UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA CIRCULAR 309 February, 1927 FRUIT TREE AND ORCHARD JUDGING WILLIS P. DUEUZi Judging fruit trees and orchards by means of a score card is a new practice which is becoming popular as a part of the agricultural instruction in California. The recent development of college and high school judging contests in which many students participate, promises not only to increase their interest in fruit growing but to be an important factor in the future improvement of orchards. Horticultural teachers and others who have served as judges at fruit shows have been keenly aware of the fact that a mere display of fruit alone does not supply conclusive evidence that the owner is a good orchardist. The trees, though, as they stand in the orchard speak for themselves, particularly if they are judged at a time when they are fruiting; even in winter the trees bear visible evidence of their probable fruitfulness. The value of individual trees and also of orchards, may be deter- mined in two ways : first, by records of production 2 and second, by appearance. The first method is the more satisfactory, but if the observer is a good judge of trees and of environmental conditions, he can determine in large measure, by appearance alone, their fruit bearing possibilities. Trees or orchards being evaluated by appear- ance, are judged primarily on their present condition rather than on their past record or future possibilities. 1 Assistant Pomologist in the Experiment Station. 2 Hodgson, R. W. Analyzing the citrus orchard by means of simple tree records. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 266: 1-20. 1923. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION TREE JUDGING An interest in horticulture and a special liking for fruit grow- ing are desirable in one who wishes to become proficient in tree judg- ing. To become a good judge one should first make a careful study of the various factors that enter into the make-up of a perfect fruit tree. A mental picture of an ideal of this kind is very necessary. The next step is to train the eye properly to weigh or evaluate the various factors as presented by the trees being judged in order to estimate their deficiencies, if any, as compared with the mental picture of the ideal tree. SCORE CARD FOR FRUIT TREES The value of judging is based upon the fact that there is a corre- lation between the appearance of fruit trees as regards their size, framework, character of the pruning they have had, vigor, health, and their ability to produce fruit over a long period of years. As a result of experience with trees, a score card has been formulated which assigns a numerical value to each of the important factors that constitute a good fruit tree. Each factor is given a value that is in accord with its importance. The score card, therefore, reveals the relative importance of the different factors in a manner that greatly aids in evaluating a collection of trees and arriving at a conclusion as to whether one tree is superior to another and how much any or all of them may fall short of the ideal. The accompanying score card (Form A) has been prepared and used in colleges and high schools during the past three years. It lists and describes six factors, or points, that must be considered in judging fruit trees. Each factor given in the score card is described below and its relation to the tree as a whole is discussed. Size: The size of a tree is correlated with its production; other conditions being equal, a large tree will produce a larger crop of fruit than a small tree. Size is measured by height and spread of branches and by circumference of the trunk 2 to 3 inches above the ground. Tufts 3 and other experimenters have shown that the circumference of the trunk is a fair indication of the total development of the tree, including top and root system. 3 Tufts, W. P. Pruning young deciduous fruit trees. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 313: 115-116. 1919. Circ. 309] FRUIT TREE AND ORCHARD JUDGING TEEE SCOEE CAED Factors Values Bearing trees Non-bearing trees ( 1-4 yrs„) 1. Size: a. Height of tree b. Spread of branches 15 > 15 ■ 15 [ 15 20 > 20 15 c. Circumference of trunk 2. Framework: a. Number of primary scaffolds — 3 to 4 b. Height of primary scaffolds — 24 to 30 inches from ground c. Distribution — 6 to 10 inches apart d. Number ot secondary scaffolds — 5 to 7 e. Height of secondary scaffolds — 3 to 5 feet from the ground 20 f. General symmetry of tree — vase-shaped or modi- fied leader type 3. Pruning: a. System should be in accord with length growth — severe, moderate or light b. Fruiting wood evenly distributed c. Interfering branches and dead wood removed d. Pruning cuts properly made and treated A. Vigor: a. Dark green and large leaves b. Sufficient new wood past season 25 c. New wood in good condition — not spindling 5. Fruitpulness: • a. Amount and condition of fruiting wood b. Amount and condition of fruit buds, blossoms or fruit c. Yield — amoimt and quality 6. Health: a. Fimgous or bacterial diseases b. Insect pests c. Physiological diseases 40 d. Mechanical injury e. Sunburn f. Frost injury Total 100 100 Forpi A 4 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION Framework: The framework of a fruit tree must be strong enough to support maximum crops and properly shaped for convenience and economy in orchard management. The framework includes the trunk and primary scaffolds, also the secondary scaffolds and other large limbs throughout the tree, which arise from the secondary scaffolds. The height of head should preferably be from 24 to 30 inches from the ground, for it is generally conceded that a low-headed tree is less subject to sunburn and breakage from winds than a high-headed tree. Furthermore, low-headed trees are more economical to manage. If the primary scaffold branches originate 4 to 5 feet from the ground, the cost of such cultural practices as pruning thinning and harvesting is materially increased. The strength of the crotch has been shown to be dependent upon the angle formed by the branch with the trunk and the size (diameter) of the branch as compared with the trunk or branch to which it is attached. 4 The wider the angle the more strongly the tissue is knit about the union, while the smaller the angle the weaker the union. Crotches with equal branches split more quickly than those with unequal branches. It is generally agreed that an ideal framework should consist of three primary scaffold branches equally spaced up and down the trunk from 6 to 10 inches apart, and pruned in such a way as to produce 5 to 7 well spaced secondary branches about 4 to 5 feet from the ground. The other lateral branches should be symmetrically arranged about the scaffolds (fig. 1). Pruning: Pruning a tree influences its functions and activities by making it either vegetatively vigorous or fruitful, or both. 5 It has been demonstrated many times that severe pruning usually results in rank vegetative growth and retards or decreases fruitfulness. 6 On the other hand, little or no pruning results in a small amount of new wood growth, and in bearing trees, a tendency towards over-fruitful- ness; and if this practice is continued, a condition is brought about in which the tree makes neither wood nor fruit. Between these two extremes, there is the moderate method of pruning which results in both fruitfulness and sufficient new wood growth to insure a succession of crops, provided other factors such as soil, moisture, and climate are favorable. 4 MacDaniels, L. H. The apple tree crotch. Cornell (New York) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 419: 1-22. 1923. 5 Kraus, E. J., and H. E. Kraybill. Vegetation and reproduction with special reference to the tomato. Oregon Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 149: 1-90. 1918. 6 Tufts, W. P., Pruning bearing deciduous fruit trees. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 386: 1-47. 1925. Circ. 309] FRUIT TREE AND ORCHARD JUDGING Not only the type of pruning, whether severe, moderate, or light, but also the actual manner in which it is executed is considered. All dead or interfering branches should be removed. The form of the tree should be maintained so as to allow sufficient light to all parts to obtain the best distribution of fruit buds. The fruiting wood should be properly distributed up and down the branches and the preserva- tion of hanging twigs ("hangers") should be especially favored. Fig. 1. — An ideal deciduous fruit tree. Note the height and distribution of the primary and secondary scaffold branches. (After Tufts.) Attention should be given to the manner in which the pruning cuts have been made. All cuts should be made close to the limb from which the branch is taken and should be left smooth in order to facilitate healing. Shoulder cuts which may result in splitting of a branch with the grain should be avoided whenever possible. Vertical cuts always heal better than horizontal cuts. Very large cuts — 2 inches or more in diameter — should be painted with some sort of protective paint or dressing. 6 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION Vigor: Vigor is usually recognized as the strength or force ex- hibited by the tree in producing new vegetative growth. It is well known that trees vary greatly in this regard, depending upon variety, rootstock, soil, irrigation, pruning, fruitfulness, and other conditions. The indications of vigor are usually the amount and condition of new wood produced the previous season, as well as the color of the leaves. Leaves which are large, thick, and dark-green in color indicate a vigorous condition as contrasted with the small, thin, or yellowish leaves usually associated with weak trees. The amount of new wood necessary to maintain fruitfulness depends upon the species, but in general, those trees which bear their fruit mostly on one-year wood should produce each year greater total length growth than those which bear most of the crop on older wood or spurs. Table 1 will serve as a guide in judging vigor of different kinds and ages of trees. TABLE 1 Desirable Amounts of New Growth Annually tor Bearing Trees* Fruits Peaches Apricots Plums (excepting prunes) and quinces Almonds, prunes, apples, pears, cherries.. * From California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 386. 1925 Under 10 years of age Over 10 years of age 20 to 40 inches 12 to 30 inches 10 to 24 inches 9 to 18 inches 12 to 30 inches 10 to 24 inches 9 to 18 inches 6 to 10 inches Fruitfulness: By fruitfulness is meant the outlook or prospects for a crop the coming or the same season. This factor may be judged at almost any time of the year; for example, in the autumn or winter by the amount and condition of fruit buds, in the early spring by the number of blossoms, and in the summer by the amount of fruit actually on the trees. In judging this point one should note the entire fruiting area in regard to the amount, distribution, and condition of the fruiting wood, including spurs. Finally, the actual yield per tree in quantity and quality is the most important measure of fruit- fulness. In most cases, however, the deciduous fruit grower does not keep individual tree records and, therefore, fruitfulness is usually estimated when the crop is on the tree. Health: Only a tree which is healthy can be expected to produce fruit year after year. Before one can know that a tree is unhealthy, he must be able to recognize the symptoms of disease and insect injury. ClRC. 309] FRUIT TREE AND ORCHARD JUDGING 7 Various kinds of diseases and pests attack fruit trees; it is very im- portant, therefore, to know how they cause injury and how this may affect the productiveness of the tree. 7 PROCEDURE IN JUDGING TREES In order to judge fruit trees intelligently, it is necessary to under- stand the relative importance of each of the divisions of the score card. The score card serves as a means of directing this knowledge and should be first mastered from the standpoint of its six large divisions and their relative values. Then each of these divisions should be studied individually, point by point. The best way to become familiar with the score card is to make use of it in scoring a number of trees. To get the most out of the scoring, it is necessary not only to have an ideal picture in mind but first to actually see a real tree, as perfect as can be found, in order to train the eye to identif}^ and measure the parts and impress the whole proceeding upon the mind. A group of four trees is usually selected for practice work. This is called a class. The class should first be studied as a whole, and at a sufficient distance so that all the individual trees may be seen at one time. In doing this, it is best to go completely around the trees to obtain a general impression of their relative merits. Too often the beginner attempts to make a close-up inspection of each tree and then from a mass of details tries to make a decision. It is much easier to place the trees from their general appearance and condition and then to examine closely the details in order to confirm or reject the decision formed by the first impression. After the general view of the group or class has been made, the judge should begin his close-up examination, taking one point at a time in the same order as given in the score card. Too much emphasis cannot be given to the detailed analysis to ascertain whether or not the eye has been misled in the first observation of the class. In comparing the points of superiority or deficiency of two trees, one should remember that while the importance of each factor is pro- portional to the value given in the score card, a greater cut than is indicated should be made if a very marked deficiency occurs. During the procedure of analyzing the trees, mental or written notes are taken and when all the evidence has been secured, a final decision is made, it being kept in mind that the relative placement is the important objective and not the numerical scores. 7 Home, W. T., E. O. Essig, and W. B. Herms. Plant disease and pest control. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 265: 1-69. 1925. 8 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION TREE JUDGING CONTESTS Judging contests stimulate interest in and present opportunity for acquiring ability in judging. The trees should be carefully selected by groups, such as class 1 — four bearing pear trees, class 2 — four non- bearing peach trees, etc. They should be chosen so that they are located close together, in a row or in a square or diamond formation for convenience in judging and giving of reasons. When trees are being selected some thought should be given to the various points exhibited by each tree so that the contest will be educational as well as competitive. Very close or too obvious placing should be avoided. Three classes of trees are usually selected, labelled and officially placed by the judges just before the contest. A judging team consists of three members, who work independently of each other. The contestants are divided into three groups so that no two persons of the same team are together. Each contestant wears an identification tag bearing a number by which he is known through- out the contest. Printed placement cards and plain memoranda cards are issued to each contestant. Each group is conducted to the tree class to be judged, the trees are pointed out and the age and variety are announced. Usually twenty minutes are allowed for judging each class, a five-minute warning signal being given before time is up. At the end of the time, the placement cards are handed in, the groups are taken away from the trees, and are allowed a brief interval for reflection and preparation for the presentation of reasons. In the meantime, the judges, recorders, and timers for each class move their table and chairs to a convenient point near the trees and prepare to hear each contestant as he comes up to give his reasons (fig. 2). The recorders begin at once to enter grades on placements, according to the scale provided (table 2). This procedure is carried out simultaneously with each of the three groups. Giving of Reasons: The giving of reasons orally is very important in a contest, from 25 to 40 per cent of the total grade being allowed for perfect presentation. This part of the contest may be compared to a debate in which the contestants are arguing and demonstrating that their reasoning is sound and their facts correct. Each must state why in his opinion one tree is superior to another. The reasons, therefore, should be comparative and not descriptive and should be forcefully presented in logical order. For this, it is well to summarize the arguments under the leading heads and in the same order given Circ. 309] FRUIT TREE AND ORCHARD JUDGING in the score card. The placement of the class should be stated first, and then the main reasons why the first tree is placed over the second, followed by a detailed explanation of the reasons. In like manner reasons should be stated for placing the second tree over the third and the third over the fourth. All reasons should be specific and brief, but should show that the contestant has analyzed each tree carefully and completely. New or unusual facts and data should be constantly sought. The word Fig. 2. — Contestant giving reasons before judges. Judges, timers, and recorders are shown at the table. "better" should never be used unless further qualified. Saying "better framework" alone is not sufficient, but saying "better frame- work on account of the more even distribution of scaffold limbs" is good form. The following will serve as a suggestion in the presen- tation of reasons: "I placed this class of bearing apricot trees B, C, A, D. I placed B (pointing) over C (pointing) on size, framework, and health. On size, because B measures two inches more in trunk circumference, and has greater height and spread with more fruiting area than C. B has a more desirable framework, because the primary scaffold branches do not arise from one point but are equally distributed up and down the trunk (demonstrate) and because the secondary scaffold limbs 10 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION are symmetrically arranged to form a strong, well balanced tree. Tree B is also in a more perfect state of health than C, having less sunburn injury (point out) on the branches." In the same way reasons should be given for placing C over A, and A over D. It is not necessary to give reasons for placing the fourth tree last unless it has some marked deficiency not previously brought out. The contestant may be of the opinion that the placing between two trees is very close and hinges upon one point. If this is the case it is well to recognize in the reasons the superior points of the tree over which it is put. It may be expressed in this manner : ' ' Although A has larger size and more desirable framework than B, I placed B over A because of greater prospects for fruit this year and because of its more vigorous and healthy condition." It is suggested that the contestant acquire the habit of demonstrat- ing the points brought out in his reasons by referring to the trees. He should, therefore, get accustomed to talking and demonstrating at the same time. Grading the Placings and Reasons: As mentioned previously, each contestant is graded on his placement and reasons. The grade on placement is determined by a mathematical table which gives all the possible placings together with the corresponding value for each. The grade on reasons is determined by the judges who mark each contestant on the basis of 60 per cent for subject matter, 30 per cent for logic and force in presentation, and 10 per cent on bearing and address. Table 2 gives the values for the various placings, when the correct placing is A, B, C, D. TABLE 2 Table of Values on Placings A B C D —100 B A C D —85 C A B D —60 D A B C —30 ABDC— 95 BADC —80 C A D B —55 D A C B —25 ADBC— 75 BCAD —65 C B A D —40 D B A C —20 ADCB— 50 BCDA —35 C B D A —12 D B C A — 5 ACBD— 90 BDAC —45 C D A B —10 D C A B — 3 ACDB— 70 BDCA —15 CDBA— 7 DCBA— ClRC. 309] FRUIT TREE AND ORCHARD JUDGING 11 ORCHARD JUDGING In the second phase of judging one is concerned with groups of fruit trees or orchards. After he has learned by practice how to judge trees it becomes comparatively easy to apply this knowledge to orchards. One quickly learns to note the uniformity or lack of uniformity in the orchard as determined by the ideal tree as the unit of measure. There are new factors, however, which must be taken into con- sideration when judging orchards. These may be classified as (1) environment, (2) condition of the trees, and (3) cultural practices used by the grower. By a careful study of the factors, together with practice in judging, one forms a mental picture of an ideal orchard and learns to compare orchards as to their merits or deficiencies in approach to this ideal. The use of this method of analysis, together with tree and orchard records, is helpful also in estimating the commercial value of a par- ticular orchard. With these factors in mind the prospective buyer will have to evaluate in detail the qualities of the orchard, and after comparing with the price asked, he can decide for himself whether it is a wise investment. The same procedure is followed in learning to judge orchards as in judging trees. The score card must be mastered first in all its divisions in order to form an idea of the relative importance of each. The accompanying score card (Form B) has been used for the last four years in many schools in California, and has been accepted as a satisfactory form for use in orchard judging. ORCHARD ENVIRONMENT The factors listed in the score card are discussed in the following paragraphs : Climate: Climate is one of the most important factors to consider in judging an orchard location. Climate has been defined as the average condition of the atmosphere, with respect to temperature, sunshine, rainfall, frost, fog, and wind. All of these items influence the ability of trees to produce fruit. It is obviously difficult to discuss these influences because they are so complicated. Each district is distinctive and the results in one may not be compared with those in another unless it is known from prac- tical experience how climatic differences exert an influence on orchards. 12 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION ORCHARD SCORE CARD Factors Values 1. Orchard Environment: A. Location 10 1. Climate — desirable average temperature, sufficient sunshine and rainfall, free from frosts, fogs, and severe winds. 2. Transportation — good roads; near to shipping point. B. Site 15 1. Water supply — irrigation water supplied by well or ditch. 2. Slope of land — gradual fall to allow air drainage and irriga- tion, no swales or low places. 3. Windbreaks — necessary if winds are severe. C. Soil 15 1. Surface soil — medium loam with sufficient organic matter. 2. Sub-soil — deep, well drained, and retentive of moisture. 2. Condition of Trees: A. Size — sufficient for age and species, uniform stand 5 B. Fruitfulness — (past yields) present prospects of a crop 10 C. Vigor — sufficient for age and species 10 D. Health — free from sunburn, disease, insects, mechanical injury, etc 15 3. Cultural Practices: A. Soil Care 10 1. Cultivation — soil in good tilth, free from weeds. 2. Irrigation — sufficient to keep soil wet to a depth of at least six feet. 3. Cover crops — preferably legumes to maintain organic matter and nitrates. B. Tree Care 10 1. Planting distance — to provide enough space for spread of trees when full grown. 2. Pruning — framework and fruiting area well formed, trees open to light, and cuts properly made, moderate in amount in accord with vigor. 3. Spraying — adequate program for pest control. 4. Bracing — central wire brace (usually best where bracing is necessary). 5. Repairing — trees requiring surgery should be treated. 6. Sanitation — weeds and rubbish should be removed and rodents destroyed. 7. Heating — number and kind of heaters per acre. Total 100 Form B ClRC. 309] FRUIT TREE AND ORCHARD JUDGING 13 Transportation: The success of a commercial orchard may be affected by the distance from the shipping point, character of roads, and railroad facilities. Even with improved roads and automobile trucks, distance from the shipping point or cannery is a very im- portant consideration in determining the desirability of a particular location. Water Supply: The importance of water in connection with fruit growing is generally appreciated. Some years ago an annual rainfall of 16 or 18 inches was thought to be sufficient for deciduous fruits growing in this state, but experience has shown that most bearing orchards require irrigation in order to maintain a supply of available moisture in the soil at all times. The site of the orchard, therefore, should be judged with reference to availability of water supply, whether by gravity or by pumping, its reliability, and the economy with which it may be applied. If the orchard is supplied by gravity water, inquiry should be made regard- ing the amount, regularity, and interval between deliveries. If the water supply comes from a pump, the volume of discharge and depth of well should be ascertained, and compared with the area to be irrigated. Slope of Land: A great deal of importance has been attached to the many advantages or disadvantages of a particular exposure, especially as it affects temperature conditions. However, in Califor- nia, fruit can be raised successfully on almost any slope, provided it is not excessively steep. Slight elevation above adjoining areas is desirable in order to secure sufficient air drainage, which will allow for carrying off the cold air to lower levels, and thus aid in preventing damage from frosts. Perfectly level or low land may be hazardous because of the lack of air drainage. A gentle fall is important also with respect to the application of water. Anyone who has irrigated understands the necessity of having land properly graded to facilitate the flow of water. Windbreaks : The relation of a windbreak to an orchard has been the subject of considerable study. Advantages claimed for a wind- break in one district may become disadvantages in another. The question is closely related to air drainage. A windbreak may lessen the force of a wind and thus prevent breakage of the trees; a wind- break may also check the gentle flow of air and thus form a "pocket" which is a frost hazard. Air movement to a certain extent is desirable, but when its velocity increases to a certain point it becomes injurious. Its efficiency, therefore, depends upon the purpose, location, and 14 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION character of the windbreak used. Some kinds of windbreaks them- selves use large quantities of water and should be judged accordingly. Soil: The soil should be studied very thoroughly. A soil auger or tube should be used to secure samples to a depth of at least six feet in a number of places in the orchard so as to determine the char- acter and moisture content of the soil and subsoil. The surface layer may be shallow or deep, but it is usually more fertile than the layer beneath it. The subsoil, which is fully as important as the surface soil, may be near or far from the surface of the ground and may vary from a gravel to an impervious hardpan. It controls the drain- age and may or may not be retentive of water. CONDITION OF TREES In judging the condition of trees, one takes into consideration the same points discussed under tree judging (page 2). The person judg- ing should go through the entire block, measuring the size of a number of trees selected at random and taking note of their uniformity, vigor, fruitfulness, and health. CULTURAL PRACTICES Cultural practices are largely determined by the grower himself. The care given the soil and trees should follow approved principles. On account of a number of conditions, these practices vary widely in different parts of the state, but in general the results will be com- parable. Cultivation: Cultivation is carried out for the purpose of conserv- ing moisture, and making available plant nutrients in the soil. Clean cultivation in the summer is the commonly accepted practice, although there are a number of fruit growers who are using permanent cover crops or sod. Clean cultivation is practiced to prevent weed growth and to facilitate irrigation. Plowing under the cover crop in the spring, followed by disking is the common procedure. Subsequent cultivation depends upon the soil, weed growth, and system of irri- gation. Irrigation: The irrigation practice is judged on the basis of tree requirements, source of water, kind of soil, and method of application. The practice should be such that moisture will be available when it is needed by the trees. The actual method of applying water and the amounts used should be adapted to the conditions in each orchard. Cover Crops: A cover crop is one which is planted late in the summer or autumn to be grown in the winter and early spring and plowed under for the improvement of the physical and chemical ClRC. 309] FRUIT TREE AND ORCHARD JUDGING 15 properties of the soil. A cover crop helps to maintain organic material ; and if a leguminous cover crop is used, the nitrogen supply is increased by fixation. Therefore, the planting of a leguminous cover crop in the orchard is generally a valuable practice as opposed to the use of no cover crop, or a non-leguminous one. Planting Distance : The question of planting distance is one which depends upon the character and fertility of the soil, water supply, pruning and kind of trees. Trees of naturally large growing habit should be planted farther apart than small trees, to insure proper development, to prevent shading-out of the lower fruiting wood, and to facilitate economical orchard management. In general, it may be said that in soil which is shallow, which is of poor water-holding capacity, and where irrigation water is not plentiful, the planting dis- tance should be greater than in soil which is deep and well supplied with moisture. Too close planting has been the tendency in many districts. From experiments and observations, the following planting dis- tances are recommended for best growth and yield : 8 Planting distance Species for orchard trees (feet apart) Almonds , 25 to 30 Apples 30 to 35 Apricots 24 to 35 Cherries (sweet) 26 to 30 Peaches 20 to 30 Pears 20 to 25 Plums (Japanese) 16 to 22 Prunes and plums (European) 22 to 26 Walnuts 45 to 60 Spraying: The spraying program is important in the proper care of the trees. This varies with the kind of orchard and the pests to be combatted. Inquiry should be made of the grower regarding these matters and the judging done according to his statements and appar- ent results. Bracing: Most bearing fruit trees require some means of support- ing the branches to prevent their breaking under heavy loads of fruit. In the past, propping with wooden poles has been the common prac- tice. In recent years, the central wire brace has come into rather wide use. 9 s Allen, F. W. Planting and thinning distances for deciduous fruit trees. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 414: 26-28. 1926. 9 Barnard, L. C. Central wire bracing for fruit trees. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 244: 1-10. 1922. 16 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION Repairing: Injuries to fruit trees are so common that most people have come to accept them and ignore the danger which arises from neglected wounds. Every wound may become the point of entrance of some rot-forming organism. If an injured spot is properly treated and cared for, it will heal and thus prolong the life and productive- ness of the tree. The simplest form of surgery consists in removing all dead limbs and treating the wounds and all other breaks in the bark with antiseptic and water-proof coverings. A more complicated form sometimes necessary in case of old wounds consists in digging out the decayed wood, applying an antiseptic material to the fresh surface, and filling in the cavity with cement or asphaltum. 10 8 ant it at ion: All disease or insect bearing material should be re- moved from the orchard. Such material as old prunings, cull fruit, and weeds may serve to harbor pests that later may attack the trees or fruit. Litter of any sort should be looked upon with disfavor. Proper precautions should also be taken against gophers, ground squirrels, rabbits and other rodents. Heating: Orchard heating equipment is necessary in many places as an insurance against loss of crops from frost. A sufficient number of heaters should be on hand, supplemented by accessory equipment for determining temperatures and taking care of the heating oper- ation. 11 PROCEDURE IN JUDGING ORCHARDS The previous discussion has been given in order to clarify the points in the orchard score card. Each factor should be fully under- stood before judging is begun. At first, therefore, two or three orchards should be studied and scored in detail, so as to fix the rela- tive importance of each item in the mind. For convenience in judging, a block of approximately 100 trees is used ; they may be in a square formation, as 10 X 10 trees, or in rectangular form, as 5 X 20 trees. General information such as age of orchard, climatic conditions, distance from shipping point, past yields, source of water, and cul- tural practices must be obtained from the owner himself. Then the person judging should carefully and systematically go through the block and examine its condition (fig. 3). These observations should be given numerical values by following the points in the score card. When this has been done in one orchard the person judging goes to the next orchard ; it is necessary, therefore, for him to keep written and mental notes on each orchard until all the orchards (usually io Collins, J. F. Tree surgery. U.S.D.A. Farmers' Bui. 1178: 1-32. 1922. 11 Schoonover, W. E., E. W. Hodgson, and F. D. Young. Orchard heating in California. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 398: 1-69. 1925. Circ. 309] FRUIT TREE AND ORCHARD JUDGING 17 three) in the class have been judged. The other orchards are inspected in the same manner as the first. Then the numerical scores are totaled and compared with the mental notations. It is highly desir- able to go over the orchards again if possible so as to fix the respective conditions more firmly in mind and to adjust scores on factors which may be close or doubtful. After these inspections of the orchards and from the comparisons made, one should be able to arrive at a decision regarding their placement, the numerical scores being used only as a guide. Fig. 3. — Student judges examining the condition of soil and trees. ORCHARD JUDGING CONTESTS The selection of the orchards for a contest should be made with the idea of classing those which are nearly enough alike to make a good comparison, yet not so much alike as to be too easy for compe- tition. If possible, they should be in the same vicinity to minimize travel. Each class should consist of orchards of about the same age and variety, but differing in one or more of the following points : transportation facilities, site, soil, condition of trees, and cultural practices. The exact block of trees in each case should be carefully chosen so as to have all the conditions comparable with the other blocks and should be officially placed before the contest. The corner trees of the block should be marked with tags or signs for identifica- tion. 18 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION When the time arrives for the contest, all the teams are assembled, given instructions, supplied with numbers, memoranda cards, and placement cards, and then conducted to the first orchard. They are shown the block to be judged, the general information is announced and the boundaries of the block indicated. It has been found desir- able that the first visit be devoted to a brief general survey of the situation rather than a detailed inspection. At the end of about five minutes the contestants should have obtained a general idea of the block; then they are taken to the second and third orchards where this procedure is repeated. This gives them a general impression of the three orchards, which serves as a basis for later comparisons. When the last orchard has been reached a longer period (from 20 to 30 minutes) is allowed for a thorough inspection. Soil borings are made by one of the officials and the samples displayed so that each contestant may make an examination. Each contestant, working inde- pendently, makes his inspection and notations as he goes over the various points. Warning is given five minutes before the time limit is up. At the end of the time allowed, the contestants are taken back to one of the other orchards (this second visit is usually in reverse order to the first visit), where the same method is followed, and so on until all the blocks have been gone over thoroughly. By this time, each contestant should have arrived at a decision and should have made sufficient written and mental memoranda to aid him in giving reasons later. A third visit to the orchards may be made if the majority of the contestants so desire. Each orchard class is gone over in this way, care being taken to complete the judging of one class before another is begun, in order that the contestants may not be confused. Giving of Reasons: On account of the nature of orchard judg- ing, it has been found desirable to have the reasons given somewhere other than at the orchards. Generally they are heard at some place in town, such as at the school. The contestants are here given time after the judging to review their notes and to prepare their presenta- tions. In the meantime, the recorder has collected the placement cards and has recorded the grades. The judges have been assigned to their places, either all of them sitting together to hear each contestant or dividing into three groups, each group hearing one member of each team. Whatever the method, the officials should be instructed regard- ing the manner of scoring the reasons. As in tree judging, 60 per cent is allowed for subject matter, 30 per cent for logic and force, and 10 per cent for bearing and address. CIRC. 309] FRUIT TREE AND ORCHARD JUDGING 19 Each contestant appears in private before the judges and presents his placings and reasons. The time granted for this varies from 2 to 5 minutes per contestant for each orchard class. Reasons are given on only one class at a time. Grading the Placings: The grade on placings is determined by reference to a mathematical scale which has been made for this purpose. The following table shows the placements and values when three orchards are used and the correct placing is A, B, C. A B C 100 B C A 20 A C B 60 C A B 20 B A C 60 C B A ORGANIZATION OF CONTESTS A successful tree or orchard judging contest must be well organ- ized, all detailed plans having been made in advance. There must be a full understanding of the procedure so that the contest will run smoothly in every way. The teams should be acquainted with the plans from the beginning and should be kept informed so that training for the contest will progress in a uniform manner. NOTICES CONCERNING CONTESTS When it has been decided to hold a contest, notice should be sent to all schools concerned, stating the time, place, and general rules. As plans are further perfected, additional information should be forwarded to include a description of the classes, score card, time allowed, manner of grading, trophies, headquarters, accommodations, and all other points. Entry blanks should be sent out to be returned a few days before the contest. A sample of the rules to be sent out before the contest is shown in form C. OFFICIALS NECESSARY IN CONDUCTING THE CONTEST The superintendent is in charge of all matters pertaining to the organization of the contest. He plans and arranges for all details before and during the contest. Therefore, he must be thoroughly familiar with the judging and procedure in a contest, and must be able to organize men and boys for the work. If necessary, he may have an assistant to help him. 20 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION KULES TO GOVEEN FRUIT TREE JUDGING CONTEST 1. Three classes of trees will be judged — a class of four bearing pear trees, a class of four bearing apricot trees, and a class of four non-bearing peach trees. The placements will be determined according to the following score card: Bearing Non-bearing trees trees 1. Size 15 15 2. Framework 15 20 3. Pruning 15 4. Vigor 15 25 5. Fruitfulness 20 6. Health 20 40 Total 100 100 2. Contestants will be graded 60 per cent for correct placement and 40 per cent for presentation of reasons, these being judged according to the following score : Subject matter 60 per cent Logic and force 30 per cent Bearing and address 10 per cent 3. Twenty minutes will be allowed for judging each class, and one and one-half minutes per contestant for presenting reasons in each class. 4. The judges, two for each class, will be men familiar with the deciduous fruit industry. 5. A perpetual trophy will be awarded for one year to the school represented by the winning team. This trophy is to be returned to the place of contest the succeeding year and must be won three times for permanent ownership. 6. There will be three permanent cups for first, second, and third team prize, respectively. 7. An individual award will be presented to the highest individual contestant. Form C Circ. 309] FRUIT TREE AND ORCHARD JUDGING 21 The judges should be selected with a great deal of care, their experience, training, interest, fair-mindedness, and patience all being considered. They should be chosen preferably from different phases of the fruit industry, such as growers, representatives of fruit com- panies, farm paper writers, farm advisors, horticultural commission- ers, instructors in schools or colleges of agriculture. The number of judges may be three or six, depending upon the size of the contest. The recorders or secretaries must be selected for their extreme care and accuracy with figures. For safe work, there should be two for each class, both to be equally responsible. When there are several teams, it is necessary to divide the con- testants into three groups and to assign leaders. Group leaders should be selected for their ability to maintain discipline and for their interest in the work. EQUIPMENT NECESSARY FOR THE CONTEST Grade sheets (Form D) for each class, and a summary sheet (Form E) should be prepared with proper headings to aid the recorders in making their entries. Identification tags for each contestant should be made; shipping tags numbered on both sides are satisfactory for this purpose. A supply of printed placement cards (Form F), and plain memoranda cards should be procured for the contestants, together with a supply of scratch pads for the judges and recorders. GRADE [SHEET Class I — Bearing Pear Trees Correct Placing C-D-A-B Con- testant's number Placings =£ Grade on placings Grade on reasons Final grade Rank of in- dividual Institution Total for team Rank of team 1 C-D-A-B 60 35 95 Jonesville High School 2 C-D-A-B 60 36.8 96.8 3 C-A-D-B H 33 87 Total 278.8 278.8 3 Form D 22 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION SUMMARY OF GRADES Con- testant's number Grade class I Grade class II Grade class III Total Rank of in- dividual Institution Total for team Rank of team 4 97.4 89 90 276.4 1 Brownsville High School 5 85.2 94-4 90.8 270.4 6 49 88 88.2 225.2 Total 231.6 271.4 269.0 772.0 772 4 Fori n E Headquarters for the registration of contestants should be pro- vided. If necessary, sleeping and eating accommodations must be arranged for. A place to hear reasons in orchard judging should be selected in advance. The necessary tables, chairs, and drinking water should be available if the contest is to be entirely satisfactory. The trophies usually consist of a perpetual or permanent team trophy to be won a number of times for permanent ownership, trophies for first, second, and third team prizes, and medals for first, second, and third highest individual contestants. All these should have been properly engraved and should be on hand at the time of the contest. It is preferable to have them on display before the contest to stimulate interest and encourage the competitive spirit. PLACEMENT CARD UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA-COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Class Placing 1st 2d 3d 4th Date Name Number Form F ClEC. 309] FRUIT TREE AND ORCHARD JUDGING 23 THE SCHEDULE A few days before the contest the superintendent should go over the ground thoroughly and prepare a detailed schedule. This should include time of assembly, time at which the judging in each class begins and ends, time at which giving reasons begins and ends, time for transfer of groups to other classes, and closing time (Form G). Copies of the schedule should be given to group leaders, timers, and judges. MEETINGS OF OFFICIALS The superintendent should call meetings of the judges and other officials before the contest. The judges should be taken to the trees or orchards and allowed plenty of time to place the classes officially. The judges should agree unanimously on the placement in all the classes, otherwise, new ones should be chosen. The official placement must of course be kept confidential. The judges must be instructed as to how they should grade the contestants on reasons, so that this phase will be fair and uniform. It has been found desirable to recom- mend to the judges that they confer on grading of the first five con- testants in order to establish a scale, and to grade independently there- after. In order to have the contest proceed rapidly the judges should be urged to render quick decisions on reasons and not to talk to the contestants. The recorders, group leaders, and timers should be assembled and their duties explained to them. Group leaders must understand the system of dividing the contestants into groups and must know where and when to move their groups. The recorders must be thoroughly instructed in the manner of entering the records and making calcula- tions. The entire plan must be explained so that each knows his duty beforehand. GROUPING CONTESTANTS Notices should be posted near the judging headquarters to inform the contestants of the time and place of assembly and system of group- ing (Form H). A posted list of the names with corresponding numbers and the numbers in each group will facilitate the assembly (Form I). 24 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION SCHEDULE OF FRUIT TREE JUDGING CONTEST 1:00 p.m. — Contestants assemble by groups and receive numbers. 1:15 p.m. — All groups go to orchard. (Group 1 to Class I, Group 2 to Class II, Group 3 to Class III.) 1:25 p.m. — Judging begins in all classes. 1:45 p.m. — Judging ends in all classes. Placement cards handed to group leaders. Group leaders assemble groups and move at least 50 yards from trees. 1:50 p.m. — Reasons begin on respective classes (2 minutes for each contestant). 2:40 p.m. — Transfer of groups. (Group 1 to Class III, Group 2 to Class I, Group 3 to Class II.) 2:45 p.m. — Judging begins in all classes. 3:05 p.m. — Judging ends in all classes. Placement cards handed to group leaders. Group leaders assemble groups and move at least 50 yards from trees. 3:10 p.m. — Reasons begin on respective classes (2 minutes for each contestant). 4:00 p.m. — Transfer of groups. (Group 1 to Class II, Group 2 to Class III, Group 3 to Class I.) 4:05 p.m. — Judging begins in all classes. 4:25 p.m. — Judging ends in all classes. Placement cards handed to group leaders. Group leaders assemble groups and move at least 50 yards from trees. 4:30 p.m. — Reasons begin on respective classes (2 minutes for each contestant). 5:20 p.m. — End of contest. Contestants dismissed after giving reasons on last class. 5:30 p.m. — Recorders summarize results. Form G CIRC. 309] FRUIT TREE AND ORCHARD JUDGING 25 FRUIT TREE JUDGING CONTEST Instructions to Contestants 1. You will be known throughout the contest by your numbers which have been assigned. 2. You will be formed into groups 1, 2, and 3 and will be expected to remain with your group at all times under the supervision of a group leader. 3. Groups will be formed in numerical order promptly at 1:00 p.m. Your number will be handed you at that time. 4. Each group will be conducted by the group leader to the class of trees to be judged (Group 1 to Class I, Group 2 to Class II, and Group 3 to Class III). 5. The trees in each class (A, B, C, D) have been selected and officially placed. You will be allowed 20 minutes to place each class of trees. 6. When time is called, you will hand your placement cards to your group leader immediately. Use the printed placement cards and fill- out very carefully. 7. Memoranda for your own information and for assistance in giving reasons may be made on the plain cards which will be given you. No other cards or sheets will be permitted. 8. You will be allowed one and one-half minutes to give reasons at each class of trees. 9. When one class of trees has been judged and the reasons have been given by members of each group, your group will proceed to the next class of trees. 10. In all maneuvering maintain your numerical position in line. Move promptly when your number is called and return to your proper place in line after giving your reasons. 11. Address any questions to your group leader. Form H 26 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION FKUIT TREE JUDGING CONTEST Contestants will be known by numbers which will be worn during the contest. Three groups will be formed as follows: Group 1 /, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16 19, 22, 25, 28, etc. Group 2 2, 5, 8, 11, U 17, 20, 23, 26, etc. Group 3 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 21, 24, 27, 30, etc. Contestants' names and numbers appear below: No. Name High school 1 Smith, Howard Jonesville 2 O'Hara, George 3 Edwards, Harry 4 Hammond, Morris Brownsville 5 Simmons, Arthur 6 Larsen, Oscar 7 Hutchinson, Vernon Lawrence 8 Johnson, William 9 Menendez, Alfonso 10 Williamson, Jack 11 etc. Form I ClRC. 309] FRUIT TREE AND ORCHARD JUDGING 27 RECORDING THE GRADES The recorders must convert the grades on placements and reasons, which are on the basis of 100 points each, to the basis decided upon for the contest. For example, if a 60-40 basis is to be used, the place- ment value is multiplied by 0.6 and the judges' average by 0.4. The total on placing and reasons is determined and entered on the grade sheets at once, and the totals of contestants of the same team added as soon as possible while the contest is proceeding. This system allows for completing the records soon after the last contestant has finished giving reasons. The totals for each class are entered on the summary sheet ; these figures show the final ranking of the teams and individuals (see Forms D and E). All calculations must be checked as entered and then again before any announcements or awards are made. ANNOUNCEMENT OF RESULTS The final ranking of teams should be kept confidential until the official awarding of the prizes. A summary of the standing of the three highest teams and three highest individuals should be prepared for the one who is to make the awards. The trophies should be identi- fied in like manner with the name of the winning team or individual attached, and should be in their proper place for the awarding.