TM C3 1918 tltKtllV LIBRARY" UNIVERSITY Of CALIFORNIA FUELS OF WESTERN :ANADA AMES ,WHITE Commission of Conservation Canada Commission of Conservation Constituted under "The Conservation Act," 8-9 Edward VII, Chap. 27, 1909, and amending Acts, 9-10 Edward VII, Chap. 42, 1910, and 3-4 George V, Chap. 12, 1913. Chairman: SIR CLIFFORD SIFTON, K.C.M.G. Members: DR. HOWARD MURRAY, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S. DR. CECIL C. JONES, Chancellor, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N.B. MR. WILLIAM B. SNOWBALL, Chatham, N.B. HON. HENRI S. BELAND, M.D., M.P., St. Joseph-de-Beauce, Que. DR. FRANK D. ADAMS, Dean, Faculty of Applied Science, McGill University, Montreal, Que. MGR. CHARLES P. CROQUETTE, St. Hyacinthe, Que., Professor, Seminary of St. Hyacinthe, and Member of Faculty, Laval University. MR. EDWARD GOHIER, St. Laurent, Que. MR. W. F. TYE, Past-president, Engineering Institute of Canada, Montreal, Que. DR. JAMES W. ROBERTSON, C.M.G., Ottawa, Ont. HON. SENATOR WILLIAM CAMERON EDWARDS, Ottawa, Ont. MR. CHARLES A. McCooL, Pembroke, Ont. SIR EDMUND B. OSLER, M.P., Toronto, Ont. MR. JOHN F. MACKAY, Toronto, Ont. DR. B. E. FERNOW, Dean, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont. DR. GEORGE BRYCE, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Man. DR. WILLIAM J. RUTHERFORD, Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Sask. DR. HENRY M. TORY, President, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alta. MR. JOHN PEASE BABCOCK, Assistant Commissioner of Fisheries, Victoria, B.C. Members ex-offieio: HON. T. A. CRERAR, Minister of Agriculture, Ottawa. HON. ARTHUR MEIGHEN, Minister of the Interior, Ottawa. HON. MARTIN BURRELL, Minister of Mines, Ottawa. HON. AUBIN E. ARSENAULT, Premier, Prince Edward Island. HON. ORLANDO T. DANIELS, Attorney-General, Nova Scotia. HON. E. A. SMITH, Minister of Lands and Mines, New Brunswick. HON. JULES ALLARD, Minister of Lands and Forests, Quebec. HON. G. H. FERGUSON, Minister of Lands, Forests and Mines, Ontario. HON. THOMAS H. JOHNSON, Attorney-General, Manitoba. HON. GEORGE W. BROWN, Regina, Saskatchewan. HON. CHARLES STEWART, Premier, Minister of Railways and Telephones, Alberta. HON. T. D. PATTULLO, Minister of Lands, British Columbia. Assistant to Chairman, Deputy Head: MR. JAMES WHITE. COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION CANADA Fuels of Western Canada AND Their Efficient Utilization Revised Edition (Read at the Second Professional Meeting of the Engineering Institute of Canada, Saskatoon, Sask., August 8-10, 1918) BY JAMESf WHITE, F.R.S.C., M.E.I.C. Assistant to Chairman, Deputy Head, Commission of Conservation i OTTAWA, 1918 TV C 3 M/5 Fuels of Western Canada principal fuels of Western Canada* are: Coal Electricity Natural Gas Peat Petroleum Wood COAL Coal is, of course, much the most important fuel of Western Canada, and ranges from the lignite of the prairies to the semi-anthracite of the Rocky mountains. The Coal Fields and Coal Resources of Canada^ contains a statement of the coal resources of the Dominion. This statement of reserves is divided into two groups. Group I includes "coal in seams containing not less than one foot of merchantable coal occurring not more than 4,000 feet below the surface, including workable submarine areas." This group, Dr. Dow- ling states, includes the coal "of economic value contained in seams of workable thickness, situated within a mineable distance of the surface." Group II includes seams containing not less than two feet of mer- chantable coal occurring at depths between 4,000 and 6,000 feet. Such seams are situated beyond present mineable distance of the surface and have not been considered in this paper. Both groups are subdivided into (1) Actual Reserves, which includes cases in which the calculation of the amount was "based on a knowledge of the actual thickness and extent of the seams"; (2) Probable Reserves, which includes "cases in which an approximate estimate only" could be arrived at. At the present time, to be economically 'workable/ a seam must be more than one foot thick, and no coal mine in Canada approaches 4,000 feet in depth, though, in the Crowsnest district, some workings have a 'cover' of several thousand feet. At great depths the greatly increased ventilation is a matter of expense and difficulty; 'creeps' and subsidences of strata are unavoidable and either crush the coal or render it inaccessible; the capital and current expenditure of the mine grows in a higher pro- portion than the depths; the costs of raising water, coal, miners, etc., increase. Dr. Dowling's estimate of the coal reserves in Group I is as follows: *For the purposes of this paper, Western Canada is taken as including Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Columbia, but not including Yukon or the Northwest Territories. fThe writer desires to express his indebtedness to the report on the Coal Fields and Coal Resources of Canada, by Dr. D. B. Bowling, Geological Survey of Canada. M869192 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION > I w ^ S I c .2 .2 ^ - : 3 1 49 1 S 1 rH t- CO T 1 CD S aTco'co C^ 00 CM CO 1 1 '.2 I 1 1 ios .CD .CD 1 OS CD 1 a CD ! 2 '.2 g ill .S V S g -s -2s 2 | 1 s ;ii 1 g co_ S : N cc O 3 ;s G .2 r^ O o 'S s jzj Gj -S o s "S vs ll 1 &j]2 10 S >r CC 07 O '.2- 1 .s- -S O ^ s ^ s o 'a s 3| i 'CD c 1 cu 'o SsS 03 M O 3 I 1 3 i o 1 i^^ 00 1 t S lO t to CO 00 c- o> IP c 1 1 : :| .2 s O : : ^ ' .2 I ! !o . rH TH Bituminous and high-carbon bituminous CJ 1 * -M- c 1 oa oo . .(NO . .0^ *s CO 00 "i c r^ ^ tw * M p3 o ^ C * 2 ^Tj 1 11 ?1 3 o : :^~ 1 ~B3 ^5 43 o ! !CDO CD g II S : : 2-^J rH s /-N -co TH ^ ft ^ c C rH Lignitic or sub-bituminoi Metric tons -^o : i'^" ! ioOrH . .^j 10 oT CC TH O) TH I 3 Jjj 02 fl | c o S o ^ ^ ^ *;: 3*8 'S 1 g g 02 S "C ooo o> "11 c j|j ' ' '.2 'a :1 S3 3 ill Manitoba . . Saskatchew Alberta.... British Coh i ( EH >-H # -I n- FUELS OF WESTERN CANADA 7 Total coal in Western Canada (Group I) Tons Per cent Manitoba 160,000,000 O'l Saskatchewan 59,812,000,000 6'1 Alberta 1,059,927,400,000 88'8 British Columbia 73,874,942,000 5'0 1,193,774,342,000 The classification of coals adopted in this paper is that used in the Coal Resources of the World, as below: Anthracite Fuel ratio, *12 or over Calorific value, 14,500 to 15,000 B.t.u. Carbon, 93 to 95 per cent Volatile combustible matter, 3 to 5 per cent Semi-anthracite Fuel ratio, 7 to 12 Calorific value, 15,000 to 15,500 B.t.u. Carbon, 90 to 93 per cent Volatile, 7 to 12 per cent Anthracitic and High-carbon Bituminous Fuel ratio, 4 to 7 Calorific value, 15,200 to 16,000 B.t.u. Carbon, 80 to 90 per cent Volatile, 12 to 15 per cent Does not readily coke Bituminous Fuel ratio, 1*2 to 7 Calorific value, 14,000 to 16,000 B.t.u. Carbon, 75 to 90 per cent Volatile, 12 to 26 per cent Generally cokes Low-carbon Bituminous Moisture content occasionally reaches 6 per cent Volatile matter, up to 35 per cent Fixed carbon + \ volatile Hygroscopic moisture + \ volatile = 2 ' 5 to 3 ' 3 Calorific value, 12,000 to 14,000 B.t.u. Carbon, 70 to 80 per cent Makes porous, tender coke Canned- Yields 30 to 40 per cent volatile matter on distillation Calorific value, 12,000 to 16,000 B.t.u. Very porous coke *The fuel ratio is obtained by dividing the percentage of fixed carbon by the per- centage of volatile matter. 