MONTEITH'S 
 
 POPULAR SCIENCE 
 
NAIJES OF OBJECTS AND PLACES 
 
 REPRESENTED ON THE 
 
 KEY TO PICTORIAL CHART. 
 
 1, Ocean, with ships, &c. 
 
 2, Vapor rising from ocean. 
 
 3, Rain. 
 
 4, Mountains. 
 
 5, Volcano. 
 
 6, Mountain Stream. 
 
 7, Mountain Lake. 
 
 8, Geyser. 
 
 9, Waterfall. 
 10, Spring. 
 
 n, Canon, formed by river. 
 
 12, Rapids. 
 
 13, Lakes, at different elevations. 
 
 14, 15, Canal, with locks. 
 
 16, Reservoir and Tower. 
 
 17, Gulf or Bay. 
 
 18, Islands. 
 
 19, Peninsula. 
 
 20, Isthmus. 
 
 21, Strait. 
 
 22, Channel. 
 
 23, Cape. 
 
 24, Promontory. 
 
 25, Seaport. 
 
 26, Manufacturing Town. 
 
 27, Village. 
 
 28, Mining Town. 
 
 29, Watershed. 
 
 30, Mine and Engine House. 
 
 31, Chute or Shoot, from mine. 
 
 32, Railroad Tunnel. 
 
 33, Snow-shed, on railroad. 
 
 34, Ship yard and Floating 
 
 Docks. 
 
 35, Mill. 
 
 36, Ice-houses. 
 
 37, Rainbow. 
 
 38, Waterspout. 
 
 39, Salt Works. 
 
 40, Emigrants moving. 
 
 41, Lassoing Cattle. 
 
 42, Indians hunting Buffaloes. 
 
 45, Fort on seacoast. 
 
 46, Vineyard. 
 
 47, Horizon. 
 
 48, 49, 50, Ships, showing ro- 
 
 tundity of the Earth. 
 
 51, Seaside Resort. 
 
 52, Oil Well. 
 
 53, Windmill. 
 
 54, Suspension Bridge. 
 
 55, Eagle. 
 
 [For pages pn which the*? vre Described see " CONTENTS."] 
 
EASY LESSONS 
 
 POPULAR SCIENCE; 
 
 AND 
 
 HAND-BOOK TO PICTORIAL CHART 
 
 COMBINING THE 
 
 CATECHETICAL, 
 
 OBJECT 
 
 WITH MAPS, ILLUSTRATIONS, AND LESSONS IN DRAWING, 
 SPELLING, AND COMPOSITION. 
 
 BY JAMES MONTEITH, 
 
 Author of School Geographies, etc. 
 
 NEW YORK : CINCINNATI . : . CHICAGO 
 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
 
 FROM THE PEBSS OF 
 
 A. S. BARNES & CO. 
 
-.: Q 
 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 WHAT WE SEE ABOUT US 4 
 
 Balloon Voyage around the World Shape and Motions of the Earth 
 Day and Night-AirWind-Attraction. 
 
 WATER ON THE EARTH I3 
 
 Its uses What is in it and what comes from it Voyage of a Drop 
 of Water Vapor Rain. 
 
 PEOPLE AND DIVISIONS OF THE WORLD 35 
 
 MAP OF THE WORLD, WITH EXERCISES 40 
 
 CURRENTS OF THE OCEAN 42 
 
 Their Effects Gulf Stream. 
 
 SHIPS, DOCKS, SHIP BUILDING 45 
 
 Machinery Ironclads Floating Docks Dry Docks. 
 
 RIVERS, WATERFALLS, LAKES 59 
 
 Their uses Mills Lumber Inundations. 
 
 SPRINGS AND WELLS How FORMED 70 
 
 Pumps Artesian Wells Oil Wells Salt Springs. 
 
 CAPES, ISLANDS, STRAITS PENINSULAS TUNNELS, Etc 77 
 
 CANALS AND LOCKS; How BUILT AND USED 80 
 
 AQUEDUCTS, RESERVOIRS, TOWERS, STAND PIPES 86 
 
 BRIDGES; How BUILT 88 
 
 Divers at work Suspension Bridges St. Louis Bridge. 
 
 MAP OF NORTH AMERICA 95 
 
 What we know about North America. 
 
 TREES AND PLANTS: How AND WHERE THEY GROW 
 
 Their uses for Food, Drink, Clothing, Building, Furniture, Medi- 
 cines, etc. 
 
 Copyright^ 1879, by James Monteith. 
 
Contents. 
 
 in 
 
 PAGE 
 
 MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA. 140 
 
 What we know about South America. 
 
 MINFS AND MIKING 144 
 
 Iron, Gold, Silver, Steel, Copper, Tin, Zinc, Lead, Salt How and 
 from what Coal is formed. 
 
 MAP OF EUROPE 160 
 
 What we know about Europe. 
 
 MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES 163 
 
 Vesuvius Pompeii Herculaneum Stromboli. 
 
 LIGHT-HOUSES How BUILT THEIR USES 167 
 
 WINDMILLS THEIR USES 169 
 
 BALLOONS WHY THEY RISE How THEY MOVE 171 
 
 MAP OF ASIA ,. 174 
 
 What we know about Asia. 
 
 BIRDS: Their Nature, Variety, Ingenuity and Uses 177 
 
 COMPARATIVE SIZES OF BIRDS 198 
 
 MAP OF AFRICA 
 
 What we know about Africa. 
 
 ANIMALS WILD AND DOMESTIC 203 
 
 Their Variety, Distribution and Uses. 
 
 COMPARATIVE SIZES OF ANIMALS 232 
 
 INSECTS Their Nature, Variety and Uses 234 
 
 MAP OF THE UNITED STATES 248 
 
 What we know about the United States. 
 
 WRITTEN EXERCISES SPELLING AND COMPOSITION, 58, 69, 76, 93, 
 96, 133, 134, 139, 158, 166, 173, 199. 
 
 THE PICTORIAL CHART is designed for the class-room wall. 
 It is mounted on cloth and rollers and measures 42 by 55 inches. (Key on 
 following page.) It represents in an immense landscape, all the Divisions of 
 Land and Water Ocean Lakes Streams Mountains Islands Vapor Rain 
 Snow Agriculture Mining Manufacture Commerce, Etc., Etc., as seen 
 on a voyage around the world. It is adapted to ORAL and OBJECT TEACHING. 
 
 54!;") 41 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF THIS BOOK. 
 
 It contains PRIMARY SCIENCES FOR TWO GRADES ; the lowev 
 (comprising very young children) to be restricted to the 
 paragraphs in large type. 
 
 Method. BY ILLUSTRATION, COMPARISON and FAMILIAR CON- 
 VERSATIONS. OBJECTS are illustrated on a large PICTORIAL 
 CHART for wall of Class-room ; and on BLACKBOARD, 
 according to given directions for drawing. 
 
 Topics. SHORT and VARIED those suggested on an excursion 
 in the country by a teacher and her class ; such as Air, 
 Water, Rocks, Land, what they contain and what are their 
 uses ; with interesting lessons on Rain, Rivers, Plants, 
 Trees, Agriculture, Mining, Manufacture, Fishes,. Birds, 
 Animals, Insects, Geography, etc. 
 
 Exercises, also SHORT and VARIED, include : 
 READING ; 
 
 DRAWING on BLACKBOARD and SLATES; 
 ORAL EXERCISES, with Questions and Answers , 
 WRITTEN REVIEWS, combining Spelling and Composition. 
 
 Exercises on the PICTORIAL CHART and WALL MAP OF THE 
 WORLD. 
 
 Although adapted to the PICTORIAL CHART, the book is complete 
 in itself and maybe used independently as a TEXT-BOOK for 
 Primary Classes or for ORAL INSTRUCTION by the teacher. 
 
 It contains numerous Wood Engravings and Colored Maps. 
 
 Its object is not only to INSTRUCT, but to EDUCATE, to draw 
 out and strengthen the reasoning faculties, and to encour- 
 age habits of observing, thinking, analyzing and comparing. 
 
EASY LESSONS: 
 
 POPULAR SCIENCE, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 DIRECTIONS. 
 
 To conduct the lessons, Monteith's Pic- 
 torial Chart and a large map of the world 
 should be hung on the wall in full view of the 
 class. A globe, also, should be shown. The 
 teacher will then read aloud from the Hand- 
 book, pausing for answers which the pupils 
 may be able to give to the questions. 
 
 The names in black-faced type, as ocean, 
 surface, clouds, etc., should be pointed out 
 on the chart or map when they are mentioned. 
 This may be done either by the teacher or by 
 the pupils in turn. 
 
 The illustrations should be drawn on the 
 blackboard by the teacher, and by the children 
 also, on their slates. 
 
 (In classes composed of very young children, the spell- 
 ing and other exercises in small type may, at the discretion 
 of the teacher, be omitted in the first course. The words 
 in the spelling exercises should be written on slates by the 
 pupils.) 
 
4 The EartJis Surface. 
 
 1. If you should take a long walk from the 
 city, town, or village in which you live, you 
 might see people, houses, streets, roads, fields, 
 trees, streams, ponds, mills, factories, horses, 
 cows, sheep, and other animals ; perhaps you 
 would see a part of the ocean, on which great 
 ships and steamers sail. 
 
 2. The ocean and fields are parts of the 
 earth's surface. People, animals, trees, houses, 
 ships, etc,, are on the surface. When you see 
 flies on an orange, you may say they are on its 
 surface or outside part, just as people and ani- 
 mals are on the surface of the earth, which is 
 round like an orange. 
 
 3. When you look upwards and around you, 
 you may see the sky, the sun, and, perhaps, 
 clouds ; at night, you may see the moon and 
 stars, and other bodies called planets, which 
 look like stars. 
 
 4. All this time you are breathing what ? 
 Air. Without air you could not live, nor 
 could any animal, bird, or fish, or tree live. 
 Sometimes the air is still, sometimes it moves 
 gently and you are able to fly your kite ; then, 
 again, it rushes powerfully and fearfully, blowing 
 down trees, fences, and houses, and sinking ships. 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE City, town, ship, village, 
 trees, bird, stream, fish, surface, kite, mill, factory. 
 
A ir Wind A t traction. 5 
 
 5. This we call wind. You feel the air, you 
 breathe it, you see the effects of the wind, yet 
 you have never seen air or wind You admit 
 that there is air and that there is wind, although 
 both are invisible. What does invisible mean ? 
 Are houses and trees visible or invisible ? 
 
 6. Now, as the earth is round (or very nearly 
 so) like a great ball, and people travel or sail 
 around on every part of it, what is it that keeps 
 them from falling off from this great ball called 
 the earth ? It is something that is both useful 
 and powerful. It is also invisible. When you 
 throw your ball high in the air, it is brought 
 back again by something which you cannot see, 
 by this other invisible power ; without this 
 power your ball would never come back to 
 you. When chestnuts are ripe, and when you 
 throw a stone into an apple-tree in the autumn, 
 the chestnuts and apples are brought to the 
 ground by this same invisible power. Do you 
 know what we 'call it ? Attraction. Without 
 this attraction which the earth has, those chest- 
 nuts and apples would be as likely to fly away 
 toward the moon or the sun or some of the 
 stars. Without this power which the earth 
 has of drawing or attracting to itself (always 
 downward), the farmer could not sow his seed, 
 for it would be as likely to fly toward the 
 clouds as to fall on the ground ; the carpenter 
 
6 The Earths Shape Geography. 
 
 and the mason would not be able to keep their 
 boards and bricks just where they wanted them ; 
 the chairs, tables, and beds in your houses would 
 be as likely to rest against the ceiling as on the 
 floor ; and your sleds would no longer rush 
 down hill on the smooth snow in winter. 
 
 Blackboard drawing" to illustrate Up and Down. The teacher 
 may draw by means of a piece of cord twelve inches in 
 length a circle to represent the Earth. On it mark arrows 
 as shown in model, all pointing- to the center, and, conse- 
 quently, Downward; then mark other arrows pointing- from 
 the center, or Upward. 
 
 Another circle may be similarly drawn, and on it trees be 
 represented all pointing- Upward. The directions to and 
 from the center, or down and up, should be clearly explained 
 to the class. 
 
 7. In what direction does the earth draw or attract 
 objects ? Downward, or toward its center. In what direc- 
 tion is up ? From the center of the earth, or over your head. 
 Point upward; downward. 
 
 8. Now, a knowledge of all these things, as 
 well as of different countries, mountains, and 
 places on the earth, and of the wonderful fitness 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Air, wind, apple, earth, 
 farmer, up, down, sled, snow, board, bricks. 
 
The Earth is Round. 7 
 
 of them for people's enjoyment and welfare, may 
 be obtained by studying geography. 
 
 9. When we look at the sun, moon, and stars, 
 we see they are round ; and if there are people 
 living on the moon now, they would look at 
 this world or earth and see that it too is round 
 
 Blackboard drawing- to show Rotundity of the Earth. With 
 chalk and a cord two feet long- describe an arc as here 
 shown. On the left draw a part of the coast of North Amer- 
 ica, with a lig-hthouse on Newfoundland; on the rig-lit, 
 England, Ireland, and the coasts of Europe and Africa. 
 Prom the top of the lighthouse draw a straight line touch- 
 ing the Arc or Surface of the Earth; then show ships on 
 the Atlantic in different positions, one below the horizon, 
 another partly above, and another wholly above it. The 
 straight line is the Line of Vision to a man in the light- 
 house, and the point where that line touches the arc or sur- 
 face shows the extent of his Horizon. The lighthouse and 
 masts all point from the center of the earth. 
 
 10. How have men proved the earth to be spherical, or 
 round like a ball ? Men have sailed around it as flies travel 
 around an orange ; then, again, the hull, or body of a distant 
 ship coming toward you. is not seen as soon as its topmast. 
 
 Which is the larger body, the sun or moon ? The sun. 
 Why does the sun not look much larger than the moon ? 
 Because it is a great deal further from us than the moon is. 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Orange, round, spheri- 
 cal, hull, top-mast, center, geography, lighthouse. 
 
8 The Earth's Size, Motions, and Seasons. 
 
 1 1. The earth is larger than the moon, the 
 sun is larger than the earth, and some of the 
 stars are larger than the sun. 
 
 (Here the teacher may draw on the black-board a circle 
 one inch in diameter to represent the moon ; another, four 
 inches in diameter to represent the earth; and for the sun,i 
 give them an idea of a ball 40 feet in diameter ; thus show- 
 ing their comparative size.) 
 
 12. If you can imagine a rope stretched from the earth 
 to the sun, and 400 knots on it equally distant from each 
 other, the place of the moon would be at the knot nearest 
 the earth. 
 
 13. The earth moves around the sun, and the 
 moon moves around the earth. 
 
 (To explain these motions, one of the pupils may re- 
 present the sun, another walk around him to represent the 
 earth, and a third walk around the second, to represent 
 the moon.) 
 
 14. If the earth did not move or revolve 
 around the sun, we should have no change of 
 seasons. Mention the seasons. What can you 
 say of winter ? Of spring ? Of summer ? Of 
 autumn ? 
 
 1 5. The earth has another motion : it turns 
 around as a top spins, or as you might turn an 
 apple around on a knitting-needle. This kind 
 of turning is called rotation, and causes change 
 from day to night, and from night to day. 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Sun, moon, circle, spring, 
 summer, autumn, winter, knot, knitting-needle. 
 
Day Night Sunrise. 9 
 
 1 6. I shall now show on the blackboard how 
 day and night are caused. The lamp represents 
 the sun, and the apple stands for the earth. The 
 sun gives light to that side of the earth which 
 is opposite it, as is shown by the bright side of 
 the apple, which represents day. The side turned 
 away from the sun is dark there it is night 
 If the earth did not turn on its axis (or rotate) 
 we would not have night and day as we now 
 have them. 
 
 To oe drawn on the blackboard to explain the succession of 
 Day and Night. The lamp represents the Sun ; the apple, 
 the Earth; the needle .on which the apple turns represents 
 the Axis of the Earth. 
 
 (The teacher should now and then tell the children a 
 story touching any of the points in the lessons.) 
 
 1 7. When you say the sun rises in the east in 
 the morning, it only appears to rise. It is not 
 the sun which moves from the east upward and 
 nearly over your head, and then down in the 
 west in the evening. It only appears to do so. 
 
i o Sun A ir A ttr action Heat. 
 
 It is really the earth, or that part of it on which 
 we live, that moves around the other way, to- 
 ward the sun in the morning, and away from it 
 all the afternoon ; that is, from the west over to 
 the east. When you are on a steamboat sail- 
 ing swiftly and smoothly, the trees on the shore 
 appear to move toward you, then past and be- 
 hind you, yet you know it is the steamboat 
 that moves not the trees. 
 
 1 8. Without the sun we should have no heat 
 or light. Would we not have wood to burn 
 and give us light ? We would not ; for without 
 the sun's heat trees would not grow. Would 
 we not have the moon to shine for us? 
 The moon would not give us any light, for it is 
 the sun shining upon the moon that makes it 
 bright and gives us moonlight nights. So, with- 
 out the sun, there would be no light on the 
 earth no plants, trees, animals, birds, fishes, or 
 people. 
 
 19. You have learned how important are the 
 sun, air, and attraction. You will, in the next 
 chapter, learn about rain, how it depends upon 
 the sun, air, and winds, and how they all work 
 together beautifully and continually in order 
 that all people may have food to eat, water to 
 drink, and pleasant places to live in. 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Day, light, night, coal. 
 
A Balloon Voyage around the Earth. 1 1 
 
 20. Suppose you should start some pleasant 
 morning in a balloon that could move all the 
 way around the world before dark the same 
 day. Of course, that has never been done, for 
 the distance is too great, but suppose it could 
 be done. What would you see ? (The teacher 
 may here pause for answers.) Well, you would 
 glide over an immense portion of land, called 
 a continent, a portion of which you see in the 
 chart (pointing to all the land). On this con- 
 tinent you would see mountains, hills, 
 valleys, rivers, lakes, farms, and trees. 
 You might see men at work in the fields, others 
 building houses, or bridges, or railroads ; some 
 busy in great factories and mills making cloth, 
 shoes, food, tools, wagons, and other things too 
 numerous to mention. Here and there you 
 would see cities, towns, and villages, and, be- 
 yond them, houses scattered here and there ; 
 then, perhaps, a forest, a wilderness or wild 
 place, inhabited only by Indians and wild ani- 
 mals ; then, perhaps, beautiful valleys, plains, 
 streams, and busy towns ; and all at once you 
 might come to a body of water which extends 
 much further than your eye could reach. That 
 is an ocean. In it, dotted here and there, you 
 might see islands, which also contain trees, hills, 
 lakes, people, birds, animals, etc., all different in 
 appearance from any you had seen before. And 
 
12 Balloon Voyage, continued. 
 
 you would wonder to find that, as you rush so 
 rapidly over land and sea, some places have clear 
 weather ; others, cloudy ; and still others rainy 
 or stormy, all in the same day. 
 
 21. Now, after your return home, which you 
 would be sure to reach if your balloon kept in 
 the precise course it started out on, you would, 
 probably, sit down and write about all the places, 
 people, etc., you saw ; and, for the instruction 
 and pleasure of those boys and girls who were 
 unable to take such a voyage, you would, per- 
 haps, fill a book with your description : that 
 would be geography, which is simply a de- 
 scription of the earth's surface. What is geo- 
 graphy ? What is an ocean ? The largest 
 division of water. W T hat is a continent ? The 
 largest division of land. 
 
 22. How does an island resemble a continent ? Both 
 are surrounded by water. What is the difference between 
 them ? A continent is larger than an island. 
 
 24. In your description you would show draw- 
 ings or maps something like this. 
 
 Here the teacher may draw on the black- 
 board (if not previously drawn) a map of his or 
 her school, school-grounds and vicinity. (See 
 pp. 38 and 39.) 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Continent, island, bal- 
 loon, voyage, people, wrice, ocean, geography. 
 
The Ocean. 1 3 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE OCEAN. 
 
 (Observe the directions given at the head of 
 Chapter /) 
 
 1. The Ocean, often called the sea, covers 
 three-fourths of the earth's surface. Its water 
 is salt and in constant motion. In it live count- 
 less fishes, and on its surface very many ships 
 sail from one country to another, carrying 
 people, provisions, clothing, and various articles 
 for use or ornament. 
 
 Which of you have ever seen an ocean ? A moun- 
 tain ? A lake ? A river ? An island ? Clouds ? 
 Rain? 
 
 2. The ocean is useful to us not only in fur- 
 nishing fish, and as a great highway for ships. 
 There are many children who have never seen 
 the ocean, or eaten any of its fish, or seen any- 
 thing that was brought in a ship. Lest such 
 children should therefore think that the ocean 
 is of no use to them, and that it would have 
 been better if the earth were made with pretty 
 fields, farms, and gardens all over it, they should 
 know that without the ocean no child, man, 
 bird, or animal could live on the earth. 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Earth, ocean, sea, fish, 
 field, clouds, surface, island, provisions, mountain. 
 
1 4 Rain ; its Origin and Uses. 
 
 (The teacher may ask the children, in turn or 
 together, to mention the different articles of 
 food which people require. If the answer should 
 be bread, then ask :) 
 
 3. What is bread made of, and how ? What is flour ? 
 Wheat grou?id in the mill. Where is wheat obtained ? // is 
 raised on a farm. 
 
 (If others answer potatoes, apples, milk, beef, 
 pork, etc., ask questions about each.) 
 
 4. Animals live mostly upon grass, vegetables, 
 or grain of some kind, which grow on the farms 
 and fields. 
 
 5. Would the grass, grain, and vegetables grow without 
 rain? Where does the rain come 'from? The clouds. 
 Where do the clouds come from ? The ocean. How ? 
 The htat of the sun causes vapor to rise from the ocean, and 
 the wind blows the vapor or clouds over the land, and wheti 
 they rise into high, cool air they fall in drops called rain. 
 
 6. The rain waters the fields and farms, 
 fills streams, rivers, and lakes, and furnishes 
 drink for men and cattle and all creatures that 
 live on the earth. When the vapor or moisture 
 in the air freezes, it falls in the form of snow. 
 When the drops of rain freeze before they reach 
 the ground, they fall in the form of hail. 
 
 7. What rises from the ocean ? Vapor. What causes 
 it to rise? The sun and air. What does vapor form? 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Flour, wheat, farm, field, 
 liver, lake, beef, pork, apple, vapor, freeze, hail. 
 
Voyage of a Drop of Water. 15 
 
 Clouds. What drives vapor or clouds over the land ? 
 The wind. What causes the clouds to return and fall in 
 the form of rain ? The coldness of the air above us. If 
 you should ascend far above the earth's surface in a bal- 
 loon or by traveling up a high mountain, what differ- 
 ence would you find in the air ? We would find it cooler 
 and cooler the higher we go. 
 
 8. From this you may readily understand how 
 a certain drop of water may be changed to 
 vapor, rise from the ocean, be carried by the 
 winds far away and over the land, changed back 
 to water, fall on the ground, sink down below 
 the surface, find its way to a spring, reappear in 
 the overflow, run down a hillside, and become 
 part of a rill, rivulet, brook, or other little 
 stream. The stream flows on, falls over steep 
 places, forming cascades or waterfalls, 
 turns mill-wheels, receives other streams, 
 becomes deep enough and wide enough to float 
 large steamboats, and at last finds its way 
 into the ocean. Thus that little drop of water, 
 after a long and curious journey, may return 
 to the place it started from. 
 
 9. Can people live without water ? Does the water you 
 drink come from a spring, well, lake, reservoir, or river ? 
 From what is the well, spring, river, or lake supplied ? 
 Rain. From what does rain come ? From what do 
 clouds come ? 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Brook, wheel, steep, 
 steamboat, cascade, balloon, rivulet. 
 
1 6 Vapor, Rain, Springs, etc. 
 
 10. As the land on the earth's surface is higher 
 than the ocean, you all know that the water of 
 the ocean could not run up and over the land. 
 
 1 1. Now, how do the waters which you find 
 on the land, even on very high lands, such as 
 springs, rivers, and lakes, get there ? They 
 are formed by rain or melting snow. Where 
 do rain and snow come from ? From vapor 
 or clouds. Where do vapor and clouds 
 come from ? The ocean. 
 
 1 2. All of you who have seen a kettle or pot 
 of water boiling have noticed that something 
 white, like smoke, rose from the top of the 
 water. It was not smoke, but vapor. Vapor is 
 the water so thinned out by heat as to become 
 light enough to rise in the air. Have you not 
 also seen the inside of windows in cold weather 
 all wet with drops? The vapor coming near 
 the cold window is only changed back again to 
 water. 
 
 13. If any of you should hold a cold sub- 
 stance, such as a pitcher filled with snow, or ice, 
 or cold water, over boiling water, you would see 
 the vapor rise, and as soon as it touched that 
 cold substance it would be changed into drops. 
 That is the way rain is formed. 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Spring, kettle, smoke, 
 rain, vapor, ice, snow, pitcher,, window, boiling. 
 
The Ocean ; what it Supplies. \ 7 
 
 14. Now look at the chart, and you may see 
 vapor, which is represented as rising from the 
 ocean, blown or carried by the wind over the 
 land (following with your pointer), and entering 
 air that is cooled by these cold mountains. 
 As cool air cannot hold as much vapor or mois- 
 ture as warm, dry air, some of the moisture falls 
 in the form of rain. That which falls on the 
 land waters the fields and farms, and fills 
 the streams and lakes. 
 
 One after another will now point to the ocean, the vapor, 
 the clouds, the rain, streams and lakes. 
 
 15. The ocean, then, supplies or fills all the 
 lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams ; every drop of 
 water on the surface or under the surface of the 
 land, on the mountain top or in the deepest 
 valleys ; all the water of the wells and springs ; 
 all the moisture which floats in the air ; and all 
 rain, snow, hail, or dew. 
 
 Is the water of the ocean salt or fresh ? Salt. Is the 
 water of rain, lakes, rivers, and snow salt or fresh ? 
 Fresh. 
 
 If these are all supplied from the salt ocean, why are they 
 fresh ? Because when vapor rises from the ocean, the salt, too 
 heavy to rise, remains behind. 
 
 From what besides the ocean does vapor rise ? From 
 lakes, rivers, ponds, and wet ground. 
 
 Does vapor rise from a cup of water ? // does. 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Well, lake, snow, valley. 
 
1 8 Evaporation and Condensation. 
 
 1 6. If you should boil a kettle of salt water v 
 the vapor passing off would be fresh. This you 
 may prove by conducting the vapor through a 
 tube or pipe cold enough to condense or change 
 the vapor back again to water ; this water will 
 be fresh. 
 
 (The teacher may now draw on the black- 
 board this picture, of a size sufficiently large to 
 be seen by the whole class ; or, the drawings 
 which enter into a certain day's lesson may be 
 previously prepared on the blackboard.) 
 
 Drawing for the blackboard explaining evaporation and con- 
 densation; also, how fresh water maybe procured from salt 
 water, by conducting vapor through a pipe that is kept cold. 
 
 17. If you were at sea and without drinking-water, how 
 could you obtain it ? By boiling the salt water in a kettle 
 and conducting the vapor into a cold pitcher or bowl, or 
 through a pipe kept constantly cold. What becomes of the 
 salt in the process of evaporation ? // remains behind in 
 the kettle. 
 
 SI ELL AND DEFINE Tube, boil, salt, kettle. 
 
The Five Oceans. 
 
 18. Suppose that the salt should rise from the ocean with 
 the vapor ; what would the rain be, fresh or salt ? If rain 
 were salt, what effect would it have on our grass, trees, 
 grain, and flowers ? 
 
 19. The changing of water into vapor is called 
 evaporation. The changing of vapor into water 
 is called condensation. Look at the chart again, 
 and see the vapor rising from the salt water of 
 the ocean and falling on the land far away as 
 pure, fresh water. 
 
 The teacher may here write on the black- 
 board the above as a Topical Diagram, 
 
 Man, 
 
 Animals, 
 
 Trees, 
 
 Grass, 
 
 Grain, 
 
 Vegetables, 
 
 require 
 
 
 
 The Ocean. 
 
 fresh 
 water 
 
 which 
 depends 
 on 
 
 Vapor. 
 Clouds. 
 Rain or 
 
 
 
 Snow. 
 
 (Salt springs and the manufacture of salt by 
 evaporation here indicated will be treated in an- 
 other lesson.) 
 
 20. The words ocean and sea are often used 
 to refer to the whole body of salt water on the 
 earth ; which may be considered as divided into 
 five parts, also called oceans. There are five 
 oceans. I shall point on the map of the world, 
 and all (or each in turn) will repeat each name 
 after me Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Bowl, pitcher, vapor, 
 evaporation, Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic, Antarctic, 
 Indian, vegetables, grain,, flowers, condensation. 
 
2O The Five Grand Divisions of Land. 
 
 Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Antarctic 
 Ocean. Now I shall call their names, and 
 some of you may point to them as I mention 
 them. How many oceans are there? Name 
 one, another, another, etc. Look at the map and 
 tell which is the largest. What does Pacific 
 mean ? Mild. It is not so rough and stormy 
 as the other oceans. 
 
 21. Now repeat after me the Grand Divisions 
 of the land while I point to them North 
 America, where we live ; South America, 
 where South Americans live ; Europe, where 
 Europeans, or white people, live ; Asia, where 
 Asiatics, or yellow people, live; and Africa, 
 where Africans live. You point as I call their 
 names. As I point you mention their names. 
 (The white people born in America are the 
 descendants of Europeans, and the colored 
 people born in America are the descendants 
 of Africans.) 
 
 (Long before white men came to America 
 from Europe, which was nearly 400 years ago t 
 this part of the world, called North America, 
 was inhabited by a copper-colored race of people, 
 who lived mostly by hunting and fishing. Their 
 descendants in the country now live much in 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE North, South, America, 
 Europe, Asia, Africa, buffalo, descendants. 
 
Sea Voyages. 21 
 
 the same way, in the territories. Look at 
 the chart, and you will see a picture of Indians 
 hunting buffaloes. I may tell you more about 
 the Indians, and their curious way of living, in 
 another lesson.) 
 
 22. Which is the largest of these divisions? The small-* 
 est ? In which do we live ? What are we called ? Ame- 
 ricans. Look at the map and tell what three oceans sur- 
 round North America. Which of them would you cross 
 in sailing to Europe ? . Why do steamships and other 
 vessels cross the ocean ? To carry passengers, also arti- 
 cles which are grown or manufactured here. 
 
 Do those vessels return empty ? They bring back articles 
 which are raised or made in Europe, Asia, or Africa ; they 
 bring passengers also. 
 
 Can you name some things which are sent from this 
 country across the Atlantic Ocean ? Flour, wheat, cotton, 
 provisions, oil, and tobacco. 
 
 Can you mention some articles we receive from Europe ? 
 Materials for making dresses and all kinds of cloths, besides 
 knives and toys. 
 
 What do ships from South America bring to this coun- 
 try ? Coffee and India-rubber. 
 
 What do we get from China and Japan ? Tea, fans, 
 and many fancy articles. 
 
 How long does it take steamships to cross the Atlantic 
 from this country to Europe ? About ten days. 
 
 Did you ever see a steamship ? What is the difference 
 between a steamship and a sailing vessel ? 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Toy, tea, coffee, oil, 
 wheat, cotton, knives, tobacco, provisions, pas- 
 sengers, India-rubber, steamship, sailing, knives. 
 
22 Dangers on the Ocean. 
 
 (Show the difference on the chart.) 
 
 23. If you should cross the ocean, you would 
 see nothing about your ship but the water and 
 the sky ; and, as the vessel would cut through 
 the great rolling waves, it would go up and 
 down like a rocking-chair. In a storm, how- 
 ever, the waves rise terribly high and beat over; 
 the ship, which tumbles and plunges and rolls 
 violently, sometimes nearly covered over with 
 the waves. Then the passengers must be down- 
 stairs or they would be washed overboard. 
 
 24. Are there any other dangers to be feared at sea ? 
 Dangers from one ship running into another at night or 
 against an iceberg, or from the ship taking fire. 
 
 What is an iceberg ? A greafmass of floating ice reaching 
 far above and below the surface of the water. Icebergs 
 come from the cold regions of the Arctic Ocean and 
 northern parts of North America. 
 
 25. Do men ever sail into those cold, dangerous regions, 
 where they are constantly surrounded by ice and icebergs ? 
 They do. Why ? To find a new passage across the Arctic 
 Ocean, or to reach the most northerly part of the earth, called 
 the North Pole. 
 
 26. What dangers attend these voyages ? Some ships 
 have been crushed by fields of ice or by icebergs, and the crews 
 perished from hunger and cold. Mention a celebrated Eng- 
 lish explorer who was lost in the Arctic regions? Sir 
 John Franklin. 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Waves, region, hunger, 
 iceberg, floating, northern, surface, danger, over- 
 board, perished, explorer, dangerous, English. 
 
Whales How Captured. 23 
 
 In 1845, he left England with two ships and fine crews, 
 to reach Asia by way of Baffin Bay and the Arctic Ocean. 
 (Here point out the course on the map or globe.) Him- 
 self, his officers and crew of over 130 men, all perished. 
 
 27. How do natives and explorers in the Arctic regions 
 travel over the ice and snow ? In sledges drawn by dogs. 
 
 28. What huge animals (often, but improperly, called fish) 
 are captured in the water of the cold regions ? Whales. 
 You can know them far off by their two great fountains or 
 streams of water which they blow from their nostrils. 
 
 29. To capture whales men spend many 
 months on long, cold voyages, and we frequently 
 hear of ships being crushed by icebergs or float- 
 ing fields of ice, and the crews frozen or starved 
 to death. All this for what purpose ? To get 
 oil and whalebone from the whale. When the 
 whalemen see a whale they hurry out of their 
 ship and row in an open boat towards him, and 
 when near enough, one of the men throws a 
 kind of dart or spear, called a harpoon, with all 
 his might into the whale. The huge creature 
 becomes furious, and the men must look sharp 
 to keep out of his way and to let out the long 
 rope which is fastened to the harpoon, else 
 their boat may be dashed to pieces or all pulled 
 far under the water in an instant. 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Crew, officer, Baffin, 
 natives, sledges, captured, whales, whalebone, 
 nostrils, voyage, starved, harpoon, England. 
 
24 Whalebone Oil. 
 
 30. After a while the whale dies and floats at 
 the top of the water. Then the men jump on 
 him and cut out great quantities of the fat which 
 is found right under the surface of the skin. 
 They afterwards boil the fat, called blubber, 
 and make it into oil, which they take home in 
 barrels. 
 
 31. The whalebone, which is obtained fiom 
 the inside of the upper jaw, is colored and pre- 
 pared for use. For what is whalebone useful ? 
 Oil ? The whale is an animal which lives always 
 in the water, and is the largest of all animals 
 111 draw a picture of one on the blackboard. 
 
 A Whale. (Make the drawing: on the blackboard 3 feet in lengrth 
 by 7 inches in greatest width.) 
 
 How long do you think a whale is ? The larger 
 ones are about 20 to 30 yards long and 10 yards 
 around the body. (Here show these distances 
 by comparing with your school-house, room, or 
 some other object.) 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Oil, whale, whalebone, 
 animal, blubber, barrels, twenty, thirty, yard, float 
 
The Seal. 25 
 
 32. There are other animals living in or near 
 the water, which are captured in very large 
 numbers every year in the cold regions. Can 
 you name them ? Seals. For what are seals 
 captured ? Their fur. 
 
 Seal, 6 feet in length. Porpoise. 6 to 8 feet in length. 
 
 Shark, 12 feet in length. 
 
 Make blackboard drawing- of seal and porpoise, each 2 feet long- 
 by 6 inches wide : of shark, 4 feet long by 10 inches wide. 
 The shark is twice as long as the seal, and the whale is five 
 times as long as the shark. 
 
 33. Here is drawn (or I shall draw) on the 
 blackboard a picture of a seal. This animal is 
 about two yards long. It has two fore paws, 
 with which it paddles in the water or pulls itself 
 along on the ice or the shore. Its hinder limbs 
 serve only to steer and scull with. Its head 
 resembles that of a dog. 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Captured, fur, paddles, 
 ice, porpoise, shark, two, yard, fore. 
 
26 The Seal Its Uses. 
 
 34. In Greenland, where it is very cold, 
 many of the people depend upon the seal for 
 almost everything : its flesh they use for food, 
 of its skin they make their clothing, tents, and 
 boats, and its fat furnishes them with oil for fuel 
 and lamplight. 
 
