped, 
 patriotic, conscious nation. 
 
 We are ready now to return to our prime inquiry, What can 
 America learn of the making of nations from the peoples over the 
 sea ? In reviewing the making of France, England, and Spain, 
 of Italy and Germany, certain common facts or laws appear : 
 
 1. Each of these national units has been based upon a more 
 or less well-ilermed geographical unit; and the more isolated and 
 complete this unit, the more rapidly has the nation formed itself. 
 Thus England consolidates first, while the wavering boundaries, of 
 Germany eastward, and the long-disputed borders of the Rhine, 
 show how hard it is to nationalize an indefinite frontier. 
 
 2. Before their nationalization, the people in each of these units 
 have acquired or possessed a common faith, speech, and blood. 
 
 3. In each case national consciousness has been aroused by a 
 struggle against some foreign foe attacking common possessions or 
 interests. Thus Spain hardens against the Moor; thus France de- 
 fines herself against England, Italy against Austria, Germany 
 against France. 
 
 4. This national pride and consciousness centres about some 
 name, place, or office, embodying itself in tangible, speakable form ; 
 this form again, reacting on the nation, consolidates and inspires 
 its heavier masses into organic unity arid life. Thus Frederick 
 the Great stands for Prussia, Victor Emmanuel for Italy, the 
 Republic for France. 
 
 5. This consciousness has been strengthened and developed into 
 national pride by the possession of common songs and traditions ; 
 by memories of heroic deeds and dangers shared together ; and by 
 the possession of a common stock of glory arising from national 
 heroes, poets, statesmen, and scholars. 
 
116 STUDIES IK HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 But the most precious possession of all is national independence 
 and free self-government. The Russian peasant burning Moscow in 
 the face of Napoleon is a splendid example of human nature in 
 heroic but unconscious struggle for individual existence ; more 
 splendid yet is the Italian at Novara, fighting, not for hearth and 
 home, but for a free, self-governed state. How essentially this ele- 
 ment of freedom enters the mind of the conscious patriot, appears 
 in the famous message of Athens to Xerxes : 
 
 " There is not so much gold anywhere in the world, nor a country so pre- 
 eminent in beauty and fertility, as to persuade us to side with Persia in en- 
 slaving Greece. For there are many and powerful considerations that forbid us 
 to do so, even if we were inclined. First and chief, we must avenge to the ut- 
 termost the images and dwellings of the gods now burned and laid in ruins. 
 Secondly, the Grecian race being of the same blood, and the same language, 
 and having the temples and the sacrifices of the gods in common for the 
 Athenians to betray these would not be well. Know, therefore, that so long 
 as one Athenian is left alive, we will never make terms with Xerxes." l 
 
 On the other hand, Rome, that Rome which in her heroic days 
 did not despair of the republic, though Hannibal was at her gates, 
 but poured life and treasure forth like water in tempestuous and 
 effective flood, that Rome once turned imperial could find no 
 patriot, but only hirelings, to defend her against Goth and Hun and 
 Vandal ; a case which shows that even a foreign foe cannot arouse 
 a patriot if he have no free state in which to move, no free land to 
 call his own. 
 
 Nowhere is patriotism better expressed than in its greatest song, 
 
 La Marseillaise. 
 
 "Awake, ye sons of France, to glory! 
 
 Now dawns the day of liberty! 
 Against us flaunt the banners gory 
 Of Europe's hateful tyranny. 
 
 O France, with sacred passion fire us, 
 Ennerve our vengeful arms with might! 
 
 O liberty divine, inspire us, 
 And with thy sworn defenders fight, 
 And with thy sworn defenders fight! " 
 
 1 Herodotus, viii., ch. 144, Bohn's edition. 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE AIM OF STUDY. 117 
 
 -There you have it all, the brotherhood of race and speech and 
 land, the passion for the free and independent state, the hatred of 
 the foreigner. 
 
 Turning to our own land, we find her already following these 
 same laws : 
 
 1. She possesses one of the grandest geographic units on earth, 
 grand by its imposing size and ocean-bound frontiers, and grand 
 
 again by its wealth of easily interchangeable resource. 
 
 2. Within these boundaries the dominant race is Anglo-Saxon, 
 the dominant speech English, and the dominant faith Christian ; 
 and immigration after immigration has but added to this domi- 
 nant race excellences derived from long-tested European types, 
 thus producing already a distinct Americo-Saxon. 
 
 3. After a hundred and fifty years of loose colonial growth, our 
 people were roused to national consciousness by a War of Indepen- 
 dence which defined at once and forever America and the Ameri- 
 cans from Europe and the Europeans. This consciousness and 
 separation have been confirmed by two foreign wars, and by a 
 constant play of international repartee and criticism, perhaps not 
 always as weighty, but quite as sharp, as the sword of Bunker 
 Hill. 
 
 4. More and more does the nation tend to centre itself about its 
 presidents as personal centres of Americanism. Washington, Lin- 
 coln, Garfield, these am/already American names with which to 
 conjure up loyalty and pride and devotion to our country's flag ; 
 and we have but to note the attention which the papers paid to 
 the sickness and death of Grant, and more lately to the most in- 
 timate domestic affairs of Cleveland, to realize that strong human 
 interests are drawing about our chief executives, thus concentrating 
 our diffused patriotism on living, practical entities. 
 
 5. Our stock of heroic national story is already large : first of 
 all, the heroes and the deeds of the Revolution ; while from our 
 founders and pioneers, pushing their way westward against famine 
 and flood, and a turmoil of Indian war and strange adventure, comes 
 
118 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 a host of exciting and inspiring tales. Nor should our great 
 engineering conquests be forgotten ; the steamboat, the Morse tele- 
 graph, the Atlantic cables, and the transcontinental railways are 
 genuine American achievements, and are among the greatest and 
 proudest possessions of the modern world. Nor do we lack our 
 common fund of song and thought and story. Longfellow, Whit- 
 tier, Lowell, Irving, Emerson, Hawthorne, are not merely national 
 in the sense of being American-born, but in that they have poetized 
 and illustrated American themes and American points of view, 
 have struck a distinctively American note in the great literary 
 chorus of our age. 
 
 But most significant of all, we have never passed through the 
 state of unconscious patriotism ; from the first our patriotism was 
 rather distinctly for principles of government, for freedom and in- 
 dependence. Of poets, statesmen, heroes, we are proud, and justly ; 
 but prouder yet of the Declaration of Independence, the Constitu- 
 tion, and the laws. No blind and dumb force, we face the world 
 open-eyed, and, speaking clearly, say to each and all : " We hold 
 these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that 
 they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, 
 that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. 
 That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among 
 men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, 
 that whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of 
 these ends, it is the Eight of the People to alter or abolish it, and 
 to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such princi- 
 ples and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem 
 most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness." 
 
 In spite of the fact, however, that America thus hitherto seems 
 to have followed the general laws of nationalization, much still 
 remains for the conscious effort of every citizen ; holding in mind 
 these general laws, he can favor more or less actively all means 
 that tend toward the following results : 
 
 1. A firmer geographic union. Could our South and North be 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE AIM OF STUDY. 119 
 
 so.thoroughly matted together with railroads as our East and West, 
 we should soon see sectional peculiarities vanish, and populations 
 mingled in interests, ideas, and manners. Railroads can do more 
 than schools to Americanize our " poor white trash',' 7 and mutually 
 unite estranged sympathies. The telegraph and newspaper, too, 
 cement this union, which, in the final analysis, is one of knowledge, 
 interest, and ideas, by keeping our whole people in daily touch with 
 the same events from coast to coas*t. 
 
 2. A distinct American type an Aryan blood, an English 
 speech, a Christian faith should be the endless heritage- of our 
 people. In this blood, speech, and faith lie the deep springs of our 
 civilization, and of our own individual life. Here are reasons for 
 the discouragement of mixtures of Oriental and African with Amer- 
 ican, for the teaching of our mother-tongue in every school, and for 
 the adjustment of our laws by the standard of Christian as against 
 that of Mormon, pagan, or atheistic morality. 
 
 3. We must have the most intimate and universal acquaintance 
 with our own history, biography, and literature ; and, finally, must 
 endeavor that American character and ideas be ably displayed in 
 the persons of our successive presidents. 
 
 The common school can do much to secure these ends. In the 
 first place, it gives a common training to all the children of the 
 State ; in the next place, it is intrusted with the treasure-house of 
 the American speech. And in that treasure-house are held the 
 poems and the stories of Longfellow and Lowell, of Cooper and 
 Irving American possessions, smacking of the soil; and in that 
 treasure-house are stored the records of heroes from Washington 
 to Grant and Lee, the records of the great achievements of our 
 common people in our Revolution, in our Civil War, in our pioneer 
 march from the Alleghanies to the Golden Gate ; there, best of all, 
 are stored our constitutions and our laws. In this literature, in 
 these records, we find the historic body and spirit of America ; 
 here we find the food on which to nourish Americans. 
 
 The examples of Victor Emmanuel and Stein show what con- 
 
120 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 scious action can do against most fearful odds ; and there is no 
 doubt but that in our own country the conscious action of our 
 more intelligent citizens can save any part of our nationality from 
 being swamped in the European or the Oriental current. Precious 
 and sacred as the heritage of our national character is, it is by no 
 means safe. The influence of the European mode of thought, style 
 of life, and relation of classes, upon our educated and travelled 
 people is enormous and increasing; thence threatens the love of 
 luxury, the shame of labor, the feeling and style of the aristocrat. 
 On the other hand, a force of ignorant, restless anarchy sweeps 
 through our lower classes with a tide swelled fast by daily immi- 
 gration. Meanwhile, in sections of our cities, and even in sections 
 of our country, Germany, Italy, Scandinavia, China, seem to have 
 settled bodily, with the weight of resistless generations behind 
 them. Yet Heaven avert the omen that our America should be- 
 come a cosmopolitan museum of races and opinions and manners, 
 jostling one another in unrelated proximity ! An ideal is that of 
 the strong organic nation, compacted of interdependent states, 
 bound together by a network of material interests and spiritual 
 sympathies. In preserving the "sacred palladium of liberty," we 
 have perhaps forgotten the primal duty of self-preservation. Free- 
 dom and happiness are not the only ideals for a people to set be- 
 fore itself. It should quite as jealously guard its independence, 
 its character, its individuality among nations ; for therein lies its 
 power and worth in that great congress of Aryan peoples, to which 
 the Englishman brings sense and grit and dominion ; the French- 
 man, a clear vision and an undying enthusiasm ; the German, an 
 endless learning, and that steady capacity for labor that knows 
 "nor haste, nor rest," and to which we have brought invention, 
 enterprise, and wit, and to which, if the gods of our destiny per- 
 mit, we owe a still higher gift, the gift of the ideal citizen. 
 But we cannot teach children to be good patriots or citizens by 
 telling them over and over to be such ; but we must show them 
 a country great and fair, with a thousand picturesque associations 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE AIM OF STUDY. 
 
 with the past, sacred to liberty and happiness, the home of heroes ; 
 love for such a country will take care of itself. Such a love is not 
 to be aroused in young minds by the bare study of abstractions 
 such as constitutional history demands ; the Indian, the soldier, the 
 fur-trapper, the sailor, are the guides who must take him in hand 
 at first, and attach his interest and his love to the mountains, 
 plains, and lakes of his native land. Here lies the great use of the 
 study of wai^, which shows us a people under the stress and strain 
 of great and painful circumstance, acting together, enduring and 
 daring for a common good. Wars thus become watchwords of 
 heroism, banners of memory, bonds of blood-kinship to a people. 
 In the study of the heroic deeds of peace and war we lay a con- 
 crete basis for patriotism, without saying a word about it. We 
 love what is great and fair in spite of ourselves. Do not tell us, 
 then, to love, but show us what is great and fair. 
 
 SPECIAL STUDY ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY. 
 
 " Truth is the daughter of time." MIBABEAU tQ Bishop of Chartres. 
 
 IT is popularly supposed that the philosophy of history, be- 
 decked in eighteenth-century dignity of robe and wig, has left the 
 stage altogether, never to return ; and that in his place has come 
 a very painstaking young fellow, whose chief business in life is to 
 dig, and who quite despises those who stop to look around them. 
 I am well aware that respectable historical students are apt to 
 shrug their shoulders and smile when a callow freshman comes 
 to urge, "But what I want is a course in the philosophy of his- 
 tory ; " and I am as well aware that this callow freshman will not 
 easily find his wished-for course, and that he must bear his growing- 
 pains as best he may. Yet having a certain respect for youth, I 
 am going to ask this callow freshman to look over the philosophies 
 of history which have been presented in the past, note their num- 
 ber and variety, examine their content, and see whether, in the face 
 of the varying medley, he can see any fixed features which speak 
 of life and truth. 
 
122 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 Perhaps the earliest tangible philosophy of history which we can 
 find is that of the Jews, thus expressed by Josephus : 
 
 " Upon the whole, a man that will peruse this history may principally 
 learn from it, that all events succeeded well . . . and the reward of felicity is 
 proposed by God ; but then it is to those that follow his will, and do not ven- 
 ture to break his excellent laws. . . . God is the father and Lord of all 
 things, and sees all things, and . . . hence bestows a happy life upon those 
 that follow him; but plunges such as do not walk in the paths of virtue into 
 inevitable miseries." 1 
 
 This is the philosophy which pervades all the historical writings 
 of the Jews, and finds its poetic expression in such passages as, U I 
 have not seen the righteous forsaken, nor his seed begging bread.' 7 
 
 A clear expression of the philosophy of history among the 
 Greeks is to be found in the Politics of Aristotle, who strikes the 
 key-note of his theme in the first sentence of his first book : 
 
 " Every state is a community of some kind, and every community is estab- 
 lished with a view to some good; for mankind always act in order to obtain 
 that which they think good. But if all communities aim at some good, the 
 state or political community which is the highest of all, and which embraces 
 all the rest, aims, and in a higher degree than any other, at the highest 
 good." 2 
 
 He then examines the various forms and the various theories of 
 the state, historically and logically, in order to discover the best 
 form and the best ideal, and thus concludes in chapter eighteen 
 of his third book : 
 
 "We maintain that the best [government] must be that which is adminis- 
 tered by the best, and in which there is one man, or a whole family, or many 
 persons, excelling in virtue, and both rulers and subjects are fitted, the one to 
 rule, the others to be ruled, in such a manner as to attain the most eligible 
 life." 3 
 
 Here the philosophy of history sees how a people develop their 
 own state through appropriate instruments of government until 
 
 1 Whiston's Josephus, London, 1858, i. 42, 43. 3 Jowett's Edition, i. 105. 
 
 2 Jowett's Edition. Oxford, 1885, i. 1. 
 
THE RELATION OF TRAVEL TO HISTORICAL STUDY 123 
 
 they reach an harmonious balance, which enables each individual, 
 through his connection with the whole, to live his own best life. 
 
 Among the Roman historians, we find in Polybius the clearest 
 expression of a philosophy of history. This first of men to conceive 
 of a general history in its modern sense says, in his introduction : 
 
 "Can any one be so indifferent or idle as not to care to know by what 
 means, and under what kind of polity, almost the whole inhabited world was 
 conquered and brought under the dominion of the single city of Rome ? . . . 
 
 " My History begins in the 140th Olympiad. . . . Now, up to this time the 
 world's history had been, so to speak, a series of disconnected transactions. 
 . . . But from this time forth History becomes a connected whole : the affairs 
 of Italy and Libya are involved with those of Asia and Greece, and the ten- 
 dency of all is to unity. . . . Just as Fortune made almost all the affairs of the 
 world incline in one direction, and forced them to converge upon one and the 
 same point; so it is my task as an historian to put before my readers a com- 
 pendious view of the part played by Fortune in bringing about the general 
 catastrophe." J 
 
 To the mind of Polybius, the affairs of the world are forced by 
 Fortune, the divine necessity of antiquity, into the single, path 
 marked out by Rome. 
 
 The Christian philosophy of history starts out from the old faith 
 of Josephus : " All things work together for good to them that love 
 God," modified by an afterthought of fate, expressed in the addi- 
 tion, " who are the called according to his purpose." But the per- 
 secutions and woes of the early church drive its thinkers on to the 
 pessimistic view expressed by St. Augustine in his City of God: 
 " All things work together for good to them that love God," indeed, 
 but this good may not be found in Rome, the city of the world, the 
 centre of antique life, but in the city of God, the New Jerusalem. 
 This world is but a trial-place for a more enduring, real world 
 beyond. Looking at this world alone, we can see neither order 
 nor meaning, because they do not exist. The explanation of its 
 chaos is only to be found by him who looks at eternity as well 
 as time ; nor must the view be confined to a single people. All 
 
 1 Polybius, Bk.L, chap, i.-iv., Shuckburgh's Trans., London, 1889. 
 
124 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 humanity is involved either as called or not called to the enduring, 
 happy city of those who love God. 
 
 This philosophy, which ignores the present world, dominated 
 the Middle Age, and dominates much of Christendom to-day. But 
 in the fourteenth century another form of Christian philosophy of 
 history arose among the Franciscans and mystics : 
 
 "According to these men and their adherents, universal history ought to be 
 divided into three great periods or ages : the age of the Old Testament, or 
 kingdom of the Father ; the age of the New Testament, or age of the Son ; 
 and the age of the eternal Gospel, or kingdom of the Spirit. In the first, God 
 manifested Himself by works of almighty power, and ruled by law and fear ; 
 in the second, Christ has revealed Himself through mysteries and ordinances 
 to faith ; and in the third, for which the others have been merely prepara- 
 tory, the mind will see truth face to face without any veil of symbols, the 
 heart will be filled with a love which excludes all selfishness and dread, and 
 the will, freed from sin, will need no law over it, but be a law unto itself." 1 
 
 With the Renaissance and Reformation, new forms of the philos- 
 ophy of history were to be expected ; and we find them in Machia- 
 velli, and later in Montesquieu, Vico, and Condorcet. These men 
 seek their philosophy by approaching the problem on its historic 
 side, while Herder and Kant seek theirs by approaching the prob- 
 lem analytically and a priori. 
 
 Men like Montesquieu ask after the influences entering into 
 human history, and seek, by looking at the facts, to discover some 
 law. Even by an imperfect use of the inductive method they 
 seem to perceive that human affairs are determined by inherent 
 causes, that spring partly from man and partly from external 
 nature. In this course of thought, Montesquieu enunciated what 
 Flint calls "the epoch-making principle," that history is shaped 
 not by single units or men, but by a general course of affairs, a 
 trend of ideas the causes of which may be analyzed and understood 
 by the human reason. Hardly any one has expressed this thought 
 
 1 Robert Flint, Historical Philosophy in France and French Belgium and Switz- 
 erland, New York, 1894, p. 103, 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE AIM OF STUDY. 
 
 more clearly than Condorcet. " The sole foundation of belief," he 
 says, "in the natural sciences, is the idea that the general laws, 
 . . . which regulate the phenomena of the universe, are necessary 
 and constant ; and for what reason should this hold less true of the 
 intellectual and moral faculties of man than of the other operations 
 of nature ? . . . Why should it be deemed chimerical to attempt 
 to picture the probable destiny of the human race in accordance 
 with the results of its history ? " 1 
 
 Turning to the German line of thinkers, we find the attempt to 
 define the problems of history. Herder asks, What are the factors 
 of history ? and answers that its factors are the desires of man 
 and the limits of external nature. These two playing on each other 
 produce history, the development of humanity. Kant, and still 
 more definitely Hegel, follow, asking, How can the individual free 
 will be reconciled with the limitations of law in nature, one of 
 these limitations being the desires of other men ? They answer, 
 Through the state ; the 'organ by which man may, as far as pos- 
 sible, reconcile the jar of clashing human desires with each other 
 and the external world. 2 
 
 All of these views summarize in Comte, who is regarded as the 
 father of scientific sociology, and who in his scheme saw the 
 whole human race advancing at varying rates of speed through 
 three stages of life and thought. In the first, they supernaturalize 
 the universe, this is the religious stage ; in the second, they build 
 great systems of metaphysics, by which they explain, through gen- 
 eral abstractions, what they see about them, this is the meta- 
 physical stage, which is passing into the scientific stage in our 
 nineteenth century through the attempt to discover the natural and 
 necessary laws by which all phenomena are governed, and by means 
 of which we can modify the world to our own ends. 
 
 With the development of the Darwinian theory, we find our- 
 
 1 Flint, 330, quoting pp. 327, 328, of Condorcet's Esquisse d'un Tableau Histo- 
 rique des Progres de V Esprit Humain, 1793. 
 
 2 Bernhehn, Ernst, Lehrbuch der historischen Methode, Leipzig, 1894, p, 527, etc. 
 
126 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL, METHOD. 
 
 selves in the midst of new forms of the philosophy of history. 
 In Bagehot's Physics and Politics, in Spencer's Principles of Soci- 
 ology, in Kidd's /Social Evolution, in Ward's Psychic Factors of 
 Civilization, we find philosophies of history which seek to explain 
 human history by the play of natural selection acting upon strug- 
 gling societies, and which regard every factor in history from this 
 point of view, as to how it fits a society to survive or perish in 
 the particular circumstances in which it finds itself. Almost con- 
 temporaneous with this bionomic philosophy of history we find a 
 socialistic philosophy, clearly enunciated by St. Simon, who saw in 
 history the story of the successive amelioration of the proletariat. 1 
 This philosophy is developed by Marx in his Das Kapital, and 
 clearly by Paul Wiesengrun in his Entwickelungsyesetze des Mensch- 
 heit. According to this school of thinkers, the conditions of 
 production have driven men on through a necessary series of his- 
 torical epochs, so fixed in their course that Marx declares : " The 
 country that is more developed industrially, only shows to the less 
 developed the image of its own future. . . . And even when a 
 society has got upon the right track for the discovery of the natural 
 laws of its movement ... it can neither clear by bold leaps, nor 
 remove by legal enactments, the obstacles offered by the successive 
 phases of its normal development. But it can shorten and lessen 
 the birth-pangs." 2 These birth-pangs over, the new society will 
 find itself able to determine its own progress by the conscious 
 employment of the natural laws discovered by all the sciences, 
 historical sciences among the rest. 
 
 These modern philosophies of history, whether bionomic or social- 
 istic, find a comprehensive expression in the following passage 
 from Lotze : 
 
 " Science has introduced into even the most familiar departments of human 
 thought the idea of universal laws to which reality is ohedient in all particu- 
 
 1 Bernheim, p. 539. 
 
 2 Karl Marx, Capital, edited by Frederick Engels, New York, 1889, pp. xviii., 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE AIM OF STUDY. 127 
 
 lars, and a lively conviction that results can only be obtained by using things 
 according to these laws. ... It gave rise to that progressive spirit of con- 
 scious calculation that is not content to continue passively in any instinctive 
 condition of being or doing, but must actively mould the future by independent 
 use of all available means." 1 
 
 Lotze also believes that this human progressive spirit is acting 
 and working in parallelism with the immanent and eternally moving 
 spirit of the universe. 
 
 This cursory view of the philosophies which have dominated our 
 views of history reveals a number of general laws : 
 
 Each philosophy of history has grown out of the peculiar point of 
 view and circumstances of the people enunciating it. Thus, Josephus 
 interprets history as the theocratic Jew ; Aristotle, as a Greek who 
 has seen the bloom of Athens ; Polybius, as a Greek who has seen 
 the bloom of Athens fade before the fateful power of Home ; St. 
 Augustine, living in the age of the decadence of Rome, and the 
 weakness of the church, interprets events in the light of another 
 and more enduring world ; the mystics of the thirteenth century, 
 who saw Europe emerging into a quickening life, happier and 
 freer than any the world had seen before, seize upon a new view 
 of history, and see in the kingdom of the Holy Spirit a promise 
 for the earth itself of a New Jerusalem. After men broke with 
 authority in the age of the Reformation, and learned to use their 
 own eyes and their own minds on very things, they applied the 
 method to history as well, and began to perceive in it some natural 
 laws. This scientific point of view, as we call it, has dominated 
 the leading thinkers in this field until our own day ; and yet these 
 modern men have seen these laws differently, according to their 
 own points of view. Thus, the sceptics of the eighteenth century 
 looked to natural laws alone, and were inclined to ignore the inter- 
 ference of incalculable human choice ; the biologists seize upon the 
 struggle, for existence as the only key to the situation ; the social- 
 ists see in history only the play of the laws of production, leading 
 
 1 Microcosmos, Book VII., ch. v. 
 
128 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 to the inevitable goal of the dominion of the proletariat. One of 
 the most clear and interesting instances of variation due to point 
 of view is to be seen in German history. At the close of the 
 last century, Kant and Goethe saw with some clearness, as they 
 thought, that universal history tended toward a cosmopolitan 
 mass of civilization, and that Germany's history had especially 
 fitted her to lead toward this mass, since she had not been shaped 
 like France and England into a particularistic nation. But since 
 the events of the nineteenth century have made Germany also into 
 a great nation, Yon Sybel and her other historians see that nation- 
 ality, not cosmopolitanism, was the hidden aim of the ages, and 
 that modern civilization is not to be a cosmopolitan mass, but 
 rather a symposium of highly developed nations, each bringing its 
 own gifts of nature and art. 1 
 
 A second law which presents itself is, that thejfis an advancing 
 content contained in the philosophy of history. This advancing 
 content develops from the particular states seen by Josephus and 
 Aristotle, through the Roman empire seen by Polybius, the whole 
 of Christendom seen by St. Augustine, and the civilized world 
 seen by Montesquieu, to the whole of mankind in the views of 
 Spencer, Marx, and Lotze. . This content not only broadens as to 
 its personal element, but also in the directions of environment 
 and action ; so that it includes now not only the religious and 
 military life seen in Josephus, but the whole circle of human 
 thought and action, political, intellectual, spiritual, and the 
 whole mass of human environment, physical and social, with- 
 out dropping from view anything ever seen before. 
 
 But while there is this advancing content of history, there is also 
 a fixed content of basic ideas. One of these ideas is unity. To 
 Josephus, all that he knows of the world relates itself to the Jews. 
 The unity of Aristotle is the philosophic state ; that of Polybius, 
 
 1 The Nation, New York, Dec. 3, 1891, in review of Jastrow's Geschichte des 
 deutschen Einheitstraumes und seiner Erf'dllung, Berlin, 1891, in which book the 
 national view of the philosophy of history is strongly developed. 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE AIM OF STUDY. 129 
 
 lome, which will draw the world to itself by irresistible fate. To 
 St. Augustine, all relates itself to the church ; to us, humanity 
 is the unit. 
 
 A second idea which appears in all these varying forms is that 
 of some directive force. To Josephus this directive force was 
 Jehovah ; to Aristotle, the philosopher ; to Polybius, fate ; to St. 
 Augustine, God, but a greater, more inscrutable, more slowly mov- 
 ing deity than that of Josephus ; to the mystics, the Holy Spirit, 
 moving to its ends through the agencies of inspired men scattered 
 everywhere. To the moderns, this directive force has appeared, 
 first, as unconscious external law of nature, as with Buckle ; second, 
 as human society becoming self-conscious and self-directive through 
 the control of the laws of which it has become conscious, as in 
 A Yard ; and, third, as an immanent spirit. 
 
 A third idea which underlies our various philosophies , is that 
 of progress toward ends of goodness and happiness by means of 
 conscious human action. According to Josephus, this progress 
 follows obedience to Jehovah ; according to Aristotle, by living in 
 harmony with the teachings of philosophy ; according to Polybius, 
 through obedience to the laws of Rome ; St. Augustine seeks it 
 for the individual through loyalty to the church; the mystics, 
 through the guide of inspiration ; while the moderns believe it can 
 be obtained through the conscious control of sociologic and natural 
 law by the will and intelligence of man, or, as others put it, by 
 living in harmony with the immanent Spirit of the universe, in 
 whom we move and live and have our being. 
 
 If this is the character of the philosophy of history, what shall 
 we say of it ? Is it something to be reckoned with in the field 
 of thought, or is it not ? Since we perceive in it fundamental ideas 
 which are constant, it would seem to have a fixed body ; since its 
 content has advanced with time, and was never so great nor so 
 unified as now, it would seem to have life. But what of that 
 variability which we have seen, that tendency to adapt itself to 
 various circumstances and points of view? This variability, far 
 
130 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 from condemning the philosophy of history, should recommend it; 
 since it shows again that this philosophy is alive, and organically 
 connected with advancing life. 
 
 On all these counts, then, it would appear that there is a phi- 
 losophy of history ; that it is the most important thing in history, 
 the most permanent and most interesting, and that the time is 
 always present for formulating it anew. For this philosophy of 
 history, owing to its plasticity and progress, is no absolute thing 
 to be discovered once for all, but has varied in the past to suit 
 the needs of every individual, age, and country ; and so will it 
 vary in the future. This variability is what has given it a bad 
 name. Because it was plastic, people have suspected that it did not 
 exist ; but one might as well say that life does not exist because it 
 ranges through endless variations of form and age and power. 
 Precisely in this plasticity, this quality of clinging to and suiting 
 the advancing thought and knowledge and circumstance of man, 
 lies the life of the philosophy of history, as there lies the life of 
 any philosophy at all. Facts to us are dead until they relate them- 
 selves to us and to our world. This relation of facts to life 
 and the world is what every soul and every generation demands 
 as light upon its pathway. This relation varies because of our 
 advancing points of view : it grows with knowledge ; and if at 
 present we are agnostic and pessimistic, it is simply because masses 
 of facts have poured in upon us for half a century with such rapid- 
 ity and force that we have had no time to relate them, hardly time 
 to see them. But are we, then, to say that that universe which we 
 have seen proceeding by the most exact and rigid law from the 
 simple to the complex is, in the field of human history, aban- 
 doned to caprice and lawlessness ? If not, we may reasonably 
 look for a philosophy ; nor should we be impatient if the most 
 complex of sciences has to wait on simpler sciences for its ad- 
 vancing development. 
 
 As we look again at this succession of philosophies, we are struck 
 with the fact that in each of our instances we get the expression of 
 
METHOD AS DETERMINED BY THE AIM OF STUDY. 131 
 
 a philosophy which has dominated history itself in the contem- 
 porary period. The most striking instance is perhaps to be found 
 in the philosophy of St. Augustine, who regarding this earth but 
 as a place of broken fragments, a battleground whose results can 
 only be seen in the hereafter, naturally felt that it was foolish to 
 pay much attention to mundane events; so history fell into des- 
 uetude, and historical action itself was more or less paralyzed by a 
 view which placed all interest outside of the world itself. In con- 
 trast to this, we note the flood of living interest that has poured 
 into history since it has been believed that we could discover its 
 laws ; an interest still further heightened in the case of those who 
 believe not only that we may come to know the laws of social life, 
 but that we may control them for the good of society, just as we 
 have learned consciously to bend the laws of electricity to our own 
 desires. Many of us, again, add to this the belief that by so shap- 
 ing natural law we are co-workers with a spirit immanent through 
 all the living universe. However we believe, if we hold any 
 modern view save that of the pessimist, the hope of paradise 
 springs up again in our human hearts, and we find ourselves build- 
 ing anew on the old foundations a philosophy of history, but 
 building higher and more gloriously than ever before ; our unit, the 
 world of living men through all time ; our directive force welded 
 from natural law, conscious human action, and possibly a conscious 
 divine influence ; our aim, the progressive strength and excellence 
 of human life. Such is our latest achievement in the philosophy 
 of history ; but we know well that it will not be our last, unless, 
 indeed, it should prove exactly in conformity with reality ; for 
 " Truth is the daughter of Time." 
 
PAET IV. 
 
 PKAOTIOAL APPLICATION OF PEINOIPLES OP METHOD TO 
 HISTOEY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL, 1 
 
 THE teacher of history in the high school has ever before his 
 eyes the two horns of his dilemma: on the one hand, history in 
 the high school must still partake of the nature of general infor- 
 mation j on the other, the method of presenting it should be concrete 
 enough to develop a certain amount of historic sense. The every- 
 day world demands that he shall give his student some clear notion 
 of what Greek, Roman, Jew, Kelt, and Teuton each have done to 
 change the howling wilderness of prehistoric Europe into the civil- 
 ized centre of the world ; demands, beyond that, a good clear view 
 of the history and meaning of our own America. Then comes the 
 Republic, with her demand for a thoughtful citizen who can read 
 the history of to-day, and shape the policy of the morrow, from the 
 rough-hewn logic of fact, the endless prattle of the press, the stir- 
 ring words of living men, the creaking, heavy machinery of govern- 
 ment. Neither demand can he gainsay; how can he meet both? 
 One demands generalities which are the commonplaces of every 
 scholar ; the other, fresh and independent study of historic detail 
 from historic sources. 
 
 It would seem at first as if there were no compromise ; as if the 
 generalities must be learned by heart, and the detail on which they 
 rest taken for granted, or as if the method of research must lead 
 endlessly on, until the student is assured of his ignorance of the 
 
 1 Reprinted from the Academy, Syracuse, N.Y. June, 1889. 
 132 
 
''SiT-y 
 
 PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES OF METHOD. 133 
 
 campaigns of Charlemagne and the landfall of Columbus. The 
 former method leaves him dogmatic and conceited; the latter, 
 sceptical and discouraged. The former leaves him with no proper 
 conception of the living reality of the historic world, of the labor 
 which its discoveries involve, or the foundation on which they rest ; 
 the latter leaves him too often without one single commanding view 
 of that divine unit of historic progress which draws to itself ever- 
 widening areas of land and folk. 
 
 Hard as the problem is, I have come to think that there is a 
 solution for it; that the solution lies perhaps here, in teaching 
 the general truth through the special fact, and in making each indi- 
 vidual pupil judge the special fact for himself in its general aspects. 
 
 I will illustrate my meaning by two or three examples. Suppose 
 the topic in hand to be the Spanish discoveries in America : first of 
 all, what are the general facts we wish to impart in regard to these 
 events? We will say, the lands and seas opened by Spanish 
 exploration, the time over which it extended, the motives and char- 
 acters of the explorers, their relations to the natives. Now, there 
 are two ways in which one can teach these points ; one is, to have 
 the pupil read or recite, either verbatim, or, preferably, in his own 
 language, the contents of some such paragraph as this : 
 
 " The Spanish discoveries began with Columbus, and during the next one 
 hundred and fifty years had covered the length of the American coast from 
 Newfoundland to Patagonia on the east, and from Chili to Upper California 
 on the west. The discoverers were either Italian or Portuguese sailors, trained 
 from boyhood to the boldest navigation of their time, or Spanish cavaliers, 
 trained in court and camp, men of dauntless courage, of boundless energy and 
 determined will, but cruel and perfidious in their relations with the natives; 
 ever draw r n on from region to region by the love of gold, and the wish to gain 
 new realms for the king and the church. Their settlements were precarious 
 and their lives adventurous." 
 
 This is the one way, to give the generalities just as they stand, 
 the accepted commonplaces of history, and wait for time and chance 
 to make their meaning clear. The other way is to give into the 
 hands of the student a collection of concrete materials in which he 
 
134 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 himself may read these general facts. A desirable collection would 
 be as follows : First, the pictures of a cavalier and a friar. These 
 are simply to give objective reality to the men with whom he is 
 to deal, and may be dismissed with this remark. Second, a bare 
 chronological list of discoveries, each item reading something as 
 follows : 1492, Columbus, a Genoese captain, sailing in service of 
 the King of Spain, to find a western way to India, discovers some 
 of the West Indian Islands. From such a list the student can see 
 for himself of what occupation and rank the discoverers were, in 
 whose behalf the discoveries were made, what area they covered, 
 and the time they took. Third, extracts from the letters and nar- 
 ratives of the time. Let him read from the narrative of The Gentle- 
 man of Elvas, one of the companions of De Soto, how on reaching 
 Florida, De Soto at once began to ask the Indians " if they knew 
 . . . any rich country where there was gold or silver;" how they 
 told him that "towards the west there was a province called 
 Cale where the most part of the year was summer, and that 
 there was' much gold . . . that . . . these inhabitants of Cale did 
 wear hats of gold ; " how then De Soto, with all his men, " took the 
 way to Cale/' but when he came thither, " found the town without 
 people, and his own men were sore vexed with hunger and evil 
 ways, because the country was very barren of maize, low, and full 
 of water, bogs, and thick woods ; and the victuals they had brought 
 with them . . . were spent." Again, let him read this from Las 
 Casas : 
 
 " The main care was to send the men to work in the gold mines and to 
 send the women to till the ground ; the men perished in the gold mines with 
 hunger and labor, the women perished in the fields ; and as for the blows 
 which they gave them with whips, cudgels, and their fists I can hardly be 
 able to make a narration of those things." 
 
 From such extracts as these one makes the nearest possible ap- 
 proach to speech with the time itself, comes to understand how the 
 actors themselves thought and felt and did ; in other words, one 
 
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES OF METHOD. 135 
 
 gains historic sympathy, that prime requisite to historic under- 
 standing. 
 
 This, then, is the first step, to give the student a little collection 
 of historic data, and extracts from contemporary sources, together 
 with a few questions within his power to answer from these materials. 
 Then let him go by himself, like Agassiz's famous student with the 
 fish, to see what he can see. The work of the class-room is to col- 
 lect, criticise, and summarize the individual results into those same 
 general statements which, after all, must finally remain in the 
 mind, but which must depend for their living reality on the spe- 
 cial fact. 
 
 For instance, again, if I wanted to teach the great differences be- 
 tween the military system of mediaeval Europe and modern times, 
 I would give my pupil two photographs, one of a thirteenth cen- 
 tury castle, islanded by a moat, beset by high, blind walls, watching 
 the world cautiously from narrow loopholes or from lofty towers ; 
 and one of a modern English country-house, inviting approach 
 through sunny vistas and flower-set lawns, while its walls smile 
 welcome from many a generous window and door, and I would 
 ask, " How does it happen that the thirteenth century man built 
 such a house as this, while we build houses like these ? " And, 
 after some reflection, the pupil would see that the castle must have 
 been built by a man who feared enemies from whom he must defend 
 himself in his own house, while the country-house was built by a 
 man who lived in peace, and was taken care of. That is the point ; 
 and the photographs teach it better than words, and are longer 
 remembered. 
 
 One illustration more, of still a different kind. Supposing it is 
 the character of a civilization that you wish to impress, what are 
 your realities here ? The lives, the deeds, the works, of men. Let 
 us take, for example, the century after the so-called fall of Rome ; 
 how can you manage to impress the character of this obscure, diffi- 
 cult, but important period upon the minds of your pupils ? Here, 
 again, the list can be used to advantage. The bare alphabetic list 
 
136 
 
 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 of the famous names of those obscure centuries, with a brief note 
 of birth and circumstance, work done, and language used, will tell 
 a distinct story. Such a list is, in fact, a collection of short biog- 
 raphies, and will read something like this : 
 
 NAME. 
 
 Augustine, St. 
 
 Belisarius. 
 
 Benedict, St. 
 
 Cassiodorus. 
 
 Clovis. 
 
 BIRTH AND CIRCUMSTANCE. 
 
 Koman monk ; the first arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury. 
 
 Thracian ; of obscure birth ; 
 general of Justinian. 
 
 Italian ; of wealthy and no- 
 ble family ; hermit. 
 
 South Italian; of wealthy 
 and noble family; minister 
 of Odovaker and Theodo- 
 ric ; afterwards, Benedic- 
 tine monk. 
 
 War-chief and king of a great 
 band of Franks. 
 
 DEEDS AND WORKS. 
 
 Missionary to Britain, 
 which he enters with 
 a band of monks sent 
 by Pope Gregory the 
 Great ; converts the 
 King of Kent and his 
 people. 
 
 Recovers temporarily 
 for the East Italy, 
 Africa, South Spain, 
 beating back Goths 
 and Vandals. 
 
 An eloquent preacher ; 
 founder of the sect of 
 Benedictine monks, 
 and of many monas- 
 teries, notably that 
 of Monte Cassino, 
 near Rome. 
 
 Author of philosophic 
 and historic works 
 and letters ; founds a 
 monastery, for which 
 he collects a tine 
 library of manu- 
 scripts. 
 
 Conqueror of Visigoth 
 and Burgundian. 
 
 LANGUAGE 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Barbarous 
 Latin. 
 
 So the list goes on through monks and warriors to the end. AYith 
 the list before him the student goes to work, and finds two conspic- 
 uous facts, one, the spread of Christianity without the empire ; 
 the other, the spread of barbarian power within. He sees that the 
 great men of the age are warrior-barbarians or civilizing monks ; 
 that with the latter go the Latin language, the beginnings of art, 
 literature, and law ; that over all Europe they are 'fixing little cen- 
 tres of civilization. He sees that it is a shifting, settling age ; that 
 its heroes are the conquering war-chief and the ascetic monk. So 
 much for what the list can teach. Add now, on the one hand, that 
 rough old song of Lodbrok, each stanza ending with the barbarous 
 
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES OF METHOD. 137 
 
 war-cry, u We hewed with our swords." In that short but telling 
 original the barbarian speaks for himself, the brave but untamed 
 Teuton. Add for the other aspect of the time, the words of St. 
 Jerome : 
 
 "I sat alone ; I was filled with bitterness ; my limbs were uncomely and 
 rough with sackcloth, and my squalid skin became as rough as an Ethiopian's. 
 Every day I was in tears and groans ; and if ever the sleep which hung upon 
 my eyelids overcame my resistance, I knocked against the ground my bare 
 bones, which scarce clung together. I say nothing of my meat and drink ; 
 since the monks even when sick use cold water, and it is thought a luxury if 
 they ever partake of cooked food. Through fear of hell, I had condemned 
 myself to prison ; I had scorpions and wild beasts for my only companions. 
 . . . My face was white with fasting, my body was cold ; the man, within 
 his own flesh, was dead before his time." 
 
 In this brief extract your pupil may discover and touch, as it 
 were, the very soul of the ascetic, his manner of life, his fea^s, 
 his hopes. 
 
 The advantages of such a method are, that it brings the mind 
 of the pupil into contact with life-giving reality, and trains him 
 to think ; to see in the form the home of the advancing spirit ; to 
 see in the word and act the force and quality of character. Leoni- 
 das dying at Thermopylae, the brave, obedient, laconic warrior, 
 is the embodiment of Sparta. When Socrates says, " The proper 
 jewels of the soul are temperance and justice, courage, nobility, 
 and truth," you see 'the blossom of a long growth of philosophic 
 thought. When you hear the Romans of the empire address their 
 emperor as " lord and master," " your eternity," and " your magnifi- 
 cence," while that emperor is at the same time the public example 
 of every weakness and vice, how much farther must you go to learn 
 that here you have a despot and his slaves ? Look at the me- 
 diaeval cathedral, towering high above all else, the work of cen- 
 turies, adorned with every art : there you have in visible form the 
 power and wealth of the church of the fourteenth century ; but you 
 must hear Wiclif too, and the witty author of Reynard the Fox, 
 
138 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 and then you shall know that within the bosom of that rich, aes- 
 thetic, cathedral-building power, beats a discontented, restless heart 
 that threatens deeds anon. 
 
 What should be insisted on is that our pupils do, as far as pos- 
 sible, hear and see the very products of the time and people ; that 
 they form their own opinions at this fountain-head of reality before 
 they hear or know the opinions of another : but when they have 
 once done it, the wide world of men and books and action will open 
 to them as never before. 
 
 But how can we get such original materials into the hands of our 
 pupils ? That is the main question. In Germany and France they 
 have answered it pretty completely by popularly compiled collec- 
 tions of original documents and narratives ; even in our own coun- 
 try such reprints are beginning to make their appearance. Still, 
 the teacher must largely depend on his own exertions, and the local 
 library. But if the teacher keeps his eyes open, he will find, now 
 a picture, now an extract, pamphlet, or booklet; and, before he 
 knows it, will have quite a serviceable little collection. Even 
 Plutarch and the declaration of Independence are better than noth- 
 ing ; and it is a good starting-point to know what you would do if 
 you could. 
 
 But it takes more time ? Good friend, it does; and it takes more 
 time to solve a problem in arithmetic than to read its answer; and 
 more time to read a play of Shakespeare than to read that Shake- 
 speare was the greatest dramatist of all the ages; and more time 
 to read the American Constitution and the American newspaper, 
 and make up your mind how to vote your own vote, than it does 
 to be put into a " block of five." But what is time for? 
 
PAET V. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE AND SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WOEKS ON 
 
 METHOD. 
 
 THIS Bibliography contains only English titles of which I can 
 speak from personal knowledge; all the more important modern 
 Ltles are mcluded. Lhave omitted those of pnrely historical inter- 
 at, whose !deas have been outgrown or embodied in recent works 
 Those who wish to read more deeply on this subject- will find the 
 ss.slance in English from the books and references of Hall 
 Ims-lale. If he can read German, he will find his best guide 
 )r. Ernst Bernheim's Lehrbuch der historisehen Metlu.de 
 published in a second edition at Leipsic in 1894, and containing in 
 footnotes and bibliographies a fnll guide to the Continental 
 It can be imported directly from the publishers, 
 uncker und Hum blot of Leipsic for about $3.00, or through Wes 
 termann of New York City. 
 
 Adams, Charles Kendall. Recent Historical Work in Colleges and Universi- 
 turope and America. In papers of the American Historical 
 Association, January, 1890. 
 
 The title is sufficiently descriptive of this paper, which is detailed enough 
 
 >e of great pract.cal value in higher instruction. President Adams who 
 
 began us career as Professor of History at Michigan University, was cSJto 
 
 of Wo" ' tS """If 16111 '" 1885 ' and iS D<W at the head f ** S*te Unf rsi y 
 
 consm. H,s work as a scholar has been entirely in the field of history! 
 
 be remembered as the first to introduce the German Seminarinm 
 
 o toe Instoncal work of the American college. Valuable essays of 
 
 od wm be f und in the **"* * 
 
 , and in Hall's collection noticed below 
 
140 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 Adams, Herbert B. Methods of Historical Study. In Johns Hopkins Uni- 
 versity Studies. Baltimore, Jdnuary and February, 1884. 
 This is an extensive description of actual methods employed in seminary 
 work in colleges and universities abroad and in the United States. The 
 essay noted below in Hall's Methods is but a condensation of this. A still 
 more extensive and exhaustive study of this same subject, by the same author, 
 appears in the Circular of Information No. 2 of the Bureau of Education, 
 Washington, 1887, under the title, " The Study of History in American Col- 
 leges and Universities." Herbert B. Adams has been for many years at the 
 head of the department of history in Johns Hopkins University, and has had 
 the training of many of the stronger young men in the field. He has given a 
 great impulse to studies in local American history, has greatly developed the 
 seminary method, and may be regarded as the founder of the American His- 
 torical Association. 
 
 Andrews, E. Benjamin. Institutes of General History. Boston, 1887. 
 
 In the first chapter of this book will be found a philosophical discussion of 
 the subject of history and its study, and a useful bibliography of the best 
 German works on these aspects of the subject. President Andrews, now of 
 Brown University, was formerly Professor of Economics at Cornell, and has 
 made history and economics special studies for many years. 
 
 Droysen, Johaiin Gustav. Principles of History. Grundriss der Historik. 
 
 Translated by E. Benjamin Andrews. Boston, Ginn, 1893. 
 This is a most valuable exposition of the deepest philosophical considera- 
 tions as to the content, the relation, and the method of history. It is the 
 work of the elder Droysen, who died in 1884, and whose long life was devoted 
 to the study of history. He was successively professor at Jena, Kiel, and 
 Berlin ; at the latter university he spent a quarter of a century. 
 
 Foster, F. H. The Seminary Method of Original Study in the Historical 
 
 Sciences, Illustrated from Church History. New York, 1888. 
 This book will not disappoint those who wish clear and detailed directions 
 for advanced and original study. For this purpose there is no better guide. 
 Professor Foster, formerly in the theological seminary at Oberlin, is now in 
 the Pacific Theological Seminary in Oakland, Cal. 
 
 Fling, Fred Morrow. The German Historical Seminary. The Academy, 
 
 iv. 129, 212. 
 
 Two articles descriptive of a German seminary at Leipsic, where Professor 
 Fling, who has the Department of History in Nebraska State University, was 
 a student during 1886 and 1887. 
 
DESCRIPTIVE AND SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS. 141 
 
 Fredericq, Paul. The Study of History in Germany and France, translated 
 from the French by Henrietta Leonard. In Johns Hopkins University 
 Studies, vol. viii. Baltimore, May and June, 1890. 
 
 Fredericq is professor in the University of Ghent, and these essays were 
 written from personal observation of the most advanced methods. This 
 paper is of great value as an exposition of actual practice in the highest insti- 
 tutions of learning. Law schools are not dealt with. In the same volume is 
 an essay on "The Study of History in Holland and Belgium," and in vol. v. 
 of this same series an essay on "The Study of History in England and Scot- 
 land," both by the same author. But their importance is slight compared 
 with that of the first title. ^ 
 
 Freeman, Edward A. Methods of Historical Study. Eight lectures read 
 
 before the University of Oxford, 1884. London, 1886. 
 
 This book should be thoroughly read by the teacher of history, partly be- 
 cause its large views illuminate and organize the subject, partly because Free- 
 man, as perhaps the greatest of recent historians, has dominated historical 
 thought and method for many years. These lectures were delivered while 
 Freeman was Regius Professor of History at Oxford, and were the ripest re- 
 sult of his thought and work. All his essays have the qualities of breadth, 
 lucidity, and strength, and should be read whenever they apply to the work 
 in hand. 
 
 Froude, James Anthony. Short Studies on Great Subjects. New York, 
 
 1868. 
 
 The first of these studies, on " The Science of History," is a plea for the dra- 
 matic; biographic presentation of history, and is full of suggestion and inspira- 
 tion. Froude succeeded Freeman at Oxford as Regius Professor of History, 
 a position held by Gardiner since Froude's death. 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley. Methods of Teaching and Studying History. Boston, 
 
 Heath. $1.50. 
 
 The first edition of this work contained a translation of Diesterweg's " Weg- 
 \\ciscr," which is regarded as a classic on the subject of method in history in 
 (Jcnuany. The essay is of a decidedly philosophical character, and not so 
 practical in its assistance to teachers as the books of Hinsdale and Foster, 
 or as the other essays of this same volume, which are by H. B. Adams, C. K. 
 Adams, John W. Burgess of Columbia, E. Emerton of Harvard, Thomas 
 Wentworth Higginson, and W. F. Allen, formerly of Wisconsin University. 
 This edition is now out of print; but a second edition has been published, 
 without the Diesterweg, which is a most valuable collection of contributions 
 from American scholars and teachers, and a third is now under way. 
 
142 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 Harrison, Frederic. The Meaning of History, and Other Historical Pieces. 
 
 London and New York, Macmillan & Co., 1894. 
 
 These essays will prove rather suggestive and inspiring than directly help- 
 ful in matters of detail. Those who cannot see them will find their gist em- 
 bodied in an article in the Fortnightly for October, 1893, entitled, "The Royal 
 Road to History," by the same author. This essay is reprinted in Mr. Har- 
 rison's book, and embodies, in a delightful conversation between an Oxford 
 freshman and an Oxford don, the most evident criticisms on the respective 
 views and methods of Freeman and Froude. Harrison's own view is ex- 
 pressed by a London L. C. Oxonian, who maintains that history can only 
 be known in the large by its noteworthy types. 
 
 Hinsdale, B. A. How to Study and Teach History. With particular refer- 
 ence to the history of the United States. New York, Appleton, Is'.d. 
 International Education Series. $1.50. 
 
 States uses of history, defines the field, gives criteria for choice of facts, 
 shows how to organize them, indicates sources of information, describes quali- 
 fications of teacher, illustrated from American history. Mr. Hinsdale is 
 Professor of the Art and Science of Teaching at the University of Michigan, 
 and approaches his subject, therefore, much more from the pedagogic side 
 than any of our other authors, except G. Stanley Hall ; although he has also 
 made an historical contribution of some importance in the book entitled TJie 
 Old Northwest, and as editor of Garfield's Works. This work on method, 
 as the title-page indicates, is of especial use to the teacher of American his- 
 tory, for which it gives a good deal of general guidance as to organization of 
 material, and many references to authorities. 
 
 Howard, George E. The Place of History in Modern Education. In. 
 
 Trans, of the Nebraska State Historical Society, i. 202. 
 
 Dr. Howard, now Professor of History in the Leland Stanford Junior Uni- 
 versity, was formerly in charge of the history work in the University of 
 Nebraska, where he gave a great impulse to the study of local Western his- 
 tory. His essay strongly defines the comparative element in scientific history, 
 and the nature of an institution as an historical object. 
 
 Salmon, Lucy. The Teaching of History in Academies and Colleges. In 
 Women and Higher Education. Edited by Anna C. Brackett. New 
 York, Harper Brothers, 1893. 
 
 See for same essay, Academy, v. 283. See, too, by the same author, the 
 article in the Educational Review for May, 1891, entitled, "The Teaching of 
 History in the Secondary Schools." Miss Salmon was one of the first of Presi- 
 
DESCRIPTIVE AND SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS. 148 
 
 dent Adams's seminary students, and is well known among American scholars 
 by her excellent monographic work. She formerly taught history in the Terre 
 Haute Normal School, and is at present Professor of History at Yassar College. 
 She is, therefore, well fitted to speak upon the subject of her essays, which, 
 although short, are among the best contributions to our subject. 
 
 Seeley, Sir J. R. History and Politics. London and New York, Macmillan. 
 Reprinted in Littell, xxvii. 707. 
 
 Professor J. R. Seeley, who became famous by his Ecce Homo, and who 
 spent the latter half of his life as Regius Professor of Modern History at the 
 University of Cambridge, tries in this essay to define carefully the difference 
 between literary and scientific history. 
 
 Stubbs, William. The Study of Mediaeval and Modern History. Seventeen 
 lectures delivered in the University of Oxford. The following lectures 
 may be particularized : I. Inaugural ; II. -III. On the Present State 
 and Prospects of Historical Study ; IY. On the Purposes and Methods 
 of Historical Study ; Y. Methods of Historical Study ; YI.-YII. On 
 the Characteristic Differences between Mediaeval and Modern History. 
 
 Bishop Stubbs delivered these lectures after he became Regius Professor of 
 Modern History at the University of Oxford, and they deal rather with the 
 higher method, therefore rather with the problems that present themselves to 
 the university professor ; especially suggestive, however, in his discussion of 
 the relative value of the various periods of history to the student as citizen. 
 
 White, Andrew D. European Schools of History and Politics. In Johns 
 Hopkins University Studies. Baltimore, 1887. 
 
 A very detailed statement of what is done in Europe to prepare young men 
 definitely for political careers, and a plea for the establishment of similar 
 courses and schools in our own country. See by the same author: " On Stud- 
 ies in General History and the History of Civilization." New York, 1885. 
 (Papers of the American Historical Association.) Mr. White's experience 
 as historical professor at Michigan University, as president of Cornell for 
 twenty-five years, as our minister to Germany and later to Russia, and as his- 
 torical student and writer during his whole active life, gives the highest value 
 to his utterances on the subject of history in its practical relations. He stands, 
 besides, as the leader of those who in America have turned attention rather 
 to the lines of intellectual history. He also looks at history very decidedly 
 from the point of view of the man of affairs, who seeks in history an argu- 
 ment, an example, or a warning. 
 
144 STUDIES IN HISTORICAL METHOD. 
 
 For the bibliography of this subject in periodical literature, see 
 Poole's Index, under the headings, History, Teaching of, Method in, 
 etc. In files of the Academy and of the Educational Review will 
 be found especially good papers; the Johns Hopkins University 
 Studies, and the Papers of the American Historical Association, 
 will be most useful in keeping the teacher abreast of the most ad- 
 vanced work of the country. The American Historical Review, just 
 begun in October of 1895, published by Macmillan, and edited by a 
 board chosen from the historical faculties of Brown, Yale, Harvard, 
 and other leading colleges, promises much. 
 
 I much regret that I cannot refer to some work of Ranke's on 
 the subject of method, for Ranke is the master cf us all in this last 
 half of the nineteenth century ; but from the Appendix to his Y//V 
 tory of England in the Seventeenth Century, I quote the following 
 passage, which gives the key-note to his philosophy, aim, and method. 
 
 "In our days historical studies have been directed as never before to the 
 original monuments of the past in every century. The deciphering of Assyrian 
 and Egyptian monuments, the collecting of Greek and Roman inscriptions, 
 the publishing of the records and literature of the Middle Ages, the ransacking 
 of modern archives, however different may be the objects, the means of 
 study, and even the intellectual capacities employed, have all the same end; 
 viz.,, to get free from the trammels of established tradition, to gain a mastery 
 over the immediate circumstances and issues of life, to see the past as a pres- 
 ent, as it were with our own eyes. . . . 
 
 "All hangs together, critical study of genuine sources, impartial view, 
 objective description. The end to be aimed at is the representation of the 
 whole truth." 
 
 For Ranke's life and work the following articles are the most 
 useful in English : 
 
 Adams Herbert B. Leopold von Ranke. (Biographical and reminiscent 
 sketch with bibliographical notes.) Papers of American Historical As- 
 sociation, iii. New York and London, 1889. 
 
 Stuckenberg, J. H. W. Ranke and His Method. Andover Review, Feb- 
 ruary, 1887 ; also an article on Ranke's pupil, Wilhelm von Giesebrecht, 
 in Nation of Jan. 30, 1890. 
 
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