8 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Lignitic or Sub-bituminous Generally contains over 6 per cent of moisture Moisture, freshly mined, up to 20 per cent Fixed carbon + | volatile Hygroscopic moisture + \ volatile = Calorific value, 10,000 to 13,000 B.t.u. Carbon, 60 to 75 per cent Lignite Moisture in commercial output, over 20 per cent Calorific value, 7,000 to 11,000 B.t.u. Carbon, 45 to 85 per cent MANITOBA In Manitoba, the Turtle Mountain coal-field occupies an area of about 48-square miles. About 1890, an attempt to mine coal was made near Goodlands, but was unsuccessful, doubtless due to the poor quality and the thinness of the seams. Coal has also been mined near Deloraine, but only for local use. The insignificance of the production is indicated by the fact that the Annual Repot t on the Mineral Production of Canada, published by the Mines Branch, Ottawa, gives no statistics of coal production in Manitoba. The 'probable/ not 'actual/ reserves are estimated at 160,000,000 tons of lignite. Dr. D. B. Bowling states that "the coal horizon does not appear to consist of a series of seams in continuous sheets, but rather of deposits which are limited in extent though repeated over large areas , A thick seam may thus be represented in an adjoining locality by a series of thin seams separated by sheets of sand or clay." SASKATCHEWAN In Saskatchewan, two coal-bearing formations are exposed, namely (1) the Belly River formation of the Cretaceous and (2) Tertiary, which is much more important than the Cretaceous, and underlies the Estevan district, Wood mountain and the Missouri coteau. The two principal fields are roughly triangular in shape. The first is bounded on the east by a line extending from the vicinity of Carnduff to Johnston lake, on the west by a line thence to the international boundary west of Wood mountain and by the international boundary. The second field extends from the boundary between Saskatchewan and Alberta to the vicinity of Swift Current and includes the eastern portion of the Cypress hills. The Souris valley is about 120 feet deep near Estevan and presents peculiarly advantageous conditions for prospecting and for mining the seams that outcrop in its banks and in the tributary gullies and ravines. Though there can be little doubt that enormous areas in Saskatchewan FUELS OF WESTERN CANADA . 9 are underlain by coal seams, the heavy covering of boulder-clay con- ceals their outcrops and, except in occasional rock exposures in the hillsides and stream valleys, their existence can only be determined by boring. At the Estevan mines, most of the coal is produced from the lower measures, which, at this point, have a thickness of 8 feet of coal. In the western portion of the district, the seam splits up into several small seams, but it is reported that, to the northeast, it increases to 15 feet. Lignite has also been reported near Cullen, 16 feet, Arcola, 14 feet, Wauchope, 8 feet, and in a number of localities, particularly in the Wood Mountain and Cypress Hills districts. Coal has been found in borings or natural exposures of rocks of the Belly River formation in the western portion of Saskatchewan, notably at Maple Creek, Brock and Salvador. It carries from 27 to 34 per cent fixed carbon. Coal carrying 35 per cent fixed carbon has also been found in the Dakota sandstone (Cretaceous) near lac la Ronge. It is estimated that, in Saskatchewan, an area of 13,100 square miles is underlain by coal seams. The 'actual' and 'probable' reserves of coal aggregate 59,812 million tons, all lignite. The annual production of coal in Saskatchewan during the period 1898-1917, is as follows: Tons Value Tons Value 1898 25,000 $ 37,500 1908 150,556 $253,790 1899 25,000 37,500 1909 192,125 296,339 1900 1901 1902 40,500 45,000 70,400 60,750 72,000 112,640 1910 1911 1912 181,156 206,779 225,342 293,923 347,248 368,135 1903 116,703 169,618 1913 212,897 358,192 1904 124 885 187,021 1914 232,299 374,245 1905 107,596 152,334 1915 . . . 240,107 365,246 1906 108,398 164,146 1916 281,300 441,836 1907 151,232 252,437 1917 355,445 662,451 The output of the mines in the Souris field constitutes 95J per cent of the production of the province. The mines at Gladman and Hart produce about 1J per cent, the remainder of the output coming from mines that produce less than 1,000 tons each per annum. ALBERTA As indicated in the table on page 6, it has been estimated that the 'actual' and 'probable' reserves of coal in Alberta aggregate 1,059,927 million tons, which constitutes 87 per cent of the coal in Canada. 10 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION The coal horizons in Alberta are: (1) Edmonton and part of Paskapoo formation (2) Belly River formation (3) Kootenay formation Coal is found in the Tertiary rocks, but most of the seams are too thin to mine. Of the total area, 24,779 square miles, occupied by the Edmonton Edmonton and Paskapoo beds, 22,475 square miles is Formation assumed to be underlain by coal. The ' actual' and 'prob- able' reserves in tliese beds aggregate 789,600 million tons of lignitic or sub-bituminous coal and 11,358 million tons of low-carbon bituminous. Of the reserves in the Edmonton formation, 98'6 per cent is lignite or sub-bituminous and 1*4 per cent is low-carbon bituminous. The Edmonton formation forms a wide trough lying approximately parallel to the Rockies and extending from the international boundary to about latitude 55 30'. The central portion of the trough is occupied by Tertiary sandstones. The 'Big' coal seam, which is 25 feet thick where it outcrops on the North Saskatchewan, consists of two 10-foot seams near the Grand Trunk Pacific crossing of the Pembina river. It is 10 feet thick on the*Red Deer river near Alix, but decreases to about 5 feet south of the Bow river. Another very persistent coal horizon is found 500 to 600 feet below the 'Big' seam. At Calgary, where it has been found in a bore-hole 1,800 feet below the surface, it is 13 feet thick, near Drumheller it is 6 feet 10 inches thick, on Battle river it has a thickness of 4 feet. At Edmonton, there are two seams of good domestic coal, each about 6 feet thick. The Belly River formation occupies a considerable Belly River area in the southeastern portion of the province. The Formation most important seams in this formation are exposed at Lethbridge. At this point, the main seam is 5 feet 6 inches in thickness. The probable reserves in the Belly River are: Lignite, 29 per cent; lignitic or sub-bituminous, 10 J per cent; low- carbon bituminous, 60J per cent. The discovery of a 4-foot and a 7-foot seam at Maple Creek, at depths of 197 and 292 feet, respectively, indicates that this formation contains workable seams as far east as southern Saskatchewan. What is assumed to be the 'upper' seam has been found at Tofield, at a depth of 1,050 feet, and at Edmonton, at a depth of 1,400 feet, where it was 6 feet thick. At Calgary, a 5-foot seam found at 2,562 feet, a 7-foot seam at 2,656 feet and a 4-foot seam at 2,875 feet are believed to be in the Belly River formation. FUELS OF WESTERN CANADA 11 The Kootenay formation is exposed in and near the Rocky Kootenay mountains. As a result of the great uplift of the Rockies, Formation the upper measures were denuded and only remnants of the lowest division of the Cretaceous the Kootenay sur- vived. These remnants are usually found occupying valleys between the mountain ranges, the mountains having served as a protecting agency. At the same time, the crumpling and folding of the strata during the uplift of the mountains have given us a coal that, in places, is semi- anthracite or is anthracitic. It is estimated that, of the 'actual' and 'probable' reserves, 1*7 per cent is semi-anthracite and 98*3 per cent is high-carbon bituminous or bituminous. The coal in the Kootenay formation is the highest grade found in the Prairie Provinces. In Alberta, the three principal seams in the Coleman area have a thickness of 16 feet, 10 feet, and 8 feet, respectively. In the Blairmore area there are seams 10, 17, 3J, 3J, 17 and 6 feet thick, respectively. A seam 20 feet thick has been reported in the Moose Mountain area. In the Banff area, the coal varies from anthracite to bituminous. In the southeastern portion of the field, there is a total thickness of coal of from 41 to 86 feet. At Bankhead, the workings have cut seams 3 feet, 7 feet (in thin bands), 8 feet, 19 feet (in two benches), 13 feet (in three benches) and 6 feet thick, respectively. In the Bighorn basin, seams aggregating about 60 feet of workable coal have been found. Seams of 21 feet, 7J feet and 4| feet are being mined at Mountain Park. Coal is also found in the Kootenay formation at numerous other points in the Rockies and in the foothills. On the Muskeg river, seams 11| feet, 25 feet and 7 feet thick, respectively, have been found. The Chief Inspector of Coal Mines for Alberta states Coal Production, that, in 1916, the total sales in Canada of coal produced Alberta in Alberta, were 4,227,164 tons; that 2,956,205 tons were sold for consumption in Alberta, 1,021,656 tons in Saskatchewan, 98,629 tons in Manitoba, 89,582 tons in British Columbia and 61,092 tons in the United States. The coal production* of Alberta in the period , 1898-1917, was as follows : Tons Value Tons Value 1898.. 1899 315,088 309,600 $ 787,720 774 000 1908.. 1909 1,685,661 1,994,741 $ 4,127,311 4,838,109 1900 1901 1902 1903. 311,450 340,275 402,819 495 893 778,625 850,687 960,601 1 117 541 1910 1911 1912 1913 2,894,469 1,511,036 3,240,577 4 014 755 7,065,736 3,979,264 8,113,525 10,418,941 1904 1905 1906 1907 661,732 931,917 1,246,360 1,591,579 1,404,524 1,993,915 2,614,762 3,836,286 1914....... 1915 1916 1917 3,683,015 3,360,818 4,559,054 4,736,368 9,350,392 8,283,079 11,386,577 14,155,685 *The Production of Coal and Coke in Canada, during the Calendar Year 1916, p. 29. By John McLeish, Mines Branch, Department of Mines, Ottawa. 12 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION The total coal production of Alberta', in 1917, was 4,736,368 tons, Of this production, 2,428,838 tons, or 51'3 per cent, was lignite; 2,199,305 tons, or 46'4 per cent, was bituminous; 108,225 tons, 2'3 per cent, was semi-anthracite. PRODUCTION OF COAL IN ALBERTA, 1917, BY DISTRICTS District Production, short tons Per cent of total Anthracite Banff 108,225 23 Crowsnest Pass 1,188,456 25 1 Canmore 196,947 42 Brazeau 266,823 56 Jasper Park 248,733 5'2 Yellowhead Pass Mountain Park 159,182 139,164 3'4 29 Total bituminous 2,199,305 46'4 Lignite Pincher Creek . . . 4,652 1 Lethbridge Magrath 614,017 936 13 Milk River Taber 8,047 157,373 2 33 Bow Island 6 043 1 Medicine Hat 13,975 '3 Aldersyde 7,076 2 High River 1,126 Drumheller . . 631,767 13 3 Big Valley Brooks Hanna Lacombe 26,753 9,233 25,670 16,097 6 2 5 3 Trochu 15,023 3 Three Hills Carbon 22,457 4,301 5 1 Battle River . 9,862 2 Camrose . . 56,625 12 Tofield 68,806 1'5 Clover Bar Edmonton Namao 256,208 121,080 18,195 5'4 26 4 Cardiff.. . . 237,861 50 Wabamun 13,534 3 Pembina 81,911 17 Peace River 210 Total lignite 2,428,838 51-3 Total production . .... 4,736,368 FUELSOFWESTERNCANADA 13 BRITISH COLUMBIA The Crowsnest coal-field is the most important body of Crowsnest coal that is being mined in British Columbia. It includes Coal-field an area of 230 square miles. The coal is a high grade bituminous, occasionally running into anthracite, aver- aging about 64 per cent fixed carbon. Much the greater portion of the coal is converted into coke, the remainder being sold as steam coal. There are 22 workable seams, with a total thickness of 216 feet, 100 feet of which is estimated as workable. In addition to the Crowsnest field referred to above, areas of coal- bearing rocks are found at several points in southern British Columbia. The Princeton field includes an area of about 50 square miles. At Princeton, there is an 18J-foot seam of lignite carrying 42 per cent fixed carbon, 38 per cent volatile matter and 16 per cent moisture. At Nicola, seams 6 feet, 10 feet, 5 feet and 12 feet thick, respectively, have been mined. The Nicola coal is a sub-bituminous and analyzes about 47 per cent fixed carbon, 39 per cent volatile and 4 per cent moisture. Coal has also been found at Tulameen, Kamloops, Hat creek and North Thompson river. The total area in Vancouver island underlain by Vancouver Island coal seams is about 600 square miles. These Coals coal-fields contain some of the best steam coals on the Pacific coast. The coal of the Comox field is coking bituminous and contains 57*2 per cent of fixed carbon, the highest carbon content of all the Vancouver Island coals. Three seams have been mined in this field. The Nanaimo field has a productive area of 65 square miles, though the area underlain by coal seams is somewhat larger. The seams vary in thickness. Occasionally a seam containing from 2 to 3 feet of dirty coal carries 30 feet of clean coal at a point only 100 feet distant. Run- of-mine coals from this field run as high as 56 per cent fixed carbon and 43 per cent volatile combustible; commercial samples, 12,470 to 13,160 British thermal units. The coal-fields of the Queen Charlotte islands are of Cretaceous and Tertiary age. The Cretaceous coals range from semi-anthracite to low- carbon bituminous. The Tertiary coals are lignites. In 1871, mines were opened in the semi-anthracite at Cowgitz, but the coal was so badly crushed that the enterprise was abandoned. This coal analyzed 83 per cent fixed carbon and 5 per cent volatile combustible; fuel ratio, 16*5. 14 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Lignite is found at Alexandria, Quesnel and Prince George Central on the Fraser, on the Nazco river, Nechako river, Dean British river and Lightning creek. Three seams of bituminous coal, Columbia possibly a coking coal, aggregating 20 feet in thickness, have been reported on a tributary of Morice river, and three seams on Goat river, a tributary of the Telkwa, aggregate 56 feet in thickness. The most important coals thus far discovered in the northern Northern portion of British Columbia are the semi-anthracites and British anthracites of the Groundhog Mountain area. An area of Columbia 170 square miles is assumed to be coal-bearing, and con- tains 8 seams, with an aggregate thickness of 30 feet. The 'actual' and 'probable' reserves in British Columbia are: Semi- anthracite, 1*9 per cent; bituminous, 85*4 per cent; low-carbon bitumin- ous, 3*3 per cent; cannel, 2*4 per cent; lignitic, 7'0 per cent. Lignites have been discovered on Kispiox river, Sustut river, Peace river and Liard river. Bituminous coal has been found near Peace River canon, and on the Taku river. The coal production in British Columbia during the period, 1898- 1917, was as follows: Year Tons . Value Year Tons Value 1898.. 1899 ,263,680 ,431,101 $3,384,858 3 833 307 1908.. 1909 2,333,708 2 606 127 $ 7,292,838 8 144 147 1900 1901 ,791,833 919 488 4,799,553 5 141 487 1910 1911 3,330,745 2 542 532 10,408,580 7 945 413 1902 808 441 4 844 040 1912 3 208 997 10 028 116 1903 676 581 4 490 844 1913 2 714 420 8 482 562 1904 1905 ,862,625 ,945,452 4,989,174 5,211,030 1914 1915 2,239,799 2 065 613 6,999,374 6 455 041 1906 1907 2,146,262 2,364,898 5,748,915 7,390,306 1916.. 1917 2,584,061 2,433,888 8,075,190 8,235,716 Coal In the calendar year 1917, the coal production of the Production Prairie Provinces and British Columbia was: Tons Per cent of Canada's production Value Saskatchewan. . . . 355 445 2 '53 $ 662 451 Alberta 4 736 368 33-72 14 153 685 British Columbia .... 2 433 888 17 '33 8 235 716 7,525,701 53-58 $23,051,852 FUELS OF WESTERN CANADA 15 Imports In the year ending March 31, 1917, the imports into the of Coal Prairie Provinces, British Columbia and the portion of Ontario lying to the west of lake Superior were: Tons Value Bituminous lump 2,067,416 $2,850 121 Bituminous slack 260 197 337 655 Anthracite 521,611 2 924*308 2,849,224 $6,112,084 Canada's total consumption of coal in 1916 was 29,865,856 tons. Of this total, 41*3 per cent was Canadian and 58*7 per cent was imported coal. In normal times, taking the average during the period, 1894-1913, the consumption is about 48 per cent Canadian and 52 per cent imported, the increase in imports at the present time being due largely to the de- mands for munition and other manufactures in the coal-less portion of Canada Ontario and Quebec and to the decrease in the production of Nova Scotia. Locomotives, in 1916, consumed 8,677,354 tons. This constituted 29'1 per cent of all coal consumed in Canada. It was 34'3 per cent of the total consumption of bituminous and lignite in the Dominion and was 38'2 per cent of the total consumption of bituminous. The Vancouver Island and Nicola Valley collieries, in 1917, exported 32*6 per cent of their output to the United States, exported 2*4 per cent to other countries and sold 65 per cent for consumption in Canada. The corresponding figures for 1912 are 21*2 per cent, 7'5 per cent and 71*3 per cent, respectively. In 1902, 75 per cent was exported to the United States. These figures show a remarkable change of market. The production in the Crowsnest district in 1917, was 617,956 short tons. ,0f this production, 252,949 tons, or 40'9 per cent, was exported to the United States; 82,441 tons, or 13*3 per cent, was sold in Canada; 282,566 tons, or 45*7 per cent, was converted into coke or was used for colliery purposes. In 1917, the Crowsnest Pass Coal Co. produced 504,762 short tons, the Canadian Collieries, 690,111 tons, and the Western Fuel Co., 714,533 tons, contributed, in the aggregate, 78*4 per cent of the produc- tion of British Columbia. In 1917, the Vancouver Island collieries produced 1,648,201 tons, or 67 '7 per cent of the output of the province; the Nicola-Princeton collieries, 167,731 tons, or 6*9 per cent; Crowsnest (East Kootenay) district, 617,956 tons, or 25*4 per cent. 16 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION -H- - 55 S 3 W 5 ^ | 3 fl r 3 3 s <3 oi 8 .S * a 3 3 s J ^ . 1 1 M a g "8 0> 1 Estevan Coal Brick Co. West Dom. Col Bienfait mine .> S .'O efi-w i-j 03 C>t> t> 0) !>c/} Jl I ll 1 ' s ^ o c a rl * " s a o c> o tO (M fl&l OO 00 I! o oo to rH 00^ -Q-^ CO Tf CO coco a o> (M OCD to oo ill 00 OOCO rH rH (M OO CO .S M ^ t-0 J'5T>> OO ^* ^}* 'O rH rH to D i C o a 3 ^ * * - ^ o 3 a ". 1 Q il > - 3 3 ' ~ L^ ^ c3 ? 03 ^ ^ 10 U5 , i .js?a S x^ 1 S^il'g s|3aill* o^ .QJS' as o i -1-iS 1% SiV| o<| tnPogrt^o-^ aill8|s ^^gdgco^^o ^^152^^ S3 QMEH^PH^fi^ PQ OO^ O kenridge & Lun Coal Co. ait No. 3 m hinook Co Co. . 2, Tp. 4, R. XIX, W. 4. anada West Co Non-coking u bo e >y] ^ O pq S pq pq pq 1 i -%H S 2 8 1 O pq .J 111 pq 1 - - - pq pq 3 " 3 - v - s: ^ ^ 1 * 8 |g rH ; ; 6 : MW oT H r- IV, w. oin. Rosedale mine Bow river, Horse- shoe bend. Wadsworth mine, Hanna. McCormack mine, Castor. Halbert mine Wilson mine Knee Hills, creek, R. XXIII. : ' '66 : c ; ; OU Q -^ 1 1 Illlll 1 :i g OJ C ** cj *i"s,OOOU50OOCO H T ( CO CO T^OO Ot-t-COO THCO F O > c3 ej O 0) W fl; . C >> Q ^ > ^^ S C 1 5"a H -^& 000 O5 OO t^ CO CO CO rH rH rH O CO CO rH rH rH O co" PH OO rH CO OS 00 rH rH ooot- rHCOt- CO^CxTrH rH r < T * "e3 o C$ ^ C pq a M 0> ^ IE ^ OO CO rf OCD rH CO Tf OCX105 5 EH >> 3 IOU31O t-os rH O^ OS rH (M of T3 "S. rH rH T~( rH rH oj . CO ^ * c/i ^Q p.! ^j S'cS 'S rH COTj< OOS rf 05 rH -^00 CO * % i (X" 73 S kO IO IO 35 S COO LO CO t^ CO -^ lOlOTf S a Is fc 8 fc If ^0) 03 U3OCO COOS ^ 00^ cot- co b Q ^ A Ctf " ,Q IO OO TJ< CD CD oi o ^ i ( C^ OS J2 1 w C/3 II 11" CO CO CO COCO CO cow CO CO CO ^3 o ^ en Q^ IT 3 r**^ QJ E ~ ex i-4 .s 3 M CD CD OS t- CO OO OrH OCO OOrH OrH T-j rHO odd rCl ^ 4J i S-A ^ S S C5 ^ r o Vj 43 1 %_ 2 s' 43 ^ 2 d r ' r 1 S 1 :2 d ! d ;0 d O & \ -4-> o-o . 1 ^ 2 6 District Sydney area No. 7 or Hub ses Harbour seam . . Phalen seam . . N.S.S. & C. Co., seam Inverness Ry. & Co Pictou area Acadia Coal Foord seam . . Acadia Coal g bfl III 1! OQJ O -tJ^S (-H ^ Dominion Coal ' Joggins mines .... "1 oP o> ^ g-g f ! FUELS OF WESTERN CANADA 21 i s i CM" ^_^ > T3 1 o; 8 1 8" tri - a) a; S CM CO (D 0) mine, 0*0*0 ^ CO ^ * *H bfl bfl^n cu fl | g g 1 I > I s s | > S s| 08 > > "So <1<^ 0005CO CO t>Tl^ lyl . ^23 **r> Q. 8| o O b o b o b v G=3 {^3 C=3 G=3 G=3 Comparative Number of Cars INCREASED CARS NECESSARY FOR TRANSPORTATION OF HIGH-ASH COAL Courtesy of TheJ. G. White Engineering Corporatiofi.N#i* York. FUELS OF WESTERN CANADA 31 Coal as marketed contains a certain proportion of preven- Effect of tible non-combustible and a certain proportion of non- Excessive preventible, both of which are referred to as 'ash/ The Ash non-preventible is mineral matter which is so thoroughly incorporated with the structure of the coal that it can not be separated mechanically. The preventible ash consists of slate and other impurities which can be separated mechanically. The effect of excessive ash is well illustrated by the following state- ment: In the United States, the non-preventible ash content of clean bituminous coal varies from an average of 6 per cent in Wyoming coal to an average of 16 per cent in Colorado coal and, for the whole country, averages about 10 per cent. In good practice, 10 boilers of 500 h.p. capacity each will generate 300,000 Ibs. of steam per hour with coal carrying 10 per cent ash. If, hov/ever, the coal carry 15 per cent ash 5 per cent more than normal it will require 15 boilers to generate the same amount of steam. If it carry 21 per cent of ash, it will require 20 boilers to do the same work. The reduction in heat values is due, in carried off in the ash. The effects of high ash content are startlingly demonstrated in the diagrams on pages 30 and 32. Based on heating values, to haul coal carrying 15 per cent ash necessitates the use of 18 per cent more cars than if the ash content were only 10 per cent, but coal carrying 21 per cent ash requires the use of 65 per cent more cars than if it contained 10 per cent. Last year, enormous amounts of slate, shale and dirt were contained in the bituminous and anthracite coal marketed by United States mines. About 85 per cent of the coal was hauled by the railways. Each per cent of avoidable ash meant the haulage of 5 million tons of useless waste. It has been stated that the impurity ran as high as 20 per cent, and it is estimated that it averaged at least 5 per cent more than normal. As shown above, this extra 5 per cent of impurity so reduced the efficiency of the coal as fuel that 18 per cent more cars were required to obtain the same heating values as from normal coal. Therefore, based on heating values, the railways of the United States did about 80,000,000 tons useless hauling last winter. Omitting the reduction of efficiency due to poor coal referred to above, the railways hauled at least 32,000,000 tons of dirt and rock, or about 640,000 car-loads. The diagrams on pages 30 and 32 demonstrate the wastefulness and inefficiency of coal with high ash content. They show that the loss of efficiency is not great so long as the ash does not run more than about 10 per cent, but the fact that 21 per cent of ash reduces boiler efficiency to one -half what it would be with coal carrying 10 per cent ash, is a startling demonstration of the inefficiency of dirty coal. COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Number of Boilers 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 IS 17 18 19 20 10 00 K3OI lOO 01 -f-> ]SSJ C >M L. (D i , loo |o o| IOI c a a D a a NUMBER OF 500-HR BOILERS REQUIRED TO GENERATE 300,000 LB. STEAM PER HOUR 21 JC 0) 18 -P C CD <_ 8 4 12345 Pounds of Coal per B. HP. POUNDS OF COAL CONSUMED TO PRODUCE ONE BOILER HORSE-POWER Courtesy of The J G. White Engineering Corporation, New York. FUELSOFWESTERNCANADA 33 NATURAL GAS No reservoirs of natural gas have, as yet, been discovered in Manitoba or Saskatchewan. Gas has been reported at Morden and Treherne, Man., and at Pense, Estevan, Hanley and North Hanley, Sask., but not in commercial quantities. In Alberta, four important gas-fields have been discovered, namely, the Medicine Hat, Bow Island, Viking and Pelican Rapids fields. The gas is derived from the top of the Colorado in the Medicine Hat field and from sands in the lower Colorado in the Bow Island and Viking fields. Three anticlinal arches have been found. These arches are so low and diffuse that, owing to the scarcity of natural exposures of rock, it is difficult to trace them. The first extends from the Sweet Grass hills in Montana, thence northwestward to the Bow river. The Bow Island field is near the axis of this anticline. The second anticline extends northwestward from the Saskatchewan-Alberta boundary in approxi- mate latitude 52, to Viking. The third anticline crosses the Athabaska river about 20 miles above McMurray and, like the first and second, has a general northwest-and-southeast course. It is a common experience in* oil and gas-fields to find gas, oil and water, in the order of their respective specific gravities, namely, the gas at the top, then oil, then water, the gas being found at the crest of the anticlinal arches with the oil below it. When the reservoir is 'dry/ however, the oil tends to collect in the basins. In the Medicine Hat gas-field there are 33 wells, with an Medicine Hat approximate capacity open flow* of from 90 million to Gas-field 92 million cubic feet per day, which is equivalent to about 53 million feet, working capacity. The largest well has been reported to have a capacity of 6 million feet per day. The tested portion of this field has an area of about 30 square miles. The initial rock pressure was about 600 Ibs. to the square inch. The gas-sand is found at a depth of from 1,000 to 1,200 feet and is about 900 feet above the Dakota sandstone. This field supplies -Medicine Hat, Red- cliff and the vicinity. The Bow Island gas-field has a tested area of about 25 Bow Island square miles; the initial rock pressure was 790 Ibs. and Gas-field the gas-sand was found in the Dakota sandstone and at a depth of from 1,850 to 2,150 feet. This field supplies Macleod, Lethbridge, Calgary and the intermediate towns by a 16-inch pipe-line, 175 miles long. There are 21 wells drilled in this field and the *Under working conditions, a well may be assumed to deliver about 60 per cent of the open flow capacity. 34 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION total daily capacity, open flow, is about 186 million cubic feet. No. 4 well has a capacity of 29 million cubic feet. The well at Foremost, 36 miles south of Bow Island, and on the same anticline, has an estimated open flow of 13 million cubic feet per day. A heavy oil-sand found at Foremost, 920 feet below the gas-sand, suggests a possible source for the gas. Gas has also been found at Langevin, Cassils, Brooks and other points on the main line of the Canadian Pacific, in smaller quantities. At Langevin and Cassils, the gas-sand is at the horizon of the Medicine Hat sand; at Brooks, it is in a lower horizon. In the Viking field, gas has been found in the Dakota sandstone at the depth of about 2,350 feet, and in the Grand Rapids sandstone at a depth of about 2,200 feet. The tested area is about 12 square miles. There are 8 wells in the Viking field, with a total daily capacity of 36 million cubic feet per 24 hours. The average rock pressure is 710 Ibs. It is an ethane gas, in which respect it differs from the BOW Island and Medicine Hat gases, which are very dry. This, no doubt, will permit the production of gasolene by absorption as soon as it has been piped and is in use in Edmonton. There are two gas horizons, at 2,150 feet and 2,350 feet, respectively, the upper sand yielding more gas. It is reported that the two wells on Sheep creek, 32 miles southwest of Calgary, drilled by the Calgary Petroleum Products Co., have a com- bined capacity of 5 million cubic feet per day. A well at Vegreville, 30 miles northwest of Viking, has a flow of from 200,000 to 300,000 cubic feet per day. At Wetaskiwin, 40 miles south of Edmonton, a gas well has an open flow capacity of 300,000 to 350,000 feet. The Three Creeks well, drilled for oil, is reported to have a large flow of gas. It is on Peace river, 13 miles below Peace River Landing. At Pelican Rapids, on the Athabaska river, 160 miles north of Ed- monton, a heavy flow of gas, under a rock pressure of 250 -to 300 Ibs., was struck in the McMurray sandstone at a depth of 800 feet when drilling for oil in 1897. Mr. Eugene Coste, M.E., states that it had an initial volume of 'several million' cubic feet. Gas has also been found in a deeper well, in the Devonian limestone. The wells at Pelican are reported to have, at present, a combined capacity of about 3 million cubic feet per day. In 1917, the production of natural gas in Alberta was 6,744 million cubic feet, valued at $1,299,976, as sold by the producing companies. FUELS OF WESTERN CANADA 35 PETROLEUM Up to the present time, oil in considerable quantities has not been found in Western Canada. Respecting the possibility that petroleum will be discovered, particularly in the Viking area and the Peace and Atha- baska valleys, the situation may be summed up as very promising. A small quantity of dark oil obtained in one of the wells in the Viking gas-field is an encouraging indication, and oil has also been found in the Pelican Rapids gas-well. Seepages of oil have been found near Waterton lake in southwestern Alberta, and in the Flathead valley in southeastern British Columbia. In northern Alberta, there are enormous tar seepages Northern which evidence an up welling of petroleum unequalled Alberta elsewhere in the world. Along the Athabaska river, they Possibilities extend from Pelican rapids to Fort McKay, a distance of over 100 miles. The known occurrences indicate that there is in sight at least 6J cubic miles of bitumen, and the petroleum from which it was derived must have been many times greater. While this enormous amount of petroleum has escaped, there must be untapped reservoirs in the Devonian limestones whence it was derived. Similar seepages occur near the Peace and Mackenzie rivers. Near Peace River Landing, oil has been found in two wells, 900 and 1,100 feet deep, respectively. The first well is reported to have yielded 3 to 4 bbls. per day when oil was struck in the upper portion of the tar sands and to have had a maximum production of about 9 bbls. Drilling, however, was continued through the tar sands, which are about 80 feet in thickness at this point, and a heavy flow of water and gas was struck immediately below the sands. The second well is in the tar sands and is reported to be yielding about 25 bbls. per day. In the Sheep Creek district, about 32 miles southwest of Calgary, the production of oil is 'reported as follows: Company Depth of well, feet Specific gravity (Beaume) Production, bbls. per day Calgary Petroleum Products Co., No. 1 well* Alberta Petroleum Consolidated Canada Southern Co 3,920 2,720 2 400 62 38 to 40 55 10 25 5 Northwest Pacific Co. (when operating) ... Alberta Southern Co., No. 1 well Southern Alberta Co., No. 1 well 3,500 3,200 3,300 38 55 to 56 58 to 60 4 10 to 15 30 *Commonly known as the Dingman well. Mr. Dingman, President of the Calgary Petroleum Products Co., states that the company's oil wells have a combined capacity of 5 million cubic feet of gas per day; that their measurements indicate a content of one gallon of gasolene per 1,000 cubic feet of gas and that, if only one-half the gasolene be recoverable, they could maintain an output of 2,500 gals, of gasolene per day. 36 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION The Mid-West, 3,200 feet deep, and the Acme, 3,200-3,300 feet, also in the Sheep Creek district, are reported to have struck oil. As 'commercial' gasolene is 60 to 63 B., the oil produced by the Calgary Petroleum Products, Canada Southern, Alberta Southern and Southern Alberta companies approximates to the fuel ordinarily marketed as 'gasolene.' In the year ending March 31, 1917, we imported into Western Canada, for fuel purposes, 95,693,497 gallons of petroleum, valued at $2,738,555. For refining, we imported, in the same year, 35,313,717 gallons, valued at $1,040,047. The discovery of extensive oil-fields in Alberta or Saskatchewan would retain in Canada at least $3,750,000 which we are now paying for petroleum importations and an additional $1,250,000 paid for petroleum products, such as gasolene and kerosene, or, in all, $5,000,000. In 1917, 312,000 gallons of gasolene and kerosene were recovered from Alberta crude oils. Presumably, part of this production was from petroleum produced during 1916. During 1917, the production of crude petroleum in Alberta amounted to 8,500 bbls., or 297,500 Imp. gallons. FUELS OF WESTERN CANADA 37 ELECTRIC ENERGY In Western Canada, electric energy in large quantities for use as fuel is not economically available at the present time, except in certain favoured localities in southern Manitoba and southern British Columbia. Manitoba Water- Powers second feet. In Manitoba, there are, on the Winnipeg river, two devel- oped powers and seven undeveloped powers, ranging from 9,900 to 57,300 h.p. at 75 per cent efficiency on a 24-hour basis and assumed minimum flow of 12,000 These powers are as follows: H.P. at 75% efficiency on a 24-hour basis Remarks 12,000 sec.-ft.* 20,000 sec.-ft. t Winnipeg municipal plant Slave Falls site 46,100 26,600 28,200*t 12,300 9,900 12,600 18,400 57,300** 37,900 76,800 44,400 28,200*f 12,300 29,600 37,900 30,700 95,500 63,100 25,000 h.p. developed. 47,000 h.p. installed. 28,200 h.p. developed. 34,000 h.p. installed. Final head. Winnipeg Electric Ry. Co. plant. . . Upper Pinawa site Upper Seven Sisters site Lower Seven Sisters site McArthur site Du Bonnet site Pine site Total power 249,300 418,500 53,200 h.p. developed, 81,000 h.p. installed. *With unregulated river. fWith regulated river. *f28,200 h.p. developed at this plant. **With the preliminary head, 47,100 h.p. can be developed with unregulated river and 78,700 h.p. with regulated river. The Grand rapid of the Saskatchewan has 32,600 h.p., with an assumed minimum flow of 4,500 second-feet. It is not improbable, however, that the flow sometimes falls to about 3,500 second -feet. On the Bow river, the Horseshoe and the Kananaskis falls have a capacity of 11,910 h.p. each,, with a regulated river, or, with the mini- mum natural flow of the river, 4,780 h.p. each. There are large powers on the Nelson, Churchill and Athabaska rivers, at Fort Smith rapids on the Slave, and at Vermilion and Peace canon on Peace river, but detailed information respecting the low-water flow of these rivers is not available. In some instances, low banks and lack of concentrated fall would make development very costly. 38 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION In British Columbia, there are many important water- powers. The investigation of the water-powers of ^ British Columbia by the Commission of Conservation has disclosed the existence of two great water-power centres, namely, Nelson, with 400,000 h.p. within a radius of 50 miles, and Vancouver, with 300,000 h.p. within the same distance. Based on experience at Toronto, these quantities would suffice for a population of 1,700,000 at Nelson, or for 10 manufacturing cities of 170..000 each. The power near Vancouver would suffice for one manufacturing city of 1,250,000 population, or for 10 cities of 125,000 each. There are 12 power-sites in British Columbia of 50,000 h.p. and upwards. With the exception of the South fork Quesnel and Peace river, all these powers are less than 125 miles from the 49th parallel. Kootenay river, Upper and Lower Bonnington falls, possible development 125 ; 000 h.p. Pend d'Oreille river, Waneta 73,000 " " Salmon river 50,000 " *Thompson river 100,000 " *Fraser river, Hellgate 200,000 " Bridge River tunnel 70,000 " Stave river, lower site 52,000 " " upper site 52,000 " Coquitlam-Buntzen, North arm Burrard Inlet. . . 84,000 " Campbell river, possible 100,000 " South fork Quesnel river 90,000 Peace River canon 100,000 " There are 18 power sites of between 20,000 and 50.000 h.p. Eight of these sites are distant less than 100 miles from the 49th parallel. Kootenay river, Cora Lynn to Granite rapids . . . 22,000 h.p. " rapids near mouth 20,000 " Pend d'Oreille river, Nine-mile falls 32,000 " " Fifteen-mile creek 34,000 " Columbia river, Long rapids 30,000 " Adams river 30,000 " Barriere river, ultimate development 20,000 " Hurtle river, Helmcken falls 20,000 " Nahatlatch river, rapids below lakes 30,000 " Jones lake (Fraser river) 25,000 " Jordan river (25,000 h.p. developed), ultimate. . . . 38,000 " Cheakamus river, Bear Mount canon 40,000 " Powell river (24,000 h.p. developed), ultimate 32,000-35,000 h.p. *Development debarred owing to presence of railways. FUELS OF WESTERN CANADA 39 Nechako river, Grand canon 30,000 h.p. " Tetachuck falls and rapids 30,000 " Bulkley river, Hagwilget canon 20,000 " Nass river, falls below Cranberry river 20,000 " " " rapids and falls below White river. ... 20,000 " There are 29 power sites of between 10,000 and 20,000 h.p. capacity and 585 of less than 10,000 h.p. The report of the Commission of Con- servation on the Water Powers of British Columbia includes all avail- able data respecting 644 water-power sites. Heating on a large scale by electricity is only economi- Electric cally possible where energy can be generated at very low Heating cost. As stated by Mr. Arthur V. White, Consulting Engineer, Commission of Conservation, ''Let it be appreciated that Canadians need never expect to have electrical energy replace coal and other fuel for heating buildings except to a relatively limited extent/' With anthracite coal at $10.00 per ton and burned at 50 per cent efficiency, and with electric energy at one cent per kilowatt-hour, the coal will yield 14,000 B.t.u. for one cent as compared with 3,412 B.t.u. from the electric energy for one cent. This demonstrates that, on this basis, heating by electric energy would be four times as costly as with coal. An estimate by Mr. Arthur V. White indicates that, in Ontario, the heating requirements of the average home in Toronto would require about five electrical horse power per capita. While weather conditions in winter in Toronto are much milder than in the Prairie Provinces, they are more severe than on the Pacific coast. On this basis, therefore, the 2,100,000 inhabitants of Western Canada would require not less than 10,500,000 electrical h.p. for heating alone. As the hydro-electric energy already developed in Western Canada aggregates about 359,000 h.p. (76,000 in Manitoba, 33,000 in Alberta and 250,000 in British Columbia), it would require 29 times this amount to heat the homes in Western Canada. Again, as the total electric energy already developed in the whole of Canada is only about 1,800,000 h.p., it would require nearly six times this amount to replace the fuel used in the Prairie Provinces and British Columbia. Again, it has been estimated that the total water-power in the Prairie Provinces is about 3,500,000 h.p.* and in British Columbia, 2,500,000 h.p.f Even assuming that it would be possible to utilize the powers in the northern portion of the Prairie Provinces and British Columbia, and the numerous small powers, the aggregate would still be 4,500,000 h.p. short of the heating requirements of that region. *This figure is probably too high. jThis is exclusive of 500,000 h.p. for power possibilities on rivers like the Fraser, Thompson, Skeena and Nass, where, because of the proximity of railways or possible interference with the salmon industry, economical development is, at present, debarred. 40 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION PEAT The best basis of comparison of peat and coal, as they exist in a condition of nature, is to state that a peat bog 40 feet in thickness only contains the same amount of carbon as a bed of coal 1 foot thick. During the last half century, numerous attempts have been made in Canada to manufacture a commerical peat fuel. In 1910, Dr. E. Haanel, Director, Mines Branch, stated that, up to that time, the attempts "have been failures and very little peat fuel is at present available. The chief cause of most of these failures has been in the ignorance of the nature of peat on the part of those who have engaged in the production of peat-fuel. In several instances the bogs chosen for the work have been unsuitable for the purpose in view. A proper investigation of the bog previous to the commencement of operations was seldom made; consequently, methods entirely unsuitable for the utilization of the bog in question have been employed, and the result has been failure. These failures, involving, as they did, considerable loss of capital, have created a profound distrust of everything connected with peat and the utilization of peat bogs." Peat, as found in nature, contains about 10 per cent Evaporation combustible matter and 90 per cent water, the removal Difficulties of this exceedingly high proportion of water constituting the great problem for the peat engineer. Dr. Haanel states that it has been "demonstrated, once and for all, that the water content of raw peat can not be reduced much below 80 per cent by pressure alone, and the process of wet carbonizing, upon which large sums have been expended, has not, up to this time, proved a success. In fact, it may be safe to make the statement that any process for the manufacture of peat fuel which depends upon the employment of artificial heat for the evaporation of the moisture will not prove economic. The only economic process in existence at the present time is that which utilizes the sun's heat and the wind for the removal of the moisture." The Mines Branch, Department of Mines, Ottawa, has investigated 18 bogs in Manitoba. The report states that there are bogs in the Winnipeg River district containing 1,860,000 tons of peat -fuel, 25 per cent moisture. With its enormous coal resources, however, Western Canada will, for many years, depend upon coal and wood for heating and cooking. At the present time, the high labour cost alone is sufficient to render peat manufacture an unprofitable enterprise. In Western Canada, to meet the abnormal conditions ^ s< created by the war, peat may be prepared and stored on a small scale by farming communities and villages where such are situated near peat bogs. This would not only increase FUELS OF WESTERN CANADA 41 the fuel supply, particularly during the autumn and spring, but would release railway cars that are urgently needed for other purposes. The water in the peat should be reduced to 25 to 30 per cent before it can be used as fuel. The season for drying peat begins as soon as the frost is out of the ground, and ends in September. The bogs should be drained and the turf removed from its surface. The peat is cut in blocks about 9 inches by 4 inches and from 3 to 6 inches thick. At the end of about four weeks the blocks are ready for storage. During this period they should be kept covered and should be frequently turned. The quality of such peat is inferior to machine peat, but, in many localities, it will supplement the insufficient supply of better fuel. Commercial peat (25 to 30 per cent moisture) has about one-half the heat value per pound of the best anthracite and its specific gravity is about one-half that of anthracite. Therefore, to obtain from peat the same number of heat units as from a specified amount of coal requires about four times the volume of peat. The peat production of the United States in 1917, was 97,363 short tons (86,931 long tons). The average price to the consumer was $7.29 per short ton. No peat was produced in Canada in 1917. WOOD FUEL From a fuel standpoint, the principal trees of the Prairie Provinces, east of the Rocky mountains, are, in approximate order of importance, the jackpine, spruce, poplar, tamarack and birch. In British Columbia and the Rockies, there are numerous fuel woods, most of the wood used as fuel being the refuse from the sawmills. Douglas fir, yellow or bull pine, spruce and cedar furnish most of the wood fuel in this area. Heat Values * n a discussion by the Forest Products Laboratories, of Wood Montreal, of the heat values of dry wood, it is stated that the below amounts of wood have equal heating value to one ton of anthracite: 1.00 cord of birch 1.55 cords of poplar 1.15 cords of tamarack 1.60 " " hemlock 1.20 " " Douglas fir 2.10 " " cedar 1.50 " " jackpine ' The above comparison is based on the supposition that the calorific value of the coal is 13,000 B.t.u., but the grade of coal received in Canada last winter was much less, possibly as low as 10,000 B.t.u., which, in comparison, would decrease the above stated quantities of wood by 23 per cent. 42 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION FUEL SHORtAGE In July, Dr. Garfield, United States Fuel Administrator, stated that 'an alarming shortage ' faces the United States and Canada if the quantities of coal demanded by the various sections of the country are actually required. In view of the fuel shortage during the winter of 1917-18, a brief review of the outlook for the coming winter is of interest. During the period 1913-17, the production of anthracite in the United States was as follows: Year Anthracite production Increase Decrease 1913 91 524 922 1914 90 821 507 703 415 1915 88 995 061 1,826,446 1916 75,461,527 13,533,534 1917 86,389,101 10,927,574 As stated in the above table, the production of anthracite in the United States in 1917 was 86,389,101 tons, an increase of nearly 11 million tons over the output in 1916, but over 5 million tons (5,135,821) less than in 1913. The production of bituminous in the United States in 1917 was 544,261,581 tons, an increase of 52f million (52,670,610) tons, as compared with 1916, and an increase of 99 million tons as compared with 1915. In the first 4 months, January to April, of this year, the production of U.S. anthracite increased nearly 1,400,000 (1,395,084) tons as com- pared with the same months in 1916, and the bituminous increased 4,838,000 tons in the same period. The U.S. Fuel Administration does not anticipate that the increased production of anthracite will keep up in the same ratio during the re- mainder of the year. They estimate that the total production of anthra- cite will aggregate about 89 million tons, or 2J million tons less than in 1913. Of this amount, about 54J million tons will be available for domestic use, the remainder being consumed by railways and industrials. On the face of it, this would indicate that fairly ample supplies will be available, but an examination of the underlying factors discloses the fallacy of this conclusion. In the past, the great bulk of the anthracite has been consumed in the northeastern and northwestern States and in Canada. Owing to the enormous development of industries connected, directly or indirectly, FUELS OF WESTERN CANADA 43 with the war, there has been a great influx of population into the north- eastern and Atlantic States, north of the Potomac, and, inasmuch as the productive capacity of these workers must be kept at the highest effi- ciency, the allotment to this section has been largely increased and the allotments to other sections have been decreased. The population in the area above referred to, namely, of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland, has increased by approximately 5 millions, or 15 per cent, since 1911. 1916-17 Distribution 1918-19 Allotment Per cent of increase Per cent of decrease Canada 3,856,021 3,602,000 6 59 ^- New England states 8,833,379 10,331,000 17 00 Atlantic states 27 878 233 31 417 154 12 69 Central states 5 100 024 3 481 945 31 73 Northwest states . . . 2 710 188 2 380 000 12 18 Trans-Mississippi and twenty- four states 765,931 100 00 Railways and miscellaneous . . . 2,533,684 2,533,684 - U.S. army and navy camps. . . 600,000 Total 51,677,460 54,345,783 5.16 The U.S. Fuel Administration estimates the bituminous coal re- quirements during 1918 will aggregate 634,594,000 tons, as compared with the production in 1917 of 554,738,000 tons an increase of nearly 80 million tons. Mr. Theodore M. Knappen states that the 1918 production of the bituminous mines of the United States, up to July 13, indicated that it would fall short of the estimated requirements by about 35,000,000 tons. This estimate is based on the assumption that average good weather will prevail during the winter months. If very bad weather prevails, the shortage may aggregate over 45,000,000 tons. On the other hand, the bituminous now being mined is somewhat cleaner than last year, enough to make 600 million tons equivalent to 610 million of last year's quality. This consideration will reduce Mr. Knappen's estimate of the shortage to 25,000,000 tons.* *According to the U.S. Geological Survey, the production of coal in the United States from January 1 to August 24, totalled 384,000,000 tons. The mines, if working under full-time output, have, in theory, an aggregate capacity of 522,000,000 tons. The shortage of 138,000,000 tons is attributed to the following causes: Car shortage : 82,000,000 tons Labour shortage and strikes 22 ,750,000 " Mechanical disabilities 19 , 750 , 000 " No market \ . . 4,000,000 " Other causes 9,500,000 " 138,000,000 with 1917 - 1S. >3 root, 44 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION In this summary of the probable shortage, no consideration has been given to the possibility of congestion of traffic on the railways, to strikes or to other factors that may decrease production or interfere with transportation from the mine to the consumer. On the whole, the situation may be summed up as indicating strong probability that there will be a shortage, and that nothing but use of other fuels, economy and conservation, will prevent at least a partial recurrence of the sufferings of last winter.* *Coal Age, New York, November 14th, 1918, contains the following: "In response to the Fuel Administration's campaign for a maximum coal output, there was produced during the first seven months of the present coal year (April to October inclusive) 368,858,000 net tons of bituminous coal. This tonnage represents an increase of 42,437,000 net tons over the output of the similar period in 1917. "With the country driving ahead at full blast on a war programme, the increased rate of production was far from being sufficient to meet the demands of industry. Industries that were considered unessential to the war programme were denied the use of coal, the extent of the stocks that would be accumulated by essential industries was specified by the Fuel Administration, and a zoning system was perfected which had for its object the elimination of the cross-hauling of coal from one mining section to another. These changes, and many others even more radical, were instituted for the sole purpose of en- abling the country to concentrate its energies on one thing the carrying on of a war that would bring about a speedy peace. "Now, 19 months after our entry into the conflict, the war has come to an end. Though indications were many that the German war machine was disintegrating, still the end came with a suddenness which, for this country, was startling. Just as in the beginning our declaration against autocracy found us unprepared for war, so the signing of the armistice on Nov. 11 finds us unprepared for peace. This is evidenced by the fact that we have not, at this writing, passed one bit of legislation looking toward a well-defined reconstruction programme. "The cessation of hostilities has, if anything, brought forcibly to the attention ol the soft-coal operators the realization that they are confronted by a situation that threatens to become serious. Thanks to the methods pursued by the Fuel Administration, con- sumers of bituminous coal in almost every section of the country have large reserve stocks on hand. To put it plainly, there is an over-supply of soft coal in the hands of consumers, and many mines that, but a short time since, were hard put to it to meet their production quota, now find that they are unable to dispose of their output. The steel mills and the blast furnaces, for instance, are loaded down with coal, and, until they can utilize their large stocks in the manufacture of peace-time products, they will not come into the market for additional supplies. "The foregoing is true of almost every other industry. Buyers who, a month or so ago, were eager, even clamorous, to obtain a meagre tonnage, are running along from hand to mouth in the hope of a break in the market that will enable them to buy fancy grades below the present Government prices. However, there is more than a possibil- ity that these schemes will miscarry. As industries, one after the other, return to the manufacture of their pre-war products, and plants that were not permitted to function, or that were curtailed, resume full-time operations, the shortage which now exists on paper in the Fuel Administration records may become a sad reality. Weather condi- tions, too, up to the present, have aided those who are laying low on- their purchases, and the mine workers have given of their best because they did not desire to interfere with the country's war programme. Who can tell how long these favourable conditions will continue? "A quite different aspect is presented by the anthracite market. In fact, reverse what has been said of soft coal and the hard coal situation stands revealed. A shortage of labor during the entire war period, and an influenza epidemic to cap the climax, as it were, has brought the output of anthracite from April 1 to date, behind the total production for the corresponding period of 1917. Estimates place the 1918 production from April 1 to November 2 at 60,588,000 net tons and 1917 production at 60,839,000 net tons. However, the discontinuance of munitions manufacture and the shutting down of other strictly war-work industries will doubtless lead to the return of many mine workers (particularly since the new wage increase in the hard coal industry has gone into effect) and, before long, it is possible that the output of anthracite may show the eagerly awaited upward trend." The "New York Times 11 , December End, states that, as a lit of the recent increase of wages of $1.00 per day and release of thousands of miners from the military camps f it xpected that the production of anthracite will soon become al. U.C.BERKELEY LIBRARIES