 35. The seal is found on coasts and islands in 
 many parts of the world, but especially in the 
 cold regions. Around Alaska, Greenland, 
 and Newfoundland thousands are captured 
 every year. 
 
 36. The different species of the seal include 
 the sea-lion, sea-elephant, sea-leopard, sea-bear, 
 and the walrus. The sea-elephant is about 10 
 yards in length. 
 
 37. The seal is amphibious, because it can live in water or 
 on land ; it is a quadruped, because it has four paws or legs ; 
 like the whale, it is carnivorous, because it eats fish and 
 the flesh of animals; it is gregarious, because it lives with 
 others, in herds; it is migratory, because it moves from one 
 part of the ocean to another; and is a mammal, because it 
 suckles its young. 
 
 Seals, when in the water, must come to the surface at 
 least every half hour to breathe ; whales, about every 
 hour. 
 
 Alaska was purchased from Russia by the United States 
 for seven millions of dollars. It is noted for seals and fish. 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Seal, paw, limbs, boats, 
 flesh, steer, scull, tent, fuel, coast, island, clothing, 
 paddle, sea-lion, sea-elephant, thousand, million. 
 
Porpoise Cod Mackerel Herring. 2 7 
 
 Now I shall show you a picture of a porpoise. 
 
 38. The porpoise is an animal very much like 
 the seal, but it has not fur like the seal. In size, 
 each resembles a large hog. Leather is made of 
 its skin, and oil of its fat. 
 
 Trout. Pike. 
 
 Codfish. Cuttle-fish. 
 
 39. Can you mention some kinds of fish that 
 are caught in salt water and are used for food ? 
 Cod, mackerel, herring. These are caught in 
 immense numbers near the coasts, and, when 
 salted and cured, they are sent to all parts of 
 the world. Famous fishing grounds are off the 
 coasts of Maine, Massachusetts, Labra- 
 dor, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, 
 which I now point out on the map. Is New- 
 foundland surrounded by water? What is it, 
 therefore? An Island. By what water is it 
 surrounded? Mention other kinds of fishes. 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Porpoise, leather, cod, 
 mackerel, herring, Maine, New'foundland. 
 
28 Fisheries. 
 
 40. Here (pointing to the map, south of 
 Newfoundland) are shoals or shallow places, 
 called the banks of Newfoundland, where dur- 
 ing several months in the year you may see 
 hundreds of boats, and thousands of men of dif- 
 ferent nations, engaged in fishing. 
 
 41. Here is a picture of a codfish (drawing 
 or showing it) of the ordinary size, two feet in 
 length. Some are much larger. It is cured by 
 being salted and dried. 
 
 42. This is a drawing of a mackerel, which 
 is about 15 inches in length. It is caught by 
 hook and line, and by a seine (pronounced seen) 
 or net. It is salted in barrels. 
 
 43. Here is a drawing of a larger fish called 
 halibut, which measures from 3 to 6 feet in 
 length. (See p. 30.) This is a drawing of one, 
 three feet in length and one in width. Curi- 
 ously, both its eyes are on the same side of its 
 head. 
 
 44. A very fine fish which comes from the 
 south in the spring, entering the rivers and in- 
 lets of the State's along the Atlantic Coast, 
 is the shad. Those of the Delaware, Hud- 
 son, and Connecticut rivers are celebrated. 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Shallow, hundred, thou- 
 sand, salted, dried, caught, seine, halibut, eyes, 
 coast, inlets, Delaware, Hudson, Connecticut. 
 
Fresh-water Fish. 
 
 29 
 
 45. You may have seen enclosed in tin boxes 
 and packed in olive oil a great many very small 
 fishes. Do you know their name? Sardines. 
 They are caught in large quantities in the 
 Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean 
 Sea. 
 
 46. All the fish which we have mentioned are 
 salt-water fish. I shall now show you a picture 
 of some fresh-water fish which men and boys de- 
 light to catch, the pike and trout (see page 27). 
 
 47. This is a pike, 2 feet long and 3 inches 
 wide ; some are smaller and others larger. They 
 are caught in streams and lakes, and are deli- 
 cious for the table. 
 
 48. Another favorite fresh-water fish is the 
 trout (here is a drawing of one about 16 inches 
 in length). Trout are caught by hook and line 
 in the streams of the New England, Middle, 
 and Western States, and Canada. 
 
 They are usually found in swiftly-running 
 streams, swimming against the current. 
 
 49. Did you ever see any fresh-water fish caught? 
 What kind? Where? Into what does that stream or 
 lake empty ? Did you ever see a salt-water fish caught ? 
 How ? Where ? 
 
 Name the different kinds of fishes you have ever seen. 
 What is the most remarkable fish you have ever seen ? 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Boxes, olives, sardines, 
 inch, trout, pike, current, swimming. 
 
3O Flying-fish Sword-fish. 
 
 Halibut. Flyingr-fish. 
 
 Sword-fish. Mackerel. 
 
 50. Did you ever see a flying-fish ? I'll show 
 you a picture of one on the blackboard, about 
 ten inches in length. They are found in the 
 Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, 
 and warm parts of the ocean. Their long fins 
 enable them to fly out of the water as high as 
 the decks of ships, on which they sometimes 
 fall. 
 
 51. Another singular fish is the sword-fish, 12 
 to 20 feet in length. (Here is a drawing of a 
 very small one three feet long.) 
 
 It is so fierce, and so swift in motion, that it 
 drives its sword, a long, sharp, bony substance, 
 into a fish which it wishes to capture. It has 
 been known to attack a ship and bury its wea- 
 pon deep in the timbers. 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Flying-fish, sword-fish, 
 Mediterranean, Mexico, weaoon. timbers, deck. 
 
Cuttle-fish Oysters, Crabs, etc. 31 
 
 The sword-fish is found in the Atlantic 
 Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 (Whenever the blackboard will admit of it, the drawings 
 should be made full size.) 
 
 52. Here is still another very curious fish. It 
 is a cuttle-fish, which has eight long arms for 
 seizing other creatures which it captures for 
 food. When pursued, it discolors the water all 
 about it with an inky substance, which enables 
 it to conceal itself and escape from its enemy. 
 (See p. 27.) 
 
 53. Do fishes breathe air ? They do. Do they come to 
 the surface of the water for air, as whales, seals, and por- 
 poises do ? They do not. Where do they find air to 
 breathe ? In the water. Does all water contain air ? It 
 does. Fishes have gills ; animals, lungs to breathe with. 
 The blood of fishes is cold, while that of animals is warm. 
 
 54. There is a kind of fish caught in salt 
 water called shell-fish. Can you name some of 
 this kind ? Oysters, clams, crabs, and lobsters. 
 These are also found near shore in great quan- 
 tities and sold almost everywhere, either fresh or 
 preserved. Oysters are usually found adhering 
 to rocks or in the sand in salt water. 
 
 Do any of you know what kind of a jewel, worn exten- 
 sively by ladies, is found in some oysters ? The pearl. 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Shell-fish, cuttle-fish, 
 captures, pursue, conceal, escape, enemy, breathe, 
 crab, oyster, lobster, lungs. 
 
3 2 Coral Sponge. 
 
 55. There are other pretty ornaments made 
 from the skeletons or kind of bony substance 
 of small creatures which have died in the ocean 
 in such large numbers as gradually to form 
 islands. What is that substance ? Coral. 
 
 56. There is another substance, not ornamental 
 like the pearl or coral, but very useful. It looks 
 like a sea plant, but is also the skeletons of what 
 were once living creatures. It is very soft, and 
 it adheres to rocks, shells, etc., under water. 
 Mention it ? Sponge. 
 
 57. For what is sponge useful? (Teachers should show 
 the class a piece of sponge, coral, whalebone.) 
 
 58. I shall now draw on the blackboard the 
 shape of the bottom of the ocean. 
 
 1, the shore; 2, the surface or level of the ocean; 3, the 
 bottom of the ocean. 
 
 How deep do you think the ocean is ? You ? and 
 you? etc. The highest trees (those in California) and 
 church steeples in this country are about 300 feet high. 
 How many of these, one on top of another, would reach 
 from the bottom of the ocean to the top or surface ? Forty. 
 
 SPELL AND DEFINE Coral, sponge, pearl, 
 shells, skeleton, ornaments, gradually, steeple. 
 
Pearls Coral Divers. 33 
 
 59. Pearls are obtained by divers. Divers do 
 not always go down head first. Sometimes one 
 is lowered by a rope, on the end of which a stone 
 is fastened to help him to sink. With his feet 
 upon this stone and one hand holding on to 
 the rope, the diver collects as many of the pearl- 
 oysters as he can in a minute or half-minute, 
 when he must ascend to breathe. 
 
 60. Pearls are beautiful and expensive, especially those 
 as large as peas and larger. Philip II., King of Spain, 
 had one which was valued at $75,000, and it is said that 
 those in the ear-drops of Cleopatra, a celebrated Queen of 
 Egypt, were valued at $400,000. 
 
 61. Among the most famous pearl fisheries are those 
 near Ceylon and the east coast of Hindoostan. Pearls 
 have been found also near Japan, Java, Sumatra, and 
 in the Persian Gulf and the Bay of Panama. 
 
 Mother-of-pearl is the inside lining of the shells. It is 
 extensively used for making buttons, knife-handles, and for 
 ornamenting boxes, furniture, etc. 
 
 62. Coral is also obtained by divers in vari- 
 ous parts of the Mediterranean Sea. The 
 finest is of a rose-pink color, and is found chief- 
 ly near the coasts of Italy. 
 
 63. A flourishing business has long been carried on in 
 the manufacture and sale of coral ornaments in the cities 
 of Naples, Leghorn', and Gen'oa. 
 
 These divers for pearls and corals, when in the water, 
 often see curious and frightful creatures, some of which 
 are very dangerous (see p. 91). 
 
Review Uses of tke Ocean. 
 
 The Earth's Surface Land and Water. 
 
 REVIEW. 
 
 What is the shape of the earth ? Round like a ball. 
 
 What is its size ? The distance around it is about 
 -5,000 miles. 
 
 Of what is the earth's surface mostly composed ? Water. 
 
 Is the water of the ocean salt or fresh ? Salt. 
 
 Mention some of its benefits or uses to people ? 
 
 People sail on it and get fish from it. It supplies rain. 
 
 In what way does it supply rain ? 
 
 The heat of the sun changes some of it into vapor ; the 
 air lifts the vapor , the winds blow the vapor or clouds over 
 the land, and cool air changes- it back into drops of water. 
 
Review Different Kinds of People. 35 
 
 Mention some of the uses of rain ? 
 
 Rain waters the fields and gardens, forms springs and 
 rivers and lakes, fills wells and cisterns, and supplies all the 
 fresh water of the world. 
 
 What if the earth's surface were all land ? 
 
 Ihen there would be no rain, no rivers, no grass, no 
 trees, no food, no birds, no animals, no people. 
 
 The sea or whole body of water on the earth is 
 divided into how many oceans ? 
 
 Five : the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic 
 Oceans. 
 
 Have you ever seen any of these oceans ? 
 
 As rain comes from the salt ocean, why is it fresh ? 
 
 .Because salt is heavier than air ; it remains behind in 
 the ocean. 
 
 You have mentioned the five 
 great bodies of water ; now men- 
 tion the great bodies of land. 
 
 North America, South America , 
 Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. 
 
 In which of them do we live ? 
 
 North America. 
 
 Do the inhabitants of these grand 
 divisions of land look alike ? Caucasian, or white. 
 
 They do not ; some are white, 
 some black, some dark red, some dark 
 yellow, and some brown. 
 
 Who are the white people of the 
 earth ? 
 
 Europeans and their descendants. 
 
 Who are the black people ? 
 
 The inhabitants of Africa and 
 their descendants (except those of 
 the northern and northeastern * 
 
 countries, who are light brown). African (black). 
 
3 6 Review Countries a nd People. 
 
 Indian (copper-colored). 
 
 Chinaman (dark yellow). 
 
 Who are the red or copper-colored people ? 
 
 The Indians of America. 
 
 Who are the dark yellow people ? 
 
 The Chinese, Japanese, and other inhabitants of Asia. 
 
 Who are the brown people ? 
 
 The inhabitants of the islands in the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 In what other respects do people 
 differ ? 
 
 In their dress, occupations, and 
 laws. 
 
 Into what are North America, 
 South America, Europe, Asia, and 
 Africa divided ? 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Mention some of the countries in 
 North America. Malay (brown). 
 
 The United States, Mexico, and Canada. 
 
 Mention some of the countries in South America, 
 
 Brazil, Peru, and Chili. 
 
 Mention some countries in Europe. 
 
 England, Germany, Russia, France, and Italy. 
 
 Mention some countries in Asia. 
 
 China, Japan, Persia, and Arabia. 
 
 Mention some countries in Africa. 
 
 Egypt, Morocco, Liberia, and Guinea. 
 
Review People, their Food, etc. 3 7 
 
 Which are the hottest countries in the world ? 
 
 Arabia, Guinea, Brazil, and all other countries crossed 
 by the Equator. (See map of the world.) 
 
 Which are the coldest countries in 
 the world ? 
 
 Russia, Greenland, and all other 
 places around the Arctic and Antarctic 
 Oceans, 
 
 What do the people in the coldest 
 parts of the earth wear constantly ? 
 
 Furs or skins of animals. 
 
 What kinds of animals are found in 
 the cold regions ? 
 
 Bears, seals, and reindeer. An Inhabitant of th 
 
 What is the principal food of the Cold Regrion. 
 people in the hot countries ? Vegetables and fruits. 
 
 What do the people of the Arctic regions eat ? 
 
 The flesh and fat of animals; also fish. 
 
 Can you tell me how a whale is caught ? (p. 23). Wha' 
 is it useful for? What is its size ? How large is a seal 7 
 (p. 25). Is it a fish, or an animal ? Why are they cap- 
 tured ? (p. 26). Point out on the map the places wher 
 seals are mostly captured. 
 
 What fish is so savage as to be called " man-eater"? 
 The shark. How long is it? (p. 25). 
 
 Mention some of the kinds of salt-water fish which are 
 used for food (p. 2)). What parts of the North Ameri- 
 can coast are famous for cod, mackerel, and herring ? 
 What is there curious about the eyes of the halibut? 
 Where is the shad mostly caught? (p. 28). When? 
 Sardines? (p. 29). Mention some fresh-water fish. What 
 can you say about the flying-fish? (p. 30). The sword- 
 fish ? The cuttle-fish ? (p. 31). Shell-fish ? Coral ? (p. 
 32). Pearls? (p. 33). 
 
Map of Vicinity. 
 
 39 
 
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Movements in the Ocean. 
 
 Blackboard Drawing: of the Gulf Stream (warm) and Arctic Cur- 
 rent (cold). Draw' a frame 24 inches from north to south, and 
 26 inches from east to west. On it mark points where the 
 outlines of the continents touch it, making 1 every line and 
 distance exactly eig-ht times as long- as in the diagram. The 
 arrows show the directions in which the currents flow. The 
 current in dotted lines is cold. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 OCEAN CURRENTS THE GULF STREAM. 
 
 1. The waters of the oceans are in constant 
 motion, those of warm parts of the earth flow- 
 ing toward the cold regions, and those from the 
 cold parts flowing toward the hot regions. 
 
 2. The coldest parts of the earth are the most 
 
Warm and Cold C^lrrenls. 43 
 
 northern and southern [the teacher pointing to 
 them on a globe or map], and the hottest parts 
 are midway between them, or on each side of a 
 great circle called the Equator. 
 
 3. In the oceans are great streams or cur 
 rents which flow like rivers. The warm stream 
 is called the Equatorial Current, and the cold 
 streams are called Arctic and Antarctic Currents. 
 
 4. One of the principal branches of the Equa- 
 torial Current is called the Gulf Stream, which, 
 as you may see in the drawing, issues from the 
 Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 5. Of course it is only that part of the great Equatorial 
 Current which is turned northwest by the eastern part or 
 elbow of South America, entering the Gulf of Mexico 
 between Cuba and Yucatan, and leaving it between 
 Cuba and Florida. 
 
 6. This Gulf Stream, flowing in a northeast 
 direction across the Atlantic, is, therefore, a 
 stream of warm water rushing through and 
 over the cold waters of that part of the ocean. 
 
 7. The Gulf Stream and winds from the 
 southwest carry heat all the way to the west 
 coast of Europe, keeping the fields of Eng- 
 land and Ireland fresh and green even in 
 winter, and protecting those countries from 
 a climate similar to that of Labrador, where 
 for five or six months in the year the waters 
 are frozen and the ground is all covered over 
 
44 Effects of the Currents. 
 
 with snow. Observe that Labrador is no fur^ 
 ther from the Equator than are those countries. 
 
 8. The waters of the Gulf Stream moderate 
 the winters also of Norway and Iceland. 
 
 9. You can readily see that a ship can sail from the 
 United States to Europe with the Gulf Stream in a 
 shorter time than it can from Europe to this country, 
 against the stream. 
 
 10. The chief causes of these ocean currents are the 
 heat of the &un and the revolution of the earth on its 
 axis. The ^finds also have an effect on them. 
 
 1 1. There are other currents in the ocean ; 
 one in the North Pacific is similar to the Gulf 
 Stream of the Atlantic. It carries warmth -and 
 fertility to the shores of California, Oregon, 
 and Washington Territory. 
 
 12. Which are the coldest oceans? The Arctic and 
 Antarctic. 
 
 What advantage is there in these movements of the 
 waters of the ocean ? They lessen the heat of the hottest 
 parts of the earth and the cold of the coldest parts. 
 
 Of what benefit is the Gulf Stream to the countries of 
 Western Europe ? // tempers their winters, and its vapors 
 supply theif rains. 
 
 How are its vapors conveyed to those countries ? By 
 the westerly winds. (See pages 16, 17, and 18.) 
 
 What supplies the rains of California, Oregon, Washing- 
 ton Territory, and Alaska ? Vapors from the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Where do these warm streams come from ? From the 
 hottest or Equatorial parts of the earth's surface. 
 
 Where do the cold streams come from ? From the coldest 
 or Polar Regions. 
 
Sk ips Sli tpya rds. 
 
 45 
 
 A Ship-Launch. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 SHIPS, SHIP-BUILDING, DOCKS, ETC. 
 
 1. On the sea-coast or on the bank of a river 
 you will sometimes find a ship-yard, where ships 
 are built. In the chart a ship-yard appears at 
 the mouth of the large river, on its left bank. 
 
 2. To build a ship, men lay a great, long tim- 
 ber called the keel, on an inclined track or plat- 
 form. To this keel are fastened the ribs, or 
 curved timbers, which form the sides of the 
 ship. The whole is supported and surrounded 
 by a great frame called the stocks. 
 
46 Steamships A Ship-Launch. 
 
 3. The ribs are then covered with thick 
 planks, and those planks which are below the 
 water-line are covered with plates or sheets of 
 copper or other metal. 
 
 4. Steamships are now built wholly of iron 
 and steel. The plates, instead of planks, are 
 secured by bolts and rivets passing through 
 their overlapping edges. Iron ships can carry 
 larger cargoes than wooden ships. 
 
 5. When the body or hull of the ship is 
 ready to be launched, long, slanting timbers are 
 placed under it, reaching down into the water. 
 These timbers or tracks are covered with grease 
 and soap, some of the props removed, and the 
 whole is made to slide down into the water. 
 People take great pleasure in witnessing a launch. 
 
 6. After the ship is launched it receives its 
 masts and sails, and is finished. If intended for 
 a steamship, it is also provided with engines, fur- 
 naces, smoke-pipes, and perhaps paddle-wheels. 
 
 7. Instead of paddle-wheels, which you may 
 see at the sides of steamboats, you will find 
 that now most steamships are driven by a pro- 
 peller, or huge iron screw, at its stern, or hinder 
 part. When this propeller turns round and 
 round very rapidly, its great, wide arms strike 
 the water in such a way as to push the steamer 
 ahead at the rate of about fifteen knots, or miles, 
 every hour. 
 
Parts of a Ship Their Names. 47 
 
 Blackboard Drawing-. Names of sails, etc.: A, flying-gib; B, 
 jib; C, foretop-mast-stay sail; D, fore top-gallant sail; E, 
 foretop sail; F, fore-course; Q, maintop-gallant sail; H, 
 maintop sail; I, main-course ; J, mizzen -spanker. 
 
 K, hull or body; L, keel; M, bow; N, i udder; O, bowsprit; P, 
 jib-boom; Q, martingale; B, life-boat; S, buoy. 
 
 a, Foreroyal stay; c, foretop-gallant stay ; d, foretop-mast stay; 
 e, maintop-gallant stay; f, maintop-mast stay ; h, main stay; 
 i, fore top -gallant mast ; j, maintop-gallant mast ; k, mizzen- 
 top mast. 
 
 8. Here is a ship (pointing to one on the 
 chart). See with what ease she moves upon 
 her way, her swelling sails urging her onward 
 with the favoring breeze. What wonderful 
 progress men have made from the time when 
 the rude savage straddled his log and floated 
 first along the shore ! 
 
 9. Almost as primitive is the large earthen jar used 
 by the fisherman at the mouth of the Ganges River. He 
 
4 8 
 
 What Skips Carry. 
 
 fishes as he floats, and puts the fish into the jar that is at 
 once his support and his storehouse. Other races use 
 rafts, bark canoes, hollow logs called dug-outs, and boats 
 of basket-work covered with skins. 
 
 
 10. Then came the 
 idea of a mast with a 
 sail of skin or matting. 
 As soon as men learned 
 how to make planks 
 they used them to 
 make boats. These in- 
 creased in size, as did 
 their sails, until large 
 enough to be called 
 sloops or schooners or 
 ships, which can carry- 
 hundreds of men and 
 thousands of tons of 
 
 merchandise for thousands of miles across a 
 trackless ocean. 
 
 1 1. The immense quantities of cotton, corn, 
 wheat, butter, cheese, petroleum, beef, pork, and 
 other articles which are being shipped to Eu- 
 rope every year bring great wealth to this 
 country. 
 
 1 2. When men discovered the power of steam, 
 they made steamboats and steamships. These* 
 move over the water by means of the power 
 of the vapor of water, that we call steam. 
 
 A Chinese Junk. 
 
Stea m Mack inery. 
 
 Blackboard Drawing-. On the right is a furnace, on which is 
 the boiler, partly filled with water. Steam collects in the 
 curved top of the boiler, and is let into the cylinder, first at A, 
 then at B, then A, then B, or one after another, so as to push 
 the piston, E, up and down rapidly, thus moving- the larg-e 
 working-beam, which sets the whole machinery in motion. C 
 and D are exhaust-pipes. 
 
 13. Here is a rough drawing to show how the 
 steam does its work. When the steam comes 
 fro'm boiling water it expands very much, and 
 this expansion is the power we employ. 
 
 14. The cylinder is a strong vessel of iron or 
 steel in shape like one joint of a stovepipe, but 
 very much larger. The steam comes out very 
 hot, as well as very powerful and expansive, and 
 getting in under the piston, pushes it up, and, 
 consequently, pushes the piston-rod which is 
 attached to it. This rod sets the machinery in 
 motion, and works the paddle-wheels of the 
 steamboat or the great revolving screw or pro- 
 peller of the steamship. 
 
 15. When the steam has pushed the piston 
 up to the top of the cylinder the steam-pipe in- 
 let is shut off below and let on above. At the 
 
5 How Engines Work. 
 
 same time the exhaust-pipe outlet is closed above 
 and opened below, so that by opening and shut- 
 ting these outlets and inlets the piston is kept 
 going up and down with power enough to 
 force a large boat through the water, or a loco- 
 motive with many cars behind it along a rail- 
 road. 
 
 A Steamship and Sailing- Vessels on the Ocean. 
 
 1 6. Men have also made steamers whose out- 
 side is entirely of iron. One of these, the Great 
 Eastern, is like a small village in the number of 
 persons it can carry. 
 
 17. War-steamers of iron have been built 
 
Iron Ships Ironclads. 51 
 
 with very thick sides so as to resist cannon- 
 balls. 
 
 1 8. The Devastation, an English vessel of this class, has 
 on her sides twelve inches of iron, backed by eighteen 
 inches of wood, and the Dictator, an American vessel, 
 has six inches of iron, backed by forty-two inches of wood, 
 making a very formidable barrier. 
 
 The Ironclad " Merrimac." 
 
 19. Two of the most celebrated ironclad 
 vessels of war were the Merrimac (or Virgi- 
 nia) and the Monitor. 
 
 20. The former, a Confederate war-vessel, with a slop- 
 ing roof of railroad iron, attacked and destroyed the 
 Union war-vessels (not ironclad) Cumberland and Con- 
 gress, whose heavy cannon-balls glanced harmlessly off. 
 Nothing then seemed easier than to destroy all the other 
 Union vessels it could reach ; but the little ironclad Moni- 
 tor, less than one-fifth the weight of the Merrimac, arrived 
 from New York just in the nick of time. The two iron- 
 clads went at each other, and for several hours they fought 
 furiously. Five times the Merrimac tried to run down 
 and sink her brave little antagonist; broadside after 
 broadside was hurled at it, but its hull, its deck, and its 
 
52 Merrimac and Monitor Docks. 
 
 round, revolving turret (small tower) were too strongly 
 covered with plates of iron. The Merrimac was com- 
 pelled to retire from the contest, which was her last. 
 
 The Monitor. 
 
 21. The Monitor's two big guns were fired through 
 openings in the tower. When fired, the cannons were 
 brought back into the tower and the openings closed by 
 heavy iron doors. 
 
 22. This famous engagement took place at 
 the mouth of the James River, near the City 
 of Norfolk, in 1862. 
 
 23. The length of the Monitor was 174 feet and its 
 width 41 feet. 
 
 24. A dock is a part of a harbor or river 
 which is enclosed between piers, wharves, or 
 high banks, where vessels may enter to load or 
 unload. 
 
 25. Some docks have gates to close tightly 
 where it is necessary to prevent the water from 
 running out with the falling tide. 
 
Dry-Docks, etc. 
 
 Blackboard Drawing- of a floating- Dry-Dock. Water let into 
 dock, -which sinks to receive vessel. 
 
 26. A dry-dock is one from which the water 
 may be shut out or pumped out. 
 
 27. Some dry-docks are floating docks like 
 that shown in the chart and in the blackboard 
 drawing. Such have cisterns or hollow spaces 
 between their sides or under the floor, into 
 which water is admitted until the dock sinks 
 deep enough to admit a vessel needing repairs. 
 
 
 Blackboard Drawing- of a floating 1 Dry-Dock. Water pumped 
 out of dock, causing dock to rise, lifting the vessel. 
 
 28. When the vessel is properly braced or 
 
54 Dry- Docks How Used. 
 
 propped up, the water is pumped out by steam, 
 and the dock, vessel and all, rise as you see in 
 the drawing. 
 
 29. Some docks at low tide are entirely with- 
 out water. Such are enclosed by strong gates, 
 like those of canals, which keep the water in to 
 float the vessels. These also are dry-docks, al- 
 though not floating docks. 
 
 30. When a vessel needs repairing or clean- 
 ing, it sails in with the rising tide, and is then 
 propped up. When the tide falls the gates are 
 opened, and the water passes out ; then the 
 gates are closed, and the water is kept out until 
 the vessel is ready to sail. These stationary 
 dry-docks are constructed only in those rivers 
 and bays in which the rise and fall of the tides 
 are sufficient for the purpose. 
 
 31. The city of London, the largest city in the world, 
 has such docks ; its tides rise and fall about eighteen feet. 
 Such, also, are the magnificent docks of the city of Liver- 
 pool, where the tides rise and fall fifteen feet. Much of 
 that city's importance is due to these docks, in which can 
 be seen at any time steamships and other vessels from al- 
 most every country in the world, loading or unloading their 
 cargoes. The Brooklyn dry-dock is the finest in the 
 United States. 
 
 32. How is a ship steered? By means of a helm, or 
 rudder. 
 
 When sailors are far out at sea and no land is in sight, 
 what guides have they in ascertaining the directions ? The 
 stars and the mariner's compass. 
 
REVIEW OF CHAPTER IV. 
 
 What is a ship-yard ? A place where ships are built? 
 
 Where are ship-yards located ? On the sea-coast or the bank of a 
 river. 
 
 Mention some of the parts of a ship. The keel, ribs, sides, deck, 
 hull, masts, and sails. 
 
 What is the difference between steamships and sailing vessels? 
 Steamships go by steam and with the aid of sails ; sailing vessels, only 
 by means of the sails. 
 
 Of what are steamships mostly built? Iron. 
 
 What do ships carry from this country to Europe in large quan- 
 tities ? Cotton, corn, wheat, butter, cheese, petroleum, beef, and pork. 
 
 What ocean do these ships cross ? The Atlantic. 
 In what direction do they sail going there? East. 
 
 How long a time does it take a steamship to cross the Atlantic 
 Ocean ? About ten days. 
 
 How long does it take a sailing vessel ? A month or more. 
 
 What warm stream in the ocean do these ships sail in or across? 
 The Gulf Stream. 
 
 Name some parts of a steamship's machinery ? Furnaces, boil- 
 ers, cylinder, working-beam, propeller or screw, the steam and smoke- 
 pipes. 
 
 Mention the largest steamship ever built? The Great Eastern. 
 What is an iron-clad war vessel ? A vessel with very thick sides 
 covered with iron to resist cannon-balls. 
 
 Mention two celebrated iron-clads. The Merrimac and the 
 Monitor. 
 
 What is a dock ? A place where ships load and unload. 
 
 What is a dry-dock? One from which the water may be with- 
 draws.. 
 
56 Exercises on the Map. 
 
 How is a dry-dock used ? // is filled with -water to receive vessels, 
 and emptied to repair them. 
 
 What is a floating dry-dock ? One which is filled with water by 
 sinking it, and emptied by raising it. 
 
 What is a mariner's compass? A box containing a card on which 
 is marked all the points north, east, south, west, etc., etc. and over 
 which a magnetic needle turns and points to the north. 
 
 As the needle shows where the north is, it is easy to know 
 where is the south, the east, or the west. 
 
 (See Wall Map, or p. 40.) In what direction do ships sail from 
 the United States to Europe ? Northeast. 
 
 To Africa, for ivory and ostrich-feathers ? Southeast. 
 To the West Indies, for oranges and bananas ? South. 
 To South America, for coffee and India-rubber? Southeast. 
 To the Arctic or cold regions for furs ? North. 
 
 With each of above answers, the pupil should point towards the place men- 
 tioned. 
 
 EXERCISES ON THE MAP. 
 
 On the map of the world you may see lines crossing from east 
 to west ; they are (pointing to them on the Wall Map, or referring 
 to p. 40), the Equator, Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, 
 Arctic Circle, and Antarctic Circle. They are all circles, and 
 appear so on all globps. 
 
 They divide the earth's surface into five belts or Zones, which 
 differ greatly in the amount of their heat and cold. 
 
 The hot zone is this (pointing to it), the Torrid. In it are the 
 hottest countries and islands of the world. 
 
 Between what two circles is the Torrid Zone ? The Tropic of 
 Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn . 
 
 What great circle passes through the middle of the Torrid Zone ? 
 The Equator. 
 
The Five Zones. 57 
 
 Mention some places in the hot or Torrid Zone ? Nearly all of 
 Africa and South America. 
 
 What part of North America is in the Torrid Zone? The 
 Southern. 
 
 What part of Asia is in it? The Southern. 
 
 Is any part of Europe in it? (See p. 40.) Any part of Austra- 
 lia ? Any part of Greenland ? 
 
 Furthest from the hot zone are the two cold zones, the North 
 Frigid and the South Frigid. In the center of one is the North 
 Pole, which is the most northern point of the Earth's surface ; and 
 in the center of the other is the South Pole, which is the most 
 southern point of the earth's surface. 
 
 The North Frigid Zone is limited or bounded by the Arctic 
 Circle ; and the South Frigid Zone by the Antarctic Circle. 
 (See p. 40.) 
 
 What part of North America is in the North Frigid Zone? 
 What part of Europe ? What part of Asia ? 
 
 The two zones which lie between the Torrid and the Frigid 
 Zones are neither so hot as the one nor so cold as the others. 
 They have a more temperate climate, and are called the North 
 Temperate Zone and the South Temperate Zone. 
 
 Between what two circles is the North Temperate Zone ? The 
 Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer. 
 
 Between what two circles is the South Temperate Zone? The 
 Antarctic Circle and the Tropic of Capricorn. 
 
 In what zone is the greater part of North America, which 
 includes the country we live in ? (p. 40.) 
 
 In what zone is nearly all Europe and Asia? The southern part 
 of South America ? The most northern part of Africa ? The most 
 southern part of Africa? The southern part of Australia? The 
 most of Greenland ? The Sandwich Islands ? 
 
 In what direction would you sail to find warm weather, with 
 fruits and flowers growing in the open air, even in winter? South. 
 
 In what direction would you sail to find cold weather, ice-fields, 
 and icebergs, even in summer? North. 
 
58 Spelling and Writing Lesson. 
 
 SPELLING AND WRITING LESSON. 
 
 The pupils may copy the following exercise on their slates or 
 papers, filling the blank spaces with the proper words. 
 
 tz ( 
 
 s^?/y /* J / 
 
 Cs-fte ^--a^L. -tzw-fz. 
 
 <c 
 
 , 
 
 cf &. 
 
 's&o44e. 
 
 *"/&,</ <&i<ci< m-i -^fi^ie to, via^ 
 
Rivers How Formed. 59 
 
 Head of River Cascade Mill Overshot Wheel. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 RIVERS, RAPIDS, CASCADES, ETC. 
 
 1. You would not ride far on a railroad 
 without crossing one, perhaps several, rivers, 
 which are streams of water always flowing 
 toward lower ground. Do you know how they 
 are formed, where they come from, where they 
 go, and what good they do ? 
 
 2. Look at the chart and you will see 
 several rivers. Some are formed by rain which 
 sinks into the ground and appears again at 
 openings in lower ground as springs, and others 
 are formed far up the sides of mountains merely 
 by the melting of snow. 
 
60 Rivers Their Uses. 
 
 3. On the chart you may see a river formed 
 by rain which falls on the hills ; and on the left, 
 in front, you may see a river which has its 
 source, or beginning, or head, very far up a 
 mountain, which is so high that its summit or 
 top is always covered with snow. (See p. 14.) 
 
 4. Rivers at first are usually very small ; 
 almost any of you could jump or wade across 
 them. In some places they tumble over preci- 
 pices, where they are called cascades or water- 
 falls. But as they flow on and down, they are 
 joined by other little streams coming from dif- 
 ferent directions, and little by little they grow 
 larger and deeper. 
 
 5. In some places you 
 would find boys and men 
 having fine sport with their 
 fishing-rods, lines, and 
 hooks catching trout or 
 other fish. 
 
 6. As you descend the stream, you may see 
 a mill so built that the rushing water may turn 
 
 a great wooden wheel. This wheel is made 
 either with broad arms like the paddle-wheels 
 of a steamboat, or with buckets at its outer 
 edge, that the stream may so strike these arms 
 or fill the buckets as to turn it round and 
 round, as shown on the next page. 
 
Water-wheels How Used. 
 
 Overshot-wheel. Breast-wheel. Undershot-wheel. 
 
 Make the wheels in the blackboard drawing 1 12 inches in 
 diameter, and instruct the class that a mill-wheel is about 
 12 feet in diameter, making: the comparison on the wall of 
 the room. 
 
 7. How this water-wheel turns other wheels 
 and the stones inside the mill so as grind wheat 
 into flour, corn into meal, or to saw logs into 
 boards, you will learn in a lesson further on. 
 
 8. As the wheels of all mills are not turned 
 by water in precisely the same way, you may 
 see from the blackboard drawing three different 
 ways of applying the water to the wheels. 
 
 9. The water-wheel on the left hand of the 
 chart is called an overshot-wheel, because the 
 water is shot over it. 
 
 10. When the water comes just abreast of the 
 axle of the wheel it is called a breast-wheel. 
 
 1 1. One which is turned by a stream running 
 under it is called an undershot-wheel. 
 
 12. Such a one is used by the washerwomen 
 in Paris, where it is attached to the side of a 
 large, stout boat that is held fast by anchors or 
 cables, and does their work for them. 
 
62 Rivers Their Uses Lumber. 
 
 A Pine Forest Lumber-men at Work. 
 
 13. This stream that runs down hill is also 
 very useful for carrying down logs. In the 
 winter, when the farmers cannot plough or sow 
 or reap, they go into the woods and cut down 
 trees. The branches they cut off and draw 
 home for firewood, but the trunks they cut up 
 into logs of about thirteen feet or more in 
 length, and then roll them to the bank of the 
 stream, or drag them on the snow by means of 
 oxen or horses. You may see some logs in the 
 chart, on the bank of a stream. 
 
 14. Immense quantities of lumber are obtained every 
 year from the forests of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minne- 
 sota, California, Oregon, Maine, and Canada. 
 
Rivers Floating Logs to the Mill. 63 
 
 Logs Floating down a Stream. 
 
 1 5. As soon as the snow is melted and the 
 streams are full, so that they have plenty of 
 water to float them, the wood-choppers roll the 
 logs into the stream, and away they go, helter- 
 skelter, until they are stopped by a " boom " or 
 stout log that is fastened there for that pur- 
 pose. Then, one by one, they are dragged into 
 the saw-mill, which gets all its power (either 
 steam or water-power) from the same water that 
 brought down the logs. 
 
 1 6. When a log is fixed securely in its place, 
 the big saw begins to saw it up into boards. 
 Sometimes what is called a " gang-saw " is set 
 to work, which cuts up a log at once into good 
 boards or planks. 
 
 17. A gang-saw is a frame full of saws set just the 
 width of a board apart. For what are boards and planks 
 used? 
 
64 Rivers What they Carry. 
 
 1 8. Some rivers carry from the lands through 
 which they flow rapidly great quantities of 
 soft earth or mud, called silt, which they de- 
 posit at or near their mouths. 
 
 19. Noted for this are the Mississippi, 
 Nile, Ganges, Danube, Po, Rhone, and 
 Rhine. 
 
 20. The mud deposited in this way divides the 
 stream at its mouth, giving it several mouths ; 
 the land so filled between these mouths is called 
 a delta. 
 
 21. The land on which the City of New 
 Orleans stands, and for a long distance all 
 around it and down to the Gulf of Mexico, was 
 carried there by the Mississippi River and 
 its branches. 
 
 22. Look at the Gulf of Mexico 
 where the Mississippi flows into it and 
 you will see that a large part of the 
 Gulf has been filled up in this way. 
 The State of Louisiana is, therefore, 
 growing larger every year, and the 
 mouth of that great river is getting 
 further and further from the City of 
 New Orleans. A like effect is caused 
 by the River Nile where it flows into 
 the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 23. It is estimated that the Missis- 
 sippi River carries down every five The Biver Nile, 
 years an amount of silt sufficient to cover the whole of 
 the State of Rhode Island twelve inches deep. 
 
Overflow of Rivers Levees. 
 
 Mississippi River An Inundation or Overflow. 
 
 24. After long and heavy rains or the sudden 
 melting of a winter's snow, some rivers become 
 so full that they overflow their banks, and the 
 rush of their water over the low lands causes 
 great destruction. To prevent this on the 
 lower Mississippi, men have constructed long, 
 high banks, called levees. 
 
 Sometimes, however, a bank bursts or is 
 washed away, and the overflow does immense 
 damage to crops, houses, cattle, etc. 
 
 25. The overflow of the Ohio River in 1883 caused 
 great damage and suffering to the inhabitants along its 
 banks. Thousands of houses were lifted from their 
 foundations and floated off by the rising waters. 
 
 26. Although damage is often done in this 
 
66 Rise of the Nile Its Uses. 
 
 way by inundations, they are not always destruc- 
 tive; indeed, in some places people could not 
 live without them. 
 
 27. One of the oldest and most celebrated 
 countries in the world owes its existence to the 
 yearly rise and overflow of a river. That coun- 
 try is Egypt, and that river, the Nile. 
 
 28. Rain is almost unknown in Egypt, and, 
 consequently, without the yearly rise of the 
 Nile, that country would be a desert. 
 
 29. The Nile rises so high (30 to 35 feet) 
 that very high banks have been constructed in 
 Egypt. 
 
 30. Through gates or openings in these banks 
 and by means of small canals or ditches, the 
 farmers conduct the muddy water of the Nile 
 to their farms and allow it to flow all over their 
 land and cover it with that soft mud which 
 makes the soil very fertile. 
 
 3 1 . Dry and barren lands in Utah have been converted 
 into rich and productive farms, orchards and gardens, 
 simply by water conducted from mountain streams. 
 
 32. The Nile receives its water from the lakes of Cen- 
 tral Africa, which are supplied by annual rains. This 
 river begins to rise in Egypt in the month of June, and 
 attains its greatest height in September. 
 
River Banks Canons. 
 
 The Rhine River, flowing- through Germany. 
 
 33. Some rivers are, for long distances, con- 
 fined between high, natural banks or bluffs, like 
 the beautiful Rhine, which flows through Ger- 
 many ; others flow between very, high moun- 
 tains, and in deep gorges or ravines, called 
 canons (kan'yons). 
 
 34. The Colorado River (kol-o-rafi do) is celebrated for 
 its great canons in Colorado, Utah, and Arizona. 
 Many other rivers in the Territories of the United States 
 flow through canons. 
 
 35. Where the bed of a river is very rough, 
 
68 Rapids Lakes. 
 
 rocky arid sloping, the water rushes down vio- 
 lently and rapidly. Such parts of a river are 
 called rapids. (See rapids in the chart.) 
 
 The St. Lawrence River contains the celebrated 
 Lachine (Zah-sheeri) Rapids. 
 
 36. A lake is a body or collection of water 
 which is formed and fed by one or more rivers ; 
 these are called its inlets. The water of most 
 lakes is fresh ; some lakes which have no out- 
 lets or outflowing streams are salt. 
 
 37. The largest fresh water lakes in the world are those 
 between the United States and the Dominion of 
 Canada ; their names are Superior, Huron, Michi- 
 gan, Erie, and Ontario. Great Salt Lake is in Utah. 
 Observe from the chart that some lakes are on low and 
 others on high ground. 
 
 38. Lakes and rivers are very useful in many 
 ways ; people sail on them to different parts of 
 their State or Country, and on them they send 
 and receive all sorts of things, such as food, 
 clothing, and building materials, very easily and 
 cheaply. On account of these advantages peo- 
 ple have built cities, towns, and villages on or 
 near the banks of rivers and lakes. 
 
 39. This buying, selling, and trading between people of 
 different States or Countries is called commerce. Com- 
 merce is carried on also by way of railroads and canals 
 and the great ocean or sea. (You will learn about canals 
 in Chapter VIII.) 
 
REVIEW OF CHAPTER V, 
 
 What is a river ? How are rivers formed ? How many banks 
 has each river? Which is the right and which is the left bank? 
 
 As you descend it, the bank on your right hand is the right bank : the 
 otJier is the left bank. 
 
 Why are mills built on the bank of a river? How many kinds 
 of water-wheels are there ? How are rivers useful to lumber- 
 men ? 
 
 By what are overflows caused ? What damage is caused by the 
 sudden rise of some rivers ? What is done to prevent overflows? 
 Of what benefit is the Nile River to Egypt? Which is the largest 
 river in the world ? Amazon. Where is the Amazon River? In 
 South America. 
 
 Which are the longest rivers in North America ? Missouri and 
 Mississippi. Which are the longest in Europe? Volga and 
 Danube. In Asia ? Yangtse and Lena. In Africa ? Nile. 
 
 What is a Canon ? What are Rapids? Cascades? Where are 
 the largest lakes in the world ? Mention them. 
 
 SPELLING AND WRITING EXERCISE. 
 
 d-at^^m-l. 
 
 <? 
 
 Write a composition on rivers ; enough to fill one page of a 
 copy-book. 
 
About Wells. 
 
 Section of the Ground or Rock, showing how "Wells are supplied. 
 
 A, Ground or rock through -which the rain-water sinks. 
 C, Rock or clay, which the water does not enter. 
 
 B, The part in which the water rests or flows. 
 
 C H A PTER V I . 
 
 WELLS, SPRINGS, ETC. 
 
 1. You already know that people obtain 
 fresh water from springs, lakes, and rivers. 
 Where else is fresh water obtained ? From 
 wells. 
 
 2. When it rains, some of the water runs along on the 
 surface or top of the ground and finds its way to a river ; 
 some of it is " dried up " or becomes vapor (page 16) ; and 
 a great deal " soaks away," or sinks down into the ground. 
 Where does that go ? How f,ar does it go ? It finds its 
 
Pumps Pressure of Air. 71 
 
 way down either through soft, loose ground or gravel, or 
 through crevices in the rock, and continues to sink until it 
 is stopped by rock or clay, which it cannot penetrate. 
 Therefore, if you should dig a pit or well down to a layer 
 of sand in which the water rests or moves, some of it will, 
 of course, flow into the well. 
 
 3. Water is brought up from a well by 
 means of a bucket, or a chain pump, or a suc- 
 tion pump. 
 
 4. A chain pump is composed of an endless 
 chain, which runs through a pipe. 
 
 5. A suction pump is one in which the 
 water is made to rise by the weight or pressure 
 of the air. 
 
 6. Air is everywhere, until it is displaced by 
 something else ; a cup or a pitcher, when said 
 to be empty, is full of air. 
 
 7. Air has weight, and is moved just as 
 water and sand have weight and are moved. 
 Like water, air can be pumped. 
 
 8. Air rests or presses on the land and also 
 on the water in the ocean, a cup, or a deep 
 well. 
 
 9. If you should remove the air from any 
 spot on the water, you would see the water 
 suddenly rise just at that spot, showing the 
 pressure of the air on the surrounding portions. 
 
72 How Water is Pumped. 
 
 10. If you should suck the air from a straw 
 which has one end in a 
 cup of water, you would 
 see the effect of air pres- 
 sure in the rising of the 
 water in the straw. 
 
 n. When a pump is 
 thus placed in a well, 
 and the air removed 
 from it, the water rises, 
 because the air which 
 rests on the water in the 
 well presses it up. 
 
 1 2. In the first draw- 
 ing, the water in the 
 well and that in the 
 pump are on the same 
 level, because air is 
 
 pressing down equally Rod g-oing- down-upper valve 
 . , * . i open, lower valve closed. 
 
 on the water both in- n n 
 
 (!N BLACKBOARD DRAWINGS, MAKE 
 
 side and outside of the THE PuMP THIRTY INCHES IN LENGTH 
 
 AND THREE INCHES IN DIAMETER ; 
 
 Pump AND THE WELL TEN INCHES IN DIAM- 
 
 ETER.) 
 
 13. The pump is provided with two little 
 trap-doors called valves, which fit tightly. The 
 lower valve is fixed, the other is moved up and 
 down by means of an iron rod attached to the 
 handle. (See p. 49.) 
 
Valves Vacuum. 
 
 73 
 
 14. The upper valve removes the air from 
 the pump, and immedi- 
 ately the water is pressed 
 up and flows out at the 
 spout. 
 
 1 5. The valves are so 
 made that the water and 
 air by pressing upwards 
 open them and rise 
 above them, but by 
 pressing downward, 
 close them ; therefore, 
 the valves prevent the 
 return of the water 
 through the pump into 
 the well. 
 
 1 6. When the upper 
 valve goes down, it is 
 
 Bod coming up Upper Valve opened by the TUSh of 
 closed Lower Valve open. . 
 
 air upward, but when it 
 
 rises it is closed by the pressure of the air above 
 it; a few strokes in this way remove the air 
 from within the pump, and the consequence is 
 that the air in the well, but outside of the pump, 
 forces the water upward to fill the vac'-u-um. 
 
 17. Any space which contains nothing not even air 
 is called a vacuum. 
 
74 
 
 Artesian Wells. 
 
 1 8. A vacuum may be formed by sucking the air from a 
 small glass bottle, and the effect of the pressure of the 
 surrounding air will be felt on your lips or tongue, perhaps 
 painfully: and, if the glass be very thin, that pressure 
 may crush the bottle. 
 
 Artesian Wells : A, A, A, Rock or clay which, water cannot 
 penetrate ; B, B, Seams or Strata in which. Subterranean 
 Streams flow; C, Subterranean Reservoir filled with Water 
 by Rains ; D, D, Boring-s in the Ground or Rock. 
 
 19. A piece of leather, soaked in water and pressed 
 down on a smooth pavement, adheres tightly to it by the 
 pressure of the air on it. In this case a vacuum is formed 
 between the leather or sucker and the pavement. 
 
 20. In some places men bore deep holes in the rock or 
 ground, from which the water spurts up like fountains. 
 Such are called Artesian Wells. They are not dug like 
 common wells, but are drilled by long, sharp bars of iron 
 or steel, about as thick as a man's arm. 
 
Oil Wells Petroleum. 75 
 
 21. These drilling or boring tools are lifted up into a 
 high wooden tower by machinery, and let fall, as rocks are 
 drilled for blasting. (Such a tower you may see in the 
 large chart.) 
 
 22. As soon as the bore enters a seam or channel in 
 which water is confined by surrounding rock or clay, the 
 water is pressed upward through this small opening. The 
 pressure is exerted by the water which lies in these same 
 underground channels and reservoirs on higher ground. 
 
 23. The underground seams serve as great pipes in 
 holding and conducting water to great distances ; and an 
 Artesian well is like a burst in a pipe. 
 
 24. Artesian wells have been bored to depths of hun- 
 dreds and even thousands of feet. By means of them an 
 abundance of water is obtained even in deserts. 
 
 25. It is from such wells as these that the oil 
 called petroleum is obtained, which is used for 
 oiling machinery and for burning in lamps. It 
 is from this that kerosene is now made. 
 
 26. The oil wells of Pennsylvania, Ohio and West 
 Virginia furnish Europe with about fifty million dollars' 
 ($50,000,000) worth of oil every year. 
 
 27. The origin of petroleum or rock-oil is variously 
 attributed to vegetable, animal and mineral substances, 
 which may have sunk, many years ago, below the earth's 
 surface (p. 148). 
 
 28. Some wells yield salt water, from which salt is 
 obtained (pages 17 and 18). Large quantities of salt are 
 thus made in New York, West Virginia and Michigan. 
 
REVIEW OF CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Where do people obtain drinking water ? 
 
 What is a spring ? Water flowing out of the ground. 
 
 By what are springs formed ? Does all the rain sink into the 
 ground? What becomes of the rain? What is a well ? How are 
 wells usually made? If there were no rain or snow, would we 
 have wells and springs ? 
 
 If air had no weight, would pumps raise water as they do now? 
 Does air press heavily on everything? // does. If you should 
 take the air away from a portion of any body of water, what would 
 be the result ? Water would rise at the place from which the air was 
 removed. 
 
 Why does water or any liquid rise in a straw when you suck it ? 
 Because the air is removed from the spot enclosed by the straw. 
 
 Why does water rise in a suction pump ? Because the air is 
 removed from within the pump. 
 
 What presses the water upwards through the pump ? The air 
 resting on the water outside of the pump. 
 
 What is an Artesian Well ? How is it made ? How deep have 
 some been bored? 
 
 Do all wells and springs give fresh, cool water? Some give salt 
 water y some give warm water, and some give oil. 
 
 Of what use is the oil which is obtained from wells ? Of what 
 use is the salt water? Salt is made from it by evaporation. (See 
 pages 17 and 18.) 
 
 SPELLING AND WRITING EXERCISE. 
 
 Write a composition on wells, springs and pumps ; enough to 
 fill one page of a copy-book or letter-paper. 
 
Capes Isthmuses Straits. 77 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 CAPES, ISLANDS, PENINSULAS, ETC. 
 
 1. Points of land which project into the 
 water are called Capes. A high cape is called 
 a Promontory. A light-house is seen in the 
 Chart on a Promontory : and another on one 
 of the capes. 
 
 Two of the best known capes are Cape 
 Horn and Cape Good Hope. 
 
 2. A narrow neck or strip of land is called 
 an Isthmus ; and a narrow passage of water 
 is called a Strait, sometimes a Channel. A 
 well known isthmus is that of Panama, or 
 Darien, which joins North and South America. 
 A well known strait is that of Gibraltar, which 
 connects the Mediterranean Sea with the 
 Atlantic Ocean ; another is Behring Strait, 
 which separates North America from Asia and 
 connects the Arctic with the Pacific Ocean; 
 another, called Davis Strait, connects Baffin 
 Bay with the Atlantic; and another, called 
 Hudson Strait, connects Hudson Bay with 
 the Atlantic. 
 
 3. These straits received their names from 
 distinguished navigators who discovered them. 
 
78 Islands Peninsulas Tunnels. 
 
 4. Hudson entered Hudson Strait and dis- 
 covered Hudson Bay, which he thought was 
 the Pacific Ocean ; but, of course, he was mis- 
 taken. He also explored Hudson River. 
 
 5. What is the difference between an Island 
 and a Peninsula? An Island is entirely sur- 
 rounded by water, and a Peninsula is almost 
 surrounded by water. 
 
 Point out on a map of the world the follow- 
 ing Islands : 
 
 6. Australia, which is the largest island in the world, 
 and is celebrated for its rich gold mines and large flocks of 
 sheep. Borneo, which is crossed by the Equator and is 
 very hot. The British Isles, which include England, 
 Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. The Japan Islands, 
 which have almost as many inhabitants as the United 
 States. The West Indies, which have a warm climate 
 and produce sugar and oranges. The Friendly and the 
 Society Islands, also warm, which produce bananas 
 and cocoanuts. 
 
 7. A little west of the center of the Chart you 
 may see a Tunnel cut through the solid rock 
 for trains to pass through. A celebrated tun- 
 nel is in the western part of Massachusetts. It 
 is cut through the mountains and is nearly five 
 miles long; it is the Hoosac Tunnel. The 
 Mount Cenis (se-ne 1 ) tunnel through the Alps 
 is nearly eight miles long. Several tunnels 
 
Emigrants. 
 
 79 
 
 pass under the Thames, the river which flows 
 through the city of London. It is proposed to 
 construct a railroad tunnel under the Hudson 
 River between New York and Jersey City. 
 
 ,^~ 
 
 3g 
 
 Emigrants crossing- the Mountains a Mountain Pass. 
 
 \^^w 
 
 8. Not far from the tunnel you may see a 
 company of emigrants* on their way west. They 
 may be from some of the large cities of the 
 States, or they may have lately arrived in this 
 country from Germany, England, Sweden, Nor- 
 way, or other part of Europe, intending to buy 
 land in one of our Western States or Terri- 
 tories and become industrious farmers. 
 
 * In the Country or State which they leave they are called Emigrants; in 
 that which they enter, Immigrants. 
 
8o Canals Their Uses. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 CANALS. 
 
 1. In this part of the chart you see a canal 
 with locks and gates. Here is a canal-boat 
 drawn by horses. Canals are artificial rivers. 
 
 2. There is one in the State of New York 
 that is three hundred and fifty-two miles long. 
 It reaches from Lake Erie to the Hudson 
 River ; and this canal has done much to make 
 the city, as well as the State, of New York so 
 large and wealthy as it is. 
 
 3. If you will look at your map you will see 
 that any kind of produce from the farms, the 
 forests, or the mines can be brought by vessels 
 from the far western shore of Lake Superior 
 or of Lake Michigan, many hundreds of 
 miles distant, all the way by water to Buffalo, 
 thence by this long canal to the Hudson 
 River, and down this river to the wharves 
 of New York City, from which it can reach 
 all the navigable waters in the world. This 
 water-carriage is the cheapest of all. There 
 are no rails to be paid for or to put down, but 
 any man can move about wherever he chooses, 
 up and down the navigable rivers, or to and 
 fro for thousands of miles " over the broad 
 bosom of the ocean." 
 
 4. Look at the map, and you will see that a sailing 
 
Canal-locks How Constructed. 81 
 
 voyage from Lake Superior or Lake Michigan includes 
 Lake Huron and Lake Erie. 
 
 5. The only difficulty about some canals is 
 that they will freeze up in winter. Then the 
 railroads get the better of them, and carry large 
 quantities of goods during the long winter 
 months. 
 
 6. This large canal, however, which is called 
 the Erie Canal, is only about half as long as 
 one in China, which runs from the great city 
 of Pekin to the great river Yangtse Kiang. 
 There are said to be about four hundred canals 
 in China. 
 
 7. These are used not only as water highways to float 
 goods or produce from place to place, but also for irriga- 
 tion that is, to water the fields, so that the plants may 
 grow better, and thus yield a more abundant crop. 
 
 8. In Egypt, where it very seldom rains, the land is 
 watered in this way by water from the Nile River. 
 
 9. In canals they have a curious way of mak- 
 ing boats climb up hill ; for canals must some- 
 times be made on ground that is high in one 
 part and low in another. Where a high and a 
 low level meet, as shown in the blackboard 
 drawing, it is necessary to build what is called a 
 lock, perhaps because it locks the parts together. 
 This is a shaft or well-hole of stone, carefully 
 laid in cement so as to be water-tight, ex- 
 tending down from the upper to the lower level 
 
82 Canal-locks How Used. 
 
 of the canal with a gate on one side, at the bot- 
 tom, opening into the lower level, and another 
 on the opposite side, at the top, opening into 
 the upper level. These gates or doors can be 
 shut so as to be water-tight. 
 
 Canal. A boat at low level about to enter a lock so as to reach 
 the upper level. Lower grate, A, opens to admit boat ; upper 
 grate, B, closed. 
 
 10. When a boat is to go up hill, the door at 
 the top being closed, the one at the bottom is 
 opened, and the boat floats through into the 
 lock. 
 
 Boat in canal-lock, lower gate, A, about to be closed. "Water 
 to be let into lock from upper canal until the lock is full. 
 
 ii. That door is then closed and the upper 
 one, or a valve in it, is gradually opened, letting 
 
How Canal-boats are Raised. 83 
 
 the water run down into the lock until the water 
 in the lock is on a level with that in the upper 
 canal. The upper door or gate is then opened, 
 and the boat floats out upon the upper level. 
 
 Upper gate, B, is opened, and the boat enters upper canal. 
 
 1 2. Where a canal passes through land which 
 is hilly or sloping, there are sometimes so many 
 locks as to resemble a flight of stairs, as shown 
 on the chart, in the middle-ground. 
 
 13. Canal-boats going from Albany to Buf- 
 falo on the Erie Canal must ascend, as shown 
 in the drawing above ; so also on the Wei- 
 land Canal, from Lake Ontario to Lake 
 Erie ; and on the Canal by which steamboats 
 on their way from Montreal to Lake On- 
 tario avoid the rapids in the St. Lawrence 
 River. 
 
 14. Welland Canal is the only route by which boats 
 can sail between Lakes Erie and Ontario, because the falls 
 (160 feet high) in Niagara River render navigation be- 
 tween these two lakes impossible by way of that river. 
 
How Canal-boats are Lowered. 
 
 Boat descending: and about to enter the lock. 
 
 15. When a boat is to go from a high to a 
 low level, the order of opening and closing 
 the gates is simply reversed. 
 
 1 6. When the boat reaches the upper, closed gates, the 
 lower gates are closed ; then the water is let into the lock 
 until it is full. The upper gates are then swung open 
 against the sides of the canal and the boat enters the lock. 
 
 
 Boat in lock, and about to descend to the lower level. 
 
 17. It is now easy to see that by letting the water 
 out of the lock and by opening the lower gates, the upper 
 gates remaining closed, the boat settles down with the 
 water and passes out on the lower level. 
 
Canals, where built. Suez Canal. 85 
 
 A Canal-boat drawn Toy horses. 
 
 1 8. Canals are often built alongside of 
 rivers which are not navigable. The water of 
 the river may be too shallow, or its course too 
 rapid or dangerous for boats. 
 
 19. We have many canals in this country, 
 especially in New York and Pennsylvania. 
 
 20. They are numerous also in Europe. In 
 Amsterdam, the largest city in Holland, and 
 in the beautiful city of Venice, in Italy, 
 they have canals instead of streets. 
 
 21. An important canal unites the Red with 
 the Mediterranean Sea. It crosses the 
 Isthmus of Suez, and shortens the route be- 
 tween Europe, China, and India, which 
 formerly was by way of Cape Good Hope. 
 
85 Aqueducts How Constructed. 
 
 Aqueduct supplying- city with, water from lake. Dotted line 
 shows the lavel of the lakVs surface, and tha height to which 
 its water may rise in the aqueduct and pipes. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 AQUEDUCTS. 
 
 1. On this part of the chart you see a reser- 
 voir (pointing to it). It receives fresh water 
 from the lake beyond and above it, and supplies 
 the city by means of an aqueduct, as shown in 
 the blackboard drawings. 
 
 2. An aqueduct is a long pipe for conducting 
 water. It is made of lead or iron or earthen- 
 ware, or sometimes it is a large tube of mason- 
 work covered over smoothly with cement so as 
 to be water-tight. 
 
 3. Near the reservoir is a tower or stand-pipe, 
 into which water is pumped high enough to 
 supply buildings which are higher than the re- 
 servoir. 
 
 4. A tube or pipe can conduct water down- 
 wards, then upwards as high as its source, but 
 no higher, on the principle that " water always 
 seeks a level." 
 
Aqueducts under Lakes Michigan and Erie. 87 
 
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88 How Bridges are Built. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 BRIDGES. 
 
 i. Here is a suspension bridge. It is made by 
 building two tall piers or towers, and stretching 
 large, strong ropes or cables, usually made of 
 wire, across the tops of these. The cables neces- 
 sarily sag by their own weight, so as to make a 
 curve. Pieces of rope or iron rods are fastened 
 to the cables, and, as they hang straight down, 
 are fastened to the ends of beams, on which 
 the floor of the bridge is laid. On this floor 
 people walk, or wagons pass, or even locomo- 
 tives with trains can cross when the bridges 
 are made strong enough. 
 
 Blackboard Drawing 1 . Mark the piers one foot apart ; then the 
 cables "over the tops of the piers ; next, the rods and floors, or 
 roadway. 
 
 2. The oldest of these is said to have been 
 made in China in the year 65. It was made 
 of chain cables with a floor of wood. 
 
 3. The Indians in South America make 
 them of bark ropes, and sometimes, instead of a 
 floor for the traveler to walk on, there is a bas r 
 
Suspension Bridges. 89 
 
 ket into which he is put, and in which he is 
 pulled over from one side of a river to the other. 
 
 4. One of the finest suspension bridges in the world is 
 at Niagara. It has a span of over 800 feet, and is nearly 
 250 feet above the Niagara River. This bridge is so 
 strong that ordinary trains pass over it. 
 
 5. Another at Cincinnati, over the Ohio River, is 
 more than 2,200 feet in length. Its height above the wa- 
 ter is about 100 feet. 
 
 6. The largest suspension bridge, most probably, in the 
 world is that now in process of construction between 
 New York and Brooklyn over the East River. It is 
 3,475 feet long between the anchorages, with a clear span 
 over the river of 1,595 ^ eet< The bottom of it is 135 feet 
 above the water. 
 
 7. Light suspension bridges are sometimes 
 broken by too much vibration. This happened 
 to a small bridge over the river Loire, in 
 France, at a place called Angers. 
 
 8. A lieutenant in command of a party of soldiers march- 
 ed them in the usual way, without causing them to break 
 step. As their regular tramp, tramp was felt by the bridge, 
 it began to swing, and went on swinging more and more, 
 until it finally broke from its fastenings and precipitated 
 those on it into the river, where several of them were 
 killed. 
 
 9 Suspension bridges are so called because 
 the floor or roadway is hung or suspended from 
 the curved cables. Other bridges are built of 
 stone, iron, wood, or brick ; their roadways 
 usually over or alongside of the arches. 
 
go The St. Louis Bridge. 
 
 10. A most remarkable bridge (not suspen- 
 sion) is that which crosses the Mississippi 
 River at the great city of St. Louis. This 
 bridge is chiefly of steel, its three immense 
 arches resting on four stone piers. Each span 
 is over 500 feet in extent. There are two road- 
 ways, one above the other. 
 
 One span of the St. Iiouis Bridg-e. Add the two other arches or 
 spans, each ten inches on the blackboard and similar to this. 
 
 In what direction does the Mississippi River flow ? 
 South. In what State does it rise or begin ? Minnesota. 
 In what State does it end ? Louisiana. What large 
 rivers flow into it ? Missouri, Arkansas, Red, and Ohio. 
 
 ii. When you look at the foundations of 
 bridges, lighthouses, and stone piers which are 
 under water, you doubtless wonder how the 
 masons built them. I shall now tell you. One 
 way is to sink or drive down heavy timbers or 
 piles around the place selected for the founda- 
 tion, fill all around and between these with 
 stone, clay, and cement, and pump out the wa- 
 ter from the enclosure ; the workmen then de- 
 scend and build the foundation. 
 
A Diver at Work Diving-belL 9 1 
 
 12. Another way is simply for the work- 
 man to put on a pecu- 
 liar kind of a suit made 
 
 of India-rubber, which 
 completely covers him 
 and keeps out the water. 
 Glass is fixed in the 
 helmet for him to see 
 through. Of course, he 
 must have air to breathe ; 
 that is supplied by a 
 hose or tube leading 
 from the inside of his 
 suit or covering up to a 
 boat, where other men 
 are carefully pumping 
 air to him through the 
 hose. In such suits, 
 men go under the water 
 to examine and repair 
 ships, recover wrecks, sunken treasures, etc. 
 
 1 3. The diving-bell is another means by which 
 men descend and work in the water. 
 
 14. Its principle is seen in pressing any vessel like a 
 tumbler into the water, with its mouth downward. 
 
 15. The air confined in the tumbler keeps the water out 
 and displaces it, just as a block or a stone would do. 
 
 1 6. Fresh air is pumped into the diving-bell as shewn 
 above. 
 
 A Man in a Diver's Suit or 
 Armor building a Founda- 
 tion under Water. 
 
REVIEW OF CHAPTERS VIII, IX, and X. 
 
 Are canals natural or artificial ? Artificial. 
 
 Are rivers natural or artificial? Natural. 
 
 What are canals like? Long, wide ditches. 
 
 What are they built for ? For the use of boats. 
 
 What do canal -boats carry? Grain, coal, bricks, lumber, and o the f 
 articles. 
 
 By what other means are such articles carried ? By railroads and 
 steamboats. 
 
 What advantage have canals? Cheapness. 
 
 What important canal crosses the State of New York ? Erie 
 Canal. 
 
 What city at the west end of the Erie Canal ? Buffalo, on Lake 
 Erie. 
 
 What city at the east end ? Albany, on the Hudson. 
 
 How are canal boats raised and lowered between different ele- 
 vations ? By means of locks. 
 
 How are some cities supplied with fresh water ? By means of 
 aqueducts. 
 
 What are usually selected as the source ? Springs or lakes on high 
 ground. 
 
 What natural law assists men in conducting water in aqueducts ? 
 Water always seeks a level. 
 
 When a lake or source is not high enough, what is necessary? 
 Pumping. 
 
 Explain if you can how Chicago is supplied with fresh water 
 from Lake Michigan. 
 
 In constructing a suspension bridge, what parts are built first ? 
 The two high piers. 
 
 What next? Cables are passed over the piers and fastened in the 
 ground or rock. 
 
 What is the purpose of the cables? To hold up the fioor, which 
 is made to hang from them. 
 
 For review lessons in geography the teacher may require the 
 pupils to give the situation of all the places which appear in the 
 text in large, black type. 
 
Spelling and Writing Lessons. 93 
 
 SPELLING AND WRITING LESSONS. 
 
 ^^2Z-. 
 
 / X 
 f U 
 
 . <Z.-UM,-cSt. dSi-t^-^im-ct. 
 
 / V V 
 
 2.^.. &<Z--C>. 
 
 <7 S 
 
 / / 
 
 -uw-e&'L. -tu-i 
 
 // / 
 
 6--6- / 1 / Z'. 'l^'t'6.'6--^/&t 'c,^i-fi'iM.-t'J4-CZ.. 
 
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 r 
 
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 k/i 
 
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 't ^7 att-zd' ^^e-i .4-added 
 
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 -t.-v.-e4 <% 
 
M E X I C < _WEST_J 
 
 s 
 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
EXERCISES ON TIJE M^P OF NORTH J^ERICA. 
 
 1. This division of the Earth (pointing to the map) is 
 surrounded by what three oceans? Which is on the 
 north ? On the east ? On the west ? 
 
 2. What can you say about the Arctic Ocean ? // is 
 
 the coldest of these oceans ; it contains icebergs and ice-fields 
 all the year; seals and white bears are numerous there. 
 
 3. What can you say of the Atlantic Ocean ? Ships 
 and steamers cross it between the United States and Europe. 
 
 4. What can you say of the Pacific Ocean ? // is the 
 largest ocean ; it contains very many islands. 
 
 5. In what country of North America do we live ? In 
 the United Stqtes. What oceans touch this country ? What 
 gulf south of it ? What large river flows into the Gulf of 
 Mexico ? What other large rivers are in this country ? 
 
 6. What country north of the United States? What 
 country south ? What three chains of mountains in the 
 United States ? Rocky, Sierra Nevada and Alleghany. 
 
 7. What minerals are found in the western part of this 
 country ? What part is celebrated for cotton, sugar, and 
 oranges ? For lumber, wheat, and corn ? 
 
 8. What large bay in British America? What bay 
 between British America and Greenland ? What isthmus 
 joins North and South America? In what three zones is 
 North America ? The northern part is in the North Frigid 
 or Cold Zone ; the southern part, in the Torrid or Hot Zone ; 
 and the middle part, in the North Temperate Zone. Men- 
 tion the countries of North America, some of the islands, 
 gulfs, bays, rivers, straits. 
 
96 About North America. 
 
 9. You have heard that some countries are 
 very warm at the same time that some other 
 countries are very cold. That is true. 
 
 10. If two boys should start from this coun- 
 try in the month of March, one for Greenland 
 and the other for South America, one would 
 find it colder and colder, and the other warmer 
 and warmer, every day. 
 
 1 1. If each should write a letter home from 
 there on New Year's day, one might read like 
 this: 
 
 td ci.4etic/-.M,''i.i c.-o.<tc 
 
 / &> . ./ . 
 
 fZ d^i^i't^i.. (Qit.'e'M, til, dumtn-e-t & -td d-a 
 
 i,tt<e tw.-itd't 
 
 f 
 
 ete. 
 
 12. The other boy would write from Brazil 
 something like this : 
 
 .j 
 
 id Oe-ut eti'i. d 
 
 <z.4tt/ tsf id. do. 
 
 ' ' 
 'W'ty m <i. 
 s 
 
 s s s / 
 
 Cs-A-e'i-e iie -tvCd <a wt-c-e -a^-ct^i-aed -fimz 
 
 S 
 
Columbus and the Indians. 97 
 
 / / / / 
 
 u^- -f^jf. <za&4d; -emtz 
 
 / x 
 
 - 
 
 Cx cct-n. c-^^^^t. 
 
 13. In North America are bears, buffaloes, 
 wolves, foxes, rabbits, and many tame animals, 
 but no wild lions or elephants or camels. 
 
 14. About four hundred years ago there were 
 no white people in North or South America 
 none but Indians, some of whom were savage. 
 
 15. Indians had inhabited America no one 
 knows how long; but it was in the year 1492 
 that Columbus first sailed across the Atlantic 
 Ocean from Europe, with three ships and about 
 one hundred Spaniards. They landed on one 
 of the islands of the West Indies. Columbus 
 was, therefore, the discoverer of America 
 
 1 6. Many other people came here afterward 
 Spaniards, French, and British, nearly all of 
 whom took possession of America without the 
 slightest regard for the Indians, who were, of 
 course, the first owners. 
 
 1 7. The Spaniards took Mexico ; the British 
 and French, nearly all the remaining portion of 
 North America. (See p. 143, paragraph 13.) 
 
9 8 
 
 Wood Fruits Vegetables. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 TREES AND PLANTS, AND THEIR USES. 
 
 i. Trees and other 
 plants are very useful to 
 us, and we ought to be 
 very grateful for them. 
 We eat them, we wear 
 them, we walk on them, 
 we sit on them, we sleep 
 on them, and are shel- 
 tered by them all day 
 and all night. Our shirts 
 and collars of muslin and 
 of linen are given us 
 by the cotton-plant and 
 the flax. We sit down 
 on chairs of oak or maple, or some other wood, 
 which rest on a wooden floor, on which we 
 walk. For our dinner-table the potato-plant 
 has sent us its roots, or rather tubers ; the wheat 
 or rye gives us our bread ; the tomato, the 
 carrot, the turnip, the squash, the egg-plant, and 
 a host of others all help to supply us with food f 
 while apples, peaches, pears, grapes, and other 
 delicious fruits are held out to us by many trees, 
 bushes, and vines. 
 
 2. If we wish to build a carriage, omnibus, 
 cart, wagon, car, or railroad, the oak, the ash, the 
 
 r 
 
 An Apple-Tree. 
 
Bread-fruit Rice Coffee. 99 
 
 maple, the chestnut, the pine, and other trees 
 supply us with materials for them all. 
 
 3. If we wish to go across the ocean, the 
 trees supply, us with materials for ships. 
 
 4. If we go as far as the island of Ceylon, 
 one tree there, called the bread-fruit tree, will 
 supply us with bread, which hangs in small 
 loaves from the brancfies. All you have to do 
 is to take it and bake it and eat it. 
 
 5. If you go to China or Japan, you will 
 find the tea-plant, that gives us a pleasant drink, 
 and you will find there also about twenty dif- 
 ferent kinds of rice. Besides these is a tallow- 
 tree, that supplies materials for candles. 
 
 6. The tallow of which our candles are made is the 
 suet or fat of such animals as the ox and sheep. 
 
 7. If you should sail to Brazil, Arabia, 
 Abyssinia, or other warm countries, or to the 
 Island of Java, you would see fields covered 
 with evergreen plants bearing small berries which 
 furnish a part of the breakfast for many millions 
 of people every day. What is it ? Coffee. 
 
 8. Besides the places mentioned, coffee grows in the 
 West Indies, Central America, Venezuela, Guiana, 
 Peru, Bolivia, Ceylon, and some of the islands in the 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 9. Although the coffee-plant attains the height of 8 to 
 20 feet, it is usually kept pruned to 5 feet in height. The 
 plants are raised from seed and transplanted. They are in 
 
I oo Coffee Cocoanuts Palm-oil Sago. 
 
 full bearing in the fifth year and continue to bear for about 
 twenty years. 
 
 10. Coffee is named from a re- 
 gion south of Abyssinia, named 
 Kaffa. 
 
 11. The best coffee is the Mo- 
 cha, named from a place in Ara- 
 bia, and the Java. Most of our 
 coffee comes from Brazil, and 
 much of it is marked Java. 
 
 12. Maracaybo (Mah-ra-ki'- 
 bo], which has given its name to one 
 variety of coffee, is in Venezuela. 
 
 13. In Africa and Asia 
 Branch of a coffee-piant. are many kinds of palm. 
 These supply cocoanuts, palm-sugar, palm-wine, 
 and palm-oil. The latter is used in this country 
 to make soap, and perhaps some of you have 
 washed your hands with this very palm-soap. 
 
 14. Some of you, perhaps, have eaten sago in 
 pudding. Sago comes from a kind of palm, and 
 a very wonderful tree it is. 
 
 15. A man can live for a year upon one of these trees. 
 It seems rather funny for a man to eat up a tree, but so it is. 
 
 16. Its preparation consists in cutting off the branches 
 and also the hard outside part of the trunk. The whole 
 interior of the tree is composed of a highly nutritious sub- 
 stance held together by fibers. This is roughly grated or 
 pounded into a pulp, which is made into flat cakes and 
 baked. 
 
 17. One sago-tree supplies cakes enough to 
 feed one man for a whole year. 
 
Palms Soap Wax B rooms;' 1 \ o I 
 
 1 8. The cbcoanut- 
 palm not only gives 
 us this fruit, but sup- 
 plies us with oil that 
 makes the only soap 
 that can be used with 
 salt water. Another 
 palm gives us millions 
 of fans that are sold 
 in this country for a 
 few cents each, though 
 brought all the way 
 from Asia. Anoth- 
 er palm gives wax to 
 make candles. One 
 kind of palm that 
 grows in Brazil has 
 
 In the blackboard drawing- make fifty feet long. These 
 the trunk of the Cocoanut- 
 tree 20 inches in heig-ht (one- are USCd tor roofing 
 
 houses there. Another 
 
 gives us its leaf-stalks to make coarse brooms. 
 
 19. The cocoanut-palm grows only in warm countries, 
 and on the islands of the Indian Ocean and the tropical 
 parts of the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 20. It grows to the height of about one hundred feet, 
 lives about one hundred years, and bears about one hun- 
 dred cocoanuts every year. 
 
 21. Its leaves, which are only at the top of the tree, 
 are about twenty feet in length. 
 
Sugar-maple Beet-root. 
 
 Leaves: Palm. Sugur-Maple. Chestnut. 
 
 Draw on blackboard the palm-leaf 2 feet long- (one-tenth the 
 
 full length), the maple 5 inches, and each of the others 7 
 
 inches (full length). 
 
 If the teacher direct, other leaves may be brought to 
 school by the pupils, who will call the names of the leaves. 
 
 22. Another palm that grows in Egypt 
 gives us a kind of gingerbread all ready for us 
 to eat. It is called the Doum palm. 
 
 23. Some trees in South America and Af- 
 rica are called cow-trees, because they give a 
 kind of milk. 
 
 24. Besides the trees that furnish bread and 
 milk, there are others that yield a substance like 
 butter. Of these the African tree seems the 
 best, for the butter from it is sweet, white, and 
 firm, and will keep for a year without salting. 
 
 25. Besides bread, milk, and butter, plants 
 yield also sugar. This we have from the sugar- 
 cane, from the maple-tree, and from the beet- 
 root. Enough is made from this latter in 
 France to supply that whole country. It is 
 just as clear and sweet as the best loaf-sugar 
 manufactured from the sugar-cane. From the 
 
Suga r Molasses Syrup.,, 
 
 sorghum we get a sweet syrup, and from pota- 
 toes and other vegetables a sweet liquid called 
 glucose is obtained, which is sometimes used to 
 adulterate sugars and syrups. 
 
 Sugar- Cane. 
 
 26. Sugar-cane is raised from cuttings planted every 
 two or three years. It was first cultivated in Asia, then 
 in Spain in the ninth century. Soon after the discovery 
 of America it was introduced into Mexico, the W^est 
 Indies, and Brazil. 
 
 27. Now it is cultivated in Louisiana, Texas, Flo- 
 rida, and the other States which border on the Gulf of 
 Mexico ; in Brazil, Guiana, Venezuela, Bolivia, the 
 West Indies, Mexico, and Central America ; in 
 China, Japan, and Farther India ; in Egypt, Libe- 
 ria, and Zanguebar ; and in the Sandwich Islands, 
 Society Islands, and other islands which have a warm 
 climate. 
 
IP4 
 
 '" -c t Poison-plants. 
 
 28. When the sugar-cane is cut it is taken to the mill, 
 where it is crushed between large rollers. The juice is then 
 heated in large pans or boilers ; then it is transferred into 
 coolers, and the molasses is drained off from the sugar, 
 which is of a dark brown color. After this the sugar goes 
 through a process called refining, which produces loaf 
 and refined sugars and syrup. 
 
 29. Maple sugar and syrup are obtained by first boil- 
 ing and then cooling the sap of the sugar-maple tree. A 
 hole is bored into the tree and a tube is inserted, through 
 which the sap trickles out and falls into a pail or other 
 vessel. 
 
 30. The plants that poison us are -very cu- 
 rious. Some men are dreadfully poisoned if 
 they merely pass near some of them. Other 
 men can handle these same plants without 
 being at all affected by them. There is one 
 tree in the West Indies from which, if the 
 rain drips upon a man's skin, huge blotches are 
 raised up immediately. Some of these poison 
 plants kill us quietly, sending numbness all 
 through our bodies, and others kill us with 
 terrible convulsions. 
 
 31. There is one very curious plant that poi- 
 sons us or nourishes us, according to the part we 
 take. It is called the manioc, or cassava. It 
 grows usually to the height of six or eight feet. 
 Its roots are very large, sometimes weighing 
 thirty pounds, and growing from three to eight 
 in a cluster, usually from a foot to two feet long. 
 
Cassava Tapioca Redwood. 1 03 
 
 Like the other parts of the plant, these contain an 
 acrid, milky juice, so poisonous as to cause death 
 in a few minutes ; but, as this is owing to the 
 presence of a poisonous acid which is quickly 
 driven out by heat, the juice, thickened by boil- 
 ing, forms an excellent sauce called cassa-reep. 
 
 32. This is highly esteemed in Guiana, where it is 
 used to flavor almost every dish, and it is even imported 
 into Great Britain. 
 
 33. The root, grated or pounded into pulp, 
 after yielding this deadly juice by pressure, is 
 dried, and forms the well-known cassava-bread ; 
 or else, heated and stirred on metal plates, it 
 forms the well-known tapioca, which is sold in 
 our stores, and served up in our restaurants 
 and in our families as tapioca pudding, which 
 perhaps some in this class have eaten. Thus 
 life or death comes to us from this plant, ac- 
 cording to our knowing how to use it. 
 
 34. In the size of plants there is wonderful 
 variety. There are some plants so small that we 
 only know of their existence by their changing 
 the color of the rocks and stones on which they 
 grow. To see their stems and leaves it is neces- 
 sary to use the microscope. 
 
 35. From these small specimens, plants 
 vary in size up to the giant trees of Cali- 
 fornia, that stand 90 or 100 feet in girth and 
 tower up to the height of 300 or 400 feet 
 
jp6 >" ; ; far-^- Quinine Cinnamon. 
 
 36. The trunk of one of these trees when lying on the 
 ground is thirty feet high, which is as high as an ordinary 
 two-story house. 
 
 37. One man had the stump of one of these trees 
 smoothed off and built a house on it. One of these huge 
 trees became rotten at the heart and was blown down in 
 a storm. The center was cut away so that a horse and 
 wagon could be driven through it. They are called the 
 Redwood trees. 
 
 38. The bark of some trees is used to cover 
 houses ; that of the cork-trees of Portugal and 
 Spain gives us all our corks ; a certain tree from 
 Peru gives us/ in its bark, the fever-curing me- 
 dicines called quinine and cinchona. The slip- 
 pery elm gives also a medicinal bark. Cassia 
 and cinnamon are the bark of certain kinds of 
 laurel that grow in the East Indies. The 
 oak, the hemlock, and other trees enable us, by 
 means of their bark, to make leather out of 
 hides by a process called tanning. Boats also 
 are made of bark ; chiefly birch and spruce. 
 
 39. There are some plants that seem offended 
 if you touch them, and close up their leaves im- 
 mediately. These are called sensitive plants. 
 The best one comes from Brazil. There is a 
 plant of this kind in our Southern States, but it 
 is not so sensitive. 
 
 40. There are also plants that give us soap besides the 
 palm-soap which we have already mentioned. As you are 
 walking along in California you will sometimes see what 
 looks like an old paint-brush sticking up out of the ground. 
 
Wheat and Corn Where Cultivated. 107 
 
 If you should dig it up 
 you could wash with its 
 root as with a piece of 
 soap. There 
 are two kinds 
 of soap-plant 
 found in 
 South Amer- 
 ica. 
 
 There 
 is also 
 a soap- 
 plant 
 in Eng- 
 land, 
 called 
 soap- 
 wort. 
 
 41. The 
 plants which 
 furnish us with 
 most of our 
 
 food are wheat, Indian corn, 
 rice, and potatoes. 
 
 42. This country sends 
 immense quantities of wheat 
 and corn to Europe every 
 year. They are cultivated 
 extensively in California 
 and the States which touch 
 the Great Lakes and the Missouri River. 
 
 43. The States which are celebrated for wheat 
 and corn are California, Illinois, Indiana, 
 Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Michi- 
 gan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Mis- 
 souri, Kansas, and Nebraska. 
 
 44. Countries besides ours which are cele- 
 
 Wheat. 
 
io8 
 
 Rice Corn. 
 
 brated for wheat are Russia, France, and 
 Austria. 
 
 45. Rice is said to be used for food more 
 than any other grain. Millions of the inhabi- 
 tants of China, India, and the islands off 
 their coasts make it their chief article of agri- 
 culture and food. 
 
 46. It is also said that the excellent rice for 
 which the state of South Carolina has long 
 been celebrated is due to a few seeds left there 
 by a vessel from the island of Madagascar 
 over two hundred years ago. 
 
 47. Rice is cultivated also in Southern Eu- 
 
 rope, Africa, and the 
 warm countries of North 
 and South America. A 
 wild kind of rice grows 
 in the swamps and lakes 
 of Minnesota. 
 
 48. Indian corn is, next 
 to rice, the most used. 
 Originating in America 
 long before the discovery 
 of this continent by Co- 
 lumbus, its cultivation has 
 spread to almost every 
 country in the world. 
 49. The potato is the most useful and the 
 most extensively cultivated of all vegetables. It 
 
 Indian Corn or Maize. 
 
Potato Tobacco Chocolate. 
 
 109 
 
 is a native of South America and it still 
 grows wild in Peru and Chili ; it was first 
 taken to Spain and England about three hun- 
 dred years ago. 
 
 50. Potatoes are more extensively cultivated 
 in New York than in any other state ; they are 
 largely used in the manufacture of starch. 
 
 51. There is another plant 
 which is also very extensively 
 used in all parts of the world, 
 and which, like the potato, 
 was first found and cultivated 
 by the natives in America, be- 
 fore the discovery of America ; 
 it is tobacco. Tobacco grows 
 best in warm countries ; the 
 ancient Mexicans raised large 
 crops of it. 
 
 52. Now it is extensively 
 cultivated in Kentucky, Vir- Tobacco, 
 ginia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Tennessee, 
 N. Carolina, and Maryland ; also in Cuba, 
 China, Japan, Persia, and Southern Europe. 
 
 53. Chocolate is prepared from the seeds of 
 the chocolate or cacao tree, which grows abun- 
 dantly in Central and South America and 
 the West Indies. 
 
 54. Cacao is pronounced ka-kay'o or kay'ko. The 
 cocoa (ko'ko)or cocoanut-tree is entirely different (p, 101). 
 
no Tea How and Where Cultivated. 
 
 The Preparation of Tea* 
 
 55. Tea consists of the leaves of the tea- 
 plant, dried first in the sun, then in heated pans, 
 
 and rolled. The color 
 depends chiefly upon 
 the age of the leaves 
 when plucked, and 
 upon their preparation. 
 Materials for coloring 
 the leaves are often used. 
 
 56. The plant, which 
 is kept pruned down to 
 the height of about five 
 feet, grows abundantly 
 of a Tea-plant. * n China and Japan. 
 
Grapes Where Cultivated. 1 1 1 
 
 57. It is cultivated to some extent in the mild climates 
 of California and the Gulf States. 
 
 58. The plants or shrubs are raised from seed, and are 
 picked from the third to the tenth year. 
 
 59. Grapes 
 flourish in coun- 
 tries which have 
 warm or moder- 
 ately warm cli- 
 mates. 
 
 60. The cen- 
 tral and south- 
 ern parts of 
 France and 
 Germany, and 
 nearly all parts 
 of Spain, Por- 
 tugal, and 
 
 Italy, are especially noted for their extensive 
 vineyards, and for the great quantities of wine 
 made from the grapes. 
 
 6 1. The vines are mostly kept trimmed 
 down, and not allowed to grow as high as a 
 man's head. 
 
 62. Wines have received their names from the places 
 where they are made or shipped from, or where the grapes 
 are cultivated ; as, Champagne and Burgundy wines, from 
 ancient provinces in France ; Rhine wines, from the river 
 Rhine ; port wine, from the city of Oporto (in Portu- 
 
 A Vineyard Gathering- Grapes. 
 
112 Vineyards Grapes Wines. . 
 
 gal), whence it is shipped ; Bordeaux wine (bor-dd\ from 
 Bordeaux, the great wine port of France j Madeira wine, 
 from the Madeira Islands, northwest of Africa; Sherry 
 wine, from Jerez, a town in the south of Spain ; Cali- 
 fornia wines, from the State of California. 
 
 Taking Grapes to the Wine-press. 
 
 63. In the vintage season, or when the grapes 
 are ripe 9 men, women, and children go into the 
 vineyards and pluck off the bunches, filling 
 their boxes or baskets, which are emptied into 
 huge tubs. When these are full, they are hauled 
 in carts by oxen to the press-house, where the 
 
Wine Grapes Cu rra nts. 113 
 
 juice is pressed out and left to ferment, thus 
 producing wine. 
 
 64. Vineyards cover about 700,000 acres of land in 
 France, and the value of the wine produced there some- 
 times exceeds that of the whole cotton crop of the United 
 States, which is about $200,000,000 annually. 
 
 65. Considerable wine is manufactured in the States of 
 California, Ohio, New York, and Missouri. 
 
 66. Wine is made also from currants and berries. 
 
 67. New vines are raised from cuttings of the previous 
 year's wood. 
 
 68. Brandy is made from wine by distilling it, which is 
 done by evaporation and condensation. (See page 18.) 
 
 69. Grapes contain considerable sugar (about a fourth 
 is sugar), which, when fermented, produces alcohol. 
 
 70. From Spain we get our raisins, which 
 are grapes dried and prepared ; and you will be 
 surprised to hear that the currants which you 
 have eaten in cakes and puddings are not the 
 fruit of what we call currant bushes, but really 
 a very small kind of grape which grows in 
 Greece, and is prepared there for shipment to 
 the United States and other countries. 
 
 71. Besides grapes, the countries of Southern 
 Europe raise grain and vegetables in abun- 
 dance ; even between the rows of vines you may 
 see wheat, or corn, or beet, or other plants 
 growing. There are also great orchards or 
 groves of mulberry trees, which feed the silk- 
 
114 Or a nges Apples Cotton. 
 
 worm ; of olive trees, from the fruit of which 
 olive or sweet oil is made ; and of orange and 
 lemon trees. 
 
 72. Orange trees require a warm climate. 
 They are killed by severe frost. In the United 
 States they are cultivated in Florida, Louisi- 
 ana, Texas, and in the southern part of 
 California. 
 
 73. Most of the oranges sold in the United 
 States are from the countries bordering on the 
 Mediterranean Sea, and from the West 
 Indies. 
 
 74. In cooler countries, apple trees grow 
 abundantly. Introduced into America by the 
 early settlers of New England, the apple is 
 more extensively used in this country than any 
 other fruit. Large quantities are sent to the 
 cider-mill, pressed between rollers, and their 
 juice converted into cider. 
 
 75. Of all the plants, one of the most useful 
 and valuable is cotton. It grows only in tem- 
 perate and warm climates, especially in our 
 Southern States. Mississippi, and the other 
 States which border on the Gulf of Mexico, 
 yield the most. 
 
 76. It grows from seeds, and bears a pod or 
 boll, which bursts open in the autumn from the 
 
Cotton How Prepared and Where Sent. 1 1 5 
 
 pressure of the soft, white, downy substance 
 within, called cotton. This is picked out of 
 the shell or boll, and sent to a mill to be ginned, 
 or separated from the seeds. It is then pressed 
 and packed in bales, and sent to the cotton 
 mills to be spun into thread, then woven into 
 muslin, calico, etc. 
 
 77. Large quantities are sent to the cotton 
 mills of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode 
 Island, and other States. 
 
 78. About one-half of the annual crop is sent 
 to Europe, principally to England, where it is 
 manufactured into cloth, 
 
 then shipped to China, Ja- 
 pan, South America, and 
 other places, and sold or 
 exchanged for tea, silk, 
 fancy articles, coffee, India- 
 rubber, etc. 
 
 Shipping Cotton from New Orleans. 
 
116 
 
 Cotton Where cidtivated. 
 
 A Cotton Field. Picking Cotton. 
 
 79, Now, however, the American manufac- 
 turers are gaining a market for their goods in 
 each of those places. 
 
 80. The Southern States produce about 5,000,000 bales 
 of cotton every year, worth about $200,000,000. 
 
 8 1. Cotton is cultivat- 
 ed also in Egypt, India, 
 and the warm parts of 
 South America. 
 
 82. The first cotton 
 mill in the United States 
 was built in Rhode 
 Island. 
 
 83. The city which 
 sends away the greatest 
 quantities of cotton every 
 year is New Orleans, 
 and that which receives 
 
 Cotton-boll. the most is Liverpool. 
 
Flax Linen Linseed. 1 1 7 
 
 84. Besides cotton, there is 
 another plant which is very 
 useful in furnishing us with 
 material for clothing. What 
 is that? Flax, from which 
 linen is made. 
 
 85. Linen is a kind of cloth 
 made from a material obtained 
 from the plant called flax. 
 This grows to the height of two 
 or three feet. It has slender 
 stalks, which are covered with 
 
 a bark or skin containing fibers or a thread-like 
 substance. Flax grows from seed sown in the 
 spring ; it is pulled out by the roots in sum- 
 mer, and after drying, soaking, scutching or 
 beating, and other processes, the fibers are 
 separated from the other portions of the bark, 
 spun into thread, and woven into cloth called 
 linen, cambric, lawn, tablecloths, towels, etc. 
 
 86. The seeds of the flax are called linseed. 
 Like those of the cotton plant, they yield a 
 
 useful oil and a substance which is made into 
 food for cattle. 
 
 87. Linen was known to the ancient Egyptians many 
 hundred years ago, who exported it to Greece and Rome 
 
 88. Ireland is celebrated for its fine linen. 
 
1 1 8 India-rubber How obtained and used. 
 
 89. The cultivation of flax and the manufacture of 
 linen are carried on extensively, also, in Great Britain, 
 Germany, Holland, France, Belgium, Russia, and several 
 States of the Union. 
 
 90. The city of Belfast, in Ireland, manufactures 
 more" linen goods than any other city in the world. 
 
 91. You have learned something about the 
 two plants which are celebrated for furnishing 
 materials for clothing cotton and linen. There 
 is another plant, or rather a large tree, which 
 yields a very useful substance ; not fruit, nor its 
 seeds, nor its bark, nor its roots, but its sap. 
 In that respect it resembles the sugar maple 
 tree, but we cannot eat any part of the tree. 
 We wear articles made from it, yet it cannot be 
 spun or woven like cotton or linen. Do you 
 know what tree it is ? The India-rubber tree. 
 
 92. India-rubber, or Caoutchouc (pronounced 
 koo-chook 7 ), is the milky sap of that tree. Cuts 
 or gashes are made in the bark, into which 
 cups are inserted for collecting the sap. This 
 is afterwards hardened by heat, the smoke giving 
 it a dark color. It is further hardened by 
 sulphur. 
 
 93. Boots, shoes, car-springs, and a great variety of 
 articles are made of it in Connecticut, Massachu- 
 setts, New York, and New Jersey. 
 
 94. The India-rubber brought to the United States is 
 mostly from Brazil and Central America. 
 
Turpentine Pitch Ivory. 119 
 
 95. There is another tree which is valuable 
 for its sap, called turpentine. This is obtained 
 in a similar manner; when distilled (p. 113), it 
 yields rosin or resin and the oil or spirits of 
 turpentine, both of which are used in the man- 
 ufacture of varnish, and for other purposes. 
 What is the name of the tree, and where does 
 it grow ? The pine, which grows extensively 
 in the sandy soil of North Carolina and the 
 neighboring States. It grows also in other 
 parts of North America and in Europe. 
 
 96. Some of these trees are cut down and 
 their roots and branches piled up, covered with 
 turf or earth, and set on fire, to make charcoal 
 and tar ; the latter is the sap, which runs into a 
 large iron vessel underneath the pile, and is 
 conducted by pipes into casks near by. This 
 constitutes an important occupation in North 
 Carolina, Canada, and Sweden. 
 
 97. Pitch, which is very useful in ship-building, is made 
 from tar. 
 
 98. What is ivory ? A hard, white sub- 
 stance which forms the tusks of the elephant. 
 There is a kind of tree growing along some of 
 the streams in the northern part of South 
 America which is called the vegetable-ivory 
 tree; its seeds or nuts contain a juice which 
 hardens into a substance resembling ivory. 
 
1 2 o Ma hog a ny Rosewood Ebony. 
 
 99. Those trees which yield wood used 
 chiefly in the manufacture of pianos, boxes, 
 furniture, etc., are the mahogany and rosewood, 
 which come from Brazil, Central America, 
 and the West Indies. Some of these trees 
 are sawed into layers about one-eighth of an 
 inch in thickness, called veneer, which is used 
 to cover over cheaper woods. 
 
 100. Several thousand dollars have been paid 
 for the logs from a single tree. The forests on 
 the coast of Honduras supply large quantities 
 of mahogany ; but the best sorts, called Spanish 
 mahogany, are found in Cuba and St. Do- 
 mingo. 
 
 oi. The first use known to have been made of mahog- 
 any was about 300 years ago, by Sir Walter Raleigh, who 
 repaired his ships with it, at Trinidad, an island off the 
 coast of Venezuela. 
 
 102. Box-wood is a hard, smooth wood used by wood- 
 engravers ; it comes from countries bordering the eastern 
 part of the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 103. Ebony is a hard, black wood, used for inlaid and 
 other ornamental work ; the tree grows in Madagascar 
 and Ceylon. 
 
 104. The date-palm grows abundantly in Persia, Ara- 
 bia, Asia Minor, Egypt, Tunis, Algeria, Morocco, 
 and in the oases of Sahara, or the Great Desert. Its 
 fruit forms the chief article of food in many parts of 
 these countries. An oasis is a fertile spot in a desert. 
 
Spices Figs Prunes Cranberries. 121 
 
 Banyan Tree. 
 
 105. The banyan 
 tree is remarkable 
 for its way of 
 spreading itself. 
 This is done by its 
 branches, which 
 shoot downward, 
 take root in the 
 
 ground, and become trunks. It is a 
 
 native of India. 
 
 1 06. The trees which yield cloves, nutmegs, mace, ginger, 
 cinnamon, and black pepper, grow in Java, Sumatra, 
 Ceylon, the Spice and other islands south and southeast 
 of Asia ; some of them grow on the mainland also. 
 
 107. Figs, olives, pomegranates, and almonds grow 
 abundantly in the countries which surround the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea. The dried figs used in the United States 
 come mostly from Turkey. What countries in Europe 
 border on the Mediterranean Sea? (p. 160). What coun- 
 tries in Asia? (p. 174). In Africa ? (p. 200). 
 
 1 08. Bananas, pineapples, guava, and tamarinds, as 
 well as oranges and lemons, abound in the West Indies. 
 
 109. Prunes are plums raised and prepared in France. 
 
 no. Cranberries grow on a little running shrub, in low, 
 flat, sandy districts, which may, like rice-fields, be flooded ; 
 covering for a while the whole surface with water, and 
 
122 Opium Camphor Rhubarb, 
 
 making the meadows appear like ponds. They are exten- 
 sively cultivated in the eastern part of New Jersey. 
 
 in. We have before mentioned certain plants the use 
 of which is injurious to health. There are others. In 
 India, along the Ganges River, thousands and thou- 
 sands of acres of land are devoted to the cultivation of a 
 plant, on account of the juice or sap taken from its seed- 
 vessels ; the plant is called the white poppy. The juice is 
 called opium, and it is extensively used by the Chinese, 
 who both smoke it and eat it for the peculiar, dreamy, and 
 quieting, or rather deadening, effect which it produces on 
 the feelings. Its use is very injurious to both body and 
 mind. 
 
 112. From opium, the drugs called laudanum and 
 morphia or mor'phine are derived. These are often pre- 
 scribed by physicians to allay pain or to produce sleep. 
 The opium used in the United States and in Europe is 
 mostly imported from Turkey in Asia and Persia. 
 
 113. There is another plant which yields a substance 
 called hasheesh or hashish ; this also produces stupor and 
 dreaminess, and is extensively used in Asiatic countries. 
 The plant is hemp, from the fibres of which, rope, bag- 
 ging, etc., are made ; it is raised chiefly in Russia. 
 
 114. Camphor is a substance obtained from the wood 
 and bark of the camphor trees of China, Japan, For- 
 mosa, Sumatra, and Borneo. 
 
 115. Rhubarb is the root of a plant which -grows in 
 Central Asia, whence it is sent to Turkey and Rus- 
 sia, and then exported. 
 
 1 1 6. Castor oil is obtained from the seeds of the castor- 
 oil plant, which grows in Africa, America, and Europe. 
 
Sap ; how obtained and supplied. 123 
 
 1 1 7. All of you have seen an apple tree, and 
 know the various forms of food into which its 
 fruit can be made; but do you know where 
 and how the tree gets the food which it lives 
 upon ? Let us talk about this. 
 
 1 1 8. The substances which supply it with its 
 food or nourishment are in the ground and the 
 air. 
 
 119. The principal substances are called carbon, 
 hydrogen, and oxygen. 
 
 120. Many thousands of little mouths in the 
 roots are ever on the alert for these substances, 
 which go to make wood, leaves, and fruit ; 
 taking them in with the water in the soil, and 
 sending sap upward to every branch, twig, and 
 leaf. 
 
 121. The leaves, too, are at work all day long, 
 breathing in through their countless pores, or 
 mouths, moisture from the atmosphere, and, 
 with the aid of sunlight, changing and prepar- 
 ing the sap. Then the sap returns toward the 
 roots, supplying on its way what is needed for 
 every part of the tree. 
 
 122! The roots, trunk, and branches, contain 
 multitudes of little tubes or pipes, through 
 which the sap flows ; one set for the rising sap, 
 and another set for the returning sap. The sap 
 
124 
 
 Ages of trees Exogens. 
 
 is to a tree what blood is to an animal, and both 
 the sap and blood are always in circulation. 
 
 123. Leaves not only inhale (breathe in) moisture, but 
 they also exhale (breathe out; it. Some of the water 
 which has brought up the nourishment to the leaves, 
 being no longer required, is thus exhaled or evaporated 
 through the pores of the leaves. 
 
 124. Does the apple tree enlarge on the in- 
 side, or outside ; by the rising, or the returning 
 sap? The increase is on the outside of the 
 hard wood, or just along the inner bark, and 
 is supplied by the returning sap. 
 
 125. Every year a layer is added; therefore, 
 when such a tree is sawed across the trunk, the 
 
 layers will appear like 
 rings and show the age 
 of the tree. 
 
 126. In counting the rings, 
 the pith (i) and the bark (4), 
 belonging to the first year's 
 growth, are not to be in- 
 
 Section of an Exog-en of two Cmded. 
 
 years' growth. ,_ , . , . 
 
 127. Trees which thus 
 
 grow by additions to the outside of the hard 
 wood, or externally, are called exogens (ex'-o- 
 jens) ; such include apple, pear, maple, elm, 
 and many other kinds of trees. 
 
 1 28. Trees and plants which increase by inter- 
 nal growth, showing no layers or rings like those 
 
Endogens Seeds Cu t l tings. 125 
 
 above named, are called en'-do-gens^ such as 
 palm-trees, Indian corn, 
 sugar-cane, wheat, 
 grasses, etc. 
 
 129. The newest wood of 
 exogens is just under the 
 bark, while that of endogens 
 is in the center. 
 
 130. Endogenous trees and 
 plants just described should 
 
 not be mistaken for indigenous (in-dij '-e-nus), which means 
 those which are native of a certain country or climate. 
 
 Section of an Endog-en. 
 
 Exog-en. Endogen. 
 
 131. Trees and plants are multiplied in various 
 ways : by seeds, as acorns, grain and cotton-seed ; 
 by cuttings, as the grape-vine, sugar-cane, and 
 
126 How Vegetation is extended. 
 
 geraniums; by dividing or separating roots, 
 tubers, and bulbs, as the strawberry, potato, 
 dahlia, and hyacinth ; and by grafting. 
 
 132. Grafting is the insertion of a cutting or bud of one 
 plant into a branch or stem of another. 
 This is often done with rose and fruit 
 trees. 
 
 J 33- Vegetation is extended 
 over the land not only by men, 
 but also by the winds, streams, 
 ocean-currents, birds, bees, etc. 
 
 Seed of a Maple Tree, Full Size. 
 
 1 34. Many seeds are provided 
 with a kind of wing or some 
 light substance, and are scat- 
 
 seed of the Thistle. 
 
 Pern, with Spore.. 
 
 tered far and wide by the winds, 
 as those of the ash, elm, and 
 maple trees, the thistle and the 
 
 dandelion. 
 
How a Maple tree grows. 
 
 127 
 
 135. Plants are divided into two general classes, 
 flowering and flowerless. Flowering plants and trees 
 produce seeds, each containing an embryo or undevel- 
 oped plant. Flowerless plants, such as ferns, have spores 
 instead of seeds. These appear like brown dust or spots 
 on the leaves. Try to bring a fern leaf with spores on it 
 to your teacher. 
 
 How a Maple Tree begins to grow. 
 
 136. The origin or beginning of a plant is a seed, which 
 is a wonderful combination of all the parts of that plant. 
 
 137. Placed in the ground, the seed sends down its roots 
 to find food or nourishment and also to hold the plant 
 firmly in its place. Then the stem appears above ground. 
 When the plant is grown and perfect, it consists of 
 these five parts : root, stem or trunk, leaves, flowers, 
 and iruit. You may bring some specimens of seeds, and 
 be prepared to mention the name of the tree or plant to 
 which each belongs. 
 
128 How an Oak grows from an Acorn. 
 
 138. At the end of every little root is a kind of mouth 
 and, as different kinds of plants require different kinds of 
 nourishment, these little roots, which appear like bunches 
 of threads, keep spreading themselves in the ground 
 in search of the particular substances just suit- 
 ed to the plant which it is their duty to supply. 
 
 139. So you may consider the roots and 
 their mouths to be the storehouse and food- 
 gatherers ; the long, narrow pipes in the stem 
 or trunk, the channels or means of convey- 
 ance; and the leaves to be a kind of 
 stomach or manufactory for preparing the 
 food and making it fit for use. 
 That is, all parts of a tree or 
 plant act in harmony with each 
 other for some good purpose. 
 
 140. There are different 
 kinds of roots : ist, those of 
 forest trees, which extend in 
 various directions and some- 
 times to greater distances 
 than the trunk and its 
 branches ; 2d, those which 
 appear like a bunch of 
 threads or fibers, and 
 which are called fibrous, 
 as those of the hyacinth 
 and grasses ; 3d, those 
 associated with tubers, How an Oak begins to grow. 
 
 like the potato, and which are called fleshy roots ; 4th, 
 those which taper downward and send out fibers from 
 their sides, like the carrot and parsnip. 
 
How Trees differ from each other. 129 
 
 141. Roots are divided also into different 
 kinds, according to their length of life ; into 
 annual, or those which live but one year ; bi- 
 en'ni-al, those which live but two years ; and 
 per-en 'ni-al, those which live several years, 
 
 142. To which of these divisions does a 
 morning-glory belong ? A rose bush ? A 
 pear tree ? A currant bush ? A fern ? 
 Beets ? A cotton plant ? Grasses ? Indian 
 corn ? Carjots ? Butter-cups ? 
 
 Some trees, like the oak, cedar, pine and 
 olive, live for centuries. 
 
 143. Trees differ also in their 
 stems or trunks; some grow up 
 for a short distance from the 
 
 ground and then Hyacinth, 
 branch out in every direction, 
 like the apple tree ; while 
 others grow up almost in a 
 straight line, ten times as high 
 as any apple tree ; such are the 
 mammoth trees of California, 
 the eucalyptus* trees of Aus- 
 tralia, and the cocoanut trees 
 of Africa and Asia. 
 
 The trees just named are remark- 
 able for the great distance between 
 the ground and their lower branches. 
 The cocoanut and other palms have 
 all their leaves at the top. 
 
 How Corn grows. * lu-ka-lip'tus.] 
 
130 About Leaves. 
 
 144. Trees which lose their leaves in autumn 
 are called de-cid'u-ous, which means falling off. 
 Those which retain their leaves through the 
 winter, or until new leaves appear, are called 
 evergreen. An apple tree is deciduous, and a 
 hemlock i evergreen. 
 
 145. Leaves differ from each other very 
 greatly in their size, shape, color, and construc- 
 tion ; some have smooth edges, while others 
 have saw-like edges ; some are long and narrow, 
 like those of Indian corn and the sugar cane, 
 while others are broad and round, like the cab- 
 bage and begonia. Leaves differ from each 
 other also in regard to the number and arrange- 
 ment of their veins. 
 
 Leaf Veins. Veinlets. Veinulets. 
 
 146. VEINS. The first leaf above shows its 
 stem or foot-stalk, called its pet'-i-ole (/ > ), from 
 which, at the base of the leaf, spring its veins, 
 five in number. 
 
Leaf Veins, Veinlets > etc. 131 
 
 147. VEINLETS. The next shows small 
 branches from the veins, called veinlets. 
 
 148. At the end of some words, let signifies small; as 
 leaf/<?/, a small leaf; is/<?/, a small island; stream/,?/, a 
 small stream ; root/<?/, a small root ; and vein/*?/, a small 
 vein. 
 
 149. VEINULETS, NET-VEINED. The third 
 shows finer branches from the veinlets, called 
 veinulets. Such a leaf is said to be net-veined. 
 With few exceptions, the leaves of exogens are 
 net-veined. 
 
 Mid- Veined. Parall el- Veined. Pork Veined. Serrated. 
 
 150. MID-VEINED. Leaves having but one 
 large vein, which is the continuation of the 
 petiole (/*), and runs from the base (K) of the 
 leaf to the apex (a) through the middle, are 
 called mid-veined. 
 
 151. PARALLEL-VEINED. The veinlets which 
 branch from the mid-vein are parallel with each 
 other; the leaves are therefore said to be 
 
132 Leaves Their Shapes, etc. 
 
 parallel-veined. The leaves of most endogens 
 are parallel-veined, as those of corn and lilies. 
 
 152. FORK-VEINED. Leaves whose veins 
 divide and resemble forks are called fork-veined. 
 
 153. SERRATE. Leaves having a saw-like 
 edge, the teeth pointing forwards, are called 
 serrated. Serra means saw. 
 
 1 54. A FEATHER-VEINED leaf is one in which 
 its veinlets branch off from the mid-vein, thus 
 resembling a feather. 
 
 Hand-Shaped. Finger-Shaped. Gashed. 
 
 155. A HAND-SHAPED leaf is so called from 
 its resemblance to the palm of the hand and 
 fingers. 
 
 156. A FINGER-SHAPED leaf is one whose 
 parts or divisions, called lobes, are more sepa- 
 rated from each other than those of the hand- 
 shaped leaf, and appear like fingers without the 
 palm of the hand. When the leaf appears as 
 if cut with scissors, it is said to be GASHED. 
 
Leaves Simple and Compound. 133 
 
 Shield-Formed. Compound and Trifoliate. 
 
 157. A SHIELD-FORMED leaf is one which has 
 its veins radiating from the petiole at or near 
 the center of the leaf instead of its base. 
 
 158. SIMPLE LEAVES. The twelve leaves just described 
 are called simple leaves, because only one leaf is attached 
 to each petiole. 
 
 159. The GASHED LEAF is but one leaf, cut or divided, 
 and is therefore a simple leaf ; such also are the finger- 
 shaped and hand-shaped leaves. 
 
 1 60. COMPOUND LEAVES TRIFOLIATE. When a petiole 
 bears two or more distinct pieces or blades, the blades are 
 called leaflets, and the group is called a compound leaf. 
 Three leaflets together, or near together, on the same 
 petiole, are called tri-fo'-li-ate (fri, three), as the clover. 
 
 161. [The pupils may collect from the woods or gardens 
 as many of these varieties of leaves as they can; then 
 classify them and name their different parts ; or describe 
 each leaf as the teacher holds it up ; or attach one or more 
 leaves to a piece of paper, write .a short description of 
 each, similar to that on the following page, and hand it to 
 the teacher.] 
 
134 Exercises in Composition. 
 
 [MODEL.] 
 
 162. Besides this, the pupils may write about any tree 
 or plant, as a lesson in spelling and composition. 
 
 163. Seeds differ very greatly from each 
 other. Some are inside of the fruit, like those 
 of the apple ; some are on the outside, like 
 those of the strawberry ; others are together, 
 forming the fruit, like those of the blackberry. 
 
 164. .Some seeds furnish us with flour, from 
 which our bread is made, as wheat; or with 
 
About Seeds. 
 
 135 
 
 Violet Seed in Capsule. 
 
 Strawberry and Seed. 
 
 Acorns (Seeds of 
 the Oak). 
 
 Cone of Hemlock Tree, Peas in Pod. Cone of Pine Tree. 
 
 meal, as Indian corn ; while many others are 
 not used for food in any form. 
 
 165. Some seeds are enclosed in a pod, 
 capsule, or case, like those of peas, pansies, 
 violets, and lady-slippers ; while others consist 
 of a kernel and hard shell, like the hickory nut. 
 
136 Review in Botany. 
 
 1 66. The wonderful way in which the beautiful flowers 
 are increased in numbers and brilliancy by the habits and 
 industry of bees, etc., you will find mentioned in the 
 chapter on INSECTS. 
 
 167. To the pupils : You should observe and examine, 
 when rambling in the woods and fields, some of the 
 various plants, roots, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds 
 which you see. You will thus be easily led to the study 
 of that delightful science called BOTANY, to which your 
 attention has been directed in this chapter. 
 
 NOTE. A new and very interesting work on Botany has been 
 prepared by Professors Wood and Steele, published by A. S. 
 13arnes & Co., from which several illustrations in this chapter 
 have been taken. 
 
 REVIEW OF CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Mention some of the uses of trees and plants. 
 
 Which are the most useful for food ? For clothing ? For 
 building houses and ships? For furniture? 
 
 What States and Countries are celebrated for wheat ? Corn ? 
 Rice ? Are these plants annual, biennial, or perennial ? 
 
 How is wheat raised? Corn? Rice? To what order of 
 plants do they belong ? Grasses. What general name is given to 
 
Review in Botany. 137 
 
 their seeds or fruit ? Grain or Ce're-als. What other plants pro- 
 duce grain ? Rye, oats and barley. What other very useful plant 
 belongs to the order of grasses ? Sugar-cane. 
 
 Which of these plants require the warmest climate ? Sugar- 
 cane and rice. What State is celebrated for sugar ? Where else is 
 sugar largely produced ? In South America and the West Indies. 
 
 When wheat is ripe, what is done with it ? // is cut, threshed, 
 and ground into flour ; then the flour is mixed with water and a 
 little yeast, forming dough ; after the dough swells or rises, it is made 
 into loaves, put into the oven and baked. 
 
 Where is rice the principal food of the inhabitants ? 
 
 When wheat, rye, oats, and barley are threshed, what are their 
 stems or stalks called ? Straw. 
 
 Which is the most useful garden vegetable? The potato. 
 Where is it indigenous? How is it cultivated? What useful 
 substance is made from the potato ? Starch. 
 
 Where is the sugar-cane cultivated ? How is sugar obtained 
 from it? What is molasses? From what tree is a substance 
 obtained which is manufactured into sugar ? From what garden 
 vegetable ? How is sugar obtained from the maple tree? 
 
 What drinks are made from trees, plants and vines, or their 
 products? 
 
 How and from what part of the tea-plant is the drink made? 
 Of the coffee-plant? Of the chocolate tree ? From what is wine 
 made? Brandy? Cider? Raisins? Dried currants? What 
 countries are celebrated for the production of tea? Coffee? 
 Chocolate ? Wine ? Raisins ? 
 
 What liquor is made from grain by distillation ? Whiskey. 
 From the malt of barley or other grain ? Beer. How is malt 
 obtained ? By steeping the grain, and then drying it. 
 
 What plants yield substances from which people manufacture 
 clothing ? How is cotton obtained ? How manufactured ? What 
 does flax yield ? How is linen obtained from flax ? What oils are 
 obtained from the seeds of these two plants? What States pro- 
 duce the most cotton ? Where else is cotton cultivated ? Where 
 is cotton mostly manufactured into goods ? In England and the 
 Northern States, especially New England. 
 
 Are cotton and flax annual or perennial ? Is tea an annual or 
 a perennial plant? 
 
138 Review in Botany. 
 
 What trees are valuable for their sap ? India-rubber, sugar- 
 maple, and the pine. 
 
 What is made from the sap of the India-rubber tree? Of the 
 sugar-maple tree? Of the pine tree? Where is India-rubber 
 largely produced ? Turpentine and tar? 
 
 What tree is valuable for medicine obtained from its bark ? 
 Where does that tree grow ? Mention some other plants which 
 yield medicines. From what tree is bark obtained that is used 
 in tanning leather ? Hemlock. Is it a deciduous, or an evergreen 
 tree? 
 
 What trees are very valuable for their wood used in making 
 pianos, etc. 
 
 Where do mahogany and rosewood trees grow ? 
 
 How are these woods used ? 
 
 Mention some other ornamental woods. 
 
 Mention the trees which are valuable for their fruits? Where 
 do oranges grow? Bananas? Olives? Cocoanuts ? Dates? 
 Pineapples? Lemons? Cloves and nutmegs ? What is obtained 
 from olives? 
 
 What plant, although yielding no food, drink, clothing, medi- 
 cine, shelter, or ornament, is used very extensively in nearly every 
 country in the world ? Tobacco. Where is it extensively cul- 
 tivated ? 
 
 Mention some poison plants. Which produces opium ? 
 Where is it mostly cultivated ? Mostly used ? 
 
 Upon what do trees and plants live ? Mention the five parts 
 of a tree or plant. What are the duties of the roots ? Of the 
 leaves? How does the sap get from the roots to the leaves? 
 Does the sap always move in one direction ? Is it the rising or 
 the returning sap which provides the tree with nourishment and 
 causes it to grow ? In what part of an apple, a pear or a maple 
 tree is the increase made ? Between the hard wood and the bark. 
 How can you ascertain the age of such a tree ? Do all trees and 
 plants grow in this way ? Mention some which increase on the 
 outside of the hard wood ; on the inside. Which are ex'o-gens? 
 En'do-gens ? 
 
 In what different ways are seeds distributed over the earth ? 
 In what ways other than by seeds are some trees and plants 
 increased in number? 
 
Spelling and Writing Exercises. 139 
 
 WRITTEN REVIEW OF TREES AND PLANTS. 
 
 To be written on slates or papers, either at home or in school, 
 as the teacher may direct. Write, in the form shown below, the 
 names of the principal trees and plants from any part of which, 
 food, drink, clothing, etc., may be obtained, prepared, or maim 
 factured. 
 
 NAMES OF TREES AND PLANTS. 
 
 WHERE PRODUCED OR CULTIVATE! 
 
 I . 
 2. 
 
 4-- 
 
 5 
 
 6 . 
 
 i . 
 
 2 . 
 
 3- 
 
 4- 
 
 5- 
 6. 
 
 Also, those from which are obtained 
 
 C/&44 
 
 & 
 
SOUTH 
 AMERICA 
 
About South America. 141 
 
 1. This is a map of South America, which 
 you see has three sides; two of them are 
 washed by the Atlantic Ocean. The other 
 and longest side is washed by the Pacific 
 Ocean. On the extreme north is the Carib- 
 be'an Sea, which is only an enclosed part of 
 the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 2. South America is noticeable for ending in 
 a point (Cape Horn) in the south, and in a nar- 
 row neck (Isthmus of Panama) in the north. 
 
 3. All along its western coast rise huge 
 mountains, many of which are volcanoes. 
 What is the name of the range ? 
 
 4. From these mountains flows the largest river in the 
 world. What is its name, and into what does it flow ? 
 
 5. In what country is the greater part of the Amazon 
 River ? What country is furthest south ? What three are 
 furthest north ? What long, narrow country lies between 
 the Andes Mountains and the Pacific Ocean ? 
 
 6. You have now mentioned Brazil, Patagonia, the 
 United States of Colombia, Venezuela, Guiana, and Chili 
 six countries. There are exactly six more ; name one 
 another another, etc. 
 
 Is South America an island, or a peninsula ? 
 
 7. South America has higher mountains and 
 more volcanoes than North America. It also 
 has more heat, heavier rains, larger rivers, more 
 trees and plants, more birds, insects, monkeys 
 
142 Its Climate and History. 
 
 and snakes. Destructive earthquakes often 
 occur there. 
 
 8. The greater part of South America, that 
 lying near the line or circle called the Equator, 
 has hot weather continually. Every day is like 
 a day in summer with us, except among the 
 mountains, where as you ascend you would 
 find the climate colder and colder until you 
 would reach perpetual snow. 
 
 9. The Equator is a great circle which is drawn around 
 a globe from east to west. On maps it appears like a 
 straight line. Near it are the hottest parts of the Earth. 
 
 The southern countries of South America have summei 
 when we have winter ; spring, when we have autumn, etc. 
 
 10. When Columbus and other white men 
 came to South America they found dark-col- 
 ored people there too. All were not savage, 
 however, for there were many living in the 
 western part who had kings, princes, govern- 
 ments, magnificent temples, and palaces. 
 
 11. The riches of the natives Peruvians were coveted 
 by the Spaniards, who, under the lead of Pizarro, made 
 war against them. Pizarro betrayed the Peruvian Inca or 
 King, and took him prisoner. The Inca offered piles of 
 gold for his liberty. Pizarro agreed, took the gold (value 
 over $15,000,000), but cruelly put the Inca to death. 
 
 12. Similar cruelties were practised only a few years 
 before by Cortes, also a Spaniard, on the natives of 
 Mexico, whose civilization was similar to that of the 
 Peruvians. These events occurred about 360 years ago. 
 
Its Products, Animals and Birds. 143 
 
 13. You now see how Spain came to own so much of 
 North and South America by discovery and conquest. 
 In time, however, the Spanish descendants in Mexico and 
 South America rebelled against Spain, and they have ever 
 since ruled in all those countries ; except in Brazil, which 
 belongs to the descendants of Portuguese, and in Guiana, 
 which belongs to the British, Dutch and French. Except- 
 ing Guiana and British America, all the countries of the 
 Western Continent are now independent. 
 
 14. From Brazil we get nearly all our coffee 
 and India rubber, and in Peru and Chili pota- 
 toes were first found. They grow wild there 
 now. 
 
 15. Millions of wild cattle roam over the 
 great grassy plains of the Argentine Republic. 
 These animals are caught by means of the 
 lasso; and the leather of which your shoes, 
 boots and book-straps are made is probably 
 made from their skins. (See Chapter XIX.) 
 
 1 6. South America has the largest bird of 
 flight in the world the Condor and the 
 largest snake, the Boa Constrictor. Besides 
 these there are the Jag-u-ar 7 or American Tiger, 
 the Ta'pir, Llama (lak'mafi), Monkey, the 
 American Ostrich, Toucan (too'kari), and vast 
 varieties of beautiful birds and insects. 
 
 You will learn about all these in Chapters XVIII, 
 XIX and XX. 
 
144 
 
 How Coal is Obtained, 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 MINING: COAL, IRON, GOLD, SILVER, ETC. 
 
 \ t To get coal, men must 
 'sink a shaft ; that is, they 
 must dig a great hole in 
 the ground until they come 
 to where the coal is best 
 and most abundant. The 
 hole or shaft must be large 
 enough for very large 
 buckets full of coal to be 
 raised up from the bottom ; 
 and to raise these there 
 must be a steam-engine at 
 the mouth of the shaft. 
 This must have a house 
 built over it to protect the 
 machinery and the work- 
 men, and this is the house 
 that you see in the chart. 
 
 2. Down below, at the 
 bottom of the shaft, men 
 are working away with pickaxes and shovels, 
 making passages wherever they find coal. 
 These passages are called galleries. In a coal- 
 miner's life there are many dangers. Some- 
 times the sides or roof of the gallery fall on him 
 
 Blackboard Drawing- of 
 a Mine, Shaft, Chute, 
 and Engine-house. 
 
Dangers of the Mine, 145 
 
 and crush him ; sometimes the choke-damp 
 (coal-gas, or carbonic acid) comes and chokes 
 him to death ; and sometimes the " fire-damp " 
 (explosive gas) comes, and blows him like a 
 bullet along the gallery or up the shaft, and 
 sometimes it is strong enough to blow the 
 mine to pieces, shattering the steam-engine 
 and breaking into little sticks the house that 
 covers it. 
 
 3. Sir Humphry Davy, who was once a poor boy, in- 
 vented a safety-lamp for the miners. He surrounded a 
 common lamp with fine wire gauze,"so that the flame could 
 not get through it to set fire to the explosive gas ; yet, 
 strange to say, the gas will go through the wire gauze and 
 burn quietly in the lamp, thus helping the miner by giving 
 him light instead of blowing him to pieces. 
 
 4. This fire-damp that kills these miners is pretty much 
 the same as the gas that burns so quietly in our houses (be- 
 ing carbureted hydrogen mixed with some olenant gas). 
 If, when ordinary gas (carbureted hydrogen) has been leak- 
 ing to a certain extent in a room, any person enters that 
 room with a lighted candle, just such an explosion takes 
 place in that room as at the bottom of a mine. Explo- 
 sions in mines happen every year in this country, especi- 
 ally in Pennsylvania, also in England and Wales, 
 and many persons have been thus injured. 
 
 5. It is curious to get into one of these 
 big coal-buckets and be lowered down to the 
 bottom of the shaft. What seemed from the 
 top to be like little stars or glow-worms moving 
 about below, turn out to be little lamps fast- 
 
146 Coal How Transported Cannel Coal. 
 
 ened in front of the miners' caps, so as to give 
 them light and leave both their hands free to 
 hold the pickaxe or 
 the shovel. 
 
 6. When the coal 
 has reached the top 
 of the shaft, it is put 
 into small cars that 
 run on a sloping 
 railroad or tramway, 
 such as you can see 
 in the large chart, 
 until it reaches a 
 railroad, along which 
 it is drawn to some 
 place where it is sold 
 for use, or to some 
 place where it can 
 be put into canal- 
 boats, or ships, and 
 go wherever water 
 
 Interior of a Coal-Mine. 
 
 goes. 
 
 7. Many coal-mines are reached from the side 
 of a mountain or hill by way of a kind of tun- 
 nel instead of a shaft. Coal is brought from the 
 inside of the mine to the opening, mostly in 
 small cars which are moved by horses or mules 
 and sometimes by the miners themselves. 
 
 8. One kind of coal, called first in Lan- 
 
Coal-fields Their Extent Gas. 147 
 
 cashire, in England, cannel coal (that is, 
 candle or can'le coal), will burn like pine wood. 
 If you take a splinter of it and hold it in the 
 flame of a candle, it will take fire and continue 
 to burn, giving out a light like a candle. This 
 kind of coal can also be turned in the turning- 
 lathe as wood is turned, and sornetimes snuff- 
 boxes are made from it. 
 
 9. The gas we burn in our houses is made 
 from coal, which, therefore, not only warms us 
 in winter, but cooks our supper and gives us 
 light to eat it by. 
 
 10. Many millions of tons of coal are pro- 
 duced every year. Our steamboats, ocean 
 steamers, locomotives, and steam-engines use 
 up many tons of this black fuel. 
 
 11. Coal has been in use in England for nearly six hun- 
 dred years. In the reign of Edward I. (1272-1307) the 
 use of coal was forbidden because its smoke was said to be 
 injurious to health. 
 
 12. In this country what are called coal-fields 
 have an extent of about 300,000 square miles. 
 You must not imagine, however, that all this 
 country looks black with coal. On the contrary, 
 very little of it crops out on the surface, and you 
 may have a very fine farm with all its trees and 
 crops spread out over a valuable coal-mine, so 
 that they may both be worked without inter- 
 fering with one another. 
 
148 Coal From What Formed. 
 
 13. You learned in the previous chapter how 
 necessary leaves are to the life and growth of a 
 tree, and how valuable some kinds are, such as 
 those of the tea and the tobacco plant ; but do 
 you see any use in the leaves of the forest after 
 they have withered and fallen in the autumn ? 
 
 14. If you should dig down in the ground 
 you would see that the soil at the top is black 
 and rich, while deeper down it is light-colored 
 and poor. The blackness and richness of the 
 surface soil is due chiefly to the withered leaves 
 which fell from year to year and went to decay ; 
 thus you may trace back the abundance of 
 your bread, through large crops of wheat and 
 rich soil, to dead leaves or dead grass. 
 
 15. That is not all: geologists* tell us, 
 among many other wonderful and interesting 
 things, that they have traced the coal which 
 miners dig out of the earth away back to 
 trees, plants, leaves, etc., which had become 
 buried in great masses under the surface of the 
 earth. 
 
 1 6. Just how all these immense beds of coal 
 were made, learned men have not agreed. They 
 appear to have been made in some mysterious 
 manner, long, long ago, from trees, plants, and 
 seeds (especially ferns and mosses), because the 
 
 * Men who have studied the formation of the earth its rocks, mountains, 
 soils, etc. 
 
Coal How Formed Charcoal. 149 
 
 Clay. 
 Iron Ore. 
 
 Lime Stone. 
 
 Interior or Sectional View in the Coal Regions. 
 
 remains and impressions of such have been 
 found in them. It is also probable that the 
 water on the earth, the heat inside of the 
 earth, volcanic action, and several successive 
 elevations and depressions of the surface had a 
 good deal to do with the formation of coal. 
 
 1 7. Charcoal is made by covering, almost en- 
 tirely, a large pile of wood with sod and earth 
 and setting it on fire. 
 
150 Coke Iron Iron Furnaces. 
 
 1 8. Coke bears the same relation to coal that 
 charcoal does to wood. The coal is heated in 
 air-tight iron vessels, from which tubes run into 
 water, so that all the gas may bubble through 
 into another vessel and be drawn thence to 
 light our houses. Thus we contrive to make 
 coke and gas at the same time. 
 
 1 9. The coke we burn in our grates to warm us ; 
 and the gas, in our gas-burners to give us light. 
 
 20. The annual coal production of the world is about 
 300,000,000 tons ; one-half of which is obtained in Great 
 Britain, one-sixth in the United States, one-sixth in Ger- 
 many, and nearly all the rest in France, Belgium, and 
 Austria. The deepest mines in the world are in England. 
 They are more than 2,000 feet beneath the surface of 
 the earth. One is over 2,400 feet in depth. 
 
 21. There are many things represented in the 
 chart that are made of iron. Mention some of 
 them. 
 
 22. Iron is the most useful metal in the world ; 
 it is far more useful to us than gold and sil- 
 ver. Iron is very seldom found pure. , It is 
 almost always mixed with other substances, and 
 this mixture is called iron ore. To get the iron 
 from this, men build large furnaces of fire-proof 
 brick, and after they have built a very hot fire 
 in the bottom of one of these they put in a 
 quantity of iron ore, then about as much lime- 
 stone broken up into a convenient size, and then 
 on top of the limestone about as much coal. 
 
Iron^How Manufactured. 151 
 
 23. Thus they keep putting in layers of ore, 
 limestone, and coal until the whole furnace, 
 which is sometimes sixty feet high, is filled up 
 to the top. As the mass sinks down they put 
 :>n more to keep the furnace always full. The 
 fire burns all through this mass, so that the ore 
 is melted ; a part of which mixes with the heat- 
 ed limestone, making what is called slag, and 
 leaving the iron free to run down below. This 
 the iron is sure to do, because it is heavier than 
 all the other things. 
 
 24. The fire in the furnace is kept up day and 
 night, and on Sundays as well, because if they 
 were to allow the fire to go out, it would take 
 about a week to get it in order again. But the 
 same men do not work at it all the time; 
 there are two sets or gangs of them, and their 
 time is arranged so that each gang shall have 
 the same amount of night-work. Twice a day 
 they let the melted iron run out of the furnace 
 and conduct it along narrow earthen gutters 
 into hollows or molds of sand or iron, about three 
 feet long and three inches wide as well as deep. 
 
 25. These, from their lying side by side like a 
 litter of pigs, are called pig-iron. This is again 
 melted to make anything of cast-iron, and is 
 poured into very smooth earthen molds of the 
 desired shape. All our iron stoves are made of 
 such castings. 
 
152 Wr ought-Iron Steel. 
 
 26. To make wrought-iron, the pig-iron is 
 melted, and a convenient quantity is lifted out 
 and beaten with hammers continually while 
 hot, and in every direction, until it is sufficiently 
 thus "wrought," which makes it tough and 
 flexible. 
 
 27. This is then made into bars or chains 
 or any other shape that is preferred. It is also 
 rolled while hot between rollers with grooves 
 in them so as to make long bars of different 
 shapes and thicknesses for different purposes. 
 Wire also is made from wrought-iron. 
 
 28. To make steel, this iron is heated again 
 with charcoal ; part of the charcoal goes into 
 the iron and makes it capable of being tem- 
 pered in the fire, so as to be made very hard 
 and very elastic, taking thus a finer edge when 
 made into tools and ground. It is from this 
 that we get all our knives, hatchets, axes, chis- 
 els, gouges, adzes, and other tools. Razors are 
 made from the best and finest steel, and when 
 carefully ground and sharpened have a very fine 
 cutting edge. 
 
 29. More iron is obtained in England than in any other 
 country in the world ; and in Pennsylvania and Michigan, 
 which furnish about one-half the quantity produced in the 
 United States. (Census 1880.) 
 
 30. In Missouri is Iron Mountain, a mass of iron 200 
 feet high, covering an area of 500 acres. 
 
 31. The place most noted for the manufacture of 
 knives is Sheffield, a town in England. 
 
Salt-mines Salt, how Obtained. 153 
 
 
 32. The salt-mines in the northern 
 part of Austria are about 1,000 feet in 
 depth and two miles in length. They con- 
 tain many great rooms, galleries, and pas- 
 sages, all cut out by the miners. There are 
 valuable salt-mines also in Russia, Eng- 
 land, Germany, Italy, and Spain. 
 
 33. Salt is obtained not only from 
 mines, but also from the water of the 
 ocean, salt springs and wells, which you 
 have already learned in the chapter on 
 springs and wells. 
 
 A Famous Salt-mine in Austria. 
 
154 Silver-mining. 
 
 Silver-mines in Colorado. 
 
 34. Silver-mining is carried on very exten- 
 sively in the States of Nevada and Colorado, 
 where some men have become immensely rich 
 almost in a single day, owing to the discovery 
 of silver on their land. 
 
 35. Many of the mines are far up high 
 mountains and reach to great distances within 
 them. 
 
 36. Silver is found also in Utah, Montana, 
 and other Territories of the United States. It 
 was formerly found in large quantities in Mexi- 
 co, Bolivia, and Peru. 
 
 37. It is said that many years ago an Indian hunter in 
 South America, in pulling up a shrub, observed something 
 white and shining clinging to the roots, and that this led to 
 the discovery of a mountain almost filled with silver. 
 
Gol'd-m in ing Copper. 155 
 
 38. Gold, the most precious of all the metals 
 is found not only in deep mines like those of 
 iron, coal, or silver 
 
 39. It has been found in the sands of streams, 
 
 into which it has been carried 
 from the crumbling rocks by 
 rains, and from which it is ob- 
 tained by washing. Consider- 
 able gold is obtained by direct- 
 ing a powerful stream of water 
 a g a inst the rocks by means of a 
 hose, which is supplied from large collections of 
 water on higher ground. This is called hydrau- 
 lic mining. 
 
 40. Pure gold is too soft for general use, there- 
 fore it is mixed with silver or copper, which are 
 harder ; it is then said to be alloyed, or reduced 
 in purity. 
 
 41. For gilding, a portion of gold is ham- 
 mered out into leaves so thin that several hun- 
 dred of them together would be no thicker than 
 one of the leaves of your book. 
 
 42. California, Nevada, and Australia 
 have long been celebrated for gold. 
 
 43. Copper ore is found in several countries 
 and States, especially in the Republic of 
 Chili and in the State of Michigan, along- 
 the shores of Lake Superior. 
 
156 Tin Zinc Lead Brass. 
 
 44. Tin ore is obtained principally from the 
 mines of England, Australia, the Malay 
 Peninsula, and two islands, Banca and Bil- 
 liton, which lie southeast of that peninsula. 
 
 45. In Cornwall, the most southwestern county in 
 England, are hundreds of mines of tin and copper, some 
 of which extend far out from the shore and under the bed 
 of the ocean ; in these the moaning of the restless waves 
 overhead is always heard, and their roaring while a storm 
 iasts is fearful to listen to. 
 
 46. Tin is white and bright, but too soft for ordinary 
 use; therefore, sheets of iron are dipped into melted tin, 
 enough of which adheres to the iron to form a thin white 
 coating. Sheet-iron thus coated is the substance of which 
 tin cups, pans, etc., are made, and with which the roofs of 
 some houses are covered. You see, therefore, that a tin 
 cup is really made of iron. 
 
 47. Bronze and bell-metal are made of copper and tin 
 mixed together. Brass is made of copper and zinc 
 mixed together. There are, consequently, no mines or 
 ores of brass or bronze. 
 
 48. Zinc is a metal of a bluish gray tint. It is exten- 
 sively mined in several countries in Europe, and in the 
 States of Wisconsin, Missouri, New Jersey, and 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 49. Lead is mined very extensively in Wisconsin, 
 Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri. It is used in roofing 
 houses, lining tanks, and in making bullets, shot, and wa 
 ter-pipes. 
 
 50. Lead pencils are made of a mineral called plumba- 
 go, which is not lead, but a kind of coal. Extensive 
 mines of this substance are found in England and Si- 
 beria. 
 
REVIEW OF CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 What is a mine ? A pit or other opening dug in the earth from 
 which men gel coal, iron, or any other minerals. 
 
 Mention some of the different parts of a mine and its works. 
 
 Which is the most useful of all the minerals ? Coal. Mention 
 some of its uses. How is coal taken out of a mine ? What are 
 the dangers of coal-mining ? How do miners see to work in the 
 dark mines ? 
 
 Do you know what coal is made of? What is charcoal ? What 
 are made from coal ? 
 
 Where does most of the coal used in the world come from ? 
 Where are the deepest coal mines ? 
 
 Which is the most useful of all metals ? Iron. Is iron taken 
 out of the mine in a pure state ? How is it separated from im- 
 purities ? 
 
 What is pig iron ? What is wrought iron ? Of what kind of 
 iron are stoves made ? Of what kind are iron chains and horse- 
 shoes made? 
 
 What is steel ? What articles are made of steel ? What state 
 is celebrated for its coal and iron ? Pennsylvania. In what direc- 
 tion is Pennsylvania from your state ? 
 
 How is salt obtained from the earth ? What countries contain 
 valuable salt mines? Does all salt come out of the mines? 
 
 What states and territories are celebrated for their silver mines? 
 What two countries in South America have long produced silver? 
 
 What is the most valuable of all metals? Gold. How is gold 
 obtained? Where? What is gold leaf? Are gold watches, 
 chains and rings usually made of pure gold ? Why not ? Where 
 is California ? Nevada? Australia? 
 
 Where are the richest copper mines ? What are made of cop- 
 per? Of brass? Is brass found in the earth as copper, iron, etc., 
 are found? Of what two metals is copper made ? 
 
 Where are the most extensive tin mines? Point to England, 
 Australia? Malay Peninsula. 
 
 What is zinc used for? Where is it obtained? What states 
 contain extensive lead mines? In what direction from your state 
 is Wisconsin? Illinois? Iowa? Missouri? 
 
158 Spelling and Composition. 
 
 SPELLING AND WRITING EXERCISES. 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 dt-tit-e-t.. 
 
 / 
 
 t&'t-i 
 
 Write on slates or papers the names of the principal metals, 
 and opposite them the names of the places where they are mostly 
 obtained. 
 
 Write a composition about Coal. How mines are entered. 
 The dangers of coal-mining. How coal is obtained. Its origin. 
 Its uses. 
 
 Write what you know of Iron, Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead, 
 Brass, Salt. 
 
About Europe. 159 
 
 1. Most of the white people in the world live 
 in Europe. 
 
 2. All the white people now in America 
 either came from Europe or are descended 
 from those who came ; therefore they speak 
 European languages and are more interested 
 in the people and places of Europe than in 
 those of Asia or Africa. Europe was inhabited 
 by white people many centuries before America 
 was discovered (in 1492). 
 
 3. The English language is spoken in the United States 
 and Canada; the Spanish, in Mexico, Central America, 
 and nearly all South America ; the Portuguese, in Brazil ; 
 and the French, in parts of Canada. 
 
 4. You have already learned (on p. 97) that 
 America was for a long time the home only of* 
 Indians, or until it was visited and settled by 
 Europeans. 
 
 5. The nations of Europe have ever since continued to 
 send ships to every part of the world to promote civiliza- 
 tion and to establish trade. There is not a port or harbor in 
 the world that is not visited by an English ship, nor a city, 
 town or village where the English language is not heard. 
 
 6. The greatest nations in Europe are the Brit- 
 ish, the Germans, the French, and the Russians. 
 
 7. Europe is celebrated for its learned men, 
 fine churches and schools, large cities, splendid 
 palaces, extensive mines and factories, its kings, 
 queens, princes, and powerful armies. 
 
EUROPE 
 
 ARCTIC 
 OCEAN 
 
 North Cape 
 
 s 
 
EXERCISES ON THE MAP. 
 
 What Grand Division is east of Europe ? Asia. 
 
 What Grand Division south ? Africa. 
 
 What ocean north of Europe ? West ? What great sea 
 south ? What smaller seas are connected with the Medi- 
 terranean Sea ? What strait connects the Mediterranean 
 Sea with the Atlantic Ocean? What sea east of Great 
 Britain ? 
 
 What is the largest country in Europe ? What three 
 seas touch Russia ? What countries touch or border on 
 Russia ? 
 
 What countries of Europe form islands ? England, 
 Scotland and Wales form the Island of Great Britain; 
 Ireland is an Island. 
 
 What country in the south is a peninsula ? Italy. What 
 two countries in the north form a peninsula? Norway 
 and Sweden. What smaller country north of the German 
 Empire is mostly a peninsula? Denmark. What two 
 countries in the southwestern part of Europe form one 
 peninsula ? Spain and Portugal. 
 
 What two small countries lie between the German Em- 
 pire and the North Sea ? Holland and Belgium. 
 
 What small, mountainous country in Europe has no sea- 
 coast ? Switzerland. 
 
 Which are the warm countries of Europe ? Those which 
 border on the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 What fruits grow in the open air in those countries ? 
 Oranges, lemons, olives and figs. 
 
 What mountains between France and Spain ? Between 
 Switzerland and Italy ? 
 
 What large river flows into the west side of the Black 
 Sea ? Into the Caspian Sea ? What bay west of France ? 
 
1 62 About Europe. 
 
 ABOUT GREAT BRITAIN : Has possessions in Europe, 
 Asia, Africa and America ; Formerly governed this coun- 
 try; English language; Extensive commerce; Coal 
 and iron mines ; cotton, woolen and linen mills ; Con- 
 tains London, the largest and richest city in the world. 
 
 ABOUT GERMANY : People fond of learning and music ; 
 Fine schools and universities ; German language ; 
 Beautiful River Rhine; Old castles (p. 67); Large 
 vineyards ; Wine ; Linen ; Books ; Toys ; Berlin, a 
 handsome city, about the size of New York. 
 
 ABOUT FRANCE: Beautiful country; Celebrated for 
 silk, wine and fancy articles; Paris the gayest city in 
 the world twice as large as New York; Formerly an 
 empire now a republic ; French language. 
 
 ABOUT RUSSIA: Largest country in Europe; Long, 
 cold winters and deep snow; Large army; Empire, 
 ruled by the Czar ; Principal city, St. Petersburg ; Prin- 
 cipal crop, wheat ; Language, Russian. 
 
 ABOUT HOLLAND : Kingdom ; Ground flat and low ; 
 Many canals and windmills; Language, Dutch; 
 Largest city, Amsterdam. 
 
 ABOUT SPAIN : Kingdom ; Spaniards first visited 
 America ; Grapes, wine, oranges ; Music, dancing, and 
 bull-fights ; Language, Spanish ; Largest city, Madrid. 
 
 ABOUT ITALY : Delightful climate Beautiful lakes ; 
 Its capital is the celebrated city of Rome, which contains 
 St. Peter's, the most magnificent church in the world ; 
 The Pope resides in Rome ; Fine statuary and paintings ; 
 Silk ; Grapes ; Kingdom ; Language, Italian ; 
 Largest city, Naples. 
 
 (The above characteristics may be used for STUDY and DRILL also as topics 
 for COMPOSITION.) 
 
Volcanoes Earthquakes Lava. 1 63 
 
 A Volcano and other Mountains. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 MOUNTAINS, VOLCANOES, ETC. 
 
 i. Here is a volcano, which is a burning 
 mountain. Sometimes volcanoes throw out red- 
 hot stones, sometimes melted stones called lava, 
 sometimes smoke, and sometimes ashes. Most 
 of them are along the Pacific coasts of Asia 
 and South America. There are more than a 
 thousand volcanoes in the world. They are 
 useful in preventing earthquakes ; in supplying 
 us with sulphur, with some fine kinds of lava, 
 from which bracelets and breast-pins are made, 
 and with pumice-stone, which is the froth that 
 floats sometimes on streams of lava. 
 
1 64 Stromboli Vesuvius. 
 
 2. In 1783 a volcano in Iceland sent out two streams of 
 lava, one 40 miles long and 7 miles wide, and the other 50 
 miles long and 15 miles wide. These streams were from 
 100 to 600 feet deep. In this eruption n,ooocows, 27,000 
 horses, and 186,000 sheep perished. 
 
 3. In the island of Java is a volcano (Papanday- 
 ang) which, in 1772, threw out ashes and cinders so as to 
 cover the earth fifty feet deep for a distance of seven miles 
 all around the mountain, thus destroying forty villages and 
 twenty thousand people. 
 
 4. Sometimes volcanoes rise from the sea. This hap- 
 pened in 1866, near the Navigators' Islands, in the 
 Pacific. Stones, mud, and dust were thrown up 2,000 
 feet. Some of the, stones going down met others coming up 
 with a terrible crash. For half a mile around the water 
 was in terrible commotion. Heaps of dead fish were 
 washed ashore, and- among them some strange monsters, 
 from six to ten feet long, such as the natives had never 
 seen before; while the atmosphere for miles around was 
 heated and filled with smoke, ashes, and sulphurous vapors. 
 
 5. North of Sicily are the Lipari (lip'a-re) Islands. 
 On one of these is a volcano named Stromboli (strorri- 
 bo-le), which has given out lava for 2,000 years, and, from 
 its constant light, has been called the light-house of the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 6. The best-known volcano in the world is 
 Vesuvius, which is in Italy, near the city of 
 Naples. This was not known to be a volcano 
 until the year 79, or about eighteen centuries 
 ago, when it suddenly burst forth and sent 
 out such an immense quantity of ashes and 
 cinders as to overwhelm two cities situated near 
 it. These cities were named Herculaneum and 
 
Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. 165 
 
 Pompeii {pom-pay'e}. Almost all their inha- 
 bitants managed to escape. The ashes that fell 
 upon Herculaneum were mixed with steam, so 
 that the moist ashes gradually hardened into 
 stone. 
 
 7. Pompeii was covered over with dry ashes 
 so completely that nothing could be seen 
 of it. Thus it remained buried until 1748, 
 when it was accidentally discovered. Excava- 
 tions were then commenced and have conti- 
 nued to the present day. About one-third 
 of the city has been uncovered, and you can 
 now walk along the streets and look into the 
 houses, and see exactly how people lived in 
 those days. 
 
 8. Vesuvius frequently pours out lava, and 
 travelers often stand close by a stream of lava 
 flowing from it, and see smoke issuing from its 
 crater. 
 
 9. A story is told of a Roman soldier who was guard- 
 ing one of the gates of that ancient city at the time it 
 was destroyed. Although the people rushed wildly past 
 him, in their anxiety to escape suffocation and death, 
 he stood at his post, and, unfortunately, having no 
 orders to leave it, he remained and perished. When 
 the great heaps of ashes were carried away from that 
 part of the city nearly seventeen centuries afterwards 
 his skeleton was found on the spot, with his weapons 
 beside it. 
 
 10. The ruins include those of dwellings, temples, thea- 
 tres, statues, fountains, etc. 
 
REVIEW OF CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 What is a mountain ? Land raised to a great height. 
 
 How high are the highest mountains? About five miles above the 
 level of the ocean. 
 * In what part of the world are the highest? In Asia. 
 
 With what are the tops of the highest mountains always cov- 
 ered ? Snow. 
 
 With what are the sides of nearly all mountains covered? Trees. 
 
 What mountain in this country is named after our first presi- 
 dent? Mount Washington. 
 
 Where is Mount Washington ? In New Hampshire. 
 
 What is the highest mountain in the United States? Mount 
 Whitney ', in California. 
 
 What great line, range or chain of mountains extends through 
 the western part of the United States ? The Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Mention other celebrated mountains of the world. The Alps in 
 Ettrope, and the Andes in South America. 
 
 What is a volcano ? (See page 163.) What do volcanoes throw 
 out? Along what coasts are most of the volcanoes? About how 
 many volcanoes are there in the world? 
 
 Are any volcanoes in the state (or territory) in which you live? 
 Are there any mountains? Which is the most celebrated volcano 
 in the world? Where is Vesuvius? How were two cities de- 
 stroyed by it? How long did these cities afterward remain com- 
 pletely under the ashes ? What volcano is called the " light-house 
 of the Mediterranean?" Why? What volcano in Sicily? Etna. 
 
 SPELLING AND WRITING EXERCISES. 
 
 4e.&-&c 
 
 You may write a composition about any mountain which you 
 have seen or read about ; telling how it looks, how it is ascended 
 what may be seen in the ascent what dangers attend traveling 
 up mountains ; or you may write a composition about the eruption 
 of Vesuvius. Write as much as will fill one page of a copy-book. 
 
What Light-houses are for. 
 
 167 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 LIGHT-HOUSES. 
 
 1 . Light-houses are very 
 necessary in saving ships. 
 When the wind is blowing 
 a ship towards the shore 
 on a dark night, if there 
 were no light-houses the 
 ship would inevitably be 
 destroyed. 
 
 2. The United States 
 has many miles of sea-coast 
 along the Atlantic and 
 Pacific Oceans, as well 
 as on the Gulf of Mex- 
 ico, and also in the great 
 lakes of the north ; these 
 
 lakes are like seas of fresh water. 
 
 3. To protect the shipping on all this long 
 line of coast this country supported in 1873 six 
 hundred and twenty light-houses. 
 
 4. Light-houses are built of stone, brick, or 
 iron. To look at some of the rocks before a light- 
 house is built on them, you \vould say that it 
 was impossible to build anything on such a 
 slippery, wave- washed place as that, for some- 
 times the rock can be seen for a short time 
 only at low tide. 
 
 A Light-house. 
 
1 68 Spelling and Writing Exercise. 
 
 5. The ingenuity and patient thought of man 
 can, however, overcome many difficulties, and 
 one plan after another has been tried, until all 
 obstacles have been overcome. 
 
 6. The next time it blows hard on a dark 
 night, especially if the wind blow towards the 
 shore, you can readily imagine every one on 
 board a ship peering eagerly to see the wished- 
 for light. When at length they see it, what joy 
 spreads from stem to stern ! The captain takes 
 out his watch, and, after observing a little, says : 
 " It is a revolving light, and it revolves in so 
 many minutes ; now I know which light it is, 
 and I know just where we are." 
 
 REVIEW OF CHAPTER XV. 
 
 What are light-houses built for ? Of what materials are 
 they built ? On what are they built ? On the coast, usually 
 on capes and islands. If the keeper should neglect the light, 
 what might be the consequence ? How does he get up to 
 the light ? By means of stairs inside the light-house. 
 
 SPELLING AND WRITING EXERCISE. 
 , d ris 
 
 'ij>, 
 
How Windmills Work. 169 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 WINDMILLS. 
 
 i. Here is a windmill (pointing to it on the 
 chart). This is a machine by means of which 
 we take hold of the wind, that we cannot see, 
 and make it do work that we can see. Wind- 
 mills are often used in this country to grind 
 wheat into flour, and corn into meal. 
 
 Black-board Drawing-. Cog-wheels. Draw them by means of 
 chalk and a piece of cord. 
 
 2. The large sails of the windmill turn a large 
 shaft with a cog-wheel that is, a strong iron 
 wheel with teeth, called cogs, all around it. 
 These teeth, or cogs, fit into the cogs of other 
 wheels and make them go around, so that you 
 can change in any way that is necessary the di- 
 rection of the moving wheels. Thus a very 
 large, round, and flat stone with a hole in the 
 middle is made to turn around above another 
 stone and very close to it. 
 
 3. If wheat is poured into the hole in the 
 upper millstone it gets down between the stones., 
 
170 Windmills Used for Pumping. 
 
 and there, as this upper millstone turns around, 
 the wheat is ground into flour, which drops out 
 all around the edges of the stone. This flour 
 is sifted, and put into barrels, and then sold to 
 those who wish to make bread, biscuit, cakes, 
 pies, or anything else from it. 
 
 4. Sometimes this is done by steam-mills, 
 and one of those here in front may be a steam 
 flouring-mill (see chart.) 
 
 5. The earth gives the grain ; fire gives its power to 
 the steam-miil, and is used in baking the bread ; water 
 must be mixed with the flour to make dough ; air must be 
 got into the dough so as to raise it up and make it light; 
 air also helps the windmill to grind the flour; it is, there- 
 fore, clear that fire, air, earth, and water all contribute to 
 the making of our bread. 
 
 6. In Holland, where the land in some 
 places is lower than the surface of the sea, hun- 
 dreds of windmills are placed along the dikes 
 for the same purpose. They can also be seen in 
 this country near some large country-seats, where 
 they are used to pump up water, so that it may 
 be had in the highest stories of the houses. 
 
 REVIEW. OF CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 What are the uses of windmills ? What moves their 
 wheels ? What are made from flour ? How is bread made ? 
 
 SPELLING AND WRITING EXERCISE. 
 
Balloons Why They Rise. 171 
 
 Excursion in a Balloon. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 BALLOONS. 
 
 1. Here is a balloon. The first balloons were 
 made in 1783, of paper, and were made to rise 
 by heated air coming from chopped straw 
 that was burned in a wire grating below them. 
 This heated air, being lighter than the common 
 air about it, makes the balloon rise up, just as a 
 cork does in water. (Afterwards pure hydrogen 
 gas was used, and then carburetted hydrogen, 
 which is what we use to burn in our houses.) 
 
 2. The first man who ever dared to go up in a balloon 
 was a young Frenchman (named De Rozier), who was 
 killed two years after (1785) by the burning of his balloon. 
 Two persons crossed the Straits of Dover in a balloon 
 in that same year. The first woman balloonist (Madame 
 Blanchard),after several ascensions.attempted to set off some 
 
172 Balloons How Moved and Used. 
 
 fireworks while rising up from a garden near Paris in 1796. 
 Her balloon caught fire, and she was dashed to pieces. 
 
 3. An English a'er-o-naut or balloonist made 1,400 
 ascensions, crossing the English Channel three times 
 and falling into it twice. In the highest strata of air reached 
 by balloons men suffer severely from cold, no matter how 
 hot the day may be on the ground they leave. The breath- 
 ing becomes difficult, the pulse much quickened, and the 
 throat parched. The highest mountain in the world is 5^ 
 miles high, but in 1862 two Englishmen ascended to the 
 height of 37,000 feet, or 7 miles. Both, however, were 
 nearly killed by the cold. 
 
 4. A balloon moves about very easily in the 
 air, so that a very slight change of weight will 
 affect it seriously. 
 
 5. Soon after the invention of balloons they 
 were used in war, being held fast by a long rope, 
 while some officers looked down from them to 
 see what was going on in the enemy's camp. 
 
 6. In the last war in the United States a bal- 
 loon corps (kor) was organized, and news was 
 telegraphed from these balloons to headquar- 
 ters. 
 
 7. On one occasion General Fitz-John Porter was observ- 
 ing the enemy's lines from a balloon, when the rope broke 
 and he was carried rapidly towards the enemy. Pulling the 
 valve-string, he caused an escape of gas. This admitted 
 enough outside or heavier air, lowered the balloon and 
 brought him into a different current of air, which fortu- 
 nately took him back to where he started from. 
 
 8. When Paris was besieged by the Germans in 1870, 
 fifty-four balloons were sent off at different times by the 
 
Spelling and Writing Exercise. 173 
 
 Post-office Department. These carried millions of let- 
 ters. Sixty-two were sent off in all during the siege, most- 
 ly at night, so as to escape the observation of their ene- 
 mies, the Germans. 
 
 9. In spite of all precautions, several fell within the ene- 
 my's lines. One was fired at while crossing the Prussian out- 
 posts. Several were carried outside of France. One was 
 swept into Norway, and landed 600 miles north of the city 
 of Christiania. Three were never heard of after they set 
 out, and were most probably lost in the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 10. Some men who wished to get out of the besieged 
 city went in these balloons as passengers. Among these was 
 a member of the Provisional Government, the now famous 
 Gambetta, who, voyaging safely through the air, arrived at 
 the city of Tours, where he joined his colleagues in the 
 government. 
 
 SPELLING AND WRITING EXERCISE. 
 
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 Why does a balloon rise in the air ? What causes it to 
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 through which it ascends ? 
 
About Asia. 
 
 175 
 
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176 About Asia. 
 
 The capital of the Chinese Empire is the largest city in 
 Asia ; what is its name ? Pekin, which is larger than New 
 York and Brooklyn combined. 
 
 Which are the most civilized people in Asia? The 
 Japanese and Chinese. Which are the most friendly with 
 white people ? The Japanese. 
 
 What is the largest city in Japan? Tokio, which is 
 nearly as large as Philadelphia. 
 
 Mention some of the countries in the southern part of 
 Asia ? In the western part ? 
 
 What parts of Asia contain extensive deserts ? Arabia, 
 Persia, and the northern part of the Chinese Empire. 
 
 How do merchants or traders cross deserts ? In large 
 companies, called caravans. What animal is the most useful 
 in crossing deserts ? The Camel. 
 
 How do many people of Western Asia live ? They live 
 in tents, and move from place to place to find pasture for 
 their sheep, goats, horses, and camels. 
 
 North of Hindostan are the highest mountains in the 
 world, what is their name ? The Himalaya Mountains.* 
 
 By what country is Hindostan governed ? England. 
 
 What grow extensively in Hindostan? Cotton, Rice, 
 and Opium. In Anam, Siam, and Birmah? Rice. In 
 Arabia ? Coffee and Dates. 
 
 What is the difference in climate between Siberia and 
 the southern countries of Asia? Siberia is very cold; 
 Hindostan, Arabia and the other countries in the south are 
 very hot. What animals are found in Siberia ? The 
 Reindeer, Wolf, and White Bear. In Hindostan ? The 
 Elephant, Tiger, Rhinoceros and Crocodile. 
 
 * The highest peak in Asia is 29,000 feet above the level of the sea ; in South 
 America, 23,000 feet ; in Africa, 20,000 feet ; in North America, 18,000 feet ; and 
 in Europe, 15,000 feet. 
 
About Birds The Eagle. 
 
 ^ /| 
 
 ; :N 
 
 
 Blackboard Drawing. American Eagle. Height, 3 feet; width 
 of outspread wings, 8 feet. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 ABOUT BIRDS. 
 
 1. Here is a bird which can rise in the air as 
 high as any balloon, and can steer itself so as to 
 go whither it wishes, which is more than the 
 man in the balloon can do. For this purpose it 
 is contrived with wonderful wisdom. Number- 
 less air-cells are distributed throughout its body, 
 extending even into its bones. These air-cells 
 the bird can fill at pleasure, and thus rise more 
 easily in the air, or it can empty them and 
 make itself heavier, so as to descend more rap- 
 idly upon its prey. Its feathers are models 
 of strength and lightness. It is an eagle (see 
 chart). 
 
 2. The EAGLE is a bird of prey that is, it 
 procures its food by violence or robbery, seizing 
 not only other birds but also young fawns, rac- 
 coons, rabbits, wild turkeys, etc. Its height or 
 
178 Birds of Prey Eagte Condor. 
 
 length is about three feet. Some eagles have 
 been known to live more than a hundred years. 
 
 3. The EAGLE is noted for its great strength 
 and endurance, and it has been accepted as an 
 emblem of the United States, also of Prussia, 
 Austria, and other great nations. 
 
 4. Although eagles have been reported to be 
 very fierce, and as having carried off young chil- 
 dren, yet they have not always shown as much 
 bravery and courage as some smaller birds. 
 
 5. On account of the eagle's cowardice and tyranny 
 Benjamin Franklin lamented that it should have been se- 
 lected as the emblem of this country. 
 
 6. The young eagles, called eaglets, are driven from 
 their eyrie (a 1 re), or nesfr, by the old ones, so soon as they 
 are able to provide for themselves. 
 
 Head and Bill of Humming-Bird, 1 inch long-; of Eagle, 10 
 inches; of Condor, 10 inches all to be drawn on the black- 
 board full size. 
 
 7. The largest bird of flight is the CONDOR, 
 which has its home in the Andes Mountains. 
 It lives in the highest and loneliest places, and, 
 like the eagle, it is a bird of prey. Two of 
 
Condor Owl. 1 79 
 
 them, driven by hunger, do not hesitate to at- 
 tack a horse, or a bull, or other large animal, 
 which they tear to pieces with their strong, 
 sharp beaks and talons (claws) ; and when they 
 
 have killed it they so 
 gorge themselves with its 
 flesh that they are unable 
 to fly. Men who wish 
 to capture them take ad- 
 vantage of this greedi- 
 ness, and leave the dead 
 body of a horse or other 
 animal on the field until 
 the condor has eaten so 
 much as to become help- 
 less. Its height is about 
 four feet. 
 
 8. Humboldt, a celebrated 
 German naturalist and travel- 
 ler, once noticed a condor fly- 
 ing over the summit of Chim- 
 borazo (Chim-bo-rah'zo), a 
 
 Blackboard Drawing-. mountain in South America 
 
 Barn Owl. Height 1 5 inches. - .. ,. , 
 
 more than four miles high. 
 
 Humboldt made very important explorations in the Old 
 World, also in Mexico, the West Indies, the United 
 States of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. 
 
 9. The OWL is remarkable for its large, round 
 eyes, feathered ears, and fear of daylight. It flies 
 about and seeks its food in the night-time, de- 
 
180 Sizes of Birds Hawk Humming-bird. 
 
 vouring mice, birds, moles, young rabbits, etc. 
 It builds in caves, old walls, towers, etc. There 
 are more than a hundred species. 
 
 10. The OSPREY, or FISH-HAWK, is said to 
 be able to carry a fish of its own weight, but 
 the eagle, when he sees the osprey carrying off 
 a fish, pounces upon him, and, forcing him to 
 let go, swoops down with wonderful swiftness, 
 catching the falling fish before it can touch the 
 water. 
 
 11. The birds of prey include the eagle, condor, 
 vulture, falcon (faw'kri), hawk, 
 
 and owl. Their characteristics 
 are strength, hooked bill, strong, 
 sharp talons, fierce look, and keen 
 scent. Condor. 
 
 12. The FALCON obtains its prey while it is 
 flying. It is trained to capture other birds. Its 
 home is in Europe and America. 
 
 13. Birds vary in size, from the huge condor, 
 that has a body four feet long, and wings which 
 sometimes spread out fourteen feet in width, to 
 the little humming-bird, which is not much 
 larger than a big beetle. 
 
 14. The HUMMING-BIRD is small and very 
 beautiful. It is remarkable for its long bill, 
 which reaches honey and insects inside of 
 flowers, for its feathers of rich green, red, purple, 
 and brown, and for the quick motions of its 
 wings, which cause the humming sound. Like 
 
Weaver-birds Oriole. 1 8 1 
 
 most other beautiful birds, they are more nume- 
 rous in Brazil and other warm countries of 
 South America than in the United States. 
 There are about four hundred species of hum- 
 ming-birds. 
 
 15. Audubon, the celebrated American ornithologist, 
 in describing the humming-bird, called it the " glittering 
 fragment of the rainbow." 
 
 1 6. There is a bird that knows how to sew, and 
 is therefore called the tailor-bird. He sews 
 
 leaves together and thus 
 forms his nest. Others 
 take long grass or any 
 other fibrous material, and 
 weave it into a kind of 
 coarse cloth, of which 
 they make their nests. 
 
 17. We have one of 
 these weaver-birds in 
 our country. It is called 
 the BALTIMORE ORIOLE, 
 a beautiful bird covered 
 with orange and black 
 feathers. 
 
 1 8. This nest, as you 
 see (referring to the 
 drawing on the black- 
 Blackboard drawing of Baiti- board), is not only 
 
 more Oriole. Full lengrth of . 
 
 bird, 74 inches. strongly woven together, 
 
1 82 Plasterer Birds Chimney -swallow. 
 
 but kept frpm swaying too violently in the 
 wind by cords that brace it in different direc- 
 tions. 
 
 19. The Baltimore oriole spends the winter in Mexico, 
 Central America, and the West Indies, and returns north 
 in the spring, flying all day and resting at night. It is 
 known as far north as the New England States, and is 
 sometimes called the " fire-bird," from its color, also 
 "hang bird" and " golden robin." 
 
 20. Some birds are good plasterers, and fix 
 their nests with mud or clay very neatly and se- 
 curely in any favorable place. Some are so skil- 
 ful as to make them adhere securely to the 
 smooth surface of glass. 
 
 21. Our common CHIMNEY-SWALLOW is a 
 very good plasterer. 
 
 22. He has, besides, a very curious arrangement in his 
 head. There are two glands or bags in the back part of it, 
 which are filled with liquid glue. After he has made a shelf 
 of mud or clay he makes his nest of tender twigs, interlacing 
 them and joining their ends smoothly together by means 
 of this liquid glue, so that no rough ends may stick out on 
 the inside. After being lined with feathers or any other soft 
 material and securely plastered around on the outside, it is 
 ready for the eggs. 
 
 23. Cuvier was one of the greatest naturalists that 
 ever lived. His attention was first called to this study by 
 some of these plasterers. When quite a young man he 
 went one summer to spend his vacation in a little place 
 near the sea. Just outside of his window two swallows 
 had built their nest. One day a strange bird came and 
 'took possession of the nest, opposing its sharp beak to the 
 
Ingenuity of Birds. 183 
 
 mother-bird when she came home. She and her mate 
 chattered together for some time, and then flew away. 
 
 24. They came back soon, however, with a great many 
 others. They chattered together for a little while, and 
 then flew away again. 
 
 25. Presently they all reappeared, flying in a long 
 file, one after the other, each bearing some mud in its 
 claws. They flew close to the nest, where sat the strange 
 bird in impudent security, and, as they passed, each threw 
 the mud he carried directly into the face of the intruder, 
 which was thus killed and buried in the very place of his 
 crime the nest he had stolen. 
 
 26. From that moment Cuvier devoted himelf to the 
 study of birds, fishes, insects, quadrupeds, and other ani- 
 mals, and became distinguished for his knowledge of natu- 
 ral history. 
 
 27. There are other birds which may be called 
 miners, for they dig holes in the earth and make 
 their nests at the end of these holes. 
 
 28. Such are the SAND MARTINS, which dig in 
 a dry sand-bank horizontal galleries, at the ends 
 of which they have their comfortable nests. They 
 fly about in small flocks, and seem to make very 
 pleasant and sociable little communities. 
 
 29. These things show that birds, though their heads 
 are small, must have brains. 
 
 30. It is said by some naturalists that the CANARY-BIRD 
 has a larger brain in proportion to the size of its body than . 
 any other living creature ; however, it is wonderful to see 
 these bright little birds, after only a fortnight's training, 
 act before an audience, fight mimic battles and duels, fire 
 cannons, fall down as if shot, and, feigning death, be car- 
 ried off by their companions with astonishing composure. 
 
1 84 Cormorant Toucan Bird-of- Paradise. 
 
 Cormorant, length 3 feet ; Toucan, 17 inches long:, its bill, 9 in- 
 ches ; Bird-of- Paradise, head and body together, 12 inches in 
 length ; its tail-feathers, 24 inches. Draw full size. 
 
 31. The birds trained by the Chinese to catch 
 fish for their masters are called CORMORANTS. 
 
 32. Like the duck, goose, and swan, the cor- 
 morant has webbed feet and short legs. He is 
 a very expert diver and swimmer, making use 
 not only of his feet but also of his wings under 
 the water. 
 
 33. The TOUCAN (too'kan) is remarkable for 
 its large orange-red bill, which is more than half 
 as long as its body. 
 
 34. The feathers of its back and wings are 
 mostly black, and of its throat, white. It builds 
 in the holes of trees, and feeds on fruits, small 
 birds, reptiles, and insects. 
 
 35. Unlike eagles and condors, which live in 
 pairs, the toucans live in flocks. 
 
 36. They are numerous in Brazil and othei 
 warm parts of South America. 
 
 37. The BIRD-OF-PARADISE, from which long, 
 beautiful feathers of brilliant colors green, 
 
Movements of Birds. 
 
 185 
 
 yellow, red, and purple are obtained for ladies' 
 hats, is a native of the island of Papua (/#/'- 
 oo-a), or New Guinea. It is found also on 
 Celebes (sel'e-bees), the Philippine {fil'ip- 
 pin), and other islands southeast of Asia. It 
 is about as large as a pigeon, and feeds on seeds, 
 grasshoppers, etc. 
 
 38. Other birds which are remarkable for the length 
 and beauty of their tails are the LYRE-BIRD of Australia 
 and the TROGAN of the Torrid Zone. 
 
 39. The rapidity 
 with which birds can 
 move through the 
 air is astonishing. 
 Few persons have 
 any idea of the force 
 expended in the ac- 
 tion of flight. 
 
 40. Some birds fly 
 
 so rapidly that the strokes of 
 the wing cannot be counted. | 
 The wings of the humming- 
 bird when in motion cannot 
 even be seen. 
 
 41. Let any one try to 
 count the strokes of the wing 
 of a pigeon or of the diving 
 
 sea-fowl, and he will find that it is utterly im 
 possible. 
 
 Birds building: a nest. 
 
1 8 6 Carrier-pigeon Ostrich. 
 
 42. Still more astonishing is the wonderful 
 power possessed by some birds of finding their 
 way through the pathless air, with no apparent 
 means of guiding their course. This has been 
 turned to account by man in the case of the 
 CARRIER-PIGEONS, which are used in carrying let- 
 ters to distant places. 
 
 43. When Paris was besieged by the Germans in 1870, 
 a great many letters were carried to and fro by these birds. 
 
 44. Their general rate of flight does not usually exceed 
 thirty miles per hour. 
 
 45. Some carrier-pigeons were let loose at Scranton, in 
 Pennsylvania, in 1878, and they alighted on the coop of 
 their owner in the city of New York, after flying a dis- 
 tance of one hundred and six miles, in about three hours. 
 
 46. PIGEON-HAWKS must, of course, fly faster 
 than pigeons so as to catch them, and they are 
 sometimes trained for that purpose, so that the 
 letters carried by the carrier-pigeons may come 
 into the possession of those for whom they 
 were not intended. ^_- 
 
 47. Some birds, on the other 
 hand, cannot fly at all. In this case 
 their bones are as solid as ours. One 
 of these, the OSTRICH, is the tallest 
 of living birds, being sometimes 
 eight to ten feet high, and weigh- 
 ing from fifty to one hundred pounds, ostriches. 
 
 48. They furnish us with very beautiful feath- 
 ers. These are so valuable that men have 
 
Cassowary Emu Mound-bird. 187 
 
 caught and tamed the ostriches, and you may 
 now see in South Africa ostrich farms where 
 these birds are reared. 
 
 49. There is an ostrich found in South Ameri- 
 ca, but it is smaller than the African ostrich. It 
 is called the RHEA. Its feathers are so much 
 less beautiful that, in place of adorning the 
 heads of our ladies, they are made into feather 
 dusters. 
 
 50. During the day the heat of the sun aids in hatching 
 the eggs of the African ostrich, but at night the male bird 
 sits on the nest so as to protect the eggs from all assaults, 
 and if attacked by a wild animal it will kill it by a kick. 
 One of these eggs will weigh from two to three pounds, 
 and is equal to about twenty-four such eggs as you some- 
 times have for breakfast. 
 
 51. The CAS'SO-WA-RY of Eastern Asia and the 
 E'MU of Australia resemble the ostrich very much, but 
 are not so large. They are very swift runners. The os- 
 trich when pursued runs about thirty miles an hour, and is 
 only captured by Arabs on swift horses after a chase of 
 several hours. 
 
 52. Some eagles, hawks, and crows are so 
 cunning as to have found out that a turtle or a 
 clam, no matter how closely shut up, may be 
 opened by being carried up high into the air 
 and then let fall upon a rock. 
 
 53. The MOUND-BIRDS, that live in Australia, are cun- 
 ning enough to have found out that fermenting vege- 
 table matter gives out heat enough to hatch eggs; so, 
 after scraping up grass and weeds in their claws, they 
 throw them together so as to make a huge heap or mound, 
 
1 88 
 
 Usefulness of Birds. 
 
 sometimes seven feet high and twenty feet across. The 
 heat of the interior of this is said to reach sometimes 
 ninety-five degrees. 
 
 54. In this mound the birds make holes, in which they 
 deposit their eggs, and leave them there to be hatched out 
 by this internal heat. 
 
 55. Our domestic fowls, as well as many other birds/ 
 supply us with food. Others supply us with feathers for 
 our pillows; others give us pens to write with. In some 
 places men train hawks to catch other birds for them, and 
 
 some large hawks are trained 
 to kill even gazelles and small 
 deer. 
 
 56. Birds also give men much 
 amusement by the various 
 tricks they are taught. Par- 
 rots and some other birds can 
 be taught to pronounce words, 
 and can be made to repeat 
 whole sentences so naturally as 
 to startle and surprise those 
 people who hear them. 
 
 57. Birds are very use- 
 ful to us, not only for food 
 and their beautiful feath- 
 Parrot. ers> but also for destroy- 
 
 ing insects which would do great damage to 
 trees and plants. They also devour snakes, 
 lizards, etc. 
 
 58. The SERPENT BIRD of Africa will attack a large 
 snake, making use of one of his strong wings as a shield 
 and of the other as a weapon, with which he inflicts blow 
 after blow until the reptile is overcome. 
 
Woodpecker Pelican. 
 
 Blackboard Drawing: White Pelican; full length, 5 feet; bill, 
 14 inches long:; pouch, 7 inches deep. Woodpecker; full 
 length, 15 inches. 
 
 59. The WOODPECKER appears to have a 
 hard life when compared with that of birds 
 which easily find their food on the ground, in 
 the water, or among the leaves of the trees ; 
 for the worms and insects upon which he lives 
 are hidden away in the trunks of trees. To 
 get them he must tear away the bark and per- 
 haps bore or drill deep holes in the hard wood. 
 This he does with his long, strong bill, much 
 faster than any of you could do it with a sharp 
 knife. 
 
 60. The Woodpecker runs up and around the trunk of 
 a tree, tapping with his bill as he goes, and when he hears 
 a hollow sound, he knows a worm is there. 
 
 6 1. Some Woodpeckers also bore large holes in trees 
 in which to build their nests, 
 
 62. The PELICAN is remarkable for the great 
 pouch or sack which is under its long bill and 
 
1 90 
 
 The Heron. 
 
 which serves as a kind 
 of scoop-net. This pouch 
 will hold fish sufficient 
 for the dinner of six men. 
 
 63. Pelicans are expert fish- 
 ers. A number of them will 
 surround a shoal of fishes and, 
 gradually swimming closer to- 
 gether, drive them into shallow 
 water, where they devour them 
 in large quantities. Having 
 webbed feet, they are excellent 
 swimmers. 
 
 64. They feed their young 
 with food which they had swal- 
 lowed, and which they have the 
 power of raising to their bills. 
 
 65. Pelicans are found in 
 Florida, California and other 
 parts of North America; alsa 
 in Asia, Africa and Southeast 
 
 ern Europe. Some are white, and others brown. 
 
 66. Another excellent fisher is the HERON. 
 It is remarkable for its long, curved neck, long 
 bill, and long, straight legs, which are admirably 
 adapted to its mode of life. Its feet are not 
 webbed and, consequently, it is not a swimmer. 
 
 67. Its home is near swamps. Its food consists of 
 fish, frogs, etc., which it catches by watching in dark, 
 lonely spots. In this respect it differs from the Pelican, 
 Gull, Petrel and Ibis, which are very active. 
 
 Blackboard Drawing-: Her- 
 on; full height, 3H feet. 
 
Flamingo Stork. 1 9 1 
 
 68. Another very tall bird similar in shape to 
 the Heron is the RED FLAMINGO. It is a swim- 
 mer and wader. With its webbed feet it digs 
 in the mud for worms, insects, and small fishes. 
 
 69. It is found in the marshes, lakes, and rivers of 
 Asia, Africa, and the warm parts of Europe. It is about 
 as tall as a man. 
 
 70. The WHITE STORK is also a long-legged 
 wader. It is noted for its intelligence and is 
 very observing, readily judging of the feelings 
 entertained toward it by the people on whose 
 house-tops or chimney-tops it wishes to build 
 its great, rough nest. 
 
 71. In Holland and Germany, which Storks visit 
 every year, some of these birds become very tame and 
 play with the children in the streets. Their feet are not 
 webbed. Are Storks swimmers ? You will observe that 
 all birds which have webbed feed are good swimmers, but 
 very clumsy walkers, as the Goose, Swan and Duck. 
 
 72. When the time arrives for Storks to leave their nests 
 and migrate, they have been known to kill their sick ; but, 
 on the other hand, they are generally kind to each other, 
 and the young have been noticed to watch anxiously over 
 the aged and helpless of their kind, bringing them food 
 and otherwise tenderly caring for them. 
 
 73. The Stork passes the winter in Egypt, where, like 
 the VULTURE, another large bird, it feeds on garbage, car- 
 rion and other such substances, thus preventing the spread 
 of disease among the people who are too indolent to 
 cleanse their streets. It is about as tall as a boy nine 
 vears of age four feet. 
 
1 9 2 Cra ne Swan Kingfisher. 
 
 74. The CRANE is another long-necked, long-legged 
 bird, very active, graceful, and intelligent. Like the Stork, 
 it spends its winters in Egypt and other warm countries 
 and its summers further north. Its food is fish, frogs, and 
 vegetables. 
 
 75. The SWAN, which has a long neck and short legs, 
 
 is considered the most grace- 
 ful of swimmers. Both father 
 and mother carry their young 
 on their backs and shelter 
 them under their wings ; and, 
 should the safety of their brood 
 be threatened, they do not 
 hesitate to attack man, horse, 
 fox, dog, or any other aggres- 
 sor. 
 
 76. Swans belong to Europe, 
 Asia and North America ; their 
 food consists chiefly of the 
 roots and bulbs of water plants. 
 It is said that some Swans live 
 as long as an Elephant one 
 hundred years. 
 
 77. The KINGFISHER, 
 like the Gull, pounces 
 
 Blackboard Drawing: King- Upon itS prey at the SUr- 
 fisher; length, 12 inches. c r 
 
 unlike it, it sits alone on a branch which over- 
 hangs the water, while the Gull and the Stormy 
 Petrel skim rapidly and almost unceasingly 
 over the water in search of their food. 
 
Blackboard Drawing : Snipe and Common Quail ; height of each 
 about 9 inches. 
 
 78. The SNIPE, a much smaller bird than the 
 Heron, has long legs and a long, slender bill, 
 which are admirably adapted to procuring its 
 food insects and worms on coasts and marshes. 
 
 79. The Snipe belongs chiefly to North America and 
 Europe. Included in this family are the WOODCOCK and 
 PLOVER, which are highly prized by sportsmen. The 
 PENGUIN of the Antarctic Regions, and the PUFFIN and 
 AUK of the Arctic Regions sit upright when on shore. 
 
 80. The QUAIL has a short bill and feeds on 
 grain, seeds, berries and insects, which it finds 
 on the ground. It flies low and only when 
 startled lights upon trees. 
 
 81. Quails pass the night on the ground, all huddled 
 together in a circle, with their heads outward, the better 
 to listen and fly if danger approaches. 
 
 82. Similar to the Quail are the Partridge, Pheasant, 
 and Grouse ; indeed, these names are sometimes applied 
 indiscriminately to the same kind of bird. 
 
REVIEW OF CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 By what means does a bird rise in the air? Its wings and air. 
 cells. Where do birds obtain their food ? In the air, on the ground, 
 or in the water. Of what does their food chiefly consist ? Seeds, 
 fruits, insects, Jish, and animal Jlesh. 
 
 What is a Bird of Prey? What bird is the emblem of this and 
 some other countries ? The Eagle. What is its size ? How long 
 do some Eagles live? What is a young Eagle? Eaglet. What 
 can you say of the Eagle's strength? Of its bravery? 
 
 Which is the largest bird ? The Ostrich. 
 
 Which is the largest bird that flies? The Condor. On what 
 mountains do Condors live ? TJie Andes. In what kind of places ? 
 What do they eat? How are they captured ? 
 
 Which is the smallest bird ? What does the Humming Bird 
 eat? 
 
 Mention three celebrated naturalists? Cuvier (French), Hum- 
 boldt (German), and Audubon (American). 
 
 How did Audubon describe the beauty of the Humming Bird ? 
 
 What bird seeks its food at night? The Owl. What does the 
 Owl eat? Birds, mice, rabbits, etc. In what kind of places does 
 the Owl have its nest ? In caves, walls, etc. 
 
 What kind of bills do Birds of Prey have ? Hooked bills. 
 
 What large birds while flying catch fish for food ? Fish Hawk 
 and Gull. Name some birds which catch fish while wading or 
 standing in the water. The Heron and Crane. What bird stands 
 on the branch of a tree and watches for fish ? The Kingfisher. 
 Mention some birds which, while swimming or diving, catch fish. 
 The Pelican and Cormorant. What bird catches fish for his master? 
 
 What is a Tailor Bird ? A Weaver Bird ? Mention a Weaver 
 Bird. How does it build its nest? Mention a Plasterer Bird. 
 A Mining Bird. What bird is remarkable for its large bill and 
 brilliant colors? The Toucan. Where is it found? In Brazil. 
 What does it eat? 
 
 From what two birds are obtained long and beautiful feathers, 
 worn by ladies ? The Ostrich and the Bird of Paradise. 
 
Review of Birds. 195 
 
 Where is the Ostrich found ? The Bird of Paradise ? 
 
 What large bird in South America is similar to the Ostrich ? 
 The Rhea. 
 
 What bird in Australia is similar to the Ostrich? The Emu. 
 
 What bird in Asia is similar to the Ostrich ? The Cassowary. 
 
 How do these four birds move from place to place ? By walking 
 and running. How are Ostrich eggs hatched? How does an 
 Ostrich try to escape? How does an Ostrich sometimes defend 
 itself? 
 
 What birds are sometimes used as letter-carriers? 
 
 How are young birds usually hatched from the egg? By the 
 heat of the old bird which covers or sits upon the eggs. 
 
 How are Mound Birds of Australia hatched ? By the heat of the 
 mound or of the sand in which the eggs are laid. 
 
 In what other way are eggs hatched without the aid of the old 
 birds ? By placing the eggs in hot ovens. 
 
 What reptiles lay their eggs in the sand, as Mound Birds do, to 
 be hatched out by the sun's heat? Turtles. 
 
 Mention some of the uses of birds. What birds are useful to 
 us for their flesh ? For their feathers? For their eggs ? 
 
 What bird finds its food in the trunks of trees? The Wood- 
 pecker. How does it get the insects on which it feeds? How 
 does it find the spot where the insect is ? 
 
 What bird is remarkable for its great sack or pouch under its 
 bill ? For what does it use this sack ? How do Pelicans catch 
 fish ? How do they feed their young ? What kind of feet has the 
 Pelican ? What other birds have webbed feet ? 
 
 What kind of a bird is the Heron? How does it catch fish? 
 In what kind of places ? What beautitul red bird resembles the 
 Heron ? The Flamingo. Where is the Flamingo found ? In 
 Asia, Africa and Southern Europe. What does it eat ? 
 
 What large white bird resembles the Heron ? The White Stork. 
 Does the Stork always stay in one place? Where does it spend 
 the winter? The summer? How does it build its nest? Is it 
 an intelligent and observing bird ? How do you know ? Is it 
 fond of children? How do you know? Is the young Stork fond 
 of its parents and grandparents? How does it show its fondness 
 
196 Review of Birds. 
 
 for them ? What good is done to the people of Egypt by the Stork 
 and Vulture? Which is the most graceful swimming-bird ? The 
 Swan. Where do they belong? What do they eat? How do 
 they carry and protect their young ? 
 
 What birds live on insects and worms found on the coasts and 
 marshes? The Snipe. 
 
 What birds of the Arctic Regions swim, catch fish, and when on 
 shore sit in an upright position ? The Auk and Puffin. 
 
 What similar bird is found in great numbers in the Antarctic 
 Regions? The Penguin. How are they captured? By clubs. 
 Can these birds fly ? They cannot. 
 
 What bird spends its time on the dry ground? The Quail. 
 How does a family or a bevy of Quails spend the night? Do they 
 fly upon trees ? When ? What do Quails eat ? 
 
 From what places do birds migrate in the autumn ? Those 
 which have very cold winters. How far south do birds of our 
 Northern States and Canada go ? To our Southern States, Mexico, 
 West Indies, Central and South America. When do they return ? 
 In the Spring. Do all birds migrate at the same time and in the 
 same manner ? They do not ; some fly very high and seldom touch 
 the ground ; some both fly and swim ; some go from forest to forest 
 and from tree to tree ; others walk all the way. 
 
 Where do birds of Northern Europe and Asia spend their win- 
 ters ? In Southern Europe, Southern Asia, and in Africa. 
 
 (It is said that small, feeble birds cross the Mediterranean Sea 
 on the backs of Storks and other large birds.) 
 
 In what direction do birds of the southern or cold parts of South 
 America and Australia fly to find warm countries ? North. 
 
 How do singing birds of the forest usually pass the day? Rising 
 before the sun, they sing their morning song ; then breakfast ; drink ; 
 bathe (either in water or dust or snow); rest ; arrdnge feathers ; fly 
 about ; assemble on accustomed perches ; then sing their evening song. 
 
 Where are birds in the greatest variety and numbers ? In the 
 Torrid Zone. 
 
 What proportion of birds in North America migrate? More 
 than half. 
 
 Why do they leave in the fall ? Partly because of the disappear- 
 ance of seeds, fruits, and insects which formed their food. ( There are 
 other reasons which are too mysterious for man to flnd ouf.) 
 
Written Review. 197 
 
 SPELLING AND WRITING EXERCISE. 
 
 BIRDS OF PREY FLESH-EATERS WITH HOOKED BILL AND SHARP 
 TALONS : 
 
 CLIMBERS : 
 
 RUNNERS (WINGS NOT ADAPTED TO FLYING) : 
 
 WADERS (LONG LEGS, NECK, AND BILL) : 
 
 (F.*) ^^(M.) 3&^,(P.M.) 
 
 SWIMMERS (WEB-FOOTED) : 
 
 , (P.M.) 
 
 
 Those marked (F.) are Fishers ; (M.) Migratory or Birds of Passage. 
 
Comparative Size of Birds. 
 
 199 
 
 CO 
 
 -a 
 
 CQ 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 J> T T3 2 
 
 i5, 
 
 t. 
 or 
 pec 
 
 _ "S E ^ o 
 8 fc S "g 
 
 3 2T i 
 
 OCXQ!OQ^ o 
 
 IP Is 
 
 g ^ c t*. 
 
 lilHU 
 
 .= o C 5 .r .2 > 
 
 ^ O < CO CO U. U 
 
 cJ tn 4 A vd tJ. oo 
 
 Ijl 
 O o O 
 o^-o 
 
Cape of Good HopeS.^ 
 J? C.Agulhas 
 
About Africa. 201 
 
 EXERCISES ON THE MAP OF AFRICA. 
 
 By what two oceans and two seas is Africa almost sur- 
 rounded ? 
 
 Into what ocean does the Mediterranean Sea open ? 
 Into what ocean does the Red Sea open ? What isthmus 
 between these two seas ? By what canal is that isthmus 
 now crossed ? The Suez Canal What two seas are con- 
 nected by this canal ? 
 
 For what is Africa remarkable ? For its hot climate, Us 
 Great Desert, its tribes of savage inhabitants, and its great 
 numbers of wild animals. 
 
 What can you say of the size of the Great Desert ? // 
 is nearly as large as the United States. 
 
 What part of Africa is the home of the Negro ? Soudan 
 and the region south of it. In what part is Soudan ? 
 
 Of what color are the inhabitants of Northern Africa ? 
 Dark, but not black. 
 
 What country in the northwestern corner of Africa? 
 Morocco. What kind of leather do we get from there ? 
 Morocco leather. 
 
 What country in the northeastern corner of Africa? 
 Egypt. For what is Egypt remarkable ? Having no rain, 
 it would be a desert, but for the Nile River. How does the 
 Nile prevent Egypt from becoming a desert ? // rises very 
 high every year, and its water spreads all over the people's 
 farms and gardens. Why is the Sahara or Great Desert 
 dry and barren ? Because it has no rain. 
 
 What is that spot or portion of a desert called which 
 contains springs, grass, and trees ? An Oasis. Where 
 does that water come from which forms those springs ? 
 From land beyond the Desert ; the water runs underground 
 for long distances. 
 
202 About Africa. 
 
 What people of Africa were very rich and learned long 
 before any of the inhabitants of Europe became civilized ? 
 The Egyptians. Mention the names of some celebrated 
 men of ancient Egypt. Joseph, Moses, and the Pharaohs 
 or kings of Egypt. 
 
 What cause the Nile to rise ? Heavy rains in Abyssinia 
 and the region south of it. What large lakes in the central 
 part of Africa ? 
 
 What large rivers in Africa? The Nile, Congo, and 
 Niger. Into what does the Nile flow ? The Congo ? The 
 Niger ? How long is the Nile ? Four thousand miles. 
 
 What three countries border on the Red Sea? What 
 countries west of Soudan ? What countries of Africa are 
 furthest south ? What two capes in the southern part of 
 Africa ? -What large island southeast of Africa ? What 
 groups of islands northwest of Africa ? What Birds come, 
 from one of those groups ? What great general was ban- 
 ished to the Island of St. Helena and died there ? Napo- 
 leon Bonaparte I. Where is that island ? 
 
 Mention two celebrated explorers of Central Africa. 
 Livingstone and Stanley. 
 
 What very tall trees grow in Africa ? Palms. Mention 
 two kinds of palms. Date Palm and Cocoanut Palm. 
 
 What valuable article do we get from the Elephants of 
 Africa ? Ivory. 
 
 What grows extensively in Abyssinia ? Coffee. 
 
 What large bird in Africa? The Ostrich. For what 
 are they useful ? Where are they raised in large numbers ? 
 (Page 187.) 
 
 In what parts of Africa do some white people live ? On 
 the northern, western, and south coasts. 
 
 Where do the savage and warlike Kaffirs and Zulus 
 live ? In the south. 
 
Catching Cattle with, the Lasso. 203 
 
 Catching- Cattle with the Lasso. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 ABOUT QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 1. Here is a herdsman riding rapidly after a 
 herd of CATTLE and throwing a lasso (see chart). 
 This is a rope about half an inch thick, made of 
 strips of leather, and about thirty feet long, with 
 a slip-noose at one end that runs very easily. 
 The other end of the rope is fastened securely 
 to the front of the saddle. 
 
 2. These men are so skillful in throwing the 
 lasso that they can catch a bull by any one of 
 his legs or by either horn. The horse is trained 
 
204 Uses rf Cattle The Buffalo. 
 
 to stand still as soon as the lasso is thrown, with 
 his fore feet well braced to meet the shock. 
 Sometimes a bull thus caught by the horns in 
 full career turns a complete somerset, and, 
 falling heavily on his back, is so thoroughly 
 jarred that he is disposed to be very submis- 
 sive, and trots on quietly with the herd. 
 
 3. Millions of cattle feed on the vast grassy plains of 
 Texas, Mexico, and South America. Their value 
 lies chiefly in their flesh, which is called beef; their hides, 
 which are manufactured into leather; and their tallow, 
 which is used in making soap and candles. 
 
 4. Cattle are numerous also in Russia, India, and 
 our Western States and Territories. 
 
 What does the cow give us ? What is made from 
 milk? What is the flesh of calves called? Veal. 
 
 5. Leather is made from the hides and skins of cattle, 
 horses, goats, sheep, deer, and buffalo. Its manufacture 
 is one of the most important industries in the United 
 States and England. 
 
 6. Here is a herd of BUFFALOES, which are 
 more properly called bisons. Indians are pursu- 
 ing them. They are killed with guns, arrows, and 
 spears (see chart). Their flesh is used for food. 
 
 7. An Indian has been known to send an 
 arrow with such force that its head has gone 
 entirely through the body of a buffalo. The 
 dressed skin of the .buffalo is called a buffalo 
 robe, and many of them are used in this coun- 
 try in winter, when people go in sleighs over 
 the snow. 
 
The Buffalo Its Uses. 
 
 205 
 
 American Indians Hunting- Buffaloes on the Prairies. 
 
 8. The Indians use buffalo skins for clothing 
 and for tents, as well as for making a peculiar 
 kind of shoe called a moc'casin. 
 
 9. BUFFALOES were formerly found as far east 
 as the State of New York, but now none are 
 found east of the Mississippi River, and 
 they are constantly diminishing in numbers. 
 
 10. The American BUFFALO, or BISON, is also 
 hunted by wolves. These join in a pack and try 
 to cut off one of the buffaloes from the herd. 
 
 11. The true buffalo has long horns, and resembles a 
 cow. The buffalo, zebu, and yak, when tamed, work like 
 the ox, or give milk like the cow. ' 
 
2o6 Yak Zebu Buffalo Gnu. 
 
 Blackboard drawing of Yak and Zebu; each about 6 feet 6 
 inches in length. 
 
 12. The YAK is larger than common cattle. It has a 
 bushy tail and long hair, from which tents and ropes 
 are made. It is found in Thibet (tib'ct} and other 
 parts of Central Asia, both in the wild and the domestic 
 state. 
 
 13. The ZEBU resembles an ox, except that it has a 
 large hump on its back over its shoulders. Some are 
 wild and some are domesticated in Asia, Africa and the 
 islands of the Indian Ocean. Hindoos consider the Zebu 
 
 sacred. 
 
 14. The true BUFFALOES 
 inhabit Asia and Africa, 
 where they run in herds and 
 are fierce and strong. One 
 is able to kill an elephant. 
 
 15. The GNU of South 
 Africa has a body like that 
 of a horse, and a head and 
 
 Buffalo of the East ; length 10ft. horns like those of an ox. 
 
 16. Of all animals the DOG shows the greatest 
 affection for his master, whose smile, or frown, 
 
Dog Wolf Fox Jackal. 207 
 
 Fox Chasing a Rabbit. 
 
 or word, gives either pleasure or pain to this 
 faithful companion of man. 
 
 17. He is ever ready to risk his life for his master; and 
 so constant is he, that when death has entered his master's 
 home, this devoted creature has been known to grieve his 
 life away on the newly made grave. 
 
 1 8. Especially useful and intelligent are the shepherd's 
 dog, the Newfoundland dog, St. Bernard dog, the fleet 
 greyhound, the keen-scented hunting dog, the courageous 
 bull-dog, and the rat-killing terrier. 
 
 19. Animals of the dog kind include the WOLF, which 
 lives in a wild, savage state, and is always in search of 
 plunder ; the Fox, which is noted for its cunning, sly, 
 and thieving disposition; and the JACKAL, of Asia and 
 Africa, which, like the wolf, hunts in bands or packs. 
 
 20. There is an interesting animal found upon the 
 prairies, called the PRAIRIE DOG. These little animals 
 burrow in the ground like rabbits, and live in communities 
 so numerous that their " dog town," as it is called, some- 
 times extends for miles. 
 
 21. Another very common animal is the CAT. Of this 
 
208 Cat Lion Tiger Leopard, Etc. 
 
 kind are the WILD CAT, LION, TIGER, LEOPARD, JAG'U-AR, 
 PUMA, and LYNX. 
 
 22. The LION is called the "king of beasts," lives in 
 Asia and Africa, and is noted for its powerful claws and 
 great courage; the TIGER inhabits the jungle-grass of 
 Southern Asia, has a striped body and a fierce disposition, 
 and does not hesitate to attack even the elephant or man ; 
 the LEOPARD of Asia and Africa resembles the Tiger, except 
 that its beautiful and valuable skin is spotted ; the JAGUAR 
 or South American Tiger is spotted like the Leopard, and 
 is strong enough to carry off a horse ; the PUMA is called 
 the American lion ; the LYNX resembles the cat. 
 
 23. Animals of the dog and the cat kind are eaters of 
 flesh, and are therefore called carnivorous. Animals which 
 are tame and live in or near people's houses, are domestic 
 animals \ others are wild. 
 
 Is a dog a domestic, or wild animal? A lion? A 
 tiger ? A cat ? A wolf ? A leopard ? 
 
 24. The animal which most resembles man is 
 
 the GORILLA. Its head and 
 arms are longer than those 
 of a man. Its mouth is 
 very projecting. Some Go- 
 rillas are nearly as tall as a 
 man, but they are usually 
 seen in a bent or crouching 
 posture. The coarse hair 
 which covers them is either 
 gray or blackish. A full grown Gorilla is savage 
 and powerful, being feared even by the lion. 
 When about to attack an enemy, he stands up, 
 
Chimpanzee Monkeys, Etc. 209 
 
 beats his breast, and gives a loud and terrific 
 roar. His food is vegetables, sugar-cane, ber- 
 ries, and fruits. 
 
 25. The CHIMPANZEE, the BABOON, APE and 
 ORANG-OUTANG are smaller than the Gorilla. 
 The Gorilla and Chimpanzee have both been 
 called " wild men of the woods." 
 
 26. The common MONKEY has a flat face 
 and long tail ; it is a great mimic, quite 
 ingenious and very mischievous. There are 
 many varieties of monkeys. Some seem to be 
 constantly chattering, crying, jumping and 
 swinging, while others are grave and silent. In 
 some parts of India a light-colored monkey is 
 considered sacred by the natives. 
 
 2.7. Monkeys in South America have a curious way of 
 crossing a stream. One holds on to a limb of a tree, and 
 to him a long line of monkeys will fasten themselves by 
 means of their arms and tails. When the line is long 
 enough, they will swing themselves until the one at the 
 other end of the line will swing across to a tree on the 
 opposite bank, and take hold of it ; then the first monkey 
 lets go, and all swing across. 
 
 28. The Gorilla and Chimpanzee are found in the for- 
 ests of Western Africa : the Monkeys, Apes, etc., in the 
 warm parts of Asia, Africa, South America, and on the 
 islands southeast of Asia. 
 
 29. The celebrated traveler Du Chaillu tells some very 
 interesting stories about Gorillas, which he was the first to 
 capture. 
 
2io A Gorilla Hunt. 
 
 30. Here is one : " One day, I remember well, we were 
 out for Gorillas, which we knew were to be found there- 
 abouts by the presence of a certain kind of fruit of which 
 the animal is fond. 
 
 "We beat the bush for two hours, when suddenly an 
 immense Gorilla advanced out of the wood straight toward 
 us, and gave vent, as he came up, to a terrible howl of 
 rage, as much as to say, ' I am tired of being pursued, and 
 will face you.' 
 
 " It was a lone male, the kind which is always most 
 ferocious. This fellow made the woods resound with his 
 roar, which is really an awful sound, resembling very much 
 the rolling and muttering of distant thunder. 
 
 " He was about twenty yards or steps off when we first 
 saw him. We at once gathered together, and stood in 
 silence, gun in hand. 
 
 " The Gorilla looked at us for a minute or so out of his 
 evil grey eyes, then beat his breast with his gigantic arms 
 and what arms he had ! then he gave another howl of 
 defiance, and advanced upon us. How horrible he looked ! 
 I shall never forget it. 
 
 "Again he stopped, not more than fifteen steps or 
 paces away. Again he advanced. Now he was not twelve 
 yards off. I could see plainly his ferocious face. It was 
 distorted with rage ; his huge teeth ground against each 
 other, so that we could hear the sound ; the skin of his 
 forehead was drawn forward and back rapidly, which made 
 his hair move up and down, and gave a hideous expression 
 to his face. Once more he gave out a roar which seemed 
 to shake the woods like thunder. Looking us in the eyes 
 and beating his broad breast, he advanced again. 
 
 " ' Don't fire too soon,' said one of my hunters ; ' if you 
 do not kill him, he will kill you.' As the Gorilla came up, 
 
The Elephant. 2 1 1 
 
 4 Now !' shouted the hunter, and before the Gorilla could 
 utter the roar for which he was opening his mouth, three 
 musket balls were in his body. He fell dead almost with- 
 out a struggle. 
 
 "He was a monstrous beast, indeed, although not 
 among the tallest. His height was five feet six inches. 
 His arms had a spread of over seven feet. His chest 
 measured fifty inches around. His arms seemed like 
 immense bunches of muscles only ; and his legs and claw- 
 like feet were well fitted for grabbing, climbing and 
 holding. 
 
 "The face of this Gorilla was intensely black. His 
 body was covered with gray hair, except his chest, which 
 was bare. While the animal approached us in his fierce 
 way, walking on his hind legs and facing us, it really 
 seemed to me to be a horrible likeness of a man." 
 
 31. The ELEPHANT is the largest, strongest, 
 and heaviest quadruped, or four-footed animal. 
 His body is covered with a very thick hide, 
 without hair. His legs are thick and clumsy. 
 
 . 32. He has a long trunk or nose, called a 
 proboscis {pro-bos' sis), which can lift a large or 
 a small object, even as small as a pin. 
 
 33. His trunk is very powerful. It is his 
 means of defence and offence ; with it this 
 enormous creature conveys food and water to 
 his mouth, which is just under it and at its base. 
 He also draws water into his trunk, to wash 
 himself with, which he does by blowing it out 
 all over him. 
 
Elephant. 
 
 34. His two long tusks of ivory project from 
 the sides of his mouth ; with these he digs in 
 the ground for the roots and vegetables which 
 constitute his principal food. He is also fond 
 of sugar-cane. 
 
 35. The Elephant is brave and affectionate; 
 
 he is also either grateful or 
 revengeful, according as he 
 is treated. He is fond of 
 music. In India he has been 
 taught to hunt the tiger, fight 
 in battles, dance and perform 
 Tiger Hunting. tricks even on a tight-rope. 
 Some elephants live to be one hundred years old. 
 
Hippopota mus R h inoceros. 213 
 
 36. Another very large animal, one that is 
 much longer than the elephant, but not so high, 
 is the HIP-POPOT'A-MUS. 
 
 37. These animals are quite gentle, except 
 when hungry ; but if you could see their huge 
 jaws open a distance of two feet in width, 
 showing teeth a foot in length, you would be 
 horrified, especially when you would see the 
 immense quantities of vegetable food they re- 
 quire. 
 
 38. The warm waters of the Nile and other rivers of 
 Africa are much frequented by them ; and because they are 
 able to live either on the land or in the water, they are 
 said to be am-phib'i-ous. 
 
 39. The RHI-NOC'E-ROS is, like the hippo- 
 potamus, a very large, slow, stupid, amphib- 
 ious animal. It is 
 distinguished by its 
 short, thick legs, 
 heavy body, and 
 large, curved horn 
 at the end of its 
 
 Rhinoceros and Hippopotamus. snOUt ItS hide IS 
 
 so hard, thick and folded that swords, spears, 
 bullets, and the claws of the lion or the tiger 
 nave little or no effect. It is found in Africa, 
 Asia, Java and Sumatra. The weight of a large 
 
214 Beaver M^{,skrat. 
 
 rhinoceros is about three tons ; of an elephant, 
 five tons. 
 
 40. The BEAVER, also an amphibious animal, 
 is remarkable for its activity, industry, and the 
 wonderful instinct it possesses for building its 
 house. 
 
 41. You cannot imagine how this is done. They com- 
 mence by cutting or rather gnawing down trees, their only 
 instrument being their teeth. They cut in such a way 
 that the trees shall fall precisely where they want them. 
 They next float them to the spot where they intend to fix 
 their dwelling, and construct a dam. They always select 
 trees which are up stream, so that the logs may be floated 
 down by the current. 
 
 42. After the dam is completed, which is the common 
 property of the beavers, they form into small societies and 
 build their private residences ! They make them very 
 strong, by a sort of mortar or mud, which they know well 
 how to mix. They are therefore masons and carpenters 
 at the same time. This work is all done at night. 
 
 43. The beavers store bark for food in these houses, 
 each apartment having its own storehouse. If danger 
 comes to them, they sound the alarm with their tail, giving 
 one to four blows. 
 
 44. The beaver inhabits northern Asia and America. 
 It lives on the bank of a stream, has webbed hind feet, 
 and is an excellent swimmer and diver. It is a little 
 larger than a cat. 
 
 45. The fur of the beaver is very valuable. 
 
 46. The MUSKRAT is something like the 
 beaver in its size, form, habits and disposition, 
 
Squirrel Ground Mole. 215 
 
 for both animals live in companies in the win- 
 ter, build houses for their families, and are 
 hunted for their fur. 
 
 47. The muskrat does not, however, lay up stores for 
 the winter like the beaver, but simply makes a way under 
 the snow by which it may go in and out for water and the 
 roots upon which it feeds. 
 
 48. There is a very small animal, the size of a big, fat 
 mouse, which burrows and lives in the ground all the time. 
 It is the GROUND MOLE. 
 
 49. Unlike the beaver and 'the muskrat, it keeps always 
 just under the surface of the ground : and, although it 
 annoys farmers by raising long ridges in their fields and 
 gardens, it does more good than harm in eating up worms 
 and insects. 
 
 50. There is another very industrious little 
 animal, which is like the beaver in laying up 
 food for the coming winter, in the shape of nuts 
 and acorns. Do any of you know its name? 
 Yes, it is the SQUIRREL. It makes a funny 
 appearance as it eats, using its paws for hands, 
 and sitting up as you do at the dinner-table. 
 
 51. Squirrels are found in almost every country in the 
 world; and sometimes they will migrate by thousands. 
 (Migrate means to seek a new home). 
 
 52. It is said that neither rocks nor rivers nor forests 
 nor mountains will stop them ; and that if they find a river 
 too wide for them to cross, they will go back into the 
 forest and provide themselves each with a piece of bark, 
 
Squirrel. 
 
 and then they put out to sea, making their tails serve as 
 sail and rudder. 
 
 53. It often happens, however, that they have ventured 
 too far, and cannot contend against the waves, and there- 
 fore never reach the other side. The Laplanders watch 
 for these misfortunes and seize them as a prize, not only 
 because they can sell their skins, but for their flesh, which 
 is good for food. 
 
 54. The FLYING SQUIRREL is provided with a strip of 
 skin which it spreads out to enable it to sail or glide easily 
 from a high to a low place among the trees. It cannot 
 use this wing-like skin as birds do. It seldom ventures 
 out till after sunset. 
 
 Besides the beaver, muskrat and squirrel, can you men- 
 tion some other and better known little animals which are 
 remarkable for gnawing ? Rats and mice. 
 
 55. The PORCUPINE which is about eighteen or twenty 
 inches in length, also prefers the night for its movements. 
 
Porcupine Ca mel. 2 1 7 
 
 Blackboard Drawing: : Porcupine, 20 inches long: ; Flying- Squir- 
 rel, 15 inches long*. 
 
 It is very active in searching for food, which consists of 
 roots, fruit and bark. It is remarkable for being covered 
 with sharp, strong quills, which it has the power of 
 straightening out in all directions, when attacked, thus 
 causing great damage to the mouth of any animal bold 
 enough to take hold of it. 
 
 56. The CAMEL is the best fitted of all ani- 
 mals for traveling in desert places, because, 
 first, it can take a week's supply of water in 
 a peculiar arrangement of cells connected with 
 the stomach, which can be supplied from them 
 when the animal is thirsty ; secondly, it can live 
 on the scanty herbage of the desert; thirdly, 
 under each foot is a large cushion-shaped sub- 
 stance to prevent it from sinking in the sand. 
 
 57. The camel has been called the "ship of the desert." 
 On the approach of a sand-storm in the desert, when 
 clouds of fine sand are whirled about by high winds, the 
 camel displays great sagacity in burying his nose in the 
 sand to avoid suffocation. Its flesh and milk are used for 
 
A Sand-storm in the Desert. The Travelers and Camels lie on the 
 ground for a few minutes until the Storm has passed over. 
 
 food, its skin for making leather, and its hair for making 
 clothing; therefore the camel is to the Arabs what the 
 seal is to the Esquimaux, and the reindeer to the Lap- 
 landers their chief wealth. 
 
 58. Some camels have one hump (the Dromedary or 
 Arabian Camel), and others two 
 (the Bactrian Camel of China and 
 Central Asia). The former is the 
 one chiefly used in Africa. The 
 latter is larger and is used more as 
 a beast of burden in Asia. 
 
 59. A similar but much smaller 
 Li ma animal is the LLAMA, found in the 
 
 warm parts of South America. It 
 has cushioned feet, but no hump, like the camel. Its 
 flesh and milk are nourishing. 
 
Giraffe Horse Zebra. 
 
 219 
 
 60. The tallest animal in the world is the 
 GIRAFFE (ji-raf) or Ca-mero-pard, which be- 
 longs to the deserts of 
 
 Africa. 
 
 61. It is especially remark- 
 able for the great length, of 
 its neck and fore-legs. In 
 the absence of grass, this 
 animal can make its food of 
 the leaves of the trees. 
 
 62. There is a beautiful 
 animal in Southern Africa 
 
 which is about the size and shape of a pony, but has 
 black and yellow stripes running around its body and legs. 
 What is its name? ZEBRAS run 
 wild in herds and are very diffi- 
 ^ cult to tame. 
 
 Giraffes. 
 
 Zebras. 
 
 63. Which is the most 
 useful animal to man ? The 
 HORSE is found in almost 
 every country in the world 
 where work is to be done; 
 
 Arabia has long been celebrated for fine horses. 
 
 The Arab loves and treats his horses as if they 
 
 were his children. 
 
 64. There is an animal of the horse kind which is said 
 to be the most obstinate and yet the most patient of all 
 animals; what is it? The DONKEY will, however, do 
 more work for the smallest pay than any other animal, 
 
220 
 
 Tapir Sloth. 
 
 except, perhaps, the camel. Although much smaller than 
 a horse, he will take you on long journeys and over 
 dangerous places, and be content with a little grass or even 
 a few weeds. Donkeys are very useful to the poor people 
 
 of Africa, Asia and Europe. 
 
 65. The TAPIR of South 
 America is all black or dark 
 
 brown, and looks like a big 
 fat hog ; and, like the hog, it 
 delights in wallowing in the 
 mud. It has a short probos- 
 cis or trunk. Its height is 
 between three and four feet ; 
 but the tapir of Asia is larger 
 and has a white back. 
 
 66. Of all animals the 
 slowest and laziest is 
 said to be the SLOTH, 
 which lives in South and 
 Central America. 
 
 67. While some animals 
 and people too are idle from 
 choice, this poor creature is 
 almost helpless ; the slightest 
 movement seems to give it 
 
 great pain, judging from the piteous cry it sets up. It is 
 therefore to be pitied, not blamed. To take fifty steps 
 would require a whole day. The sloth is about the size 
 of a large cat. Its hair is coarse, its arms very long, and 
 legs short, and it is always found hanging under a branch 
 of a tree, even when asleep. It makes its food of leaves, 
 fruit, and bark. Some sloths have two toes or claws and 
 
 Tapir, length, 5 feet ; Sloth, 
 length, 18 inches. 
 
Opossum A rmadillo. 
 
 Blackboard Drawing-: Opossum and her Family. Length of 
 body, 20 inches. 
 
 others three on each arm and leg. They seldom touch 
 the ground unless they tumble. 
 
 68. Another very curious little animal found in South 
 America is the ARMADILLO; it wears a kind of coat of 
 mail or hard, horn-like case, into which it can retreat as 
 the snail or the turtle does when it is attacked. In form, 
 head, and tail, it resembles a very big rat, but it is as long 
 as a cat. With its sharp claws, it burrows in the earth for 
 worms and roots. Its flesh is used for food. 
 
 69. There is another animal which resembles a rat and 
 is as big as a cat, and that is the OPOSSUM, which lives 
 in North and South America. It usually hides away in 
 the daytime in hollow trees or in the ground, and steals 
 out at night in search of food berries, fruit, eggs, birds, 
 etc. ; sometimes, too, killing chickens to suck their blood. 
 It is very sly ; when caught, it will make believe dead and 
 cunningly watch its opportunity to escape; this is the 
 origin of the expression " playing 'possum." This animal 
 can cling tightly to the branch of a tree by means of its 
 long, strong tail, which it winds around it when it wants 
 to gather fruit or to seize a little bird for its supper ; but 
 
222 
 
 Kangaroo White Bear. 
 
 Kang-aroos. 
 
 one of the funniest sights is that of a mother opossum 
 running off with all her young ones on her back holding 
 on by their tails, as shown in the blackboard drawing. 
 
 70. The animal which is remarkable for leap- 
 ing or springing is the 
 
 KANGAROO, of Australia. 
 
 71. Its fore-legs are short 
 and like arms, while its lower 
 limbs are very long, thus ena- 
 bling it to take leaps or bounds, 
 upwards of twenty feet in 
 length. Its head resembles 
 that of a deer. Its tail assists 
 
 it in sitting and is so powerful that a blow from it has 
 been known to break the legs of a man. 
 
 72. When sitting, a full-grown kangaroo is as tall as a 
 man. It is hunted for its skin and flesh. 
 
 73. Like some opossums, it has a pouch or pocket into 
 which its young take refuge when alarmed. 
 
 74. A bear is more at home in a cold coun- 
 
 try and more com- 
 fortable in cold 
 weather. The 
 WHITE or POLAR 
 BEAR lives among 
 
 A White Bear captures a Seal. icebergs and feeds 
 
 chiefly on fishes and seals. 
 
 75. White bears are fierce and strong ; and, 
 
The White or Polar Bear. 223 
 
 Esquimaux with their dog-s, capturing a White Bear for his fur 
 and flesh. Near the Icebergs are Walruses, which are hunted 
 for their flesh, oil, skin, and tusks of ivory. 
 
 like all other bears, have powerful paws and 
 long, sharp claws with which they soon tear 
 another animal or a man to pieces. Savage 
 and dangerous as they are, the Esquimaux of 
 the Arctic Regions hunt and capture them 
 with dogs and sharp spears. 
 
 76. The flesh of these animals is used for 
 food, but their chief value lies in the long 
 white furs. Perhaps some of you have seen 
 such skins or robes in sleighs. 
 
224 Black Bear Grizzly Bear. 
 
 77. The common BLACK BEAR of North 
 America and the BROWN BEAR of Europe are 
 very much alike. They prefer the mountain 
 districts. They are not so large nor so fierce 
 as some other bears, but when attacked, they 
 rise upon their hind feet and, if not promptly 
 dispatched with the long knife or the bullet, 
 the assailant is at once hugged to death with 
 their powerful arms or torn to shreds by their 
 sharp claws. 
 
 78. Their food consists of flesh, wheat, corn, roots and 
 vegetables ; they are very fond of honey, often climbing 
 high trees in search of it. 
 
 79. The CINNAMON BEAR of Colorado and the region 
 west of it, is named on account of its color, which is a 
 yellowish red. 
 
 80. The most savage of all is the GRIZZLY 
 BEAR, whose home is in the Rocky Moun- 
 tains. Grizzly means somewhat gray. 
 
 8 1. Its strength and endurance are very great, 
 for it has been known to kill and carry off a 
 buffalo, to chase a man for long distances, 
 capture and devour him. When overtaken 
 by hunters, and after receiving several of their 
 bullets, it makes desperate efforts to escape by 
 running and swimming. 
 
 82. In winter, some bears hide themselves in caves, 
 
Wolf. 
 
 Bear. 
 
 Am. Buffalo or Bison. 
 
 Blackboard drawing- of Wolf's head, 1O inches long 1 ; of Bear's 
 head, 15 inches; of Buffalo's head, 24 inches. (Full size.) 
 
 hollow logs, and holes in the ice or snow, and pass several 
 weeks in a kind of sleep. 
 
 83. The affection of bears for their young is very 
 remarkable. When one of her cubs is shot, the grief and 
 cries of the mother, her frantic efforts to arouse it, and 
 her refusal to leave it even when the bullets are whistling 
 past, show her anxiety for her cub to be far greater than 
 that for herself. 
 
 84. DEER are found in all parts of the world, 
 in cold, hot and temper- 
 ate regions ; in forest, jun- 
 gle, swamp and prairie, 
 
 except in Australia. 
 
 85. Deer are not savage 
 
 like bears, but very timid. Deer and Buffalo on the 
 Whenever their keen sight, Prairie, 
 
 hearing or scent detects the approach of an 
 enemy it is off with the speed of a race-horse. 
 When pursued, it usually takes refuge in a lake 
 or a stream. 
 

 Blackboard drawing- of a Reindeer (length 7 feet), and Sledge 
 of a Laplander. 
 
 86. Like the buffaloes, they are hunted for their flesh, 
 skins, and horns, but often only for sport. 
 
 87. The most useful of these animals is the 
 REINDEER, which is a domestic animal in parts 
 of the Arctic regions, and constitutes the chief 
 wealth of the Laplander of Northern Europe. 
 His herds supply him with milk, flesh and 
 materials for clothing, and some of these ani- 
 mals are trained to drag his sledge swiftly and 
 for long distances over the frozen snow. 
 
 88. In summer the reindeer lives on the scanty herbage 
 and shrubs of those regions, and in winter, on the mosses 
 which lie under the deep snow. These mosses are dis- 
 covered by his sharp scent, and he is able to dig down to 
 them through the snow, by means of his great branching 
 horns. Some reindeer are wild and live in large herds. 
 
 89. Herd is a number of animals assembled together, 
 as a herd of cattle, oxen, horses, camels, deer, elephants, 
 or swine ; flock refers chiefly to smaller animals and birds, 
 
Deer Hyena. 227 
 
 as sheep, goats, or pigeons; drove is a number of cattle 
 driven to market. 
 
 90. Deer and some other animals chew the cud ; that 
 is, when grazing, they only partly chew the food before 
 swallowing it, and, when they afterwards lie down or stand 
 still, they bring up the same food into their mouths again 
 to chew and swallow it a second time. Such animals are 
 called Ruminating or Cud-chewing animals. They gen- 
 erally have horns and cloven or divided hoofs. They 
 include the cow, ox, deer, camel, giraffe, goat, sheep and 
 buffalo. 
 
 91. Animals of the deer-kind include the Antelope and 
 Gazelle of Africa and Arabia, the Chamois (sham' me or 
 sham-moi') of the Alps, and the Moose of North America. 
 
 92. The HYENA is a savage and untamable animal of 
 Africa and the warm parts of Asia. It looks like a very 
 large dog. Its teeth are wonderfully strong. It eats the 
 flesh and bones of dead animals. 
 
 REVIEW OF CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 What is a quadruped ? A four-footed animal. 
 
 What quadrupeds are most used for food ? 
 
 From which do we get Beef? Pork ? Mutton? Veal ? Veni- 
 son ? 
 
 From what animals do we get furs? Bear, buffalo, beaver, seal, 
 squirrel, fox and wolf. 
 
 About how much of the body of the ox or cow kind is used in 
 one way or another ? Six-sevenths. 
 
 What is its flesh used for? Food. Its skin? For making 
 leather. Its bones ? They are ground and used for fertilizing the 
 soil. 
 
 What are made from the horns ? Buttons, knife-handles, etc. 
 
228 Review of Animals. 
 
 What places are celebrated for great numbers of cattle ? South 
 America, Mexico and Texas. 
 
 How are the cattle caught on the pampas and prairies? By 
 means of the lasso. What is a lasso ? How is it used ? 
 
 How is the American Buffalo hunted? Where? Of what use 
 ;s it? What is the difference between the American Buffalo 
 (Bison) and the Buffalo of Asia? 
 
 What is the difference between a wild and a domestic animal ? 
 Mention some wild animals domestic animals. 
 
 What animal is most familiar with people? Mention some 
 kinds of Dogs. What wild animals resemble the Dog? What 
 animal is said to be the most sly and cunning ? Fox. Which is 
 the most savage animal of the dog-kind ? Wolf. What very 
 savage animal somewhat resembles the Dog ? Hyena. 
 
 What animal is called the " King of Beasts?" Where does the 
 Lion live? To what kind or division of animals does it belong? 
 The cat-kind. Why? Because, like the Cat, it has sharp claws, round 
 head, short ears, and long -whiskers ; springs upon its prey, and seeks 
 its food mostly at night. 
 
 What other animals belong to the cat-kind? Tiger, Leopard, 
 Jaguar, Puma, and Lynx. 
 
 In what division of the Earth is the Lion found ? The Tiger ? 
 The Leopard ? The Jaguar ? How is the Leopard easily distin- 
 guished from the Tiger? The Tiger is striped ; the Leopard is 
 spotted. What kind of food do animals of the dog and cat kinds 
 prefer? Flesh. 
 
 What animals mostly resemble man? Gorilla and Chimpanzee. 
 In what part of the world are they found ? To what kind or divi- 
 sion of animals do they belong? The monkey-kind. 
 
 Name some of the differences between the monkey-kind and 
 man-kind ? The monkey-kind is very ugly, has four hands instead 
 of two hands and two feet, smaller brain, larger jaw, longer arms, 
 body covered with hair and adapted only to a hot climate. 
 
 What animals belong to the monkey-kind ? Where are Monkeys 
 numerous? South America, Asia and Africa. What can you say 
 of the Monkey? How does a Gorilla act when attacked ? 
 
 Which is the largest and heaviest quadruped ? Elephant. Which 
 is the tallest? Giraffe. How much taller is the Giraffe than the 
 
Review of Animals. 229 
 
 Elephant ? (P. 232.) How does the Elephant use his trunk ? What 
 constitute his food? How does he obtain it? What kind of a 
 disposition has he? Is he intelligent and obedient ? What have 
 some been taught to do? To what age do some Elephants live? 
 What is the most valuable part of the Elephant ? What are made 
 of ivory? What Birds are said to live as long as an Elephant? 
 Swan and Cockatoo. 
 
 What very large quadruped is longer than the Elephant ? Hip- 
 popotamus. Where and how does the Hippopotamus live? Does 
 it live on flesh, or vegetables ? 
 
 What very large animal is noted for its thick, tough skin ? 
 Rhinoceros. Describe the Rhinoceros. What can you say of its 
 skin? Where is the Rhinoceros found ? 
 
 What is an amphibious animal ? 
 
 What animal is noted for its activity and industry? Beaver. 
 Does it always live on the land? What wonderful instinct does 
 it possess ? What kind of a place do Beavers select in which to 
 build their houses ? Where do they cut trees for that purpose, up 
 or down stream ? Why do they always cut trees which are up 
 stream ? With what do they cut them ? How do they make their 
 houses tight and strong? When do they mostly work ? For what 
 are Beavers hunted ? What is the size of a Beaver ? Where is it 
 found ? What can you say of its hind feet ? 
 
 What animal resembles a Beaver in its size and habits ? Musk-rat. 
 
 What small animals besides the Beaver lays up food for winter? 
 Squirrels. What and how do Squirrels eat? Do they always live 
 in one place ? For what are they valuable ? 
 
 What animal is protected from the attacks of other animals by 
 sharp quills ? Porcupine. By a hard shell ? Armadillo. 
 
 What animal is best fitted for traveling in the deserts ? Camel. 
 What are some of its advantages ? How does it compare in 
 height with the Elephant ? With the Giraffe ? With the Horse ? 
 What two kinds of Camels are there ? For what is each mostly 
 used? Where does each live chiefly? What smaller animal, 
 similar to the Camel, is found in South America? 
 
 What animal is mostly used by men for work and pleasure ? 
 Horse. What useful animal resembles the Horse? Donkey. What 
 can you say of the Donkey's disposition ? 
 
230 Review Spelling Writing. 
 
 What wild animals of South America resemble a pony in form 
 and size ? Zebra and Quagga. How do they differ in appearance 
 from the pony ? They are striped. 
 
 Which is called the laziest animal ? Sloth. Where is it found ? 
 How does it live ? What does it eat ? What is its length ? 
 
 What animal about the size of a Cat is noted for cunning, 
 especially when captured ? Opossum. How does it get its food ? 
 In what curious manner does it travel with its young ? 
 
 What animal is remarkable for its springing or jumping? Kan- 
 garoo, Where does the Kangaroo live ? In Australia. How does 
 it defend itself? For what is it hunted ? 
 
 What animal prefers cold countries? Bear. Which is the 
 largest and most savage kind ? White or Polar Bear. How does 
 it live ? For what is it valuable ? In what parts of the world is it 
 found ? In the Arctic Regions. What kinds of Bears are in this 
 country ? Grizzly, Black, and Cinnamon Bears. Which is the most 
 savage of them? Grizzly Bears. What can you say of their 
 strength and endurance ? How do some bears pass the winter? 
 Are Bears affectionate to their young ? Give an instance. 
 
 What animals with large horns are hunted in nearly every part 
 of the world ? Deer. How do they often save themselves when 
 hunted ? What animals constitute the whole wealth of Lapland- 
 ers ? Reindeer. Where do Laplanders live ? In the most northern 
 parts of Europe. 
 
 What is a Ruminating or Cud-chewing animal ? Name some 
 of them. 
 
 SPELLING AND WRITING EXERCISE. 
 
 ANIMALS WHICH MOST RESEMBLE MAN: 
 
 ANIMALS OF THE MONKEY-KIND (FOUR-HANDED INSTEAD OF 
 FOUR-FOOTED) : 
 
Rev iew Spelling Writing. 2 3 1 
 
 ANIMALS OF THE DOG-KIND: 
 
 op 
 
 C/ 
 
 *^ C/^ Wac 
 
 THE CAT-KIND: 
 
 EATERS OF FLESH : 
 
 f 
 
 EATERS OF GRASS, AND CUD-CHEWERS, WITH HORNS AND CLOVEN 
 HOOFS (TWO TOES): 
 
 GNAWERS : 
 
 v 
 
 $%t*ue*& 
 : X 
 
 ANIMALS WITH FOUR SOLID HOOFS: 
 
 ^ 
 
 AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS : 
 
 The Frog, Toad, Alligator and Crocodile (reptiles) are ?lso amphibious. 
 
Comparative Size of Animals. 233 
 
 rv. fv ' 
 
 -'* xV M ^ 
 
 i-Sffl l- 2 
 
 e ? e * -a 8 
 
 S 5 S _ rt rt 
 
 ;s|| 
 
 liil li 
 
 <t> S ti S^2:' c| ' 13 
 
 >^ ?> " .n ^ *^ !> tS* 
 
 ^ g ^ g ^ 
 
 !> ,3 ,G 
 
 
 - . 
 
 a^ ^ 
 
 f^ g ^li]-: 
 
 " 
 
 |ii=il|f|:l|J|illj 
 
234 
 
 Insects. 
 
 Insects: Common House-fly, Mosquito, Butterfly, Beetle, 
 Caterpillar, Grasshopper. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 ABOUT INSECTS. 
 
 1. INSECTS are everywhere about us. They 
 are in great numbers and of great variety. 
 They are in the air, in the water, and all over 
 the Earth. 
 
 2. Those we know the best are the HOUSE- 
 FLY, the BUTTERFLY, the MOSQUITO, the CAT 
 ERPILLAR, the GRASSHOPPER, and the BEETLE. 
 
 3. Besides these, there are thousands upon 
 thousands so small that they cannot be seen 
 with the naked eye. There is scarcely a leaf 
 on a tree that is not the home of myriads of 
 these little beings. 
 
 4. If you should look at a drop of water with 
 the aid of a microscope, you would be amazed 
 
Caterpillar Chrysalis. 
 
 Caterpillar. Cocoon. Butterfly. 
 
 Blackboard Drawing : An Insect and its Changes. 
 
 to see the number and variety of living crea- 
 tures which it contains; some swimming like 
 fish or eels, some jumping like frogs, and some 
 dragging their bodies lazily along. 
 
 5. Just think of ten thousand (10,000) occupying the 
 space of a grain of sand. Creatures which are so small 
 as to be invisible, or nearly so, to the naked eye, are called 
 An-i-mal'cules. 
 
 6. Insects are of many kinds ; some have to 
 creep about all their lives ; some creep only 
 for a little while, like the Caterpillar, and then 
 undergo changes, taking to themselves beauti- 
 ful wings. 
 
 7. The CATERPILLAR is the form which the 
 insect takes just after leaving the egg ; after a 
 while it spins or makes for itself a kind of 
 case or covering, called a cocoon ; the insect 
 is then called a Chrysalis. After remaining a 
 
236 Destructiveness of Insects. 
 
 while thus enclosed, this cocoon bursts open, 
 and out comes a beautiful Butterfly, changed 
 from what was, only a short time before, a slow, 
 crawling, and repulsive looking Worm. 
 
 8. So, you see that the forms and changes of such 
 Insects are ist, the Egg; 20!, the Worm, Grub or Cater- 
 pillar ; 36, the Chrysalis ; and 4th, the Butterfly, or perfect 
 Insect. 
 
 9. Some kinds of Insects are very trouble- 
 some and often do great damage to trees and 
 plants. You all know how soon one or two 
 Caterpillars can eat up all the leaves of a little 
 plant or bush in your garden, and that swarms 
 of GRASSHOPPERS or LOCUSTS have in a few 
 hours eaten up acres upon acres of growing 
 corn, besides grass and vegetables. 
 
 10. The increase in the numbers of Insects is 
 wonderfully rapid; indeed, if it were not for 
 the multitudes of the busy birds whose food 
 consists wholly or mainly of Insects, man might 
 be unable to prevent the entire destruction of 
 his orchards and his crops. 
 
 11. Great numbers of Insects are devoured by other 
 Insects, and also by Toads, Frogs, and Ground Moles. 
 
 12. You must not think, however, that all 
 Insects, Caterpillars and Butterflies are our 
 enemies, for there are some kinds that are con- 
 stantly at work for us. 
 
Silkworm Cock ineaL 237 
 
 13. All the beautiful silk dresses, handker- 
 chiefs and ribbons are made from the material 
 which formed the case or cocoon of a Cater- 
 pillar, called the SILKWORM. 
 
 14. The SILKWORM is hatched from an egg about the 
 size of a mustard seed ; it eats the leaves of the mulberry 
 tree, its only food, and grows rapidly. In two or three 
 weeks it begins to spin a very fine silken thread, which it 
 winds round and round itself until a ball, the size and 
 shape of a pigeon's egg, is formed. 
 
 15. When it is done spinning, the silk must be carefully 
 and promptly unwound, or the Butterfly would burst the 
 cocoon and thus spoil the silk. To prevent this th(s 
 cocoons are sometimes placed in hot water or in a hot 
 oven, to kill the worm. By means of steam or hot vapor, 
 the threads are loosened so that they may be easily 
 unwound and the Silkworm saved. The manufacturer 
 usually puts ten or twelve of these threads together to 
 make one which would be strong enough for use in the 
 factory. 
 
 1 6. It is not a little singular that this beautiful article 
 thus made by one Insect receives its bright crimson 
 and scarlet colors from another, the COCHINEAL BUG of 
 Mexico. 
 
 17. The SILKWORM is raised chiefly in China, Japan, 
 France, Italy, and California. The Silkworm and other 
 Caterpillars breathe through several openings in their 
 sides. 
 
 1 8. Next to the Silkworm, the Insect which is the most 
 useful to man is the BEE, which gives us delicious honey. 
 This the Bees gather from nearly all flowers, and store 
 away in nice little waxen cells, all of their own making. 
 
238 Bees How They Work. 
 
 19. HONEY-BEES are of three kinds: the 
 Queens, the Working-bees, and the Drones. 
 
 20. The QUEEN-BEE is the ruler of the hive 
 
 and the mother of all the young 
 Bees in it. 
 
 21. The WORKERS are very 
 intelligent and industrious. They 
 form themselves into companies. 
 One division or company roams the fields and 
 gardens in search of food ; another builds the 
 cells ; another helps those which come back 
 with heavy loads, or feed and nurse the young 
 Bees. All make the most of their time, and 
 of every inch of room, for their house answers 
 both as nursery and storehouse. There are also 
 house-cleaners, sentinels and fighters. Even in 
 a single day they have been known to make 
 4,000 cells. 
 
 22. The royal cell which they build for their Queen, is 
 made much larger than any of the others. 
 
 23. When the cells are ready, the Queen lays in them a 
 great many eggs, from each of which comes a larva, grub, 
 or worm (see paragraph 8). The food of bees consists 
 chiefly of pollen and sweet juices or fluids of flowers. 
 
 24. The WORKERS have little brushes on their legs 
 which also hold the pollen and otherwise help them in 
 their work. They have feelers or arms which enable them 
 to work and feel their way in the dark. By these feelers 
 they seem to tell one another the news of the day. If the 
 
Bees Their Uses Wasp Hornet. 239 
 
 Queen should die they select a young grub, which soon 
 becomes their Queen. When the Queen and a number of 
 her household agree to emigrate and form a new colony or 
 "swarm," they select a new home, gather food, and make 
 full preparations for the change. After bidding farewell 
 to their brothers and sisters which remain in the old 
 home, they fly away. Those left behind must select a 
 new Queen or they all would die. 
 
 25. The DRONES (all males) are very lazy. They col- 
 lect no honey, make no wax, build no cells. Most of 
 them do nothing but eat honey which the workers collect. 
 So, as winter comes on, the Workers get out of patience 
 with their idleness and fly at them, sting them to death, 
 and at once remove the dead bodies from the hive. 
 
 26. The Working-bees live for several years. They 
 are smaller and more numerous than the others. In a 
 hive of 20,000 Bees, the Workers will number about 19,500. 
 There is only one Queen for every hive. The Workers are 
 assisted in building by a gummy or sticky substance which 
 they gather from some trees. A Bee has four wings and 
 six legs, and a kind of tongue or proboscis for gathering 
 honey. All but the Drones have stings. 
 
 27. Bees, by going from flower to flower, gathering and 
 mixing the pollen or powder-like substance of flowers, 
 increase the varieties of fruits, flowers and plants, and in 
 this way, also, they are of great advantage to us. This 
 last work seems to be all the HUMBLE BEE is good for. 
 It lays up no store of honey, usually builds in holes in the 
 ground, and lives but one year. It does not associate 
 with the Honey or Hive Bee. 
 
 28. The WASP and HORNET are somewhat similar to 
 the Bee. They build and live in little cells of a paper- 
 
240 Ants How They Live and Work. 
 
 like substance, which they make from bark and plants. 
 They have sharp stings, but do not gather honey or make 
 wax like the Honey Bee. 
 
 29. ANTS resemble Bees in their habits of 
 order and industry, and in being divided into 
 three kinds, Males, Females, and Workers. 
 
 30. The ANT WORKERS have charge of the 
 eggs, cocoons, and young Ants, as well as of 
 the house affairs. 
 
 31. If overtaken by a storm, or if their nests should be 
 destroyed, their first duty is to save their eggs or young, 
 and they are seen running to and fro with these little 
 things in their mouths in search of places of safety for 
 them. The workers have no wings ; the others have for 
 a time, but soon lose them. 
 
 32. The COMMON ANTS are the Red and the 
 Black ; some have wings, others have none. 
 
 33. Ants of the same family or kind live 
 together in great harmony, and are never weary 
 of helping each other. If one is tired or sick, 
 another will take him upon his back and ten- 
 derly carry him. 
 
 34. Although these little creatures make no sound, they 
 seem to understand each other perfectly. By means of 
 their feelers they give orders, directions and invitations, 
 call for food, or discuss family affairs. 
 
 35. Their little jaws are hard and sharp, serving them 
 as axe, scissors, pincers and sword. 
 
Grasshoppers Locusts, Etc. 241 
 
 36. Ants come forth in myriads about the 
 first of April. Four or five months of the year 
 that the Ant is supposed to live, some kinds 
 spend in a torpid state. 
 
 37. Battles are sometimes fought between the different 
 families or tribes, desperate battles, too; for although of 
 a peaceful nature, they will not submit to imposition. 
 Some are very thievish and do not stop with stealing the 
 food of a neighboring tribe, but they seize also their eggs 
 or their young ones, and carry them into captivity to 
 become slaves to them. Then the injured Ants levy war. 
 They form themselves into companies, battalions, and 
 divisions, and station sentinels as soldiers do. Army 
 meets army, they fight bravely and desperately ; they kill 
 and wound each other, punish spies and deserters, carry 
 off prisoners and spoils, and when the battle is over they 
 take care of the sick and wounded. 
 
 38. The GRASSHOPPER is of the same order 
 of Insects as the Locust, Cricket and Katydid, 
 having long bodies, four wings, and three pairs 
 of legs. Their food is grass and the leaves of 
 plants. 
 
 39. Grasshoppers are of great variety ; some 
 /are green, some black, and some variegated. 
 
 Some make a chirping sound and some are 
 always silent. 
 
 40. Their hind legs are much longer and stronger than 
 the others, and are admirably fitted for jumping or 
 leaping. 
 
242 Grasshopper Locust, Etc. 
 
 41. It is the male Grasshopper which does all the 
 chirping. He does not, however, chirp or sing as a bird 
 does, with his voice or his throat. He makes his peculiar 
 sound with his wings, and partly, some people say, with 
 his legs and a kind of little drum or cymbal. 
 
 42. In the autumn, the mother Grasshopper bores or 
 digs little holes in the ground and lays a great many eggs 
 in them, and on the approach of frost she dies. The eggs 
 remain there all winter and are hatched out by the warm 
 sun of spring. For a while the young ones hop only, and 
 seem to be without wings, but these are really concealed 
 on their sides and appear when the time comes. 
 
 43. LOCUSTS are the most destructive of this 
 kind of Insects. They fly in vast numbers, like 
 clouds which hide the sun, and come down on 
 the growing crops of spring as fast and as num- 
 berless as snowflakes in a winter's stonn. 
 
 44. Their visits in Western Asia and Northern Africa 
 are terrible, for they are sure to leave famine and desola- 
 tion behind them. The Locusts, called also Grasshop- 
 pers, which they resemble, have at times done great dam- 
 age to the corn of some of our Northwestern States and 
 Territories. 
 
 45. Locusts are sold in the markets of Europe, Asia 
 and Africa as an article of food. 
 
 46. The "SEVENTEEN-YEAR LOCUST " (more 
 correctly called HARVEST FLY) has a thicker 
 body and shorter legs than the Locust or the 
 Grasshopper. It flies, but does not leap. 
 
Harvest Fly Cricket Mosquito. 243 
 
 47. These Insects lay their eggs in the twigs of trees, 
 and then die. From the eggs are hatched, during the 
 same summer, little six-legged worms, so small that it 
 would take sixteen of them to measure one inch in length. 
 These remain in the ground seventeen years, feeding on 
 the juices of roots. At the end of that time they enclose 
 themselves in a shell or case, then crawl up the trunks 
 and branches of trees, to which they cling until their shell 
 or dry skin bursts open ; and, finding themselves provided 
 with wings, they fly away. 
 
 48. CRICKETS belong to the same order of 
 Insects as the Locusts and Grasshoppers. They 
 can dig underground passages for themselves, 
 and their long hind legs enable them to take 
 long leaps. 
 
 49. House Crickets and Field Crickets are deadly 
 enemies to each other; in fact, Crickets generally are 
 very quarrelsome and are always ready for a fight. In 
 Germany, mis'chievous boys get up pitched battles between 
 them, when these warlike Insects kick like horses, butt 
 like rams, and scratch like cats, until one or the other 
 runs away or is disabled. 
 
 50. One of the most annoying Insects is the 
 MOSQUITO, which has a long, slender body, six 
 legs, and two wings. It has also a little pro- 
 boscis for piercing and sucking. This contains 
 several lancets so small and so sharp that 
 together they are finer and sharper than a 
 needle. 
 
244 Mosquito Dragon Fly. 
 
 51. Mosquitoes are produced from eggs which float on 
 the water. When these are hatched they are little worms 
 and seem to hang from the surface of the water head 
 downward, when they are called '" Wigglers." They change 
 their skins several times, then become a kind of Chrysalis 
 in a little case or cocoon, which, like the Caterpillar, they 
 soon burst, and, drying their newly found wings, they fly 
 away into the air in search of food. 
 
 52. They find their food in the dew and in the juices 
 of flowers and plants. Some kinds are active by day, 
 others by night. Those which attack man and beast for 
 blood are the females only. The " Wigglers " feed raven- 
 ously on the animalcules in ponds and marshes, and thus 
 aid in purifying the water. 
 
 53. The eggs become perfect Insects in three weeks, 
 and many broods are hatched every warm season. 
 
 54. Mosquitoes infest forests and marshy places in 
 every country and in every climate ; in cold Siberia and 
 Lapland, as well as in the hot valley of the Amazon. 
 
 55. The GNAT, HOUSE FLY, and Ox FLY belong to the 
 same order of Insects as the Mosquito. 
 
 56. The DRAGON FLY has a long, slender 
 body and four long, narrow wings. 
 
 57. Its thin, crisp wings are as clear as glass, 
 reflecting all the colors of the rainbow, and 
 seem to be in rapid and almost constant mo- 
 tion. While flying, it catches multitudes of 
 Mosquitoes, Gnats, Beetles, Flies, and other 
 Insects. 
 
The Butterfly. 
 
 Blackboard Drawing: Honey Bee, lengrth of body, half inch; 
 Dragon Fly, 3 inches. 
 
 58. They are therefore beneficial, and not in 
 the least injurious to man or child (although it 
 bears, in some places, the frightful name of 
 " Devil's Darning Needle "). 
 
 59. It undergoes changes from the egg to the worm 
 and the chrysalis, in the water, occupying two years. 
 When its wings are ready, it rises above its old home in 
 the marsh or the pool, to fly, shine, chase, kill, eat, and 
 die, all in a single season. 
 
 60. BUTTERFLIES, like other Insects which 
 fly, have two long, slender horns or feelers, 
 which they can turn in every direction. 
 
 6 1. When they lay their eggs, they fasten them to some 
 plant or leaf, with a sort of glue of their own making. 
 There they remain until hatched into a kind of worm, 
 which is called a caterpillar if it has legs, or a grub if it 
 has no legs. 
 
 62. The Caterpillar eats enormously, grows 
 rapidly, and often changes its skin. 
 
246 Caterpillar Hoiisc Fly. 
 
 63. When about six weeks old it stops eating, and 
 covers itself with a kind of cobweb or cocoon, which it 
 fastens to a convenient branch. There it hangs as a 
 chrysalis, until it bursts the case and sails into the air on 
 beautifully colored wings to spend the rest of its short life 
 in flitting among flowers and blossoms and sipping honey. 
 
 64. The microscope shows that the wings of the But- 
 terfly are covered with numberless little scales of every 
 variety of form and color, and that its eyes are composed 
 of a great many smaller eyes. 
 
 65. Butterflies generally live but one season, 
 although some live through the winter. 
 
 66. The HOUSE FLY has two wings, six legs, 
 a sucking proboscis for taking its food, and two 
 great eyes which are composed of 4,000 small 
 eyes. 
 
 67. Its feet are remarkably formed to enable it to 
 creep up smooth surfaces like glass or on ceilings. 
 
 68. It holds on by means of a gum or sticky substance 
 with which its feet are supplied ; some say it holds on by 
 means of sharp little hooks on the feet ; and others say its 
 feet, when pressed against glass or the ceiling, form vacu- 
 ums, and that the fly is held on by the pressure of the air 
 (as explained on page 74). 
 
 69. Most Flies die when frost comes; but some of 
 those which hide away in warm nooks and corners live 
 just long enough to lay a great many eggs the next sum- 
 mer. In a few hours these eggs are hatched into little 
 grubs which, in a few days, become flies. 
 
Review Spelling Composition. 247 
 
 REVIEW OF CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Mention the best known insects. 
 
 (The word insect means cut into; and these creatures are so called because 
 they are composed of parts which seem almost separated from each other.) 
 
 What can you say of the vast numbers of insects ? Do some 
 insects change their forms? What is the first change? From the 
 egg to a Caterpillar.. The second ? From a Caterpillar to a Chrysa- 
 lis. The third ? From a Chrysalis to a Butterfly. How long do 
 most Butterflies live ? House Flies? Grasshoppers? 
 
 Mention some very destructive insects. Some very annoying 
 ones ? Some very useful and valuable ones ? What kinds are 
 noted for their industry? 
 
 What can you say about the Locust and Grasshopper? Where 
 have they been very destructive ? About the Mosquito? About 
 the Silkworm ? About the Ant? How long do most Ants live ? 
 
 How many kinds of Bees in every hive? What can you say of 
 the Queen Bee ? Of the Workers ? Of the Drones ? Of Hum- 
 ble Bees ? 
 
 What insects are similar to the Grasshopper? What two kinds 
 of Crickets are there? What can you say of Crickets? 
 
 Are Dragon Flies dangerous, or useful ? How are they useful ? 
 How are Mosquitoes useful ? 
 
 Describe the House Fly. What can you say of its eyes? How 
 long does it live ? 
 
 SPELLING AND WRITING EXERCISE. 
 
 WRITE A COMPOSITION about Insects, or Locusts, or Silkworms, 
 or Bees, or Ants, as the Teacher may direct. 
 
About the United States. 
 
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About the United States. 251 
 
 Into what is each State and Territory divided? Into 
 Counties* Which is the larger, a County, or a State ? 
 A State. 
 
 For how many years have these States been governed by 
 men elected by their own people ? Over one hundred years. 
 
 Who governed this country before that ? Men sent here 
 by the King of England. What country of North America 
 is still subject to Great Britain ? Canada. 
 
 What are some of the causes of this country's great- 
 ness ? Its free government, its great extent, its fertile fields, 
 its rich mines, its many mills, and its industrious people. 
 
 On what planet do you live? The Earth, or World. 
 On what Hemisphere ? The Western. In what Grand 
 Division ? North America. In what country ? The United 
 States. In what State ? In what county ? In what part 
 of the Western Continent is North America ? The northern 
 part. In what part of North America is the country we 
 live in ? In the central part. In what part of this country 
 is the State you live in ? In what part of your State is the 
 county you live in ? In what part of your county is the 
 city, town, or village you live in ? 
 
 Some cities extend over their counties, as the City and County of Philadel- 
 phia are the same in extent. 
 
 What State is north of this State? East? South? 
 West? What county is north of this county? East? 
 South ? West ? 
 
 You may draw a map of your County, on a piece of paper as large as your 
 hand ; marking first, the boundaries; next, the highest hills or mountains (if 
 any) ; next, the streams which run through it ; then the cities, towns, or vil- 
 lages, the churches, schoolhouses, railroads, bridges, etc., as shown on page 
 39. Then you may draw on a piece of paper, as large as a leaf in your copy- 
 book, a map of your State, showing its boundaries, highest mountains, largest 
 rivers, its capital, and the part in which your County is situated. Observe that 
 your County is but a small portion of your State. 
 
 * In Louisiana these divisions are called Parishes. 
 
About the United States. 
 
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TOPICS FOR DRILL ON TTJE PICTORIAL CH^RT, 
 AND FOR WRITING LETTERS. 
 
 The Teacher, in pointing to the various objects on the chart 
 may describe and dwell on each topic to the extent best suited to 
 the class. 
 
 Figures in parentheses correspond with those on the key to the 
 chart. 
 
 The Ocean (l) covers how much of the Earth's sur- 
 face, What inhabit the ocean, Which are the largest of 
 these animals and fish their sizes, Which useful for 
 oil for furs for food each where caught, Which are 
 dangerous, Which are very curious, Shell-fish, Pearls 
 where and how obtained their value, Corals, 
 Sponge, Ocean voyages how conducted, Currents or 
 streams in ocean, Gulf Stream its effects on England, 
 Ireland, and other parts of Western Europe. Pages 2 1 to 33. 
 
 Vapor (2) rises from what, by what means its 
 changes, by what caused forms what. Page 16. 
 
 Rain (3), from what does it come of what formed 
 effects and uses, What are formed from it, Where does 
 it go, Voyage of a drop of water. Pages 15 to 19. 
 
 Rivers how formed, Waterfalls (9), Rapids (12) 
 turn mill-wheels, pages 60, 61, float logs saw-mills, 
 pages 62, 63 wear channels in ground and rock, page 67, 
 Canons (ll) carry soft soil to mouths forming Deltas, 
 See land between lower lake and ocean, in chart; also page 
 64 overflows, Nile River, page 66 facilities for navi- 
 gation, commerce, and manufacturingsites for cities, 
 towns, etc. 
 
256 Topics for Drill 
 
 Ship-yards and Floating Docks (34) on bank of 
 river, Construction and uses of Floating and Dry Docks, 
 Name some. Page 53. 
 
 Ships how built, Steamships how built, a 
 launch, what is it, how ships move, how steamships 
 move, names of masts, sails, etc., what they carry, 
 Steam, what is it, how move wheels, names of parts 
 of machinery, Great Eastern, iron-clads, battle be- 
 tween Monitor and Merrimac In what time is the Atlan- 
 tic Ocean crossed by steamships by sailing vessels. 
 Pages 45 to 56. 
 
 Canals (14, 15) how built their uses, Locks how 
 boats are lowered and raised, pages 82 to 84, Name some 
 canals. Page 85. 
 
 Reservoirs (16), What are they their use, Aque- 
 ducts, What are they their use how water fills them 
 how Chicago and Cleveland are supplied with fresh 
 water where from. Page 86. 
 
 Straits and Channels (21), What are they what 
 do they connect what do they separate, Mention some. 
 
 Mountains (4), What are they highest covered 
 with what, Melting snow forms what, Minerals they 
 contain their trees, mines, and mountain streams, 
 How Mines (30) are constructed coal, how obtained 
 how formed -charcoal burning gas dangers in mines 
 iron, how made, silver, how obtained gold tin lead 
 copper. 
 
 Salt how and where obtained, Chute or Shoot 
 (31), what use. Pages 144 to 156. 
 
 Mountain Lake (7) *rom what formed, Name the 
 
On the Pictorial Chart. 257 
 
 largest lakes in the world lakes at different elevations 
 lake fish water fresh, or salt. Pages 68 and 29. 
 
 Volcanoes (5), What are they dangerous, What 
 celebrated volcano in Italy, What cities destroyed how. 
 Pages 163 to 165. 
 
 Island (18) and Peninsula (19), What are they 
 the difference between them points of land called what, 
 Point to lighthouse on cape on promontory differ- 
 ence between cape and promontory Mention some im- 
 portant islands. Page 78. 
 
 Watershed (29), a high ridge from which streams 
 flow in different directions, What is on watershed in the 
 chart (53), how a windmill works its use where numer- 
 ous. Page 169. 
 
 Mills (35) how built where built different kinds, 
 how flour is made, how lumber is sawed, Saw-mills 
 what kinds of trees are sawed into boards, etc., kinds of 
 wood used for building houses, ships, railroads, furniture, 
 pianos, fences, and wagons. Page 98. 
 
 Trees, What kinds of trees are raised or kept for 
 shade for ornament for their leaves for their bark 
 for their sap for their fruits for medicines, how trees 
 begin to grow how to tell the age of trees what grow 
 only in warm climates, how sap moves, uses of leaves. 
 
 The Plains in chart contain farms yielding useful 
 crops, Which are the most useful for food for clothing 
 for sugar for drinks, crops sent to cities and towns 
 on railroads, canals, and rivers, What crops grow best 
 in warm climates, Can cotton grow as far north as wheat, 
 Do oranges and bananas grow as far north as apples 
 
258 Topics for Drill. 
 
 and pears, What is India-rubber, Where obtained 
 mahogany and rosewood, What country produces the 
 most cotton wheat and corn tea coffee. Pages 98 to 
 127. 
 
 Lassoing Cattle (41) how where uses of cattle. 
 Pages 143 and 203. 
 
 On Western Plains in the chart, Indians are hunt- 
 ing buffaloes (42), how killed what parts of the buffalo 
 are useful to people other animals of the buffalo kind, 
 Where do these Indians mostly live their occupations, 
 how they look, dress, live their dwellings how they fight 
 how treated by white men. Pages 97, 142, and 205. 
 
 Emigrants (40) move by railroads and by wagons, In 
 what direction do most emigrants move in this country, 
 From what countries of Europe have many come, Where 
 settle their occupation benefits to Western States and 
 Territories, Which are being rapidly settled, What large 
 Southern State receives many emigrants. Page 79. 
 
 Vineyard (46), What grow there what made from 
 grapes what countries famous for grapes and wine how 
 grapes are gathered how wine is made different kinds 
 of wine raisins. Page in. 
 
 Wells and Pumps (52), how drinking water is ob- 
 tainedwells how dug water how raised how pumps 
 work chain pump suction pump vacuum Artesian 
 wells, how made, their depth oil wells salt wells. 
 Pages 70 to 75. 
 
 Bridges, Suspension Bridge (54) different kinds of 
 bridges how built for what purpose of what materials, 
 Mention some celebrated bridges, How foundations 
 are built under water divers diving-armor diving-bells. 
 Pages 88 to 91. 
 
VB 35761 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY