MONTEITH'S POPULAR SCIENCE NAIJES OF OBJECTS AND PLACES REPRESENTED ON THE KEY TO PICTORIAL CHART. 1, Ocean, with ships, &c. 2, Vapor rising from ocean. 3, Rain. 4, Mountains. 5, Volcano. 6, Mountain Stream. 7, Mountain Lake. 8, Geyser. 9, Waterfall. 10, Spring. n, Canon, formed by river. 12, Rapids. 13, Lakes, at different elevations. 14, 15, Canal, with locks. 16, Reservoir and Tower. 17, Gulf or Bay. 18, Islands. 19, Peninsula. 20, Isthmus. 21, Strait. 22, Channel. 23, Cape. 24, Promontory. 25, Seaport. 26, Manufacturing Town. 27, Village. 28, Mining Town. 29, Watershed. 30, Mine and Engine House. 31, Chute or Shoot, from mine. 32, Railroad Tunnel. 33, Snow-shed, on railroad. 34, Ship yard and Floating Docks. 35, Mill. 36, Ice-houses. 37, Rainbow. 38, Waterspout. 39, Salt Works. 40, Emigrants moving. 41, Lassoing Cattle. 42, Indians hunting Buffaloes. 45, Fort on seacoast. 46, Vineyard. 47, Horizon. 48, 49, 50, Ships, showing ro- tundity of the Earth. 51, Seaside Resort. 52, Oil Well. 53, Windmill. 54, Suspension Bridge. 55, Eagle. [For pages pn which the*? vre Described see " CONTENTS."] EASY LESSONS POPULAR SCIENCE; AND HAND-BOOK TO PICTORIAL CHART COMBINING THE CATECHETICAL, OBJECT WITH MAPS, ILLUSTRATIONS, AND LESSONS IN DRAWING, SPELLING, AND COMPOSITION. BY JAMES MONTEITH, Author of School Geographies, etc. NEW YORK : CINCINNATI . : . CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY FROM THE PEBSS OF A. S. BARNES & CO. -.: Q CONTENTS. PAGE WHAT WE SEE ABOUT US 4 Balloon Voyage around the World Shape and Motions of the Earth Day and Night-AirWind-Attraction. WATER ON THE EARTH I3 Its uses What is in it and what comes from it Voyage of a Drop of Water Vapor Rain. PEOPLE AND DIVISIONS OF THE WORLD 35 MAP OF THE WORLD, WITH EXERCISES 40 CURRENTS OF THE OCEAN 42 Their Effects Gulf Stream. SHIPS, DOCKS, SHIP BUILDING 45 Machinery Ironclads Floating Docks Dry Docks. RIVERS, WATERFALLS, LAKES 59 Their uses Mills Lumber Inundations. SPRINGS AND WELLS How FORMED 70 Pumps Artesian Wells Oil Wells Salt Springs. CAPES, ISLANDS, STRAITS PENINSULAS TUNNELS, Etc 77 CANALS AND LOCKS; How BUILT AND USED 80 AQUEDUCTS, RESERVOIRS, TOWERS, STAND PIPES 86 BRIDGES; How BUILT 88 Divers at work Suspension Bridges St. Louis Bridge. MAP OF NORTH AMERICA 95 What we know about North America. TREES AND PLANTS: How AND WHERE THEY GROW Their uses for Food, Drink, Clothing, Building, Furniture, Medi- cines, etc. Copyright^ 1879, by James Monteith. Contents. in PAGE MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA. 140 What we know about South America. MINFS AND MIKING 144 Iron, Gold, Silver, Steel, Copper, Tin, Zinc, Lead, Salt How and from what Coal is formed. MAP OF EUROPE 160 What we know about Europe. MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES 163 Vesuvius Pompeii Herculaneum Stromboli. LIGHT-HOUSES How BUILT THEIR USES 167 WINDMILLS THEIR USES 169 BALLOONS WHY THEY RISE How THEY MOVE 171 MAP OF ASIA ,. 174 What we know about Asia. BIRDS: Their Nature, Variety, Ingenuity and Uses 177 COMPARATIVE SIZES OF BIRDS 198 MAP OF AFRICA What we know about Africa. ANIMALS WILD AND DOMESTIC 203 Their Variety, Distribution and Uses. COMPARATIVE SIZES OF ANIMALS 232 INSECTS Their Nature, Variety and Uses 234 MAP OF THE UNITED STATES 248 What we know about the United States. WRITTEN EXERCISES SPELLING AND COMPOSITION, 58, 69, 76, 93, 96, 133, 134, 139, 158, 166, 173, 199. THE PICTORIAL CHART is designed for the class-room wall. It is mounted on cloth and rollers and measures 42 by 55 inches. (Key on following page.) It represents in an immense landscape, all the Divisions of Land and Water Ocean Lakes Streams Mountains Islands Vapor Rain Snow Agriculture Mining Manufacture Commerce, Etc., Etc., as seen on a voyage around the world. It is adapted to ORAL and OBJECT TEACHING. 54!;") 41 CHARACTERISTICS OF THIS BOOK. It contains PRIMARY SCIENCES FOR TWO GRADES ; the lowev (comprising very young children) to be restricted to the paragraphs in large type. Method. BY ILLUSTRATION, COMPARISON and FAMILIAR CON- VERSATIONS. OBJECTS are illustrated on a large PICTORIAL CHART for wall of Class-room ; and on BLACKBOARD, according to given directions for drawing. Topics. SHORT and VARIED those suggested on an excursion in the country by a teacher and her class ; such as Air, Water, Rocks, Land, what they contain and what are their uses ; with interesting lessons on Rain, Rivers, Plants, Trees, Agriculture, Mining, Manufacture, Fishes,. Birds, Animals, Insects, Geography, etc. Exercises, also SHORT and VARIED, include : READING ; DRAWING on BLACKBOARD and SLATES; ORAL EXERCISES, with Questions and Answers , WRITTEN REVIEWS, combining Spelling and Composition. Exercises on the PICTORIAL CHART and WALL MAP OF THE WORLD. Although adapted to the PICTORIAL CHART, the book is complete in itself and maybe used independently as a TEXT-BOOK for Primary Classes or for ORAL INSTRUCTION by the teacher. It contains numerous Wood Engravings and Colored Maps. Its object is not only to INSTRUCT, but to EDUCATE, to draw out and strengthen the reasoning faculties, and to encour- age habits of observing, thinking, analyzing and comparing. EASY LESSONS: POPULAR SCIENCE, CHAPTER I. DIRECTIONS. To conduct the lessons, Monteith's Pic- torial Chart and a large map of the world should be hung on the wall in full view of the class. A globe, also, should be shown. The teacher will then read aloud from the Hand- book, pausing for answers which the pupils may be able to give to the questions. The names in black-faced type, as ocean, surface, clouds, etc., should be pointed out on the chart or map when they are mentioned. This may be done either by the teacher or by the pupils in turn. The illustrations should be drawn on the blackboard by the teacher, and by the children also, on their slates. (In classes composed of very young children, the spell- ing and other exercises in small type may, at the discretion of the teacher, be omitted in the first course. The words in the spelling exercises should be written on slates by the pupils.) 4 The EartJis Surface. 1. If you should take a long walk from the city, town, or village in which you live, you might see people, houses, streets, roads, fields, trees, streams, ponds, mills, factories, horses, cows, sheep, and other animals ; perhaps you would see a part of the ocean, on which great ships and steamers sail. 2. The ocean and fields are parts of the earth's surface. People, animals, trees, houses, ships, etc,, are on the surface. When you see flies on an orange, you may say they are on its surface or outside part, just as people and ani- mals are on the surface of the earth, which is round like an orange. 3. When you look upwards and around you, you may see the sky, the sun, and, perhaps, clouds ; at night, you may see the moon and stars, and other bodies called planets, which look like stars. 4. All this time you are breathing what ? Air. Without air you could not live, nor could any animal, bird, or fish, or tree live. Sometimes the air is still, sometimes it moves gently and you are able to fly your kite ; then, again, it rushes powerfully and fearfully, blowing down trees, fences, and houses, and sinking ships. SPELL AND DEFINE City, town, ship, village, trees, bird, stream, fish, surface, kite, mill, factory. A ir Wind A t traction. 5 5. This we call wind. You feel the air, you breathe it, you see the effects of the wind, yet you have never seen air or wind You admit that there is air and that there is wind, although both are invisible. What does invisible mean ? Are houses and trees visible or invisible ? 6. Now, as the earth is round (or very nearly so) like a great ball, and people travel or sail around on every part of it, what is it that keeps them from falling off from this great ball called the earth ? It is something that is both useful and powerful. It is also invisible. When you throw your ball high in the air, it is brought back again by something which you cannot see, by this other invisible power ; without this power your ball would never come back to you. When chestnuts are ripe, and when you throw a stone into an apple-tree in the autumn, the chestnuts and apples are brought to the ground by this same invisible power. Do you know what we 'call it ? Attraction. Without this attraction which the earth has, those chest- nuts and apples would be as likely to fly away toward the moon or the sun or some of the stars. Without this power which the earth has of drawing or attracting to itself (always downward), the farmer could not sow his seed, for it would be as likely to fly toward the clouds as to fall on the ground ; the carpenter 6 The Earths Shape Geography. and the mason would not be able to keep their boards and bricks just where they wanted them ; the chairs, tables, and beds in your houses would be as likely to rest against the ceiling as on the floor ; and your sleds would no longer rush down hill on the smooth snow in winter. Blackboard drawing" to illustrate Up and Down. The teacher may draw by means of a piece of cord twelve inches in length a circle to represent the Earth. On it mark arrows as shown in model, all pointing- to the center, and, conse- quently, Downward; then mark other arrows pointing- from the center, or Upward. Another circle may be similarly drawn, and on it trees be represented all pointing- Upward. The directions to and from the center, or down and up, should be clearly explained to the class. 7. In what direction does the earth draw or attract objects ? Downward, or toward its center. In what direc- tion is up ? From the center of the earth, or over your head. Point upward; downward. 8. Now, a knowledge of all these things, as well as of different countries, mountains, and places on the earth, and of the wonderful fitness SPELL AND DEFINE Air, wind, apple, earth, farmer, up, down, sled, snow, board, bricks. The Earth is Round. 7 of them for people's enjoyment and welfare, may be obtained by studying geography. 9. When we look at the sun, moon, and stars, we see they are round ; and if there are people living on the moon now, they would look at this world or earth and see that it too is round Blackboard drawing- to show Rotundity of the Earth. With chalk and a cord two feet long- describe an arc as here shown. On the left draw a part of the coast of North Amer- ica, with a lig-hthouse on Newfoundland; on the rig-lit, England, Ireland, and the coasts of Europe and Africa. Prom the top of the lighthouse draw a straight line touch- ing the Arc or Surface of the Earth; then show ships on the Atlantic in different positions, one below the horizon, another partly above, and another wholly above it. The straight line is the Line of Vision to a man in the light- house, and the point where that line touches the arc or sur- face shows the extent of his Horizon. The lighthouse and masts all point from the center of the earth. 10. How have men proved the earth to be spherical, or round like a ball ? Men have sailed around it as flies travel around an orange ; then, again, the hull, or body of a distant ship coming toward you. is not seen as soon as its topmast. Which is the larger body, the sun or moon ? The sun. Why does the sun not look much larger than the moon ? Because it is a great deal further from us than the moon is. SPELL AND DEFINE Orange, round, spheri- cal, hull, top-mast, center, geography, lighthouse. 8 The Earth's Size, Motions, and Seasons. 1 1. The earth is larger than the moon, the sun is larger than the earth, and some of the stars are larger than the sun. (Here the teacher may draw on the black-board a circle one inch in diameter to represent the moon ; another, four inches in diameter to represent the earth; and for the sun,i give them an idea of a ball 40 feet in diameter ; thus show- ing their comparative size.) 12. If you can imagine a rope stretched from the earth to the sun, and 400 knots on it equally distant from each other, the place of the moon would be at the knot nearest the earth. 13. The earth moves around the sun, and the moon moves around the earth. (To explain these motions, one of the pupils may re- present the sun, another walk around him to represent the earth, and a third walk around the second, to represent the moon.) 14. If the earth did not move or revolve around the sun, we should have no change of seasons. Mention the seasons. What can you say of winter ? Of spring ? Of summer ? Of autumn ? 1 5. The earth has another motion : it turns around as a top spins, or as you might turn an apple around on a knitting-needle. This kind of turning is called rotation, and causes change from day to night, and from night to day. SPELL AND DEFINE Sun, moon, circle, spring, summer, autumn, winter, knot, knitting-needle. Day Night Sunrise. 9 1 6. I shall now show on the blackboard how day and night are caused. The lamp represents the sun, and the apple stands for the earth. The sun gives light to that side of the earth which is opposite it, as is shown by the bright side of the apple, which represents day. The side turned away from the sun is dark there it is night If the earth did not turn on its axis (or rotate) we would not have night and day as we now have them. To oe drawn on the blackboard to explain the succession of Day and Night. The lamp represents the Sun ; the apple, the Earth; the needle .on which the apple turns represents the Axis of the Earth. (The teacher should now and then tell the children a story touching any of the points in the lessons.) 1 7. When you say the sun rises in the east in the morning, it only appears to rise. It is not the sun which moves from the east upward and nearly over your head, and then down in the west in the evening. It only appears to do so. i o Sun A ir A ttr action Heat. It is really the earth, or that part of it on which we live, that moves around the other way, to- ward the sun in the morning, and away from it all the afternoon ; that is, from the west over to the east. When you are on a steamboat sail- ing swiftly and smoothly, the trees on the shore appear to move toward you, then past and be- hind you, yet you know it is the steamboat that moves not the trees. 1 8. Without the sun we should have no heat or light. Would we not have wood to burn and give us light ? We would not ; for without the sun's heat trees would not grow. Would we not have the moon to shine for us? The moon would not give us any light, for it is the sun shining upon the moon that makes it bright and gives us moonlight nights. So, with- out the sun, there would be no light on the earth no plants, trees, animals, birds, fishes, or people. 19. You have learned how important are the sun, air, and attraction. You will, in the next chapter, learn about rain, how it depends upon the sun, air, and winds, and how they all work together beautifully and continually in order that all people may have food to eat, water to drink, and pleasant places to live in. SPELL AND DEFINE Day, light, night, coal. A Balloon Voyage around the Earth. 1 1 20. Suppose you should start some pleasant morning in a balloon that could move all the way around the world before dark the same day. Of course, that has never been done, for the distance is too great, but suppose it could be done. What would you see ? (The teacher may here pause for answers.) Well, you would glide over an immense portion of land, called a continent, a portion of which you see in the chart (pointing to all the land). On this con- tinent you would see mountains, hills, valleys, rivers, lakes, farms, and trees. You might see men at work in the fields, others building houses, or bridges, or railroads ; some busy in great factories and mills making cloth, shoes, food, tools, wagons, and other things too numerous to mention. Here and there you would see cities, towns, and villages, and, be- yond them, houses scattered here and there ; then, perhaps, a forest, a wilderness or wild place, inhabited only by Indians and wild ani- mals ; then, perhaps, beautiful valleys, plains, streams, and busy towns ; and all at once you might come to a body of water which extends much further than your eye could reach. That is an ocean. In it, dotted here and there, you might see islands, which also contain trees, hills, lakes, people, birds, animals, etc., all different in appearance from any you had seen before. And 12 Balloon Voyage, continued. you would wonder to find that, as you rush so rapidly over land and sea, some places have clear weather ; others, cloudy ; and still others rainy or stormy, all in the same day. 21. Now, after your return home, which you would be sure to reach if your balloon kept in the precise course it started out on, you would, probably, sit down and write about all the places, people, etc., you saw ; and, for the instruction and pleasure of those boys and girls who were unable to take such a voyage, you would, per- haps, fill a book with your description : that would be geography, which is simply a de- scription of the earth's surface. What is geo- graphy ? What is an ocean ? The largest division of water. W T hat is a continent ? The largest division of land. 22. How does an island resemble a continent ? Both are surrounded by water. What is the difference between them ? A continent is larger than an island. 24. In your description you would show draw- ings or maps something like this. Here the teacher may draw on the black- board (if not previously drawn) a map of his or her school, school-grounds and vicinity. (See pp. 38 and 39.) SPELL AND DEFINE Continent, island, bal- loon, voyage, people, wrice, ocean, geography. The Ocean. 1 3 CHAPTER II. THE OCEAN. (Observe the directions given at the head of Chapter /) 1. The Ocean, often called the sea, covers three-fourths of the earth's surface. Its water is salt and in constant motion. In it live count- less fishes, and on its surface very many ships sail from one country to another, carrying people, provisions, clothing, and various articles for use or ornament. Which of you have ever seen an ocean ? A moun- tain ? A lake ? A river ? An island ? Clouds ? Rain? 2. The ocean is useful to us not only in fur- nishing fish, and as a great highway for ships. There are many children who have never seen the ocean, or eaten any of its fish, or seen any- thing that was brought in a ship. Lest such children should therefore think that the ocean is of no use to them, and that it would have been better if the earth were made with pretty fields, farms, and gardens all over it, they should know that without the ocean no child, man, bird, or animal could live on the earth. SPELL AND DEFINE Earth, ocean, sea, fish, field, clouds, surface, island, provisions, mountain. 1 4 Rain ; its Origin and Uses. (The teacher may ask the children, in turn or together, to mention the different articles of food which people require. If the answer should be bread, then ask :) 3. What is bread made of, and how ? What is flour ? Wheat grou?id in the mill. Where is wheat obtained ? // is raised on a farm. (If others answer potatoes, apples, milk, beef, pork, etc., ask questions about each.) 4. Animals live mostly upon grass, vegetables, or grain of some kind, which grow on the farms and fields. 5. Would the grass, grain, and vegetables grow without rain? Where does the rain come 'from? The clouds. Where do the clouds come from ? The ocean. How ? The htat of the sun causes vapor to rise from the ocean, and the wind blows the vapor or clouds over the land, and wheti they rise into high, cool air they fall in drops called rain. 6. The rain waters the fields and farms, fills streams, rivers, and lakes, and furnishes drink for men and cattle and all creatures that live on the earth. When the vapor or moisture in the air freezes, it falls in the form of snow. When the drops of rain freeze before they reach the ground, they fall in the form of hail. 7. What rises from the ocean ? Vapor. What causes it to rise? The sun and air. What does vapor form? SPELL AND DEFINE Flour, wheat, farm, field, liver, lake, beef, pork, apple, vapor, freeze, hail. Voyage of a Drop of Water. 15 Clouds. What drives vapor or clouds over the land ? The wind. What causes the clouds to return and fall in the form of rain ? The coldness of the air above us. If you should ascend far above the earth's surface in a bal- loon or by traveling up a high mountain, what differ- ence would you find in the air ? We would find it cooler and cooler the higher we go. 8. From this you may readily understand how a certain drop of water may be changed to vapor, rise from the ocean, be carried by the winds far away and over the land, changed back to water, fall on the ground, sink down below the surface, find its way to a spring, reappear in the overflow, run down a hillside, and become part of a rill, rivulet, brook, or other little stream. The stream flows on, falls over steep places, forming cascades or waterfalls, turns mill-wheels, receives other streams, becomes deep enough and wide enough to float large steamboats, and at last finds its way into the ocean. Thus that little drop of water, after a long and curious journey, may return to the place it started from. 9. Can people live without water ? Does the water you drink come from a spring, well, lake, reservoir, or river ? From what is the well, spring, river, or lake supplied ? Rain. From what does rain come ? From what do clouds come ? SPELL AND DEFINE Brook, wheel, steep, steamboat, cascade, balloon, rivulet. 1 6 Vapor, Rain, Springs, etc. 10. As the land on the earth's surface is higher than the ocean, you all know that the water of the ocean could not run up and over the land. 1 1. Now, how do the waters which you find on the land, even on very high lands, such as springs, rivers, and lakes, get there ? They are formed by rain or melting snow. Where do rain and snow come from ? From vapor or clouds. Where do vapor and clouds come from ? The ocean. 1 2. All of you who have seen a kettle or pot of water boiling have noticed that something white, like smoke, rose from the top of the water. It was not smoke, but vapor. Vapor is the water so thinned out by heat as to become light enough to rise in the air. Have you not also seen the inside of windows in cold weather all wet with drops? The vapor coming near the cold window is only changed back again to water. 13. If any of you should hold a cold sub- stance, such as a pitcher filled with snow, or ice, or cold water, over boiling water, you would see the vapor rise, and as soon as it touched that cold substance it would be changed into drops. That is the way rain is formed. SPELL AND DEFINE Spring, kettle, smoke, rain, vapor, ice, snow, pitcher,, window, boiling. The Ocean ; what it Supplies. \ 7 14. Now look at the chart, and you may see vapor, which is represented as rising from the ocean, blown or carried by the wind over the land (following with your pointer), and entering air that is cooled by these cold mountains. As cool air cannot hold as much vapor or mois- ture as warm, dry air, some of the moisture falls in the form of rain. That which falls on the land waters the fields and farms, and fills the streams and lakes. One after another will now point to the ocean, the vapor, the clouds, the rain, streams and lakes. 15. The ocean, then, supplies or fills all the lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams ; every drop of water on the surface or under the surface of the land, on the mountain top or in the deepest valleys ; all the water of the wells and springs ; all the moisture which floats in the air ; and all rain, snow, hail, or dew. Is the water of the ocean salt or fresh ? Salt. Is the water of rain, lakes, rivers, and snow salt or fresh ? Fresh. If these are all supplied from the salt ocean, why are they fresh ? Because when vapor rises from the ocean, the salt, too heavy to rise, remains behind. From what besides the ocean does vapor rise ? From lakes, rivers, ponds, and wet ground. Does vapor rise from a cup of water ? // does. SPELL AND DEFINE Well, lake, snow, valley. 1 8 Evaporation and Condensation. 1 6. If you should boil a kettle of salt water v the vapor passing off would be fresh. This you may prove by conducting the vapor through a tube or pipe cold enough to condense or change the vapor back again to water ; this water will be fresh. (The teacher may now draw on the black- board this picture, of a size sufficiently large to be seen by the whole class ; or, the drawings which enter into a certain day's lesson may be previously prepared on the blackboard.) Drawing for the blackboard explaining evaporation and con- densation; also, how fresh water maybe procured from salt water, by conducting vapor through a pipe that is kept cold. 17. If you were at sea and without drinking-water, how could you obtain it ? By boiling the salt water in a kettle and conducting the vapor into a cold pitcher or bowl, or through a pipe kept constantly cold. What becomes of the salt in the process of evaporation ? // remains behind in the kettle. SI ELL AND DEFINE Tube, boil, salt, kettle. The Five Oceans. 18. Suppose that the salt should rise from the ocean with the vapor ; what would the rain be, fresh or salt ? If rain were salt, what effect would it have on our grass, trees, grain, and flowers ? 19. The changing of water into vapor is called evaporation. The changing of vapor into water is called condensation. Look at the chart again, and see the vapor rising from the salt water of the ocean and falling on the land far away as pure, fresh water. The teacher may here write on the black- board the above as a Topical Diagram, Man, Animals, Trees, Grass, Grain, Vegetables, require The Ocean. fresh water which depends on Vapor. Clouds. Rain or Snow. (Salt springs and the manufacture of salt by evaporation here indicated will be treated in an- other lesson.) 20. The words ocean and sea are often used to refer to the whole body of salt water on the earth ; which may be considered as divided into five parts, also called oceans. There are five oceans. I shall point on the map of the world, and all (or each in turn) will repeat each name after me Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, SPELL AND DEFINE Bowl, pitcher, vapor, evaporation, Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic, Antarctic, Indian, vegetables, grain,, flowers, condensation. 2O The Five Grand Divisions of Land. Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Antarctic Ocean. Now I shall call their names, and some of you may point to them as I mention them. How many oceans are there? Name one, another, another, etc. Look at the map and tell which is the largest. What does Pacific mean ? Mild. It is not so rough and stormy as the other oceans. 21. Now repeat after me the Grand Divisions of the land while I point to them North America, where we live ; South America, where South Americans live ; Europe, where Europeans, or white people, live ; Asia, where Asiatics, or yellow people, live; and Africa, where Africans live. You point as I call their names. As I point you mention their names. (The white people born in America are the descendants of Europeans, and the colored people born in America are the descendants of Africans.) (Long before white men came to America from Europe, which was nearly 400 years ago t this part of the world, called North America, was inhabited by a copper-colored race of people, who lived mostly by hunting and fishing. Their descendants in the country now live much in SPELL AND DEFINE North, South, America, Europe, Asia, Africa, buffalo, descendants. Sea Voyages. 21 the same way, in the territories. Look at the chart, and you will see a picture of Indians hunting buffaloes. I may tell you more about the Indians, and their curious way of living, in another lesson.) 22. Which is the largest of these divisions? The small-* est ? In which do we live ? What are we called ? Ame- ricans. Look at the map and tell what three oceans sur- round North America. Which of them would you cross in sailing to Europe ? . Why do steamships and other vessels cross the ocean ? To carry passengers, also arti- cles which are grown or manufactured here. Do those vessels return empty ? They bring back articles which are raised or made in Europe, Asia, or Africa ; they bring passengers also. Can you name some things which are sent from this country across the Atlantic Ocean ? Flour, wheat, cotton, provisions, oil, and tobacco. Can you mention some articles we receive from Europe ? Materials for making dresses and all kinds of cloths, besides knives and toys. What do ships from South America bring to this coun- try ? Coffee and India-rubber. What do we get from China and Japan ? Tea, fans, and many fancy articles. How long does it take steamships to cross the Atlantic from this country to Europe ? About ten days. Did you ever see a steamship ? What is the difference between a steamship and a sailing vessel ? SPELL AND DEFINE Toy, tea, coffee, oil, wheat, cotton, knives, tobacco, provisions, pas- sengers, India-rubber, steamship, sailing, knives. 22 Dangers on the Ocean. (Show the difference on the chart.) 23. If you should cross the ocean, you would see nothing about your ship but the water and the sky ; and, as the vessel would cut through the great rolling waves, it would go up and down like a rocking-chair. In a storm, how- ever, the waves rise terribly high and beat over; the ship, which tumbles and plunges and rolls violently, sometimes nearly covered over with the waves. Then the passengers must be down- stairs or they would be washed overboard. 24. Are there any other dangers to be feared at sea ? Dangers from one ship running into another at night or against an iceberg, or from the ship taking fire. What is an iceberg ? A greafmass of floating ice reaching far above and below the surface of the water. Icebergs come from the cold regions of the Arctic Ocean and northern parts of North America. 25. Do men ever sail into those cold, dangerous regions, where they are constantly surrounded by ice and icebergs ? They do. Why ? To find a new passage across the Arctic Ocean, or to reach the most northerly part of the earth, called the North Pole. 26. What dangers attend these voyages ? Some ships have been crushed by fields of ice or by icebergs, and the crews perished from hunger and cold. Mention a celebrated Eng- lish explorer who was lost in the Arctic regions? Sir John Franklin. SPELL AND DEFINE Waves, region, hunger, iceberg, floating, northern, surface, danger, over- board, perished, explorer, dangerous, English. Whales How Captured. 23 In 1845, he left England with two ships and fine crews, to reach Asia by way of Baffin Bay and the Arctic Ocean. (Here point out the course on the map or globe.) Him- self, his officers and crew of over 130 men, all perished. 27. How do natives and explorers in the Arctic regions travel over the ice and snow ? In sledges drawn by dogs. 28. What huge animals (often, but improperly, called fish) are captured in the water of the cold regions ? Whales. You can know them far off by their two great fountains or streams of water which they blow from their nostrils. 29. To capture whales men spend many months on long, cold voyages, and we frequently hear of ships being crushed by icebergs or float- ing fields of ice, and the crews frozen or starved to death. All this for what purpose ? To get oil and whalebone from the whale. When the whalemen see a whale they hurry out of their ship and row in an open boat towards him, and when near enough, one of the men throws a kind of dart or spear, called a harpoon, with all his might into the whale. The huge creature becomes furious, and the men must look sharp to keep out of his way and to let out the long rope which is fastened to the harpoon, else their boat may be dashed to pieces or all pulled far under the water in an instant. SPELL AND DEFINE Crew, officer, Baffin, natives, sledges, captured, whales, whalebone, nostrils, voyage, starved, harpoon, England. 24 Whalebone Oil. 30. After a while the whale dies and floats at the top of the water. Then the men jump on him and cut out great quantities of the fat which is found right under the surface of the skin. They afterwards boil the fat, called blubber, and make it into oil, which they take home in barrels. 31. The whalebone, which is obtained fiom the inside of the upper jaw, is colored and pre- pared for use. For what is whalebone useful ? Oil ? The whale is an animal which lives always in the water, and is the largest of all animals 111 draw a picture of one on the blackboard. A Whale. (Make the drawing: on the blackboard 3 feet in lengrth by 7 inches in greatest width.) How long do you think a whale is ? The larger ones are about 20 to 30 yards long and 10 yards around the body. (Here show these distances by comparing with your school-house, room, or some other object.) SPELL AND DEFINE Oil, whale, whalebone, animal, blubber, barrels, twenty, thirty, yard, float The Seal. 25 32. There are other animals living in or near the water, which are captured in very large numbers every year in the cold regions. Can you name them ? Seals. For what are seals captured ? Their fur. Seal, 6 feet in length. Porpoise. 6 to 8 feet in length. Shark, 12 feet in length. Make blackboard drawing- of seal and porpoise, each 2 feet long- by 6 inches wide : of shark, 4 feet long by 10 inches wide. The shark is twice as long as the seal, and the whale is five times as long as the shark. 33. Here is drawn (or I shall draw) on the blackboard a picture of a seal. This animal is about two yards long. It has two fore paws, with which it paddles in the water or pulls itself along on the ice or the shore. Its hinder limbs serve only to steer and scull with. Its head resembles that of a dog. SPELL AND DEFINE Captured, fur, paddles, ice, porpoise, shark, two, yard, fore. 26 The Seal Its Uses. 34. In Greenland, where it is very cold, many of the people depend upon the seal for almost everything : its flesh they use for food, of its skin they make their clothing, tents, and boats, and its fat furnishes them with oil for fuel and lamplight. 35. The seal is found on coasts and islands in many parts of the world, but especially in the cold regions. Around Alaska, Greenland, and Newfoundland thousands are captured every year. 36. The different species of the seal include the sea-lion, sea-elephant, sea-leopard, sea-bear, and the walrus. The sea-elephant is about 10 yards in length. 37. The seal is amphibious, because it can live in water or on land ; it is a quadruped, because it has four paws or legs ; like the whale, it is carnivorous, because it eats fish and the flesh of animals; it is gregarious, because it lives with others, in herds; it is migratory, because it moves from one part of the ocean to another; and is a mammal, because it suckles its young. Seals, when in the water, must come to the surface at least every half hour to breathe ; whales, about every hour. Alaska was purchased from Russia by the United States for seven millions of dollars. It is noted for seals and fish. SPELL AND DEFINE Seal, paw, limbs, boats, flesh, steer, scull, tent, fuel, coast, island, clothing, paddle, sea-lion, sea-elephant, thousand, million. Porpoise Cod Mackerel Herring. 2 7 Now I shall show you a picture of a porpoise. 38. The porpoise is an animal very much like the seal, but it has not fur like the seal. In size, each resembles a large hog. Leather is made of its skin, and oil of its fat. Trout. Pike. Codfish. Cuttle-fish. 39. Can you mention some kinds of fish that are caught in salt water and are used for food ? Cod, mackerel, herring. These are caught in immense numbers near the coasts, and, when salted and cured, they are sent to all parts of the world. Famous fishing grounds are off the coasts of Maine, Massachusetts, Labra- dor, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, which I now point out on the map. Is New- foundland surrounded by water? What is it, therefore? An Island. By what water is it surrounded? Mention other kinds of fishes. SPELL AND DEFINE Porpoise, leather, cod, mackerel, herring, Maine, New'foundland. 28 Fisheries. 40. Here (pointing to the map, south of Newfoundland) are shoals or shallow places, called the banks of Newfoundland, where dur- ing several months in the year you may see hundreds of boats, and thousands of men of dif- ferent nations, engaged in fishing. 41. Here is a picture of a codfish (drawing or showing it) of the ordinary size, two feet in length. Some are much larger. It is cured by being salted and dried. 42. This is a drawing of a mackerel, which is about 15 inches in length. It is caught by hook and line, and by a seine (pronounced seen) or net. It is salted in barrels. 43. Here is a drawing of a larger fish called halibut, which measures from 3 to 6 feet in length. (See p. 30.) This is a drawing of one, three feet in length and one in width. Curi- ously, both its eyes are on the same side of its head. 44. A very fine fish which comes from the south in the spring, entering the rivers and in- lets of the State's along the Atlantic Coast, is the shad. Those of the Delaware, Hud- son, and Connecticut rivers are celebrated. SPELL AND DEFINE Shallow, hundred, thou- sand, salted, dried, caught, seine, halibut, eyes, coast, inlets, Delaware, Hudson, Connecticut. Fresh-water Fish. 29 45. You may have seen enclosed in tin boxes and packed in olive oil a great many very small fishes. Do you know their name? Sardines. They are caught in large quantities in the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. 46. All the fish which we have mentioned are salt-water fish. I shall now show you a picture of some fresh-water fish which men and boys de- light to catch, the pike and trout (see page 27). 47. This is a pike, 2 feet long and 3 inches wide ; some are smaller and others larger. They are caught in streams and lakes, and are deli- cious for the table. 48. Another favorite fresh-water fish is the trout (here is a drawing of one about 16 inches in length). Trout are caught by hook and line in the streams of the New England, Middle, and Western States, and Canada. They are usually found in swiftly-running streams, swimming against the current. 49. Did you ever see any fresh-water fish caught? What kind? Where? Into what does that stream or lake empty ? Did you ever see a salt-water fish caught ? How ? Where ? Name the different kinds of fishes you have ever seen. What is the most remarkable fish you have ever seen ? SPELL AND DEFINE Boxes, olives, sardines, inch, trout, pike, current, swimming. 3O Flying-fish Sword-fish. Halibut. Flyingr-fish. Sword-fish. Mackerel. 50. Did you ever see a flying-fish ? I'll show you a picture of one on the blackboard, about ten inches in length. They are found in the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and warm parts of the ocean. Their long fins enable them to fly out of the water as high as the decks of ships, on which they sometimes fall. 51. Another singular fish is the sword-fish, 12 to 20 feet in length. (Here is a drawing of a very small one three feet long.) It is so fierce, and so swift in motion, that it drives its sword, a long, sharp, bony substance, into a fish which it wishes to capture. It has been known to attack a ship and bury its wea- pon deep in the timbers. SPELL AND DEFINE Flying-fish, sword-fish, Mediterranean, Mexico, weaoon. timbers, deck. Cuttle-fish Oysters, Crabs, etc. 31 The sword-fish is found in the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. (Whenever the blackboard will admit of it, the drawings should be made full size.) 52. Here is still another very curious fish. It is a cuttle-fish, which has eight long arms for seizing other creatures which it captures for food. When pursued, it discolors the water all about it with an inky substance, which enables it to conceal itself and escape from its enemy. (See p. 27.) 53. Do fishes breathe air ? They do. Do they come to the surface of the water for air, as whales, seals, and por- poises do ? They do not. Where do they find air to breathe ? In the water. Does all water contain air ? It does. Fishes have gills ; animals, lungs to breathe with. The blood of fishes is cold, while that of animals is warm. 54. There is a kind of fish caught in salt water called shell-fish. Can you name some of this kind ? Oysters, clams, crabs, and lobsters. These are also found near shore in great quan- tities and sold almost everywhere, either fresh or preserved. Oysters are usually found adhering to rocks or in the sand in salt water. Do any of you know what kind of a jewel, worn exten- sively by ladies, is found in some oysters ? The pearl. SPELL AND DEFINE Shell-fish, cuttle-fish, captures, pursue, conceal, escape, enemy, breathe, crab, oyster, lobster, lungs. 3 2 Coral Sponge. 55. There are other pretty ornaments made from the skeletons or kind of bony substance of small creatures which have died in the ocean in such large numbers as gradually to form islands. What is that substance ? Coral. 56. There is another substance, not ornamental like the pearl or coral, but very useful. It looks like a sea plant, but is also the skeletons of what were once living creatures. It is very soft, and it adheres to rocks, shells, etc., under water. Mention it ? Sponge. 57. For what is sponge useful? (Teachers should show the class a piece of sponge, coral, whalebone.) 58. I shall now draw on the blackboard the shape of the bottom of the ocean. 1, the shore; 2, the surface or level of the ocean; 3, the bottom of the ocean. How deep do you think the ocean is ? You ? and you? etc. The highest trees (those in California) and church steeples in this country are about 300 feet high. How many of these, one on top of another, would reach from the bottom of the ocean to the top or surface ? Forty. SPELL AND DEFINE Coral, sponge, pearl, shells, skeleton, ornaments, gradually, steeple. Pearls Coral Divers. 33 59. Pearls are obtained by divers. Divers do not always go down head first. Sometimes one is lowered by a rope, on the end of which a stone is fastened to help him to sink. With his feet upon this stone and one hand holding on to the rope, the diver collects as many of the pearl- oysters as he can in a minute or half-minute, when he must ascend to breathe. 60. Pearls are beautiful and expensive, especially those as large as peas and larger. Philip II., King of Spain, had one which was valued at $75,000, and it is said that those in the ear-drops of Cleopatra, a celebrated Queen of Egypt, were valued at $400,000. 61. Among the most famous pearl fisheries are those near Ceylon and the east coast of Hindoostan. Pearls have been found also near Japan, Java, Sumatra, and in the Persian Gulf and the Bay of Panama. Mother-of-pearl is the inside lining of the shells. It is extensively used for making buttons, knife-handles, and for ornamenting boxes, furniture, etc. 62. Coral is also obtained by divers in vari- ous parts of the Mediterranean Sea. The finest is of a rose-pink color, and is found chief- ly near the coasts of Italy. 63. A flourishing business has long been carried on in the manufacture and sale of coral ornaments in the cities of Naples, Leghorn', and Gen'oa. These divers for pearls and corals, when in the water, often see curious and frightful creatures, some of which are very dangerous (see p. 91). Review Uses of tke Ocean. The Earth's Surface Land and Water. REVIEW. What is the shape of the earth ? Round like a ball. What is its size ? The distance around it is about -5,000 miles. Of what is the earth's surface mostly composed ? Water. Is the water of the ocean salt or fresh ? Salt. Mention some of its benefits or uses to people ? People sail on it and get fish from it. It supplies rain. In what way does it supply rain ? The heat of the sun changes some of it into vapor ; the air lifts the vapor , the winds blow the vapor or clouds over the land, and cool air changes- it back into drops of water. Review Different Kinds of People. 35 Mention some of the uses of rain ? Rain waters the fields and gardens, forms springs and rivers and lakes, fills wells and cisterns, and supplies all the fresh water of the world. What if the earth's surface were all land ? Ihen there would be no rain, no rivers, no grass, no trees, no food, no birds, no animals, no people. The sea or whole body of water on the earth is divided into how many oceans ? Five : the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic Oceans. Have you ever seen any of these oceans ? As rain comes from the salt ocean, why is it fresh ? .Because salt is heavier than air ; it remains behind in the ocean. You have mentioned the five great bodies of water ; now men- tion the great bodies of land. North America, South America , Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. In which of them do we live ? North America. Do the inhabitants of these grand divisions of land look alike ? Caucasian, or white. They do not ; some are white, some black, some dark red, some dark yellow, and some brown. Who are the white people of the earth ? Europeans and their descendants. Who are the black people ? The inhabitants of Africa and their descendants (except those of the northern and northeastern * countries, who are light brown). African (black). 3 6 Review Countries a nd People. Indian (copper-colored). Chinaman (dark yellow). Who are the red or copper-colored people ? The Indians of America. Who are the dark yellow people ? The Chinese, Japanese, and other inhabitants of Asia. Who are the brown people ? The inhabitants of the islands in the Pacific Ocean. In what other respects do people differ ? In their dress, occupations, and laws. Into what are North America, South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa divided ? Countries. Mention some of the countries in North America. Malay (brown). The United States, Mexico, and Canada. Mention some of the countries in South America, Brazil, Peru, and Chili. Mention some countries in Europe. England, Germany, Russia, France, and Italy. Mention some countries in Asia. China, Japan, Persia, and Arabia. Mention some countries in Africa. Egypt, Morocco, Liberia, and Guinea. Review People, their Food, etc. 3 7 Which are the hottest countries in the world ? Arabia, Guinea, Brazil, and all other countries crossed by the Equator. (See map of the world.) Which are the coldest countries in the world ? Russia, Greenland, and all other places around the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans, What do the people in the coldest parts of the earth wear constantly ? Furs or skins of animals. What kinds of animals are found in the cold regions ? Bears, seals, and reindeer. An Inhabitant of th What is the principal food of the Cold Regrion. people in the hot countries ? Vegetables and fruits. What do the people of the Arctic regions eat ? The flesh and fat of animals; also fish. Can you tell me how a whale is caught ? (p. 23). Wha' is it useful for? What is its size ? How large is a seal 7 (p. 25). Is it a fish, or an animal ? Why are they cap- tured ? (p. 26). Point out on the map the places wher seals are mostly captured. What fish is so savage as to be called " man-eater"? The shark. How long is it? (p. 25). Mention some of the kinds of salt-water fish which are used for food (p. 2)). What parts of the North Ameri- can coast are famous for cod, mackerel, and herring ? What is there curious about the eyes of the halibut? Where is the shad mostly caught? (p. 28). When? Sardines? (p. 29). Mention some fresh-water fish. What can you say about the flying-fish? (p. 30). The sword- fish ? The cuttle-fish ? (p. 31). Shell-fish ? Coral ? (p. 32). Pearls? (p. 33). Map of Vicinity. 39 Jill! I* !>itrj *I^: S G in O 'ifisij iiiiiii rt 6 a rt O O G 2S 0> fe . fa > ^ -si ^ ^ \^ ^ , ^ ^ / a a Exercises on the Map. s a en 1 Q r-. .2 & 3 r-. rt r-. A o rv. rt u n.. 2 'en 1 Hi r*-. O 'C p W < < Vi_ O 44 C en O C o M-l (U C lia, New Guinea, Borneo, Mac British Isles. s s < "o 0) N 'en "o c^ en 3 O t^ c C3 he largest island in the world; sometimes called a continent. >cean east of North America? 'lantic Ocean. )cean west of North America ? icific Ocean. >cean north of North America "ctic Ocean. ;wo oceans enclose South Ame 'lantic and Pacific Oceans. ;wo oceans wash the coasts of 'lantic and Arctic Oceans. :wo oceans wash the coasts of 'lantic and Indian Oceans. ;hree oceans wash the coasts o icific, Indian, and Arctic Oceans c 43 S ** **** Co \,^ -Si ** ^ ^^ "^ p. *S * "cd 0} '** "r* "rt ^rt ^ -4-> X, rt rt N *& 4? i^i S' ^ * 1 C O ^ * >FH G*' -i ^ o '" ^ *tt 4J hfl g >V< S ^ S g Cd 2C^ r^ . <7 S / / -uw-e&'L. -tu-i // / 6--6- / 1 / Z'. 'l^'t'6.'6--^/&t 'c,^i-fi'iM.-t'J4-CZ.. / . ./ . fZ d^i^i't^i.. (Qit.'e'M, til, dumtn-e-t & -td d-a i,tt" ; ; far-^- Quinine Cinnamon. 36. The trunk of one of these trees when lying on the ground is thirty feet high, which is as high as an ordinary two-story house. 37. One man had the stump of one of these trees smoothed off and built a house on it. One of these huge trees became rotten at the heart and was blown down in a storm. The center was cut away so that a horse and wagon could be driven through it. They are called the Redwood trees. 38. The bark of some trees is used to cover houses ; that of the cork-trees of Portugal and Spain gives us all our corks ; a certain tree from Peru gives us/ in its bark, the fever-curing me- dicines called quinine and cinchona. The slip- pery elm gives also a medicinal bark. Cassia and cinnamon are the bark of certain kinds of laurel that grow in the East Indies. The oak, the hemlock, and other trees enable us, by means of their bark, to make leather out of hides by a process called tanning. Boats also are made of bark ; chiefly birch and spruce. 39. There are some plants that seem offended if you touch them, and close up their leaves im- mediately. These are called sensitive plants. The best one comes from Brazil. There is a plant of this kind in our Southern States, but it is not so sensitive. 40. There are also plants that give us soap besides the palm-soap which we have already mentioned. As you are walking along in California you will sometimes see what looks like an old paint-brush sticking up out of the ground. Wheat and Corn Where Cultivated. 107 If you should dig it up you could wash with its root as with a piece of soap. There are two kinds of soap-plant found in South Amer- ica. There is also a soap- plant in Eng- land, called soap- wort. 41. The plants which furnish us with most of our food are wheat, Indian corn, rice, and potatoes. 42. This country sends immense quantities of wheat and corn to Europe every year. They are cultivated extensively in California and the States which touch the Great Lakes and the Missouri River. 43. The States which are celebrated for wheat and corn are California, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Michi- gan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Mis- souri, Kansas, and Nebraska. 44. Countries besides ours which are cele- Wheat. io8 Rice Corn. brated for wheat are Russia, France, and Austria. 45. Rice is said to be used for food more than any other grain. Millions of the inhabi- tants of China, India, and the islands off their coasts make it their chief article of agri- culture and food. 46. It is also said that the excellent rice for which the state of South Carolina has long been celebrated is due to a few seeds left there by a vessel from the island of Madagascar over two hundred years ago. 47. Rice is cultivated also in Southern Eu- rope, Africa, and the warm countries of North and South America. A wild kind of rice grows in the swamps and lakes of Minnesota. 48. Indian corn is, next to rice, the most used. Originating in America long before the discovery of this continent by Co- lumbus, its cultivation has spread to almost every country in the world. 49. The potato is the most useful and the most extensively cultivated of all vegetables. It Indian Corn or Maize. Potato Tobacco Chocolate. 109 is a native of South America and it still grows wild in Peru and Chili ; it was first taken to Spain and England about three hun- dred years ago. 50. Potatoes are more extensively cultivated in New York than in any other state ; they are largely used in the manufacture of starch. 51. There is another plant which is also very extensively used in all parts of the world, and which, like the potato, was first found and cultivated by the natives in America, be- fore the discovery of America ; it is tobacco. Tobacco grows best in warm countries ; the ancient Mexicans raised large crops of it. 52. Now it is extensively cultivated in Kentucky, Vir- Tobacco, ginia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Tennessee, N. Carolina, and Maryland ; also in Cuba, China, Japan, Persia, and Southern Europe. 53. Chocolate is prepared from the seeds of the chocolate or cacao tree, which grows abun- dantly in Central and South America and the West Indies. 54. Cacao is pronounced ka-kay'o or kay'ko. The cocoa (ko'ko)or cocoanut-tree is entirely different (p, 101). no Tea How and Where Cultivated. The Preparation of Tea* 55. Tea consists of the leaves of the tea- plant, dried first in the sun, then in heated pans, and rolled. The color depends chiefly upon the age of the leaves when plucked, and upon their preparation. Materials for coloring the leaves are often used. 56. The plant, which is kept pruned down to the height of about five feet, grows abundantly of a Tea-plant. * n China and Japan. Grapes Where Cultivated. 1 1 1 57. It is cultivated to some extent in the mild climates of California and the Gulf States. 58. The plants or shrubs are raised from seed, and are picked from the third to the tenth year. 59. Grapes flourish in coun- tries which have warm or moder- ately warm cli- mates. 60. The cen- tral and south- ern parts of France and Germany, and nearly all parts of Spain, Por- tugal, and Italy, are especially noted for their extensive vineyards, and for the great quantities of wine made from the grapes. 6 1. The vines are mostly kept trimmed down, and not allowed to grow as high as a man's head. 62. Wines have received their names from the places where they are made or shipped from, or where the grapes are cultivated ; as, Champagne and Burgundy wines, from ancient provinces in France ; Rhine wines, from the river Rhine ; port wine, from the city of Oporto (in Portu- A Vineyard Gathering- Grapes. 112 Vineyards Grapes Wines. . gal), whence it is shipped ; Bordeaux wine (bor-dd\ from Bordeaux, the great wine port of France j Madeira wine, from the Madeira Islands, northwest of Africa; Sherry wine, from Jerez, a town in the south of Spain ; Cali- fornia wines, from the State of California. Taking Grapes to the Wine-press. 63. In the vintage season, or when the grapes are ripe 9 men, women, and children go into the vineyards and pluck off the bunches, filling their boxes or baskets, which are emptied into huge tubs. When these are full, they are hauled in carts by oxen to the press-house, where the Wine Grapes Cu rra nts. 113 juice is pressed out and left to ferment, thus producing wine. 64. Vineyards cover about 700,000 acres of land in France, and the value of the wine produced there some- times exceeds that of the whole cotton crop of the United States, which is about $200,000,000 annually. 65. Considerable wine is manufactured in the States of California, Ohio, New York, and Missouri. 66. Wine is made also from currants and berries. 67. New vines are raised from cuttings of the previous year's wood. 68. Brandy is made from wine by distilling it, which is done by evaporation and condensation. (See page 18.) 69. Grapes contain considerable sugar (about a fourth is sugar), which, when fermented, produces alcohol. 70. From Spain we get our raisins, which are grapes dried and prepared ; and you will be surprised to hear that the currants which you have eaten in cakes and puddings are not the fruit of what we call currant bushes, but really a very small kind of grape which grows in Greece, and is prepared there for shipment to the United States and other countries. 71. Besides grapes, the countries of Southern Europe raise grain and vegetables in abun- dance ; even between the rows of vines you may see wheat, or corn, or beet, or other plants growing. There are also great orchards or groves of mulberry trees, which feed the silk- 114 Or a nges Apples Cotton. worm ; of olive trees, from the fruit of which olive or sweet oil is made ; and of orange and lemon trees. 72. Orange trees require a warm climate. They are killed by severe frost. In the United States they are cultivated in Florida, Louisi- ana, Texas, and in the southern part of California. 73. Most of the oranges sold in the United States are from the countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea, and from the West Indies. 74. In cooler countries, apple trees grow abundantly. Introduced into America by the early settlers of New England, the apple is more extensively used in this country than any other fruit. Large quantities are sent to the cider-mill, pressed between rollers, and their juice converted into cider. 75. Of all the plants, one of the most useful and valuable is cotton. It grows only in tem- perate and warm climates, especially in our Southern States. Mississippi, and the other States which border on the Gulf of Mexico, yield the most. 76. It grows from seeds, and bears a pod or boll, which bursts open in the autumn from the Cotton How Prepared and Where Sent. 1 1 5 pressure of the soft, white, downy substance within, called cotton. This is picked out of the shell or boll, and sent to a mill to be ginned, or separated from the seeds. It is then pressed and packed in bales, and sent to the cotton mills to be spun into thread, then woven into muslin, calico, etc. 77. Large quantities are sent to the cotton mills of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and other States. 78. About one-half of the annual crop is sent to Europe, principally to England, where it is manufactured into cloth, then shipped to China, Ja- pan, South America, and other places, and sold or exchanged for tea, silk, fancy articles, coffee, India- rubber, etc. Shipping Cotton from New Orleans. 116 Cotton Where cidtivated. A Cotton Field. Picking Cotton. 79, Now, however, the American manufac- turers are gaining a market for their goods in each of those places. 80. The Southern States produce about 5,000,000 bales of cotton every year, worth about $200,000,000. 8 1. Cotton is cultivat- ed also in Egypt, India, and the warm parts of South America. 82. The first cotton mill in the United States was built in Rhode Island. 83. The city which sends away the greatest quantities of cotton every year is New Orleans, and that which receives Cotton-boll. the most is Liverpool. Flax Linen Linseed. 1 1 7 84. Besides cotton, there is another plant which is very useful in furnishing us with material for clothing. What is that? Flax, from which linen is made. 85. Linen is a kind of cloth made from a material obtained from the plant called flax. This grows to the height of two or three feet. It has slender stalks, which are covered with a bark or skin containing fibers or a thread-like substance. Flax grows from seed sown in the spring ; it is pulled out by the roots in sum- mer, and after drying, soaking, scutching or beating, and other processes, the fibers are separated from the other portions of the bark, spun into thread, and woven into cloth called linen, cambric, lawn, tablecloths, towels, etc. 86. The seeds of the flax are called linseed. Like those of the cotton plant, they yield a useful oil and a substance which is made into food for cattle. 87. Linen was known to the ancient Egyptians many hundred years ago, who exported it to Greece and Rome 88. Ireland is celebrated for its fine linen. 1 1 8 India-rubber How obtained and used. 89. The cultivation of flax and the manufacture of linen are carried on extensively, also, in Great Britain, Germany, Holland, France, Belgium, Russia, and several States of the Union. 90. The city of Belfast, in Ireland, manufactures more" linen goods than any other city in the world. 91. You have learned something about the two plants which are celebrated for furnishing materials for clothing cotton and linen. There is another plant, or rather a large tree, which yields a very useful substance ; not fruit, nor its seeds, nor its bark, nor its roots, but its sap. In that respect it resembles the sugar maple tree, but we cannot eat any part of the tree. We wear articles made from it, yet it cannot be spun or woven like cotton or linen. Do you know what tree it is ? The India-rubber tree. 92. India-rubber, or Caoutchouc (pronounced koo-chook 7 ), is the milky sap of that tree. Cuts or gashes are made in the bark, into which cups are inserted for collecting the sap. This is afterwards hardened by heat, the smoke giving it a dark color. It is further hardened by sulphur. 93. Boots, shoes, car-springs, and a great variety of articles are made of it in Connecticut, Massachu- setts, New York, and New Jersey. 94. The India-rubber brought to the United States is mostly from Brazil and Central America. Turpentine Pitch Ivory. 119 95. There is another tree which is valuable for its sap, called turpentine. This is obtained in a similar manner; when distilled (p. 113), it yields rosin or resin and the oil or spirits of turpentine, both of which are used in the man- ufacture of varnish, and for other purposes. What is the name of the tree, and where does it grow ? The pine, which grows extensively in the sandy soil of North Carolina and the neighboring States. It grows also in other parts of North America and in Europe. 96. Some of these trees are cut down and their roots and branches piled up, covered with turf or earth, and set on fire, to make charcoal and tar ; the latter is the sap, which runs into a large iron vessel underneath the pile, and is conducted by pipes into casks near by. This constitutes an important occupation in North Carolina, Canada, and Sweden. 97. Pitch, which is very useful in ship-building, is made from tar. 98. What is ivory ? A hard, white sub- stance which forms the tusks of the elephant. There is a kind of tree growing along some of the streams in the northern part of South America which is called the vegetable-ivory tree; its seeds or nuts contain a juice which hardens into a substance resembling ivory. 1 2 o Ma hog a ny Rosewood Ebony. 99. Those trees which yield wood used chiefly in the manufacture of pianos, boxes, furniture, etc., are the mahogany and rosewood, which come from Brazil, Central America, and the West Indies. Some of these trees are sawed into layers about one-eighth of an inch in thickness, called veneer, which is used to cover over cheaper woods. 100. Several thousand dollars have been paid for the logs from a single tree. The forests on the coast of Honduras supply large quantities of mahogany ; but the best sorts, called Spanish mahogany, are found in Cuba and St. Do- mingo. oi. The first use known to have been made of mahog- any was about 300 years ago, by Sir Walter Raleigh, who repaired his ships with it, at Trinidad, an island off the coast of Venezuela. 102. Box-wood is a hard, smooth wood used by wood- engravers ; it comes from countries bordering the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. 103. Ebony is a hard, black wood, used for inlaid and other ornamental work ; the tree grows in Madagascar and Ceylon. 104. The date-palm grows abundantly in Persia, Ara- bia, Asia Minor, Egypt, Tunis, Algeria, Morocco, and in the oases of Sahara, or the Great Desert. Its fruit forms the chief article of food in many parts of these countries. An oasis is a fertile spot in a desert. Spices Figs Prunes Cranberries. 121 Banyan Tree. 105. The banyan tree is remarkable for its way of spreading itself. This is done by its branches, which shoot downward, take root in the ground, and become trunks. It is a native of India. 1 06. The trees which yield cloves, nutmegs, mace, ginger, cinnamon, and black pepper, grow in Java, Sumatra, Ceylon, the Spice and other islands south and southeast of Asia ; some of them grow on the mainland also. 107. Figs, olives, pomegranates, and almonds grow abundantly in the countries which surround the Mediter- ranean Sea. The dried figs used in the United States come mostly from Turkey. What countries in Europe border on the Mediterranean Sea? (p. 160). What coun- tries in Asia? (p. 174). In Africa ? (p. 200). 1 08. Bananas, pineapples, guava, and tamarinds, as well as oranges and lemons, abound in the West Indies. 109. Prunes are plums raised and prepared in France. no. Cranberries grow on a little running shrub, in low, flat, sandy districts, which may, like rice-fields, be flooded ; covering for a while the whole surface with water, and 122 Opium Camphor Rhubarb, making the meadows appear like ponds. They are exten- sively cultivated in the eastern part of New Jersey. in. We have before mentioned certain plants the use of which is injurious to health. There are others. In India, along the Ganges River, thousands and thou- sands of acres of land are devoted to the cultivation of a plant, on account of the juice or sap taken from its seed- vessels ; the plant is called the white poppy. The juice is called opium, and it is extensively used by the Chinese, who both smoke it and eat it for the peculiar, dreamy, and quieting, or rather deadening, effect which it produces on the feelings. Its use is very injurious to both body and mind. 112. From opium, the drugs called laudanum and morphia or mor'phine are derived. These are often pre- scribed by physicians to allay pain or to produce sleep. The opium used in the United States and in Europe is mostly imported from Turkey in Asia and Persia. 113. There is another plant which yields a substance called hasheesh or hashish ; this also produces stupor and dreaminess, and is extensively used in Asiatic countries. The plant is hemp, from the fibres of which, rope, bag- ging, etc., are made ; it is raised chiefly in Russia. 114. Camphor is a substance obtained from the wood and bark of the camphor trees of China, Japan, For- mosa, Sumatra, and Borneo. 115. Rhubarb is the root of a plant which -grows in Central Asia, whence it is sent to Turkey and Rus- sia, and then exported. 1 1 6. Castor oil is obtained from the seeds of the castor- oil plant, which grows in Africa, America, and Europe. Sap ; how obtained and supplied. 123 1 1 7. All of you have seen an apple tree, and know the various forms of food into which its fruit can be made; but do you know where and how the tree gets the food which it lives upon ? Let us talk about this. 1 1 8. The substances which supply it with its food or nourishment are in the ground and the air. 119. The principal substances are called carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 120. Many thousands of little mouths in the roots are ever on the alert for these substances, which go to make wood, leaves, and fruit ; taking them in with the water in the soil, and sending sap upward to every branch, twig, and leaf. 121. The leaves, too, are at work all day long, breathing in through their countless pores, or mouths, moisture from the atmosphere, and, with the aid of sunlight, changing and prepar- ing the sap. Then the sap returns toward the roots, supplying on its way what is needed for every part of the tree. 122! The roots, trunk, and branches, contain multitudes of little tubes or pipes, through which the sap flows ; one set for the rising sap, and another set for the returning sap. The sap 124 Ages of trees Exogens. is to a tree what blood is to an animal, and both the sap and blood are always in circulation. 123. Leaves not only inhale (breathe in) moisture, but they also exhale (breathe out; it. Some of the water which has brought up the nourishment to the leaves, being no longer required, is thus exhaled or evaporated through the pores of the leaves. 124. Does the apple tree enlarge on the in- side, or outside ; by the rising, or the returning sap? The increase is on the outside of the hard wood, or just along the inner bark, and is supplied by the returning sap. 125. Every year a layer is added; therefore, when such a tree is sawed across the trunk, the layers will appear like rings and show the age of the tree. 126. In counting the rings, the pith (i) and the bark (4), belonging to the first year's growth, are not to be in- Section of an Exog-en of two Cmded. years' growth. ,_ , . , . 127. Trees which thus grow by additions to the outside of the hard wood, or externally, are called exogens (ex'-o- jens) ; such include apple, pear, maple, elm, and many other kinds of trees. 1 28. Trees and plants which increase by inter- nal growth, showing no layers or rings like those Endogens Seeds Cu t l tings. 125 above named, are called en'-do-gens^ such as palm-trees, Indian corn, sugar-cane, wheat, grasses, etc. 129. The newest wood of exogens is just under the bark, while that of endogens is in the center. 130. Endogenous trees and plants just described should not be mistaken for indigenous (in-dij '-e-nus), which means those which are native of a certain country or climate. Section of an Endog-en. Exog-en. Endogen. 131. Trees and plants are multiplied in various ways : by seeds, as acorns, grain and cotton-seed ; by cuttings, as the grape-vine, sugar-cane, and 126 How Vegetation is extended. geraniums; by dividing or separating roots, tubers, and bulbs, as the strawberry, potato, dahlia, and hyacinth ; and by grafting. 132. Grafting is the insertion of a cutting or bud of one plant into a branch or stem of another. This is often done with rose and fruit trees. J 33- Vegetation is extended over the land not only by men, but also by the winds, streams, ocean-currents, birds, bees, etc. Seed of a Maple Tree, Full Size. 1 34. Many seeds are provided with a kind of wing or some light substance, and are scat- seed of the Thistle. Pern, with Spore.. tered far and wide by the winds, as those of the ash, elm, and maple trees, the thistle and the dandelion. How a Maple tree grows. 127 135. Plants are divided into two general classes, flowering and flowerless. Flowering plants and trees produce seeds, each containing an embryo or undevel- oped plant. Flowerless plants, such as ferns, have spores instead of seeds. These appear like brown dust or spots on the leaves. Try to bring a fern leaf with spores on it to your teacher. How a Maple Tree begins to grow. 136. The origin or beginning of a plant is a seed, which is a wonderful combination of all the parts of that plant. 137. Placed in the ground, the seed sends down its roots to find food or nourishment and also to hold the plant firmly in its place. Then the stem appears above ground. When the plant is grown and perfect, it consists of these five parts : root, stem or trunk, leaves, flowers, and iruit. You may bring some specimens of seeds, and be prepared to mention the name of the tree or plant to which each belongs. 128 How an Oak grows from an Acorn. 138. At the end of every little root is a kind of mouth and, as different kinds of plants require different kinds of nourishment, these little roots, which appear like bunches of threads, keep spreading themselves in the ground in search of the particular substances just suit- ed to the plant which it is their duty to supply. 139. So you may consider the roots and their mouths to be the storehouse and food- gatherers ; the long, narrow pipes in the stem or trunk, the channels or means of convey- ance; and the leaves to be a kind of stomach or manufactory for preparing the food and making it fit for use. That is, all parts of a tree or plant act in harmony with each other for some good purpose. 140. There are different kinds of roots : ist, those of forest trees, which extend in various directions and some- times to greater distances than the trunk and its branches ; 2d, those which appear like a bunch of threads or fibers, and which are called fibrous, as those of the hyacinth and grasses ; 3d, those associated with tubers, How an Oak begins to grow. like the potato, and which are called fleshy roots ; 4th, those which taper downward and send out fibers from their sides, like the carrot and parsnip. How Trees differ from each other. 129 141. Roots are divided also into different kinds, according to their length of life ; into annual, or those which live but one year ; bi- en'ni-al, those which live but two years ; and per-en 'ni-al, those which live several years, 142. To which of these divisions does a morning-glory belong ? A rose bush ? A pear tree ? A currant bush ? A fern ? Beets ? A cotton plant ? Grasses ? Indian corn ? Carjots ? Butter-cups ? Some trees, like the oak, cedar, pine and olive, live for centuries. 143. Trees differ also in their stems or trunks; some grow up for a short distance from the ground and then Hyacinth, branch out in every direction, like the apple tree ; while others grow up almost in a straight line, ten times as high as any apple tree ; such are the mammoth trees of California, the eucalyptus* trees of Aus- tralia, and the cocoanut trees of Africa and Asia. The trees just named are remark- able for the great distance between the ground and their lower branches. The cocoanut and other palms have all their leaves at the top. How Corn grows. * lu-ka-lip'tus.] 130 About Leaves. 144. Trees which lose their leaves in autumn are called de-cid'u-ous, which means falling off. Those which retain their leaves through the winter, or until new leaves appear, are called evergreen. An apple tree is deciduous, and a hemlock i evergreen. 145. Leaves differ from each other very greatly in their size, shape, color, and construc- tion ; some have smooth edges, while others have saw-like edges ; some are long and narrow, like those of Indian corn and the sugar cane, while others are broad and round, like the cab- bage and begonia. Leaves differ from each other also in regard to the number and arrange- ment of their veins. Leaf Veins. Veinlets. Veinulets. 146. VEINS. The first leaf above shows its stem or foot-stalk, called its pet'-i-ole (/ > ), from which, at the base of the leaf, spring its veins, five in number. Leaf Veins, Veinlets > etc. 131 147. VEINLETS. The next shows small branches from the veins, called veinlets. 148. At the end of some words, let signifies small; as leaf/n more to keep the furnace always full. The fire burns all through this mass, so that the ore is melted ; a part of which mixes with the heat- ed limestone, making what is called slag, and leaving the iron free to run down below. This the iron is sure to do, because it is heavier than all the other things. 24. The fire in the furnace is kept up day and night, and on Sundays as well, because if they were to allow the fire to go out, it would take about a week to get it in order again. But the same men do not work at it all the time; there are two sets or gangs of them, and their time is arranged so that each gang shall have the same amount of night-work. Twice a day they let the melted iron run out of the furnace and conduct it along narrow earthen gutters into hollows or molds of sand or iron, about three feet long and three inches wide as well as deep. 25. These, from their lying side by side like a litter of pigs, are called pig-iron. This is again melted to make anything of cast-iron, and is poured into very smooth earthen molds of the desired shape. All our iron stoves are made of such castings. 152 Wr ought-Iron Steel. 26. To make wrought-iron, the pig-iron is melted, and a convenient quantity is lifted out and beaten with hammers continually while hot, and in every direction, until it is sufficiently thus "wrought," which makes it tough and flexible. 27. This is then made into bars or chains or any other shape that is preferred. It is also rolled while hot between rollers with grooves in them so as to make long bars of different shapes and thicknesses for different purposes. Wire also is made from wrought-iron. 28. To make steel, this iron is heated again with charcoal ; part of the charcoal goes into the iron and makes it capable of being tem- pered in the fire, so as to be made very hard and very elastic, taking thus a finer edge when made into tools and ground. It is from this that we get all our knives, hatchets, axes, chis- els, gouges, adzes, and other tools. Razors are made from the best and finest steel, and when carefully ground and sharpened have a very fine cutting edge. 29. More iron is obtained in England than in any other country in the world ; and in Pennsylvania and Michigan, which furnish about one-half the quantity produced in the United States. (Census 1880.) 30. In Missouri is Iron Mountain, a mass of iron 200 feet high, covering an area of 500 acres. 31. The place most noted for the manufacture of knives is Sheffield, a town in England. Salt-mines Salt, how Obtained. 153 32. The salt-mines in the northern part of Austria are about 1,000 feet in depth and two miles in length. They con- tain many great rooms, galleries, and pas- sages, all cut out by the miners. There are valuable salt-mines also in Russia, Eng- land, Germany, Italy, and Spain. 33. Salt is obtained not only from mines, but also from the water of the ocean, salt springs and wells, which you have already learned in the chapter on springs and wells. A Famous Salt-mine in Austria. 154 Silver-mining. Silver-mines in Colorado. 34. Silver-mining is carried on very exten- sively in the States of Nevada and Colorado, where some men have become immensely rich almost in a single day, owing to the discovery of silver on their land. 35. Many of the mines are far up high mountains and reach to great distances within them. 36. Silver is found also in Utah, Montana, and other Territories of the United States. It was formerly found in large quantities in Mexi- co, Bolivia, and Peru. 37. It is said that many years ago an Indian hunter in South America, in pulling up a shrub, observed something white and shining clinging to the roots, and that this led to the discovery of a mountain almost filled with silver. Gol'd-m in ing Copper. 155 38. Gold, the most precious of all the metals is found not only in deep mines like those of iron, coal, or silver 39. It has been found in the sands of streams, into which it has been carried from the crumbling rocks by rains, and from which it is ob- tained by washing. Consider- able gold is obtained by direct- ing a powerful stream of water a g a inst the rocks by means of a hose, which is supplied from large collections of water on higher ground. This is called hydrau- lic mining. 40. Pure gold is too soft for general use, there- fore it is mixed with silver or copper, which are harder ; it is then said to be alloyed, or reduced in purity. 41. For gilding, a portion of gold is ham- mered out into leaves so thin that several hun- dred of them together would be no thicker than one of the leaves of your book. 42. California, Nevada, and Australia have long been celebrated for gold. 43. Copper ore is found in several countries and States, especially in the Republic of Chili and in the State of Michigan, along- the shores of Lake Superior. 156 Tin Zinc Lead Brass. 44. Tin ore is obtained principally from the mines of England, Australia, the Malay Peninsula, and two islands, Banca and Bil- liton, which lie southeast of that peninsula. 45. In Cornwall, the most southwestern county in England, are hundreds of mines of tin and copper, some of which extend far out from the shore and under the bed of the ocean ; in these the moaning of the restless waves overhead is always heard, and their roaring while a storm iasts is fearful to listen to. 46. Tin is white and bright, but too soft for ordinary use; therefore, sheets of iron are dipped into melted tin, enough of which adheres to the iron to form a thin white coating. Sheet-iron thus coated is the substance of which tin cups, pans, etc., are made, and with which the roofs of some houses are covered. You see, therefore, that a tin cup is really made of iron. 47. Bronze and bell-metal are made of copper and tin mixed together. Brass is made of copper and zinc mixed together. There are, consequently, no mines or ores of brass or bronze. 48. Zinc is a metal of a bluish gray tint. It is exten- sively mined in several countries in Europe, and in the States of Wisconsin, Missouri, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. 49. Lead is mined very extensively in Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri. It is used in roofing houses, lining tanks, and in making bullets, shot, and wa ter-pipes. 50. Lead pencils are made of a mineral called plumba- go, which is not lead, but a kind of coal. Extensive mines of this substance are found in England and Si- beria. REVIEW OF CHAPTER XIII. What is a mine ? A pit or other opening dug in the earth from which men gel coal, iron, or any other minerals. Mention some of the different parts of a mine and its works. Which is the most useful of all the minerals ? Coal. Mention some of its uses. How is coal taken out of a mine ? What are the dangers of coal-mining ? How do miners see to work in the dark mines ? Do you know what coal is made of? What is charcoal ? What are made from coal ? Where does most of the coal used in the world come from ? Where are the deepest coal mines ? Which is the most useful of all metals ? Iron. Is iron taken out of the mine in a pure state ? How is it separated from im- purities ? What is pig iron ? What is wrought iron ? Of what kind of iron are stoves made ? Of what kind are iron chains and horse- shoes made? What is steel ? What articles are made of steel ? What state is celebrated for its coal and iron ? Pennsylvania. In what direc- tion is Pennsylvania from your state ? How is salt obtained from the earth ? What countries contain valuable salt mines? Does all salt come out of the mines? What states and territories are celebrated for their silver mines? What two countries in South America have long produced silver? What is the most valuable of all metals? Gold. How is gold obtained? Where? What is gold leaf? Are gold watches, chains and rings usually made of pure gold ? Why not ? Where is California ? Nevada? Australia? Where are the richest copper mines ? What are made of cop- per? Of brass? Is brass found in the earth as copper, iron, etc., are found? Of what two metals is copper made ? Where are the most extensive tin mines? Point to England, Australia? Malay Peninsula. What is zinc used for? Where is it obtained? What states contain extensive lead mines? In what direction from your state is Wisconsin? Illinois? Iowa? Missouri? 158 Spelling and Composition. SPELLING AND WRITING EXERCISES. / ^ dt-tit-e-t.. / t&'t-i Write on slates or papers the names of the principal metals, and opposite them the names of the places where they are mostly obtained. Write a composition about Coal. How mines are entered. The dangers of coal-mining. How coal is obtained. Its origin. Its uses. Write what you know of Iron, Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead, Brass, Salt. About Europe. 159 1. Most of the white people in the world live in Europe. 2. All the white people now in America either came from Europe or are descended from those who came ; therefore they speak European languages and are more interested in the people and places of Europe than in those of Asia or Africa. Europe was inhabited by white people many centuries before America was discovered (in 1492). 3. The English language is spoken in the United States and Canada; the Spanish, in Mexico, Central America, and nearly all South America ; the Portuguese, in Brazil ; and the French, in parts of Canada. 4. You have already learned (on p. 97) that America was for a long time the home only of* Indians, or until it was visited and settled by Europeans. 5. The nations of Europe have ever since continued to send ships to every part of the world to promote civiliza- tion and to establish trade. There is not a port or harbor in the world that is not visited by an English ship, nor a city, town or village where the English language is not heard. 6. The greatest nations in Europe are the Brit- ish, the Germans, the French, and the Russians. 7. Europe is celebrated for its learned men, fine churches and schools, large cities, splendid palaces, extensive mines and factories, its kings, queens, princes, and powerful armies. EUROPE ARCTIC OCEAN North Cape s EXERCISES ON THE MAP. What Grand Division is east of Europe ? Asia. What Grand Division south ? Africa. What ocean north of Europe ? West ? What great sea south ? What smaller seas are connected with the Medi- terranean Sea ? What strait connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean? What sea east of Great Britain ? What is the largest country in Europe ? What three seas touch Russia ? What countries touch or border on Russia ? What countries of Europe form islands ? England, Scotland and Wales form the Island of Great Britain; Ireland is an Island. What country in the south is a peninsula ? Italy. What two countries in the north form a peninsula? Norway and Sweden. What smaller country north of the German Empire is mostly a peninsula? Denmark. What two countries in the southwestern part of Europe form one peninsula ? Spain and Portugal. What two small countries lie between the German Em- pire and the North Sea ? Holland and Belgium. What small, mountainous country in Europe has no sea- coast ? Switzerland. Which are the warm countries of Europe ? Those which border on the Mediterranean Sea. What fruits grow in the open air in those countries ? Oranges, lemons, olives and figs. What mountains between France and Spain ? Between Switzerland and Italy ? What large river flows into the west side of the Black Sea ? Into the Caspian Sea ? What bay west of France ? 1 62 About Europe. ABOUT GREAT BRITAIN : Has possessions in Europe, Asia, Africa and America ; Formerly governed this coun- try; English language; Extensive commerce; Coal and iron mines ; cotton, woolen and linen mills ; Con- tains London, the largest and richest city in the world. ABOUT GERMANY : People fond of learning and music ; Fine schools and universities ; German language ; Beautiful River Rhine; Old castles (p. 67); Large vineyards ; Wine ; Linen ; Books ; Toys ; Berlin, a handsome city, about the size of New York. ABOUT FRANCE: Beautiful country; Celebrated for silk, wine and fancy articles; Paris the gayest city in the world twice as large as New York; Formerly an empire now a republic ; French language. ABOUT RUSSIA: Largest country in Europe; Long, cold winters and deep snow; Large army; Empire, ruled by the Czar ; Principal city, St. Petersburg ; Prin- cipal crop, wheat ; Language, Russian. ABOUT HOLLAND : Kingdom ; Ground flat and low ; Many canals and windmills; Language, Dutch; Largest city, Amsterdam. ABOUT SPAIN : Kingdom ; Spaniards first visited America ; Grapes, wine, oranges ; Music, dancing, and bull-fights ; Language, Spanish ; Largest city, Madrid. ABOUT ITALY : Delightful climate Beautiful lakes ; Its capital is the celebrated city of Rome, which contains St. Peter's, the most magnificent church in the world ; The Pope resides in Rome ; Fine statuary and paintings ; Silk ; Grapes ; Kingdom ; Language, Italian ; Largest city, Naples. (The above characteristics may be used for STUDY and DRILL also as topics for COMPOSITION.) Volcanoes Earthquakes Lava. 1 63 A Volcano and other Mountains. CHAPTER XIV. MOUNTAINS, VOLCANOES, ETC. i. Here is a volcano, which is a burning mountain. Sometimes volcanoes throw out red- hot stones, sometimes melted stones called lava, sometimes smoke, and sometimes ashes. Most of them are along the Pacific coasts of Asia and South America. There are more than a thousand volcanoes in the world. They are useful in preventing earthquakes ; in supplying us with sulphur, with some fine kinds of lava, from which bracelets and breast-pins are made, and with pumice-stone, which is the froth that floats sometimes on streams of lava. 1 64 Stromboli Vesuvius. 2. In 1783 a volcano in Iceland sent out two streams of lava, one 40 miles long and 7 miles wide, and the other 50 miles long and 15 miles wide. These streams were from 100 to 600 feet deep. In this eruption n,ooocows, 27,000 horses, and 186,000 sheep perished. 3. In the island of Java is a volcano (Papanday- ang) which, in 1772, threw out ashes and cinders so as to cover the earth fifty feet deep for a distance of seven miles all around the mountain, thus destroying forty villages and twenty thousand people. 4. Sometimes volcanoes rise from the sea. This hap- pened in 1866, near the Navigators' Islands, in the Pacific. Stones, mud, and dust were thrown up 2,000 feet. Some of the, stones going down met others coming up with a terrible crash. For half a mile around the water was in terrible commotion. Heaps of dead fish were washed ashore, and- among them some strange monsters, from six to ten feet long, such as the natives had never seen before; while the atmosphere for miles around was heated and filled with smoke, ashes, and sulphurous vapors. 5. North of Sicily are the Lipari (lip'a-re) Islands. On one of these is a volcano named Stromboli (strorri- bo-le), which has given out lava for 2,000 years, and, from its constant light, has been called the light-house of the Mediterranean. 6. The best-known volcano in the world is Vesuvius, which is in Italy, near the city of Naples. This was not known to be a volcano until the year 79, or about eighteen centuries ago, when it suddenly burst forth and sent out such an immense quantity of ashes and cinders as to overwhelm two cities situated near it. These cities were named Herculaneum and Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. 165 Pompeii {pom-pay'e}. Almost all their inha- bitants managed to escape. The ashes that fell upon Herculaneum were mixed with steam, so that the moist ashes gradually hardened into stone. 7. Pompeii was covered over with dry ashes so completely that nothing could be seen of it. Thus it remained buried until 1748, when it was accidentally discovered. Excava- tions were then commenced and have conti- nued to the present day. About one-third of the city has been uncovered, and you can now walk along the streets and look into the houses, and see exactly how people lived in those days. 8. Vesuvius frequently pours out lava, and travelers often stand close by a stream of lava flowing from it, and see smoke issuing from its crater. 9. A story is told of a Roman soldier who was guard- ing one of the gates of that ancient city at the time it was destroyed. Although the people rushed wildly past him, in their anxiety to escape suffocation and death, he stood at his post, and, unfortunately, having no orders to leave it, he remained and perished. When the great heaps of ashes were carried away from that part of the city nearly seventeen centuries afterwards his skeleton was found on the spot, with his weapons beside it. 10. The ruins include those of dwellings, temples, thea- tres, statues, fountains, etc. REVIEW OF CHAPTER XIV. What is a mountain ? Land raised to a great height. How high are the highest mountains? About five miles above the level of the ocean. * In what part of the world are the highest? In Asia. With what are the tops of the highest mountains always cov- ered ? Snow. With what are the sides of nearly all mountains covered? Trees. What mountain in this country is named after our first presi- dent? Mount Washington. Where is Mount Washington ? In New Hampshire. What is the highest mountain in the United States? Mount Whitney ', in California. What great line, range or chain of mountains extends through the western part of the United States ? The Rocky Mountains. Mention other celebrated mountains of the world. The Alps in Ettrope, and the Andes in South America. What is a volcano ? (See page 163.) What do volcanoes throw out? Along what coasts are most of the volcanoes? About how many volcanoes are there in the world? Are any volcanoes in the state (or territory) in which you live? Are there any mountains? Which is the most celebrated volcano in the world? Where is Vesuvius? How were two cities de- stroyed by it? How long did these cities afterward remain com- pletely under the ashes ? What volcano is called the " light-house of the Mediterranean?" Why? What volcano in Sicily? Etna. SPELLING AND WRITING EXERCISES. 4e.&-&c You may write a composition about any mountain which you have seen or read about ; telling how it looks, how it is ascended what may be seen in the ascent what dangers attend traveling up mountains ; or you may write a composition about the eruption of Vesuvius. Write as much as will fill one page of a copy-book. What Light-houses are for. 167 CHAPTER XV. LIGHT-HOUSES. 1 . Light-houses are very necessary in saving ships. When the wind is blowing a ship towards the shore on a dark night, if there were no light-houses the ship would inevitably be destroyed. 2. The United States has many miles of sea-coast along the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, as well as on the Gulf of Mex- ico, and also in the great lakes of the north ; these lakes are like seas of fresh water. 3. To protect the shipping on all this long line of coast this country supported in 1873 six hundred and twenty light-houses. 4. Light-houses are built of stone, brick, or iron. To look at some of the rocks before a light- house is built on them, you \vould say that it was impossible to build anything on such a slippery, wave- washed place as that, for some- times the rock can be seen for a short time only at low tide. A Light-house. 1 68 Spelling and Writing Exercise. 5. The ingenuity and patient thought of man can, however, overcome many difficulties, and one plan after another has been tried, until all obstacles have been overcome. 6. The next time it blows hard on a dark night, especially if the wind blow towards the shore, you can readily imagine every one on board a ship peering eagerly to see the wished- for light. When at length they see it, what joy spreads from stem to stern ! The captain takes out his watch, and, after observing a little, says : " It is a revolving light, and it revolves in so many minutes ; now I know which light it is, and I know just where we are." REVIEW OF CHAPTER XV. What are light-houses built for ? Of what materials are they built ? On what are they built ? On the coast, usually on capes and islands. If the keeper should neglect the light, what might be the consequence ? How does he get up to the light ? By means of stairs inside the light-house. SPELLING AND WRITING EXERCISE. , d ris 'ij>, How Windmills Work. 169 CHAPTER XVI. WINDMILLS. i. Here is a windmill (pointing to it on the chart). This is a machine by means of which we take hold of the wind, that we cannot see, and make it do work that we can see. Wind- mills are often used in this country to grind wheat into flour, and corn into meal. Black-board Drawing-. Cog-wheels. Draw them by means of chalk and a piece of cord. 2. The large sails of the windmill turn a large shaft with a cog-wheel that is, a strong iron wheel with teeth, called cogs, all around it. These teeth, or cogs, fit into the cogs of other wheels and make them go around, so that you can change in any way that is necessary the di- rection of the moving wheels. Thus a very large, round, and flat stone with a hole in the middle is made to turn around above another stone and very close to it. 3. If wheat is poured into the hole in the upper millstone it gets down between the stones., 170 Windmills Used for Pumping. and there, as this upper millstone turns around, the wheat is ground into flour, which drops out all around the edges of the stone. This flour is sifted, and put into barrels, and then sold to those who wish to make bread, biscuit, cakes, pies, or anything else from it. 4. Sometimes this is done by steam-mills, and one of those here in front may be a steam flouring-mill (see chart.) 5. The earth gives the grain ; fire gives its power to the steam-miil, and is used in baking the bread ; water must be mixed with the flour to make dough ; air must be got into the dough so as to raise it up and make it light; air also helps the windmill to grind the flour; it is, there- fore, clear that fire, air, earth, and water all contribute to the making of our bread. 6. In Holland, where the land in some places is lower than the surface of the sea, hun- dreds of windmills are placed along the dikes for the same purpose. They can also be seen in this country near some large country-seats, where they are used to pump up water, so that it may be had in the highest stories of the houses. REVIEW. OF CHAPTER XVI. What are the uses of windmills ? What moves their wheels ? What are made from flour ? How is bread made ? SPELLING AND WRITING EXERCISE. Balloons Why They Rise. 171 Excursion in a Balloon. CHAPTER XVII. BALLOONS. 1. Here is a balloon. The first balloons were made in 1783, of paper, and were made to rise by heated air coming from chopped straw that was burned in a wire grating below them. This heated air, being lighter than the common air about it, makes the balloon rise up, just as a cork does in water. (Afterwards pure hydrogen gas was used, and then carburetted hydrogen, which is what we use to burn in our houses.) 2. The first man who ever dared to go up in a balloon was a young Frenchman (named De Rozier), who was killed two years after (1785) by the burning of his balloon. Two persons crossed the Straits of Dover in a balloon in that same year. The first woman balloonist (Madame Blanchard),after several ascensions.attempted to set off some 172 Balloons How Moved and Used. fireworks while rising up from a garden near Paris in 1796. Her balloon caught fire, and she was dashed to pieces. 3. An English a'er-o-naut or balloonist made 1,400 ascensions, crossing the English Channel three times and falling into it twice. In the highest strata of air reached by balloons men suffer severely from cold, no matter how hot the day may be on the ground they leave. The breath- ing becomes difficult, the pulse much quickened, and the throat parched. The highest mountain in the world is 5^ miles high, but in 1862 two Englishmen ascended to the height of 37,000 feet, or 7 miles. Both, however, were nearly killed by the cold. 4. A balloon moves about very easily in the air, so that a very slight change of weight will affect it seriously. 5. Soon after the invention of balloons they were used in war, being held fast by a long rope, while some officers looked down from them to see what was going on in the enemy's camp. 6. In the last war in the United States a bal- loon corps (kor) was organized, and news was telegraphed from these balloons to headquar- ters. 7. On one occasion General Fitz-John Porter was observ- ing the enemy's lines from a balloon, when the rope broke and he was carried rapidly towards the enemy. Pulling the valve-string, he caused an escape of gas. This admitted enough outside or heavier air, lowered the balloon and brought him into a different current of air, which fortu- nately took him back to where he started from. 8. When Paris was besieged by the Germans in 1870, fifty-four balloons were sent off at different times by the Spelling and Writing Exercise. 173 Post-office Department. These carried millions of let- ters. Sixty-two were sent off in all during the siege, most- ly at night, so as to escape the observation of their ene- mies, the Germans. 9. In spite of all precautions, several fell within the ene- my's lines. One was fired at while crossing the Prussian out- posts. Several were carried outside of France. One was swept into Norway, and landed 600 miles north of the city of Christiania. Three were never heard of after they set out, and were most probably lost in the Atlantic Ocean. 10. Some men who wished to get out of the besieged city went in these balloons as passengers. Among these was a member of the Provisional Government, the now famous Gambetta, who, voyaging safely through the air, arrived at the city of Tours, where he joined his colleagues in the government. SPELLING AND WRITING EXERCISE. *& / /' y \^ W>1^tt&fc' , # -^-ZZ.-^-^ -', / -^t/MstZ-, / . / ^i,^r^C^-e^ , 1-tt // / / V t^p^^-^^f, 'fai^'fr'ti'V, Why does a balloon rise in the air ? What causes it to come down ? What about the temperature of the air through which it ascends ? About Asia. 175 CO O 0* LU 23 23 s UJ S S | o o G a 8 o S tt*J t3 o> en en ^ I '&&, Is 1 .2 S, OQ 176 About Asia. The capital of the Chinese Empire is the largest city in Asia ; what is its name ? Pekin, which is larger than New York and Brooklyn combined. Which are the most civilized people in Asia? The Japanese and Chinese. Which are the most friendly with white people ? The Japanese. What is the largest city in Japan? Tokio, which is nearly as large as Philadelphia. Mention some of the countries in the southern part of Asia ? In the western part ? What parts of Asia contain extensive deserts ? Arabia, Persia, and the northern part of the Chinese Empire. How do merchants or traders cross deserts ? In large companies, called caravans. What animal is the most useful in crossing deserts ? The Camel. How do many people of Western Asia live ? They live in tents, and move from place to place to find pasture for their sheep, goats, horses, and camels. North of Hindostan are the highest mountains in the world, what is their name ? The Himalaya Mountains.* By what country is Hindostan governed ? England. What grow extensively in Hindostan? Cotton, Rice, and Opium. In Anam, Siam, and Birmah? Rice. In Arabia ? Coffee and Dates. What is the difference in climate between Siberia and the southern countries of Asia? Siberia is very cold; Hindostan, Arabia and the other countries in the south are very hot. What animals are found in Siberia ? The Reindeer, Wolf, and White Bear. In Hindostan ? The Elephant, Tiger, Rhinoceros and Crocodile. * The highest peak in Asia is 29,000 feet above the level of the sea ; in South America, 23,000 feet ; in Africa, 20,000 feet ; in North America, 18,000 feet ; and in Europe, 15,000 feet. About Birds The Eagle. ^ /| ; :N Blackboard Drawing. American Eagle. Height, 3 feet; width of outspread wings, 8 feet. CHAPTER XVIII. ABOUT BIRDS. 1. Here is a bird which can rise in the air as high as any balloon, and can steer itself so as to go whither it wishes, which is more than the man in the balloon can do. For this purpose it is contrived with wonderful wisdom. Number- less air-cells are distributed throughout its body, extending even into its bones. These air-cells the bird can fill at pleasure, and thus rise more easily in the air, or it can empty them and make itself heavier, so as to descend more rap- idly upon its prey. Its feathers are models of strength and lightness. It is an eagle (see chart). 2. The EAGLE is a bird of prey that is, it procures its food by violence or robbery, seizing not only other birds but also young fawns, rac- coons, rabbits, wild turkeys, etc. Its height or 178 Birds of Prey Eagte Condor. length is about three feet. Some eagles have been known to live more than a hundred years. 3. The EAGLE is noted for its great strength and endurance, and it has been accepted as an emblem of the United States, also of Prussia, Austria, and other great nations. 4. Although eagles have been reported to be very fierce, and as having carried off young chil- dren, yet they have not always shown as much bravery and courage as some smaller birds. 5. On account of the eagle's cowardice and tyranny Benjamin Franklin lamented that it should have been se- lected as the emblem of this country. 6. The young eagles, called eaglets, are driven from their eyrie (a 1 re), or nesfr, by the old ones, so soon as they are able to provide for themselves. Head and Bill of Humming-Bird, 1 inch long-; of Eagle, 10 inches; of Condor, 10 inches all to be drawn on the black- board full size. 7. The largest bird of flight is the CONDOR, which has its home in the Andes Mountains. It lives in the highest and loneliest places, and, like the eagle, it is a bird of prey. Two of Condor Owl. 1 79 them, driven by hunger, do not hesitate to at- tack a horse, or a bull, or other large animal, which they tear to pieces with their strong, sharp beaks and talons (claws) ; and when they have killed it they so gorge themselves with its flesh that they are unable to fly. Men who wish to capture them take ad- vantage of this greedi- ness, and leave the dead body of a horse or other animal on the field until the condor has eaten so much as to become help- less. Its height is about four feet. 8. Humboldt, a celebrated German naturalist and travel- ler, once noticed a condor fly- ing over the summit of Chim- borazo (Chim-bo-rah'zo), a Blackboard Drawing-. mountain in South America Barn Owl. Height 1 5 inches. - .. ,. , more than four miles high. Humboldt made very important explorations in the Old World, also in Mexico, the West Indies, the United States of Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. 9. The OWL is remarkable for its large, round eyes, feathered ears, and fear of daylight. It flies about and seeks its food in the night-time, de- 180 Sizes of Birds Hawk Humming-bird. vouring mice, birds, moles, young rabbits, etc. It builds in caves, old walls, towers, etc. There are more than a hundred species. 10. The OSPREY, or FISH-HAWK, is said to be able to carry a fish of its own weight, but the eagle, when he sees the osprey carrying off a fish, pounces upon him, and, forcing him to let go, swoops down with wonderful swiftness, catching the falling fish before it can touch the water. 11. The birds of prey include the eagle, condor, vulture, falcon (faw'kri), hawk, and owl. Their characteristics are strength, hooked bill, strong, sharp talons, fierce look, and keen scent. Condor. 12. The FALCON obtains its prey while it is flying. It is trained to capture other birds. Its home is in Europe and America. 13. Birds vary in size, from the huge condor, that has a body four feet long, and wings which sometimes spread out fourteen feet in width, to the little humming-bird, which is not much larger than a big beetle. 14. The HUMMING-BIRD is small and very beautiful. It is remarkable for its long bill, which reaches honey and insects inside of flowers, for its feathers of rich green, red, purple, and brown, and for the quick motions of its wings, which cause the humming sound. Like Weaver-birds Oriole. 1 8 1 most other beautiful birds, they are more nume- rous in Brazil and other warm countries of South America than in the United States. There are about four hundred species of hum- ming-birds. 15. Audubon, the celebrated American ornithologist, in describing the humming-bird, called it the " glittering fragment of the rainbow." 1 6. There is a bird that knows how to sew, and is therefore called the tailor-bird. He sews leaves together and thus forms his nest. Others take long grass or any other fibrous material, and weave it into a kind of coarse cloth, of which they make their nests. 17. We have one of these weaver-birds in our country. It is called the BALTIMORE ORIOLE, a beautiful bird covered with orange and black feathers. 1 8. This nest, as you see (referring to the drawing on the black- Blackboard drawing of Baiti- board), is not only more Oriole. Full lengrth of . bird, 74 inches. strongly woven together, 1 82 Plasterer Birds Chimney -swallow. but kept frpm swaying too violently in the wind by cords that brace it in different direc- tions. 19. The Baltimore oriole spends the winter in Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies, and returns north in the spring, flying all day and resting at night. It is known as far north as the New England States, and is sometimes called the " fire-bird," from its color, also "hang bird" and " golden robin." 20. Some birds are good plasterers, and fix their nests with mud or clay very neatly and se- curely in any favorable place. Some are so skil- ful as to make them adhere securely to the smooth surface of glass. 21. Our common CHIMNEY-SWALLOW is a very good plasterer. 22. He has, besides, a very curious arrangement in his head. There are two glands or bags in the back part of it, which are filled with liquid glue. After he has made a shelf of mud or clay he makes his nest of tender twigs, interlacing them and joining their ends smoothly together by means of this liquid glue, so that no rough ends may stick out on the inside. After being lined with feathers or any other soft material and securely plastered around on the outside, it is ready for the eggs. 23. Cuvier was one of the greatest naturalists that ever lived. His attention was first called to this study by some of these plasterers. When quite a young man he went one summer to spend his vacation in a little place near the sea. Just outside of his window two swallows had built their nest. One day a strange bird came and 'took possession of the nest, opposing its sharp beak to the Ingenuity of Birds. 183 mother-bird when she came home. She and her mate chattered together for some time, and then flew away. 24. They came back soon, however, with a great many others. They chattered together for a little while, and then flew away again. 25. Presently they all reappeared, flying in a long file, one after the other, each bearing some mud in its claws. They flew close to the nest, where sat the strange bird in impudent security, and, as they passed, each threw the mud he carried directly into the face of the intruder, which was thus killed and buried in the very place of his crime the nest he had stolen. 26. From that moment Cuvier devoted himelf to the study of birds, fishes, insects, quadrupeds, and other ani- mals, and became distinguished for his knowledge of natu- ral history. 27. There are other birds which may be called miners, for they dig holes in the earth and make their nests at the end of these holes. 28. Such are the SAND MARTINS, which dig in a dry sand-bank horizontal galleries, at the ends of which they have their comfortable nests. They fly about in small flocks, and seem to make very pleasant and sociable little communities. 29. These things show that birds, though their heads are small, must have brains. 30. It is said by some naturalists that the CANARY-BIRD has a larger brain in proportion to the size of its body than . any other living creature ; however, it is wonderful to see these bright little birds, after only a fortnight's training, act before an audience, fight mimic battles and duels, fire cannons, fall down as if shot, and, feigning death, be car- ried off by their companions with astonishing composure. 1 84 Cormorant Toucan Bird-of- Paradise. Cormorant, length 3 feet ; Toucan, 17 inches long:, its bill, 9 in- ches ; Bird-of- Paradise, head and body together, 12 inches in length ; its tail-feathers, 24 inches. Draw full size. 31. The birds trained by the Chinese to catch fish for their masters are called CORMORANTS. 32. Like the duck, goose, and swan, the cor- morant has webbed feet and short legs. He is a very expert diver and swimmer, making use not only of his feet but also of his wings under the water. 33. The TOUCAN (too'kan) is remarkable for its large orange-red bill, which is more than half as long as its body. 34. The feathers of its back and wings are mostly black, and of its throat, white. It builds in the holes of trees, and feeds on fruits, small birds, reptiles, and insects. 35. Unlike eagles and condors, which live in pairs, the toucans live in flocks. 36. They are numerous in Brazil and othei warm parts of South America. 37. The BIRD-OF-PARADISE, from which long, beautiful feathers of brilliant colors green, Movements of Birds. 185 yellow, red, and purple are obtained for ladies' hats, is a native of the island of Papua (/#/'- oo-a), or New Guinea. It is found also on Celebes (sel'e-bees), the Philippine {fil'ip- pin), and other islands southeast of Asia. It is about as large as a pigeon, and feeds on seeds, grasshoppers, etc. 38. Other birds which are remarkable for the length and beauty of their tails are the LYRE-BIRD of Australia and the TROGAN of the Torrid Zone. 39. The rapidity with which birds can move through the air is astonishing. Few persons have any idea of the force expended in the ac- tion of flight. 40. Some birds fly so rapidly that the strokes of the wing cannot be counted. | The wings of the humming- bird when in motion cannot even be seen. 41. Let any one try to count the strokes of the wing of a pigeon or of the diving sea-fowl, and he will find that it is utterly im possible. Birds building: a nest. 1 8 6 Carrier-pigeon Ostrich. 42. Still more astonishing is the wonderful power possessed by some birds of finding their way through the pathless air, with no apparent means of guiding their course. This has been turned to account by man in the case of the CARRIER-PIGEONS, which are used in carrying let- ters to distant places. 43. When Paris was besieged by the Germans in 1870, a great many letters were carried to and fro by these birds. 44. Their general rate of flight does not usually exceed thirty miles per hour. 45. Some carrier-pigeons were let loose at Scranton, in Pennsylvania, in 1878, and they alighted on the coop of their owner in the city of New York, after flying a dis- tance of one hundred and six miles, in about three hours. 46. PIGEON-HAWKS must, of course, fly faster than pigeons so as to catch them, and they are sometimes trained for that purpose, so that the letters carried by the carrier-pigeons may come into the possession of those for whom they were not intended. ^_- 47. Some birds, on the other hand, cannot fly at all. In this case their bones are as solid as ours. One of these, the OSTRICH, is the tallest of living birds, being sometimes eight to ten feet high, and weigh- ing from fifty to one hundred pounds, ostriches. 48. They furnish us with very beautiful feath- ers. These are so valuable that men have Cassowary Emu Mound-bird. 187 caught and tamed the ostriches, and you may now see in South Africa ostrich farms where these birds are reared. 49. There is an ostrich found in South Ameri- ca, but it is smaller than the African ostrich. It is called the RHEA. Its feathers are so much less beautiful that, in place of adorning the heads of our ladies, they are made into feather dusters. 50. During the day the heat of the sun aids in hatching the eggs of the African ostrich, but at night the male bird sits on the nest so as to protect the eggs from all assaults, and if attacked by a wild animal it will kill it by a kick. One of these eggs will weigh from two to three pounds, and is equal to about twenty-four such eggs as you some- times have for breakfast. 51. The CAS'SO-WA-RY of Eastern Asia and the E'MU of Australia resemble the ostrich very much, but are not so large. They are very swift runners. The os- trich when pursued runs about thirty miles an hour, and is only captured by Arabs on swift horses after a chase of several hours. 52. Some eagles, hawks, and crows are so cunning as to have found out that a turtle or a clam, no matter how closely shut up, may be opened by being carried up high into the air and then let fall upon a rock. 53. The MOUND-BIRDS, that live in Australia, are cun- ning enough to have found out that fermenting vege- table matter gives out heat enough to hatch eggs; so, after scraping up grass and weeds in their claws, they throw them together so as to make a huge heap or mound, 1 88 Usefulness of Birds. sometimes seven feet high and twenty feet across. The heat of the interior of this is said to reach sometimes ninety-five degrees. 54. In this mound the birds make holes, in which they deposit their eggs, and leave them there to be hatched out by this internal heat. 55. Our domestic fowls, as well as many other birds/ supply us with food. Others supply us with feathers for our pillows; others give us pens to write with. In some places men train hawks to catch other birds for them, and some large hawks are trained to kill even gazelles and small deer. 56. Birds also give men much amusement by the various tricks they are taught. Par- rots and some other birds can be taught to pronounce words, and can be made to repeat whole sentences so naturally as to startle and surprise those people who hear them. 57. Birds are very use- ful to us, not only for food and their beautiful feath- Parrot. ers> but also for destroy- ing insects which would do great damage to trees and plants. They also devour snakes, lizards, etc. 58. The SERPENT BIRD of Africa will attack a large snake, making use of one of his strong wings as a shield and of the other as a weapon, with which he inflicts blow after blow until the reptile is overcome. Woodpecker Pelican. Blackboard Drawing: White Pelican; full length, 5 feet; bill, 14 inches long:; pouch, 7 inches deep. Woodpecker; full length, 15 inches. 59. The WOODPECKER appears to have a hard life when compared with that of birds which easily find their food on the ground, in the water, or among the leaves of the trees ; for the worms and insects upon which he lives are hidden away in the trunks of trees. To get them he must tear away the bark and per- haps bore or drill deep holes in the hard wood. This he does with his long, strong bill, much faster than any of you could do it with a sharp knife. 60. The Woodpecker runs up and around the trunk of a tree, tapping with his bill as he goes, and when he hears a hollow sound, he knows a worm is there. 6 1. Some Woodpeckers also bore large holes in trees in which to build their nests, 62. The PELICAN is remarkable for the great pouch or sack which is under its long bill and 1 90 The Heron. which serves as a kind of scoop-net. This pouch will hold fish sufficient for the dinner of six men. 63. Pelicans are expert fish- ers. A number of them will surround a shoal of fishes and, gradually swimming closer to- gether, drive them into shallow water, where they devour them in large quantities. Having webbed feet, they are excellent swimmers. 64. They feed their young with food which they had swal- lowed, and which they have the power of raising to their bills. 65. Pelicans are found in Florida, California and other parts of North America; alsa in Asia, Africa and Southeast ern Europe. Some are white, and others brown. 66. Another excellent fisher is the HERON. It is remarkable for its long, curved neck, long bill, and long, straight legs, which are admirably adapted to its mode of life. Its feet are not webbed and, consequently, it is not a swimmer. 67. Its home is near swamps. Its food consists of fish, frogs, etc., which it catches by watching in dark, lonely spots. In this respect it differs from the Pelican, Gull, Petrel and Ibis, which are very active. Blackboard Drawing-: Her- on; full height, 3H feet. Flamingo Stork. 1 9 1 68. Another very tall bird similar in shape to the Heron is the RED FLAMINGO. It is a swim- mer and wader. With its webbed feet it digs in the mud for worms, insects, and small fishes. 69. It is found in the marshes, lakes, and rivers of Asia, Africa, and the warm parts of Europe. It is about as tall as a man. 70. The WHITE STORK is also a long-legged wader. It is noted for its intelligence and is very observing, readily judging of the feelings entertained toward it by the people on whose house-tops or chimney-tops it wishes to build its great, rough nest. 71. In Holland and Germany, which Storks visit every year, some of these birds become very tame and play with the children in the streets. Their feet are not webbed. Are Storks swimmers ? You will observe that all birds which have webbed feed are good swimmers, but very clumsy walkers, as the Goose, Swan and Duck. 72. When the time arrives for Storks to leave their nests and migrate, they have been known to kill their sick ; but, on the other hand, they are generally kind to each other, and the young have been noticed to watch anxiously over the aged and helpless of their kind, bringing them food and otherwise tenderly caring for them. 73. The Stork passes the winter in Egypt, where, like the VULTURE, another large bird, it feeds on garbage, car- rion and other such substances, thus preventing the spread of disease among the people who are too indolent to cleanse their streets. It is about as tall as a boy nine vears of age four feet. 1 9 2 Cra ne Swan Kingfisher. 74. The CRANE is another long-necked, long-legged bird, very active, graceful, and intelligent. Like the Stork, it spends its winters in Egypt and other warm countries and its summers further north. Its food is fish, frogs, and vegetables. 75. The SWAN, which has a long neck and short legs, is considered the most grace- ful of swimmers. Both father and mother carry their young on their backs and shelter them under their wings ; and, should the safety of their brood be threatened, they do not hesitate to attack man, horse, fox, dog, or any other aggres- sor. 76. Swans belong to Europe, Asia and North America ; their food consists chiefly of the roots and bulbs of water plants. It is said that some Swans live as long as an Elephant one hundred years. 77. The KINGFISHER, like the Gull, pounces Blackboard Drawing: King- Upon itS prey at the SUr- fisher; length, 12 inches. c r unlike it, it sits alone on a branch which over- hangs the water, while the Gull and the Stormy Petrel skim rapidly and almost unceasingly over the water in search of their food. Blackboard Drawing : Snipe and Common Quail ; height of each about 9 inches. 78. The SNIPE, a much smaller bird than the Heron, has long legs and a long, slender bill, which are admirably adapted to procuring its food insects and worms on coasts and marshes. 79. The Snipe belongs chiefly to North America and Europe. Included in this family are the WOODCOCK and PLOVER, which are highly prized by sportsmen. The PENGUIN of the Antarctic Regions, and the PUFFIN and AUK of the Arctic Regions sit upright when on shore. 80. The QUAIL has a short bill and feeds on grain, seeds, berries and insects, which it finds on the ground. It flies low and only when startled lights upon trees. 81. Quails pass the night on the ground, all huddled together in a circle, with their heads outward, the better to listen and fly if danger approaches. 82. Similar to the Quail are the Partridge, Pheasant, and Grouse ; indeed, these names are sometimes applied indiscriminately to the same kind of bird. REVIEW OF CHAPTER XVIII. By what means does a bird rise in the air? Its wings and air. cells. Where do birds obtain their food ? In the air, on the ground, or in the water. Of what does their food chiefly consist ? Seeds, fruits, insects, Jish, and animal Jlesh. What is a Bird of Prey? What bird is the emblem of this and some other countries ? The Eagle. What is its size ? How long do some Eagles live? What is a young Eagle? Eaglet. What can you say of the Eagle's strength? Of its bravery? Which is the largest bird ? The Ostrich. Which is the largest bird that flies? The Condor. On what mountains do Condors live ? TJie Andes. In what kind of places ? What do they eat? How are they captured ? Which is the smallest bird ? What does the Humming Bird eat? Mention three celebrated naturalists? Cuvier (French), Hum- boldt (German), and Audubon (American). How did Audubon describe the beauty of the Humming Bird ? What bird seeks its food at night? The Owl. What does the Owl eat? Birds, mice, rabbits, etc. In what kind of places does the Owl have its nest ? In caves, walls, etc. What kind of bills do Birds of Prey have ? Hooked bills. What large birds while flying catch fish for food ? Fish Hawk and Gull. Name some birds which catch fish while wading or standing in the water. The Heron and Crane. What bird stands on the branch of a tree and watches for fish ? The Kingfisher. Mention some birds which, while swimming or diving, catch fish. The Pelican and Cormorant. What bird catches fish for his master? What is a Tailor Bird ? A Weaver Bird ? Mention a Weaver Bird. How does it build its nest? Mention a Plasterer Bird. A Mining Bird. What bird is remarkable for its large bill and brilliant colors? The Toucan. Where is it found? In Brazil. What does it eat? From what two birds are obtained long and beautiful feathers, worn by ladies ? The Ostrich and the Bird of Paradise. Review of Birds. 195 Where is the Ostrich found ? The Bird of Paradise ? What large bird in South America is similar to the Ostrich ? The Rhea. What bird in Australia is similar to the Ostrich? The Emu. What bird in Asia is similar to the Ostrich ? The Cassowary. How do these four birds move from place to place ? By walking and running. How are Ostrich eggs hatched? How does an Ostrich try to escape? How does an Ostrich sometimes defend itself? What birds are sometimes used as letter-carriers? How are young birds usually hatched from the egg? By the heat of the old bird which covers or sits upon the eggs. How are Mound Birds of Australia hatched ? By the heat of the mound or of the sand in which the eggs are laid. In what other way are eggs hatched without the aid of the old birds ? By placing the eggs in hot ovens. What reptiles lay their eggs in the sand, as Mound Birds do, to be hatched out by the sun's heat? Turtles. Mention some of the uses of birds. What birds are useful to us for their flesh ? For their feathers? For their eggs ? What bird finds its food in the trunks of trees? The Wood- pecker. How does it get the insects on which it feeds? How does it find the spot where the insect is ? What bird is remarkable for its great sack or pouch under its bill ? For what does it use this sack ? How do Pelicans catch fish ? How do they feed their young ? What kind of feet has the Pelican ? What other birds have webbed feet ? What kind of a bird is the Heron? How does it catch fish? In what kind of places ? What beautitul red bird resembles the Heron ? The Flamingo. Where is the Flamingo found ? In Asia, Africa and Southern Europe. What does it eat ? What large white bird resembles the Heron ? The White Stork. Does the Stork always stay in one place? Where does it spend the winter? The summer? How does it build its nest? Is it an intelligent and observing bird ? How do you know ? Is it fond of children? How do you know? Is the young Stork fond of its parents and grandparents? How does it show its fondness 196 Review of Birds. for them ? What good is done to the people of Egypt by the Stork and Vulture? Which is the most graceful swimming-bird ? The Swan. Where do they belong? What do they eat? How do they carry and protect their young ? What birds live on insects and worms found on the coasts and marshes? The Snipe. What birds of the Arctic Regions swim, catch fish, and when on shore sit in an upright position ? The Auk and Puffin. What similar bird is found in great numbers in the Antarctic Regions? The Penguin. How are they captured? By clubs. Can these birds fly ? They cannot. What bird spends its time on the dry ground? The Quail. How does a family or a bevy of Quails spend the night? Do they fly upon trees ? When ? What do Quails eat ? From what places do birds migrate in the autumn ? Those which have very cold winters. How far south do birds of our Northern States and Canada go ? To our Southern States, Mexico, West Indies, Central and South America. When do they return ? In the Spring. Do all birds migrate at the same time and in the same manner ? They do not ; some fly very high and seldom touch the ground ; some both fly and swim ; some go from forest to forest and from tree to tree ; others walk all the way. Where do birds of Northern Europe and Asia spend their win- ters ? In Southern Europe, Southern Asia, and in Africa. (It is said that small, feeble birds cross the Mediterranean Sea on the backs of Storks and other large birds.) In what direction do birds of the southern or cold parts of South America and Australia fly to find warm countries ? North. How do singing birds of the forest usually pass the day? Rising before the sun, they sing their morning song ; then breakfast ; drink ; bathe (either in water or dust or snow); rest ; arrdnge feathers ; fly about ; assemble on accustomed perches ; then sing their evening song. Where are birds in the greatest variety and numbers ? In the Torrid Zone. What proportion of birds in North America migrate? More than half. Why do they leave in the fall ? Partly because of the disappear- ance of seeds, fruits, and insects which formed their food. ( There are other reasons which are too mysterious for man to flnd ouf.) Written Review. 197 SPELLING AND WRITING EXERCISE. BIRDS OF PREY FLESH-EATERS WITH HOOKED BILL AND SHARP TALONS : CLIMBERS : RUNNERS (WINGS NOT ADAPTED TO FLYING) : WADERS (LONG LEGS, NECK, AND BILL) : (F.*) ^^(M.) 3&^,(P.M.) SWIMMERS (WEB-FOOTED) : , (P.M.) Those marked (F.) are Fishers ; (M.) Migratory or Birds of Passage. Comparative Size of Birds. 199 CO -a CQ o CO J> T T3 2 i5, t. or pec _ "S E ^ o 8 fc S "g 3 2T i OCXQ!OQ^ o IP Is g ^ c t*. lilHU .= o C 5 .r .2 > ^ O < CO CO U. U cJ tn 4 A vd tJ. oo Ijl O o O o^-o Cape of Good HopeS.^ J? C.Agulhas About Africa. 201 EXERCISES ON THE MAP OF AFRICA. By what two oceans and two seas is Africa almost sur- rounded ? Into what ocean does the Mediterranean Sea open ? Into what ocean does the Red Sea open ? What isthmus between these two seas ? By what canal is that isthmus now crossed ? The Suez Canal What two seas are con- nected by this canal ? For what is Africa remarkable ? For its hot climate, Us Great Desert, its tribes of savage inhabitants, and its great numbers of wild animals. What can you say of the size of the Great Desert ? // is nearly as large as the United States. What part of Africa is the home of the Negro ? Soudan and the region south of it. In what part is Soudan ? Of what color are the inhabitants of Northern Africa ? Dark, but not black. What country in the northwestern corner of Africa? Morocco. What kind of leather do we get from there ? Morocco leather. What country in the northeastern corner of Africa? Egypt. For what is Egypt remarkable ? Having no rain, it would be a desert, but for the Nile River. How does the Nile prevent Egypt from becoming a desert ? // rises very high every year, and its water spreads all over the people's farms and gardens. Why is the Sahara or Great Desert dry and barren ? Because it has no rain. What is that spot or portion of a desert called which contains springs, grass, and trees ? An Oasis. Where does that water come from which forms those springs ? From land beyond the Desert ; the water runs underground for long distances. 202 About Africa. What people of Africa were very rich and learned long before any of the inhabitants of Europe became civilized ? The Egyptians. Mention the names of some celebrated men of ancient Egypt. Joseph, Moses, and the Pharaohs or kings of Egypt. What cause the Nile to rise ? Heavy rains in Abyssinia and the region south of it. What large lakes in the central part of Africa ? What large rivers in Africa? The Nile, Congo, and Niger. Into what does the Nile flow ? The Congo ? The Niger ? How long is the Nile ? Four thousand miles. What three countries border on the Red Sea? What countries west of Soudan ? What countries of Africa are furthest south ? What two capes in the southern part of Africa ? -What large island southeast of Africa ? What groups of islands northwest of Africa ? What Birds come, from one of those groups ? What great general was ban- ished to the Island of St. Helena and died there ? Napo- leon Bonaparte I. Where is that island ? Mention two celebrated explorers of Central Africa. Livingstone and Stanley. What very tall trees grow in Africa ? Palms. Mention two kinds of palms. Date Palm and Cocoanut Palm. What valuable article do we get from the Elephants of Africa ? Ivory. What grows extensively in Abyssinia ? Coffee. What large bird in Africa? The Ostrich. For what are they useful ? Where are they raised in large numbers ? (Page 187.) In what parts of Africa do some white people live ? On the northern, western, and south coasts. Where do the savage and warlike Kaffirs and Zulus live ? In the south. Catching Cattle with, the Lasso. 203 Catching- Cattle with the Lasso. CHAPTER XIX. ABOUT QUADRUPEDS. 1. Here is a herdsman riding rapidly after a herd of CATTLE and throwing a lasso (see chart). This is a rope about half an inch thick, made of strips of leather, and about thirty feet long, with a slip-noose at one end that runs very easily. The other end of the rope is fastened securely to the front of the saddle. 2. These men are so skillful in throwing the lasso that they can catch a bull by any one of his legs or by either horn. The horse is trained 204 Uses rf Cattle The Buffalo. to stand still as soon as the lasso is thrown, with his fore feet well braced to meet the shock. Sometimes a bull thus caught by the horns in full career turns a complete somerset, and, falling heavily on his back, is so thoroughly jarred that he is disposed to be very submis- sive, and trots on quietly with the herd. 3. Millions of cattle feed on the vast grassy plains of Texas, Mexico, and South America. Their value lies chiefly in their flesh, which is called beef; their hides, which are manufactured into leather; and their tallow, which is used in making soap and candles. 4. Cattle are numerous also in Russia, India, and our Western States and Territories. What does the cow give us ? What is made from milk? What is the flesh of calves called? Veal. 5. Leather is made from the hides and skins of cattle, horses, goats, sheep, deer, and buffalo. Its manufacture is one of the most important industries in the United States and England. 6. Here is a herd of BUFFALOES, which are more properly called bisons. Indians are pursu- ing them. They are killed with guns, arrows, and spears (see chart). Their flesh is used for food. 7. An Indian has been known to send an arrow with such force that its head has gone entirely through the body of a buffalo. The dressed skin of the .buffalo is called a buffalo robe, and many of them are used in this coun- try in winter, when people go in sleighs over the snow. The Buffalo Its Uses. 205 American Indians Hunting- Buffaloes on the Prairies. 8. The Indians use buffalo skins for clothing and for tents, as well as for making a peculiar kind of shoe called a moc'casin. 9. BUFFALOES were formerly found as far east as the State of New York, but now none are found east of the Mississippi River, and they are constantly diminishing in numbers. 10. The American BUFFALO, or BISON, is also hunted by wolves. These join in a pack and try to cut off one of the buffaloes from the herd. 11. The true buffalo has long horns, and resembles a cow. The buffalo, zebu, and yak, when tamed, work like the ox, or give milk like the cow. ' 2o6 Yak Zebu Buffalo Gnu. Blackboard drawing of Yak and Zebu; each about 6 feet 6 inches in length. 12. The YAK is larger than common cattle. It has a bushy tail and long hair, from which tents and ropes are made. It is found in Thibet (tib'ct} and other parts of Central Asia, both in the wild and the domestic state. 13. The ZEBU resembles an ox, except that it has a large hump on its back over its shoulders. Some are wild and some are domesticated in Asia, Africa and the islands of the Indian Ocean. Hindoos consider the Zebu sacred. 14. The true BUFFALOES inhabit Asia and Africa, where they run in herds and are fierce and strong. One is able to kill an elephant. 15. The GNU of South Africa has a body like that of a horse, and a head and Buffalo of the East ; length 10ft. horns like those of an ox. 16. Of all animals the DOG shows the greatest affection for his master, whose smile, or frown, Dog Wolf Fox Jackal. 207 Fox Chasing a Rabbit. or word, gives either pleasure or pain to this faithful companion of man. 17. He is ever ready to risk his life for his master; and so constant is he, that when death has entered his master's home, this devoted creature has been known to grieve his life away on the newly made grave. 1 8. Especially useful and intelligent are the shepherd's dog, the Newfoundland dog, St. Bernard dog, the fleet greyhound, the keen-scented hunting dog, the courageous bull-dog, and the rat-killing terrier. 19. Animals of the dog kind include the WOLF, which lives in a wild, savage state, and is always in search of plunder ; the Fox, which is noted for its cunning, sly, and thieving disposition; and the JACKAL, of Asia and Africa, which, like the wolf, hunts in bands or packs. 20. There is an interesting animal found upon the prairies, called the PRAIRIE DOG. These little animals burrow in the ground like rabbits, and live in communities so numerous that their " dog town," as it is called, some- times extends for miles. 21. Another very common animal is the CAT. Of this 208 Cat Lion Tiger Leopard, Etc. kind are the WILD CAT, LION, TIGER, LEOPARD, JAG'U-AR, PUMA, and LYNX. 22. The LION is called the "king of beasts," lives in Asia and Africa, and is noted for its powerful claws and great courage; the TIGER inhabits the jungle-grass of Southern Asia, has a striped body and a fierce disposition, and does not hesitate to attack even the elephant or man ; the LEOPARD of Asia and Africa resembles the Tiger, except that its beautiful and valuable skin is spotted ; the JAGUAR or South American Tiger is spotted like the Leopard, and is strong enough to carry off a horse ; the PUMA is called the American lion ; the LYNX resembles the cat. 23. Animals of the dog and the cat kind are eaters of flesh, and are therefore called carnivorous. Animals which are tame and live in or near people's houses, are domestic animals \ others are wild. Is a dog a domestic, or wild animal? A lion? A tiger ? A cat ? A wolf ? A leopard ? 24. The animal which most resembles man is the GORILLA. Its head and arms are longer than those of a man. Its mouth is very projecting. Some Go- rillas are nearly as tall as a man, but they are usually seen in a bent or crouching posture. The coarse hair which covers them is either gray or blackish. A full grown Gorilla is savage and powerful, being feared even by the lion. When about to attack an enemy, he stands up, Chimpanzee Monkeys, Etc. 209 beats his breast, and gives a loud and terrific roar. His food is vegetables, sugar-cane, ber- ries, and fruits. 25. The CHIMPANZEE, the BABOON, APE and ORANG-OUTANG are smaller than the Gorilla. The Gorilla and Chimpanzee have both been called " wild men of the woods." 26. The common MONKEY has a flat face and long tail ; it is a great mimic, quite ingenious and very mischievous. There are many varieties of monkeys. Some seem to be constantly chattering, crying, jumping and swinging, while others are grave and silent. In some parts of India a light-colored monkey is considered sacred by the natives. 2.7. Monkeys in South America have a curious way of crossing a stream. One holds on to a limb of a tree, and to him a long line of monkeys will fasten themselves by means of their arms and tails. When the line is long enough, they will swing themselves until the one at the other end of the line will swing across to a tree on the opposite bank, and take hold of it ; then the first monkey lets go, and all swing across. 28. The Gorilla and Chimpanzee are found in the for- ests of Western Africa : the Monkeys, Apes, etc., in the warm parts of Asia, Africa, South America, and on the islands southeast of Asia. 29. The celebrated traveler Du Chaillu tells some very interesting stories about Gorillas, which he was the first to capture. 2io A Gorilla Hunt. 30. Here is one : " One day, I remember well, we were out for Gorillas, which we knew were to be found there- abouts by the presence of a certain kind of fruit of which the animal is fond. "We beat the bush for two hours, when suddenly an immense Gorilla advanced out of the wood straight toward us, and gave vent, as he came up, to a terrible howl of rage, as much as to say, ' I am tired of being pursued, and will face you.' " It was a lone male, the kind which is always most ferocious. This fellow made the woods resound with his roar, which is really an awful sound, resembling very much the rolling and muttering of distant thunder. " He was about twenty yards or steps off when we first saw him. We at once gathered together, and stood in silence, gun in hand. " The Gorilla looked at us for a minute or so out of his evil grey eyes, then beat his breast with his gigantic arms and what arms he had ! then he gave another howl of defiance, and advanced upon us. How horrible he looked ! I shall never forget it. "Again he stopped, not more than fifteen steps or paces away. Again he advanced. Now he was not twelve yards off. I could see plainly his ferocious face. It was distorted with rage ; his huge teeth ground against each other, so that we could hear the sound ; the skin of his forehead was drawn forward and back rapidly, which made his hair move up and down, and gave a hideous expression to his face. Once more he gave out a roar which seemed to shake the woods like thunder. Looking us in the eyes and beating his broad breast, he advanced again. " ' Don't fire too soon,' said one of my hunters ; ' if you do not kill him, he will kill you.' As the Gorilla came up, The Elephant. 2 1 1 4 Now !' shouted the hunter, and before the Gorilla could utter the roar for which he was opening his mouth, three musket balls were in his body. He fell dead almost with- out a struggle. "He was a monstrous beast, indeed, although not among the tallest. His height was five feet six inches. His arms had a spread of over seven feet. His chest measured fifty inches around. His arms seemed like immense bunches of muscles only ; and his legs and claw- like feet were well fitted for grabbing, climbing and holding. "The face of this Gorilla was intensely black. His body was covered with gray hair, except his chest, which was bare. While the animal approached us in his fierce way, walking on his hind legs and facing us, it really seemed to me to be a horrible likeness of a man." 31. The ELEPHANT is the largest, strongest, and heaviest quadruped, or four-footed animal. His body is covered with a very thick hide, without hair. His legs are thick and clumsy. . 32. He has a long trunk or nose, called a proboscis {pro-bos' sis), which can lift a large or a small object, even as small as a pin. 33. His trunk is very powerful. It is his means of defence and offence ; with it this enormous creature conveys food and water to his mouth, which is just under it and at its base. He also draws water into his trunk, to wash himself with, which he does by blowing it out all over him. Elephant. 34. His two long tusks of ivory project from the sides of his mouth ; with these he digs in the ground for the roots and vegetables which constitute his principal food. He is also fond of sugar-cane. 35. The Elephant is brave and affectionate; he is also either grateful or revengeful, according as he is treated. He is fond of music. In India he has been taught to hunt the tiger, fight in battles, dance and perform Tiger Hunting. tricks even on a tight-rope. Some elephants live to be one hundred years old. Hippopota mus R h inoceros. 213 36. Another very large animal, one that is much longer than the elephant, but not so high, is the HIP-POPOT'A-MUS. 37. These animals are quite gentle, except when hungry ; but if you could see their huge jaws open a distance of two feet in width, showing teeth a foot in length, you would be horrified, especially when you would see the immense quantities of vegetable food they re- quire. 38. The warm waters of the Nile and other rivers of Africa are much frequented by them ; and because they are able to live either on the land or in the water, they are said to be am-phib'i-ous. 39. The RHI-NOC'E-ROS is, like the hippo- potamus, a very large, slow, stupid, amphib- ious animal. It is distinguished by its short, thick legs, heavy body, and large, curved horn at the end of its Rhinoceros and Hippopotamus. snOUt ItS hide IS so hard, thick and folded that swords, spears, bullets, and the claws of the lion or the tiger nave little or no effect. It is found in Africa, Asia, Java and Sumatra. The weight of a large 214 Beaver M^{,skrat. rhinoceros is about three tons ; of an elephant, five tons. 40. The BEAVER, also an amphibious animal, is remarkable for its activity, industry, and the wonderful instinct it possesses for building its house. 41. You cannot imagine how this is done. They com- mence by cutting or rather gnawing down trees, their only instrument being their teeth. They cut in such a way that the trees shall fall precisely where they want them. They next float them to the spot where they intend to fix their dwelling, and construct a dam. They always select trees which are up stream, so that the logs may be floated down by the current. 42. After the dam is completed, which is the common property of the beavers, they form into small societies and build their private residences ! They make them very strong, by a sort of mortar or mud, which they know well how to mix. They are therefore masons and carpenters at the same time. This work is all done at night. 43. The beavers store bark for food in these houses, each apartment having its own storehouse. If danger comes to them, they sound the alarm with their tail, giving one to four blows. 44. The beaver inhabits northern Asia and America. It lives on the bank of a stream, has webbed hind feet, and is an excellent swimmer and diver. It is a little larger than a cat. 45. The fur of the beaver is very valuable. 46. The MUSKRAT is something like the beaver in its size, form, habits and disposition, Squirrel Ground Mole. 215 for both animals live in companies in the win- ter, build houses for their families, and are hunted for their fur. 47. The muskrat does not, however, lay up stores for the winter like the beaver, but simply makes a way under the snow by which it may go in and out for water and the roots upon which it feeds. 48. There is a very small animal, the size of a big, fat mouse, which burrows and lives in the ground all the time. It is the GROUND MOLE. 49. Unlike the beaver and 'the muskrat, it keeps always just under the surface of the ground : and, although it annoys farmers by raising long ridges in their fields and gardens, it does more good than harm in eating up worms and insects. 50. There is another very industrious little animal, which is like the beaver in laying up food for the coming winter, in the shape of nuts and acorns. Do any of you know its name? Yes, it is the SQUIRREL. It makes a funny appearance as it eats, using its paws for hands, and sitting up as you do at the dinner-table. 51. Squirrels are found in almost every country in the world; and sometimes they will migrate by thousands. (Migrate means to seek a new home). 52. It is said that neither rocks nor rivers nor forests nor mountains will stop them ; and that if they find a river too wide for them to cross, they will go back into the forest and provide themselves each with a piece of bark, Squirrel. and then they put out to sea, making their tails serve as sail and rudder. 53. It often happens, however, that they have ventured too far, and cannot contend against the waves, and there- fore never reach the other side. The Laplanders watch for these misfortunes and seize them as a prize, not only because they can sell their skins, but for their flesh, which is good for food. 54. The FLYING SQUIRREL is provided with a strip of skin which it spreads out to enable it to sail or glide easily from a high to a low place among the trees. It cannot use this wing-like skin as birds do. It seldom ventures out till after sunset. Besides the beaver, muskrat and squirrel, can you men- tion some other and better known little animals which are remarkable for gnawing ? Rats and mice. 55. The PORCUPINE which is about eighteen or twenty inches in length, also prefers the night for its movements. Porcupine Ca mel. 2 1 7 Blackboard Drawing: : Porcupine, 20 inches long: ; Flying- Squir- rel, 15 inches long*. It is very active in searching for food, which consists of roots, fruit and bark. It is remarkable for being covered with sharp, strong quills, which it has the power of straightening out in all directions, when attacked, thus causing great damage to the mouth of any animal bold enough to take hold of it. 56. The CAMEL is the best fitted of all ani- mals for traveling in desert places, because, first, it can take a week's supply of water in a peculiar arrangement of cells connected with the stomach, which can be supplied from them when the animal is thirsty ; secondly, it can live on the scanty herbage of the desert; thirdly, under each foot is a large cushion-shaped sub- stance to prevent it from sinking in the sand. 57. The camel has been called the "ship of the desert." On the approach of a sand-storm in the desert, when clouds of fine sand are whirled about by high winds, the camel displays great sagacity in burying his nose in the sand to avoid suffocation. Its flesh and milk are used for A Sand-storm in the Desert. The Travelers and Camels lie on the ground for a few minutes until the Storm has passed over. food, its skin for making leather, and its hair for making clothing; therefore the camel is to the Arabs what the seal is to the Esquimaux, and the reindeer to the Lap- landers their chief wealth. 58. Some camels have one hump (the Dromedary or Arabian Camel), and others two (the Bactrian Camel of China and Central Asia). The former is the one chiefly used in Africa. The latter is larger and is used more as a beast of burden in Asia. 59. A similar but much smaller Li ma animal is the LLAMA, found in the warm parts of South America. It has cushioned feet, but no hump, like the camel. Its flesh and milk are nourishing. Giraffe Horse Zebra. 219 60. The tallest animal in the world is the GIRAFFE (ji-raf) or Ca-mero-pard, which be- longs to the deserts of Africa. 61. It is especially remark- able for the great length, of its neck and fore-legs. In the absence of grass, this animal can make its food of the leaves of the trees. 62. There is a beautiful animal in Southern Africa which is about the size and shape of a pony, but has black and yellow stripes running around its body and legs. What is its name? ZEBRAS run wild in herds and are very diffi- ^ cult to tame. Giraffes. Zebras. 63. Which is the most useful animal to man ? The HORSE is found in almost every country in the world where work is to be done; Arabia has long been celebrated for fine horses. The Arab loves and treats his horses as if they were his children. 64. There is an animal of the horse kind which is said to be the most obstinate and yet the most patient of all animals; what is it? The DONKEY will, however, do more work for the smallest pay than any other animal, 220 Tapir Sloth. except, perhaps, the camel. Although much smaller than a horse, he will take you on long journeys and over dangerous places, and be content with a little grass or even a few weeds. Donkeys are very useful to the poor people of Africa, Asia and Europe. 65. The TAPIR of South America is all black or dark brown, and looks like a big fat hog ; and, like the hog, it delights in wallowing in the mud. It has a short probos- cis or trunk. Its height is between three and four feet ; but the tapir of Asia is larger and has a white back. 66. Of all animals the slowest and laziest is said to be the SLOTH, which lives in South and Central America. 67. While some animals and people too are idle from choice, this poor creature is almost helpless ; the slightest movement seems to give it great pain, judging from the piteous cry it sets up. It is therefore to be pitied, not blamed. To take fifty steps would require a whole day. The sloth is about the size of a large cat. Its hair is coarse, its arms very long, and legs short, and it is always found hanging under a branch of a tree, even when asleep. It makes its food of leaves, fruit, and bark. Some sloths have two toes or claws and Tapir, length, 5 feet ; Sloth, length, 18 inches. Opossum A rmadillo. Blackboard Drawing-: Opossum and her Family. Length of body, 20 inches. others three on each arm and leg. They seldom touch the ground unless they tumble. 68. Another very curious little animal found in South America is the ARMADILLO; it wears a kind of coat of mail or hard, horn-like case, into which it can retreat as the snail or the turtle does when it is attacked. In form, head, and tail, it resembles a very big rat, but it is as long as a cat. With its sharp claws, it burrows in the earth for worms and roots. Its flesh is used for food. 69. There is another animal which resembles a rat and is as big as a cat, and that is the OPOSSUM, which lives in North and South America. It usually hides away in the daytime in hollow trees or in the ground, and steals out at night in search of food berries, fruit, eggs, birds, etc. ; sometimes, too, killing chickens to suck their blood. It is very sly ; when caught, it will make believe dead and cunningly watch its opportunity to escape; this is the origin of the expression " playing 'possum." This animal can cling tightly to the branch of a tree by means of its long, strong tail, which it winds around it when it wants to gather fruit or to seize a little bird for its supper ; but 222 Kangaroo White Bear. Kang-aroos. one of the funniest sights is that of a mother opossum running off with all her young ones on her back holding on by their tails, as shown in the blackboard drawing. 70. The animal which is remarkable for leap- ing or springing is the KANGAROO, of Australia. 71. Its fore-legs are short and like arms, while its lower limbs are very long, thus ena- bling it to take leaps or bounds, upwards of twenty feet in length. Its head resembles that of a deer. Its tail assists it in sitting and is so powerful that a blow from it has been known to break the legs of a man. 72. When sitting, a full-grown kangaroo is as tall as a man. It is hunted for its skin and flesh. 73. Like some opossums, it has a pouch or pocket into which its young take refuge when alarmed. 74. A bear is more at home in a cold coun- try and more com- fortable in cold weather. The WHITE or POLAR BEAR lives among A White Bear captures a Seal. icebergs and feeds chiefly on fishes and seals. 75. White bears are fierce and strong ; and, The White or Polar Bear. 223 Esquimaux with their dog-s, capturing a White Bear for his fur and flesh. Near the Icebergs are Walruses, which are hunted for their flesh, oil, skin, and tusks of ivory. like all other bears, have powerful paws and long, sharp claws with which they soon tear another animal or a man to pieces. Savage and dangerous as they are, the Esquimaux of the Arctic Regions hunt and capture them with dogs and sharp spears. 76. The flesh of these animals is used for food, but their chief value lies in the long white furs. Perhaps some of you have seen such skins or robes in sleighs. 224 Black Bear Grizzly Bear. 77. The common BLACK BEAR of North America and the BROWN BEAR of Europe are very much alike. They prefer the mountain districts. They are not so large nor so fierce as some other bears, but when attacked, they rise upon their hind feet and, if not promptly dispatched with the long knife or the bullet, the assailant is at once hugged to death with their powerful arms or torn to shreds by their sharp claws. 78. Their food consists of flesh, wheat, corn, roots and vegetables ; they are very fond of honey, often climbing high trees in search of it. 79. The CINNAMON BEAR of Colorado and the region west of it, is named on account of its color, which is a yellowish red. 80. The most savage of all is the GRIZZLY BEAR, whose home is in the Rocky Moun- tains. Grizzly means somewhat gray. 8 1. Its strength and endurance are very great, for it has been known to kill and carry off a buffalo, to chase a man for long distances, capture and devour him. When overtaken by hunters, and after receiving several of their bullets, it makes desperate efforts to escape by running and swimming. 82. In winter, some bears hide themselves in caves, Wolf. Bear. Am. Buffalo or Bison. Blackboard drawing- of Wolf's head, 1O inches long 1 ; of Bear's head, 15 inches; of Buffalo's head, 24 inches. (Full size.) hollow logs, and holes in the ice or snow, and pass several weeks in a kind of sleep. 83. The affection of bears for their young is very remarkable. When one of her cubs is shot, the grief and cries of the mother, her frantic efforts to arouse it, and her refusal to leave it even when the bullets are whistling past, show her anxiety for her cub to be far greater than that for herself. 84. DEER are found in all parts of the world, in cold, hot and temper- ate regions ; in forest, jun- gle, swamp and prairie, except in Australia. 85. Deer are not savage like bears, but very timid. Deer and Buffalo on the Whenever their keen sight, Prairie, hearing or scent detects the approach of an enemy it is off with the speed of a race-horse. When pursued, it usually takes refuge in a lake or a stream. Blackboard drawing- of a Reindeer (length 7 feet), and Sledge of a Laplander. 86. Like the buffaloes, they are hunted for their flesh, skins, and horns, but often only for sport. 87. The most useful of these animals is the REINDEER, which is a domestic animal in parts of the Arctic regions, and constitutes the chief wealth of the Laplander of Northern Europe. His herds supply him with milk, flesh and materials for clothing, and some of these ani- mals are trained to drag his sledge swiftly and for long distances over the frozen snow. 88. In summer the reindeer lives on the scanty herbage and shrubs of those regions, and in winter, on the mosses which lie under the deep snow. These mosses are dis- covered by his sharp scent, and he is able to dig down to them through the snow, by means of his great branching horns. Some reindeer are wild and live in large herds. 89. Herd is a number of animals assembled together, as a herd of cattle, oxen, horses, camels, deer, elephants, or swine ; flock refers chiefly to smaller animals and birds, Deer Hyena. 227 as sheep, goats, or pigeons; drove is a number of cattle driven to market. 90. Deer and some other animals chew the cud ; that is, when grazing, they only partly chew the food before swallowing it, and, when they afterwards lie down or stand still, they bring up the same food into their mouths again to chew and swallow it a second time. Such animals are called Ruminating or Cud-chewing animals. They gen- erally have horns and cloven or divided hoofs. They include the cow, ox, deer, camel, giraffe, goat, sheep and buffalo. 91. Animals of the deer-kind include the Antelope and Gazelle of Africa and Arabia, the Chamois (sham' me or sham-moi') of the Alps, and the Moose of North America. 92. The HYENA is a savage and untamable animal of Africa and the warm parts of Asia. It looks like a very large dog. Its teeth are wonderfully strong. It eats the flesh and bones of dead animals. REVIEW OF CHAPTER XIX. What is a quadruped ? A four-footed animal. What quadrupeds are most used for food ? From which do we get Beef? Pork ? Mutton? Veal ? Veni- son ? From what animals do we get furs? Bear, buffalo, beaver, seal, squirrel, fox and wolf. About how much of the body of the ox or cow kind is used in one way or another ? Six-sevenths. What is its flesh used for? Food. Its skin? For making leather. Its bones ? They are ground and used for fertilizing the soil. What are made from the horns ? Buttons, knife-handles, etc. 228 Review of Animals. What places are celebrated for great numbers of cattle ? South America, Mexico and Texas. How are the cattle caught on the pampas and prairies? By means of the lasso. What is a lasso ? How is it used ? How is the American Buffalo hunted? Where? Of what use ;s it? What is the difference between the American Buffalo (Bison) and the Buffalo of Asia? What is the difference between a wild and a domestic animal ? Mention some wild animals domestic animals. What animal is most familiar with people? Mention some kinds of Dogs. What wild animals resemble the Dog? What animal is said to be the most sly and cunning ? Fox. Which is the most savage animal of the dog-kind ? Wolf. What very savage animal somewhat resembles the Dog ? Hyena. What animal is called the " King of Beasts?" Where does the Lion live? To what kind or division of animals does it belong? The cat-kind. Why? Because, like the Cat, it has sharp claws, round head, short ears, and long -whiskers ; springs upon its prey, and seeks its food mostly at night. What other animals belong to the cat-kind? Tiger, Leopard, Jaguar, Puma, and Lynx. In what division of the Earth is the Lion found ? The Tiger ? The Leopard ? The Jaguar ? How is the Leopard easily distin- guished from the Tiger? The Tiger is striped ; the Leopard is spotted. What kind of food do animals of the dog and cat kinds prefer? Flesh. What animals mostly resemble man? Gorilla and Chimpanzee. In what part of the world are they found ? To what kind or divi- sion of animals do they belong? The monkey-kind. Name some of the differences between the monkey-kind and man-kind ? The monkey-kind is very ugly, has four hands instead of two hands and two feet, smaller brain, larger jaw, longer arms, body covered with hair and adapted only to a hot climate. What animals belong to the monkey-kind ? Where are Monkeys numerous? South America, Asia and Africa. What can you say of the Monkey? How does a Gorilla act when attacked ? Which is the largest and heaviest quadruped ? Elephant. Which is the tallest? Giraffe. How much taller is the Giraffe than the Review of Animals. 229 Elephant ? (P. 232.) How does the Elephant use his trunk ? What constitute his food? How does he obtain it? What kind of a disposition has he? Is he intelligent and obedient ? What have some been taught to do? To what age do some Elephants live? What is the most valuable part of the Elephant ? What are made of ivory? What Birds are said to live as long as an Elephant? Swan and Cockatoo. What very large quadruped is longer than the Elephant ? Hip- popotamus. Where and how does the Hippopotamus live? Does it live on flesh, or vegetables ? What very large animal is noted for its thick, tough skin ? Rhinoceros. Describe the Rhinoceros. What can you say of its skin? Where is the Rhinoceros found ? What is an amphibious animal ? What animal is noted for its activity and industry? Beaver. Does it always live on the land? What wonderful instinct does it possess ? What kind of a place do Beavers select in which to build their houses ? Where do they cut trees for that purpose, up or down stream ? Why do they always cut trees which are up stream ? With what do they cut them ? How do they make their houses tight and strong? When do they mostly work ? For what are Beavers hunted ? What is the size of a Beaver ? Where is it found ? What can you say of its hind feet ? What animal resembles a Beaver in its size and habits ? Musk-rat. What small animals besides the Beaver lays up food for winter? Squirrels. What and how do Squirrels eat? Do they always live in one place ? For what are they valuable ? What animal is protected from the attacks of other animals by sharp quills ? Porcupine. By a hard shell ? Armadillo. What animal is best fitted for traveling in the deserts ? Camel. What are some of its advantages ? How does it compare in height with the Elephant ? With the Giraffe ? With the Horse ? What two kinds of Camels are there ? For what is each mostly used? Where does each live chiefly? What smaller animal, similar to the Camel, is found in South America? What animal is mostly used by men for work and pleasure ? Horse. What useful animal resembles the Horse? Donkey. What can you say of the Donkey's disposition ? 230 Review Spelling Writing. What wild animals of South America resemble a pony in form and size ? Zebra and Quagga. How do they differ in appearance from the pony ? They are striped. Which is called the laziest animal ? Sloth. Where is it found ? How does it live ? What does it eat ? What is its length ? What animal about the size of a Cat is noted for cunning, especially when captured ? Opossum. How does it get its food ? In what curious manner does it travel with its young ? What animal is remarkable for its springing or jumping? Kan- garoo, Where does the Kangaroo live ? In Australia. How does it defend itself? For what is it hunted ? What animal prefers cold countries? Bear. Which is the largest and most savage kind ? White or Polar Bear. How does it live ? For what is it valuable ? In what parts of the world is it found ? In the Arctic Regions. What kinds of Bears are in this country ? Grizzly, Black, and Cinnamon Bears. Which is the most savage of them? Grizzly Bears. What can you say of their strength and endurance ? How do some bears pass the winter? Are Bears affectionate to their young ? Give an instance. What animals with large horns are hunted in nearly every part of the world ? Deer. How do they often save themselves when hunted ? What animals constitute the whole wealth of Lapland- ers ? Reindeer. Where do Laplanders live ? In the most northern parts of Europe. What is a Ruminating or Cud-chewing animal ? Name some of them. SPELLING AND WRITING EXERCISE. ANIMALS WHICH MOST RESEMBLE MAN: ANIMALS OF THE MONKEY-KIND (FOUR-HANDED INSTEAD OF FOUR-FOOTED) : Rev iew Spelling Writing. 2 3 1 ANIMALS OF THE DOG-KIND: op C/ *^ C/^ Wac THE CAT-KIND: EATERS OF FLESH : f EATERS OF GRASS, AND CUD-CHEWERS, WITH HORNS AND CLOVEN HOOFS (TWO TOES): GNAWERS : v $%t*ue*& : X ANIMALS WITH FOUR SOLID HOOFS: ^ AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS : The Frog, Toad, Alligator and Crocodile (reptiles) are ?lso amphibious. Comparative Size of Animals. 233 rv. fv ' -'* xV M ^ i-Sffl l- 2 e ? e * -a 8 S 5 S _ rt rt ;s|| liil li S ti S^2:' c| ' 13 >^ ?> " .n ^ *^ !> tS* ^ g ^ g ^ !> ,3 ,G - . a^ ^ f^ g ^li]-: " |ii=il|f|:l|J|illj 234 Insects. Insects: Common House-fly, Mosquito, Butterfly, Beetle, Caterpillar, Grasshopper. CHAPTER XX. ABOUT INSECTS. 1. INSECTS are everywhere about us. They are in great numbers and of great variety. They are in the air, in the water, and all over the Earth. 2. Those we know the best are the HOUSE- FLY, the BUTTERFLY, the MOSQUITO, the CAT ERPILLAR, the GRASSHOPPER, and the BEETLE. 3. Besides these, there are thousands upon thousands so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. There is scarcely a leaf on a tree that is not the home of myriads of these little beings. 4. If you should look at a drop of water with the aid of a microscope, you would be amazed Caterpillar Chrysalis. Caterpillar. Cocoon. Butterfly. Blackboard Drawing : An Insect and its Changes. to see the number and variety of living crea- tures which it contains; some swimming like fish or eels, some jumping like frogs, and some dragging their bodies lazily along. 5. Just think of ten thousand (10,000) occupying the space of a grain of sand. Creatures which are so small as to be invisible, or nearly so, to the naked eye, are called An-i-mal'cules. 6. Insects are of many kinds ; some have to creep about all their lives ; some creep only for a little while, like the Caterpillar, and then undergo changes, taking to themselves beauti- ful wings. 7. The CATERPILLAR is the form which the insect takes just after leaving the egg ; after a while it spins or makes for itself a kind of case or covering, called a cocoon ; the insect is then called a Chrysalis. After remaining a 236 Destructiveness of Insects. while thus enclosed, this cocoon bursts open, and out comes a beautiful Butterfly, changed from what was, only a short time before, a slow, crawling, and repulsive looking Worm. 8. So, you see that the forms and changes of such Insects are ist, the Egg; 20!, the Worm, Grub or Cater- pillar ; 36, the Chrysalis ; and 4th, the Butterfly, or perfect Insect. 9. Some kinds of Insects are very trouble- some and often do great damage to trees and plants. You all know how soon one or two Caterpillars can eat up all the leaves of a little plant or bush in your garden, and that swarms of GRASSHOPPERS or LOCUSTS have in a few hours eaten up acres upon acres of growing corn, besides grass and vegetables. 10. The increase in the numbers of Insects is wonderfully rapid; indeed, if it were not for the multitudes of the busy birds whose food consists wholly or mainly of Insects, man might be unable to prevent the entire destruction of his orchards and his crops. 11. Great numbers of Insects are devoured by other Insects, and also by Toads, Frogs, and Ground Moles. 12. You must not think, however, that all Insects, Caterpillars and Butterflies are our enemies, for there are some kinds that are con- stantly at work for us. Silkworm Cock ineaL 237 13. All the beautiful silk dresses, handker- chiefs and ribbons are made from the material which formed the case or cocoon of a Cater- pillar, called the SILKWORM. 14. The SILKWORM is hatched from an egg about the size of a mustard seed ; it eats the leaves of the mulberry tree, its only food, and grows rapidly. In two or three weeks it begins to spin a very fine silken thread, which it winds round and round itself until a ball, the size and shape of a pigeon's egg, is formed. 15. When it is done spinning, the silk must be carefully and promptly unwound, or the Butterfly would burst the cocoon and thus spoil the silk. To prevent this th(s cocoons are sometimes placed in hot water or in a hot oven, to kill the worm. By means of steam or hot vapor, the threads are loosened so that they may be easily unwound and the Silkworm saved. The manufacturer usually puts ten or twelve of these threads together to make one which would be strong enough for use in the factory. 1 6. It is not a little singular that this beautiful article thus made by one Insect receives its bright crimson and scarlet colors from another, the COCHINEAL BUG of Mexico. 17. The SILKWORM is raised chiefly in China, Japan, France, Italy, and California. The Silkworm and other Caterpillars breathe through several openings in their sides. 1 8. Next to the Silkworm, the Insect which is the most useful to man is the BEE, which gives us delicious honey. This the Bees gather from nearly all flowers, and store away in nice little waxen cells, all of their own making. 238 Bees How They Work. 19. HONEY-BEES are of three kinds: the Queens, the Working-bees, and the Drones. 20. The QUEEN-BEE is the ruler of the hive and the mother of all the young Bees in it. 21. The WORKERS are very intelligent and industrious. They form themselves into companies. One division or company roams the fields and gardens in search of food ; another builds the cells ; another helps those which come back with heavy loads, or feed and nurse the young Bees. All make the most of their time, and of every inch of room, for their house answers both as nursery and storehouse. There are also house-cleaners, sentinels and fighters. Even in a single day they have been known to make 4,000 cells. 22. The royal cell which they build for their Queen, is made much larger than any of the others. 23. When the cells are ready, the Queen lays in them a great many eggs, from each of which comes a larva, grub, or worm (see paragraph 8). The food of bees consists chiefly of pollen and sweet juices or fluids of flowers. 24. The WORKERS have little brushes on their legs which also hold the pollen and otherwise help them in their work. They have feelers or arms which enable them to work and feel their way in the dark. By these feelers they seem to tell one another the news of the day. If the Bees Their Uses Wasp Hornet. 239 Queen should die they select a young grub, which soon becomes their Queen. When the Queen and a number of her household agree to emigrate and form a new colony or "swarm," they select a new home, gather food, and make full preparations for the change. After bidding farewell to their brothers and sisters which remain in the old home, they fly away. Those left behind must select a new Queen or they all would die. 25. The DRONES (all males) are very lazy. They col- lect no honey, make no wax, build no cells. Most of them do nothing but eat honey which the workers collect. So, as winter comes on, the Workers get out of patience with their idleness and fly at them, sting them to death, and at once remove the dead bodies from the hive. 26. The Working-bees live for several years. They are smaller and more numerous than the others. In a hive of 20,000 Bees, the Workers will number about 19,500. There is only one Queen for every hive. The Workers are assisted in building by a gummy or sticky substance which they gather from some trees. A Bee has four wings and six legs, and a kind of tongue or proboscis for gathering honey. All but the Drones have stings. 27. Bees, by going from flower to flower, gathering and mixing the pollen or powder-like substance of flowers, increase the varieties of fruits, flowers and plants, and in this way, also, they are of great advantage to us. This last work seems to be all the HUMBLE BEE is good for. It lays up no store of honey, usually builds in holes in the ground, and lives but one year. It does not associate with the Honey or Hive Bee. 28. The WASP and HORNET are somewhat similar to the Bee. They build and live in little cells of a paper- 240 Ants How They Live and Work. like substance, which they make from bark and plants. They have sharp stings, but do not gather honey or make wax like the Honey Bee. 29. ANTS resemble Bees in their habits of order and industry, and in being divided into three kinds, Males, Females, and Workers. 30. The ANT WORKERS have charge of the eggs, cocoons, and young Ants, as well as of the house affairs. 31. If overtaken by a storm, or if their nests should be destroyed, their first duty is to save their eggs or young, and they are seen running to and fro with these little things in their mouths in search of places of safety for them. The workers have no wings ; the others have for a time, but soon lose them. 32. The COMMON ANTS are the Red and the Black ; some have wings, others have none. 33. Ants of the same family or kind live together in great harmony, and are never weary of helping each other. If one is tired or sick, another will take him upon his back and ten- derly carry him. 34. Although these little creatures make no sound, they seem to understand each other perfectly. By means of their feelers they give orders, directions and invitations, call for food, or discuss family affairs. 35. Their little jaws are hard and sharp, serving them as axe, scissors, pincers and sword. Grasshoppers Locusts, Etc. 241 36. Ants come forth in myriads about the first of April. Four or five months of the year that the Ant is supposed to live, some kinds spend in a torpid state. 37. Battles are sometimes fought between the different families or tribes, desperate battles, too; for although of a peaceful nature, they will not submit to imposition. Some are very thievish and do not stop with stealing the food of a neighboring tribe, but they seize also their eggs or their young ones, and carry them into captivity to become slaves to them. Then the injured Ants levy war. They form themselves into companies, battalions, and divisions, and station sentinels as soldiers do. Army meets army, they fight bravely and desperately ; they kill and wound each other, punish spies and deserters, carry off prisoners and spoils, and when the battle is over they take care of the sick and wounded. 38. The GRASSHOPPER is of the same order of Insects as the Locust, Cricket and Katydid, having long bodies, four wings, and three pairs of legs. Their food is grass and the leaves of plants. 39. Grasshoppers are of great variety ; some /are green, some black, and some variegated. Some make a chirping sound and some are always silent. 40. Their hind legs are much longer and stronger than the others, and are admirably fitted for jumping or leaping. 242 Grasshopper Locust, Etc. 41. It is the male Grasshopper which does all the chirping. He does not, however, chirp or sing as a bird does, with his voice or his throat. He makes his peculiar sound with his wings, and partly, some people say, with his legs and a kind of little drum or cymbal. 42. In the autumn, the mother Grasshopper bores or digs little holes in the ground and lays a great many eggs in them, and on the approach of frost she dies. The eggs remain there all winter and are hatched out by the warm sun of spring. For a while the young ones hop only, and seem to be without wings, but these are really concealed on their sides and appear when the time comes. 43. LOCUSTS are the most destructive of this kind of Insects. They fly in vast numbers, like clouds which hide the sun, and come down on the growing crops of spring as fast and as num- berless as snowflakes in a winter's stonn. 44. Their visits in Western Asia and Northern Africa are terrible, for they are sure to leave famine and desola- tion behind them. The Locusts, called also Grasshop- pers, which they resemble, have at times done great dam- age to the corn of some of our Northwestern States and Territories. 45. Locusts are sold in the markets of Europe, Asia and Africa as an article of food. 46. The "SEVENTEEN-YEAR LOCUST " (more correctly called HARVEST FLY) has a thicker body and shorter legs than the Locust or the Grasshopper. It flies, but does not leap. Harvest Fly Cricket Mosquito. 243 47. These Insects lay their eggs in the twigs of trees, and then die. From the eggs are hatched, during the same summer, little six-legged worms, so small that it would take sixteen of them to measure one inch in length. These remain in the ground seventeen years, feeding on the juices of roots. At the end of that time they enclose themselves in a shell or case, then crawl up the trunks and branches of trees, to which they cling until their shell or dry skin bursts open ; and, finding themselves provided with wings, they fly away. 48. CRICKETS belong to the same order of Insects as the Locusts and Grasshoppers. They can dig underground passages for themselves, and their long hind legs enable them to take long leaps. 49. House Crickets and Field Crickets are deadly enemies to each other; in fact, Crickets generally are very quarrelsome and are always ready for a fight. In Germany, mis'chievous boys get up pitched battles between them, when these warlike Insects kick like horses, butt like rams, and scratch like cats, until one or the other runs away or is disabled. 50. One of the most annoying Insects is the MOSQUITO, which has a long, slender body, six legs, and two wings. It has also a little pro- boscis for piercing and sucking. This contains several lancets so small and so sharp that together they are finer and sharper than a needle. 244 Mosquito Dragon Fly. 51. Mosquitoes are produced from eggs which float on the water. When these are hatched they are little worms and seem to hang from the surface of the water head downward, when they are called '" Wigglers." They change their skins several times, then become a kind of Chrysalis in a little case or cocoon, which, like the Caterpillar, they soon burst, and, drying their newly found wings, they fly away into the air in search of food. 52. They find their food in the dew and in the juices of flowers and plants. Some kinds are active by day, others by night. Those which attack man and beast for blood are the females only. The " Wigglers " feed raven- ously on the animalcules in ponds and marshes, and thus aid in purifying the water. 53. The eggs become perfect Insects in three weeks, and many broods are hatched every warm season. 54. Mosquitoes infest forests and marshy places in every country and in every climate ; in cold Siberia and Lapland, as well as in the hot valley of the Amazon. 55. The GNAT, HOUSE FLY, and Ox FLY belong to the same order of Insects as the Mosquito. 56. The DRAGON FLY has a long, slender body and four long, narrow wings. 57. Its thin, crisp wings are as clear as glass, reflecting all the colors of the rainbow, and seem to be in rapid and almost constant mo- tion. While flying, it catches multitudes of Mosquitoes, Gnats, Beetles, Flies, and other Insects. The Butterfly. Blackboard Drawing: Honey Bee, lengrth of body, half inch; Dragon Fly, 3 inches. 58. They are therefore beneficial, and not in the least injurious to man or child (although it bears, in some places, the frightful name of " Devil's Darning Needle "). 59. It undergoes changes from the egg to the worm and the chrysalis, in the water, occupying two years. When its wings are ready, it rises above its old home in the marsh or the pool, to fly, shine, chase, kill, eat, and die, all in a single season. 60. BUTTERFLIES, like other Insects which fly, have two long, slender horns or feelers, which they can turn in every direction. 6 1. When they lay their eggs, they fasten them to some plant or leaf, with a sort of glue of their own making. There they remain until hatched into a kind of worm, which is called a caterpillar if it has legs, or a grub if it has no legs. 62. The Caterpillar eats enormously, grows rapidly, and often changes its skin. 246 Caterpillar Hoiisc Fly. 63. When about six weeks old it stops eating, and covers itself with a kind of cobweb or cocoon, which it fastens to a convenient branch. There it hangs as a chrysalis, until it bursts the case and sails into the air on beautifully colored wings to spend the rest of its short life in flitting among flowers and blossoms and sipping honey. 64. The microscope shows that the wings of the But- terfly are covered with numberless little scales of every variety of form and color, and that its eyes are composed of a great many smaller eyes. 65. Butterflies generally live but one season, although some live through the winter. 66. The HOUSE FLY has two wings, six legs, a sucking proboscis for taking its food, and two great eyes which are composed of 4,000 small eyes. 67. Its feet are remarkably formed to enable it to creep up smooth surfaces like glass or on ceilings. 68. It holds on by means of a gum or sticky substance with which its feet are supplied ; some say it holds on by means of sharp little hooks on the feet ; and others say its feet, when pressed against glass or the ceiling, form vacu- ums, and that the fly is held on by the pressure of the air (as explained on page 74). 69. Most Flies die when frost comes; but some of those which hide away in warm nooks and corners live just long enough to lay a great many eggs the next sum- mer. In a few hours these eggs are hatched into little grubs which, in a few days, become flies. Review Spelling Composition. 247 REVIEW OF CHAPTER XX. Mention the best known insects. (The word insect means cut into; and these creatures are so called because they are composed of parts which seem almost separated from each other.) What can you say of the vast numbers of insects ? Do some insects change their forms? What is the first change? From the egg to a Caterpillar.. The second ? From a Caterpillar to a Chrysa- lis. The third ? From a Chrysalis to a Butterfly. How long do most Butterflies live ? House Flies? Grasshoppers? Mention some very destructive insects. Some very annoying ones ? Some very useful and valuable ones ? What kinds are noted for their industry? What can you say about the Locust and Grasshopper? Where have they been very destructive ? About the Mosquito? About the Silkworm ? About the Ant? How long do most Ants live ? How many kinds of Bees in every hive? What can you say of the Queen Bee ? Of the Workers ? Of the Drones ? Of Hum- ble Bees ? What insects are similar to the Grasshopper? What two kinds of Crickets are there? What can you say of Crickets? Are Dragon Flies dangerous, or useful ? How are they useful ? How are Mosquitoes useful ? Describe the House Fly. What can you say of its eyes? How long does it live ? SPELLING AND WRITING EXERCISE. WRITE A COMPOSITION about Insects, or Locusts, or Silkworms, or Bees, or Ants, as the Teacher may direct. About the United States. 249 cu CO UJ CO C_3 cc U4 X U4 & .b ctf s fcJO'C c o s. 0) 0) oJ w - ^ ^ 2 +-' o M - c S "5 j2 G .2 *"O CO .SI 42 T3 oJ oJ ^ S IB 12 rs t^ o U o ^ M-I T! "7 1 !. 43 ce C/J ^ C v? ^ 3 43 W ^ ,S .> I^H h O ^ ^3 $ & ci " g. S ^1^ -2 ^ ^ OT ^^ ? ^^^1 -g S 3 **""! o Over avel di n Ic fH G -S O S _, S -5 > c a .5 S ^-S C/3 n About the United States. 251 Into what is each State and Territory divided? Into Counties* Which is the larger, a County, or a State ? A State. For how many years have these States been governed by men elected by their own people ? Over one hundred years. Who governed this country before that ? Men sent here by the King of England. What country of North America is still subject to Great Britain ? Canada. What are some of the causes of this country's great- ness ? Its free government, its great extent, its fertile fields, its rich mines, its many mills, and its industrious people. On what planet do you live? The Earth, or World. On what Hemisphere ? The Western. In what Grand Division ? North America. In what country ? The United States. In what State ? In what county ? In what part of the Western Continent is North America ? The northern part. In what part of North America is the country we live in ? In the central part. In what part of this country is the State you live in ? In what part of your State is the county you live in ? In what part of your county is the city, town, or village you live in ? Some cities extend over their counties, as the City and County of Philadel- phia are the same in extent. What State is north of this State? East? South? West? What county is north of this county? East? South ? West ? You may draw a map of your County, on a piece of paper as large as your hand ; marking first, the boundaries; next, the highest hills or mountains (if any) ; next, the streams which run through it ; then the cities, towns, or vil- lages, the churches, schoolhouses, railroads, bridges, etc., as shown on page 39. Then you may draw on a piece of paper, as large as a leaf in your copy- book, a map of your State, showing its boundaries, highest mountains, largest rivers, its capital, and the part in which your County is situated. Observe that your County is but a small portion of your State. * In Louisiana these divisions are called Parishes. About the United States. 253 4) " " y 1 -3 5^ - S "5 o u JJ - tJ 5 eft .Q -g 2 tf > s .s 254 About the United States. C/5 1 1 1? hJO cfl 8)1 ^ c o }_, c "c3 "S 1 d c^3 2 .S 0) .^ ^ C o -d 'C c/T ci ucts. erra Nevada co _(U *n o ^ fl ^^ | "5"^ 3^ i-s g-r tf- 3 T -5 S 8 6* I 3 8 i I " 1 S g S ^ - > TJCU S ^^^ 5 ^^^ ipS^^S^ f ! ! i i e& TOPICS FOR DRILL ON TTJE PICTORIAL CH^RT, AND FOR WRITING LETTERS. The Teacher, in pointing to the various objects on the chart may describe and dwell on each topic to the extent best suited to the class. Figures in parentheses correspond with those on the key to the chart. The Ocean (l) covers how much of the Earth's sur- face, What inhabit the ocean, Which are the largest of these animals and fish their sizes, Which useful for oil for furs for food each where caught, Which are dangerous, Which are very curious, Shell-fish, Pearls where and how obtained their value, Corals, Sponge, Ocean voyages how conducted, Currents or streams in ocean, Gulf Stream its effects on England, Ireland, and other parts of Western Europe. Pages 2 1 to 33. Vapor (2) rises from what, by what means its changes, by what caused forms what. Page 16. Rain (3), from what does it come of what formed effects and uses, What are formed from it, Where does it go, Voyage of a drop of water. Pages 15 to 19. Rivers how formed, Waterfalls (9), Rapids (12) turn mill-wheels, pages 60, 61, float logs saw-mills, pages 62, 63 wear channels in ground and rock, page 67, Canons (ll) carry soft soil to mouths forming Deltas, See land between lower lake and ocean, in chart; also page 64 overflows, Nile River, page 66 facilities for navi- gation, commerce, and manufacturingsites for cities, towns, etc. 256 Topics for Drill Ship-yards and Floating Docks (34) on bank of river, Construction and uses of Floating and Dry Docks, Name some. Page 53. Ships how built, Steamships how built, a launch, what is it, how ships move, how steamships move, names of masts, sails, etc., what they carry, Steam, what is it, how move wheels, names of parts of machinery, Great Eastern, iron-clads, battle be- tween Monitor and Merrimac In what time is the Atlan- tic Ocean crossed by steamships by sailing vessels. Pages 45 to 56. Canals (14, 15) how built their uses, Locks how boats are lowered and raised, pages 82 to 84, Name some canals. Page 85. Reservoirs (16), What are they their use, Aque- ducts, What are they their use how water fills them how Chicago and Cleveland are supplied with fresh water where from. Page 86. Straits and Channels (21), What are they what do they connect what do they separate, Mention some. Mountains (4), What are they highest covered with what, Melting snow forms what, Minerals they contain their trees, mines, and mountain streams, How Mines (30) are constructed coal, how obtained how formed -charcoal burning gas dangers in mines iron, how made, silver, how obtained gold tin lead copper. Salt how and where obtained, Chute or Shoot (31), what use. Pages 144 to 156. Mountain Lake (7) *rom what formed, Name the On the Pictorial Chart. 257 largest lakes in the world lakes at different elevations lake fish water fresh, or salt. Pages 68 and 29. Volcanoes (5), What are they dangerous, What celebrated volcano in Italy, What cities destroyed how. Pages 163 to 165. Island (18) and Peninsula (19), What are they the difference between them points of land called what, Point to lighthouse on cape on promontory differ- ence between cape and promontory Mention some im- portant islands. Page 78. Watershed (29), a high ridge from which streams flow in different directions, What is on watershed in the chart (53), how a windmill works its use where numer- ous. Page 169. Mills (35) how built where built different kinds, how flour is made, how lumber is sawed, Saw-mills what kinds of trees are sawed into boards, etc., kinds of wood used for building houses, ships, railroads, furniture, pianos, fences, and wagons. Page 98. Trees, What kinds of trees are raised or kept for shade for ornament for their leaves for their bark for their sap for their fruits for medicines, how trees begin to grow how to tell the age of trees what grow only in warm climates, how sap moves, uses of leaves. The Plains in chart contain farms yielding useful crops, Which are the most useful for food for clothing for sugar for drinks, crops sent to cities and towns on railroads, canals, and rivers, What crops grow best in warm climates, Can cotton grow as far north as wheat, Do oranges and bananas grow as far north as apples 258 Topics for Drill. and pears, What is India-rubber, Where obtained mahogany and rosewood, What country produces the most cotton wheat and corn tea coffee. Pages 98 to 127. Lassoing Cattle (41) how where uses of cattle. Pages 143 and 203. On Western Plains in the chart, Indians are hunt- ing buffaloes (42), how killed what parts of the buffalo are useful to people other animals of the buffalo kind, Where do these Indians mostly live their occupations, how they look, dress, live their dwellings how they fight how treated by white men. Pages 97, 142, and 205. Emigrants (40) move by railroads and by wagons, In what direction do most emigrants move in this country, From what countries of Europe have many come, Where settle their occupation benefits to Western States and Territories, Which are being rapidly settled, What large Southern State receives many emigrants. Page 79. Vineyard (46), What grow there what made from grapes what countries famous for grapes and wine how grapes are gathered how wine is made different kinds of wine raisins. Page in. Wells and Pumps (52), how drinking water is ob- tainedwells how dug water how raised how pumps work chain pump suction pump vacuum Artesian wells, how made, their depth oil wells salt wells. Pages 70 to 75. Bridges, Suspension Bridge (54) different kinds of bridges how built for what purpose of what materials, Mention some celebrated bridges, How foundations are built under water divers diving-armor diving-bells. Pages 88 to 91. VB 35761 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY