^«)JI1\OJO^ 
 
 ^OfCAllFOff^ 
 
 nw 
 
 ^OJIIVJJO'^^ ^jyiJDNVSOl^ "^AaaAINIlJW^^ 
 
 
 
 .5 ^ 
 
 % 
 
 ^Advaani^'^ >&A»v)ian# ^i^uowsov^^ ■^/jajMNnittV 
 
 :^ 
 
 ^OFCAllFORfc, ^OFCAllFOff^ ,^\^E^)NIVfBJ/A ^lOSi 
 
 -T' O 
 
 .i I' 
 
 I -n l-> 
 
 
 ^WEUNIVERJ/;^ ^lOSANCEl/j-^ 
 
 .\«EUNIVERS/A 
 
 > 
 
 »<. -I 
 
 _^lOSANCEl£f^ 
 
 "^fllJOKVSOl^ 
 
 "^/yaiAiNnjwv^ 
 
 ^^MlBRARYQr 
 
 
 ^QFCAllFOff^ 
 
 
 ^5f,UIBRARY<9^ 
 
 ^OFCAllFOff^ 
 
 ^OAHvaani'^ 
 
 ^^MEUN(VEj% 
 
 .^WEUNIVERy/A. 
 
 ^lOSANCElfj-^ 
 
 ■^/Ja3AIN(l3WV> 
 
 ^J3l]3NVS0V<^ 
 
 ■^/ia3AIN(l]l\v 
 
 ^illBRARYQc 
 
 
 .-^OFCAllFOff^ 
 
 ^(?Aavaani'J^ 
 
 ^^^lUBRARY(?^^ 
 
 ■■^ - - ^ — ■ ^ 
 
 4 'c? 
 
 ^IIIBRARYO^ 
 
 
 ,^MEllNlVERy/A 
 
 ''■'JHONYSO)^ 
 
 ^•lOSANCflfj-^ 
 g X-> — .-Si 
 
 = .< 
 
 "^^/jaiAiNnjwv^ 
 
 ^lllBRARYQ/^ 
 
 ^^^tllBRARYQr 
 
 ^.JOJIIVDJO'^ 
 
 
 ^^WEINIVER% ^lOSJ 
 
 <fJiaDNVS01'«^ %a3A 
 
 -^OFCAllFOff^ 
 
 ^OAHvaan^ 
 
 ^OAavaan# 
 
 .^WEUNIVERy/A 
 
 ^lOSANCElfj^ 
 
 "^IJONVSOl^ 
 
 %a3AINfl]WV^ 
 
 ^0FCAIIF0% 
 
 >i;OF CAllFOff^ 
 
 5. ,—'1 I. § 
 
 'OAavaani^ 
 
 >&Aavaani^ 
 
 >^ 1 ^fc^T T O 
 
 Q .1. 
 
 ^^V^EllNIVER5/A 
 
 ^lOSANCEl^y. 4;;5^lllBRARYQf 
 
 <r;U3NVS01^ ■^Aa]AiNn-3WV' 
 
 
 i^tUBRARYQr^ 
 
 \'im-ii^ 
 
 ^^WE^)NlVEW/^ 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 ^lOSANCElfj> 
 
 %a3AIN(l-3WV^ 
 
 ^UIBRARYQc 
 
 %)jnV3J0'f*' 
 
 ,\WEUNIVERS//, 
 
 ■^I^IJDNVSOl^ 
 
 ^lOSANC[lfj> 
 
 O il. 
 
 -< 
 
 "^/xaJAiNd-iW^ 
 
 ^OFCAlIFOff^ ^OFCAllFORij^ 
 
 ^<?Aava8n# 
 
 >'OAavaanii'^ 
 
 ^^MEUNIVERS/^ 
 
 ^lOSANCEtfj^ 
 
 •<f5l3DNVS01^ 
 
 '^ 
 
 00 
 
 I 
 
 '^/Sa3AINn3l\V^ 
 
 ^OF-OllFOff^ 
 
 ^CAavaani^ 
 
 ^^^lllBRARYO/^ 
 
 ^^HIBRARYQ^^ 
 
 '^WJllVJJO't^ 
 
 %0i\mi^^ 
 
 ^\\\EUNIVERy/A ^lOSANCElfj^ 
 S Q '^ 7 ^ ? 
 
 ^^^l•llBRARY(> 
 
 ^^^lUBRARYO^ 
 
 ^^WEllNIVER%. ^lOSi 
 
 ^iJDNVsov^ ■^/sajAiNftiwv^ ^^ojiivjjo'^ %ojnv3jo^ -^Ji/uDNYsoi^ "^/sm 
 
 -^OF CAIIFOP^^ .^0FCA1IF0% . \\\E UNIVERS/A 
 
 •^OAavaaiH^"^ 
 
 ^CAdvaaiiiv^ 
 
 ^^:lOSANCElC^. 
 
 •Si 
 
 ^OFCAlIFOff^ 
 
 ^OFCAIIFOS"^ 
 
 ^JJUDNvsoi'^ "^/xaJAiNflJwv^ "^Aavaani^ 
 
 ^^AavaaniV^- 
 
 .^ME^)NIVER5■/A v^lOS-i 
 
 ^TiijoNYsoi^" %a]/^
 
 (-9 
 
 - i 
 
 so ^ 
 
 ^.!iojnvjjo'>* <'3i]3wsoi'^ v/naAiNn-Jiw ^aojiivDJo^ •^<i/ojiivjjo->' 
 
 
 ^OFCAllfO«V ^OFCAUfORij^ 
 
 'ii8l># 
 
 5 ^ . _, 
 
 ^\i\EUNIVERJ/^ v>;lOSANCEl£r^ ^OFCAUFOff^ ^OfCAllFOP^ 
 
 ^^UDNVSOl^ %a3MNIl]\«^ 
 
 
 .t(S\EllNIVEl?y/A <^10SANCEI£ 
 
 <(^DNVS01^ %a]AINIl-3\^ 
 
 ^lrtEUNIVERS/^ 
 
 ^JJUDHVSOl^ 
 
 ^IOSANCEUTj, 
 
 § 
 
 
 ^lUBRARYOf 
 
 ^lUBRARYQ^ 
 
 ^aOJIWDJO'*^ '^^fOJnVDJO"^ 
 
 .^!i\FUNIVER% 
 
 o 
 
 ^lOSANCEia^. 
 
 ^ S 
 
 f- -I 
 
 "V/SaJAlNllJftV 
 
 ^lUBRARYO/r. ^tUBRARY^ 
 
 ^tfOdlTVa-JO"^ ^OJIWDJC 
 
 t<MM/NIVERJ/^ 
 
 a 
 
 v^lOSANCE^n* 
 
 ^ 5 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^OFCAIIFOR^ ^OFCAIIFOR^ 
 
 
 ^t(J\MINIVfR% 
 
 ^•'5U0NVS01=^ 
 
 ^lOSANCEier^ 
 
 "^/iajAiNnawv^ 
 
 ^OFCAllFO% 
 
 "^CAHvwanA'^ "^" 
 
 RARYQ/r 
 
 ^tllBRARYQr^ 
 
 
 ^tfOJIlV3JO^ 
 
 AWEl)NIVER% 
 
 ^fJUWSOT^ 
 
 ^lOSANCEltr^ 
 
 CO 
 
 I 
 
 %a3AINI13ftV^ 
 
 ^tUBRARYQf^ ^tUBRARY(?^ 
 
 HMElNIVERy/A 
 
 ^aojiwDjo'^ %0imH^'^ -^sjwmQV^ 
 
 ^lOSANCElt 
 
 = .< 
 
 ^OFCAllfOff^ ^OFCAllFORfc 
 
 5 
 
 
 ;jkWEUNIVER%. 
 
 <'3lJ3NVS(n'^ 
 
 ^lOSANCEl£r> 
 
 '%a3AINn3WV 
 
 ^OFCAllFOff^ 
 
 ^<7Aavsan-i^ 
 
 ^OFCAllFORj^ 
 
 ^^AHvaana^ 
 
 .^WEUNIVERVa 
 
 ^mjONVSOl^ 
 
 >^lOSANCfl£; 
 
 t 
 
 e .5 
 
 AWM)N1VERJ/a 
 
 ^WSANCF^* ^lUBRARYO^ ^lUBRARYO/; 
 
 5»EIINIVER% vvlOSMEUr, 
 
 
 "^/^aaAiNdJrtV^ 
 
 ^OFCAllFORi^ 
 
 
 ^iojnvDJO>^ 
 
 ^OFCAIIFOP^ 
 
 
 ^^WEUNIVER% 
 
 5 
 
 ?J\fUNIVfR% 
 
 ^JJlJONV-SOl^ 
 
 ^lOSANCFl£r^ 
 o , 
 
 ■'i'AajAiNn-Jrti^ 
 
 ^lOSANCEl^A*. 
 
 CO 
 
 30 
 
 '.- - -I 
 
 ^^lUBRARYQr 
 
 (^ 
 
 5 
 
 
 ^OFCAUFOff^ 
 
 ^ /—'I I- § 
 
 ^<?Aavaan-J^ 
 
 <;^lllBRARYdK 
 
 ^WJIIVD JO't^ 
 
 '^.SOJIIVJJO^ 
 
 AWEUNIVERy/A 
 
 "^J^lJDNVSOl^ 
 
 ^lOSANCfltr^ 
 o 
 
 E 3 
 
 ^/ia3AiNn]ftV^ 
 
 ^^lllBRARYQc. ^^ILIBRARYQr 
 
 
 .^«EUNIVER% 
 
 •^IJliDNVSOl^ 
 
 vjclOSANCElij 
 t 
 
 = ^ 
 
 ;j,OFCAllfO«<^ _j^.OFCAllF0ff^ ^^ME UNIVERJ/^ 
 
 ^CAavaaiii^^ 
 
 %avaan# ■^mmm'^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 5j;0FCAllF0«i^ ^OFCAlIFOff^ 
 
 ^ i>5 
 
 "^OAavaani^ '^<7Aavaani^'^ 
 
 .^MEUNIVERJ/A 
 
 ■<(5l3DNVS0V^ 
 
 ^lOSANCEl£j 
 f 
 
 E .:5'
 
 TO HIS EXCELLENCY 
 
 FREDERICK, COUNT TRAMPE, 
 
 LATE GOVERNOR OF ICELAND, 
 
 NOW OF DRONTHEIM, IN NORWAY, 
 
 4-c. <S-c. (S-c. 
 
 AS A TESTIMONY 
 
 OF RESPECT FOR HIS PUBLIC CHARACTER, 
 
 AND OF GRATITUDE FOR HIS KIND EXERTIONS 
 
 TO RENDER THE JOURNEY THROUGH ICELAND 
 
 AGREEABLE AND SUCCESSFUL, 
 
 THIS VOLUME 
 
 IS INSCRIBED 
 BY 
 
 THE AUTHOR.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The Island of Iceland is but little distant from 
 that of Britain : it has long been known to contain 
 many extraordinary natural phenomena ; and yet 
 very few have been induced to visit it, either from 
 private curiosity, or from the more general views of 
 science. The first British travellers who attempted 
 to explore the country, probably thought their obser- 
 vations too uninteresting to be communicated to the 
 public ; and even the Letters of Von Troil, who 
 accompanied them, though in many respects valua- 
 ble, were, perhaps, chiefly so, by awakening the 
 curiosity of science to that neglected, but remarkable 
 country.
 
 Vm PREFACE. 
 
 In the year 1789, Sir John (then Mr) Stanley- 
 visited Iceland, with more extended views, and ex- 
 plored some parts of the country that had not been 
 examined by Sir Joseph Banks. The very interest- 
 ing- account which he has given of the Geysers and 
 the Reikum springs, in his letters to Dr Black, leaves 
 room for regret that he has not given to the public 
 a complete narrative of his voyage. 
 
 The importance which the study of Mineralogy 
 has of late years acquired, and the intimate connec- 
 tion which it is now acknowledged to hold, w^ith all 
 legitimate views of geological science, rendered the 
 examination of Iceland particularly desirable. Im- 
 pressed with this idea, and several circumstances 
 combining to strengthen the desire I had long enter- 
 tained of visiting that island, I resolved to gratify 
 my wishes during the summer of the last year* 
 
 My intentions being known, two gentlemen of 
 the University of Edinburgh, Mr Henry Holland 
 (now Dr Holland,) and Mr Richard Bright, express- 
 ed a wish to accompany me ; and I did not hesitate to 
 meet their wishes, knowing them to be young men 
 of very superior talents and acquirements, in a high 
 degree pleasing in their manners, and as I hoped to
 
 PREFACE. IX 
 
 to number them (as I now have the happiness of 
 doing) among my friends. I was the more gra- 
 tified by this incident, as particular circumstances 
 had deprived me of the company of my friend 
 Thomas Allan, Esq. a gentleman well kno\vn to 
 mineralogists ; and of that of Mr Hooker, whose 
 reputation as a botanist is already very great. Mr 
 Hooker, at the desire of Sir Joseph Banks, had gone 
 to Iceland in 1809, and had made considerable col- 
 lections in natural history, which were unfortunately 
 destroyed, by the burning of the ship in which he 
 was returning to England. He was desirous of re- 
 pairing his losses, with the comfort of a companion 
 to share his toil. Notwithstanding the destruction 
 of his notes, and of almost every thing he had 
 collected during his stay in Iceland, this gentle- 
 man has given to the world a volume replete with 
 valuable information. It w^as only a short time 
 ago, that Mr Hooker resolved to publish his w^ork, 
 (having first printed it merely for the use of his 
 friends), and before he informed me of his intentions, 
 I had, by his kind permission, extracted and printed 
 his botanical remarks. 
 
 b
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Thoiig-h mineralogical research was the principal 
 object of the voyage, yet having enjoyed the oppor- 
 tunity of seeing much more of Iceland than any 
 former British traveller, and having, with my asso- 
 ciates, bestowed considerable attention upon every 
 thing that appeared interesting in the island and its 
 inhabitants, I cannot but conceive myself as still 
 under the obligation of submitting to the public, the 
 information that has been acquired, even although 
 Mr Hooker's valuable book may, in some respects, 
 have anticipated me. 
 
 Tlie labour of composing the following work has 
 been divided, that it might be sent to the press 
 with as little delay as possible. To some readers, 
 perhaps, the difference of style, which such a divi^ 
 sion of labour necessarily creates, may be displeas- 
 ing : yet, I trust, that the advantages of it will be 
 still more apparent ; that it will be felt, when each 
 individual of a party devotes himself to those parti- 
 cular objects of research, which are most suitable to 
 his inclination and habits of thought, there is a pro- 
 bability of much more accurate, as well as extensive 
 information being acquired, than if every one em-
 
 PREFACE. XI 
 
 Ijraced the whole field ; and that, in a work of this 
 kind, accuracy of observation will be considered of 
 far greater importance than mere uniformity of com- 
 position. 
 
 Whoever reads the Preliminary Dissertation on 
 the History and Literature of Iceland, the account 
 of the Present State of Literature, and the chapter on 
 Government, Laws, and Religion, will find no cause 
 to regret that these parts of the work have been exe- 
 cuted by Dr Holland ; and medical men cannot but 
 be satisfied with his account of the diseases of the 
 Icelanders, which will be found in the Appendix. 
 The Agricultural Report of Cheshire has given an 
 early celebrity to Dr Holland's name ; and I have 
 great pleasure in anticipating, from the labour he 
 has employed in this work, a material addition to the 
 reputation which he has so deservedly acquired. 
 
 IVlr Bright has made the most of the materials we 
 had time to collect, for an account of the Zoology 
 and Botany of Iceland. To him we are indebted for 
 the preservation of the plants we gathered, and in- 
 deed for by far the greatest part of the collection ; 
 and I shall ever retain a grateful remembrance of the
 
 Xli PREFACE. 
 
 chearful and ready exertion he always displayed, and 
 the undeviating good humour, with which he submit- 
 ted to the cross accidents which sometimes befel us. 
 In the midst of professional studies, he has found 
 time to furnish me with many valuable remarks, and 
 much useful information, which, Avithout his assist- 
 ance, I could not have procured. These, in addition 
 to the materials of Dr Holland's Journal, and my 
 own, have enabled me to draw up a narrative of our 
 Voyage and Travels, in which simplicity has been 
 chiefly studied. For the Narrative, and for what 
 relates to Rural Affairs, Commerce, and Mineral- 
 ogy, I am alone answerable. 
 
 I do not pretend, even with the able assistance I 
 have received, to have accomplished all that might 
 have been done, or to have rendered the future visits 
 of naturalists to Iceland useless or unimportant. 
 The eastern and northern coasts still remain un- 
 explored, and from what I have learned, are well 
 worthy the attention of mineralogists and botanists. 
 
 We went to Iceland, believing that we had pro- 
 vided against any difficulties which might occur ; 
 but we were so far deceived, that we found our-
 
 PREFACE, XlU 
 
 selves obliged to spend much of the time in Reikia- 
 vik, the chief place in the island, which we had ex- 
 pected to employ in travelling through the country. 
 The extreme slowness of the Icelanders, their awk- 
 ward mode of loading horses, and the badness of 
 the roads, (if any thing in Iceland can be called a 
 road), occasioned much unlooked-for trouble and 
 delay ; and will be regarded, I trust, as an apology 
 for any disappointment in expectations which may 
 have been excited. 
 
 The geography of Iceland is still very imperfect; 
 but a survey of the coast, in which two Danish 
 officers have during some years been engaged, Avill 
 doubtless, in a great measure, remove this defect. 
 Ignorant of this undertaking, I took instruments 
 with me for the purpose of improving the geography 
 as much as I was able, and of making meteoro- 
 logical observations ; but I soon found that it was 
 impracticable to carry them safely, and to attend at 
 the same time to the objects I had principally in 
 view. Having obtained a copy of Minor's charts 
 of the south-western coast of the island, I have 
 been enabled to delineate those parts through which
 
 XIV TREFACE. 
 
 we passed, so as to convey a tolerably coiTect idea 
 of the face of the countiy. By means of a sex- 
 tant, I found the latitudes laid down by Minor to be 
 -very correct; that of Reikiavik differing only 4" 
 from my observations. From the neighbourhood of 
 Reikiavik, I took a set of angles with a theodolite, 
 and from these, and observations taken with a com- 
 pass as we travelled, our route has been traced. 
 But, though the map I have drawn certainly gives 
 a better idea of the country than any hitherto pub- 
 lished, it must not be considered as by any means 
 accurate ; for I had no opportunity of rectifying my 
 obsei-vations ; and those made with a compass are 
 liable to many errors. The small general map of 
 Iceland is a mere sketch, made for the purpose of 
 giving an idea of the shape of the island, and of the 
 relative positions of different places mentioned in the 
 course of the work. 
 
 Our deficiency in meteorological observations 
 arises from causes already noticed. The register of 
 the weather is annexed, as it was made up at the 
 time. 
 
 Though it was inconsistent with the plan of this
 
 PREFACE, XV 
 
 volume, to enter into details respecting the history 
 of Iceland, it has been thought proper to give a 
 very general historical sketch of the island, which 
 may be useful to the reader. A veiy good account 
 of the state of Iceland in the eighteenth century, 
 has been published b}^ Mr Stephenson, the present 
 President of the Supreme Court of Justice in the 
 island. From that book some valuable information 
 has been extracted ; and, in consulting' other works 
 of merit in reference to the same object, we have 
 been actuated by the earnest desire of conveying to 
 the public a distinct view of a country, which must 
 ever be interesting, both to the moral and physical 
 observer. 
 
 Edinhnrgh, 
 October 
 
 hnrgh, "jj 
 r 1811. 5

 
 CO^TENTS. 
 
 Frelhnhianj Dissertation on the History and Literature of 
 
 Iceland. By Dr Holland 3 
 
 Chap. I. Journal 73 
 
 II. Journal 13 1 
 
 III. Journal 205 
 
 IV. Rural Affairs 270 
 
 V. State of Commerce , 282 
 
 VI. On the Government, Laws, and Religion. By 
 
 Dr Holland 28S 
 
 VII. Present State of Education and Literature. By 
 
 Dr Holland 309 
 
 ^'1II. Zoology, and Botany 336 
 
 IX. Mineralogy 353 
 
 Mineral IFaters 389 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 No. I. On the Diseases of the Icelanders. By Dr Holland. 397 
 II. Icelandic Flora 409 
 
 III. Catalogue of Minerals 42/ 
 
 IV. Miscellaneous Articles connected with History and 
 
 Literature. By Dr Holland. 449 
 
 V. Music 461 
 
 VI. Register of the JVeather 462 
 
 VII. Icelandic Revolution, 1809 4/4
 
 ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 A SECOND Edition of this Work having been called for, with- 
 in the short period of six months from its first publication, 
 while it has greatly flattered the Author and his Fellow- 
 Travellers, has allowed but little time for procuring addition- 
 al information. Tiiey have, however, revised the work care- 
 fully; and a succinct account of the Revolution (as it has 
 been called) which took place in Iceland in the year 1809, 
 has been added to the Appendix. 
 
 A Map of the great Volcanic Eruption which happened 
 in 1783 has been procured, and reduced to the scale of the 
 Map constructed for this Work. 
 
 Edinburgh, i 
 Jpril 1812. j
 
 PRELI]\nNARY DISSERTATION 
 
 ON THE 
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATLRR 
 
 OK 
 
 ICELAND. 
 
 BY HENRY HOLLAND, M. D-
 
 DISSERTATION, &c. 
 
 JLhe History of Iceland, though possesshig little importance 
 in its relation to the political events of other nations, is 
 nevertheless curious and interesting in many of its featvu'es. 
 It is the narrative of a distinct and peculiar race of people ; 
 of a community which, oppressed by all the severities of soil 
 and climate, and secluded amidst the desolation and most 
 destructive operations of nature, has preserved, through the 
 progress of nearly a thousand years, an enlightened system of 
 internal policy, an exalted character in all religious and social 
 duties, liberal methods of education, and the culture of even 
 tlie more refined branches of literature and knowledge. Few 
 of the events which are most prominent on the page of ge- 
 neral history, are to be met with in the simple chronicles of 
 this island. The battle, the siege, the rebellion, and the revo- 
 lution, are here almost utterly unknown. In place of these 
 social and self-engendered calamities, we find the record, pa- 
 thetic in its simplicity, of the various physical evils by which 
 the Icelanders ha^•e been oppressed, — the severities of a win- 
 ter — the famine of the ensuing year — the virvdence of an 
 epidemic disease — or the horrors of an earthquake and volca-
 
 4 HISTORY AND LITEnATURE OP ICELAND. 
 
 nic eruption. With the civil history of the peojile, that of 
 their literature is intimately combined ; for, in the govern- 
 ment and internal concerns of the country, mental attain- 
 ments and civil influence have at all periods been closely link- 
 ed together. The progressive state of religion forms an- 
 other principal feature in their annals ; and more appears of 
 individual biography, than is common to historical writing; 
 a natural effect, as it would seem, of the situation of the in- 
 habitants, and of the condition of society which has existed 
 among them from early times. The records of Iceland, in 
 short, are not so much those of kings and governments, as 
 of a community of families and a people : and the philo- 
 sopher or moralist, while he gleans over the fields of history 
 for the materials of his study, will find his researches suc- 
 cessful even in the annals of this remote and desolate island. 
 The native historians of Iceland are numerous. Of their 
 particular merits, more will hereafter be said: at present 
 it may be sufficient to state, that they have successfully elu- 
 cidated even the most remote periods in the history of their 
 country, and that their simplicity and distinctness furnish 
 strong internal evidence of authenticity. The minuteness of 
 narrative, however, which forms their best recommendation 
 to those who desire to study the character of a people and of 
 a passing age, would deter the majority of readers from an 
 examination of their contents. In the following sketch of 
 the history of Iceland, the most conspicuous and remarkable 
 features have been selected, to the exclusion of the nu- 
 merous details with which the native historians have crowd- 
 ed the picture ; while an attempt is made to trace the cir- 
 cumstances, giving to the Icelanders that peculiar and dis- 
 tinctive character, which, as a nation, they have always ex- 
 hibited. In reference to the latter object, it was requisite that
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELANB. 5 
 
 some notice should be taken of the literature of the coimtrv 
 at dilTerent periods ; and, accordingly, with the narrative of 
 events, are connected those sketches of the intellectual habits 
 and pursuits of the people, which may best serve to illus- 
 trate this singular feature in their history. To a subsequent 
 chapter is reserved the account of the present state of litera- 
 ture and education in the island. 
 
 IMuch argument has taken place on the question, whether 
 Iceland was the Tliule of the ancients. Though the aflirma- 
 tive opinion has not been without its authorities, and these 
 of eminent character, yet there appears, on the whole, lit- 
 tle that is satisfactory or probable in this hypothesis. Were 
 it true that the Romans had ventured upon the northern 
 ocean as far as the shores of this island, we might expect to 
 find some distinct and well-marked record of the fact. The 
 passages, however, from their poets and historians, in which 
 the Thule is mentioned, do not afford any such testimonies; 
 and some of these would seem to be decidedly opposed to the 
 opinion in question.* 
 
 The discovery of Iceland, as first authenticated by history, 
 is due to the adventurous spirit of certain Norwegian and 
 Swedish pirates, about the year 860. Naddodr, the first voy- 
 ager who visited the island, was accidentally driven upon the 
 eastern coast, while sailing from Norway to the Faroe Isles : 
 
 * Those who wish to examine further into the merits of this question, may 
 consult the writings of Saxo Grammaticus, Casaubon, Bochart and Mallet ; the 
 Crymogaea of Arngriui Jonas; the Historia Ecclesiastica Islandite, &c. The 
 two first mentioned writers maintain the identity of Iceland with the Thule of 
 the Romans. Arngrim Jonas is the principal opponent of this opinion. Bo- 
 chart, jVIallet, and Bishop Jonson, the learned author of the Ecclesiastical His- 
 tory, hold an intermediate belief; supposing it not impossible that Iceland was 
 known to the ancients ; but contending that they applied the name Thule, with- 
 out particular discrimination, to several places near the northern boundary of 
 their empire.
 
 6 piSTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 
 
 eastern coast, while sailing from Norway to the Faroe isles : 
 he ascended to the summit of a hill near the shore; and, 
 seeing around him only a solitary desart, the mountains of 
 which were covered with snow, though it was then the au- 
 tunui of the year, he gave to the country the name of Snia- 
 land. Led by the report of this casual discovery, a Swede, 
 called Gardar, pursued the same track ; and, in the smnmer 
 of 864, succeeded in circumnavigating the island, which he 
 named Gardarsholm, or the island of Gardar. Floke, a 
 pirate of much celebrity in those times, was the third adven- 
 turer in this track. Directed by the flight of ravens, Avhich 
 he had carried out with him from Norway, he reached Ice- 
 land ; where he remained two winters ; exploring, during this 
 time, a great extent of the southern and western coasts, and 
 giving to the island the name which it still retains. This was 
 derived from the observation he made of a large quantity of 
 ice in some of the bays on the northern coast ; probably float- 
 ed hither from Greenland. 
 
 These voyagers carried back with them various and con- 
 tradictory reports of the island thus recently discovered. 
 Their expeditions, though affording some knowledge of the 
 country, woidd probably not have led to its colonization, 
 had not other causes contributed to this eflfect. At the pe- 
 riod in question, Harold the Fair-haired, who had been suc- 
 cessful in s\ibjugating the several petty states of Norway, 
 obtained the sovereignty over the whole of that kingdom. 
 Many noble Norwegians, dissatisfied with the change, and 
 aggrieved by the attempts of Harold to controul and leduce 
 their privileges, determined to abandon the country which 
 gave them birth. A body of these voluntary exiles, under 
 the conduct of Ingolf, one of the discontented subjects, sail- 
 ed from Norway, A. D. 87-1, and directed their course to Ice-
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATUKE OF ICEI.AND; / 
 
 laiul, where they hoped to retain unimpaired their former 
 independence. It would appear that this emigration was the 
 result of a mature and well-concerted scheme ; since Ingolf, 
 with his kinsman Hiorleif, visited Iceland in 8/0 ; and after- 
 wards returned to Norway, to assemble the different families, 
 Avho were content to resign their fortunes to his guidance. 
 
 It is not necessary to the history of Iceland to trace back 
 into ages more remote, the Norwegian people by whom the 
 island was thus colonized. Forming one branch of the great 
 Gothic or Teutonic famil}-, which occupied at this period 
 the northern kingdoms of Europe, it cannot be doubted that 
 they were derived from one common source ; and we look to 
 their origin in the Scythian emigration, which, nine centuries 
 before, inider the banners of the victorious Odin, carried 
 conquest and usurpation throughout all the vast regions of 
 the north. 
 
 It is stated by the Icelandic historians, that the first set- 
 tlers upon the island, found, on certain parts of the coast, 
 wooden crosses and other instruments ; from which it might 
 be inferred that the country had before been visited, either 
 by accident or design. The nature of the relics, thus discover- 
 ed, led to the belief that these earlier visitors were Chris- 
 tians ; and it was conceived probable that fishermen from 
 Britain, or from Ireland, had been accidentally driven upon 
 the coast, and had either perished there, or succeeded in re- 
 fitting their vessels, so as to return to their own coimtry. 
 That they did not remain long on the island, is rendered 
 probable by there being no vestige of habitations when the 
 Norwegians arrived. Some of the Icelandic historians, how- 
 ever, make a different statement ; and assert that there were 
 actual settlements there, previously to the period of the 
 Norwegian emigration. The Landnama Book, one of the
 
 8. IIISTOKY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 
 
 earliest of the records of Iceland, speaks of the discovery of 
 crosses, bells, and certain writings in the Irish language ; and 
 mentions in another place the residence of some of these fo- 
 reigners at Kirkinbai, on the southern coast of the island.* 
 Arc Frode, an eminent writer at the commencement of the 
 12th century, who took a part in the composition of the 
 Landnama Book, states in another of his works, that the 
 Fapcc, as these original inhabitants were termed by the Nor- 
 wegians, were actually upon the island at the arrival of the 
 colony from Norway, and that they migrated elsewhere, from 
 an aversion to the society of the Heathen strangers, f It is 
 somewhat singular that a difference of statement should exist 
 on this subject ; more especially when we consider the early 
 period at which the Icelanders began to compose history, and 
 the minute attention they bestowed upon historical facts. 
 The first opinion which has been mentioned, though not free 
 from uncertainty, is probably that which approaches most 
 nearly to the truth, t 
 
 * Landnama Book. Proem, et Part IV. Cap. 11. Havniae 1774. 
 
 f Arii Sched. c. 2. 
 
 J The testimonies of Alfred and the venerable Bede have been adduced, to 
 prove that Iceland was known to the natives of Britain before the discovery of 
 the Nor^vegian pirates. The description, however, given by Bede, of an island, 
 called Thule, six days sail from Britai)t, ivhere there are no nights in the sunimtr soL- 
 slice, and no days in the ninter, seems to be derived solely from the testimony of 
 Pliny, in describing the northern voyage of the celebrated Pytheas Massiliensis 
 (Hist. Nat. I. a. c. 75, 4' '• »"• f • 1 6.) ; and it appears probable that the Thule 
 of Pytheas is to be found in the Shetland or Faroe isles, rather than in the more 
 remote coasts of Iceland. In Hackluyt's Voyages (London, 1759), col. 1. p. I, 
 it is mentioned, on the authority of Galfridus Monumetensis, and the a^x"""/^'* 
 of M. Lambard, that the ancient British king, Arthur, about the beginning of the 
 0th century, subdued Iceland and Greenland, as well as many of the northern 
 kingdoms of Europe. It is further stated, ia the same book, likewise from GaL
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 9 
 
 However this may be, Ingolf and his associates found no 
 other difficulty in estabhsliing themselves on the island, than 
 Avhat arose from the nature of the country, at that time so 
 much covered t\ith thickets, that it Avas necessary in some 
 })laces to open tracks through them. The infant colony which, 
 directed by certain superstitious observances, w as first settled 
 in the south-western part of Iceland, received a rapid aug- 
 mentation of its numbers. * Many other noble Norwegian 
 families, dissatisfied with their condition under the imperi- 
 ous authority of Harold, left their country, attended by 
 large trains of dependants, and followed the course of the 
 eajlier emigrants, who had sought liberty in the desolate re- 
 gions of Iceland. Unassociated in their plans, and arriving 
 at different times, they did not confine themselves to any par- 
 ticular district, but spread their settlements along all the coasts 
 of the island. It appears that Harold at fiist opposed no 
 hinderance to this emigration of his subjects, but even afford- 
 ed them in some instances his assistance and advice, in the 
 distribution of the lands upon which they fixed their new 
 abodes, -f Afterwards, however, its frequency so much alarm- 
 ed him, that he issued an edict, imposing a fine of four 
 ounces of silver upon every person who should leave Nor- 
 way to settle in Iceland. 
 
 fridus, that Maigo, a successor of King Arthur, a second time conquered Ice- 
 land, and subjected it to his power. These accounts are evidently entitled to 
 very little credit. 
 
 * When Ingolf approached the coast of Iceland, he threw into the sea the wood- 
 en door of his former habitation in Norway ; and some time afterwards, finding 
 it cast upon the shore at Reikiavik, he fixed his abode on this spot. We meet 
 with relations of a similar practice among others of the first settlers in the coun- 
 try ; it being regarded as a method of ascertaining the will of the Deities as to 
 their place of settlement. Landnama Book; p. 1, c. 6, 
 
 + Landnama Book, p. 5, c. 1. 
 
 B
 
 10 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICEEAND. 
 
 The emigrations, however, in despite of restriction, con- 
 tinued to a great extent ; and, in little more than half a cen- 
 tury, the coasts of Iceland were peopled in a degree fully 
 equivalent to the means of subsistence which the country 
 afforded. The Landnama Book, before mentioned, the ob- 
 ject of which is to give a picture of the colonization of the 
 island, describes with singular minuteness the arrival and 
 spreading of the different settlers ; and connects this narra- 
 tive with a profusion of genealogical detail, unexampled per- 
 haps in the annals of any other country. From this record 
 it appears, that, together with the Norwegians, many Danes 
 and Swedes came over to the country ; and the names also 
 are preserved of several individuals of the Scotch and Irish 
 nations, who at this time chose Iceland as their place of 
 abode. 
 
 The period occupied in this progressive colonization of the 
 country, may be considered as the first in the history of Ice- 
 land. The Norwegians brought with them to the island their 
 language, their religion, their customs, and their historical 
 records. Their method of settling was accordant with the 
 usages which existed at this period among the northern na- 
 tions of Europe ; a sort of feudal arrangement was imme- 
 diately adopted, by which every leader of a body of emi- 
 grants, having occupied a district of country, distributed 
 lands to his followers, under certain implied conditions of 
 vassalage and subservience. Thus all the habitable parts of 
 the coast were speedily parcelled out among the leaders of 
 numerous small communities ; and, fresh bands of emigrants 
 still arriving, fre([uent contests arose between the new com- 
 ers, and those already dwelling in the country. These con- 
 tests for ])ossession became in time so common among the 
 petty feudal chiefs in different parts of the island, that a ne-
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 1 1 
 
 cessity was universally felt for the adoption of some system, 
 which, by connecting the yet separate communities, might 
 regulate the concerns, assimilate the interests, and unite the 
 feelings of the whole. The beneficial change, thus required, 
 was effected A. D. 928, fifty-four years after the arrival of 
 the first settlers; and a constitution was established, well 
 calculated to provide for the emergencies Avhich gave it 
 birth. 
 
 The general features of the new government, derived in 
 part from the more ancient institutions of the northern na- 
 tions, were undoubtedly those of an aristocracy. The island 
 was divided into four provinces; over each of which pre- 
 sided an hereditary go\-ernor or judge. The southern and 
 western provinces each comprehended three subdivisions or 
 prefectiires ; the northern province four of these prefectures, 
 on account of its greater extent ; the eastern province only 
 two : so as to give a distribution of the whole island into 
 twelve secondary districts. Over each of these divisions was 
 placed a prefect ; who, as well as the governor of the pro- 
 vince, held his office by an hereditary right, being originally 
 appointed from one of the principal families in the district. 
 The prefectures were further subdivided into smaller districts, 
 called Hreppar; in each of which there were appointed five 
 civil officers; elected from among those of the inhabitants, 
 who, to a certain value of property, united the reputation 
 of general sense and integrity. It was the province of these 
 magistrates to maintain the peace and good order of their 
 several districts ; and more especially to attend to the con- 
 dition and management of the poor. 
 
 In each of the three civil divisions thus established, were 
 vested certain ]x>vvers of assembly for public purposes. In 
 the Hreppar, or smaller districts, these assemblies were com-
 
 12 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 
 
 posed of all the inhabitants who possessed more than an as- 
 signed value of estate, and were of an iniblemished moral 
 character. Their proceedings, which rehited almost entirely 
 to matters of local police, were under the cognizance of the 
 Court of Prefecture ; formed by the prefect and. the depu- 
 ties from the several included districts. At these second as- 
 semblies of judicature, which were held once in the year, a 
 great part of the civil business of the country was transact- 
 ed, and a superintendance exercised also in certain matters 
 of religion ; an appeal, however, being still reserved, in the 
 first instance to the States of the whole Province, which met 
 at particular times, and finally to the Supreme General As- 
 sembly of Iceland. 
 
 This great assembly, called the Althing, * was held annu-^ 
 ally on the shores of the lake of Thingvalla; and was attend- 
 ed by all the civil oflicers, and by a certain number of the 
 clergy and laity from every part of the island. In it were 
 vested the legislative and supreme judicial powers of the 
 state, and the decision in all important matters of national 
 policy. Every appeal from the lower courts was determined 
 here ; and every magistrate made responsible to this tribunal 
 for his public conduct. The functions of the executive go- 
 vernment were committed by the assembly to a magistrate,, 
 elected by their votes, and retained in power during their 
 pleasure. This s\ipreme officer had the title of Laugman, 
 or administrator of the laws. Chosen, in consequence of 
 merit, from among the chiefs of the state, he Avas invested 
 with all the dignities suitable to his office. He presided at 
 
 * From all, all, and thing, a forum or place of justice. This assembly corre- 
 .sponds ill many circumstances to the Wittena-gemot of tiie Anglo-Saxons. Simi- 
 lar institutions, indeed, existed among most of the northern nations at this pe- 
 riod. 
 
 I
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 13 
 
 the general assembly, conducted its counsels, and registered 
 its decisions. He interpreted the laws of the nation, and 
 pronounced the sentences which the administration of these 
 laws required. His authority, though dependent for its du- 
 ration upon the will of the states, was usually continued for 
 many years, and often for life ; while, at the same time, this 
 uncertainty afforded an important check to abuses of his office. 
 As the supreme magistrate of the country, he was wisely gift- 
 ed with all the externals of dignity and power; and with equal 
 wisdom restricted in all those points, where his influence might 
 prove dangerous to the welfare of the republic. * 
 
 In this sketch of the constitution which the Icelanders 
 created for themselves, an evident relation will be traced to 
 the progressive institutions of several of the European states. 
 One obvious peculiarity, however, offers itself in the present 
 instance ; arising, as it is probable, from the character and 
 rank of the first colonists, and from their attachment to the 
 habits and institutions of their Scandinavian ancestors. Else- 
 where, the progress towards regular government was gradual, 
 and every step made through contest and bloodshed. In Ice- 
 land, all was effected by a single and simultaneous effort. The 
 necessity appeared for some bond of union among the several 
 commimitics of the island: the voice of sacre deliberation save 
 to the people this common bond, in a constitution which was 
 received without tumult, and brought into action without de- 
 lay. On this subject it would be an injustice to the reader not 
 to quote the words of the elegant and ingenious Mallet. 
 
 ' Le genie de ces peuples, leur bon sens naturel, et leur 
 ' amour pour la liberte y paroissent sans aucun nuage. Au- 
 
 * A minute account of the constitution of the Icelandic commonwealth is given 
 in the Ciymogsea of Arngrim Jonas.
 
 14 mSTORV AND LITERATURX OF ICELAND. 
 
 ' tunc force cxtt'iicure ne les croise, ni nc les gene; c'est 
 ' une nation livrc'c a clle mcme, qui s'etablit dans un pays 
 ' isolc, ct conime separe du reste du nionde ; dans tons ses 
 ' etablissemens, on ne voit que la plus pure expression de ses 
 ' inclinations, et de ses sentimens : et ils lui sont en effet si 
 ' naturels, que Ton n'appercoit pas dans les recits aussi 
 ' nail's, qu'etcndus, des Clironiques Islandois qu'aucune deli- 
 ' beration generale, aucune irresolution, aucune experience 
 
 * des etats difFerens, ayent precede chez eux I'institution de 
 ' cette forme politique. Tout y nait, et s'y arrange de soi- 
 ' nienie ; et comme les abeillcs forment leurs ruches, les nou- 
 
 * veau:x Islandois etablissent chez eux ce gouvcrnenient, qui 
 ' senible ne devoir etre le fruit que d'une longue experience 
 ' et d'une etude reflechie des hommes; et dont un grand ge- 
 ' nie de ce siecle (^Montesquieii) remarque avec etonncnient, 
 ' qu'il a ete trouve dans les hois.' * 
 
 The code of laws, adoptetl in connection with this new 
 form of government, and progressively altered and amend- 
 ed by the decisions of the public assembly, is another strik- 
 ing specimen of the genius and habits of the Icelanders of 
 this age. It was constructed with a minute attention to the 
 usages of the people, and to the various objects in their in- 
 ternal economy. All the contingencies of society were pro- 
 vided for; the relations and dtities of di tie rent classes pre- 
 scribed ; and other regulations introduced, which had in 
 view the convenience and utility of the whole. As instances, 
 may be mentioned the lawsrespecting marriage, divorce, and 
 inheritance ; those which regarded the management of the 
 poor, the distribution of landed property, and the regulation 
 of weights and measures. The criminal laws were equally 
 
 * Introduction a THistoire de Dannemarc, p. 118.
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 15 
 
 reduced to a systematic form, and adapted to the character 
 of society in this age. In conformity to the custom of the 
 other Scandinavian nations, corporal punishment was rarely 
 inflicted ; and the atonement for almost every species of of- 
 fence was made by the payment of certain fines ; which, in 
 the cases of more heinous guilt, amounted sometimes to the 
 confiscation of the whole property of the offender. * As, in 
 the Spartan and Roman laws, no punishment was provided 
 for jiarricide ; from the same conviction that the nature ot 
 the crime was in itself a suflicient security against its commis- 
 sion. There are evidences in some of the ancient writings of 
 the country, that the trial by jury was not unknown to the 
 Icelanders during the early periods of their history. Their 
 acquaintance ^vith this mode of trial was not obtained from 
 their Scandinavian descent; but it seems to have been resort- 
 ed to only in particular circumstances, and was not adopted 
 in the code of laws framed for the republic of Iceland, f 
 
 The constitution, thus adopted by the Icelanders, was 
 preserxed with little change for more than three centuries ; 
 during which period the records exist of thirty-eight Laug- 
 men, who in succession sustained the executive powers. Were 
 it allowed to apply the term to a desolate island on the con- 
 fines of the Arctic Circle, this might be called the golden 
 age of Iceland. Secured by physical circumstances from the 
 ambition of more powerful states, an efficient government 
 and well directed laws proxided for the people all the advan- 
 tages of justice and social order. Education, literature, and 
 
 * For an account of the Wiigslode, or criminal laws of the Icelandic common- 
 wealth, see the Crymogsea of Arngrim Jonas. 
 
 f The Eyrbyggia Saga (Havnia, 1787, p. 47.) contains a curious narrative of 
 the trial of a female, named Geirrida, accused of practising the art of magic ; 
 to judge in which case, twelve men were appointed, and put upon theii' oaths. — 
 An account of the same transaction is given in the Landnama Book, p. b2, note.
 
 l6 nrsTORY and literature of Iceland. 
 
 even the refinements of poetical fancy, flourished among 
 them : hke the Aurora Boreahs of their native sky, the 
 poets and historians of Iceland not only illumined their 
 own coinitry, but flashed the lights of their genius through 
 the night which then hung over the rest of Euro})e. Com- 
 merce was })ursued by the inhabitants with ardour and suc- 
 cess ; and they partook in the maritime adventures of disco- 
 very and colonization, which gave so much merited celebrity 
 to the Norwegians of this period. Many of their chiefs 
 and learned men visited the courts of other countries, form- 
 ed connections with the most eminent personages of the time, 
 and surveying the habits, institutions and arts of different 
 communities, returned home, fraught Avith the treasures of 
 collected knowledge. Nor was there among the Icelanders 
 of this period an extinction of the elevated spirit, connnon 
 to their forefathers and to the age. The Sagas, or tales of 
 the country, afford many striking pictures of that high feeling 
 of honour, and of those deeds of personal prowess, which 
 were cherished by the disposition of the northern nations, 
 and which refused not to exist even in this remote and deso- 
 late region. 
 
 Of the several features which distinguish this remarkable 
 period in the history of Iceland, the literary character of the 
 people is doubtless the most extraordinary and peculiar. We 
 require much evidence to convince us of the fact, that a na- 
 tion, remote from the rest of Europe, dwelling on a soil so 
 sterile, and beneath such inclement skies, should have sent 
 forth men whose genius, taste and acquirements, did honour 
 to their coimtry, and to the times in which they lived. Such 
 evidence, however, of the most decisive kind, we possess in 
 the many writings which have come down from this period to 
 the present age, and in the testimonies afforded by the con-
 
 HISTORY AXD LITERATURE OF ICELAKD. 1/ 
 
 temporary writers of other countries. The reality of the fact, 
 indeed, can admit of no doubt ; and it is only left for us to 
 speculate upon the causes which led to this singular anomaly 
 in the history of literature. 
 
 The original settlers in Iceland were men who had possess- 
 ed eminence and hereditary rank in the kingdom of Nor- 
 way. Deserting their country from an abhorrence of des- 
 potic sway, they carried with them to their new abodes the 
 language of their ancestors, (the Gothic or Teutonic root, 
 from which so many branches have sprung ;) and numerous 
 records, both of individual family descent, and of the ge- 
 neral history of the northern nations ; these annals being 
 preserved for the most part in that poetical form, which dwelt 
 with an equal vivacity of impression upon the memory and 
 feelings. The mythology of the Scandinavians, in its nature 
 propitious to poetic fiction and ornament, was at the same 
 time transplanted into Iceland ; the gloomy scenery of which 
 was not wholly unaccordant with the character and usages of 
 this religion. The majesty and the terrors of Odin and of 
 Thor might well be supposed to reside amidst the desolation 
 of nature ; and the future bliss of the Valhalla was pictured 
 with a simplicity of description, which gave it to the imagi- 
 nation even of the Icelander, who knew but the names of 
 luxury and splendour. The attributes of the other deities, 
 and the metaphorical or fictitious events of the mythology, 
 were equally adapted to the situation and conceptions of the 
 people, during this infancy of their existence as an independ- 
 ent community. 
 
 Possessing thus the materials for history and the elements 
 of poetical composition, and aided by various remembrances 
 and associations connected with their former country, it is 
 
 c
 
 IS HISTORY AND LTTERATURE OP ICELAND. 
 
 not wonderful that the Icelanders should have been early led 
 to the cultivation of these branches of literature. Other causes 
 also contributed to this effect. The institution of a regular 
 form of government, though it diminished the number of in- 
 cidents which might have been adorned by the language of 
 poetry, yet afforded a peaceable security of condition, which 
 favoured the culture of the mind, and enabled those who had 
 learning or genius to record the events and atchievements of 
 ages that were gone by. The peculiar form, too, of this go- 
 vernment, afforded a powerful incentive to mental exertions ; 
 and at the great annual assembly of the people, those who 
 possessed quickness of talent, with powers of composition and 
 oratory, never failed to obtain the applause of their fellow- 
 citizens, and an influence in the deliberations of the state. 
 Nor were the more domestic occupations of the Icelanders 
 such as to preclude an indulgence of these dispositions. The 
 summer's sun saw them indeed laboriously occupied in seek- 
 ing their provision from a stormy ocean and a barren soil ; 
 but the long seclusion of the winter gave them the leisure, as 
 well as the desire, to cultivate talents, which were at once so 
 fruitful in occupation and delight. During the darkness of 
 their year, and beneath the rude covering of wood and turf, 
 they recited to their assembled families the deeds and descent 
 of their forefathers ; from whom they had received that inhe- 
 ritance of liberty, which they now dwelt among deserts to 
 preserve. 
 
 But it was not solely as reviving the memory of former 
 times, or as a source of domestic enjoyment, that the Ice- 
 landers of this age devoted themselves to the composition of 
 history and poetry. The ambition of wealth and glory fur- 
 ther animated their pursuits. Their bards and historians
 
 HrSTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND, U) 
 
 visited other countries, resided amid the splendours of courts, 
 were caressed by tiie greatest mouarchs of the time, and re- 
 turned to their native island, covered with honours, and en- 
 riched by the gifts which their genius had won. Thus, inte- 
 rest and emulation preserved the character which the people 
 had acquired, long after some of the causes producing it had 
 ceased to operate ; and literature became with the Icelanders 
 a species of commerce, in which the fruit of their mental en- 
 dowments was exchanged for those foreign luxuries or com- 
 forts, which nature had denied to them from their own soil. 
 
 Such appear to have been the circumstances which gave 
 rise to this singular condition of Iceland during the period 
 from the 10th to the 14th century ; nor will it seem extraor- 
 dinary, when the nature of the causes is considered, that they 
 should have had so much effect upon the habits and character 
 of tlic people. It may be observed, in concurrence with the 
 view that has been given, that their attention was chiefly 
 engaged by the two branches of literature already mentioned, 
 history and poetry ; and that the more severe departments of 
 knowledge, though not entirely disregarded, were by no means 
 held in equal estimation. To these favourite pursuits they 
 applied their utmost powers ; cultivating them in ^•arious 
 forms, yet reducing the whole to a system, which in its struc- 
 ture displayed great refinement and skill. 
 
 The poetry of the ancient Icelanders, thovigh cherished 
 by them with so much success, was not, however, essentially 
 distinct in its character from that common to the other 
 northern nations at this period. Before the emigration which 
 originally peopled Iceland, the Scandinavian kings ami chief- 
 tains retained in their courts, and about their persons, bards 
 who might celebrate their greatness, and convey the memory 
 of their deeds to future times. These men were called
 
 20 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP ICELAND. 
 
 Skuldr or Skalds : * they exercised poetry as a profession, 
 and their exertions were munificently rewarded by those 
 whose praises they sung. After the Icelanders were esta- 
 blished as a people, and when, from the causes just enume- 
 rated, they had devoted themselves to poetical composition, 
 their native poets assumed the highest rank among these 
 bards of the age. The style of their composition was nearly 
 the same as that of their predecessors in the art ; but, from 
 their more complete devotion to the pursuit, they appear to 
 have acquired greater skill, and a superior excellence in the 
 qualities which were deemed essential to this kind of poetry. 
 We accordingly' find that the Icelandic Skalds obtained a 
 singular celebrity, not only in their own country, but through- 
 out all the north of Europe. They visited the courts of 
 England, Ireland, Sweden, Denmark and Norway, and were 
 everywhere received with the hospitality and honours due to 
 their talents, and to the exertions they made in the service 
 of their patrons. From catalogues which are preserved to us 
 of the Skalds who flourished in the three last mentioned king- 
 doms, it appears that the majority of the whole number were 
 natives of Iceland ; and numerous testimonies exist of the 
 superior reputation and influence which these islanders enjoy- 
 ed in the exercise of their profession, -j" 
 
 * The origin of the word Skald has been variously stated. It has been de- 
 rived from Skiall, narratio; from shall, sonus; from gal-a, cancre; and by Tor- 
 ficus (Pfafat. Hist. Oread.) from Skatla, depilare. The most prol)able derivation 
 seems to be from SIdael, signifying wisdom or counsel ; whence also the English 
 word skill. 
 
 •}• See the Skalda-lal, or list of Skalds, in the appendix to Wormius's Litt. 
 Hunic. Also the accurate catalogue in the Sciograph. Hist. Literar. Island, p. 49 ; 
 an excellent work, written by Halfdan Einar.sen, rector of the school at Hoo- 
 lum, and published at Copenhagen in 1777. Under the form of a catalogue rai- 
 soncc, with notes and indexes, it affords the most complete account, yet extant, 
 of the literature and learned men of Iceland.
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP ICELAND. 21 
 
 So much has been Avritten concerning the Scandinavian 
 poetry of this age, that it will not be requisite here to enter 
 with much minuteness into the subject. The character of 
 this poetry exhibited certain peculiarities, derived partly 
 from the mythology with which it was connected, partly 
 from the situation and circumstances of the northern na- 
 tions. The religion of the Scandinavians, highly metapho- 
 rical in its nature, and embracing many strange and exag- 
 gerated fictions, gave a corresponding tone to the poetical 
 composition of the people. It abounded in allegory and ab- 
 struse images. The events and language of mythology, as- 
 sociated with the various objects of nature, threw over them 
 a shade of mystery, somewhat akin to the sublime. Even 
 where the subject was of a narrative kind, or the praises of a 
 hero w^ere sung, a studied obscurity was still preserved ; — 
 every name assumed some fictitious and figurative shape ; — 
 the thought was strained to meet the conceptions of the poet ; 
 —and the imagination oppressed by the magnitude of the 
 metaphors employed. Owing to these causes, many of the 
 compositions which have come down to us fi'om this age, are 
 either wholly unintelligible, or have little accordance Avith the 
 rules and observances of modern taste. 
 
 The circumstances of the northern nations, and especially 
 of the Icelanders, further modified the character of their 
 poetry. Dwelling m countries where the softer features of 
 nature were but rarely seen, and simple from necessity in all 
 their habits and modes of life, their compositions seldom ex- 
 hibit much refinement either of imagery or feeling. AVe do 
 not find any extended descriptions of nature, or of the men- 
 tal passions and emotions. All the allusions of this kind are 
 short and abrupt ; while yet they often involve a degree of 
 hyperbole, which would be inadmissible in the poetry of the
 
 22 HISTORY AND LITELATURE OF ICELAND. 
 
 present day. No resemblance was too vague or fanciful to 
 form the basis of a metaphor; and the imagination being 
 urged to the discovery of such relations, numerous allego- 
 rical phrases were thus obtained, which were habitually 
 employed by the writers of the age ; though with ev^ry li- 
 cense to the novelties which individual genius might sug- 
 gest. Their phraseology, however, was sometimes much less 
 extravagant ; and, in the description of common events, 
 we occasionally find a homeliness and simplicity of style, 
 which are strikingly contrasted with the qualities just de- 
 scribed. * 
 
 The structure of the verse in the northern jjoetry of this 
 period, as exemplified by that of the Icelanders, was equally 
 peculiar. Its harmony appears to have depended less upon the 
 arrangement and number of syllables, (though this also was the 
 subject of minute attention,) than upon certain alliterations, 
 and repetitions of sound, which were studiously introduced 
 into all their poetical writings. The assonance, thus sought 
 for, was of a more various and complicated kind than is 
 admissible in the mechanism of modern verse. The simple 
 artifice of rhyme was indeed rarely employed ; but upon the 
 disposition of the consonants and vowels, and the repetition 
 of these according to certain rules, infinite skill and labour 
 were bestowed. Though it is difficult now to appreciate the 
 beauty or propriety of these alliterations, we may presume 
 that it was not merely as a demonstration of skill that they 
 
 * Instances of the metaphors employed in the poetry of the Skalds might be 
 indefinitely multiplied. The earth is the daughter and wife of Odin ; — Iiunger, the 
 knife of Hcla or Death; — mountains, the bones of the giant Ymer; — giants, the sons 
 of frost; — a warlike mind is an angry sword ;— a. battle, a storm of blood ;— the 
 raven is said to rejoice over the hard game of war ;-^^ cloud of bloody drops covers 
 the head of the wounded, &c.
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 23 
 
 were used ; and it is probable they had severally their adapt- 
 ations to the nature of the Gothic language ; which, abound- 
 ing in consonants, might derive much increase of harmony 
 from this artful disposition of sounds. The varieties of alli- 
 teration were exceedingly numerous. Sometimes a repetition 
 of the initial letters of verses was required ; — sometimes a 
 correspondence in the initial letters of several words occur- 
 ring in a distich or a verse ; while in other cases, more com- 
 plex repetitions of sound were obtained, by using not only 
 the same initial letters in different parts of a distich, but 
 also certain correspondent syllables, with regular intervals 
 between them. These varieties were connected with an al- 
 most equal diversity in the metre of the poetry ; of which 
 some have estimated more than a hundred different forms. 
 It has been supposed that certain of these metres have a cor- 
 respondence with the Sapphic measure of the lyrical poets of 
 antiquity ; but this opinion may probably be considered more 
 fanciful than certain.* 
 
 * The metre most frequently used among the Icelanders was one in which 
 the stanza was composed of four couplets ; each line of the couplet consisting of 
 six syllables ; as in the following example from the Gunnlaugi Saga, the address 
 of Gunnlaug to Helga, at the time of their last parting : 
 
 Bramani skein brima Enn sa geisli syslir 
 
 Brims und liosum himni Sidan menia-fridar 
 
 Hristar horvi gloestrar Hvarma-tungls ok hringa 
 
 Hauk-frann a mik lauka. Hlinar uthurft mina. 
 
 ' Like that of the falcon,, the bright eye of the beautiful maid, shining from 
 ' beneath an eye-brow, which is curved as the horned moon, hath enlightened me 
 ' by its splendour. But the beam from beneath the moon-like eye-brow of the 
 ' maiden adorned with rings, is the cause of evil, both to herself and to me.' 
 
 Some valuable critical remarks on the Scandinavian poetry of this age will be 
 found in various parts of Mallet's Jntrdd. a I'lluloire de Dannemarc ; in the notes 
 of his excellent translator, Dr Percy ; and also in Dr Van Troll's Letter on
 
 2 1 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 
 
 The Scandinavian poetry was thus an art of the most re- 
 fined kind; and, as such, exercised with peculiar success by 
 the Icelanders of this age. The skill of the poet being called 
 into action even more than his imagination, contests in va- 
 riety and facility of versification were very frequent, and 
 much credit was attached to impromptus, as a proof of poeti- 
 cal talent. Instances of such extemporary composition are 
 extremely common, and may be found related in most of the 
 Icelandic Sagas.* From the same Avorks it appears that these 
 short pieces of poetry, (called Flockr, to distinguish them from 
 the longer and more finished compositions, which had the 
 name of Drnpa,Y) were frequently the vehicle of queries and 
 enigmas, proposed to the ingenuity of competitors in the art. 
 A striking example of this is recorded in the Hervarar Saga, 
 where, to decide in a contest between a certain king and his 
 vassal, relatively to the payment of tribute, a strict trial was 
 made before judges of the intellectual skill of the two 
 parties, in proposing and solving such poetical enigmas. X 
 Satire, too, was by no means an uncommon subject of these 
 poems ; and it was at one time exercised Avith such severity 
 
 Icelandic Poetry. In the specimen given above, the regular alliteration will be 
 observed ; and other instances of this will be found in No. IV. of the Appendix 
 to this volume. 
 
 * See the Gunnlaugi ok Skalld-Rafni Saga, Hervarar Saga, Eyrbyggia Saga, 
 Egills Saga, Src. 
 
 ■f See Gunnlaugi Saga, Havniae, 1775, p. 112, and note, p. 113. 
 
 \ Hervarar Saga, Havnise, 1785, cap. xv. p. 128. Several other examples 
 occur of the kings and princes of this age assuming the character of poets. The 
 verses of Regnar Lodbrok, a warlike and celebrated king of Denmark, are still 
 preserved: see Wormius's Litt. Runic. 195: also the fragment called Nordi/mra, 
 published by Prof. Thorkelin, Lond. 1788. An instance is elsewhere recorded of 
 a poet, Hiarno by name, who was invested with the royal diadem, on account of 
 the excellence of an epitaph which he composed upon his predecessor.
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATmE OF ICELAND. 25 
 
 against Harold, a king of Denmark, who had offended the 
 Icelanders, that an invasion of the island was threatened ; 
 and it became necessary to pass an edict, making it a capital 
 crime to satirize the Danish, Norwegian, or Swedish kings. 
 Other laws also were enacted in Iceland about the same 
 period, respecting the use of personal allusions in general, 
 whether of censure or applause, in consequence of the ex- 
 treme propensity to such topics which the poets of the coun- 
 try displayed. 
 
 Poetry having so entireU' the character of an art among 
 the ancient Icelanders, we might expect to find them pos- 
 sessing some common means of education in this favourite 
 pursuit. The Edda, one of the most valuable remnants of 
 northern antiquity, is a work designed expressly for these 
 purposes. Much controversy has existed respecting this sin- 
 gular and celebrated performance ; the period at which it 
 was written, and the writers, being made equally the sub- 
 jects of question. Though certain points of the discussion 
 have never been completely decided, yet we may now 
 consider ourselves as possessing all those facts respect- 
 ing the work, which are of any material importance. 
 It seems to be well ascertained, that the Edda is not 
 entirely the composition of one person, or of one age, 
 but that it derives its present form from several distinct 
 sources. The name has been assigned to two different 
 works ; one of which is called the ancient Edda, or Edda 
 of Ssemund ; the other, supposed to be of more modern 
 date, bears the name of the celebrated Snorro Sturleson, 
 to whom it is ascribed. It must be remarked, however, that 
 these titles were given at a period much later than the com- 
 position of either of the works ; and that their accuracy has
 
 26 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 
 
 been disputed, inasmuch as regards the names of the authors 
 affixed to them. * 
 
 The ancient Edda consists of various odes; which, as some 
 allege, are the fragments only of a much larger work, now 
 lost to the world. These writings, suppressed during a long 
 period by the mistaken zeal of the Catholic clergy, were 
 brought to hght about the year 1630, by Brynjolfus Sueno- 
 nius, bishop of Skalholt. The most important of the poems 
 are the Voluspa, and the Havamal. The Voluspa, or Prophet- 
 ess of Vola, is a digest of the ancient Scandinavian mytho- 
 logy, short and extremely obscure; the Havamal, a singular 
 collection of moral precepts, professing to be derived from 
 the god Odin himself. These poems have generally been 
 attributed to Ssemund Sigfuson, an eminent Icelander, born 
 A. D. 1056; who, from his knowledge, writings, and various 
 acquirements, has been called by succeeding authors, Frode, 
 or the learned. This opinion, however, as before mentioned, 
 has had its opponents ; and strong reasons have been urged 
 for believing that Sa^mund did not compose, perhaps not 
 even compile, the Edda which is ascribed to him. f 
 
 The second work, bearing this name, has come to us 
 imder a more perfect form; and though itself losing the garb 
 
 * Different derivations have been given of the name Edda: some have de- 
 rived it from Edde, a gratidmotker, thus making it to signify the parent of poetry; 
 or from Alta, a father, with the same use of the prosopopeia. Others have re- 
 ferred it to Odde, the residence of Ssemund Sigfuson. Arnas Magnseus considers 
 the name as a feminine of the old word Odr, signifying wisdom, or reason. 
 
 -J- The principal opponent of Saemund's claim to the first Edda is Arnas 
 Magnseus ; whose recondite inquiries into the early literature of Iceland have 
 given him much celebrity. See his life of Saemund Frode, prefixed to the Edda 
 Sttmundar, Hafnia 1787.
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. '2 
 
 "■4 
 
 of poetry, is much better adapted to the object of instruct- 
 ing others in the poetic art. It is distributed into two prin- 
 cipal parts. The first contains an extensive view of the my- 
 thology of Odin, under the form of dialogue ; in which are 
 explained the attributes of the deities, their several actions, 
 and the other remarkable events of the mythology. This was 
 a code from which the Skalds, or bards of the age, might 
 derive incidents and allusions for the ornament of their verses. 
 The second part of the Edda, which has been called Skalda, 
 is a still more singular instance of the attention which was 
 given at this period to poetry, as an art. It is a collection 
 of synonymes, epithets, and prosodiacal rules, carefully ar- 
 ranged, and well adapted to increase the accuracy and faci- 
 lity of composition. The different errors of style are dis- 
 tinctly pointed out, and a minute account is given of the va- 
 rieties of figure and of metre, which may be admitted into 
 poetical writing. The origin of this extraordinary work, like 
 that of the ancient Edda, is still a matter of dispute. Most 
 authors concur in ascribing it to Snorro Sturleson; admitting, 
 however, that certain additions were afterwards made to the 
 Skalda, either by Gunnlaug, a monk who lived about the be- 
 ginning of the thirteenth century, or, more probably, by a 
 poet called Olaf Huitaskald, the nephew of Sturleson. The 
 learned Amas Magnaeus, and some other writers, have con- 
 tradicted this opinion, and suppose it more probable that the 
 Edda was greatly altered, if not entirely composed, in the 
 fourteenth century ; an idea which is the less probable, since 
 at this period the art of poetry had greatly declined among 
 the Icelanders, and the office and reputation of the Skalds 
 were now become almost wholly extinct. * 
 
 • See Vita Saemund. Mult. Edd. Saemund. prsefix. p. 14; also Sciagraph. Hist. 
 Lit. Island, p. 17. The controversy respecting the origin of the Edda, and the
 
 28 HISTORY AND LITEHATUIIE OF ICELAND. 
 
 It would be exceeding the limits of the present disserta- 
 tion, to detail the names of all the eminent poets who adorn- 
 ed this period of Icelandic history. Besides the two cele- 
 brated men, whose names have been mentioned in connec- 
 tion Avith the Edda, those most conspicuous for their talents 
 were, Egill Skallgrimson, a celebrated warrior as well as 
 bard, who, in the court of Norway, rescued himself by his 
 verses from impending death ; Thorleif Jarlaskald, whose 
 skill was so great, that while every one admired and ap- 
 plauded, no one knew whether his poetry spoke praise, 
 satire, or reproach ; Sighvatr Thordson, whose talents raised 
 him to the counsels and friendship of two successive Nor- 
 wegian kings; and the two brothers, Olaf and Sturla Thord- 
 son, who, in the thirteenth century, carried away the prize 
 of fame from most of their competitors, both in Iceland and 
 the kingdoms of the north. The former of these, surnamed 
 Huitaslcald, or the White Poet, from the colour of his hair, 
 has just been noticed, as the supposed author of a. part of 
 the Edda. The latter, besides his celebrity as a poet, ac- 
 tjuired much eminence in the departments of history and 
 jurisprudence, and in other branches of knowledge. The 
 chronicles of the coimtry recite the names and compositions 
 
 txaniinalion of this singular work, have engaged many writers of great eminence. 
 Resides those just referred to, we find connected with this subject the names of 
 AVormius, Bartholin, Rudbeck, Resenius, Mallet, Suhm, Ihre, Thorkelin, &c. 
 iVom whose several works the curious reader may obtain ample information on 
 the subject. The principal editions of the Edda are those of Resenius, (Copen- 
 hagen, 1665), and of Mr Goranson, a Swede, who obtained his text from the 
 Upsal Manuscript of the work. A French translation of the greater part of it 
 has l>een given by Mr Mallet in his Introduct. a THist. de Dannemarc ; and this 
 has been transferred to our own language by Dr Percy, in his Northern Antiqui- 
 ties. To the pens of Gray, Herbert, and Cottle^ we owe poetical translations of 
 several passages in the ancient Edda.
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP ICELAND. 29 
 
 of many cotemporary bards, little inferior in skill, and who 
 exercised with scarcely less reputation the art to which they 
 were attached. 
 
 Great, however, as was the poetical celebrity of the Ice- 
 landers of this age, they derived a still higher character from 
 their historical writings. These may be divided into the ge- 
 nuine, the fictitious, and those of a mixed character. Of the 
 fabulous histories, \vhich were chiefly composed during the 
 earlier periods of the Icelandic commonwealth, some appear 
 to have had a concealed and figurative meaning ; others 
 were mere fables, not connected with any such metaphori- 
 cal allusions.* The Sagas, f or historical narratives, form a 
 much morenumerous and valuableclassof compositions. These 
 may in general be considered to belono; to the last or mixed 
 character of history ; in which the fictions of the author are 
 to a certain extent blended with the events he describes. 
 Many of them, however, possess throughout all the features 
 of real and authentic narrative, and afford sketches of the 
 state of society during this period, which are highly inter- 
 esting and important. In the subject of these Sagas there is 
 considerable variety. Some of them furnish the history of 
 particular events, either of a political or religious nature ; 
 others give the more simple narrative of a family, or a com- 
 nnniity of families ; others, again, contain biographical 
 sketches of the eminent individuals of the age, the king, the 
 warrior, the poet, or the priest. The merit of these writings 
 IS equally various. In many of them we find a minute and 
 wearisome description of events, neither interesting in them- 
 
 * See Torf. Ser. Reg. Dan. lib. 1. cap 1 ; and Bartholin's Antiq. Dan. lib. 1. 
 cap. 11. 
 
 ■f From segid, to say.
 
 30 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICEEANH. 
 
 selves, nor adorned by any of the graces of narrative ; in 
 others we meet with pictures of manners and feehngs, in 
 which simphcity itself is the charm, and where the imagina- 
 tion is insensibly led back to the times, the people, and the 
 scenes, which are so faithfully pourtrayed. Of those which 
 bear the latter character, the finest example, perhaps, is the 
 Gininlaugs oh Skald- Ilafni Saga, or the history of Gunnlaug 
 and the poet Rafn ; of which interesting story, a short 
 sketch is given in the subjoined note, without any other 
 ornament than the original itself affords, and with the neces- 
 sary omission of many circumstances which confer grace and 
 beauty upon the tale. The authenticity of the narrative, 
 and the reality of all the personages it includes, are fully 
 established by the evidence of cotemporary writers.* 
 
 * Thorstein and Illugi, both men of wealth and power, dwelt in the great vale 
 of the Borgard-Fiord, in the western part of Iceland. The former, who was son 
 to the celebrated poet Egill, had a daughter named Helga, the pride of her family, 
 and the loveliest among the women of the island. In the "house of Illugi, the most 
 remarkable person was his youngest son, Gunnlaug. Born in 988, he early acquired 
 reputation from his stature, strength, and prowess both of body and mind ; but 
 his temper was turbulent and unyielding, and being opposed by his father in his 
 desire to travel, he abruptly left his home, when only fifteen years of age, and 
 took refuge in the house of Thorstein, by whom he was hospitably received. 
 Here, while his mind was instructed by the father, his heart was subdued by the 
 gentleness and elegance of the daughter. Living with Helga, and partaking 
 in all her occupations and amusements, a mutual affection was quickly formed ; 
 and the restless impetuosity of the boy passed by degrees into the refinement and 
 delicacy of the youthful lover. His character thus changed, Gunnlaug was recon- 
 ciled to his father, and, during three years, resided sometimes with him, some- 
 times at the house of Thorstein. When he had reached the age of eighteen, 
 Illugi consented to his going abroad ; but he would not leave Iceland, till he had 
 obtained from the father of his secretly betrothed Helga, a solenm promise that the 
 maiden's hand should be given to him, if, after three years had expired, he return- 
 ed to claim it. Departing from his native country, Gunnlaug visited the courts 
 of England, Ireland, Norway, and Sweden, and was every where received with
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 31 
 
 From the Icelandic Sagas, our knowledge of the history 
 and antiquities of the northern nations has derived many im- 
 portant additions. Still more valuable, however, in this respect, 
 have been the regular historical writings of the Icelanders ; 
 many of which have come down, in a more or less perfect state, 
 to the present time. The causes which led these islanders 
 
 the honours to which his person and talents entitled him. His extempore poetry 
 was admired and munificently rewarded : an art which he had early cultivated, - 
 though with so much tendency to satire, that he was called Ormstunga, or the 
 snake-tongue. At the court of the Swedish king, Glare, he found the celebrated 
 poet Rafn, likewise an Icelander, and of noble birth. A friendship formed be- 
 tween them, was soon afterwards broken, by a dispute, which took place in the 
 royal presence, respecting the comparative merits of their poetry. Rafn, thinking 
 himself disgraced, declares his determination of revenge; and, in pursuance of 
 this, returns almost immediately to Iceland, where he seeks to obtain in marriage 
 the maiden betrothed to his rival. The three years being gone by, and no tidings 
 received of Gunnlaug, Thorstein, after some delay, gave to Rafn the unwilling 
 hand of Helga, whose heart meanwhile remained with her former lover. The 
 unfortunate Gunnlaug, hastening home to claim his bride, was accidentally de- 
 tained by a hurt received in wrestling, and reached the abode of his father on the 
 very day on which Helga became a wife. A nuptial feast was prepared, with all 
 the splendour suited to the condition of the families concerned. Gunnlaug, hav- 
 ing hastened forwards from his father's house, shewed himself on a sudden among 
 the assembled guests, eminent above all from the beauty of his person and the 
 richness of his apparel. The eyes of the lovers hung upon each other in mute 
 and melancholy sorrow ; and the bitterest pangs went to the heart of the gentle 
 Helga. The nuptial feast was gloomy and without joy. A contest between the 
 rivals was prevented by the urgent interference of their friends, but they parted 
 with increased animosity and hatred. 
 
 The revenge of Rafn, though thus accomplished, gave him little satisfaction. 
 Helga, refusing all conjugal endearments, spent her days in unceasing sadness. 
 At the great public assembly at Tlung\'alla, the ensuing summer, Gunnlaug chal- 
 lenged his rival to single combat ; and the challenge being accepted, they met on 
 an island in the river, which flows into the lake of Thingvalla. The combat, 
 however, though severe, was indecisive ; and a renewal of it was prevented by 
 an edict of the assembly, passed the following day, prohibiting the practice of
 
 32 HISTORY AND LITERATURE Or ICELAND. 
 
 thus early to the composition of history, as well as poetry, 
 have already been mentioned. Originally bringing with them 
 from Norway numerous traditionary records of the Scandi- 
 navian people, they derived progressive additions to these, 
 from the residence of their poets and learned men in the courts 
 of the northern kingdoms, the princes and chieftains of which 
 cherished the talents by which their own actions might be 
 conveyed to posterity. Provided by these means with ample 
 
 duels in Iceland. Gunnlaug here sees his beloved Helga for a few moments, and 
 for the last time ; and in the empassioned language of poetry laments their mu- 
 tual sorrows. Restrained from deciding their quarrel in Iceland, and each pur- 
 sued by his own imhappiness and resentments, the rivals pass over to the territory 
 of Sweden, and meet, attended by their respective companions, at a place called 
 Dynguines. A combat takes place : the companions of each party fall victims to the 
 bloody fray, and Gunnlaug and Rafn are left alone to decide their contest. The 
 foot of the latter is severed by the sword of Gunnlaug, who wishes now to dis- 
 continue the combat ; but Rafn exclaims that he would persevere in it, could he 
 procure some water to alleviate his thirst. The generous Gunnlaug, trusting to 
 the honour of his adversary, brings him water in his helmet from an adjoining 
 lake. Rafn, seizing the critical moment, when the water was presented to him, 
 strikes with his sword the bare head of Gunnlaug, crying out at the same time, 
 ♦' that he cannot endure that his rival should enjoy the embraces of the beautiful 
 " Helga." The fight is fiercely renewed, and Gunnlaug slays his perfidious oppo- 
 nent ; but dies soon afterwards of the wound he has himself received, when yet. 
 only in the twenty-fifth year of his age. 
 
 The remainder of the story is short and melancholy. The sorrowing Helga, 
 her husband and lover both destroyed, is compelled to give her hand to Thorkell, 
 a noble and wealthy Icelander. But these nuptials are equally joyless as the for- 
 mer. Her mind is wholly devoted to misery and gloom ; and she sinks an early 
 victim to the grave, bending hto last looks upon a robe she had received from 
 Gunnlaug ; and dwelling with her last thoughts upon the memory of her unhappy 
 lover. 
 
 A sketch of this story is given by the elegant pen of IVIr Herbert, in the first 
 volume of his poems. Were it less interesting, as a specimen of the manners and 
 literature of the ancient Icelanders, the repetition of what he has so nobly done, 
 would not have been attempted.
 
 histohy and literature of Iceland. 33 
 
 materials for history, they became the annalists of all the 
 north of Evirope ; and the simplicity and precision which their 
 narratives display, prove that they were well entitled to this 
 pre-eminence. The history of their own country was not neg- 
 lected amid the more conspicuous events of other nations ; 
 but the most careful record preserved of every circumstance 
 occurring in the little community to which they belonged. 
 
 Isleif, the first bishop of Skalholt, who died in 1080, was 
 the earliest of the Icelandic historians, and a man of great 
 general learning ; but his works are now unfortunately lost. 
 Ssemund Frode, who has before been mentioned as the reput- 
 ed author of the ancient Edda, was contemporary with the 
 latter 3-ears of Isleif. He composed, among other historical 
 works now extinct, the annals called, from his place of re- 
 sidence, Odda, which contain a chronicle of events from the 
 beginning of the world to his own time. For this work he was 
 peculiarly qualified from his stiidies at Paris and Cologne, 
 where, in the earlier part of his life, he spent several years in 
 the most ardent devotion to the pnrsuits of knowledge.* His 
 friend and fellow-traveller AreTliorgilson, also from his learn- 
 ing surnamed Frode, was still more eminent as an historian of 
 this age ; but here, too, we have to regret the loss of what 
 would have been among the most important of the ancient re- 
 cords of Danish, Norwegian, and English history, particular- 
 ly of his lives of the Norwegian kings, from Odin to Magnus, 
 the son of Olaus. He has left us, however, valuable testimo- 
 nies of his talents and industry in the Icelandic Chronicle, 
 usually called the Schedse, and in the Landnama Book, for- 
 
 * The Annales Oddenses have been denied by some to be the work of Saemund 
 Frode, and have been assigned to a much later period of Icelandic literature. It 
 is impossible, at the present time, to decide with certainty upon a question belong- 
 ing to an age so remote. 
 
 E
 
 34: HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 
 
 merly mentioned, of which he appears to have composed*the 
 principal part. He died in 1148, when eighty years of age. 
 Succeeding in the same track, was the celebrated Snorro 
 Sturleson, who, born in 1178, became, when yet young, the 
 wealthiest and most powerful man in Iceland. Twice he sus- 
 tained the office of Laugman, or chief magistrate. His estab- 
 lishment was suited to the dignity of his condition, and in 
 visiting the general assembly of the island, he was frequently 
 attended by a splendid retinue of 800 armed men. The re- 
 putation which he acquired for learning and accomplishments 
 was equally extensive. He had a minute knowledge of the 
 Greek and Latin langtiages, v\'as an excellent poet and histo- 
 rian, an admirable orator, and profoundly skilled in all the 
 arts of his time. Besides the Edda, which is usually ascribed 
 to him, and one or two fragments,* he has bequeathed to pos- 
 terity his Chronicle of the Kings of Norway, called the Heim- 
 skringla;-]- a work which, while it strikingly displays the erudi- 
 tion and industry of its author, is scarcely less distinguished 
 for the excellence of its composition and style. The latter 
 part of his life was not equally fortimate with its commence- 
 ment, being clouded by family feuds, which finally subjected 
 him to a violent death in the sixty-tliird year of his age. It 
 would appear that his character was not without its blemishes, 
 as well as its noble and exalted qualities. To his private 
 ambition he is said occasionally to have sacrificed the interests 
 of his country, and much dissimulation and political artifice 
 pervaded the whole of his public career. 
 
 These are but a few of the illustrious men who adorned at 
 this period the literature of Iceland. A complete catalogue 
 of the native historical writers would include nearly two hun- 
 
 * The Hattalykill, or Clavis Metrica, and the Bragarbot. 
 •)• So named from the initial words of the book. 
 
 J
 
 HISTORY AXD LITERATURE OT ICELAND. 35 
 
 dred names, some of them scarcely less eminent than those 
 which have already been mentioned. * Though the sister 
 muses, history and poetry, were thus principally cherished, 
 there was not however an entire neglect of other branches 
 of knowledge. The ancient calendars of the country, and 
 the extraordinary skill which was exhibited in the maritime 
 adventures of the people, shew that considerable attention 
 was given to astronomical and physical observations ; and 
 many learned men in the island, especially Sturleson and 
 Paul, a bishop of Skalholt, were distinguished by their attain- 
 ments in mathematics and mechanical science. f The study 
 of jurisprudence was pursued with much ardour and industry ; 
 it appears, from passages occurring in the Sagas, to have been 
 made a distinct branch of education among the chiefs of the 
 country, and the progressive improvement and excellent admi- 
 nistration of the laws during the period of the Icelandic com- 
 monwealth, furnish sufficient proof of the success with whicli 
 its cultivation was attended. Geography could not fail to 
 engage attention, when their travellers not only visited all the 
 kingdoms of Europe, but penetrated even into the remote 
 regions of Asia and Africa.;]: Philological studies were pur- 
 
 * See Torfsei Ser. Reg. Danic. lib. 1, cap. 1. The other most important his- 
 torical works of the ancient Icelanders are the Annales Flateyenses, Skalholtenses, 
 Holenses, Vetustissimi, Regii, those called from the possessor of the manuscript, 
 the Annales Resenii, the Sturlunga Saga, &c. Of the ^vnnales Regii, an excellent 
 edition will be found in Langebeck's Script. Rer. Danic. Vol. 3. 
 
 •f" See the Blanda and Riuibeigla books, published at Copenhagen under the 
 patronage of M. Suhm. Also a treatise of the same age de Algorithmo, which is 
 noticed in the Sciograph. Hist. Lit. Island, p. 161. The Rimbeigla book presents 
 a singidar assemblage of astronomical, chronological, and theological facts, and will 
 be found well worthy the attention of the curious reader. 
 
 \ Gissurus, a Laugman of Iceland in 1181, composed a work entitled Flot 
 Peregrinaiionis, describing the various countries through which he had travelled.
 
 36 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 
 
 sued by the learned men of the island with much diligence ; 
 and, in the course of the 11th and 12th centuries, they be- 
 came familiar with the most celebrated of the Latin authors, 
 deriving assistance to their own compositions from the classi- 
 cal authorities thus laid open to them. The study of the Greek 
 language, though less general, was not however disregarded ; 
 as we find from the testimony of several writers of this age. 
 
 It was scarcely possible that all this intellectual culture 
 should exist, without some regular system of education, form- 
 ing its basis and support. The first establishment of this kind 
 appeared about the middle of the 11th century, when Isleif, 
 the first bishop of Iceland, founded aschoolat Skalholt. This 
 was shortly after followed by the institution of three other 
 schools in different parts of the island, and by provisions for 
 the education of youth in connection with the monasteries 
 which were at this time established. It appears also to have 
 been a common practice for those who possessed wealth and 
 property in the country, to charge themselves with the in- 
 struction and advancement of such young men as gave an early 
 promise of eminence in their talents.* In the schools, besides 
 the knowledge of their own language in reading, writing, and 
 various modes of composition, the youth of the island were 
 initiated into classical and theological studies ; to the latter of 
 which especially much attention Avas given. Poetry was made 
 expressly a branch of common education, and even music, 
 or possibly a tbrm of recitation thus termed, appears in some 
 instances to have been taught in a public manner, f Pre- 
 viously to the reception of Christianity in Iceland at the close 
 of the 10th century, the Runic characters, which were brought 
 over by the original emigrants from Norway, seem to have 
 been generally used, where the memory alone was not trusted 
 
 * Hist. Eccles. Island. T. 1. p. 190. f Hist. Eccl. Island. T. 1. p. 190 and 327.
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP ICELAND. tilj 
 
 with the record of events. These were not, however, commit- 
 tetl to the form of regular writings, but rudely inscribed upon 
 the walls and rafters of their habitations, upon their shields, 
 Avooden staffs, and other implements of common use. About 
 the time of this important change in the religion of the 
 people, the Roman characters were introduced ; the adop- 
 tion of which was attended with manifest advantage to the 
 progress of education, and to every department of literary, 
 pursuit. 
 
 Respecting the physical condition of the Icelanders in. 
 this remarkable period of their history, we derive our in- 
 formation chiefly from the poems, histories, and tales of the 
 country, which incidentally furnish many interesting facts 
 connected with this subject. The ancient Icelanders pos- 
 sessed, as is still the case with their posterity, few of the 
 luxuries or more refined conveniences of life ; and were 
 occasionally exposed to severe privations from the nature of 
 their soil, and the seasons under which they lived. There is 
 some reason, however, to believe, though the fact cannot 
 be regarded as positively ascertained, that the climate of 
 Iceland was once considerably less austere than at present. 
 From many sources of information it appears certain that 
 corn was formerly grown upon the island, though in later 
 periods, as a native produce, it has been \itterly unknown. * 
 Of the fact that the trees and shrubs formerly attained a 
 much larger size, and were more numerous than is now the 
 case, there is satisfactory evidence in the discovery of tiimks 
 of such trees among the morasses ; and in the frequent men- 
 tion which is made in the ancient writings, of houses and 
 
 * The evidences of the former growth of corn in Iceland are collected in a 
 treatise by Snorreson, an Icelander, He Jgricultura Islandorum priscis temporibus, 
 Hafm<e 1737.
 
 3S niSTORY AND LITERAXrRE OF ICELAND. 
 
 even ships, constructed of the timber which the country it- 
 self produced. It is probable also that the other internal 
 supplies and means of subsistence which the Icelanders of 
 this age possessed, were more abundant and various than at 
 the present time. We find in the Laxdcela Saga, the narra- 
 tive of a feast in the western part of the island, at which 
 nine hundred persons were assembled, and which continued 
 with much splendour and ceremony during fourteen days ; 
 and the Landnama Book affords another instance of an 
 entertainment given by two brothers at Hialtadal, in the 
 northern province, where there was an assemblage of more 
 than fourteen hundred guests. Many examples occur in the 
 histories of the country of the liberal hospitality which was 
 exercised towards foreigners ; who, coming to the island for 
 the purposes of traffic, were received into the houses of the 
 princi])al inhabitants, and frequently dwelt with them diu'ing 
 the long winter of this northern region. 
 
 It is not easy to ascertain with exactness the population 
 of Iceland at this period ; but many circumstances render it 
 probable that it was considerably greater than at the present 
 time. * Like their descendants, however, the people were 
 much dispersed over the country; their habitations being sel- 
 dom grouped together, but placed wherever the situation and 
 nature of the soil were propitious. Simplicity in all their 
 habits and modes of life was a necessary effect of their situa- 
 tion and circumstances. The houses even of the wealthiest of 
 
 • Arngrim Jonas, in his Brev. Comment, de Island, sect. 4, mentions the 
 fact of an estimate being made in the year 1090, by Gissurus, a bishop of Skal- 
 holt, of the number of those who, from the amount of their property, were en- 
 abled to pay tribute to the state. They were ascertained to be about 4000. This 
 estimate, however, does not afford the grounds of more than a probable conjec- 
 ture as to the total number of inhabitants.
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 
 
 the community were constructed of wood and turf; and the 
 great annual assembly of the people was held at Thingvalla 
 beneath the open canopy of heaven ; the chiefs and civil 
 officers dwelling at night under the covering of rude huts, 
 erected near the place of public meeting. The occupations 
 of the people appear to have been nearly the same as those 
 common to the present race of Icelanders ; and in these 
 every class of the community, in greater or less degree, par- 
 took. * Fishing was necessary as a principal means of their 
 subsistence : they clothed themselves by the manufacture of 
 the wool of their sheep ; while their cattle, which were 
 numerous, afforded at once a regular employment, and the 
 most valuable addition to their domestic comforts. A fur- 
 ther occupation was furnished by their traffic with foreign 
 countries, which even at this time seems to have been very 
 considerable. The moral habits of the people bore a favour- 
 able proportion to their intellectual qualities, and were 
 doubtless fostered and improved by the latter. Certain 
 superstitious and unnatural usages, which belonged to their 
 ancestors, and to the age, were blended with their early 
 condition ; but these speedily yielded to the influence of 
 reason and of the Christian doctrines, and left behind few 
 vestiges of their former existence. A very remarkable in- 
 stance of this kind occurred in 1011 ; when, by an unani- 
 mous act of the public assembly, the trial by duel or single 
 combat was abolished in Iceland ; though the practice was 
 then almost universal throughout Europe, and sanctioned 
 for more than a century afterwards by the law and usages of 
 many of the continental nations, f 
 
 * See Vatus d«ela Saga, cap. 22 ; Liosvetninga Saga, cap. 25, &c. 
 f The exposure of children was one of the barbarous customs which the Ice- 
 landers derived from their Norwegian descent. Though this practice was not
 
 40 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 
 
 One of the most important events during this period of 
 Icelandic liistory, >vas the establishment of Christianity in 
 the island. This momentous change was effected in a man- 
 ner strikingly accordant with the genius of the government 
 and of the people. From the year 981, when the knowledge 
 of the Christian doctrine was first introduced by Frederic, a 
 bishop from Saxony, to the close of this century, the num- 
 ber of those embracing the new faith progressively increased; 
 and many missionaries, both foreigners and natives of Ice- 
 land, who had been converted abroad, came over to the 
 island to aid its propagation by their efforts. They experi- 
 enced much opposition from those who still adhered to the 
 superstition of their ancestors : the invectives of poetical sa- 
 tire were ponred forth against them, and even personal vio- 
 lence occasionally attempted by their opponents. These 
 contests, and the growth of the new religion, at length en- 
 o-aged the attention of the government ; and at the national 
 assembly, in the summer of the year 1000, a formal discus- 
 
 formally prohibited when the Christian religion was adopted in the island, yet 
 it did not long survive this event ; and it appears to have been extinct in Ice- 
 land nearly a hundred years before it was finally abolished in Norway. Hist. 
 Eccles. Isl. Tom. 1. p. 71. Among the superstitions connected with the Scandi- 
 navian mythology, one of the most singular was the Berserkine, as it has been 
 called ; a treatise concerning which is subjoined to the Copenhagen edition of the 
 Kristni Saga. The Berserkir were wrestlers or warriors by profession, who were 
 believed by magical means to have hardened their bodies, so that they could not 
 be injured by fire or sword. These men, roused at times by their incantations 
 into a sort of phrenzy, committed every species of brutal violence ; rushed naked 
 into battle, and overpowered and slew all who ventured to approach them ; till, 
 deserted by the paroxysm, their supernatural strength left them, and they imme- 
 diately sunk into a state of extreme debility and wretchedness. Many records of 
 this strange superstition occur in the old Icelandic and Norwegian writings. It 
 gradually disappeared together with other practices of magic and divination, fre- 
 fjuent among the northern nations of this age.
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND, 41 
 
 sion took place between the contending parlies. While yet 
 the subject was in agitation before the assembled people, a 
 messenger hurried into the place of meeting with the intelli- 
 gence, that subterranean fire had burst out in the countr}- to 
 the south, and was consuming every thing before it. The 
 heathens exclaimed, that it was not wonderful the gods should 
 burn with anger at the new and detestable heresies which 
 were thus introduced into the coimtry. — " But wherefore," 
 cried Snorro, a zealous advocate for the Christian cause, 
 *' wherefore was the anger of your gods kindled, when the 
 " very rock was burning, on which we now stand." The 
 lake of Thingvalla is in the midst of a volcanic country, and 
 lofty cliffs of lava environed the place of public assembly. 
 The promptitude of the reply had its full effect ; the heathen 
 party were repulsed ; and though the discvission still con- 
 tinued, the ardour and abilities of the Christians triumphed 
 over all obstacles, and procured a final decision in their 
 favour, which was pronounced with much solemnity by Thor- 
 geir, the chief magistrate of the island. Upon the promulga- 
 tion of this act, all religious contests were suspended, and 
 the whole people espoused the faith, to which the wise and 
 the learned among them had given their assent.* 
 
 Christianity being thus introduced into Iceland, the forms 
 of a religious establishment were soon afterwards adopted : 
 numerous churches were erected ; a provision made by tithe 
 for the support of the clergy, and two bishops created, one 
 for the southern, the other for the northern district of the 
 island. Isleif, the first bishop of Skalholt, was ordained in 
 1057 : Jonas Ogmundson was fifty years afterwards invested 
 with the same office at Hoolum in the northern province. 
 
 * See the Eristni Saga, and Hist. Eccles. Island, vol. 1. p. 60. 
 
 F
 
 42 HISTORY AND LITERATURE Or ICELAND. 
 
 During the early periods of the Icelandic church, the bishops 
 were chosen by the collected voice of the people at the great 
 p\iblic assembly : they were men eminent for piety, talents, 
 and learning, and their influence was successfully exerted to 
 maintain the purity of the religion over which they presided. 
 The superstitious j)ractices of the ancient mythology were 
 abolished, and the church of Rome not yet having acquired 
 sufficient influence to substitute its errors in their stead, a 
 simple and undisturbed exercise of religion Avas enjoyed by 
 the Icelanders, for nearly two centuries after the first intro- 
 duction of Christianity into the country. 
 
 Another event, connected with the history of Iceland at 
 this period, was the discovery of Greenland, effected about 
 the year 972, by a Norwegian named Eric, who had settled 
 in Iceland a short time before. Desirous of establishing a 
 colony there, he called the country Groenland, with the de- 
 sign, as it would appear, of alluring settlers by the idea thus 
 given of the country. In this project he succeeded. A year 
 or two afterwards, twenty-five vessels were fitted out on the 
 Western coast for an expedition to Greenland ; of which num- 
 ber it appears that fourteen reached the newly discovered 
 shores.* A colony was soon established ; the population 
 rapidly increased ; and in the progress of the ensuing century, 
 a great extent of the eastern coast, opposite to Iceland, be- 
 came inhabited. Christianity was introduced there at an 
 early period, and the bishop of Garde, which was the prin- 
 cipal establishment of the country, was known even to the 
 Roman Pontiffs of the age. The colonists maintained a con- 
 staijt commercial intercourse with Iceland and Norway ; and 
 the records of the settlement come down uninterru])tedly to 
 
 * Landnama Book, Part 2. cap. 14.
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OE ICELAND. 43 
 
 the beginning of the fifteenth century, when at once every 
 trace and vestige of it are lost. The causes of this singular 
 fact have never yet been fully ascertained. It is the most 
 probable supposition that an accumulation of ice took place 
 abovit this time on the Greenland coast, preventing the ac- 
 cess to it from the sea ; and this idea is confirmed by the 
 narratives of later voyagers in these seas, and by the failure 
 of several expeditions sent out to discover the settlement, 
 all of which have been thus intercepted. Of the fate there- 
 fore of this ancient colony, commonly called by distinction 
 Old Greenland, nothing is yet known. The same accuiuula- 
 tion of ice, which separated it from the rest of the world, 
 was probably the cause of the unfavourable change which 
 appears about this time to have occurred in the climate of 
 Iceland ; the breadth of the sea intervening between the two 
 countries not exceeding three hundred miles.* 
 
 Another maritime adventure is due to the enterprising 
 age before us, more remarkable in itself, though less import- 
 ant in its consequences, than that just mentioned. It 
 is a fact well ascertained, though not generally known, 
 that the north-eastern part of the American coast was dis- 
 covered at this period by the voyagers of these northern 
 countries ; and that during two centuries it continued to be 
 frequently visited by the Icelanders and Norwegians, for the 
 purposes either of curiosity or commerce. This singular 
 discovery was made A. D. 1001, by Biorn Heriolfson, an 
 Icelander, who, on a voyage to Greenland, was driven by. 
 unfavourable winds towards the south, and reached a flat 
 woody coast, which, from several circumstances in the ori- 
 
 * See Egede's History of Greenland ; Torfaei Groenlandiae Antiq. Descrlpt. ; 
 and the Hist. Groenlandise of Arngrim Jonas.
 
 44 , HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP ICELAND* 
 
 gitial narrative, we may presume to have been that of 
 Labrador. Attracted by the report of this voyage, Leif, the 
 son of Eric the discoverer of Greenland, fitted out a vessel 
 with the design of pursuing the same adventure ; though im- 
 provided with any of those aids which science furnishes to the 
 navigators of modern times. Passing the coasts which Biorn 
 had before seen, and continuing his course towards the 
 south-west, he reached a strait which separated a large 
 island from the mainland. Near this place, finding the 
 country fertile and pleasant, he and his companions dragged 
 their vessel on shore, and building huts, remained there dur- 
 ing the winter. From the observation they made that wild 
 vines grew in the country, they gave it the name of Vinland. 
 They remarked also that the days during the winter were 
 much longer than in Iceland, and the weather considerably 
 more temjoerate. In the spring, Leif returned to Greenland, 
 and was succeeded in the enterprize by his brother Thorvald, 
 who arrived in safety at Vinland, and remaining two winters 
 there, explored a considerable extent of the country and 
 coasts. In the course of the third summer, however, he was 
 killed in a combat with the natives, who appear now to have 
 been seen for the first time, and who attacked the Icelanders 
 with arrows and darts, irritated by an act of barbarous 
 cruelty Avhich Thorvald had committed towards some of 
 their number. Soon after this time it appears that a regular 
 colony was established in Vinland by a wealthy Icelander, 
 called Thorfin ; and that the colonists, increasing in numbers, 
 carried on with the natives a regular traffic in furs, skins, and 
 other articles.* Thorfin himself, having remained there three 
 years, returned to Iceland, greatly enriched by his adventure, 
 
 * The natives were called by the Icelanders Skrtelingar, signifying feeble or 
 diminutive men.
 
 HISTOBV AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 45 
 
 and making a very favourable report of the climate and pro- 
 ductions of the new country. Few particulars, however, are 
 afforded us of the after progress of the settlement, and though 
 we have a record of it in the early part of the twelfth cen- 
 tury, when a bishop of Greenland went over to promulgate 
 the Christian faith among the colonists, scarcely a vestige of 
 its existence occurs beyond this time, and the name and 
 situation of the ancient Vinland are now entirely \uiknown 
 to the world. Whether the colonists left the country at any 
 particular time, or whether, separated from their connexion 
 with Europe, they were gradually blended with the savage 
 tribes surrounding them, must for ever remain a matter of 
 doubt.* 
 
 * The reader who wishes farther to investigate this singular subject may con- 
 sult the Landnama Book, the Eyrbyggia Saga, the Annales Flateyenses, the 
 Heimskringia of Snorro Sturleson, and, among more modern writings, Arngrim's 
 Hist. Gronlandise, Torfaeus^s Hist. Vinland. Antiq., the Hist. Eccles. Islandiae, &c. 
 The well-known Venetian narrative of the voyages of Nicolo and Antonio Zeni, 
 at the close of the fourteenth century, might be admitted as a farther evidence, 
 did it not bear the character of one of those maritime romances, which were so 
 common among the Venetians during the period of their commercial greatness. 
 This narrative, however, in describing an extensive country, called Estotiland, 
 situated to the south-west of Greenland, and which had before been visited by 
 the Icelanders for the purposes of traffic, proves at least that the discovery of the 
 northern navigators was not unknown by report to the people of the south of 
 Europe. So many testimonies, indeed, direct or indirect, have come down to us 
 on the subject of the ancient Vinland, that it is impossible not to admit the fact 
 of their general authenticity. There is more room for doubt as to the exact situ- 
 ation of the place, thus named. By some it has been supposed (Hist. Eccles. Isl. 
 Tom. 1. p. 4.) that it might be as far towards the south as Virginia : others have 
 conceived, with more reason, that it was situated on some part of the coast of 
 Labrador, probably near to the island of Newfoundland. Mallet, who in his 
 Introduct. a THist. de Dannemarc, has an ingenious disquisition on this subject, 
 adopts the latter opinion ; and in the first edition of his work, cites the evidence 
 of Father Charlevoix, a traveller into these countrie?, and of Dr Baumgartens,
 
 46 HISTOKY AND LITERATURE Or ICELAND. 
 
 The sketch which has now Ijcen given of the habits, in- 
 stitutions, and arts of the ancient Icelanders, is by no means 
 an exaggerated picture of this singular and interesting people. 
 The comparative eminence, however, to which in this age 
 they attained, Avas not destined to be permanent ; and the 
 rapid advancement of other states towards civilization, con- 
 curred with changes in their own condition, to effect an en- 
 tire alteration in the balance subsisting between them. Even 
 the period of the commonwealth, though the most brilliant 
 and remarkable in the history of Iceland, presents not 
 throughout the pleasing features which have just been de- 
 lineated. In the progress of time, numerous intestine evils 
 sprung up to disturb the repose of the people; and the 
 middle of the thirteenth century is signalized in their history 
 by the transference of the island to the power of the Nor- 
 wegian kings, three hundred and forty years after the esta- 
 blishment of the free constitution, under which they so 
 greatly flourished. Several probable causes may be assigned 
 for this change, some of them collateral, others perhaps 
 connected with the nature of the constitution itself. There 
 appears to have been a constant leaning of the aristocracy, 
 which formed the basis of the government, towards an oli- 
 garchy ; and in the later periods of the commonwealth, dis- 
 turbances were excited by ambitious individuals, who aim- 
 ed at the possession of more influence in the state than 
 
 a learned German writer, to prove that the Esquimaux Indians, in this part of 
 Labrador, differ materially in person, habits, and language, from the other North. 
 American tribes ; from which the possibility is inferred that these may be the 
 remnants of the ancient European colonists. That wild grapes were found in 
 Vinland, cannot be considered an objection to this idea of tlie situation of the 
 country, since modern travellers have ascertained that a species of wild vine grows 
 native on the American coast, even as far to the north as the shores of Hudson's 
 Bay.
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND, 4tJ 
 
 the constitution allowed. Where large feudal property and 
 hereditary rights were connected with talent, ambition, and 
 enterprize, it was natural to expect that efforts would be 
 made to infringe the aristocratical equality, which existed in 
 the spirit and design of the commonwealth. Accordingly we 
 find about this period the relation of numerous contests be- 
 tween the more powerful chieftains of the state ; and the an- 
 nals of Iceland are for a time disgraced by the record of 
 sedition, rapine, and bloodshed.* 
 
 The liberties of the Icelanders might possibly, however, 
 have survived these intestine feuds, had not other circum- 
 stances co-operated with their effect. The Norwegian mo- 
 narchs, though making no direct attempts to subjugate the 
 island, 3'et appear to have contemjilated at an early period 
 its annexation to their power. This desire was doubtless 
 confirmed by the increasing prosperity of the Icelanders 
 during the eleventh and twelfth centuries ; and the means of 
 accomplishing their design were afforded by the disturbances 
 which afterwards occurred. These broils appear to have 
 been fomented by the concealed interference of the Norwe- 
 gians, who were admitted to a constant intercourse with the 
 island ; and who, while aggravating the internal evils under 
 which it suffered, held out to the people the most specious 
 promises of assistance and protection. By such promises, 
 the kings of Norway gained over some of the most eminent 
 of the Icelanders ; and persuaded them to urge, even in the 
 councils of the nation, the necessity of composing their feuds 
 by giving tlieniselves to the dominion of a single potentate. 
 
 * These contests between the chieftains were not always trivial or unimport- 
 ant. Instances are related where bodies of twelve or thirteen hundred men, and 
 fleets of twenty vessels, were engaged on one side in such conflicts. Hist. Eccles. 
 Island. Vol. 1. p. 103.
 
 4S HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 
 
 The celebrated Snorro Sturleson, who resided two years at the 
 Norwegian court, and was received there with many honours, 
 was suspected of having aided this cause ; a suspicion from 
 which he incurred much odium among his fellow- citizens. 
 
 The efforts of the Norwegians, protracted through a long 
 period, were finally successful. The Icelanders, wearied of 
 feuds and contests, consented at last to resign their inde- 
 pendence; and, in 1261, an act of the national assembly, 
 imattended with violence or the compulsion of arms, deliver- 
 ed up the greater part of the island to Haco, the reigning 
 king of Norway. The eastern province which at first opposed 
 this act, three years afterwards adopted the same course. 
 It was not, however, a blind submission to arbitrary power 
 which appeared in this revolution. Regular treaties were 
 established between the Icelanders and their future sove- 
 reigns ; and the acknowledgement of the kingly sway was 
 preceded by conditions, which made it rather an alliance 
 than a timid surrender of rights. All property was secured 
 in the island ; no tribute exacted ; a liberal provision was 
 made for the external traffic of the inhabitants, and a title 
 given them to the acquirement of honours and civil offices in 
 the kingdom of Norway itself. It was provided that the 
 government of Iceland should be administered by a delegate 
 from the king, either a Norwegian or a native of the island. 
 Little change appears to have been made in the internal 
 government of the country ; and the celebrated code of laws, 
 called the Jonshoh, which was given to the Icelanders in 1280, 
 by IMagnus the successor of Haco, was merely a revised and 
 amended form of the more ancient body of laws, framed for 
 the commonwealth of Iceland.* 
 
 * A detailed account of this change in the government of Iceland is given in 
 
 \
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 49 
 
 Tlie short period during which the island remained subject 
 to the native Norwegian monarchs, is dignified by no remark- 
 able event. The laws were administered by the governors of 
 the country in a mild and equitable manner ; and it does not 
 appeal- that any attempts were made to infringe upon the 
 conditions on which the liberties of Iceland were surren- 
 dered. The internal fevids, which preceded and produced this 
 €vent, were in great measure composed, and the inhabit- 
 ants at large remained in a state of perfect order and tran- 
 quillity. 
 
 The annexation of Norway to the power of Denmark in 
 1380, was an event of. little importance to the interests of 
 Iceland, and can scarcely be considered as forming an epoch 
 in its history. The island was transferred to the Danish 
 monarchy without tumult or opposition. The laws were 
 maintained in their former state ; and the administration 
 committed, as before, to a governor appointed by the crown. 
 These prefects of the island were sometimes natives, some- 
 times Norwegians or Danes. Though it was intended they 
 should reside in the coimtry, this does not appear to have 
 been generally done ; and many of them visited their govern- 
 inent only once in the year, to inspect and regulate its vari- 
 ous concerns. 
 
 This is the last political change which occurs in the history 
 of Iceland. The records we possess of the succeeding pe- 
 riods are less numerous and less valuable than those which 
 
 Torfaeus's Hist. Norv. Tom. 4. Ub. S. Also in the Hist. Eccles. Isl. T. 1. p. 
 373 et seq. The code of laws presented to the Icelanders at this time was called 
 Jonsbok, from the name of the governor, by whom it was introduced into the 
 island. Some of the most eminent among the natives, particularly the poet and 
 historian Sturla Thordson, assisted in its compilation from the ancient laws of 
 the republic. 
 
 G
 
 50 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP ICELAND. 
 
 relate to the times already described. The historians of these 
 later ages are occupied chiefly in the detail of events, neither 
 very interesting in themselves, nor affecting beyond the mo- 
 ment the condition or circumstancss of the people. Their nar- 
 rativesare remarkable for accuracy and minuteness ; but they 
 are spread over too broad and uniform a surface ; and are lit- 
 tle relieved by any of the ornaments of style or composition. 
 The history of Iceland, however, though now destitvite of po- 
 litical event, is still the history of a people ; and the four last 
 centvnies have exhibited some features not wholly unworthy 
 of attention. 
 
 The change in the constitution of the island, from its an- 
 nexation to an European monarchy, produced, as might have 
 been expected, a corresponding change in the character and 
 habits of the people. Before this event, each individual, pos- 
 sessing property, formed an integral part of the government 
 of his country. Definite objects of ambition existed to every 
 member of the community ; and vigour, activity, and talent, 
 gave political importance, as well as private influence, to 
 those in whom these qualities appeared. This, in the same 
 degree, could no longer be the case, when the island was sub- 
 jected to the government of a foreign power. The great as- 
 sembly of the people was still summoned to its annual meet- 
 ing at Thingvalla ; and still, under the cognizance of the 
 Governor, enforced the execution of the laws ; but its national 
 deliberations had now lost much of their spirit and import- 
 ance. The influence of property and of personal merit were 
 diminished in the same proportion ; and the efforts of indivi- 
 dual ambition tacitly and without violence repressed. Had 
 the foreign yoke been a tyrannical one, the primeval sj)irit of 
 the Icelanders might possibly have been maintained by the 
 l)ersecution which laboured to suppress it. But the case was
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP ICELAND. 51 
 
 far otherwise. The Norwegian, and subsequently the Danish 
 monarchs, exercised their sway with a lenient and forbearing 
 hand ; not merely refraining from oppression, bnt giving 
 mnch attention to the interests and welfare of this remote 
 part of their dominions. The customs and feelings of the 
 people were respected ; the laws administered with equity, 
 and tranquillity maintained throughout all classes of the 
 inhabitants. 
 
 To these circumstances we may chiefly attribute the change 
 which appears about this period to have taken place in the 
 national character of the people, and the distinction existing 
 between the ancient Icelanders and their posterity of the pre- 
 sent age. Repose and security, succeeding to internal broils, 
 produced a state of comparative apathy and indolence. The 
 same call was not made for individual exertion, nor the same 
 rewards proposed to its successful exercise. Rank and pro- 
 perty became more nearly equalized among the inhabitants ; 
 and, all looking up to a superior power, the spirit of independ- 
 ence declined, and they expected from others the support and 
 protection which they had once afforded to themselves. Their 
 ardour in maritime adventure was checked at the same time 
 by the revolution Avhich took place in the government of the 
 island. The trade which they had formerly carried on in the 
 products of their country, was now gradually transferred to 
 the natives of other kingdoms ; and a copious source of acti- 
 vity and exertion thus in great measure extinguished. It ap- 
 pears, too, that about this period, the agriculture of the coun- 
 try declined ; owing either to a change in the nature of the 
 climate, or to diminished industry on the part of the inha- 
 bitants. These combined causes had a permanent influence 
 upon the character of the Icelanders. The simplicity and 
 warm social affections, which belonged to the ancient race, 
 were still preserved unimpaired ; but their independence, vi-
 
 53 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 
 
 gour, and activity, were now almost entirely lost, and will 
 probably never be regained. 
 
 The period immediately succeeding the union of Iceland to 
 the Danish crown, was more especially unfortunate for the 
 welfare of the country. In 1402, a plague broke out in the 
 island, which in the course of this and the two following years 
 swept away, if the accounts preserved may be depended upon, 
 nearly two-thirds of the whole population.* This tremen- 
 dous affliction was succeeded by a season of such inclemency, 
 that scarcely a tenth part of the cattle on the island escaped 
 destruction. Another epidemic pestilence prevailed towards 
 the close of the century, which, though less disastrous than the 
 former, carried off a large part of the population and pro- 
 duced much general distress. The calamities of the island 
 at this period were further increased by the occasional incur- 
 sions of English pirates; who landing on different parts of the 
 coast, plundered the property of the natives, committed fre- 
 quent murders, and carried many persons into captivity. ■j' 
 
 * " Anno 1402, atrox Iglandiam pestllentia prevagari coepit, qua multi morta-v 
 ♦' les ita subite extincti sunt, ut quidam dicto citius perirent : puerique, adultj, et 
 " senes indifferenter animam efflarent ; tantusque fuit contagionis furor ut ssepe ex 
 " 12 vel 15 qui unum mortuum sepultom ibant, vix duo aut tres domum incolumes 
 " redirent." Hist. Eccl. Isl. Tom. 2. p. 135. Very few particulars are transmitted 
 to us by the Icelandic writers with respect to this dreadful disease, nor are its na- 
 ture and causes distinctly explained ; but it may be presumed with some probabi- 
 lity to have been the same epidemic which, about the middle of the 14th century, 
 extended its effects over a great part of the European continent. Some accounts 
 say that it was introduced into Iceland from Britain. 
 
 •f See the annals of Biorn de Skardsaa, and various parts of the Hist. Eccles. 
 IslandiiB. On this subject, a long and curious document is given in vol. iv. p. 162. 
 of the latter work, in which are preserved the names of many of the English pirates 
 who infested the coasts of Iceland between the years 1419 and 1425; and a minute 
 narrative of the various enormities they committed. From this document it ap- 
 pears, that most of these piratical vessels were fitted out at Hull, Lynn, and others 
 of the eastern ports of England ; and that they came to Iceland with the double
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP ICELAND. 53 
 
 These events, which concurred with the causes before de- 
 scribed in depressing the spirit of the people, and destroying 
 the strength and prosperity of the country, are recorded in 
 the annals of Iceland with an affecting and almost painful 
 simplicity. No attempts are made to excite a sentiment of 
 commiseration, beyond what humanity would of itself yield 
 to the recital of such complicated evils. We are told that 
 whole families were extinguished, and districts depopulated, 
 by the virulence of disease ; that the learned, the pious, the 
 wealthy, and the powerful, all dropt into a common grave ; 
 that the labours of industry ceased ; that genius and litera-. 
 ture disappeared ; and that the wretched remnant of the Ice- 
 landers, scarcely themselves saved from destruction, sunk into 
 a state of apathy, superstition, and ignorance. In pinsuing 
 his melancholy narrative, the historian sometimes looks back 
 for a moment to the former celebrity and splendours of his 
 country : but he goes no further ; and all beyond is left to 
 the feelings and imagination of the reader. 
 
 Though, during this gloomy age, the talents and literature 
 of the Icelanders were depressed almost to extinction, yet we 
 must look to an earlier period for the commencement and 
 primary causes of their decline. The alteration which has just 
 been described as taking place in the character and condition 
 of the people, after they were annexed to a foreign power, 
 could not occur without a corresponding change in their in- 
 tellectual habits. Of the various motives to literary pursuits 
 which before existed, some in consequence of this event were 
 
 view of plunder and of fishing upon the coast. In 1.512, the then Governor of the 
 island was put to death by some of these marauders. The intercourse of the 
 English with Iceland at this period was not, however, universally thus disgraced. 
 During a considerable part of the 15th century, they appear to have carried on a 
 fair traffic with the inhabitants in the products of the country.
 
 54 flISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 
 
 entirely lost, and others so much enfeebled, as to produce 
 few of their original and wonted effects. Talents and know- 
 ledge were no longer associated with that political influence, 
 of which before they formed the fairest ornament and the 
 most stable security. Though proud of the eminence which 
 their acquirements had given them among other nations, and 
 attached to the habits and pursuits of their forefathers, these 
 prepossessions were not sufficient to preserve unimpaired the 
 spirit which had once animated their career. A circinnstance 
 which assisted to produce its decline, was the change progres- 
 sively taking place in the customs and institutions of those 
 coimtries, with which the Icelanders had before been most 
 intimately connected. The European nations were now be- 
 ginning to liberate themselves from that bondage of ignorance 
 and superstition, which, during the dark period of the middle 
 ages, had suspended all but the sterner and more impetuous 
 qualities of human nature. The restoration of civil and social 
 order, while it gave repose to the mind, invited the exercise 
 of those faculties, by which leisure might at once be occupied 
 and adorned : knowledge and the arts rapidly revived, and 
 the native literature of every country was protected and 
 encouraged, by those who appeared before only as the op- 
 pressors of its growth. Under these circumstances, the poets 
 and historians of Iceland were receiv ed with fewer honours in 
 the courts where they had once stood so proudly eminent ; 
 and their talents were little cherished among nations, in which 
 science had now made eqiial, or greater progress than 
 among themselves. They retreated gradually into their na- 
 tive island ; where, in the little community of their fellow 
 citizens, they still kept alive a feeble remnant of that reputa- 
 tion, which had formerly extended throughout the greater 
 part of Europe.
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE Or ICELAND. 55 
 
 In addition to the causes just mentioned, there is another, 
 which seems materially to have affected the literature, as well 
 as the general character of the Icelanders during this age. 
 For some lime after the introduction of Christianity into the 
 island, the state of religion was distinguished for its purity 
 and simplicity. The active and interested spirit of the Ro^ 
 man church did not, however, long remain dormant, even 
 in this remote part of the Christian world ; and, about the 
 close of the 12th century, we find that its superstitious usa- 
 ges and ecclesiastical tyranny began to make innovations up- 
 on the religious establishments and customs of the people. 
 Fables of miracles came into vogue ; the worship of saints 
 was tolerated ; and the bishops of the island, formerly cho- 
 sen in consequence of their learning and piety, were now re- 
 commended chiefly by their subservience to the interests of 
 the Papal see. It appears, too, that even the poverty of the 
 Icelanders did not afford them a security against the pecu- 
 niary exactions of the church of Rome. Besides other tri- 
 butes, the celebrated one called Peter's Pence, was collected 
 at different times among the inhabitants, and the sale of in^ 
 dulgences appears to have been repeatedly carried on, both 
 by foreign missionaries, and by the native bishops of the 
 island. The preaching of the crusades also was attempted 
 in 1275, 1289, and some succeeding years, but with very in- 
 considerable success. In the first instance, many took up 
 the cross, purchasing dispensations from bearing it to the 
 Holy Land ; but in their latter efforts, the missionaries were 
 less successful ; and it does not appear, that a single Ice- 
 lander was at any time drawn away from his country to join 
 in this remote and dangerous contest.* 
 
 ♦ See Hist. Eccl. Island. T. 1. p. 571.
 
 56 HISTORY AKH literature of irF.LAND. 
 
 The effect of these various circumstances upon the hlera- 
 lure of the island was rapidly progressive. The two brothers, 
 Olaf and Sturla Thordson, whose reputation during the 
 13th century has before been noticed, may be considered the 
 last of the ancient Icelanders Avho attained any considerable 
 eminence in the arts and knowledge of the age. The histo- 
 rical work of the latter, called Sturlunga Saga, relating 
 the events of his own times, was characterized by a genius 
 worthy of the illustrious family to which he belonged. But 
 he was succeeded by no writer who could claim an affinity of 
 talent to the great names that were extinct. The depart- 
 ment of history now degenerated into a mere collection of 
 ecclesiastical fables, the lives of luonks and saints, and the 
 stories of miracles, written in a crude style, and displaying 
 little of the erudition or elegance which adorned the compo- 
 sitions of the earlier Icelanders. In the department of poetry, 
 a similar change occurred ; the number and reputation of 
 those who were attached to the pursuit, gradually declined ; 
 and the few remaining exercised their art in the composition 
 of hymns to the praise of saints and martyrs, which were 
 distinguished only by the rudeness of their structure, and the 
 absence of every beauty of imagery and taste. The study of 
 jurisprudence, so much cherished and so successfully culti- 
 vated by the ancient Icelanders, was now exchanged for a 
 laborious attention to the rites and usages of the Catholic 
 church ; while the knowledge of the languages, of astronomy, 
 and of the more rational parts of theology, sunk into a state 
 of corresponding depression and decline. This progressive 
 change was completed by the events of the 15th century. 
 The accumulated evils which then opj)ressed the country, 
 destroyed all that was left of its former literature and great- 
 ness, and the annals of Iceland during this period, are the
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 5/ 
 
 records only of mental depression, and of physical calamities 
 and suffering. * 
 
 The introduction of printing into the island, and the refor- 
 mation of religion which soon after took place, give a more 
 pleasing character to the commencement of the succeeding 
 century. The first printing press Avas erected at Hoolum, in 
 the northern province, about the year 1530, under the aus- 
 pices of John Areson, who was at that time the bishop of this 
 see. Though an illiterate and inicultivaled man, he was ex- 
 tremely ambitious ; and wished to avail himself of all the 
 means which literature might afford for the promotion of 
 his influence in the country. With this view, he procured as 
 his secretary, a Swede of the name of Mathiesson, who, 
 coming over to Iceland, brought with him a printing press, 
 and made a small establishment for its xise. The types were 
 originally of wood, and very rudely formed ; and the only 
 works issuing from the press during the first forty years after 
 its institution, were a few breviaries, church rituals, and ca- 
 lendars. In 1574, however, Gudbrand Thorlakson, bishop of 
 Hoolum, made very great improvements in the printing esta- 
 blishment at that place, providing new presses and types, 
 some of which were constructed by his own hand, and bestow- 
 ing the utmost care upon the correction of every work, which 
 was printed during his lifetime. Before the century had elaps- 
 ed, a number of valuable publications made their appear- 
 ance, greatly improved in their style of composition, and 
 displaying a neatness and even elegance of execution, very 
 
 * It has been supposed by Schlozer, that the language of the Icelanders, as 
 well as their literature, was materially affected by the events of this age. It is 
 more probable, however, that the alterations which have taken place in the Ice- 
 landic language were made progressively, and not at any particular period, 
 
 H
 
 58 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 
 
 remarkable at this early period of the use of printing in the 
 coiuitry. 
 
 The reformation of religion in Iceland was not accomplish- 
 ed without some disturbance. Early in the l6th century, the 
 Lutheran doctrines had begini to combat the superstition and 
 tyranny of the Catholic church; and their influence was great- 
 ly aided by the zeal of the Danish monarch, Christian III, 
 who, having abolished the usages of popery in his continental 
 dominions, wished to extend this reformation to the religious 
 establishment in Iceland. His intentions, and the progressive 
 change of opinion from the growing knowledge of the peo- 
 ple, Avere strenuously opposed by those of the clergy who 
 Avere attached to the former state of religion ; and particular- 
 ly by John Afeson, the bishop of Hoolum, whose ambitious 
 and assuming character has already been noticed. The power 
 which this man had acquired in the country, and the haughty 
 violence of his temper, led him into acts of open hostility 
 against the reformers. Attended by a body of armed men, 
 he left his northern diocese, and proceeding into the western 
 province, seized the person of Einarson, the bishop of Skal- 
 holt, who had son>e time before espoused the Lutheran doc- 
 trines, and was at this time engaged in visiting the different 
 churches of his district. In the course of the following 
 year, however, he was himself arrested by order of the king 
 of Denmark ; and being accused of various crimes, was be- 
 headed at Skalholt, together with his two natural sons, who 
 had participated in the violence and usurpations of their 
 father. After his death, no opposition was made to the new 
 doctrines ; and in 1551 the Reformation was legally establish- 
 ed, and universally received throughout the country. About 
 the same time, the public schools of the island, which, toge-
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. ^ 
 
 ther with its other institutions, had ahnost been annihilated 
 by the disastrous events of the 15th century, were again es- 
 tabhshed, under the patronage of the king of Denmark ; and 
 such funds attached to them, as afforded facihties of educa- 
 tion to those of every class among the inhabitants. At the 
 time of their revival, it was found difficult to obtain in the 
 country men of sufficient learning to discharge the office of 
 teachers ; so greatly had the condition of literatiire been de- 
 pressed. Several of the Icelanders, however, having been 
 sent to Copenhagen, to pursuetheir studies at that xmiversity, 
 the schools of the island were afterwards conducted by men 
 whose talents and acquirements well fitted them for this im- 
 portant duty. 
 
 The events which have just been described, render the pe- 
 riod of the l6th century, a new era in the history of Iceland. 
 Though the former condition and character of the people 
 were never entirely restored, yet their situation appears to 
 have been considerably improved, and their more intellectual 
 habits again excited to that exertion which once conferred so 
 much celebrity upon the country. But the revival of litera- 
 ture among the Icelanders was attended by none of those re- 
 markable circumstances which distinguished its original pro- 
 pagation and growth. The relation of their little community 
 to the neighbouring kingdoms of the north was at this time 
 completely changed : the disparity of their physical condition 
 exerted all its natviral influence; and the flame which was 
 again kindled among them, shone dimly beneath the splen- 
 dours of that sun of science which had now risen over the 
 nations of Europe. In later periods, the literary fame of the 
 Icelanders has rarely been extended beyond the limits of their 
 native island : and though the progress of their knowledge 
 has, in a certain degree, kept pace with that of other coun-
 
 ^ HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 
 
 tries, yet this must be regarded rather as an extension of the 
 growth of the latter, than as the effect of any internal powers 
 of acqnisition or improvement. 
 
 During the century which succeeded the restoration of li- 
 terature in Iceland, several individuals appeared, whose abi- 
 lities and learning gave them considerable celebrity in their 
 native island. It may be remarked, however, that almost all 
 these eminent characters were either bishoj)s, or masters of 
 the public schools, the diffusion of knowledge not having yet 
 taken place to such an extent as to include those belonging 
 to inferior classes of the community. The person whose name 
 is most conspicuous among the restorers of learning, was 
 Gudbrand Thorlakson, bishop of Hoolum. Born in 1542, he 
 studied for some years in the school of Hoolum, and after- 
 wards at the university of Copenhagen, where his talents and 
 industry gained him the intimate friendship of Tycho Brahe, 
 Resenius, Paul Matthias, and other celebrated men in the 
 Danish court. When yet only thirty years of age, he was 
 appointed to the see of Hoolum ; an office which he sustain- 
 ed during the long period of fifty- six years, in a manner most 
 honourable to himself, and advantageous to his country. His 
 labours for the promotion of knowledge were unwearied and 
 incessant. Having reformed the printing establishment of 
 the island, he occupied himself in the superintendance of the 
 press ; and as the best testimony of his diligence in this office, 
 we have a catalogue of between eighty and ninety works, 
 which were either written by himself, or published under his 
 immediate patronage and direction. The greater part of these 
 publications were of a theological nature ; and many of them 
 translations of the more eminent works in divinity, which at 
 this time appeared on the continent of Europe. To the zeal 
 ^nd learning of Thorlakson himself, the Icelanders were in-
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP ICELAND. ^1 
 
 debtee! for the first translation of the Bible into their native 
 language ; which was published in folio in 1584, and after- 
 wards under other forms better adapted to the common use 
 of the people. About the same time, an edition apjx^ared of 
 the Log-bok, or Icelandic code of laws ; and succeeding it, 
 several other works of much value, in reference to the history 
 and other circumstances, physical as well as political, of the 
 country. 
 
 Another very eminent individual of this age was Arngrim 
 Jonas ; the intimate friend and, for many years, the coadjutor 
 of Bishop Thorlakson in the duties of the episcopal office. 
 He was associated in all the schemes for the promotion of 
 literature, which so much distinguished the career of the lat- 
 ter ; and twenty-six different works in various branches of 
 divinity, history, jurisprudence, and philology, attest equally 
 the extent of his acquirements, and his zeal for the progress 
 of general knowledge. The most valuable of his writings arc 
 those which relate to the history of his native island ; the early 
 condition of which, especially during the period of the com- 
 monwealth, he has illustrated with singular diligence and suc- 
 cess. His works are for the most part composed in Latin, 
 and are remarkable for the purity and elegance of their style, 
 in which he appears greatly to have excelled all his contem- 
 poraries.* Of the other historical writers who distinguished 
 themselves at this period, the most eminent was Biorn de 
 Skardsaa ; w hose annals of Iceland from the year 1400 to 
 1645, exhibit an extreme minuteness of narrative ; animated, 
 however, by few interesting or important events, and deficient 
 
 * The most important of the writings of Arngrim Jonas were the Crymogaea ; 
 the Brevis Commentarius de Islandia ; Anatome Blekfeniana ; Historia Groenlan- 
 dite ; Specimen Islandiae Historicum ; Compendium Historiae Norvegiae ; Tracta- 
 tus de successione ab intestato ; Discursus de Literis Runicis, &c.
 
 6Z HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 
 
 in the ornaments of composition and style. His work, 
 nevertheless, is valuable, as filling up an interval in the 
 history of Iceland, which has been less dwelt upon than 
 any other by the native writers of the country ; and its sin- 
 gular simplicity of character affords an evidence of its perfect 
 authenticity.* 
 
 The history of the island during the 17th century is almost 
 wholly destitute of remarkable events. The condition of the 
 people, their law s and government, continued nearly in the 
 same state. The commercial connexions of the country un- 
 derwent some change about the beginning of the century, in 
 consequence of an edict of Christian the Fourth, which con- 
 veyed a monopoly of the traffic with the island to certain com- 
 mercial towns within the dominion of Denmark. For some 
 time prior to this regulation it had been in the hands of the 
 merchants of Hamburgh and Bremen, who appear to have car- 
 ried it on with considerable success. The piratical incursions 
 of foreigners, which, during the unfortunate period of the 15th 
 century, had added to the other afflictions of the Icelanders, 
 were still frequently continvied ; and little opposition being 
 made to their lawless attacks by a timid and unarmed people, 
 the banditti carried rapine and oppression along every part 
 of the coast. Even as late as I6I6, the English and French 
 nations bore a part in these enormities ; which the more en- 
 gage detestation, as being exercised against those who were 
 subject from their situation to all the evils of poverty and 
 want. The most calamitous event of this kind occurred in 
 1627, when a large body of Algerine pirates landed on various 
 parts of the southern coast of the island ; and not satisfied 
 
 * The other writings of Biorn de Skardsaa are, the Tractatus de Groenlan- 
 dia ; Glossariuni Juridicum ; Tractatis Juridici ; Illustratio odarum in Edda Sse- 
 niiindina, &c.
 
 HISTORY AICD LITERATURE OF ICELA>}D. 63 
 
 with the booty they obtained, murdered bet^veen forty and 
 fifty of the inhabitants, and carried off nearly four hundred 
 prisoners of both sexes. These unfortunate captives trans- 
 ported to Algiers, were exposed there to so much wretched- 
 ness, that nine years afterwards, when the king of Denmark, 
 obtained their liberty by ransom, only thirty-seven out of the 
 whole number were foimd to be surviving. Of these, thirteen 
 succeeded in reaching their native island.* 
 
 Though the feelings and practices of superstition have 
 never gained more ground in Iceland than among the greater 
 communities of Europe, yet at some periods they appear to 
 have existed to a considerable extent; and the 17th century 
 is remarkable for many excesses derived from this source. 
 Numerous individuals, both of the clergy and laity, were ac- 
 cused of dealing in the arts of magic ; and several of these, 
 being pronounced guilty of the offence, were sentenced to be 
 burnt alive. For some time the belief in necromancy was so 
 general, and its supposed practises held in so m\ich horror, 
 that in the course of sixty years, not fewer than twenty jier- 
 sons perished in the flames. The superstition afterwards gra- 
 dually declined ; and at present few of its vestiges are to be 
 found in the country. 
 
 The later periods in the history of Iceland are too much 
 distinguished by the record of physical calamities. The 18th 
 century was ushered in by a dreadful mortality consequent 
 
 * The Westmann Islands, situated on the southern coast of Iceland, suffered 
 more particularly from the Algerines ; almost their whole population being de- 
 stroyed or carried into captivity. Olaus Egilson, a priest in these islands, who 
 had been made a captive, but obtained his release from Algiers in 1629, left a 
 manuscript relation of this event, which has since been published in Danish. Biorn 
 de Skardsaa, and other writers, have also left narratives of these piracies ; and on 
 the same subject a poem was composed by Gudmond Erlendson, the author of a 
 translation of iE sop's fables into Icelandic verse.
 
 64 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP ICELAND. 
 
 upon the small pox; which, in 1707, raged Avith such epide- 
 niic virulence, as to destroy more than 16,000 of the inha- 
 bitants. The years intervening between 1753 and 1759 were 
 so exceedingly inclement, that the cattle perished in vast 
 numbers from the scarcity of food, and a famine ensuing 
 carried off nearly 10,000 people. The year 1783 was sig- 
 nalized by an event, more alarming in itself, and not less dis- 
 astrous in its consequences. Several volcanic eruptions had 
 already occurred in different parts of the island during the 
 preceding periods of the century ; but without producing, in 
 a country so thinly peopled, any very extensive devastation 
 or distress. At this time, however, the great eruption took 
 place in the Skaptaa-Syssel ; the most tremendous perhaps in 
 its nature and extent by which Iceland or any other part 
 of the globe has been afflicted. The sudden extinction of 
 a submarine volcano near Cape Reikianes, Avhich during 
 some months had continued to burn with extreme violence, 
 was succeeded by frequent and dreadful earthquakes, and by 
 the bursting out of the volcanic fire, in a tract of country 
 nearly two hundred miles distant. The scene of the latter 
 eruption appears to have been among the lofty mountains, 
 called the Skaptaa Jokul, situated in the interior of the 
 island, and known to the natives themselves only by the re- 
 mote view of their summits, clad in perpetual snows. From 
 this desolate and unfrequented region, vast torrents of lava 
 issued forth, overwhelming all before them, and filling uj) the 
 beds of great rivers in their progress towards the sea. For 
 more than a year, a dense cloud of smoke and volcanic ashes 
 covered the whole of Iceland, obscuring almost entirely 
 the light of the sun, and extending its effects even to the 
 northern parts of continental Europe ; the cattle, sheep, and 
 horses of the country were destroyed ; a famine, with its
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 65 
 
 attendant diseases broke out among the inhabitants, and 
 the small-pox invaded the island at the same time with 
 its former virulence and fatal effects. From these com- 
 bined causes, more than eleven thousand people perished 
 during the period of a few years ; an extent of calamity which 
 can only be understood, by considering that this nvnnber 
 forms nearly a fourth part of the whole present population 
 of the country. The destruction of the fishery upon the south- 
 ern coasts of the island, by the volcanic eruptions just describ- 
 ed, was another more permanent source of distress, which even 
 at the present time is not entirely removed. 
 
 The literature of the Icelanders in later times, though 
 affected in some degree by the various evils of their situation, 
 has nevertheless been preserved from decline ; and may per- 
 haps be considered as having made a certain progress, in its 
 connection with the general advancement of knowledge 
 among the nations of Europe. The names of numerous poets 
 and historians still appear in the literary records of the 
 island, and the introduction of new and important branches 
 of science has given to the learning of the country a more 
 extensive and diversified character, than it possessed even in 
 the most splendid periods of its ancient history. It is pro- 
 bable, however, that the proportion of the inhabitants de- 
 voted to such pursuits, has in later periods been consider- 
 ably diminished ; and this change may be regarded perhaps 
 as forming the most remarkable distinction between the pre- 
 sent and former state of literature in the country. The few 
 are still not unworthy of the names of their ancestors ; but 
 the people at large, though possessing a mental cultivation 
 far above their physical circumstances, have probably de- 
 clined from that spirit of progress and improvement, which so 
 much distinguished the early condition of their community. 
 
 I
 
 66 HISTORY ANI> LITERATURE OP ICELAND. 
 
 The names of Thorniodus Torfaeus, Arnas Magnaeiis, and 
 Finnur Jonson, are the most celebrated of those which have 
 adorned the modern Hterature of Iceland. Torfaeus, who was 
 born in 1636, and educated first at the school of Skalholt, and 
 afterwards in the university of Copenhagen, acqviired a high 
 reputation at the Danish court, from the extent of his erudi- 
 tion and acquirements; and in 1682 was appointed the his- 
 toriographer of Norway ; a situation for which the nvmiber 
 and value of his historical writings shew that he was peculi- 
 arly well qualified. Of these writings, the most important 
 are the ' Series of Dynasties and Kings of Denmark,' and 
 the * History of Norvv'ay ;' both published at Copenhagen 
 in the beginning of the last century.* Still more conspicuous 
 for his devotion to literary pursuits was the learned and 
 eminent Arnas Magnaeus, the son of an obscvire country 
 priest in the western part of Iceland. Raised from the ori- 
 ginal lowness of his situation by extraordinary efforts of in- 
 dustry and talent, he attained in 1694, when only thirty- one 
 years of age, the honourable situation of professor of philo- 
 sophy in the university of Copenhagen ; and a few years 
 afterwards was inv'ested with the further offices of professor 
 of northern antiquities, and secretary of the royal archives. 
 His exertions for the progress of knowledge were laborious 
 and incessant. Besides composing himself several important 
 works, he collected at great labour and expence a magnifi- 
 cent library, illustrative of the literature and antiquities of 
 the north ; and especially valuable in reference to the litera- 
 ture of his native island, which he visited several times with 
 the view of collecting all the books and manuscripts extant 
 
 * The other most valuable writings of Torfseus are the Historia Fseroensium ; 
 Ilistoria Orcadensium ; Vinlandia Antiqua ; Groenlandia Antiqua, &c.
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OP ICELAND. 67 
 
 in the Icelandic language. The greater part of this library 
 was unhappily consumed by the fire which happened at 
 Copenhagen in 1728 ; and the unfortunate Magnaeus, present 
 on the spot, saw the fruits of his long continued industry 
 and toils in the course of a few hours almost entirely de- 
 stroyed. He died two years afterwards, and bequeathed to the 
 library of the university the remnant of his literary treasures, 
 under the superintendance of certain trustees, selected from 
 among the most learned men in the Danish metropolis. * 
 His friend, and favourite pupil, Finnur Jonson, is another of 
 the eminent Icelanders who, during the last century, have 
 contributed to preserve unimpaired the character and re- 
 spectability of their country. Created bishop of Skalholt in 
 1754, he retained this office during the remainder of a long 
 life, devoted entirely to tlie promotion of happiness and 
 improvement among the community of his fellow citizens. 
 In his admirable work, the Ecclesiastical History of Iceland, 
 he has bequeathed to them a moniniient of extensive erudi- 
 tion, genuine piety, and warm patriotic feelings, which will 
 long continue as one of the fairest and most illustrious orna- 
 ments of their literature, -f 
 
 It would be impossible to mention here even the names of 
 all the Icelanders, who, in these later periods, have distin- 
 
 * The works of Arnas Magnaeus are chiefly historical and critical. In his 
 early youth he was a pupil of the celebrated Bartholin, and assisted him in the 
 composition of his great work on Danish antiquities. His character is admirably 
 drawn by his friend Bishop Jonson (Hist. Eccl. Island, vol. 3. p. 676), to whose 
 intrepidity, at the time of the great fire in Copenhagen, we owe the preservation 
 of some of the manuscripts from the Magnjeanian library. 
 
 •f The Historia Ecclesiastica Islandise was published at Copenhagen in four 
 volumes quarto. It is written in Latin of remarkable elegance ; and is replete 
 with valuable information, not solely in relation to the ecclesiastical affairs, but 
 also the political history and literature of the island.
 
 6s HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 
 
 gnished themselves in the departments of history, poetry, 
 theology, criticism, and physical science ; but in a succeed- 
 ing chapter, on the present state of Icelandic literature, 
 some remarks will be found, illustrative of the actual pro- 
 gress of the people in these various branches of knowledge. 
 Though among themselves a careful record is preserved of 
 all the authors and learned men who have appeared in the 
 country, yet the reputation of few of these individuals has 
 been conveyed beyond the limits of their native island, and 
 their views towards posterity have for the most part been 
 bounded by the small and remote circle of society in which 
 their destiny was cast. * It must be mentioned, however, to 
 the honour of the court of Denmark, that during the last 
 century, considerable encouragement has been given to the 
 progress of knowledge among the Icelanders ; and much 
 pains bestowed upon the revival of the various records of 
 iheir ancient history and learning. For some time, several 
 of the most eminent literary characters of the Danish me- 
 tropohs were associated together, under royal patronage, 
 for the purpose of illustrating the antiquities of the north ; 
 and to their industry and research, aided by the manuscripts 
 which were preserved in the library of Magnseus, we owe 
 very excellent editions of several of the most important of 
 the early Icelandic writings. The editions of the Sagas which 
 were published under their superintendance, are rendered 
 particularly valuable by Latin translations of the text, and 
 
 * The names might be recited of between two and three hundred authors in 
 different departments of literature, who have appeared in Iceland during the 
 period inter\ening between 1650 and the pi-esent time. Besides the three distin- 
 guished individuals who are mentioned above, there are many others who appear 
 to have merited well the reputation which they enjoyed among their countrymen. 
 Such are, John Haltorson, Paul Vidalin, Paul Biornson, Jonas Vidalin, Eggert 
 Olafson, Biarne Paulson, Ilalfdan Einarson, John Finsson, &c.
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 69 
 
 by the very copious notes and illustrations which are sub- 
 joined to thera» Among the distinguished men who were 
 engaged in this office, we find the names of Luxdorph, Suhm, 
 Langebeck, and of several Icelanders who had acquired re- 
 putation in Copenhagen from their abihties and acquire- 
 ments.* The most eminent among the latter was the learned 
 Professor Thorkelin, whose exertions in behalf of the litera- 
 ture and other interests of Iceland, are yet continued to his 
 country. 
 
 The government of Iceland has imdergone no material 
 change during the last century. The country is still attached 
 to the dominion of Denmark ; and the charge of its admini- 
 stration is committed, as formerly, to governors appointed by 
 the crown, who have generally resided in the island, and ad- 
 ministered its laws in a mild and equitable manner. The 
 change which was introduced some years ago into the judicial 
 establishments of the country, when the courts of law were 
 transferred from Thingvalla to Reikiavik, will be spoken of 
 in the chapter on this subject ; and the alterations which have 
 taken place of late in its commercial system will elsewhere be 
 detailed at length. 
 
 It is much to be lamented that the history of Iceland may 
 not close here. A calamity, however, remains to be record- 
 ed, under which the people of this island are still suffering, 
 and the termination of which is yet uncertain and obscure. 
 Secluded from the rest of Europe, bearing no part in the 
 contentions of more powerful states, gentle and peaceable in 
 all their habits, the Icelanders are nevertheless exposed at 
 the present time to the evils and privations of war. The un- 
 happy contest wliich has now for some years subsisted bc- 
 
 * By the lovers of northern literature, the name of Count Sulun, as one of its 
 most active and generous patrons, will ever be held in veneration.
 
 I 
 
 70 HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF ICELAND. 
 
 tween England and Denmark, by intercepting the trade to 
 the island, has abridged the few comforts the people before 
 possessed, and deprived them of many things, which might 
 almost be considered the indispensible necessaries of life. An 
 attempt was made some time ago by the British government 
 jto obviate this evil ; but hitherto, from particular circum- 
 stances, without all the success which such an effort de- 
 served. It will surely be viewed as one of the most lamenta- 
 ble features in the history of the times, that a people on whom 
 nature has bestowed so few of her blessings, should be despoil- 
 ed even of these amid the ruthless and injurious contests of 
 their fellow men. The mind, while it recoils from such a 
 pictine, will the more earnestly look forward to the period, 
 when these complicated social calamities may have an end ; 
 and when the desolate scenes of nature, as well as the fairest 
 regions of the earth, may no longer echo to the continual 
 tumults of war. 
 
 I
 
 TRAVELS IN ICELAND 
 
 DURING THE SUMMER OF THE YEAR 
 1810.
 
 1
 
 TRAVELS IN ICELAND, 6cc. 
 
 JOURNAL. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Having had the good fortune to procure accommoda- 
 tions on board the ship Elbe, belonging to Messrs. Phelps 
 and Company of London, we sailed from Leith, on the 18th 
 of April 1810, for Stromness, where we were to meet that 
 vessel. A favourable wind enabled us to accomplish this 
 part of our voyage in forty- four hours. The Elbe had not 
 arrived ; but in the harbour was a brig, the property of the 
 same Company, and also bound for Iceland ; which vessel 
 had been blown off the east coast of that island in the month 
 of November. 
 
 Expecting every moment the arrival of the Elbe, we could 
 not venture to explore any part of the Orkney Islands, except 
 the immediate neighbourhood of Stromness. It happened, 
 when we approached the Pentland Frith, to be the time of 
 slack tide, so that our passage across it was very pleasant. 
 
 K
 
 74 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. I. Stromncss. 
 
 There is nothing particularly striking in the first view of the 
 Orkneys. On entering the narrow sounds, we were surprised 
 by the great number of ships assembled in the harbour called 
 the Long Hope. These, together Avitli the rocky shores of 
 the islands, and the hills of Hoy (the highest group in Ork- 
 ney,) formed a very pleasing scene. The security of the 
 Long Hope, the easy access to it and the excellent harbour 
 of Stromness, together with the light-houses on the Pentland 
 Skerries, seem effectually to remove the terrors of the Pent- 
 land Frith ; the navigation of which, from the violence and 
 rapidity with which the tide flows through it, had long been 
 considered as extremely hazardous. The town of Stromness 
 is pleasantly situate along the foot of a hill, on the west side 
 of the bay which forms the harbour. The houses, of which 
 some are very good, are crowded together in the utmost con- 
 fusion; and what is called the street, is a long, narrow, 
 dirty lane, badly paved with flag-stones. It is so narrow in 
 some places that it seems impossible for two whefel-barrows 
 lo pass each other ; and in walking along, it is not unusual to 
 be slopped by the operation of slaughtering a pig, a sheep, 
 or a calf, in the street, which is never cleaned but by heavy 
 rain. The inn is very comfortable, and we had no cause to 
 complain of what was provided for us. There is often a 
 scarcity of wheaten bread, arising from the uncertainty and 
 irregularity of the supply of flour. The water is excellent ; 
 and there is abundance of it for the supply of ships frequent- 
 ing the harbour. 
 
 The state of agriculture in the neighbourhood of Stromness 
 is most wretched ; the cottages are filthy, and the inhabitants 
 are very indolent. The black cattle, sheep, and horses, are 
 miserable looking creatures ; and the implements of hus- 
 bandry are of the rudest construction, especially the plough.
 
 Ch, I. Stromness.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. ^5 
 
 It seems that the peasants of Orkney are extremely averse to 
 any innovation on their old practices, and exceedingly jeal- 
 ous of strangers. Of the latter quality we had one proof, 
 while examining some cottages, and taking sketches of them. 
 An old man, who was busy in planting potatoes at a little 
 distance, on seeing us thus employed, left his work, and 
 walking up with as much fierceness as his weather-beaten 
 countenance could express, roughly demanded what we were 
 doing, and why we dared to go into the houses to frighten 
 the children. The proprietors of the Orkney Islands, as they 
 have many difficulties to encounter, will have the greater 
 merit when they shall have improved the condition of the 
 peasantry, as well as the productiveness of the soil. 
 
 On the 25th, the Elbe arrived at Stromness. Immediate- 
 ly on her arrival, we went on board, and were received with 
 great kindness by Captain Liston, and Mr Fell, who was 
 going out as agent for Phelps and Company. To these gen- 
 tlemen, as well as to their employers, we are under very great 
 obligations. Not only did they incommode themsehes that 
 every thing might be comfortable to us in point of accom- 
 modation, but they continued to luake every exertion to ren- 
 der the voyage agreeable. 
 
 The island of Iceland is placed in the Atlantic ocean, in a 
 direction nearly north-west from the continent of Europe. 
 Its position has not been very accurately ascertained ; but, 
 from the best authorities in our possession, it appears to lie 
 between the 12th and 25th degrees of longitude west from 
 Greenwich ; its extreme breadth from east to west being 
 nearly 300 miles. From some notes which were obligingly, 
 sent to us by the Danish officers employed in surveying the 
 coast, the latitude of the northern extremity of the island. 
 Cape North, appears to be 66° 30', which nearly coincides
 
 76 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cb. i. Coast of Iceland; 
 
 with the Arctic Circle. In the common maps of the country, 
 k is laid clown a degree farther north. The most southern. 
 part is in north latitude GS" 40' nearly ; and the broadest 
 part of the island from north to south, is probal>ly not much 
 more than 180 miles. 
 
 We sailed on the 28th for Reikiavik, the capital of Ice- 
 land. A fine breeze carried us about twenty miles to the 
 westward of Orkney, when we were becalmed ; and several- 
 ships, bound for America, which had sailed the day before, 
 were seen in the same situation. On our return to Orkney 
 in autumn, we were informed that, at Stromness, the same 
 favourable wind which had carried us only twenty miles, had 
 continued several days, and had given our friends reason to 
 believe that we should have a very short voyage. 
 
 The weather soon became unsteady ; and a heavy gale of 
 wind overtook us on the 3d of May ; but it was not against 
 our course. Early in the morning, one of the sailors, an 
 elderly man, fell from the main-yard upon the deck. On 
 hearing of this accident we got out of bed, and, though it 
 was hardly possible to stand, we contrived to reach the place 
 where he lay, and to bleed him. He died in the evening. At 
 night on the 4th, the wind became more violent, accom- 
 panied with snow ; and the rigging was stiffened with ice. 
 Moderate weather now succeeded, and as soon as it was- 
 clear day-light, we had the pleasure of being summoned 
 upon deck to enjoy the first view of Iceland. The land 
 first in sight was that called by navigators Gape Hekla, though 
 it is at a considerable distance from the celebrated volcano 
 of that name. The range of enormous mountains, which now 
 appeared soaring above the horizon, was entirely covered 
 with snow ; and though we felt considerable joy on finding 
 ourselves so near the end of our voyage, we could not help
 
 Ch. I. Coast of Iceland.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND* fT 
 
 being impressed with the very uninviting appearance of the 
 country : — 
 
 Where undissolving, from the first of time. 
 Snows swell on snows amazing to the sky ; 
 And icy mountains high on mountains piPd, 
 Seem to the shivering sailor from afar, 
 Shapeless and white, an atmosphere of clouds 
 Projected huge, and horrid o'er the siu-ge. 
 
 In the evening we passed to the southward of the West- 
 mann Islands, a fine group of rocks, extending to a distance 
 of about twenty miles from the most southern part of Ice- 
 land. The navigation round Cape Reikianes, the south- 
 Avest point of the island, not being deemed safe during the 
 night, we lay to, a little to the westward of the rocks, till 
 day-light, when a fresh breeze came off the land. 
 
 In sailing along towards the Cape, we had a fine view of 
 the mountains of the south-west part of Iceland. They are 
 not very high, and the snow had almost disappeared from 
 them. Their rugged summits, and the desolate appearance 
 of their sides, seemed to indicate a volcanic origin; and, with 
 the assistance of a telescope, we thought we could distinguish 
 the places whence lava had flowed. We also saw the vapour 
 rising from the sulphur mountains, which are in this range. 
 Towards Cape Reikianes, the mountains gradually decrease 
 in height, and become more conical ; and at length the 
 country is low, and rocky, which renders an approach to the 
 shore very dangerous. Off the Cape are some small rocks, 
 about six miles apart from each other; and beyond them is 
 a sunken reef extending about ten miles farther, and termin- 
 ating in a rock called, in the Danish chart, BUtulc Fugle Skier, 
 or the blind bird rock. We steered for the passage between
 
 7^ TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ca. u Coast of Iceland^ 
 
 the Cape and the nearest rock ; and, just as we got into it, 
 were becahned. This circumstance excited considerable 
 anxiety in the captain ; but he was soon relieved by perceiv- 
 ing the tide to be in our favour, which carried the ship safe- 
 ly from the rocks. We now turned northwards, and observ- 
 ed that the flat country, between the Cape and the Skagen 
 Point, had the appearance of having been desolated by vol- 
 canic eruptions. We sailed backwards and forwards during 
 the night, and began to beat up the Faxe Fiord * at sun-rise, 
 on the 7th of May. The day proved clear, and we had a 
 distinct view of the amphitheatre of moimtains which bound 
 the Faxe Fiord. On one hand, the view terminated with the 
 bare, rugged, and gloomy hills stretching towards the east 
 from Cape Reikianes ; on the other, with the lofty Snaefell 
 Jokulf towering above the neighbouring snow-covered moun- 
 tains, which rose in a variety of shapes, forming a most mag- 
 nificent scene ; but such a one as seemed to forbid the ap- 
 proach of man. Where no snow appeared, hideous preci- 
 pices overhung the sea, or the destructive effiects of subter- 
 raneous fire were visible on the more level country, where 
 alone an adventurer could hope to find access. 
 
 A great number of boats were seen coming from different 
 parts of the coast to fish. Passing near one of them, we 
 hailed it, and took the people and their fish on board. They 
 had caught about thirty cod, halibut, and tusk, or cat fish, 
 for the whole of which they demanded four shillings. The 
 people were clad in sheep skins, which they took off' before 
 coming into the ship. This covering has a very singular appear- 
 ance ; but it keeps the fishermen dry, and preserves their 
 
 * Fiord means, bay, or frith. 
 
 -f- Jokul (pronounced Yokul) is a name given to such mountains as are per- 
 petually covered with snow.
 
 Cu. I. Reikiavilc.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 79 
 
 clothes from being spoiled while they are hauling in the fish. 
 In the north of Iceland they wear seal skins, with hoods fit- 
 ted to the jackets. The dress of the men in this, and in an- 
 other boat which afterwards approached the ship, consisted 
 of blue, grey, or black cloth jackets and breeches, and coarse 
 woollen stockings. Their shoes were made of undressed seal 
 skin. Some of them wore woollen caps, with a tassel, vary- 
 ing in colour, hanging at the end. The owner of the first 
 boat had his jacket trimmed with red cloth: he officiated as 
 our pilot. Most of them had on round slouched hats ; their 
 hair was long and lank, and several of them had long beards. 
 On our approaching nearer to Reikiavik bay, the pilot of 
 that place, who had been fishing, came on board, and super- 
 seded the other, who belonged to a place called Kieblivik. 
 The Reikiavik pilot was a tall, stout, good looking man, but 
 his sheep-skin dress gave him rather a savage appearance. 
 
 Viewed from the sea, the capital of Iceland has a very 
 mean appearance. It is built on a narrow flat, between 
 two low hills, having the sea on the north-east, and a small 
 lake on the south-west side. We landed for a short time in 
 the evening ; and had we not previously seen the fishermen, 
 we should have been a good deal surprised at the odd figures 
 that flocked about us. The Danish inhabitants, who sel- 
 dom stir without tobacco pipes in their mouths, were easily 
 distinguished. The beach slopes rapidly ; but is extremely 
 convenient for boats at all times of the tide. It is composed 
 entirely of comminuted lava. There were two large wooden 
 platforms, made to be occasionally pushed into the water, for 
 the purpose of loading and unloading the larger boats. The 
 anchorage is good ; and the bay is defended from heavy seas 
 by several small islands, which render it a very safe harbour. 
 
 The houses, with the exception of one that is constructed
 
 80 TRAITILS IN ICELAND. [Ch. i. JReiktavik. 
 
 of brick, and the church and prison which are of stone, are 
 formed of wood, coated on the outside with a mixture of tar 
 and.red clay. The storehouses, some of which are very large, 
 are built of the same materials, which in every case are put 
 together very neatly. The longest range of houses extends 
 along the beach ; the other stretches at a right angle from it 
 at the west end, and is terminated by a house which is used 
 by the merchants as a tavern. At the east end of the town 
 is the Toght-huus, or prison, which having been white-washed, 
 is very conspicuous among the other dark brown buildings. 
 Behind this end of the street, which is on the beach, stands 
 the house of the late governor. Count Trampe ; and beyond 
 that, near the lake, is the church ; a clumsy building covered 
 with tiles. It is in a sad state of dilapidation, the winds and 
 rain having free access to every part of it. Though suffici- 
 ently large to accommodate some hundreds of persons, it is 
 not much freqviented on ordinary Sundays. On particular 
 occasions, such as a day of confirmation, it is much crowded. 
 In the neighbourhood of the town there is a considerable 
 number of cottag€s, all very mean, and inhabited for tlie 
 most part by the people who work for the merchants. The 
 whole population amounts to about five hundred. On the 
 top of the hill, to the westward, is an observatory, in which 
 a few instruments are usually kept. At present they are in 
 the hands of two Danish officers, who are employed in sur- 
 veying the coasts. 
 
 The drawing from which the engraving is taken was made 
 from some rocks above a cottage a little to the south-east of 
 the town. This is the most favourable view of the town ; 
 and it includes part of the range of mountains in the Snaefell 
 Syssel, which is terminated by the Snaefell Jokul. 
 
 The spring- tides often rise so high as to overflow the
 
 Ch. r. Reilciavik.} TRAVET.S IN ICErANTJ. 81 
 
 ground between the governor's house and the church, and 
 the street which runs up from the beacli. The water some- 
 times enters the httle gardens which are beiiind most of the 
 houses. A small stream runs from the lake ; and, were its 
 channel deepened, a very useful and commodious harbour 
 might be made. 
 
 On shewing some letters received from his Excellency 
 Count Trampe, to his agent Mr Simonsou, and to Mr Fry- 
 densberg, the landfoged, or treasurer of the island, they, 
 without the least hesitation, permitted us to take possession 
 of the Count's house, in which we were afterwards confirmed 
 by a letter, from the Count himself, to Mr Simonson, desir- 
 ing him to provide accommodations for us in this habitation, 
 which, though small, is very comfortable. It consists of 
 three rooms below, one of which opens into the kitchen, and 
 another is occupied as a public office. There is a pantry well 
 fitted up with shelves, presses, and drawers. The kitcl>on 
 has a fire place like a smith's forge, with a small grate in the 
 middle, in which the fire is kindled. When a dinner is pre- 
 paring, different fires are lighted to suit different utensils. 
 The rooms are heated by close stoves connected with the 
 kitchen vent. Above, there is a loft, the access to which is 
 by a narrow trap stair- case. In this there are three apart- 
 ments, one of which has a stove ; the rest of the space is left 
 open for lumber. Adjoining the house is an open court, 
 beyond which are a stable and a cow-house, with a hay loft 
 above them. About a quarter of an acre of indifferent soil 
 behind the house, is inclosed by a paling, and used as a gar- 
 den. Soon after we went to lodge here, some seeds of tur- 
 nip, radish, cabbage, pease, cress, and miistard, were sown in 
 a corner of the garden, and what we left unoccupied was
 
 82 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cti. I. Vidoe. 
 
 filled by Mr Simonson with potatoes and Swedish turnip 
 seed. 
 
 The first visit we paid, after landing on the Sth of May, 
 was to the bishop, Geir Vidalin, who received us with great 
 kindness. He is a good looking man, above the ordinary 
 stature ; corpxdent, but not unwieldy ; with an open counte- 
 nance, which seems to declare his feelings without disguise. 
 He is an excellent classical scholar, and speaks Latin fluently; 
 and his general knowledge is equal, if not superior, to that 
 of any person in Iceland. 
 
 Having learned that we should be obliged frequently to 
 return to Reikiavik, after making excursions into the country, 
 our first care was to arrange our household affairs, and to 
 inquire for horses, which, at this season, were difficult to pro- 
 cuie. The grass not having begun to grow, they were still 
 very lean, and unfit for hard service. In several districts a 
 disease had attacked the horses, and carried off great num- 
 bers of them. Every body told us that it would be in vain 
 to attempt travelling so early in the season ; and as we saw 
 that delay was unavoidable, we resolved to employ ourselves 
 in forming acquaintance, and in observing the manners of the 
 people in the capital. 
 
 We thought it our duty to pay our respects to Mr Olaf 
 Stephenson, who has the title of Geheime Etatsraad, and was 
 formerly governor of the island ; and having been informed 
 that he would be glad to see us, we went to his house, which 
 is on the island of Vidiie, about three miles from the town. 
 It is built of stone, and bears evident marks of decay on the 
 outside. The situation, between two green hills, the ground 
 in front sloping towards the sea, is very agreeable. On the 
 west side is a neat chapel, where the minister of Reikiavik
 
 Cir. T. Vidoe.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND." 83 
 
 performs divine service once in three weeks. Before the 
 chapel is a small garden, inclosed by a turf wall. Behind the 
 house are cottages for the accommodation of servants ; and 
 farther off, are the cow and sheep houses. 
 
 The old gentleman, dressed in the uniform of a Danish 
 colonel of the guards, received us at the door with great po- 
 liteness, and seemed to be exceedingly gratilied by our visit. 
 He ushered us into a large room, furnished with the remains 
 of ancient finery, some prints, portraits, and a number of 
 profile shades, which afibrded little relief to the eye while 
 wandering over the damp, decaying walls. The house alto- 
 gether appeared as if it would not long survive its venerable 
 inhabitant. The next room we entered was our host's bed- 
 chamber, which was very comfortable, and well warmed by a 
 stove placed in a corner. After a little conversation on indif- 
 ferent subjects, the old gentleman talked of his health, and 
 seemed quite delighted to find that we could give him some 
 medicines as well as advice. We had the pleasure of being 
 told, after the lapse of a few weeks, that Mr Holland's pre- 
 scriptions had been attended with the best effects. 
 
 We had no intention of remaining here to dinner; but, on 
 proposing to take leave, we soon perceived that it would give 
 great offence, to withdraw without partaking of his hospitality. 
 Mr Stephenson spoke affectionately of Sir Joseph Banks, who 
 is much and deservedly esteemed in Iceland ; and he shewed 
 us, with much apparent satisfaction, some diplomas which he 
 had received from different societies. 
 
 While awaiting the hour of dinner, one of the party hap- 
 pened to take a little snufF from a box of no great value ; but 
 as it attracted the notice of our host, and as he seemed to ad- 
 mire the snuff no less than the box, he was entreated to 
 accept of both. The present was received with the highest
 
 84 TKAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. i. Dress of the wometK 
 
 marks of satisfaction ; and the good old gentleman instanta- 
 neously drew from his pocket a curious box, ornamented 
 with silver, which had been made in Iceland, and insisted 
 on being permitted to return the compliment. This mark of 
 politeness, and the beauty of the box, produced very warm 
 expressions of admiration from the whole party ; when our 
 host suddenly left the room, and returning Avith a silver box 
 of far greater value, snatched the first from the person who 
 held it, and insisted on an exchange with so good a grace, 
 and with so much earnestness, that this heavy balance against 
 the trifle he had got could not be refused. We afterwards 
 found that the box belonged to his father, whose initials 
 were wrought on the cover. We were very much struck with 
 the refined, at the same time heartfelt politeness which accom- 
 panied this little transaction. 
 
 In due time, the repast which had been prepared, was an- 
 novmced by a good looking girl, drest in the complete Ice- 
 landic costume. The dress of the women is not calculated to 
 shew the person to advantage. The long waist, bunchy pet- 
 ticoats, and the fashion of flattening the bosom as much as 
 possible, together with the extraordinary head-dress, excited 
 rather ludicrous emotions at the first view ; but there is a 
 richness in the whole that is pleasing. A dress which we pro- 
 cured, consists of a blue cloth petticoat, with a waist of scarlet 
 woollen stuff ornamented v/ith gold lace, and silver loop-holes 
 on black velvet, for lacing it. On the back of the waist are 
 stripes of black velvet, which cover the seams. Over the pet- 
 ticoat is tied an apron of blue cloth, having a silver-gilt orna- 
 ment hanging from the middle of the upper part ; and along 
 the bottom, several stripes of light blue stamped velvet.. 
 Over the waist is put on a jacket of blaCk cloth, having two 
 stripes of black velvet in front, and next to them two of gold
 
 Cb.i. Dress of the women.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND, 85 
 
 lace. On the back and shoulders are stripes of orange-co- 
 loured velvet. Round the waist is buckled a girdle of black 
 velvet, covered with rich silver-gilt ornaments. A collar or 
 ruff of black and crimson velvet, ornamented with silver lace, 
 and having attached to it a sort of tippet of black clothj 
 adorned in front with light brown velvet, is put round the • 
 neck. Silver-gilt chains of various forms, and medals, are 
 worn suspended from the neck.* On going out of doors, to 
 church, or on any occasion of ceremony, the women wear a 
 cloak or mantle of black cloth, called wadmal. That belong- 
 ing to the dress above described is ornamented in front with 
 two large hollow convex buttons, made of silver gilt and richly 
 ornamented. The cloak is trimmed with two broad stripes 
 of figured woollen stuff resembling black stamped velvets 
 The head-dress is formed of white linen or cotton cloth, 
 shaped like a large flat horn bending forwards, and made 
 stiff with a quantity of pins, fastened on the top of the head 
 with a coloured silk or cotton handkerchief, which entirely 
 conceals the hair. The petticoat, the apron, and the jacket, 
 are of different colours, though blue and black are the most 
 common ; and the ornaments of silver are variously shaped. 
 The general fashion of the dress has long remained the same, 
 though the head-dress has imdergone some alterations in its 
 dimensions, and in the mode of bending it. Little girls are 
 dressed in the same manner, only they wear a cap variously 
 ornamented. Boys have more gaudy caps. One in our pos^ 
 
 * On one side of a medal in our possession, is a representation of God, with 
 three faces, sitting in a cloud, and holding a globe surmounted by a cross in one 
 hand. The following inscription is above in Roman characters, tetragramma- 
 TON. JEHOVAH. ADONAY. ELOY. On the rcvcrse is a representation of the Trinity, 
 with the inscription benedicta. semper, sancta. sit. trinitas. The figures are in 
 relief, and well executed.
 
 88 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cu. J. Dinner at Viduf. 
 
 session is made of blue silk, surrounded with gold lace, and 
 has a green silk tassel on the top. 
 
 When a lady goes abroad on horseback, the head-dress is 
 covered by a hat of a very curious shape, which is seen in th6 
 engraving, ^vhere the different dresses are better explained 
 than by words. 
 
 No. 1, is a lady in full dress ; No. 2, the ordinary dress of 
 the women of all ranks ; No. 3, a lady in a riding dress ; No. 
 4, an Icelander in his best clothes. The jackets of the men 
 are frequently made of black wadmal. No. 5, is the figure of 
 the Reikiavik pilot in his sheep-skin dress, as he came on 
 board the Elbe. 
 
 Tlie names of the different parts of the dress are, — -fahhir, the 
 head-dress, of which the upper part is called, skoit ; tipphlutur, 
 the waist of the petticoat ; fat, the petticoat ; ncerpills, these 
 when joined together ; svinta, the apron; trojc, the jacket ; 
 licmpa, the cloak ; sMrta, the shift ; hals-festi, the neck-chain ; 
 liragd, the collar ; herda-festi, the shoulder-chain ; milniir, the 
 ornamented loop-holes of the waist ; I'lndi', the girdle ; sockar, 
 stockings ; sochakond, garters ; skior, shoes. 
 
 On entering the room into which we had at first been in- 
 troduced, we found a table neatly covered, and a bottle of 
 wine set down for each person. This alarmed us a little, as 
 we feared that the old gentleman intended, according to the 
 ancient custom of Denmark, to ' keep wassel.' The only 
 dish on the table was one of sago soup, to w hich we were 
 helped very liberally. The appearance of a piece of roasted, 
 or rather baked, beef, relieved us considerably; and we sub- 
 mitted, as well as we were able, to receive an unusual supply 
 of a food to which we were accustomed. We had drank a 
 few glasses of wine, when a curious silver cup, large enough 
 to contain half a bottle, was put upon the table. Oin* host
 
 Ca.i. Dinner at ridue.] TRAVELS IN rcELANU. 87 
 
 filled it to the brim, and put on the cover. He then held it 
 towards the person who sat next to him, and desired him to 
 take off the cover, and look into the cup ; a ceiemony in- 
 tended to secure fair play in filling it ; after which he drank 
 our healths, expressing his happiness at seeing us in his house, 
 and his hopes that we would honour him with our company 
 as often as we could. He desired to be excused from empty- 
 ing the cup, on account of the indifferent state of his health ; 
 but we were informed at the same time, that if any one of us 
 should neglect any part of the ceremony, or fail to invert the 
 cup, ])lacing the edge on one of the thumbs, as a proof 
 that we had swallowed every drop, the defaidter would be 
 obliged by the laws of drinking to fill the cup again, and 
 drink it off a second time. He then gave the cup to his 
 neighbour, who, having drank it off, put on the cover, and 
 handed it to the person opposite to him. Being filled, the 
 cup was examined by the person whose turn it was to drink 
 next, and thus it went round. In spite of their utmost exer- 
 tions, the penalty of a second draught was incurred by two 
 of the company. While we were dreading the consequences 
 of having swallowed so much wine, and in terror lest the cup 
 should be sent round again, a dish of cold pancakes, of an 
 oblong form, and covered with sugar, was produced ; and 
 after them sago puddings floating in rich cream. It was in 
 vain that we pleaded the incapacity of our stomachs to con- 
 tain any more ; we were obliged to submit to an additional 
 load ; when a summons to coffee in an adjoining room, 
 brought us a most welcome rehef. Our sufferings, however, 
 were not yet at an end. On first entering the house, we had 
 noticed a very large china tureen on the top of a press ; and 
 as it had not been used at dinner, we concluded that it was a 
 mere ornament. We had scarcely flattered ourselves that
 
 88 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. l.Visit to Dr Klog. 
 
 coffee was to finish the entertainment, when the young woman 
 who had waited at table came in with this tureen, and set it 
 before us. It was accompanied by some large glasses, each 
 of the size of an ordinary tumbler. We looked at each other 
 with dismay, on observing this huge vessel full of smoking 
 punch ; and as there was no prospect of being able to escape, 
 we endeavoured to look chearfvil, and accomplish the task 
 required of us. Having at length taken leave, our hospitable 
 friend insisted on attending us to the beach. 
 
 Our next visit was to the minister of Reikiavik, and to the 
 physician, both of whom live at some distance to the west- 
 ward of the town. The former, Mr Sigurdson, met us at the 
 door of a miserable hut, and led us through a long, dark and 
 dirty passage, obstructed by all sorts of utensils, and by a 
 man beating stock fish, into an obscure room. The apart- 
 ment into which we were ushered was the family bed room, 
 and the best in the house. The roof was so low that a person 
 could hardly stand upright, and there was scarcely room for 
 any thing beside the furniture, which consisted of a bed, a 
 clock, a small chest of drawers, and a glass cup-board. Our 
 surprise at finding the minister of the only town in Iceland 
 so ill accommodated, ceased on discovering that a stipend of 
 one hvmdred and twenty dollars, not very regularly paid, 
 with pasture for a cow or two, and a few sheep, were all that 
 he had for the support of himself and his family. We were 
 presented with a bason of very good milk, and, after some 
 conversation on indifferent matters, we proceeded towards 
 the house of Dr Klog.* Nothing can be more dreary than 
 the face of the country hereabouts ; and how an elevated 
 and exposed situation, at a distance from the town, came to 
 
 * Pronounced Klo.
 
 Ck. r. risit to Dr JHog.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND, 69 
 
 be chosen for the residence of the physician, seems difficult to 
 explain. The doctor's house, and that of the apothecary, 
 are under the same roof; and Avith respect to size, furniture, 
 and cleanhness, were the best we had yet seen. The house 
 is built of stone, and white-washed, 
 
 Dr Klog having been informed that we had brought some 
 vaccine virus with us, said that there had been none in Ice- 
 land for two years, and rejoiced that such a blessing was re- 
 newed to the country. He was very impatient to have some 
 children inoculated. Having taught him to use the crust, we 
 had soon the satisfaction of seeing a supply of virus sent oft' 
 to different parts of the island ; and before we left it, we 
 learned that it had reached the most remote corners. The 
 people have implicit faith in the virtues of this mild substi- 
 tute for small pox. 
 
 Madame Klog soon made her appearance, and brought 
 some chocolate, which, we were told, had been made by the 
 apothecary, and had some of the Lichen Islandicus mixed 
 with it. We found it to be remarkably good, but could not 
 distinguish the addition of the Lichen. On examining the 
 laboratory, it was observed to be well stored with old fashion- 
 ed drugs of all sorts, most of them quite useless. The com- 
 pounds were prepared according to the directions of the 
 Danish pharmacopoeia. From the large supply of medicines, 
 one might suppose that they were much called for ; but there 
 are few physicians in the world whose practice is less laborious 
 than that of Dr Klog. There are five other medical practi- 
 tioners in the island, who have salaries from the Danish go- 
 vernment. The little practice they have is very laborious, on 
 account of the very scattered state of the population ; and 
 their fees are extremely small. 
 
 We had an opportunity of seeing the funeral service of the
 
 90 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. i. Funeral service. 
 
 Icelandic church performed, at the burial of the sailor who 
 lost his life on the vo3'age. The minister, dressed in a gown 
 of plain black cloth, and with a band, met the corpse on the 
 beach, and walked before it. On entering the churchjard,^ 
 he began to chaimt, and was joined by many of the people. 
 This continued till the coffin was laid in the grave, when the 
 priest took a small wooden spade, and pronouncing some 
 words of the same import as ' dust to dust,' &c. in the Eng- 
 lish service, threw in a little earth. The chaunting then re- 
 commenced, and continued till the grave was filled up ; after 
 which all present put their hats before their faces, and seem- 
 ed to pray. A general obeisance followed, which closed the 
 ceremony. The whole was conducted with solemnity, and 
 the people seemed very serious and earnest in their devotions. 
 We did not admire the music of the Icelanders. 
 
 On the 13th of May, we were honoured with a visit from 
 Mr Magnus Stephenson, son of our friend at Vidoe. He 
 presides in the highest court of justice, and styles himself Lord 
 Chief Justice of Iceland. He is also a counsellor of state, 
 and was invested with the government at the time Count 
 Trampe went to England in I8O9. He was accompanied by 
 one of his sons, and two of his brothers, one of whom is 
 Amtmand, or governor, of the western district, and the 
 other secretary to the court of justice. They were all ex- 
 tremely polite, and, through the Chief Justice, who spoke 
 English tolerably well, expressed their desire to be of use to 
 us in very handsome terms. We found every one emulous in 
 offering his services ; and we shall ever remember Avith grati- 
 tude the kind attention and hospitality we experienced during 
 our stay in Iceland, both from the natives and from tlie 
 Danes. The latter had really little cause to make Englishmen 
 welcome. But on all occasions they spoke of what had hap-
 
 ta. I. Hot ^rtngs.] TRAVELS IN" ICELAND. 91 
 
 pened at Copenhagen in the most liberal manner ; and one 
 gentleman observed, that, though our government had used 
 them ill, we were not to blame ; and had as much right as 
 strangers from any other country, to expect and receive such 
 attention as they had it in their power to bestow. 
 
 On the 14th a court was held, in order that the deput} - 
 governor might pass sentence in some civil causes. He was 
 dressed in a red coat adorned with gold lace and embroidery. 
 The meeting of the covu't was announced by the beating of 
 an old drum, the prelude to a short proclamation. In the 
 room was a table covered with a tattered green cloth, and a 
 few chairs. Beside the depiity-governor, the secretary and 
 half a dozen other persons were present ; and there was no sort 
 of ceremony, or apjicarance of dignity. Mr Stephenson 
 took up a book, read the sentences as fast as he could, signed 
 Ihem, and then the whole ended. 
 
 We went to Mr Frydensberg's to breakfast, between eleven 
 and twelve o'clock, where we found a table covered as if for 
 dinner, having bottles, glasses, &c. upon it. It is customary 
 in Iceland, either for the lady of the house, or one of her 
 daughters, to place the dishes on the table, and to remove 
 them, the plates, knives and forks, &c. ; though sometimes 
 the housekeepers, who are on a very familiar footing with 
 their employers, perform these offices. There are no men- 
 servants. After this breakfast, which was, more properly, a 
 very early dinner, a few glasses of wine were drank, and cof- 
 fee was served, which concluded the entertainment ; when 
 all rose up, and bowed to the lady. 
 
 Next day, we went to see some hot springs, about two 
 miles to the eastward of the town, which the people frequent 
 for the purpose of washing clothes. A rivulet runs past them; 
 and, by a little management, a person may plunge his hand
 
 92 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. • [Cir. i. Baih 
 
 into the water, so that one part of it may be subjected to any 
 degree of heat up to 188°, while another is chille<l. Tlic 
 water of the springs mixing with that of the rivulet, every 
 desirable temperature is to be found within a short space. 
 The nearer we approached the place where the hot water bubr. 
 bles up, the effects of the heat on vegetation were more and 
 more apparent ; and the verdure of the banks of the rivulet 
 formed a very striking contrast to the barrenness of the sur- 
 roimding country. The women who go out to wash clothes, 
 boil fish, or meat of any sort, in the places where the water 
 is hottest. The plants which we took out of the water had a 
 disagreeable, somewhat sulphureous smell, as well as the 
 water itself; but it was not strong. There are some large 
 and deep tepid pools, in which, on a certain day in June, all 
 the girls in the neighbourhood bathe. 
 
 On the 15th we gave a ball to the ladies of Reikiavik, and 
 the neighbourhood. The company began to assemble about 
 
 9 o'clock. We were shewn into a small low roofed room, in 
 Avhich were a number of men ; but to our surprise we saw no 
 females. We soon found them, however, in one adjoining, 
 Avhere it is the custom for them to wait till their partners go 
 
 10 hand them out. On entering this apartment, we felt con- 
 siderable disappointment at not observing a single woman 
 dressed in the Icelandic costume. It was the fashion, at this 
 time, to have every thing English. An old lady, the wife of 
 the man who kept the tavern, was habited like the pictures 
 of our great grandmothers. Some time after the dancing 
 commenced, the bishop's lady, and two others, appealed in 
 the proper dress of the country. 
 
 We found ourselves extremely aukward in dancing what the 
 ladies were pleased to call English country dances. The 
 music, which came from a solitary ill scraped fiddle, accom-
 
 Ch. I. Bali] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. y3 
 
 panied by the rumbling of the same half rotten drum that 
 had summoned the high court of justice, and by the jingling 
 of a rusty triangle, was to us utterly unintelligible. The ex- 
 treme rapidity with which it was necessary to go through a 
 multiplied series of complicated evolutions in proper time, 
 completely bewildered us ; and our mistakes, and frequent 
 collisions with our neighbours, afforded much amusement to 
 our fair partners, who found it, for a long time, impractica- 
 ble to keep us in the right track. While unengaged in the 
 dance, the men drink punch, and walk about with tobacco 
 pipes in their mouths, spitting plentifully on the floor. The 
 unrestrained evacuation of saliva seems to be a fashion all 
 over Iceland ; but whether the natives learned it from the 
 Danes, or the Danes from the natives, we did not ascer- 
 tain. 
 
 During the dances, tea and coffee were handed about; 
 and negus and punch were ready for those who chose to par- 
 take of them. A cold supper was provided ; and, while at 
 table, several of the ladies sung, and acquitted themselves 
 tolerably well. But we could not enjoy the performance, on 
 account of the incessant talking, which was often loud enough 
 to overpower the harmony ; but was not considered as in 
 the least unpolite. One of the songs was in praise of the 
 donors of the entertainment; and, during the chorus, the 
 ceremony of touching each others glasses was performed. 
 After supper, the dancing reconunenced, and waltzing seem- 
 ed to be the favourite amusement. Though there was no 
 need of artificial light, a number of candles were placed in 
 the rooms ; and when the company broke up, about three 
 o'clock, the sun was high above the horizon. 
 
 During our stay in the town, we had an opportunity of 
 seeing the marriage-ceremony of the Icelanders, which was
 
 94 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cu. u Marriage ceremony. 
 
 performed in the clnircb. The bride, in full dress, was seat- 
 ed on one side of the chnrch, accompanied by an elderly 
 woman, probabl}' her mother. Opposite to her, on the other 
 side, was the bridegroom. His seal-skin shoes were fastened 
 by cross bands of white tape ; and his striped garters were 
 crossed about his legs. He was attended by several of his 
 friends, who, during the whole of the ceremony, indulged 
 themselves uith a profusion of snufF. The priest, standing 
 at the altar opposite to the party, began the ceremony by 
 chaunting, in which he was joined by all present. This was 
 followed by a prayer, and a long exhortation to the bride and 
 bridegroom, who were now brought forward. Three ques- 
 tions, similar to those used in the English service, were then 
 put to them ; first to the man. The priest afterwards joined 
 their hands, laid his hands upon their shoidder, and gave 
 them his blessing. They were then conducted to their re- 
 spective seats, and the service concluded by chaunting. In 
 going from the church, the bride preceded the bridegroom, 
 both being attended by their friends of the same sex. They 
 usually go, on such occasions, to the house of some relation. 
 When the bride retires after supper, she is accompanied by 
 her female friends. When the husband arrives, he finds them 
 all seated by his wife's bedside, and is refused admittance. 
 On his persisting, he is told he must pay ; and he offers a 
 snuff-box, or any trifle he may have in his pocket, which is 
 refused. At last he promises some present of value, from 
 twenty to a hundred dollars, according to his circumstances; 
 and the women tell him that he must give it to his bride. 
 This altercation sometimes continues for an hour, in perfect 
 good humour. In the morning, the husband makes a ^pre- 
 sent to his wife of some articles of dress, money, or silver 
 spoons. They now go to theii' own house. We did not see
 
 Ch. I. Vidoe.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 95 
 
 the procession to the church ; but were informed, that from 
 the house of the minister, or some cottage near the church, 
 girls go first two and two, then the bride attended by a female 
 relation, or the most respectable woman in the company. 
 She is followed by the women, after whom goes the bride- 
 groom with a friend. Next in order is the priest, and the 
 men close the procession. 
 
 A day was spent in examining the rocks of the island of 
 Vidoe ; and we again dined with the old governor. We now 
 found that the young woman who had attended at table on 
 our former visit, was his niece; and that an elderl>' female who 
 had appeared at the same time, was his sister-in-law. We had 
 sent some trifling present to these ladies; and, on this account, 
 as soon as we entered the house, it became necessary to sub- 
 mit to the customary salute denoting the gratitude of those 
 who receive presents. On many occasions, we could well 
 have dispensed with the ceremony; and our talents were often 
 exercised in contriving means of evasion or escape. On meet- 
 ing after a short absence, and on taking leave, the Icelanders 
 take each other by the right hand, remove their hats Mith the 
 left, and, stroking back their long hair, kiss each other with 
 much apparent satisfaction. 
 
 Our reception at Vidoe was as cordial as on our former 
 visit, and the entertainment more agreeable, as the ceremony 
 of the cup was not repeated, and we were not obliged to over- 
 eat ourselves. The old gentleman told us of his having been 
 robbed by the people of a ship that had come to Iceland two 
 or three years before ; and we were afterwards informed, that 
 this outrage had been committed by direction of Baron 
 Hompesch, who, after his Avanton attack on the Faro islands, 
 sent a vessel to plunder Iceland. It must be mentioned, 
 however, that Mr Stephenson obtained the restitution of
 
 96; TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cu. J. Modes ofirairlling. 
 
 part of his property by an application to the commander of 
 the ship. 
 
 We now became very anxious to commence our travels, 
 though all our Icelandic friends endeavoured to dissxiade us 
 from undertaking any expedition so early in the season. The 
 horses were still very lean, and the grass had hardly begun to 
 grow. Observing, however, that there was no part of the 
 Guldbringe Syssel * covered with snow, we resolved to travel 
 through it, and to visit the sulphur mountains without delay. 
 Having mentioned the Guldbringe Syssel, it may be proper to 
 take notice here, that Iceland is divided into four large de- 
 partments called Amts ; the northern, southern, eastern, and 
 western Amts. These are subdivided into districts called 
 Syssels, and the Syssels into parishes. The number and names 
 of the districts will be found in the Statistical Tables, in an- 
 other part of the work. Not being able to procure riding 
 horses, we determined to walk ; and this resolution seemed 
 to astonish the people not a little, as the meanest person in 
 Iceland never tiavels on foot. A young man who had been 
 educated as a priest, offered his service; he spoke Latin. to- 
 lerably well ; and as he seemed active, and disposed to be 
 useful to us, a bargain was soon made with him. Early in the 
 morning of the 20th, the preparations for our departure com- 
 menced; but the motions of the Icelanders were so extremely 
 slow, and they had so many discussions about distributing the 
 loads on the horses which we had procured for carrying our 
 baggage, that it was past two o'clock in the afternoon before , 
 all was ready. The packsaddles consist of square pieces of 
 light spongy turf, cut from the bogs. These are tied on with 
 
 • Gold-hringing district, a name probably derived from the principal fishing 
 stations being situate on its coasts.
 
 Cv.i. Modes of traielling.'] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 97 
 
 a rope ; a piece of wood made to fit the horse's back, with a 
 peg projecting from each side, is fastened over the turf, and 
 on these pegs the baggage is hung by means of cords. The 
 Icelanders pretend to be very nice in bahmcing the loads; but 
 we do not recollect ever having travelled two miles, Avithout 
 stopping ten times to rectify the baggage. When all the horses 
 are loaded, they are fastened to each other, head to tail. A 
 cord is tied round the under jaw of the second horse, and the 
 other end of it is joined to the tail of the first ; and thus we 
 have seen thirty or forty marching through the country. The 
 Iceland horses, though very hardy, and patient of fatigue, 
 are easily startled. When any one horse in a string is alarm- 
 ed, it often happens that the cords break, and the whole 
 cavalcade is put into confusion. The poor animals, however, 
 never fail to stop where they can get any thing to eat ; and 
 at all times they are easily caught. A well-broke riding horse 
 will wait on the spot where his master leaves him, for any 
 length of time. If any grass is near him, he may feed ; but, 
 if there is none, he will stand perfectly still for hovirs. Many 
 horses will not even touch grass when under their feet. Every 
 Icelander, of whatever rank, can shoe a horse. The shoes 
 are plain ; and the nails, which are very large, are driven 
 firmly through the hoof, and carefully doubled over ; and in 
 this simple state the shoes remain firm till completely worn, 
 or accidentally broken. Travellers always carry a supply of 
 shoes and nails, when going long journeys ; but, for a short 
 journey, it is customary to put shoes only on the fore feet of 
 the horses. When iron is scarce, the horns of sheep are 
 made use of for horse shoes. 
 
 It often happens, when horses are heavily laden, especially 
 when they are in low condition, that their backs are galled. 
 By way of preventing this accident, or curing any tumour or 
 
 N
 
 98 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cir. i. Lava. Havnefiord. 
 
 ruffling of the skin, the Icehmders insert one or more setons 
 of horse hair into the breasts of the animals. This cruel prac- 
 tice, instead of alleviating the pain which the horses suffer 
 from their burdens, only serves to add to their torments ; and 
 the artificial sores thus produced, soon become very disgust- 
 ing. 
 
 We left Reikiavik with the intention of stopping at Havne- 
 fiord, about six miles distant. The day was fine, but we saw 
 snow showers falling on the mountains towards which we were 
 travelling, and expected to meet them. We passed through 
 a bare dismal looking country, over some low hills ; till, not 
 far from Havnefiord, we entered a rough path, and got upon 
 a tract which bore dreadful marks of fire. As we approach- 
 ed this scene of desolation, snow began to fall so thickly, that 
 we could not see more than fifty yards distance ; and this ad- 
 ded not a little to the awful imj^ressions which the first sight 
 of a stream of lava made upon us. The melted masses had 
 been heaved up iii every direction, and had assumed all sorts 
 of fantastic forms ; on every side chasms and caverns present- 
 ed themselves. As we advanced the scene assumed a more 
 terrific aspect ; and when we least expected it, we descried 
 Ha^•nefio^d situate directly under one of the most rugged 
 parts of the lava ; and so placed, that the houses obtained the 
 most complete shelter from masses of matter, that had formerly 
 carried destruction in their course. 
 
 There are only two merchants' houses here, and a few 
 store houses, all constructed of wood, and placed close to the 
 sea, which here forms a small but very snug bay, in which 
 there is good anchorage. There is a dry harboiu', into which 
 a sloop of forty or fifty tons may be brought for repair. The 
 wooden buildings, the cottages scattered among the lava, the 
 sea, and the distant country, form altogether a singular scene.
 
 Ca. I. School at Bessestad.] TRAVELS IN ICELAXU. 99 
 
 The view of this place was taken at a little distance from the 
 path. It is extremely difficult to express the appearance of a 
 rough stream of lava by the pencil ; and the representation 
 given convej's but a faint idea of its terrific appearance. 
 
 We stopped at the house of Mr Sivertson, who had gone 
 to England with Count Trampe, and had not yet returned. 
 His family received us in the kindest manner, and every civilit}^ 
 that could be shewn, was bestowed upon us by his son and 
 daughter. The house is one of the cleanest and most com- 
 fortable that we saw in Iceland. Here we endeavoured to 
 sleep inider Eider-down for the first time. To a stranger, 
 crawling under a huge feather bed seems rather alarming. 
 But though very bulky, the down of the Eider dvick is very 
 light ; and a bed which swells to the thickness of two or three 
 feet, weighs no more than four or five pounds. At first, the 
 sensations produced by this light covering were very agree- 
 able ; but the down being one of the very worst conductors 
 of heat, the accumulation soon became oppressive ; and at 
 length we were under the necessity of getting rid of the upper 
 bed, to escape the proofs of the good qualities of Eider-down, 
 nvhich we now experienced to an intolerable degree. 
 
 On the 21st we went to visit the school at Bessestad, the 
 only one now in Iceland. We had been invited by the bishop 
 to be present at the examination, which was to take place 
 previous to the boys dispersing to their respective homes for 
 the summer. On our way we visited Mr Magnuson, the minis- 
 ter of a place called Garde. This gentleman is styled Provost 
 of the Guldbringe Syssel, and superintends all the ecclesiasti- 
 cal concerns of that district. It is to be regretted, that the 
 poverty of the clergy in Iceland has never been taken into 
 consideration by the Danish government. Their influence 
 over the people, by whom they are highly respected, would,
 
 100 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ca. i. School at Besscstad. 
 
 we might suppose, be a sufficient reason for not leaving them 
 to subsist ou miserable pittances, hardly sufficient to keep 
 them from starving. Knowing his poverty, we were not sur- 
 prised that this dignitary of the church exhibited in his person 
 and habiliments, a figure, the description of which we shall 
 spare our readers, that they may not partake the pain inspired 
 by the most squalid indigence in a clerical garb. This gen- 
 tleman, however, has a considerable collection of books, 
 among which we observed German translations of some of 
 the works of Pope, and Young's Night Thoughts. There were 
 a number of volumes written in Latin, chiefly on theological 
 subjects. We were obliged to leave Mr Magniison sooner 
 than we wished, because the hour of commencing the exami- 
 nation at Bessestad was already past ; but we promised to 
 remain with him longer on our return. 
 
 The following is the invitation we received, and the order 
 in which the examination was to take place. The first will 
 serve as a specimen of the familiar style in writing Latin ; 
 and the other Avill shew what are the principal branches of 
 education at the school. 
 
 ' Hie tibi, vir nobilissime ! exhibeo exscriptum invitatio- 
 ' nis publicae lectoris nostri ad examen, quod in schola nos- 
 
 * tra (quaj nunc unica in Islandia est) sequenti hebdomade 
 ' habendum est. Si tibi, tuisque, vel unica hora a propriis 
 ' negotiis vacaverit, summo nobis honori ducemus, si nos tua 
 ' et illorum praesentie dignari velis. 
 
 ' Tuffi singularis humanitatis, 
 ' Observantissimus ciiltor, 
 
 ' Geirus Vidaltnus. 
 
 * 17. Mail, 1810.*
 
 Ca. I. School at Bessestad.} TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 101 
 
 Ad 
 
 Examen Publicum 
 
 Alumnorum Scholae Bessestadensis, 
 
 Audiendum d. 21, et seq. Mali 1810, 
 
 ita ordinatum : 
 
 Die Limae, hora antemer. . . 8 — 12. 11 Class, in auth. Lat. 
 
 interpretandis. 
 li, pomerid .... 2 — 6. 11 et 1 CI. in Stylo 
 
 Latino. 
 Die Martis,. h. antemer .... 8 — 10. 11 Class, in Theologi- 
 
 cis, secundum Nie- 
 meirum. 
 10—12. 1 CI. in autli. Latin, 
 interpretandis. 
 h. pomerid .... 2 — 4. 11 et 1 CI. in Lingua 
 
 Danica. 
 4 — 6. 11 et 1 CI. in Stylo 
 Danico. 
 Die Merciirii, h. antemer. . . .8 — 10. 11 CI. in auth. Grsecis 
 
 interpretandis. 
 17 — 12. 1 CI. in auth. Graecis 
 interpretandis. 
 h. pomerid . . . 2 — 3. 11 et 1 CI. in Decla- 
 
 matione. 
 3—6. 11 et 1 CI. in Stylo 
 Islandico. 
 Die Jovis, h. antemer . . . 8 — 10. 11 CI. in Novi Faed. 
 
 Exegesi. 
 10—12. 11 CI. in AnalysiHe- 
 braica.
 
 102 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ca. i. Churth of Bessestad. 
 
 h. pomerid . . . 2 — 4. 1 CI. in reliq. dogma- 
 
 tica juxta Niem. 
 4 — 6. 11 et 1 CI. inArithme- 
 tica. 
 Die Veneris, h. antemer . . 8 — 12. 11 etl. CI. in Historia, 
 
 et Geographia. 
 Omnes rei scholasticae patronos, fautores, et amicos, qua 
 par est observantia, invitanius. 
 
 Steingrimus Jon^us, Lectoi^ Tlieologice. 
 
 Before going to the schoolhonse we called at the house of 
 the head master, Mr Steingrim Jonson, who received us with 
 great kindness. His countenance displayed a degree of intelli- 
 gence not common in the phj'siognomies of Icelanders ; and it 
 was not long before the first impressions we received were am- 
 ply confirmed. We have often regretted that we had but little 
 of this gentleman's company. His learning is \nitinctured by 
 pedantry ; and his communicative disposition renders him a 
 most agreeable companion. His room was Avell furnished 
 with books ; and the library he possesses as Lector Theologiae 
 of the school, is the best collection of theological works in 
 the island. Mr Jonson married the widow of the late learn- 
 ed and worthy Bishop Finsson. The lady politely brought us 
 coffee and milk, and after this refreshment we went to exa- 
 mine the church. It is a biiilding of some size, roofed with 
 tiles, and is in much better repair than the church at Reikia- 
 vik. At the door is a grave-stone, with the effigy of Paulus 
 Stigotus, a governor of the island, who died in the year 1566, 
 carved upon it. He is represented in armour, leaning on a 
 two-handed sword. In a vault opposite to the door we saw 
 two large coffins, containing the bodies of two ladies, mother 
 and daughter. The date of the inscription was 1/88. They
 
 Cb. I. ScJiool at Bcssestad.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 103 
 
 were wrapped in white sarsnet, and enveloped in a quantity 
 of vegetable matter, resembling hop flowers. The bodies had 
 the appearance of mummies, the flesh being completely dry 
 and black. Above the altar is an indiff'erent painting of the 
 Last Supper, and representations of some saints. On each side 
 is an inscription to the memory of a young man who died in 
 the year 1707- One of them is an acrostic. On the altar 
 were a gilt chalice, wafer box, and two small brass candle- 
 sticks ; and in a press behind, two very large ones. The space 
 where the altar is placed, is separated from that part of the 
 church, in which are the pe«s. At the entrance to these, 
 there is a stone inscribed to the father and mother-in-law of 
 our friend at Vidoe. The entrance is formed by two painted 
 pillars, surmounted by two large gilded balls, and between 
 them is an arch supporting the crown and cypher of Christian 
 the Seventh. The pidpit is gaudily ornamented, and has 
 figures of the evangelists painted on the pannels, and inscrip- 
 tions above and below them ; a dove is represented on the 
 sound-board. Opposite to the pulpit is an elevated seat, 
 closed all round with glazed windows, in wliich the governor 
 formerly sat. 
 
 Having satisfied our curiosity in the church, we proceeded 
 to the school- house, and were received by the bishop in his 
 fidl dress. His under robe was of black velvet ; over which 
 Avas a silk one bordered with velvet ; the cuffs were of white 
 cambric. Round his neck he wore a white ruff. In this dress 
 our good friend had a most venerable and dignified appear- 
 ance. 
 
 The school rooms are lofty, but rather confined and dirty. 
 Above these are barrack- rooms for the scholars and attend- 
 ants, all in a very uncleanly condition. The lector lamented 
 this, and the bishop pronounced with emphasis, ' Bella, hor-
 
 104 TRAVELS IN ICEI-AND. [C».x. 3fr Einerson. 
 
 ' lida bellal' which at once explained the evident state of 
 decay into which this only remaining seminary of learning 
 seemed to be falling. There is a considerable collection of 
 books, a few of them cnrious and rare ; but they are piled 
 confusedly together in a niiserable garret, and covered with 
 dust and cobwebs. An account of the institution and ma- 
 nagement of this school will be given in the chapter on the 
 present state of Icelandic literature. 
 
 Bessestad was formerly the abode of the governors of Ice- 
 land, and was defended by several small batteries, the remains 
 of which we saw. During the usurpation of Jorgensen in 
 1809, some guns were removed from the sand, near one of 
 the batteries, to Reikiavik, where they were planted so as to 
 command the harbour. The fort has been demolished, and 
 the guns are now lying on the beach. 
 
 From Bessestad we went to visit Mr Einerson, a member 
 of the court of justice, with the title of assessor, who received 
 us with great cordiality. While drinking coffee, we received 
 much useful information from this gentleman. He seems to 
 have set about improving his farm in earnest, and has inclosed 
 a small space for a garden ; but he complained much of the 
 want of seeds. He is levelling the ground, and inclosing it with 
 the stones He takes up in that operation. If Mr Einerson 
 perseveres, there is no doubt of his rendering his farm much 
 more productive in grass ; and he may even attempt to cul- 
 tivate rye, barley, and potatoes, with a reasonable hope of 
 success. Had we met with Mr Einerson any where else, we 
 should have concluded from his complexion, that he had spent 
 the former period of his life in some of the tropical regions. 
 As well as we can recollect, we did not meet with any other 
 Icelander, who had black hair ; certainly none that had hair 
 curled somewhat like that of a negro. Mr Einerson may pos-
 
 Ch. I. Leave Havnefiord.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 105 
 
 sibly be descended from a Lapland family. There is notlunrt- 
 in the general appearance of the natives of Iceland, that can 
 discriminate them in the natural history of Man. If there is 
 any circumstance which can be deemed peculiar, it seems to 
 be, that the spine is generally long in proportion to the limbs. 
 Were those to be proportioned to the length of the bodv, 
 numbers of the Icelanders would become giants. At first this 
 pecuharity appeared to be a deception occasioned by dress ; 
 but though it does not hold universally, it occurred so often, 
 that we are inclined to state it as characteristic. 
 
 Having returned to Mr Magnuson's, we were treated with 
 a dram and with coffee. He told us, that by going a few miles 
 out of the direct road to Krisuvik, we might see a curious 
 cave ; and his description of it determined us to visit it. 
 
 On the 22d we left the hospitable house of Mr Sivertson. 
 Having passed a low ridge of hills opposite to Havnefiord, we 
 descended into a valley filled with lava, which is connected 
 with that about Havnefiord, and has evidently proceeded from 
 the same sovirce. Along the edge of this we travelled for 
 about two miles, and then began to ascend a ridge covered 
 with light slags. We observed that the lava had run down 
 on the east side of the valley, and in some places it appeared 
 as if it had ascended. The ascending of lava is a well known 
 fact, though in examining a cold mass, this circumstance 
 strikes an inexperienced observer as something wonderful ; 
 more so than the ' random ruin' it so awfully displays. It is 
 caused by the formation of a crust on the cooling of the sur- 
 face, and a case or tube being thus produced, the lava rises 
 in the same manner as water in a pipe. Beyond this spot 
 we saw the most dreadful effects of subterraneous heat all 
 around us ; and as far as the eye could reach over a wide ex- 
 tended plain, nothing appeared to relieve it from the black 
 
 o
 
 lOd TKAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cn. i. Face of the country. 
 
 rugged lava, which had destroyed the whole of the district. 
 The surface was swelled into knobs from a few feet in diame- 
 ter to forty or fifty, many of which had burst, and disclosed 
 caverns lined with melted matter in the form of stalactites. 
 The day being very warm we relieved our thirst, which began 
 to be troublesome, by means of snow and icicles which we 
 found in these cavities. We met with some deep clefts ; and 
 soon afterwards reached a green spot on the bank of the river 
 Kald-aa,* or the cold river. Here we resolved to pitch our 
 tent, being informed that there was no other place on the road 
 to Krisuvik where the horses could pick up any food. Having 
 unloaded the horses, we proceeded towards the cave described 
 by Mr Magnuson, which lay about two miles to the eastward. 
 It was nothing more than an extensive hollow formed by 
 one of those blisters or bubbles, hundreds of which we had 
 Avalked over. Many of these are of considerable depth, and 
 great length. The bottom of this was covered with ice, and 
 uumerovis icicles hung from the roof. Having lighted our 
 lamps, Ave went to the end of the cave, the distance of which 
 from the entrance we foimd to be 55 yards, the height not 
 being in general more than seven or eight feet. The inside 
 ^\ as lined with melted matter, disposed in various singular 
 forms. 
 
 On leaving the cave, we took a circviit in order to exa- 
 mine some of the hills in the neighbomhood. In our pro- 
 gress we saw the source of the river Kald-aa, which is a large 
 bason at the bottom of a hollow, into which numerous springs 
 empty themselves, and at once form a considerable stream. 
 After running about two miles, the water entirely disappears 
 among the lava, and is lost. We now proceeded towards the 
 
 * The double a, or a, is pronounced like ow in how.
 
 Cu. I. HelgafcU.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND, ]07 
 
 hill called Helgafell, and passed over a lava, wliich from 
 the comparative smoothness of its surface, and the evident 
 marks of fusion which it bore, struck us as beina: somethins 
 luicommon. Having traversed the plain formed of this lava, 
 we met with a number of little craters, which, by giving vent 
 to the vapours produced by the heat, may have prevented the 
 usual heavings and burstings of the surface. One of these 
 craters presented a very singular spectacle. The melted mat- 
 ter had formed a sort of dome, about twenty-five feet in dia- 
 meter, and open at one side. Within, it was lined with an 
 assemblage of stalactitical forms, hanging m a very curious 
 and fantastic manner. After visiting several of these craters, 
 we returned to the place where we had left the baggage. By 
 means of the apparatus called a conjurer, we cooked a tolera- 
 ble mess of portable soup and fish ; which with biscuit, cheese, 
 and pure water, composed a very comfortable dinner, after 
 which we chose the most convenient spot for our tent, and 
 settled ourselves for the night. It would be difficult to ima- 
 gine a country more wild and dreary than that which now 
 surrounded us. The melancholy whistling of a few solitary 
 plovers, and our horses moving slowly with their fettered 
 limbs in search of the withered herbage, contributed to the 
 horror of the scene. The night became so cold that we ' 
 enjoyed but little sleep. Towards morning it began to rain, 
 the wind having gone round to the east ; but before we liad 
 accomplished three miles of our day's journe}', the clouds 
 broke, and the rest of the day was fine. 
 
 We crept along the foot of the hills by the edge of the lava 
 for some miles, and then began to ascend near several craters, 
 larger than any we had yet seen. While examining some 
 fissures, we found the remains of a woman who had been lost 
 about a year before, and of whom there had hitherto been no
 
 108 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. t. Face of the country. 
 
 tidings. Her clothes and bones were lying scattered about ; 
 the bones of one leg remained in the stocking. It is proba- 
 ble that she had missed the path during a thick shower of 
 snow, and had fallen over the precipice, where her body was 
 torn to pieces by eagles and foxes. It is astonishing how the 
 Icelanders find their way during winter across these trackless 
 deserts. Even with the assistance of marks, which are set up 
 here and there, unless the snow be perfectly firm, there is 
 danger at every step of being swallowed up in a fissure. 
 Accidents of this kind, however, very rarely happen. 
 
 We all now became exceedingly thirsty ; and our guide 
 having informed us that we should not get any water for 
 some hours, we were very uneasy. Scrambling among lava 
 is very hard exercise ; and this, with the uniformity of the 
 prospect, presenting nothing but an extensive country literally 
 burnt up, occasioned our feeling thirst more painfully than 
 usual. We kept up our spirits as well as we could ; and w hile 
 meditating how to get the horses over a great heap of slags 
 at the foot of a crater, we descried a small wreath of snow on 
 the side of a hill about half a mile distant. We instantly left 
 our guide and horses to manage matters as they could ; and 
 rushing over slags, lava, and mud, fell upon the snow with 
 inconceivable eagerness. Our enjoyment was excessive ; and 
 the very recollection of it is so gratifying, that we must be 
 excused for recording a circumstance of so little importance. 
 
 We now proceeded through this dismal country, without 
 any gratification but that occasionally afforded by views of 
 the romantic summits of the mountains. The relief expe- 
 rienced from a further supply of snow, raised our spirits and 
 strength so much, that we had got a considerable way before 
 our guide, when he came hallooing after us, and making signs 
 for us to return. Having kept close to the foot of the moun-
 
 Ch. I. Mountain pass.] TRAVELS IN ICELAJJD. lOQ 
 
 tain, and being persuaded that nothing worthy of observation 
 had escaped our notice, we were at a loss to conceive the 
 occasion of this alarm, and feared some disaster among the 
 horses. We were somewhat surprised on being told that we 
 had passed the road. Already accustomed to the risk of miss- 
 ing our way, we had flattered ourselves with being sufficiently 
 cautious ; and when we came to the place where the horses 
 had halted, we could not see any other track than the one 
 we had followed. The guide pointed to the side of the moun- 
 tain ; but no outlet was visible. The steepness of the mountain 
 we might overcome ; but how the horses loaded with baggage 
 could gain the summit, was to us utterly inconceivable. After 
 ascending a little way by a winding path, we saw a large hol- 
 low, the sides of which were very steep, and composed of loose 
 sand and large stones which required very little force to be 
 rolled from their places. Along one side of this hollow we 
 ascended ; and the poor horses, with a degree of steadiness 
 and perseverance truly astonishing, accomplished their ardu- 
 ous task. The scene now before us was exceedingly dismal. 
 The surface was covered with black cinders ; and the various 
 hollows enclosed by high clitfs and rugged peaks, destitute of 
 every sign of vegetation, and rendered more gloomy by float- 
 ing mist, and a perfect stillness, contributed to excite strong 
 feelings of horror. After a pause, we proceeded, and our 
 eyes were soon gratified by a small lake coming into view. 
 From the general appearance of the whole of this mountain, 
 and the situation of this lake, it is more than probable that 
 the hollow now filled with water had been formerly a crater 
 from which the profusion of burnt matter which we had seen 
 had been thrown. The horses made several attempts to reach 4l 
 the water, but in vain : the clay banks sunk, under them, and 
 
 4r
 
 110 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cu. I. Boiling 7nucl. 
 
 the poor animals thus cruelly tantalised, were obliged to pro- 
 ceed on their journey. 
 
 From this place we saw vapour arising behind a hill at a 
 short distance. We approached, and beheld it ascending with 
 impetuosity from a circular bason, in a hollow near the sum- 
 mit of the mountain. Having advanced to the spot, we were 
 surprised to see no water running from what was supposed to 
 be a boiling spring. On advancing nearer we heard loud 
 splashing, and going close to the bason, which was twelve 
 feet in diameter, we perceived it to be full of thick black mud, 
 in a state of very violent ebullition. This singular phenome- 
 non seemed to be occasioned by steam escaping from some 
 deep seated reservoir of boiling water, and suspending the 
 mud, which was probably produced by the action of the steam, 
 in softening the matter through which it forced its way. We 
 discovered a number of little fissures in the sand round about, 
 from which steam rushed with a hissing noise. Though the 
 splashing of the mud was incessant and violent, we did not 
 observe any of it to escape from the boundary it had formed 
 for itself. 
 
 Having satisfied our curiosity here, we descended towards 
 the valley of Krisuvik, and soon saw so large a quantity of 
 vapour below, as effaced the wonder excited by the extraor- 
 dinary appearance we had left. This proceeded from various 
 cavities, from banks of clay and sulphur, and chinks in the 
 rock. Knowing, however, that we had more curious things 
 of the same kind to examine the next day, we did not spend 
 much time here, but proceeded through a long valley, form- 
 ing one continued swamp, which forced us frequently to take 
 very circuitous tracks to advance. In going along we had a 
 striking view of the Sulphur Mountains, to visit which was
 
 Ca.i. Krisuvik.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. Ill 
 
 the object of our coming to this part of the country. There 
 is a large lake in this district called the Kleisar Vatn, a part of 
 which we saw when descending from the mountains. There 
 are two small ones in the valley, one of which derives its name, 
 Groenvatn, from the green colour of the water, which resem- 
 bles that of the sea. The colour is owing to that of the bot- 
 tom, which seems to be covered with clay, such as is met with 
 in abundance on the mountains. The water has no peculiar 
 taste or smell. jj- 
 
 We may here remark, that the want of curiosity, and the ^ ' 
 
 want of observation, so conspicuous in the people of Iceland, 
 often occasioned us much loss of time. We had to explore 
 a country already, one would think, well enough known to 
 the inhabitants to enable them to give some general direc- 
 tions concerning our journey through it. We now reached 
 Krisuvik after two days of fatigue, which might have been 
 saved had we been told, that by taking the direct road, and 
 marching eight hours, we should see just as much, as by mak- 
 ing a jo\irney that lasted two days. We had no sooner pitch- 
 ed our tent, than our guide signified his intention of return- 
 ing to Garde immediately ; and although it was past ten 
 o'clock, he could not be induced to remain ; and departed, 
 preferring any fatigue to the risk of losing a share in the next 
 day's fishing. 
 
 At Krisuvik there is a farm-house with a few cottages. It 
 was proposed at first that the party should occupy the church; 
 but, on examining it, we preferred our tent. The length of the 
 church, which is constructed of wood, is 18 feet, the breadth 
 8 feet, and the height, from the floor to the joist, 5 feet 8 
 inches. Near the door, in the inside, is suspended a bell, 
 large enough to make an intolerable noise in so small an 
 apartment. About ten feet from the door is the division be-
 
 ■u 
 
 112 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. I. Church at Krisuvik. 
 
 tween the rest of the church and the altar. The space be- 
 tween this and the door was occupied by kirge chests, filled 
 with the goods and chattels of the farmer, many of which 
 were also piled under the roof. The pulpit, raised about two 
 feet, stood in a corner on one side of the division ; audit was 
 evident that, if the priest were a man of ordinary size, his 
 audience would be totally eclipsed from his view, and that he 
 would have to address himself to lumber and stock fish in the 
 loft. There were seats before the pulpit that, with a little 
 squeezing, might be capable of accommodating half a dozen 
 persons. Beyond the pulpit was a space of about eight feet 
 square, in which the altar was placed, between two small 
 windows. The altar was merely a wooden press or cup- 
 board, seemingly destined to serve many unhallowed pur- 
 poses, as it contained various household utensils. The farmer 
 and his wife cleared away several articles on the top, and, 
 placing some milk on the altar, invited us to eat. There was 
 nothing so sacred in the appearance of this church, as to 
 make us hesitate to use the altar as our dining table. The 
 open space round it being rather small, the floor perfectly 
 rotten, and very damp, we could not think of sleeping in the 
 church ; and as to the house, exposure to frost and snow 
 would have been preferable to spending a night in such a 
 place. Varying a little in size, all the houses of the Ice- 
 landers are constructed on nearly the same plan. An outer 
 w^all of turf, about four feet and a half high, often six feet 
 thick, encloses all the apartments. On one side, generally 
 that facing the south, are doors, for the most part painted 
 red, surmounted with vanes. These are the entrances to the 
 dwelling-house, the smithy, dairy, cow-house, &c. From the 
 door of the house is a long, narrow, dark, and damp passage, 
 into which, on each side, the different apartments open. Be-
 
 Cti. I. Icelandic houses.] THAVELS IN ICELAND. 113 
 
 tween each of these is a thick partition of turf, and every one 
 has a separate roof, through which hght is achnitted by bits of 
 glass or skin, four or five inches in diameter. The principal 
 rooms of the better sort of houses have windows in front, 
 consisting of from one to four panes of glass. The thick turf 
 walls, the earthen floors kept continually damp and filth}', the 
 personal luicleanliness of the inhabitants, all unite in causing 
 a smell insupportable to a stranger. No article of furniture 
 seems to have been cleaned since the day it was first used ; and 
 all is in disorder. The beds look like receptacles for dirty 
 rags ; and when wooden dishes, spinning-wheels, and other 
 articles, are not seen upon them, these are confusedly piled 
 up at one end of the room. There is no mode of ventilat- 
 ing any part of the house ; and as twenty people sometimes 
 eat and sleep in the same apartment, very pungent vapours 
 are added, in no small quantity, to the plentiful effluvia pro- 
 ceeding from fish, bags of oil, skins, &c. A farm-house looks 
 more like a village than a single habitation ; and sometimes 
 several families live enclosed within the same mass of turf. 
 The cottages of the lowest order of people are wretched 
 hovels ; so very wretched, that it is wonderful how any thing 
 in the human form can breathe in them. 
 
 The weather being warm and calm, we slept very comfort- 
 ably in our tent, which was pitched near the banks of a small 
 stream, at a short distance from the church. The 2oth was a 
 delightful day ; and, having taken an early breakfast, we set 
 out towards the Sulphur Mo\mtain, which is about three miles 
 distant from Krisuvik. At the foot of the mountain was a 
 small bank composed chiefly of w hite clay and some sulphiu', 
 from all parts of which steam issued. Ascending it, we got 
 upon a ridge innnediately above a deep hollow, from which a 
 profusion of vapour arose, and heard a confused noise of 
 
 p
 
 114 ' TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cii.x. Sulphur mountains. 
 
 boiling and splashing, joined to the roaring of steam escap- 
 ing from narrow crevices in the rock. This hollow, together 
 with the whole side of the mountain opposite, as far up as 
 we could see, was covered with sulphur and clay, chieily of 
 a white or yellowish colour. Walking over this soft and steam- 
 ing surface we found to be very hazardous ; and we were fre- 
 quently very uneasy when the vapour concealed us from each 
 other. The day, however, being dry and warm, the surface 
 was not so slippery as to occasion much risk of our falling. 
 The chance of the crust of sulphur breaking, or the clay 
 sinking with us, was great ; and we were several times in dan- 
 ger of being much scalded. Mr Bright ran at one time a 
 great hazard, and suffered considerable pain from accidental- 
 ly plunging one of his legs into the hot clay. From what- 
 ever spot the sulphur is removed, steam instantly escapes ; 
 and, in many places, the sulphur was so hot that we could 
 scarcely handle it. From the smell, we perceived that the 
 steam was mixed with a small quantity of svdphurated hydro- 
 gen gas. When the thermometer was sunk a few inches into 
 the clay, it rose generally to within a few degrees of the boil- 
 ing point. By stepping cautiously, and avoiding every little 
 hole from which steam issued, we soon discovered how far we 
 might venture. Our good fortvme, however, ought not to tempt 
 any person to examine this wonderful place, without being 
 provided with two boards, with which every part of the banks 
 njay be traversed in perfect safety. At the bottom of this 
 hollow we found a cauldron of boiling mud, aboxit fifteen 
 feet in diameter, similar to that on the top of the mountain, 
 which we had seen the evening before ; but this boiled with 
 much more vehemence. We went within a few yards of it, 
 the wind happening to be remarkably favourable for viewing 
 every part of this singular scene. The mud was in constant
 
 Cb.\. Sulphur mountains.] TRA^'ELS IN ICELAND. 115 
 
 agitation, and often thrown trp to the height of six or eight 
 feet. Near this spot was an irregular space filled with water 
 boiling briskly. At the foot of the hill, in a hollow formed 
 by a bank of clay and sulphur, steam iiished with great force 
 and noise from among the loose fragments of rock. 
 
 Further up the mountain, we met with a spring of cold 
 ■water, a circumstance Hi tie expected in a place like this. 
 Ascending still higher, we came to a ridge composed entire- 
 ly of sulphur and clay, joining two summits of the moun- 
 tain. Here we found a much greater quantity of sulphur 
 than on any other part of the surface we had gone over. 
 It formed a smooth crust from a quarter of an inch to se- 
 veral inches in thickness. The crust was beautifully crystal- 
 lized, and immediately beneath it we found a quantity of loose 
 granular sulphur, which appeared to be collecting and crys- 
 tallizing as it was sublimed along with the steam. Some- 
 times we met with clay of diiferent colours, white, red, 
 and blue, under the crvist ; but we could not examine this 
 place to any depth, as, the moment the crust was removed, 
 steam came forth, and proved extremely annoying. We found 
 several pieces of wood, which were probably the remains of 
 planks that had been formerly used in collecting the sulphur, 
 small crystals of which partially co^-ered them. There appears 
 to be a constant sublimation of this substance; and were arti- 
 ficial chambers constructed for the reception and condensa- 
 tion of the vapours, much of it might probably be collected. 
 As it is, there is a large quantity on the surface; and, by search- 
 ing, there is little doubt that great stores may be found. The 
 inconvenience proceeding from the steam issuing on every 
 side, and from the heat, is certainly considerable ; but, by 
 proper precavitions, neither would be felt so much as to ren- 
 der the collection of the sulphur a matter of any great diffi-
 
 116 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ca. i. Sulphur mountains. 
 
 culty. The chief obstacle to working these mines, is their 
 distance from a port whence the produce could be shipped. 
 But there are so many horses in the country, whose original 
 price is trifling, and whose maintenance during summer costs 
 nothing, that the conveyance of sulphur to Rcikiavik presents 
 no difficulties which might not probably be surmounted. 
 
 Below the ridge on the farther side of this great bed of 
 sulphur, we saw a great deal of vapour escaping with much 
 noise. We crossed to the side of the mountain opposite, and 
 found the surface sufficiently firm to admit of walking cau- 
 tiously upon it. We had now to walk towards the principal 
 spring, as it is called. This was a task of much apparent 
 danger, as the side of the mountain, for the extent of about 
 half a mile, is covered with loose clay, into which our feet 
 sunk at every step. In many places there was a thin crust, 
 below which the clay was wet, and extremely hot. Good 
 fortune attended us ; and, without any serious inconvenience, 
 we reached the object we had in view. A dense column of 
 steam, mixed with a little water, was forcing its way impetu- 
 ously through a crevice in the rock, at the head of a narrow 
 valley, or break in the mountain. The violence with which 
 it rushes out is so great, that the noise, thus occasioned, 
 may often be heard at the distance of several miles ; and, 
 during night, while lying in our tent at Krisuvik, we more 
 than once listened to it with mingled awe and astonishment. 
 Behind the column of va]iour was a dark coloured rock, 
 which gave it its full effect. 
 
 It is quite beyond our power to offer such a description of 
 this extraordinary place, as to convey adequate ideas of its 
 wonders or its terrors. The sensations of a person, even of 
 firm nerves, standing on a support which feebly sustains him, 
 over an abyss where, literally, fire and brimstone are in dread-
 
 Ca.i. Krisuvik.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 117 
 
 fill and incessant action ; having before his eyes tremendous 
 proofs of what is going on beneath him ; enveloped in thick 
 A'apours ; his ears stunned with thundering noises ; must be 
 experienced before they can be understood. 
 
 Earthquakes are said to occur frequently at Krisuvik, li- 
 mited, however, to a small district in their extent and effects. 
 It was remarked to us also, that they happen generally after 
 a continuance of wet weather ; but whether these statements 
 are accurate or not, we had no means of ascertaining. 
 
 On returning to our tent, we were agreeably saved the 
 trouble of cooking, by the farmer and his wife, who brought 
 in a large pewter dish full of boiled rice and milk, and some 
 slices of smoked mutton. The 26th was spent in drawing, and 
 examining the cliffs on the coast about four miles distant, 
 where we found some curious mineralogical appearances, 
 which will be afterwards described. While we were sitting at 
 dinner in our tent, a woman came from an adjoining cottage, 
 having a wooden vessel full of milk in one hand, and a snuff 
 box in the other. These she alternately held out to us. We 
 did not at first understand her gestures; but afterwards found 
 that she wished to barter milk for snuff. Before we left the 
 place, we gave her some tobacco and snuff, with which she 
 appeared to be highly gratified. 
 
 On the 27th, we set out for Grundevik, and walked about 
 fifteen miles through a perfect desert of lava, slags, and sand. 
 We saw hardly the slightest appearance of a vegetable, dead 
 or alive. The mountains were of the most dreary aspect : 
 nothing appeared to relieve the eye, or cheer the spirits, till 
 we descried some cottages on the coast, to which we made all 
 possible haste. Our eagerness to get out of this dismal coun- 
 try, made us walk so fast that our guides and horses were left 
 far behind. On coming towards the houses, the people, men.
 
 118 TRAA-ELS IN ICELAND. [Cn. I. Walk to Gru7idevik. 
 
 women, and children, came crowding out like ants from a dis- 
 turbed hillock, to gaze at us. We were the first strangers 
 that had ever been in that part of the island. On enquiry we 
 found that the place we had to go to, was yet some miles dis- 
 tant. We struck into a path, and at length came to a bay 
 which, from a chart we had with us, we knew to be that of 
 Grundevik. The cottages here were of mean appearance, and 
 Ave could not persuade ourselves that this was the place where 
 the person to whom we had an introduction dwelt. There 
 was one of the same name, however, and we produced our 
 passport, which was given to an old man who had thick grey 
 hair, and a bushy grey beard. He sat do\vn, and putting a 
 pair of spectacles on his nose, proceeded to read the paper 
 with all the gravity of a patriarch. This done, plenty of milk 
 was brought to us ; and we were informed that the Jon Jon- 
 son we wanted lived a mile or two farther on, which was by 
 no means very agreeable news. It had become cloudy, and 
 the wind was blowing strongly from the east. At last we 
 reached a part of the coast well studded with cottages. Heaps 
 of fish were every where piled up ; and though it was Sunday, 
 this seemed to be a place of considerable business, and to 
 contain a large population. Our surprise, on finding so dreary 
 a region so well inhabited, ceased when we were informed 
 that, at the commencement of every fishing season, numbers 
 of people came from different parts of the country to the fish- 
 ing stations, to provide fish for winter use. Cottages are set 
 apart for their accommodation, and we here saw a large build- 
 ing destined for this purpose, called the bud, or booth. 
 
 One of the chief cares of an Icelander is the laying in a 
 stock of provision for the winter season. Towards this object 
 almost his whole time and exertions are directed, and the sea 
 is his great and sure resource. About the beginning of
 
 Cm. I. Fisheri,.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 119 
 
 February, the people of the mterior, and even those inhabit- 
 ing the northern parts of the island, begin to move, and a 
 great part of the male population emigrates towards the west- 
 ern and south western coasts. The farmers send their ser- 
 vants, and frequently accompany them ; taking a small stock 
 of butter and smoked mutton, and sheep skin dresses. They 
 are sometimes distinguished from their servants by having a 
 small quantity of rye bread and a little brandy. Before com- 
 mencing his journey, an Icelander takes off his hat, places it 
 before his face, and repeats a prayer prescribed for such oc- 
 casions. He is welcomed at every cottage he stops at, and it 
 is seldom that any remuneration is required for his entertain- 
 ment. Many travel two hundred miles amidst snow and dark- 
 ness, to the place they chuse for their fishing station ; and if 
 they have not previously made some agreement with the pro- 
 jirietor of a boat, a bargain is soon entered into, the terms of 
 which have long been established by custom. By these, a 
 person coming from the interior, engages himself from the 
 12tli February to the 12th May, (the period varies a little) 
 to be ready to obey the call for fishing, and to assist in the 
 management of the boat. In return for his labour he receives 
 forty pounds of meal, (if any is to be got) and five gallons of 
 sour whey, besides a share of the fish that are taken. The 
 fish are divided into two shares more than the number of men 
 employed, and these belong to the owner of the boat, who 
 provides lines and hooks. AVhen he furnishes nets, which are 
 generally used during the early part of the season, he receives 
 one half of the fish caught. All the people engaged for one 
 boat generally live together in the same hut. The previous 
 arrangements being made, a long period of hardship and pri- 
 vation begins. In darkness, and subjected to intense cold, 
 these poor people seek from the ocean the means for subsist-
 
 120 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. i. GrundeviL 
 
 Hig their families during the following winter. As soon as 
 the boat is pushed from the shore, the man at the ijelm takes 
 off his hat and repeats a prayer for success, in which he is 
 joined by the crew. They generally remain at sea from eight 
 to twelve hours, during w'hich time thev taste nothint; but a 
 little sour whey, which is the only provision ever taken out 
 with them. The women assist in cleaning and splitting the 
 fish, after they have been brought to land. When the weather 
 is so stormy that the fishermen cannot venture to sea, they 
 frequently amuse themselves by wrestling, or playing at leap 
 frog, and other diversions. Their mode of wrestling is some- 
 v,hat peculiar. The two men who are to try their strength 
 and skill, lay hold of each other in the way they think best. 
 As soon as they have secured their grasp, each endeavours by 
 sudden jerks, or by lifting him from the ground, or by quick 
 turning, to throw his antagonist ; and the dexterity they dis- 
 play is often extraordinary. About the beginning of May, the 
 fishermen return home, leaving their fish, which are not by 
 this time perfectly dried, and which may amoimt to five or six 
 hundred for the share of each individual, to the care of some 
 person who resides on the spot. About the middle of June, 
 when the horses have got plump and strong, the farmers set 
 out on their second annual journey, carrying with them all 
 their marketable commodities, which they dispose of, and re- 
 turn home with their fish and such things as they may have 
 purchased. When the stock of fish is thought too small, they 
 barter avooI, tallow, or butter, for any additional quantity 
 they may require, and pay a small sum for the lodging and 
 food of their servants- 
 
 Jon Jonson was not at home when we arrived; but he soon 
 made his appearance, and pressed us to go into his house. It 
 16 somewhat remarkable that the Icelanders should display
 
 Ch. I. Grundevik.] TRAV^ELS IN ICELAND. 121 
 
 considerable industry, and even ingenuity, in making the out- 
 side of their houses neat, while they keep the inside in such a 
 state of dirtiness as to be truly disgusting. We complied 
 with Jonson's request, but were glad to seize the first oppor- 
 tunity of escaping into the open air. 
 
 Our baggage arrived just as it began to rain. Upwards of 
 thirty men, women, and children, gathered round, and dis- 
 turbed us greatly while pitching our tent, which, had it not 
 rained all night, would have exhibited lasting tokens of the 
 pawing of the crowd that assembled about it. Even after 
 we had gone to bed, they still continued at the door of the 
 tent, and we were not suffered to sleep quietly, till our tor- 
 mentors thought of rest themselves. With every desire to in- 
 dulge the curiosity of the natives, and a readiness to submit 
 to various privations and hardships, we could not endure to 
 be touched ourselves, or to have any thing belonging to us 
 handled by them. For this nicety we had another reason 
 besides dislike of filth : the cutaneous eruptions from which 
 very few Icelanders are free, more powerfully deterred us 
 from any near approach. Poor Jonson did all he could to, 
 serve us, and gave us what milk he covild spare, and some 
 fish. Milk is extremely scarce in this district, and it was lucky 
 that we had filled some bottles with it at Krisuvik. 
 
 We rose early in the morning, and found the rain falling 
 heavily, accompanied by a gale of wind from the eastward. 
 It was our original design to go to Cape Reikianes, where 
 there are some hot springs ; but having been informed that no 
 food could be got for our horses, we resolved to proceed to 
 Kieblivik, The country towards the Cape becomes low, and 
 is entirely of volcanic formation ; and this part of Iceland has 
 been rendered famous on account of a remarkable event in. 
 the history of volcanoes, which happened in the year IJSo, a; 
 
 Q
 
 122 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cii. i. KiebUvik. 
 
 description of which will be found in the chapter on Minera- 
 logy ; for which it is reserved on accoimt of the phenomena 
 being important in relation to the origin of pumice. 
 
 We now crossed the peninsula to the opposite shore, a dis- 
 tance of about fifteen miles, through a wild and dreary tract 
 of lava ; meeting with nothing remarkable except a consider- 
 able extent of gravel, which had every appearance of having 
 once formed the sea beach. We reached the northern side of 
 the Guldbringe Syssel at Niardivik, a large fishing village,, 
 much frequented by the inhabitants of the interior, who come 
 down to procure fish. There are not fewer than three hundred 
 boats, of different sizes, belonging to this place ; and it is said 
 that the population, during the fishing season, sometimes 
 amoimts to two thousand, while at other times it does not ex- 
 ceed two hundred. The fishing banks are at a very short dis- 
 tance from this place, and the fish are esteemed finer than on 
 any other part of the coast. 
 
 A mile or two westward is Kieblivik, situate at the head of 
 a small bay, in which there is very good anchorage. Two or 
 three merchants are established here, who reside in houses 
 constructed of wood, resembling those at Reikiavik. We were 
 very cordially received by Mr Jacobaius, a Dane, one of the 
 most respectable as well as wealthiest merchants in Iceland ; 
 who, with his lady, entertained us in the most hospitable man- 
 ner for three days, during which there was a violent gale of 
 wind and heavy rain. Soon after our arrival at his house, we 
 got excellent coffee, rye bread, and butter. Dinner was not 
 served up till nine o'clock ; but our patience was well rewarded 
 with soup, mutton, and pan -cakes ; and we were treated in the 
 same luxurious manner during the whole time of oiu' stay with 
 the family. It was a matter of much regret to us that, from^ 
 our ignorance of the Danish language, we had no direct
 
 Ch. 1. Walk to Havnefiord.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 123 
 
 means of conversation with Mr Jacobaeus, who appeared to 
 be a particularly intelligent man, had resided a long time in 
 Iceland, and was well informed in many circumstances re- 
 lating to the statistics and commerce of the country. It may 
 be mentioned as a singular fact, that Madame Jacobseus, 
 though she has now lived sixteen years in Iceland, has ac- 
 tually ne\ er been out of Kieblivik ; not even to visit the me- 
 tropolis of the island. 
 
 On the first of June we took leave of our hospitable friends. 
 As we had about thirty miles to walk, and could not foretel 
 what obstacles we were to meet with, we made a very hearty 
 breakfast. The day was cloudy, but favourable for walking. 
 After having advanced a mile or two, Mr Holland returned 
 for some things he had forgot. Mr Bright and I proceeded 
 slowly, and not seeing our friend coming up, we concluded 
 that he had resolved to remain with the baggage. After pass- 
 ing Niardivik, we were bewildered by the number of tracks, 
 and at length lost them altogether. As we knew the general 
 direction in which we were to go, we advanced, till after four 
 hours walking, we began to feel the painful sensation of thirst. 
 By good luck we found a puddle of rain water, near which 
 we sat down and refreshed ourselves. Soon afterwards, we 
 found a path, but lost it at the edge of a stream of lava. 
 After a fruitless search to recover it, or find the proper place 
 for ente- ing the lava, we left all to chance, and ventured 
 forwp d. We kept our course as well as we could, among 
 hep^js of loose slags, rugged lava, and deep fissures. The 
 u OSS which grew in some places on the lava, often gave way, 
 and we slid down among the slags. However trying this was 
 to the limbs, we felt no inconvenience till thirst once more 
 distressed us. The soles of Mr Bright's shoes having been 
 torn by the lava, he sat down to cut away the loose pieces
 
 124 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. i. Lam. 
 
 which were troublesome. On rising he neglected to take up 
 his great coat, which he had laid down beside him. Only a 
 iew minutes had elapsed before he discovered ihat he had left 
 it behind, and we had not yet proceeded two hundred yards 
 from the place. I ascended a peak of lava in order to direct 
 his course, but very soon lost sight of him. He was away 
 half an hour, and I remained all the while at my station ; and 
 was beginning to feel some uneasiness, when I heard him hal- 
 looing very near me. On my answering, he scrambled to the 
 top of a mass of lava, and was surprised to see me so near 
 him. So rugged was this lava, and so circuitous the way to 
 get through it, that he could not retrace a single step, and 
 failed in his attempts to recover his coat. 
 
 It had never occurred to us to enquire whether it would be 
 necessary to carry a little water with us ; and the people be- 
 ing accustomed to perform their journies on horseback with 
 fijreat speed, had no idea that we had any thing else to do 
 than to make the best of our way through the country. Our 
 examination of the rocks, and picking up plants, seemed to 
 afford much amusement to the natives. Delays occasioned 
 by such occupations often produced some inconveniences, and 
 thirst was by far the most considerable. At this time it was 
 almost intolerable ; but after some hours, the path appeared, 
 and in the hollows there was a sufficient quantity of rain water 
 to afford relief. 
 
 After a very fatiguing walk of twelve hours, we arrived at 
 Mr Sivertson's, and found Mr Holland already there. On com- 
 paring notes, it appeared that he had got into the same track 
 of lava in which Mr Bright had lost his coat, and that he must 
 often have been not more than fifty yards from us. This was 
 discovered by means of a few green knolls that had attracted 
 our attention. He fared worse upon the whole than we did,
 
 Ch. I. Havnefiord.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 125 
 
 for he had been alone during the whole day, his shoes were 
 completely destroyed, and his feet very much cut. In one 
 respect, however, he was more fortunate ; as he had found a 
 peasant's cottage on the edge of the lava, where, by the aid of 
 signs and a {ew Icelandic words, he had contrived to obtain 
 a draught of milk, and a direction for the remainder of the 
 way. 
 
 Every thing that could administer to our comfort was pro- 
 vided at Havnefiord. Our horses arrived four hours after us. 
 Next morning we felt completely refreshed, and able to un- 
 dergo a renewal of our fatigues. Though the appearance of 
 the lava about Havnefiord. is sufficiently terrific to a person 
 who has never before seen any, yet on our return to it, the 
 strong impression it had made was no longer felt. It is not 
 to be compared in any respect with the horrible scenes we 
 had passed through, nor were these equal to some lavas we 
 afterwards encoiintered. No portion of the inhabited part of 
 Iceland is so dreary and barren as that we had now travelled 
 over. The only inducement, (but in this country it is a pow- 
 erful one) for people to settle here, is the vast abundance of 
 fish obtained on every part of the coast. 
 
 On the third of June we returned to Reikiavik, after hav- 
 ing been absent nearly a fortnight upon our journey. We 
 were much gratified to observe the progress that vegetation 
 had made during our absence. We now saw some patches of 
 green scattered here and there ; and the vegetables in the lit- 
 tle gardens about the houses were beginning to appear. On 
 the 4th, we went on board the Elbe, from which a salute was 
 fired in honour of our Sovereign's birth-day, and the day was 
 spent in showing every mark of loyalty and affection for our 
 gracious king, that our means allowed. 
 
 On the 8th we went to Vidoe to see the Eider-ducks, whiclk
 
 126 TRAVELS IK ICELAND. [Ch. i. Eider-ducks. 
 
 had now assembled in great numbers to nestle : at all other 
 times of the year these birds are perfectly wild. They are pro- 
 tected by the laws ; a severe penalty being inflicted on any 
 person who kills one ; and, dnring the breeding season, the 
 fine is thirty dollars for each bird. As our boat approached 
 the shore, we passed through multitudes of these beautiful 
 fowls, which scarcely gave themselves the trouble to go out 
 of the way. Between the landing place and the old gover- 
 nor's house, the ground was strewed with them ; and it re- 
 quired some caution to avoid treading on the nests. The 
 drakes were walking about, uttering a soimd very like the 
 cooing of doves, and were even more familiar than the com- 
 mon domestic ducks. All round the house, on the garden 
 wall, on the roofs, and even in the inside of the houses, and 
 in the chapel, Avere numbers of ducks sitting on their nests. 
 Such as had not been long on the nest generally left it on be- 
 ing approached ; but those that had more than one or two 
 eggs sat perfectly quiet, suffering us to touch them, and some- 
 times making a gentle use of their bills to remove our hands. 
 When a drake happens to be near his mate, he is extremely 
 agitated when any one approaches her. He passes and re- 
 passes between her and the object of his suspicion, raising 
 his head and cooing. The nests were lined with down, which 
 the duck takes from her own breast ; and there is a siifficient 
 quantity laid round the nest, for the duck to cover up the 
 eggs when she goes to feed, which is generally during the 
 time of low water. The down, which is a valuable article of 
 commerce, is removed at two different times from the nest. 
 Sometimes the poor duck is compelled to provide a fourth 
 lining ; and, when her down is exhausted, the drake supplies 
 the deficiency. A certain number of eggs is also removed, 
 as they are esteemed a great delicacy. Our good friend at
 
 Ca. I. EtJer-ducks.} TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 127 
 
 Vidoe used to send us two hundred at a time. When boiled 
 hard they are tolerably good, but much inferior to the eggs 
 of common poultry. Swans eggs, of which we got a few, 
 are superior, and really excellent M'hen boiled hard. 
 
 When taken from the nest, the Eider-down is mixed with 
 feathers and straws. To separate them, and make the down 
 fit for market, is part of the employment of the women 
 during winter. As soon as the young birds leave the eggs, 
 the duck takes them on her back, and swims to a consider- 
 able distance from the shore. She then dives, and leaves the 
 little ones to exercise themselves in swimming about. As 
 soon as they have got the use of their feet in this way, the 
 duck returns, and becomes their guide. Several broods, 
 often great numbers, join company, and are seen quite wild 
 for a few weeks ; after which, they totally disappear. Long 
 before we left Iceland, there was not a single Eider-duck to 
 be seen. Whither they retire is not known. These birds are 
 found in the Flannen Isles, to the west of the Island of Lewis. 
 They are seen in Shetland and Orkney ; and they breed on 
 the Island of May, at the mouth of the Firth of Forth. 
 
 A few days after our return to Reikiavik, a Danish galliot 
 arrived in the harboiir, which had sailed from Liverpool 
 about three weeks before, and which brought over as passen- 
 gers from England, Mr Sivertson of Havnefiord, and Mr 
 Flood, a young Norwegian, who had been private secretary 
 to Count Trampe. The latter was the bearer of a packet 
 which the Count had been polite enough to send, containing 
 letters of introduction to several of the principal people in 
 Iceland. Besides those directed to individuals, there was 
 one addressed generally to all persons holding offices or autho- 
 rity in the island, desiring them to facilitate our travels through 
 the country, and to assist us in the prosecution of the ob-
 
 128 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch.i. Change of Governors. 
 
 jects we had in view. The ar? ival of this vessel effected a 
 sort of miniature revolution in the government of Iceland 5 
 which was transferred from the hands of the Chief Justice 
 Stephenson to those of three dej)uty governors ; Mr Thoran- 
 son, the Anitmand of the northern province ; Assessor Einar- 
 son ; and our friend Mr Frvdensberg of Reikiavik. At a 
 ball which we attended a few da3'S after this political change 
 had taken place, the health of the new Governors was drunk 
 with many demonstrations of satisfaction. The name of 
 Count Trampe was also given as a toast, with much applause; 
 and a poem in his praise, composed for the occasion by Mr 
 Magnuson, one of the most celebrated of the Icelandic poets 
 of the day, was sung in chorus by the whole party. 
 
 During our present stay in Reikiavik, we frequently vi- 
 sited the Bishop, and continued to be greatly pleased with 
 him. We saw once or twice at his house a Mr Paulson, one 
 of the medical practitioners of Iceland, Avho lives on the 
 southern coast, at the distance of about a hundred miles 
 from Reikiavik. He is a man of much information, and par- 
 ticularly conversant in the natural history of his own coun- 
 try, which he has studied with great attention. A few days 
 after our return from the Guldbringe Syssel, Mr Holland re- 
 ceived from him a note, written in Latin, * requesting his 
 medical attendance upon one of the daughters of Mr Sigurd- 
 son, the minister of Reikiavik. Mr Holland visited Mr Si- 
 gurdson's family frequently in this capacity, not only at the 
 present time, but also upon our return from the journies we 
 subsequently made ; and his offices were rewarded by that 
 
 * Dr Holland, ut filiolam pastoris templi Reykiavianini, domini Sigurdson, 
 ^grotantem, data occasione, concomitante interprete, visitare velit, humillime ro- 
 gatur. Paulsonio.
 
 Ch. I. ConfirmaiMn.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 1*29. 
 
 expression of gratitude, of which its simplicit\Mvas the strong- 
 est recommendation. 
 
 The 11th of June was a hohday; and the ceremony of 
 confirmation was performed in the church. The ordinary 
 service began with prayer and singing. Lessons were then 
 read from the Bible, and the conclusion was a sermon, the 
 delivery of which occupied more than half an hour. Dur- 
 ing the first part of the service, the minister was dressed in 
 a sort of surplice, ornamented with broad blue bands, and 
 with gold lace. The singing, or rather roaring, was perform- 
 ed by ten or twelve men, standing round the space enclosed 
 about the altar. The sermon was read from the pulpit with 
 much emphasis and gesture. The Bishop entered the church 
 just before it began, and took a seat near the altar. The 
 minister, having resumed his surplice and his station at the 
 altar, read a long exhortation to the children who attended 
 for confirmation, and were ranged round him, the boys apart 
 from the girls, all of them dressed in their best clothes. Af- 
 ter an examination from a printed form of catechism, the 
 children received confirmation from the minister, who laid 
 his hands upon them. The whole was concluded with ano- 
 ther exhortation, and a prayer by the minister, kneeling in 
 the midst of the children. During this service, the Bishop 
 was a mere spectator : his only occupation consisted in tak- 
 ing snufF, and chewing tobacco. A great number of Ice- 
 landers had come to Reikiavik from the adjoining country, 
 to attend this ceremony ; and the church was crowded with 
 people, all in their finest suits. The Avomen, who were ha- 
 bited in the proper costume of the country, sat together 
 on the left side, and formed a singular and interesting as- 
 semblage. They were, for the most part, rather tall than 
 
 R
 
 130 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch.-i. Confirmatton. 
 
 otherwise ; their features in general well formed ; and their 
 complexions fair and florid. The men were seated on the 
 opposite side of the church. None of the Danish inhabit- 
 ants appeared at this ceremony ; nor is it customary with 
 them to attend any of the religious services of the Icelandic 
 church.
 
 Ch. II. Prq>arations.'] TRAVELS IN ICELANU. 131 
 
 JOURNAL. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 The object of our second journey in Iceland, was to explore 
 the peninsula on the western side of the island, which is ter- 
 minated by the remarkable mountain called Snsefell JokuL 
 We were assisted in fixing our route, by the Chief Justice 
 Stephenson, who was well acquainted with the district called 
 the Borgarfiord Syssel, and by Mr Clausen, a Danish mer- 
 chant, settled at Olafsvik, not far from the extremity of tlie 
 peninsula. This gentleman, who came over to Reikiavik soon 
 after our return from the Guldbringe Syssel, we found to be 
 remarkably intelligent. We receis ed from him every neces- 
 sary direction as to our route, and also some account of the 
 natural curiosities we should meet with in the tract of country 
 through which we were to pass. 
 
 Having pvirchased five more horses, and hired two men, 
 Gwylfr and Gudrnundr by name, to attend our cavalcade, we 
 made preparations proportioned to the length of the journey 
 we were about to undertake, which we calculated to be be- 
 tween three and four hundred miles. Our baggage -horses
 
 132 TRA^-ELS IN ICELAND. [Cii. ir. Leave ReihiaviL 
 
 cost from eight to ten rixdollars each ; and those we intend- 
 ed for our own use, about twelve. They were by no means 
 of the best description of riding-horses ; but sufficiently good 
 for the rough work they had to enco\mter. An exceedingly 
 good horse may be procured for twenty or thirty dollars ; a 
 sum, according to the rate of exchange at this time, equiva- 
 lent to two or three guineas. All our cattle were rather lean, 
 and they had not yet lost their rough winter coats. Our 
 servants professed to be well acquainted with the country we 
 wished to examine ; and, being young and stout, we flatter- 
 ed ourselves that we should have little occasion to reproach 
 them with laziness ; but we soon found that, like all their 
 countrymen, they were systematically slow in their move- 
 ments ; and that every attempt, either in the way of intreaty 
 or of threat, to make them alert, was quite fruitless. One of 
 them, however, who had been a servant to the Danish offi- 
 cers surveying the coasts of Iceland, was somewhat more dis- 
 posed to activity than the other ; and we were gratified to 
 find, on more than one occasion, that this superiority was 
 the cause of high words between them, and of a little saving 
 of time. Every one who undertakes to travel in Iceland, 
 must resolve to submit with patience to the tardiness of his 
 attendants. The young man who had accompanied us dur- 
 ing our first journey, had left our service on being refused an 
 increase of wages ; and he went to cut hay in the northern 
 part of the island, where labourers are very scarce. He ad- 
 dressed a long letter in Latin to Mr Holland, which was so 
 well written, that we suspected it was not his own composi- 
 tion ; and our suspicions were confirmed, on learning tlxat 
 he had gone to the school at Bessestad a few days before. 
 
 Early in the morning of the loth June, we sent off the 
 horses with our baggage, as they had to go round the bay; and
 
 Ca. II. Mount Esian.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 133 
 
 we crossed it in the afternoon, in a boat belonging to the cap- 
 tain of the Danish gaUiot, then in the harbour, expecting to 
 meet our horses at the opposite side. The wind was strong 
 from the eastward, and it began to rain violently, when we 
 were about half way across the bay, which is here six or seven 
 miles in width. The rain and the water of the sea, which fre- 
 quently broke over the boat, in asliorttime completely wetted 
 us. Our voyage, however, was not long, and we landed in 
 safety near the foot of the mountain called Esian. We now 
 found ourselves in a country very different from that we had 
 before traversed. Here we saw none of the desolated appear- 
 ances which had marked the progress of volcanic fire in the 
 Guldbringe Syssel. From the shore to the base of the moun- 
 tain, was a flat green country, about a mile in breadth. It 
 was, however, almost one continued bog, in many places 
 nearly impassable. The mountain rose precipitous from the 
 flat, the lower part being covered by the debris of the beds, 
 which we saw ranged horizontally above; and its bold and 
 lofty front was broken into gulleys of various dimensions. The 
 height of Esian is about ] 500 feet, which it preserves for an 
 extent of several miles, without varying. It forms a very fine 
 object viewed from Reikiavik, and is seen from the sea south- 
 ward of tlie Guldbringe Syssel, over the mountains of that dis- 
 trict. 
 
 Our horses not being in sight, we proceeded along the 
 shore, examining the rocks that appeared. We then left the 
 shore, and crossed the swamp towards the foot of the moun- 
 tain. The rain still continued heavy, but we went on with 
 the intention of stopping at the first convenient spot where 
 we might pilch our tent. After walking to a considerable 
 distance, and descrying no cottages, we waited for more than 
 an hour in momentary expectation that our horses should
 
 134 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ii. Brautarholt. 
 
 make their appearance. Being disappointed, however, in 
 this, and dreading lest we should by any accident miss them, 
 we returned towards the shore, and, in crossing the bog, 
 were luifortunate enough to break one of our Ijarometers. 
 We soon reached some cottages near the sea, and having 
 waked the inhabitants, who had already retired to rest, a 
 man very civilly imdertook to guide us to Brautarholt, a 
 place where we had been recommended by some of our Rei- 
 kiavik friends to pass the night. Here we found a farm- 
 house, and a church of similar construction, but consider- 
 ably larger than that at Krisuvik. Our horses did not arrive 
 till eleven o'clock, owing to the extreme difficulty of guiding 
 them across the bogs ; and this lateness of the hour, as well 
 as the difficulty of finding a convenient place in which to 
 pitch the tent, led us to determine upon passing the night in 
 the church. The people who inhabited the adjoining house 
 readily acceded to this plan, brought us the keys of the 
 church, and prepared for our supper a large dish of Eider- 
 duck eggs, which was placed before us on the altar. We 
 found the portable bedsteads, which we had with us, ex- 
 tremely well adapted to the form and dimensions of the 
 church ; and placing them in the space before the altar, which 
 was just large enough to receive them, we slept most com- 
 fortably in this new situation, undisturbed either by mortal 
 or spiritual visitants. 
 
 Next morning, we were supplied with boiled fish, rice and 
 milk, from the farm-house, which, with the addition of bis- 
 cuit we had brought with us, made a very excellent breakfast. 
 The morning being stormy, we delayed our departure till 
 noon, when the weather became more favourable. We pro- 
 ceeded along the shore of the Hval Fiord (Whale Frith), 
 which runs up the country about twenty miles in a north-
 
 €h. II. Bogs.] TRAVF.rs IK TnKr.ANT). 135 
 
 easterly direction, preserving nearly an uniform breadth of 
 about three miles. The scenery was similar to that of many 
 of those arms of the sea, called Lochs, in the highlands of 
 Scotland, the grandeur and variety of which it rivalled in every 
 respect, except that its shores were wholly destitute of wood. 
 The precipices are magnificent ; and the eye is carried to the 
 extreme distance, by mountains assuming every variety of 
 romantic form, many of them capped with snow. 
 
 Having walked about six miles, we mounted our horses, 
 and left the Fiord, passing into a valley to the right. This 
 valley is high, and little more than a mile in breadth. The 
 mountains on each side are lofty, bold, and rugged ; and the 
 patches of snow which yet remained upon their sides added 
 much to the wildness of the scene. Though the ground is 
 swampy, it affords much excellent pasture, and we observed 
 several farm-houses in different parts of the valley. 
 
 Turning round the mountains on our left, we came to an 
 open country of considerable extent, but so boggy, that it 
 was with great difficulty we got through it. We now found 
 how necessary the provision of riding horses was to our pre^ 
 sent journey, and had at the same time an opportunity of 
 ascertaining the confidence which might be placed in these 
 animals. In going through a bog, an Iceland horse seems to 
 know precisely where he may place his foot in safety, and 
 where he cannot venture to pass. If in doubt, he will feel 
 the ground with his foot before he attempts to place his whole 
 weight upon it. If convinced that there is danger, neither 
 coaxing nor whipping will induce him to go forward ; but 
 when left to himself he will find his way, and carry over his 
 burden in safety. It sometimes happens, though very sel-. 
 dom, that in traversing an extensive bog a horse will sink to 
 his belly, but he soon extricates himself with apparent ease.
 
 136 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. I. Houls^ 
 
 So very iiulKTcrent do the horses appear to such an accident, 
 that we have seen them begin to eat the grass within their 
 reach, till reminded of making their way forward by the ap- 
 plication of a whip. 
 
 Having left our baggage and our guides behind, we should 
 have been greatly perplexed in crossing the bogs, had not a 
 peasant, whom we accidentally met, very kindly assisted us by 
 leading the way. He appeared to be active and intelligent, 
 thouffh we inferred all this from his motions and signs alone, 
 as we had no other means of conversation with him. Though 
 we had a perfect confidence in his guidance, we were not a 
 little astonished when he conducted us through places where 
 we were in continual expectation of being swallowed up. Our 
 astonishment was not lessened, w hen we observed him plunge 
 into a small inlet of the sea connected with the Hval Fiord, 
 and proceed directly across it. A river of considerable size 
 empties itself into this bay; and being much swollen by the 
 rain which had fallen during some days before, we were for- 
 tunate in arriving at a time when the tide was out ; the river 
 itself being impassable. The breadth of the water was little 
 less than half a mile ; but by scrupulously following the steps 
 of our guide, we passed over in safety, and soon afterwards 
 arrived at the farm-house called Houls. This we found to be 
 much superior in appearance to such houses of the same de- 
 scription as we had already seen. The general construction 
 of the habitation was the same ; and though it was very far 
 indeed from being neat, yet it was some degrees nearer to that 
 desirable state than most others. Our baggage horses did not 
 arrive till a very late hour ; and the good people of the hoiise 
 having given us their best apartment, we removed some of the 
 furniture, which appeared not to have been displaced since the 
 house was originally furnished, and put up our own beds, for
 
 Ch.ii. Houh.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 137 
 
 which there was just sufficient room. The floor was earthen, and 
 extremely damp, and exhaled no very agreeable odour ; but 
 this we endeavoured to correct by smoking segars. 
 
 The proprietor of this house, by name Gudmundson, was 
 the Hreppstiore, or constable of the parish ; an office next in 
 rank to that of Sysselman, or Sheriff. The general duties of 
 the Hreppstiore relate to the preservation of the peace, and 
 the superintendance of the poor. The farm attached to the 
 house supports ten cows, several horses, and above a hundred 
 sheep. Besides a certain proportion of the produce of the 
 cattle, twenty-seven rixdollars per annum are paid as land rent. 
 For this sum, however, independently of his farm, the tenant 
 is entitled to a part of the profits of a salmon fishery in the ad- 
 joining river: it being the custom, in the case of most of the 
 salmon rivers in Iceland, to divide the profits of the fishery 
 among the different farms which are situate on their banks. 
 We had some salmon for breakfast at Houls, caught in the 
 river the preceding evening, and found it to be excellent. 
 No other mode of taking the fish is here practised, than that 
 of constructing dams under the falls. The number of salmon 
 caught does not much more than suffice for the use of the 
 different farm-houses in the neighbourhood. 
 
 At Houls we saw a small patch of groimd laid out as a gar- 
 den, with regular beds. A young woman was planting small 
 cabbages in it : by means of a plank she preserved the beds 
 from being spoiled by her feet; and, making holes in the earth 
 along the edge of it, she placed the plants in regular and 
 equidistant rows. 
 
 Next morning, we gave to the farmer's wife, who was a 
 neat, good looking woman, a trifling present of needles, pins, 
 scissars, thread, &c. with which she appeared highly pleased ; 
 and, having breakfasted, we took our leave. Mr Gudmund- 
 
 s
 
 13S TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ca. n. Saurbar. 
 
 son shewed his kindness in accompanying us as a guide. We 
 returned to the sliores of the Hval Fiord, and proceeded to a 
 place called Huamr, where we procured a small fishing-boat, 
 and crossed over to Saurbar, leaving our baggage-horses to 
 go round by the head of the Fiord, and taking only our beds 
 with us. Two men rowed us across, who appeared perfectly 
 indifferent to the swell of the water, which sometimes came 
 over the gunnel of the boat, and now and then occasioned 
 us considerable alarm. 
 
 Saurbar is situate on a rising groxind, at a short distance 
 from the shore of the Hval Fiord, and is the residence of the 
 parish priest, Mr Hialtalin ; from whose house there is a strik- 
 ing, and somewhat picturesque view of the upper part of the 
 Fiord, which has here the appearance of an extensive lake. 
 Mr Hialtalin had just alighted from his horse as we arrived, 
 and received us in the kindest manner. He had very much 
 the appearance of a gentleman, both in dress and manner ; 
 and we found him possessed of considerable information. 
 He had been settled at this place twenty- four years, with a 
 stipend of thirty dollars, and as nuich land as maintains a 
 small stock of cows and sheep. Upon this slender provision 
 he has contrived to support a very numerous family ; having 
 had altogether, from two matrimonial engagements, not fewer 
 than twenty-three children, thirteen of whom are still living. 
 One of his daughters is married to Mr Gudmundson, our host 
 of the preceding night. Mr Hialtalin's habitation entirely 
 resembles the common farm-houses of Iceland, except that 
 it is somewhat cleaner and more comfortable in the interior. 
 The sitting room, which is very small and ill lighted, is fur- 
 nished with a stove, an article not common in the houses of 
 Icelanders, and possesses a considerable collection of books ; 
 among which we met with a sort of catalogue raisonntk of all
 
 Ch. II. Church of Saurhar.'\ TRAA^EI-S IN ICELAND. 
 
 139 
 
 the Icelandic authors, which we wished very much to obtain, 
 but found the author unwilling to part with it. 
 
 Having perceived the church to be tolerablv clean, we 
 asked permission to sleep in it, which was cheerfull}' granted. 
 The altar was covered with crimson silk, ornamented with 
 gold lace ; and above it was a very indifferent painting of 
 the Last Supper, surmounted by a crucifix. The dimensions 
 of the church we ascertained to be thirty-five by sixteen feet. 
 and about seven feet in height to the joists. We have chosen 
 a representation of this building, in order that the reader 
 may form some idea of the general exterior appearance of 
 the country churches in Iceland. 
 
 For supper, we had coffee, mashed fish prepared with but- 
 ter, milk, and spices, and rice-milk. This last dish was given 
 us for breakfast the next morning, with cakes made of the 
 same materials. 
 
 Si;/.y,f.//.,A /Jr^y/,/ 
 
 Church of Saitirbar. 
 
 £. Aft/M^/jf/::,,^,^
 
 140 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ii. Saurbar. 
 
 In the course of the evening, we had much conversation 
 with our worthy host, who spoke Latin exceedingly well. 
 We obtained from him some interesting particulars relative 
 to his parish, and had much reason to admire his paternal 
 care of the flock committed to his charge. In a population 
 varying, in difl'erent years, from two hundred to two hun- 
 dred and ten, there are fifteen married couples. The aver- 
 age annual number of births is seven ; and of deaths, six or 
 seven : of marriages, below one. The extent of the parish 
 Is sixteen English miles in length, and ten in breadth ; so that 
 the population does not exceed 1^ to a square mile. 
 
 We were gratified with a sight of Mr Hialtalin's parish re- 
 gister ; a very interesting book, in which, for his own satis- 
 faction, he makes an annual record of the state of each fa- 
 mily within the district of which he has the pastoral charge. 
 He permitted us to copy part of this book ; and the following 
 is a translation, made by his assistance, of the first page of 
 the register for the year 1805. This example of the attention 
 and pious care with which the duties of a country priest are 
 performed, in so remote a corner of the Christian world, 
 may excite a blush in many of his brethren in more fortu- 
 nate countries, and amid more opulent establishments.
 
 Ch.ii. Parish RegMter.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 
 
 141 
 
 Names of 
 Habitations 
 
 Storibotn 
 
 Names of the People in the 
 Family. 
 
 Gudrun Sigurdardottir, 
 
 Oddur Jonssoo, 
 Hans Jonssoo, 
 Ingiborg Jonsdottir, 
 Gudrun Jonsdottir, 
 
 Wigfus Gudmundson, 
 
 Situation, Oc- 
 cupation, &c. 
 
 Widow, and 
 owner of tlie 
 house, 
 
 Widow's son, 
 
 Do. 
 
 Widow's 
 daughter, 
 
 Do. 
 
 An orphan 
 
 kept by the 
 
 widow, 
 
 Age. 
 
 Con- 
 firm- 
 ed. 
 
 Com- 
 muni- 
 can ts. 
 
 Yes 
 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 No. 
 
 Yes 
 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 No. 
 
 Whe. 
 ther 
 ahleto 
 read 
 
 Yes 
 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Conduct. 
 
 General abilities, 
 &c. 
 
 Clean 
 and in- 
 dustri- 
 ous, 
 A good 
 boy, 
 
 Clever 
 at work, 
 
 A hope- 
 ful girl, 
 
 Equally 
 good, 
 
 A tract- 
 able boy 
 
 Wellinformed 
 
 Well educated. 
 
 Not so good an 
 understanding 
 as his brother. 
 
 Wellinformed 
 
 Above mediO' 
 
 crity in her 
 
 abilities. 
 
 Good under- 
 standing. 
 
 The books in this house are, the New Psalm-book ; Vidalin's Sermons ; Thoughts on the 
 Nativity of Christ ; Psalms relating to the Passion of Christ; the Conversation of the Soul 
 with itself; Thoughts on the Passion; Diarium ; Thordir's Prayers; the New Testament, 
 and a Psalm-book. 
 
 ThyriU. 
 
 Jorundr Gislasson, 
 Margret Thorstensdottir, 
 Gudrun Eireksdottir, 
 
 Gudmundr Grirason, 
 
 Thorsdys Saemnsdottir, 
 Jarfrudr Stephansdottir, 
 
 Hristiu Jonsdottir, 
 Waldi Sterinderson, 
 
 Hreppstiore, 
 Elderor Con- 
 stable, 
 
 His wife. 
 
 Her daugh- 
 ter by a for- 
 mer husband. 
 
 Servant man, 
 
 Maidservant 
 Her child, 
 
 A female or- 
 phan, 
 
 A male or- 
 phan, 
 
 41 
 53 
 19 
 
 42 
 
 Y'es 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 Yes 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 Yes 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 Welldis 
 posed 
 and 
 clean, 
 Good 
 charac- 
 ter, 
 A hope- 
 ful girl, 
 
 A faith- 
 ful la- 
 bourer. 
 
 Neat & 
 faithful, 
 
 Moderate abi- 
 lities. 
 
 Piously dis- 
 posed. 
 
 Well informed, 
 
 Hehas neglect- 
 ed his improve- 
 ment, and is 
 therefore ad- 
 monished. 
 
 Wellinformed, 
 
 Atract- "''^fi"^^'-''^ 
 , , her catechism; 
 able . , ' 
 
 , ., , — to be con- 
 child, c , 
 hrmed 
 
 Tract 
 
 able and|Is learning the 
 
 obedi- catechism. 
 
 ent, I 
 
 The books in the house are, the Old Psalm-book and the New one ; Vidalin's Sermons ; 
 Vidalin's Doctrines of Religion ; Fast Sermons ; Seven Sermons ; Psalm-books ; Sturm's 
 Meditations (translated into Icelandic) ; Bible Extracts ; Bastholm's Religious Doctrine; a 
 Prayer-book ; and a New Testament belonging to the church. '
 
 142 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ca. ii. Icelaiidic sirnamcs. 
 
 This table is extremely interesting in many points of view. 
 Besides showing the great attention of Mr Hialtalin to the 
 duties of his office, it exhibited in some degree the character 
 of the people, the importance they attach to religious and 
 moral dispositions, and the attention which is paid to educa- 
 tion even among the lower classes. By attending to the list 
 of names, the manner of forming the sirname among the 
 Icelanders may be observed. The son takes the Christian 
 name of his father, and adds sofi to it for his sirname ; and 
 the daughter annexes doftir in the same manner. A similar 
 custom is well known to have given rise to many English sir- 
 names. In Scotland, the word Mac, signifying son, was pre- 
 fixed. The inconvenience of this mode is not felt in Iceland, 
 Avhere the population is so much scattered. There are, how- 
 ever, instances here also, in which a sirname has been per- 
 petuated, as in the family of the Stephensons. 
 
 We slept very comfortably in the church at Saurbar. 
 Before leaving the place the following morning, we inocu- 
 lated, with the vaccine virus, the minister's eldest daughter, 
 a fine he<ilthy-looking girl, about twenty years of age. We 
 also inoculated a younger child ; and a third was brought to 
 us, but finding his arm covered with itch, we declined wasting 
 matter on him, having formerly had experience of the inef- 
 ficacy of inoculating, when any considerable cutaneous erup- 
 tion existed. The itch is a very common disease in this coun- 
 try, and it seems to be thought conducive to general health. 
 Having informed Mr Hialtalin how to treat the cowpox in 
 its progress, and to save the crusts, and siiowed him how he 
 might inoculate from them with a penknife or a needle ; we 
 took leave of his hospitable family. Our host himself, put- 
 ting on a cocked hat, and taking his staff in his hand, ac- 
 companied us about a mile, in order to show us the road.
 
 Ch. ii. Indreholm.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 143 
 
 We travelled along the shore of the Hval Fiord, through 
 a flat swampy country, lying between the mountains above 
 Saurbar, and Akkrefell, a mountain which forms the head- 
 land between the Hval Fiord and Borgarfiord. On the low 
 ridges above Saurbar, and stretching westward, we observed 
 some patches of stunted birch-wood, the first thing of the 
 kind we had seen in Iceland. We passed some small lakes, 
 one of which formed a sort of bason, close to tire Hval Fiord, 
 so that a very little labour would be sufficient to drain off the 
 whole of the water. This day was one of the warmest we 
 experienced in Iceland. At two o'clock p. m. the thermo- 
 meter stood at 65", while a pretty strong breeze prevailed. 
 In the sun, at the same hour, the degree was 86. 
 
 Passing round the mountain of Akkrefell, we came in sight 
 of Indreholm, the house of the Chief Justice Stephenson, from 
 whom we had received an invitation when we saw him at Rei- 
 kiavik, soon after our arrival in Iceland. It is situate in a 
 large extent of flat, boggy ground, stretching from the base 
 of the mountain to the sea, in the same manner as the tract 
 under Esian ; but containing much more verdure, and better 
 grass. Behind is the lofty and precipitous mountain, which, 
 in passing along, had attracted our particular notice, on ac- 
 count of the disclosure of its internal structure, almost from 
 top to bottom, in a precipice not much short of two thou- 
 sand feet in height. We arrived at the house about five o'clock. 
 In appearance, it is rather a group of buildings than a single 
 habitation ; and, together with the outhouses and church, 
 looks like a little village. 
 
 We were received very cordially, and were ushered into 
 the best room by Mr Stephenson, who met us at the door. 
 Almost immediately after we had seated ourselves, the ladies 
 of the family made their appearance ; and we had coffee.
 
 144 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ii. Indreholm. 
 
 wine, biscuit, and English cheese, set before us. This was 
 merely a prelude to a more substantial dinner, or rather sup- 
 per, which was brought in at 8 o'clock. It consisted of boil- 
 ed salmon, baked mutton, potatoes (from England), sago 
 and cream, London porter, and excellent port wine. We 
 had no doubt that the ladies, who had prepared and brought 
 in the dishes, would partake of it ; and, on our declining to 
 take our seats before they had placed themselves at table, we 
 were surprised when told that they had already dined. The 
 females, of the highest, as well as of the lowest rank, as in 
 former times in our own country, seem to be regarded as 
 mere servants. During our repast, our hostess stood at the 
 door looking at \is ; while her daughter, and another young 
 woman, were actively employed in changing the plates, and 
 running backwards and forwards for whatever was wanted. 
 Occasionally the lady assisted in the rites of hospitality ; and 
 next day, when restraint was somewhat worn off, she and the 
 young ladies chatted and joked with us, laughing heartily at 
 our broken Icelandic, which was mixed with English and 
 broken Danish, neither of which they understood. 
 
 While busily engaged with our viands, our ears were all 
 at once struck with musical sounds. Having heard nothing 
 of the kind before in Iceland, except the miserable scraping 
 of the fiddle in the Reikiavik ball-room, the pleasure we now 
 derived from agreeable sounds, and harmonious music, was 
 very great. When our first surprise was over, we thought 
 that the music, which proceeded from an apartment above, 
 was from a piano-forte ; but we were told that it was an Ice- 
 landic instrument, called the Lang-spiel; and that the per- 
 formers were the son and daughter of Mr Stephenson, whose 
 proficiency upon this instrument was considered to be very 
 great. The Lang-spiel, which was now brought down for our
 
 Ch. II. Langspul.'\ 
 
 TRAVELS IN ICELAND: 
 
 145 
 
 inspection, consists of a narrow wooden box, about three 
 feel long, bulging at one end, where there is a sound- liole, 
 and terminating at the other hke a vioHn. It has three brass 
 wires stretched along it, two of which are tuned to the same 
 note, and one an octave lower. One of the two passes over 
 little projections, with bits of wire on the upper part. These 
 are so placed, that when the wire above them is pressed down 
 by the thumb-nail, the different notes are produced on draw- 
 ing a bow across ; and the other wires perform the same of- 
 fice as the drones of a bagpipe. In short it is simply a mo- 
 nochord, with two additional strings, to form a sort of bass; 
 When the instrument is near, it sounds rather harsh ; butj 
 from an adjoining room, especially when two are playing 
 together, as was the case when we first heard the music, the 
 effect is very pleasing. The tunes we heard played were chief- 
 ly Danish and Norwegian. JNIr Stephenson's daughter made 
 us a present of her Lang-spiel, from which this description 
 and the drawing were taken. 
 
 The young ladies did their best to entertain us with sing- 
 ing ; but the mode they had of screwing, not raising, their 
 voices to a pitch never before attempted, reminded us of 
 an error not unfrequent in our own country, where musical 
 
 Tnii J^i\J>:G .'ST'lKl.
 
 146 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ii. IndreJiobm 
 
 proficiency is too often only a display of feats of art, which 
 have no reference whatever to the emotions which natural 
 melody is calculated to excite. 
 
 Mr Stephenson's family is the only one in Iceland that can 
 be said to cultivate music at all. He himself plays upon a 
 chamber-organ, which he brought from Copenhagen a few 
 vears ago. 
 
 This gentleman, who has been already mentioned as at the 
 head of the Icelandic courts of justice, and a privy coun- 
 sellor of Denmark, with the title of Etatsraad, has been 
 very assiduous in his endeavours to distinguish himself in the 
 walks of literature. He has had great merit in recommend- 
 ing the pursuit of knowledge to his countrymen ; and has 
 himself written various works on politics, history, and mo- 
 rals. All these amount to about twenty different books; 
 and he had in the press, at the time we were in his house, 
 an additional work on the Polity of Iceland. He is the owner 
 of a very good library, consisting probably of seven or 
 eight lumdred volumes, among which are a number of Eng- 
 lish works, history, novels, and poetry ; and a valuable col- 
 lection of Icelandic books and manuscripts. In his house 
 is also the library belonging to a society, which will be par-: 
 ticularly mentioned in the chapter on the present state of li- 
 terature in Iceland. 
 
 The family of Mr Stephenson consists of his lady, the 
 Fru Stephenson, as her title stands ; his daughter, intitled 
 the Frukin, or young ladyship, a tall, lively girl, apparent- 
 ly about twenty years of age, whose stiff and formal dress, 
 of coarse blue cloth, but ill accorded with the laughter ever 
 present in her countenance ; another young lady who is at 
 present under the guardianship of Mr Stephenson; two sons, 
 both of whom appear to be clever, intelligent youths; and an
 
 Cb. It. Indreholm.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 147 
 
 elderly gentleman, the father of Mr Stephenson's lady. At 
 the time of our visit to Indreholm, two nephews of the Chijef 
 Justice likewise formed a part of the family establishment, to 
 whose education Mr Stephenson appears to have paid a good 
 deal of attention. 
 
 During the three days we remained at Indreholm, we ex- 
 perienced the utnK>st hospitality and attention. Our resi- 
 dence here was interesting, as giving us some view of the ha- 
 bits and modes of life among the Icelanders of the highest 
 class. We made a very minute examination of every part of 
 the house ; penetrating, under the guidance and authority of 
 Mr Stephenson, even into the bed-chambers of the females 
 of the family. While viewing these apartments, the ladies 
 brought us various little articles of their own manufacture, in 
 which considerable ingenuity was displayed, though not much 
 elegance. They consisted principally of rude flower- work in 
 coloured worsted. The extent of the house, as was before 
 noticed, is very considerable. At a little distance is a water- 
 mill, which is turned by the water of a small stream striking 
 against a horizontal wheel. The dairy and other oftices are 
 detached from the house. Behind these buildings is a small 
 smithy, where, at the time we visited it, we found the smiths 
 busied in preparing scythes. The fuel is charcoal, made of 
 birch-wood ; great quantities of which, though the shrubs are 
 very small, grow on the western bank of the Huitaa, and in 
 some parts of the Borgarfiord Syssel. The making of char- 
 coal is not the least important employment of the Icelanders 
 during the summer. Every farmer has a smithy; and almost 
 every man in the country knows how to shoe a horse ; even 
 the son and heir of the Chief Justice of Iceland having been 
 seen thus occupied. 
 
 On going to bed, each night, during our stay at Indre-
 
 148 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cn. u. Iiidreholm. 
 
 holm, a cup or bason, full of milk and ^\ater, was set down 
 at the bedside ; a custom we had before observed at Kiebli- 
 vik, but here for the first time in the house of an Icelander. 
 
 Indreholm is, on the whole, a very pleasant place ; and 
 is so situate as to command a fine view of the Faxe Fiord, and 
 of the mountains of the Guldbringe and Kiosar Syssels. Did 
 the climate permit the cultivation of corn, or the growth of 
 trees, it might become a very beautiful residence. The pas- 
 tures immediately round the place are very good, and adorn- 
 ed by a profusion of the Statice armeria. Adjoining the 
 house are two small gardens, well inclosed with walls of turf, 
 in which cabbages, turnips, and sometimes potatoes, are cul- 
 tivated with success, for the use of the family. At a short 
 distance from the shore is a small island, crossing over to 
 which, at low water, we saw vast multitudes of Eider-ducks, 
 for whose convenience, rows of little apartments are con- 
 structed of stones, in different directions across the island. 
 About forty pounds weight of Eider-dowai are annually ob- 
 tained from this spot. 
 
 Mr Stephenson has considerable property in this part of 
 the country, as well as in other more remote districts of Ice- 
 land. In his own hands he holds lands sufficient for support- 
 ing twenty-five cows and three hundred sheeji. He has late- 
 ly brought over from Norway some fine-woolled sheep of the 
 Spanish breed, which seem likely to thrive well in the island. 
 Connected with his property at Indreholm, there is a large 
 fishing establishment, comprehending about twenty boats of 
 different sizes, the use of which is given to the people com- 
 ing from the interior of the country, on the terms formerly 
 described. 
 
 The last day of our stay at Indreholm was occupied in the 
 ascent of the mountain of Akkrefell ; a labour of no small
 
 .Cb. 11. Akkrefell.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 149 
 
 difficulty and hazard, from the excessive steepness of the face 
 of rock which we liad to chmb ; but one for which we were 
 fully recompensed by the important uiineralogical facts oc- 
 curring to our observation, which will elsewhere be spoken 
 of at length. The view from the pinnacle of the mountain, 
 which seems almost to hang over the plain below, was exten- 
 sive and interesting, comprehending a very considerable part 
 of the south-western district of Iceland. We descended at 
 another part of the mountain, but with even more risk than 
 had attended our ascent. Availing ourselves of the convey- 
 ance by sea from Indreholm to Reikiavik, we left the speci- 
 mens we had collected here, and in the preceding part of our 
 journey, under the care of Mr Stephenson, being desirous of 
 reserving our baggage-horses for further duties of the same 
 kind. 
 
 On the 21st of Jime we left Indreholm, accompanied by 
 Mr Stephenson and one of his nephews. The Chief Justice 
 was, on this occasion, dressed in blue trowsers and a short 
 jacket of the same colour, the stuff coarse and warm. On 
 the top of his saddle was buckled a pillow of blue plush, 
 stuffed with Eider-down. We retraced our steps for about 
 four miles, and then turning to the left, crossed the bogs to- 
 wards Leira, the abode of Mr Scheving, Sysselman of Bor- 
 garfiord, who is married to a sister of Mr Stephenson. This 
 place was formerly the residence of the latter ; and the house 
 was built by him. Externally, it is somewhat out of repair ; 
 but the interior, and especially the sitting-room, displayed 
 more decoration than is usual in the houses of Iceland. The 
 cornices were formed of wood, coloured red, and carved with 
 some degree of neatness ; and the chairs covered with leather 
 painted and gilded. Near the house there is a church, supe- 
 rior in accommodation to most of the edifices of the kind we
 
 150 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ii. Leira. 
 
 met with ; and having a gallery, which is by no means com- 
 mon in the country churches of Iceland. The lady of Sys- 
 selman Scheving is a tall, and rather handsome woman. She 
 was habited in the common dress of Icelandic females of the 
 higher class, except that the head-dress was merely a cap of 
 blue cloth, with a tassel hanging from the top. At supper, 
 we had a dish set before us, made of the Iceland Lichen 
 (Cetrar'm Islandica,} which we had hitherto scarcely ever seen 
 employed by the inhabitants of the country. The Lichen, 
 chopped small, is boiled in three or four successive portions 
 of water, to take off its natural bitterness, and then for an 
 hour or two in milk. When cold, this preparation has some- 
 what of the form of a jelly, which is eaten with milk or cream, 
 and makes a very palatable dish. 
 
 On our arrival at Leira, we had observed, in a causeway 
 leading to the house, a fragment of stone, appearing to be 
 an incrustation, or deposit from water, and containing nu- 
 merous vegetable petrifactions. Upon inquiry, we found 
 that there was a hot spring at the distance of about a mile 
 from the S^'sselnian's house. After supper, we set off, by 
 the light of an Icelandic midnight, to visit this spring, being 
 guided to it by Mr Stephenson and his nephew. We found 
 the water, which had a temperature of 138°, issuing from 
 two or three small holes in the rock, and running into a 
 stream which flows near the spot. A small cavity which has 
 been formed so as to receive the hot water, is occasionally 
 employed as a bath. Near the springs, we observed a con- 
 siderable extent of surface covered with curious petrifactions, 
 evidently formed by deposition from some more ancient hot 
 springs, which have now disappeared. Oiu" walk was finished 
 a little before 12 o'clock at night. Though the sky was cloudy 
 and lowering, and a high range of mountains limited the ho-
 
 Ca. ii. PrtnUng-office.] TRA^^ELS IN' ICELAND. 151 
 
 rizon towards the north, yet the light was such as, even within 
 the house, to be sufficient for the perusal of the smallest type, 
 without difficulty or inconvenience. 
 
 We left Leira next morning ; and the Sysselman attended 
 us for some miles. We visited in our way the only printing- 
 office now in Iceland, which is close to Leira, in a small and 
 miserable wooden building, situate in the midst of a bog. 
 This establishment is at present kept up by the literary society, 
 of which Mr Stephenson is at the head. He has the sole ma- 
 nagement of the press; and few other people now give it 
 employment ; none liking to submit their works to a censor 
 who is reckoned too severe, but perhaps without much reason. 
 This state of the press is, however, extremely injurious to the 
 literature of Iceland. Two men are engaged in the printing- 
 office : they have a press of the common construction, and 
 make their own ink of oil and lamp-black. There are eight 
 founts of types ; six Gothic, and two Roman ; with a few Greek 
 characters. We found a small collection of books, which had 
 been printed within the last few years, and remained here for 
 sale. We purchased several of these, among which was Pope's 
 Essay on Man, translated into Icelandic verse. During the 
 last winter, the printing-office, with all its contents, was very 
 nearly swept away by a flood ; and, at the present time, the 
 building is in a state of wretched repair. 
 
 Leaving the plain of Leira, we began the ascent of the 
 Eastern Skards-heide, or mountain-road. Part of this range 
 of mountains, which divides the Borgarfiord Syssel into two 
 portions, is extremely lofty and precipitous ; and the pass 
 through it is very grand. The ascent of the road is long, and 
 it certainly attains a height of not less than a thousand feet : 
 the mountains on each side of the pass, however, ha\e a 
 much greater elevation, and some of them were still almost
 
 152 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. II. Skards-heidc. 
 
 entirely covered with snow. In making tliis ascent, we over- 
 took several cavalcades of horses, returning from various 
 parts of the coast, loaded with dried fish, the winter stock of 
 the farmers to whom they belonged. The Icelandic peasants 
 who were guiding these cavalcades, addressed us in the lan- 
 guage of salutation as we passed them ; this being the invaria- 
 ble custom in every part of the island. In some of the par- 
 ties, we observed as many as ten or twelve horses, each bear- 
 ing its respective burthen of fish. 
 
 Just as we had gained the highest part of the mountain- 
 pass, we saw rain approaching, and had only time to cast 
 our eyes over the wide and extensive valley of the Huitaa, 
 or White River, which now lay beneath us, boxmded on each 
 side by a magnificent range of hills ; and the view terminated 
 towards the north, by mountains entirely covered with snow. 
 The stream of the Huitaa, and of other smaller rivers wind- 
 ing over the broad expanse of the valley, and meeting the 
 eye at intervals, added much to the pleasing features of the 
 landscape. 
 
 Not far from the place where we began to descend, we 
 observed a lofty and very remarkable mountain, called Honn, 
 on our right hand. It is a complete four- sided pyramid, 
 composed of regular beds of rock, piled one above another, 
 and diminishing to a point ; and forming the steps, as it 
 were, of a huge staircase. When near the bottom of the hill, 
 we went a little out of the road to examine some hot springs. 
 We found the water gushing from several holes in different 
 parts of the side of the hill. Its temperature was from 100° 
 to 132°. It is pure ; no incrustation being formed by it, nor 
 has it any peculiar taste. A little farther down, we had to 
 cross a deep and rapid river, which comes tumbling from the 
 rocks above, forming some very fine cascades. ;
 
 Ca. II. Hiianeyre.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 153 
 
 After several tedious turnings and windings through bogs, 
 which we crossed not without considerable difficulty and dan- 
 ger, we arrived at Huaneyre, the abode of Amtmand Ste- 
 phenson, brother of the Chief Justice, and governor of the 
 western province of Iceland. The house of this gentleman 
 stands upon an eminence in the great plain or valley of the 
 Huitaa ; commanding, in front, a fine view of the arm of the 
 sea called the Borgarfiord ; behind, a still more striking view 
 of the Skards-heide mountains, which we had lately passed. 
 There is nothing particular in the aj)pearance or construction 
 of the habitation, or of the farm buildings attached to it. The 
 only novelty to us was a small and rudely constructed wind- 
 mill, used for grinding rye, which we were informed Mas the 
 only edifice of the kind in Iceland.* 
 
 The rain was now heavy ; and we were glad to enter the 
 house, where we were kindly received by the Amtmand's lady, 
 the daughter of a country priest ; the iVmtmand, with his 
 eldest son, being absent on an official tour through part of 
 his district. 
 
 While supper was preparing, we amused ourselves with 
 some English books which we found in the library in the sit- 
 ting room. Ovir evening repast consisted of veal and sal- 
 mon. The salmon of the Borgarfiord rivers are particularly 
 good; indeed, were we implicitly to credit the inhabitants of 
 this district, there is nothing in it but what is peculiarly 
 excellent, and far surpassing any thing that is to be met 
 with elsewhere in Iceland, The best fish, the best cows, the 
 best sheep, the best horses, the best pasture, the best 
 every thing, was to be found in the faA oured region of the 
 Borgarfiord Syssel, and more especially at Indreholm. Nor 
 
 * Since we left Iceland, Amtmand Stephenson has changed his abode to 
 Huitar-vellir, a place which will soon be mentioned. 
 
 U
 
 154 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ca. 11. Huanei/r^. 
 
 were these praises bestowed without some appearance of rea- 
 son. Though the extensive pastures of Borgar fiord Syssel, 
 and particularly those in the valley of the Huitaa, are mere 
 morasses, yet they yield a large quantity of grass, and sup- 
 port vast numbers of cows, horses, and sheep. The farm 
 which Amtmand Stephenson holds in his own hands, is rec- 
 koned the best in the island. He keeps upon it between thirty 
 and forty horses, fifty cows, and two or three hundred sheep ; 
 and gets as much hay as sutfices for the maintenance of this 
 large stock during the long winters of Iceland. The district 
 of Borgarfiord is likewise remarkable for the vast number of 
 swans frequenting it, which are particularly numerous in the 
 extensive marshes below Huaneyre. On the morning after 
 our arrival, we counted forty of them within a short distance 
 of the house. 
 
 Our breakfast, at Huaneyre, consisted of salmon, boilect 
 sorrel, sweet cakes, excellent coffee, sago jelly, a large tureen 
 full of rich cream, rye-bread, and biscuit. We had reason 
 to expect to find here the perfection of Icelandic cookery j 
 for the Amtmand's first wife was the authoress of a work on 
 that art, which is held in great esteem, and of which we each 
 treated ourselves with a copy from the Leira printing-office. 
 This family, with respect to manners and domestic economy, 
 was much the same as that at Indreholm. 
 
 After breakfast, we took our leave, still accompaniied by 
 the Chief Justice, who was resolved to attend us to the verge 
 of the Borgarfiord Syssel. He conducted us for several miles 
 through the bogs and swamps by which Huaneyre is com- 
 pletely svirrovmded, till at last we got to the place called 
 Huitar-vellir, where there is a ferry over the Huitaa. This 
 river, which is one of the largest in Iceland, is here con- 
 tracted in its channel by the rocks, which rise abruptly on
 
 Ca. lu Huitar-vellir.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 155 
 
 each side ; but the stream is A'ery deep and rapid. It is very 
 properl}' named the White River, as it has ver}' nearly the 
 colour of milk and water, owing to the suspension of the 
 finer particles of clay, washed down from the Jokuls among 
 which it rises. A clergyman, Arnar Jonson, who is Provost 
 of the Borgarfiord Syssel, lives at this place ; and, while the 
 people were employed in carrying our baggage over in a 
 boat, and causing the horses to swim across the river, we 
 went to his house and were treated with coffee. We here 
 parted with our friend Mr Stephenson, who had shewn us at 
 his house, and during our short journey with him, a degree of 
 attention and kindness, for which he Mill always be entitled 
 to our gratitude. 
 
 Having crossed the river, we were told that it would be 
 necessary to send the boat up the stream, to carry iis over 
 another branch of it, which we had still to pass. We walked 
 towards this second crossing-place, where, the baggage being 
 taken off, our horses were driven over ; the holes in the chan- 
 nel rendering it unsafe to have them tied together. The 
 breadth of this part of the river was about two hundred 
 yards ; and it was not without considerable trouble that all 
 got safely across. It now began to rain, which occasioned 
 the rest of our day's journey to be very uncomfortable, as we 
 had to pass through many swamps. The whole of the val- 
 ley of the Huitaa may not improperly be called a vast 
 morass. The western side of it, which we had now reached, 
 belongs to the district called the Myre Syssel ; a name lite- 
 rally signifying the Syssel of Bogs. The southern part of 
 this district, more especially, is so swampy that, during the 
 summer, it is in general wholly impassable; though, in winter, 
 it may occasionally be traversed upon the ice. W^e stopped 
 for the night at a place called Svigna-skard, where we found
 
 156 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cu.ii. Scigna-skard 
 
 a fanii-liouse inhabited by the widow of a Syssehiian of 
 Myrfe, who died about a year before. The poor woman was 
 blind ; but her son and daughter, who managed the affairs of 
 the house, paid us every attention. We here found a small 
 room, which, though by no means elegant, nor remarkably 
 clean, we requested and obtained leave to occupy. In this 
 apartment we discovered several old books belonging to 
 the late Sysselman, a few of which we purchased from the ' 
 family. 
 
 We remained at Svigna-skard during the whole of the 
 next day; the rain still continuing very heavy. It being 
 Sunday, we saw some of the people setting out on horseback 
 for their parish church, which was at the distance of a few 
 miles. On leaving the house, they took off their hats, and, 
 putting them before their faces, continued for some time in 
 the act of prayer, while the horses went on. 
 
 We had for dinner here, a dish called skier, which is simi- 
 lar to one well known in Scotland by the name of Corstor- 
 phine cream, or Hattit hit. In Iceland, it is made by means 
 of sour whey ; in Scotland, by butter-milk, over which cream 
 or milk is poured, and allowed to remain till it has become 
 sour ; when the whey is suffered to run off by removing a 
 plug in the bottom of the vessel into which the materials were 
 put. 
 
 In proceeding tOAvards the interior of the country, more 
 cleanliness appears in the domestic habits of the people. 
 Fresh fish is here an article of greater scarcity ; and the 
 offences to the sight and smell, which are always found in 
 habitations where this is the principal food, decrease in pro- 
 portion as it is less used. 
 
 On Monday morning, the 25th, we rose at two o'clock, 
 and commenced our journey a little after four. Two or three
 
 Ch. It. IV. Skards-Mdi\] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 157 
 
 hours were always occupied by our Icelandic guides in load- 
 ing the horses, and making the other preparations lor de- 
 parture ; though it is probable that an active Englishman 
 would have accomplished the same business in a third part 
 of the time. We were attended by a peasant from the neigh- 
 bourhood, as a guide, on account of a thick fog, which ob- 
 scured every thing around us. Our route lay along the course 
 of a river, which came tumbling over a rocky chaimel from 
 the moimtains forming the western boundary of the valley of 
 the Huitaa. We could not see further than fifty or sixty 
 yards before us ; but the rocky sides of the river being stud- 
 ded with birch shrubs, three or four feet in height, the scene 
 was, upon the whole, a pleasing one. We had to cross the 
 river occasionally ; and found the current so strong, that it 
 was with difliculty the horses could make their way across. 
 The pass over these mountains, which are called the Western 
 Skards-heid^, must be very grand in fair weather. Several 
 small lakes appeared in the hollows between the hills, from 
 which there issued large and rapid streams. The fog did not 
 begin to clear away till we found ourselves amongst lava, and 
 were beginning to descend. We had before observed slags 
 scattered about the sides of the mountains ; and were now in 
 a hollow on the summit, bearing all the characters of the 
 volcanic country we had seen in the Guldbringe Syssel. 
 After winding amongst some steep and broken hills, we de- 
 scended into a valley completely filled with lava, which, from 
 its being in many places covered with soil, appeared to be 
 very old. The rude and irregular rocky masses of which it is 
 composed, are broken into every possible variety of form ; 
 and, in some places, being partially covered with moss, strik- 
 ingly resemble the ruins of old castles or fortifications. We 
 were informed that there is a great deal of lava amongst the
 
 158 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ca. n. Stadarhraun. 
 
 swamps towards the south, which has probably proceeded 
 from the same source as the stream we now followed. At the 
 opening from the mountains of the valley through which the 
 lava has flowed, we saw a small group of cottages, called 
 Hraundalur,* and a wide extended plain, stretching, on our 
 left hand, towards the sea. From the rugged appearance of 
 many parts of it, we easily credited the account we had re- 
 ceived of much lava existing in this quarter. 
 
 We now skirted along the base of the mountains ; and, 
 after travelling a kw miles, came to the opening of an exten- 
 sive valley, the lower part of which is occujned by another 
 great stream of lava, apparently about two miles in breadth. 
 Having passed along the edge of this, by a very rough and 
 dangerous path, we at length reached a place called Stadar- 
 hraun, where we found a small church, and the priest's house, 
 situate on a small grassy spot, almost entirely environed by 
 rugged masses of lava. The priest had just mounted his 
 horse for the purpose of accompanying the Sysselman of 
 Myre, who was at this time travelling through his district. On 
 observing us, he dismounted ; and, after a little conversation 
 ■with the Sysselman, who invited us to his house, the latter 
 proceeded on his journey alone. The priest readily allowed 
 us to take up our night's abode in the church ; and provided 
 us with plenty of boiled milk ; with which, and a lamb we had 
 purchased and roasted at Svigna-skard, we made up a tolera- 
 ble dinner. The night became extremely cold, the wind being 
 from the north. The sky was, however, remarkably clear ; 
 and, from the door of the church, we had a line view of the 
 Snaefell Jokul, which, from our nearer approach to it, now 
 made a very magnificent appearance. 
 
 * Hraundalur, literally translated, signifies the Lava Valley ; lava being called 
 Hraun in the Icelandic language.
 
 Ch. II. Volcanic kills.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND, 159 
 
 We were informed of the existence of a mineral water near 
 this place, which the minister discovered, and which will be 
 more particularly noticed in the chapter on mineralofjy. 
 
 Not being able to procure a guide, the priest offered to ac- 
 company us as far as Kolbeindstadr ; and we resumed our 
 journey at seven in the morning. Our companion, who was a 
 tall, aukward man, dressed in a very uncouth manner, exhi- 
 bited a singular figure when mounted on his poney ; and the 
 effect was rather heightened by the ornamental trappings witli 
 which the animal itself was decorated. We passed through the 
 lava by a winding and rugged path ; and, as we went alqng, 
 observed many conical hills, which were evidently of vol- 
 canic formation. One of these, on the west side of the val- 
 ley, is remarkable. It stands alone ; is about 300 feet high ; 
 and is composed of slags and sand, having a rocky, scorified 
 looking mass at the top. On some parts of the lava, where 
 sand and a little soil had accumulated, weobservcd birch shrubs 
 growing more luxuriantly than any we had before seen. At 
 the place where we descended and quitted the lava, it ap- 
 peared to be the most considerable mass we had met with. 
 Having crossed a deep and rapid stream which skirts it, we 
 arrived at the foot of a lofty range of precipitous mountains ; 
 among the debris of which we found abundance of zeolite. 
 On turning into the valley of Kolbeinstadr, which here is 
 several miles in width, we observed it to be filled, like many 
 other vallies in this district, partly with lava, and partly with 
 bogs. In the flat towards the sea, we remarked a circular 
 crater about sixty yards in diameter, surrounded by lava. 
 Other appearances of the same kind occurred higher up the 
 valley ; and we saw likewise several conical hills resembling 
 that just described, many of them of considerable height, 
 and exhibiting a surface of a reddish brown colour, derived
 
 160 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ca. n. Kolbeinsladr. 
 
 from the loose volcanic scorijE and sand of which they seem 
 to be composed. Before us, in the striking precipices of the 
 lofty mountain called Kolbeinstadr-Fialla, (or Fell), we saw 
 some horizontal beds of rock beautifully arranged in columns. 
 On the side of one of the mountains we were fortnnate enough 
 to find a full-blown specimen of the Ranunculus Glacialis ; 
 for Avhich jilant, Mr Hooker, when in Iceland, had looked 
 in vain. We never afterwards met with it. 
 
 We arrived at Kolbeinstadr about one o'clock. There is a 
 very decent church here, in which we dined; the good people of 
 an adjoining farm-house bringing us abundance of milk. They 
 remained in the chiu'ch while we were engaged with our re- 
 past; and examined our appearance and dresses with the most 
 minute attention. The priest of Stadarhraun, Avho had par- 
 taken in our meal, here took leave of us. We proceeded, 
 imder the direction of a peasant, towards Roudemelr, on the 
 opposite side of the valley ; crossing, in our way, a broad 
 and rugged stream of lava, and traversing some very danger- 
 ous and unpleasant bogs. When very near the end of our 
 journey, our guide and his horse suddenly sunk into the 
 swamp, but soon scrambled out. After this warning, we 
 deemed it prudent to dismount, and proceed on foot, leav- 
 ing o\n- horses to find their own way. The house and church 
 at Roudemelr, are placed under the termination of a vast 
 stream of lava, which here exposes a precipitous front of 
 considerable height. The farmer, an old man, undertook to 
 guide us to a spring of mineral water, which has been long 
 knoAvn, and much celebrated, in Iceland ; and which Mr 
 Clausen had recommended us to visit. Winding round the 
 base of one of the conical volcanic hills which are so nume- 
 rous in this valley, we came to the spring, about two miles 
 to the north of Roudenjelr. It is called Ol-kilda, or the ale~
 
 Ch. It. Aerated spring.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. iGl 
 
 well. We saw two small cavities full of water, which was 
 kept in constant and violent agitation by the escape of car- 
 bonic acid gas. On tasting it, we found it to possess a strong, 
 but grateful degree of pungency, very much like that of soda 
 water, after it has been exposed to the air for a few seconds. 
 As water highly impregnated, as this is, with carbonic acid 
 gas, has been known to produce some degree of intoxication, 
 the name may have been derived from this circumstance. 
 No water ran from the cavities, nor was there any other re- 
 markable appearance in the vicinity of the spring. The tem- 
 perature was 45°; precisely the same with that of an adjacent 
 stream . 
 
 Near Roudemelr there is a very fine range of columns in a 
 bed of rock, of which from fifteen to twenty feet are visible. 
 In general, along the whole extent, which is about half a mile, 
 tlie columns are very thick ; many fragments which had fal- 
 len down, measuring five, and some six feet in diameter. 
 How far they extended under the surface, could not be as- 
 certained; but, from their thickness, it is probable that their 
 length is very considerable. Some of them were detached 
 several feet from the rock, and stood singly. The regularity 
 of this rock formed a striking contrast to the ruggedness of 
 the lava which has flowed near it. 
 
 We had already found so much advantage in the plan of 
 sleeping in the churches as we proceeded on our journey, 
 that we did not hesitate to aA'ail ourselves of the same ac- 
 commodation at Roudemelr, though we found the church 
 here not in the very best condition. In almost all these 
 edifices, there is a painting of the Lord's Supper above the 
 altar, for the most part very wretched both in design and ex- 
 ecution. There was a painting of this kind in the church at 
 Roudemelr; and we saw chalked upon it the numbers and 
 
 X
 
 l62 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ii. Roudemeh. 
 
 order of the psalms to be sung during the service of the sab- 
 baih-day. These numbers are usually inscribed with chalk 
 uj)()n the walls or beams of the building. While we made 
 the churches our places of nightly abode, our guides, though 
 they had an Iceland tent with them, always slept in the ad- 
 joining farm-house or cottage; and appeared to be everywhere 
 received by the inhabitants with great cordiality. In one of 
 the apartments of the farm-house, we found two large barrels 
 filled with the Lichen Islandicus, which was laid up for the use 
 of the family during winter. 
 
 On the morning of the 27th, a very thick fog came on* 
 Having breakfasted on curds brought from the farm-house, 
 we were fortunate in being enabled to purchase three addi- 
 tional horses, which made the whole number in our caval- 
 cade amount to fourteen. These were found necessary to 
 the convenience of our journey ; the mineralogical specimens, 
 which formed a considerable proportion of the burthen, re- 
 ceiving every day some increase. One of our new horses was 
 obtained for seven rixdollars ; the other two for eight rixdol- 
 lars each. We likewise exchanged a horse here with a coun- 
 try priest, who was travelling to the coast for fish, and had 
 pitched his tent near the church during the night. This per-> 
 son was more miserable in his appearance than any one of 
 his profession whom we had seen in Iceland ; his habiliments 
 being such as would scarcely have distinguished him from an 
 English beggar of the lowest description. 
 
 During the whole of our journey to Miklaholt, which was 
 our next resting-j)lace, the fog was so thick as to prevent our 
 seeing the country through which we passed. This perhaps 
 was not to be regretted, as we traversed, during the whole 
 way,- either lava, loose stones, or almost impassable bogs. 
 Of all we had hitherto seen, the bogs here were the most for-
 
 Cb. n. Miklaholt.] TRAVELS IN IC EL AXD, l63 
 
 midable. The farmer of Roudemelr was our guide ; but he 
 was glad to procure the assistance of a peasant whom Ave 
 took up at a house in the way. The horses were often in great 
 danger from sinking into the swamp ; and every step was 
 made with apprehension. Some idea of the difficulties and 
 danger of this stage may be formed, when it is stated, that 
 we spent five hours in going eight miles on horseback. We 
 saw, in the course of our day's journey, several Icelandic 
 tents, pitched in green spots, where the horses employed in 
 carrying goods could feed. The tents used by the natives of 
 the country are made of woollen stuff, and formed like a mar- 
 quee, but very small. They are supported by two poles and 
 a rail, and stretched by means of small cords fastened by 
 stones, or sometimes by wooden pegs. The baggage was 
 heaped up round the outside of the tents which we passed in 
 our way to Miklaholt. Some of the people %vere going for 
 fish, and others returning with it from the coast. They had 
 stopped on account of the weather, about which an Icelander 
 is much more apprehensive than his general habits would 
 seem to indicate. 
 
 Miklaholt is situate on a small eminence, completely sur- 
 rounded by morasses ; and consists of a church, the priest's 
 house, and a few cottages. The priest was not at home when 
 we arrived, but soon made his appearance. His wife receiv- 
 ed us with every demonstration of kindness ; and, shewing 
 us into a small room, the furniture of which consisted of a 
 bed, two tables, a bench, and a few boxes, prepared some 
 coffee for us. When the husband, a tall, good looking man, 
 returned, he displayed an equal degree of kindness and at- 
 tention. He was extremely fond of snuff; and we return- 
 ed his hospitality by a present of some of English manu- 
 facture. The Icelandic snuff-boxes are commonly made
 
 164 
 
 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 
 
 [Ch. II. Snuff-box. 
 
 of wood ; but the better sort of people have them made of 
 the tooth of the sea-horse, or walrus, and ornamented with sil- 
 ver. Their common shape is seen in the vignette, which is taken 
 from one that was presented to us by Mr Simonson of Reikia- 
 vik. The snuff' is put in at the bottom, and taken out at the 
 smaller end, and laid on the back of the hand, from whence 
 it is drawn into the nose. In windy weather, this end of the 
 box is put into the nostril, and the snuff is poured out. The 
 quantity of snuff taken by the Icelanders is very great, and it 
 constitutes one of the most important of the few luxuries 
 which they can be said to enjoy. 
 
 Early in the morning we began to prepare for our depart- 
 ure, and were, as usual, a little disturbed by the curiosity of 
 the people, who crowded rovnid us in the churchyard, and 
 watched all our movements with the most minute attention. 
 The minister, habited very much like an English sailor, imder- 
 took to guide us through the bogs. We were told that we should 
 not find the way through them, on this side of Miklaholt,so bad 
 as on the other, as there was a bridge constructed for the accom- 
 modation of passengers, This bridge we found to be no other 
 ihan a narrow and deep ditch, with loose, sharp stones at the 
 
 i^JKiril-'iF JBOX
 
 Ch. II. Stadarstad.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. l65 
 
 bottom, along which we passed in a string ; for if any of the 
 horses had stepped but a few inches to the right or left, they 
 would infallibly have sunk into the swamp. Having passed 
 the bogs, we came to a stream, which we had to cross a 
 dozen times at least, before we reached the sea-shore, which 
 we gained by passing over a broad and deep ford. Being now 
 upon tolerably firm sand, we put our poneys to the gallop, 
 and soon got over two or three miles very pleasantly. The 
 priest of Miklaholt, having seen us safe across some deep holes 
 filled by the flowing tide, took his leave. 
 
 For the last three days, we had been travelling in the dis- 
 trict called Hnappadals Syssel. About six miles to the west 
 of Miklaholt, we entered Snaefell's Syssel, which forms the 
 extremity of the peninsula, terminated by the Snsefell Jokul. 
 The central part of this peninsula, for its whole length, is 
 occupied by a lofty range of mountains, between which and 
 the sea on the southern side, an extensive tract of flat land 
 intervenes. Beyond Miklaholt we found this plain to narrow 
 considerably, becominc; not more than three or four miles in 
 width. Some part of this extent is sandy, and appears to 
 have been left by the sea. The greatest proportion, however, 
 is boggy ; and the whole is covered with an abundance of fine 
 grass, on which we saw numbers of cattle and sheep grazing. 
 Here and there are small elevations, on one of which we 
 found Stadarstad, a group of buildings, comprising a church ; 
 the habitation of the minister, Mr Jonson, who is Provost of 
 Snie fell's Syssel ; and a few detached cottages. The general 
 appearance of this little hamlet had more the air of neatness 
 and respectability, than any j)lace we had seen since we left 
 Indreholm ; and, on inquiring for the Provost, in order to 
 deliver a letter of introduction from the Bishop, we were 
 pleased to find that his appearance was in conformity with
 
 166 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ca. ii. Stadarstad. 
 
 the impressions which his dwelling had made upon us. He 
 was a good looking man, apparently upwards of sixty years 
 of age, dressed in a gown of coarse black cloth, and a cap of 
 the same stuff. He received us with an air of politeness, 
 which corresponded, as much as any thing we had hitherto 
 seen in this country, with what we are accustomed to regard 
 as the manner of a gentleman. We delivered the Bishop's 
 letter, which came to us while at Indreholm, accompanied 
 with the following epistle. 
 
 ' Dominum perillustrem nobilissimum Mackenzie 
 ' Salvere jubet Geirus Vidalinus. 
 
 ' Exigua haec epistolia, ut data occasione, Praepositis 
 ' Toparchiae Borgarfiordensis, et Snaefellnsessensis tradantur, 
 ' enixe rogo, certe persuasus ut, me vel non rogante, quid- 
 ' quid in eorum potestate situm est, lubentissime servient, ad 
 ' iter tuum facilitandum. Arnorus Jona? tibi quae in Borgar- 
 ' fiordo visu digna sunt indicabit. Gudmundus vero Jonae 
 ' facilem tibi praebebit antiquum montishujus incolam domi- 
 ' nvun Bardum Snsefellsas,* cujus sine auspiciis mons Snaefell 
 ' Jokul vix ac ne vix quidem superari potest.' 
 
 The church at Stadarstad was the best we had seen, except 
 that of Bessestad. It is constructed entirely of wood, and has 
 a pretty large gallery. The weather had now become very 
 serene, and in the evening we had a striking view of Snaefell 
 Jokul, and the mountains stretching from it towards the 
 east, the summits of which were still capped with snow. 
 Those rising immediately behind Stadarstad are very lofty, 
 
 * A sort of tutelar saint of the Snaefell Jokul.
 
 Ch.ii. Lysiehouh.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. l67 
 
 and present a bold and precipitous front towards the sea. 
 Our breakfast consisted of trout, tern eggs, and milk ; and 
 after finishing it, we spent some time in looking over the 
 books in the Provost's house, a few of which we purchased. 
 We found him to be an extremely intelligent man, and par- 
 ticularly well informed on every subject connected with the 
 history and condition of his own country. He was formerly 
 secretary to the late Bishop Finnsson at Skalholt, and re- 
 collected having seen Sir John Stanley there, when on his 
 way to Mount Hekla. 
 
 Having arranged all our little affairs, the Provost left us 
 for a while, and soon returned, so altered by his dress, that 
 we hardly recognised him. He had on a decent black suit, 
 with boots, and had decorated his head with a very respect- 
 able brown wig, and a hat. Altogether he looked much like 
 a country clergyman of the Scotch church. 
 
 We took leave of his wife, who had been very attentive to 
 TiSj and proceeded towards Buderstad, the next stage of our 
 journey. The road for the greatest part of the way lay along 
 the shore. About six miles from Stadarstad, we left the re- 
 gular track, and proceeded towards the mountains (which 
 now begin to approach nearer the sea), in order to visit a 
 hot spring. We found it near a place called Lysiehouls. 
 The water issues from the top of a mount about ten feet high, 
 and fifty yards in diameter, entirely calcareous. The temper- 
 ature of the spring was 96°, and the water had an acidulous 
 taste. Not far from the mount, were great quantities of in- 
 crustations not calcareous, which had evidently been formed 
 by some ancient springs. They were like those we had found 
 at the hot springs of Leira. About half a mile from the 
 spring, we came to a stream of lava that had flowed down the 
 precipices above, and spread over the flat plain intervening
 
 168 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ii. Biukrstad. 
 
 between the mountains and the sea. It did not differ in any 
 respect from the many streams of lava we had seen before. 
 Near Buderstad, we found another mineral water, the taste 
 of which was similar to that of Lysiehouls : the temperature 
 was 46°. 
 
 In approaching Buderstad, it was necessary for us to cross 
 some small inlets of the sea ; and as the tide was flowing, and 
 the creeks were of considerable depth, we did not accomplish 
 this without much difficulty. Our friend, the Provost, how- 
 ever, brought us safely to the end of our day's journey at 
 Buderstad, which place we found situate on the edge of lava, 
 in the same manner as Havnefiord. This is one of the trading 
 stations of Iceland ; and consists of a merchant's house, a 
 large wooden storehouse, a church, and a considerable num- 
 ber of cottages. The house is constructed of bricks, which 
 have been brought hither from Denmark. We were received 
 by Mr Gudmundson, its inhabitant and the principal person 
 of the place, with every demonstration of civility. He is a 
 merchant, and has connections at Reikiavik, and at Copen- 
 hagen. 
 
 The war between England and Denmark has been severely 
 felt by Mr Gudmundson. No vessel has come to Buderstad 
 for three years past, previously to which time, one or two 
 every year used regularly to visit this station. In consequence 
 of this interruption of the intercourse, the inhabitants are in 
 great want of corn, timber, and iron ; and the storehouses are 
 every where full of the produce of tlie country, for which no 
 proper market can be found. 
 
 The curiosity of the people manifested itself no where in 
 such a degree as at this place. We could not move without 
 being closely observed ; and when we a})plied oin* hammers 
 to the lava, with the view of collecting specimens, it seemed
 
 Ch. II. Budcrstad lava.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. IGQ 
 
 to excite no small surprise among the group of people who 
 were watching our motions. But this changed to astonish- 
 ment, when following us into the house, they saw us carefully 
 Avrapping our specimens in paper. Whether they, thought us 
 very wise or very foolish, we could not ascertain. 
 
 Provost Jonson took his leave in the evening, and return- 
 ed to Stadarstad, having previously made us promise that we 
 would write to him on our return to Britain. In Mr Gud- 
 mundson's house Ave passed the night tolerably well, being 
 disturbed only by the crowing of a cock, which took up its 
 lodging in the room where we had fixed our beds. We had 
 a plentiful breakfast the next morning, of mutton, cheese, 
 rye bread, and coffee, and departed highly pleased with the 
 attention we had received. 
 
 Our next stage was to Stappen, farther along the coast 
 towards the west. We found the lava of Buderstad, Avhich it 
 was necessary to cross in our way, far more rugged than any 
 we had met with. Numerous rents and chasms of great depth 
 presented themselves on every side ; and it was with much 
 difficulty and a considerable degree of danger that our horses 
 got across by a winding path, in many places exceedingly 
 steep and rough. On examining one of the caverns which 
 occur in this lava, it appeared to have been formed in a man- 
 ner similar to those we had seen in the Guldbringe Syssel. 
 We penetrated into it about 40 yards upon the surface of the 
 congealed snow, which forms its pavement.* 
 
 After much time spent in crossing this lava, which is here 
 two or three miles in breadth, we at last reached the bay of 
 
 * Egbert Olafson particularly describes the Butla-hraun, or lava of Buder- 
 stad ; and endeavours to account for the vast caves and fissures which appear in 
 it, by supposing that the water of the sea obtained access to the lava, while yet 
 in a heated state.
 
 170 
 
 TRAVELS IN ICELAND, [Ch.ii. Bat/ofStappen. 
 
 Stappen. Here we found a large extent of flat sand forming 
 the beach, upon which Ave halted, and measured a base, with 
 the view of calculating the height of the Snsefell Jokul, from 
 the foot of which mountain we were now not very far distant. 
 The atmosphere being perfectly clear, we succeeded in tak- 
 ing angles, by a calculation from which we ascertained the 
 height of the mountain to be 4,558 feet. AVe afterwards 
 found that this estimate did not differ more than a few feet 
 from the measurement of the Danish otBcers, who are now em- 
 ployed in surveying the coasts of Iceland. On the other hand, 
 Egbert Olafson, one of the most eminent naturalists of Iceland 
 in modern times, asserts that, by barometrical measurement, 
 he found the height of the mountain to be not less than 7,000 
 feet ; a calculation certainly differing widely from the truth. 
 
 >,M*W(/< 
 
 -S .y,K H- K h jj Jo isri, .
 
 Ch. n. Stajjpen.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. t/l 
 
 The vignette of Snsefell Jokul was taken from the sands upon 
 \\ hich we measured the base. 
 
 On leaving the beach, the road became more and more ro- 
 mantic. We ascended and descended by winding paths, and 
 crept along the edge of high chffs overhanging the sea, over 
 which numerous streams were dashed into spray. At one 
 place we crossed a rapid stream within a few feet of the pre- 
 cipice over which the water fell. Numerous flights of sea- 
 birds rendered the scene still more lively. We found Stappen 
 on the brow of a range of curiously columnar rocks, large in- 
 sulated masses of which stood in the sea, in various singular 
 forms. We had not expected to find the Jokul a volcanic 
 mountain , but the observation we now made, of streams of 
 lava ha\ing descended from it in various directions, left no 
 doubt of this being the case. 
 
 Stappen, like Buderstad, is a trading station, and consists 
 of a merchant's house, two or three storehouses, and a few 
 cottages inhabited by fishermen. We were met at the door 
 of the house by Madame Hialtalin, a Danish lady, whose hus- 
 band, brother to our friend the priest at Saurbar, had been 
 absent for some years. He had been taken prisoner on a voy- 
 age to Denmark, and had afterwards contrived to reach Nor- 
 way ; but, since his arrival in that country, he had not been 
 heard of. The situation of his wife, and her family consisting 
 of six children, was highly deserving of pity; and we had but 
 a melancholy satisfaction in receiving the numerous marks of 
 hospitality which they lavishly bestowed upon us. The man- 
 ners of Madame Hialtalin were those of a lady, and appeared 
 to us to the greatest advantage. * The house was perfectly 
 
 * We have since had the pleasure of learning, that Mr Hialtalin returned to 
 Iceland the following summer.
 
 172 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ii. Columnar rocks. 
 
 clean, and the rooms neatly furnished. The principal bed- 
 room was really a most refreshing sight to us, after the places 
 of nightly abode to which we had for some time been accus- 
 tomed. From the roof was suspended a small glass chande- 
 lier. There were three windows with festooned curtains of 
 white muslin; a handsome canopy bed, with very neat cotton 
 furniture, sheets white as snow, and, as usual, a heap of Eider- 
 down upon it. From the window there was a fine view of the 
 mountains ; and the dashing of a little stream over its rocky 
 bed beneath, produced a very pleasing sound. Nothing could 
 exceed the gratification we derived from the good breeding 
 and attention of our hostess and her family. 
 
 The coast in the neighbourhood of Stappen is very remark- 
 able ; presenting, for the extent of about two miles, striking 
 and beautiful columnar appearances, both in the cliffs which 
 form the shore, and in the numerous insulated rocks which 
 aj)pcar at different distances from the land. The ranges of 
 columns, which in general are about fifty feet high, and per- 
 fectly regular in their forms, are variously broken, in conse- 
 quence of their exposvire to the action of the sea. In some 
 places large caves have been formed; and in two of these the 
 light is admitted by fissures in the roof, producing a very sin- 
 gular and striking effect. 
 
 In general, the columns have a vertical position ; but in 
 different places they are disposed in bundles upon one an- 
 other in all directions. In several instances they appear di- 
 verging from a centre ; and they assume, in short, every form 
 which such rocks can be imagined to take. About a mile and 
 a half to the west of Stappen, there is a curious perforated 
 rock, forming a detachetl arch of considerable magnitude, 
 the view through which is singularly picturesque, comprefiend- 
 jng in the foreground many of the insulated masses of colura-
 
 Ch. II. Columnar rocks.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 
 
 173 
 
 nar rock, and in the distance, the fine range of mountains, 
 which stretches along the peninsula towards the east. On the 
 ^vhole, it is probal)le that a more curious range of cliffs is no- 
 where to be seen, both with respect to the picturesque appear- 
 ances they present, and also from the interesting facts they 
 offer to the attention of the geologist. 
 
 We proceeded along the coast, till interrupted by a broad 
 and rugged stream of lava, the characters of which were differ- 
 ent from any Ave had before surveyed. It originated in some 
 part of the Snaefell Jokul, and had flowed into the sea ; but 
 we could not discover any way by which we might safely reach 
 the place where it had met the water. The lav'as of this dis- 
 trict are very ancient ; no eruptions having taken place, either 
 from the Snaefell Jokul, or from any part of the adjacent 
 range of mountains, since the island first became inhabited. 
 
 '■^.'f...,/. 
 
 C'-:\^K .liT Staj'pe:^'.
 
 1 "^ TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cii. ii. To Olafsvih 
 
 Wc remained at Stappen nearly two days, occupied in 
 the survey of the various inte.esling objects in its vicinity. 
 On the second day of our stay here, we took a boat for 
 the purpose of examining from the sea tiie columnar cliffs 
 and caves already described, which in many points are thus 
 seen more advantageously than they can be from the shore. 
 We saw on the beach at Stappen several sharks that had 
 been taken for the sake of the oil of the liver, and the 
 skin : two or three of these fish were of very large size. 
 In several parts of Iceland, particularly on the northern 
 and north-western coasts, the shark fishery is a regular oc- 
 cupation. Strong hooks fastened to chains, and baited with 
 muscles, &c. are- anchored a little way out at sea, and the 
 fish, when caught, are towed on shore. Of the skin, shoes are 
 made ; and some parts of the flesh are occasionally smoked, 
 and used as food by the natives. It was long before we could 
 prevail on Madame Hialtalin to procure us a little of this de- 
 licacy ; but when it did make its appearance, our noses were 
 assailed by so horrible an odour, that we were glad to have 
 it removed as soon as possible. 
 
 It was our original design to have attempted the ascent of 
 the Snsefell.Jokul from the side of Stappen; but having been 
 disappointed in this by the foggy state of the weather, we took 
 leave of our kind hostess on the 2d July, and set ovit for Olafs- 
 vik, on the northern coast of Snaifell's Syssel, to visit Mr 
 Clausen. On our leaving the house at Stappen, we Avere 
 honoured by the display of the Danish flag, which was hoisted 
 on the roof. We retraced our steps for a few miles, and then, 
 by a pass called the Kamskard, began to ascend the mountains. 
 There are different routes by which one can reach Olafsvik from 
 Stappen. That rovind the coast, by the west side of the Jokul, 
 is very dangerous, and we preferred the one we took, as being
 
 Ch.ii. Olafsvik.] TRAVELS IN ICELANI>. 175 
 
 the best and most secure. The ascent was long and fatiguing; 
 but we were amply repaid for our labour, by a very fine moun- 
 tain scene at the summit, and an extensive view towards the 
 north of the great bay called Breide-Fiord, Avitli the mountains 
 of the Dale and Bardestrand Syssels in the remote distance. 
 While descending, we came to a stream which fell over a pre- 
 cipice, forming an extremely fine cascade. The rocks above 
 the channel of the stream were connx)sed of very perfect co- 
 lumns, about sixty feet in height. 
 
 On reaching the shores of the Breide-Fiord, we travelled two 
 or three miles to the westward to Olafsvik, which place is si- 
 tuate on the side of a fine bay. It consists of the dwelling- 
 houses of Mr Clausen and his factor, and about a dozen cot- 
 tages scattered on the rising ground behind, which is bounded 
 by grand precipices. The beach was covered with numerous 
 piles of dried fish ; and we found the warehouses quite full of 
 the same article, for which lately no sufficient market has 
 been found. We afterwards learned from Mr Clausen, that 
 his stock at Olafsvik consisted of several hundred thousand 
 fish, salted or dried ; besides very large quantities of woollen 
 goods, stockings, gloves, &c. manufactured in the country, 
 and ready for exportation. 
 
 Mr Clausen, who had returned from Reikiavik by sea a short 
 time before, received us with much kindness, and introduced 
 us to his wife, a lady whose appearance and manners we found 
 extremely pleasing. She is a native of Denmark, and came 
 over to Iceland only two or three years ago. 
 
 The weather having now become more favourable, the 
 ascent of the Snaefell Jokul was accomplished by my friends 
 on the 3d of July ; and I give the following narrative of the 
 expedition in the words of Mr Bright. 
 
 ' After a hesitation of an hour or two, on account of the
 
 176 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ll. SnafellJokul. 
 
 ' doubtful appearance of the day, Mr Holland and myself, with 
 ' our interpreter, and one of our guides, who was very desirous 
 ' of accompanying us, p\it ourselves under the direction of a 
 ' stout Icelander, who undertook to be our leader in the ascent 
 ' of the Jokul. He, however, honestly confessed, that he had 
 ' never been higher up the movintain than the verge of the 
 ' perpetual snow, as the sheep never wandered beyond that 
 ' limit ; but this was also the case with the other inhabitants 
 ' of the district. Every one of us provided himself with an 
 ' Iceland walking staff, furnished with along spike at the end; 
 ' and, in case of need, Ave carried some pairs of large coarse 
 ' worsted stockings of the country manufacture. We like- 
 ' wise had our hammers and bags for specimens, a compass 
 ' and thermometer, a bottle of brandy, with some rye-bread 
 
 * and cheese. 
 
 * Thus equipped, we set forward on our march ; and hav- 
 ' ing passed two or three cottages, whose inhabitants gazed 
 ' with wonder at our expedition, we directed our course in 
 
 * nearly a straight line towards the margin of the snow. The 
 ' nearer we approached it, vegetation became more and more 
 
 * scanty, and at length almost entirely disappeared. After 
 ' walking at a steady pace for two hours, in which time we 
 ' had gone about six miles, we came to the first snow, and 
 
 * prepared ourselves for the more arduous part of our enter- 
 ' prize. The road being now alike new to all, we were as 
 ' competent as our guides to the direction of our further 
 
 * course. The summits of all the surrounding mountains 
 ' were covered with mist ; but the Jokul was perfectly clear ; 
 ' and as the sun did not shine so bright as to dazzle our eyes 
 
 * with the reflection from the snow, we entertained good hopes 
 ' of accomplishing our purpose. During the first hour the 
 
 * ascent was not very difficult, and the snow was sufficiently
 
 Cb. u. SnafellJohii] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 17/ 
 
 * soft to yield to the pressure of our feet. After that time 
 
 * the acclivity was steeper, the snow became harder, ami 
 ' deep fissures appeared in it, which we were obliged to cross, 
 ' or to avoid by going a considerable way round. These fis- 
 
 * sures presented a very beautifid spectacle ; they were at 
 
 * least thirty or forty feet in depth, and though not in genc- 
 
 * ral above two or three feet wide, they admitted light enough 
 ' to display the brilliancy of their white and nigged sides. As 
 ' we ascended, the inferior mountains gradually diminished 
 
 * to the sight, and we beheld a complete zone of clouds 
 
 * encircling us, while the Jokul still remained clear and dis- 
 ' tinct. From time to time the clouds, partially separating, 
 ' formed most picturesque arches, through which we descried 
 ' the distant sea, and still farther off, the mountains on the 
 ' opposite side of the Breide-Fiord, stretching northwards 
 ' towards the most remote extremity of the island. 
 
 ' In the progress of our ascent, we were obliged frequently 
 to allow ourselves a temporary respite, by sitting down for 
 a few minutes on the snow. About three o'clock, we ar- 
 rived at a chasm, which threatened to put a complete stop 
 to our progress. It was at least forty feet in depth, and 
 nearly six feet wide ; and the opposite side presented a face 
 like a wall, being elevated several feet above the level of the 
 surface on which we stood ; besides which, from the falling 
 in of the snow in the interior of the chasm, all the part on 
 which we were standing was undermined, so that we were 
 afraid to approach too near the brink lest it should give 
 way. Determined, however, not to renounce the hope of 
 passing this barrier, we followed its course till we found a 
 place that encouraged the attempt. The opposite bank was 
 here not above four feet high, and a mass of snow formed 
 a bridge, a very insecure one indeed, across the chasm. 
 
 z
 
 178 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ca. u. SnafellJokul. 
 
 Standing upon the brink, we cut with our poles three or four 
 steps in the bank on tlie other side, and then, stepj)ing as 
 Hghtly as possible over the bridge, we passed one by one to 
 the steps, which we ascended by the help of our poles. The 
 snow on the opposite side became immediately so excessively 
 steep, that it required our utmost efforts to prevent our 
 sliding back to the edge of the precipice, in which case we 
 should inevitably have been plunged into the chasm. This 
 dangerous part of our ascent did not continue long ; and 
 we soon found ourselv'es on a tolerably level bank of snow, 
 with a precipice on our right about 60 feet perpendicular, 
 presenting an appearance as if the snow on the side of the 
 mountain had slipped away, leaving behind it the part on 
 which we stood. We were now on the summit of one of the 
 three peaks of the mountain ; that which is situated farthest 
 to the east. We beheld immediately before us a fissure 
 greatly more formidable in width and depth than any we 
 had passed, and which, indeed, offered an insuperable ob- 
 stacle to our further progress. The highest ^leak of the 
 Jokul was still a hundred feet above us ; and after looking 
 at it sometime with the mortification of disappointment, and 
 making some fruitless attempts to reach, at least, a bare ex- 
 posed rock which stood in the middle of the fissure, we were 
 obliged to give up all hope of advancing further. 
 
 ' The peak of the Jokul we had now attained, is about 
 4,460 feet above the level of the sea. The extensive view 
 which we might have obtained from this elevated point, was 
 almost entirely intercepted by the great masses of cloud, 
 which hung upon the sides of the mountain, and admitted 
 only partial and indistinct views of the landscape beneath. 
 It has been said by Egbert Olafson, and others, that from 
 one part of the channel which lies between Iceland and
 
 Ch. II. SnafellJohd.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND, 179 
 
 ' Greenland, the mountain of Snsefell Jokvil may be seen on 
 
 * one side, and a lofty mountain in Greenland on the other. 
 ^ It is difficult to ascertain how far this is an accurate state - 
 
 * ment. The distance between the two coimtries at this place 
 
 * cannot be less than eighty or ninety leagues. 
 
 ' The clouds now began rapidly to accumulate, and were 
 
 * visibly rolling up the side of the mountain ; we were there- 
 ' fore anxious to quit our present situation as speedily as 
 ' possible, that we might repass the chasm before we were in- 
 ' volved in mist. Our first object, howev'er, was to examine 
 ' the state of the magnetic needle, which Oiafson in his travels 
 
 * asserts to be put into great agitation at the summit of this 
 ^ mountain, and no longer to retain its polarity. What may 
 
 * be the case a hxmdred feet higher, we cannot affirm ; but 
 ' at the point we reached, the needle was quite stationary, and, 
 ' as far as we could judge, perfectly true. We then noted an 
 ' observation of the thermometer, which we were surprised to 
 ' find scarcely so low as the freezing point ; and after an ap- 
 ' plication to the brandy bottle, began with great care to re- 
 ' trace the footsteps of our ascent. We found re-crossing the 
 ' chasm a work of no small danger ; for whenever we stuck 
 ' our poles into the snow bridge, they went directly through. 
 ' The first person, therefore, who crossed, thrust his pole deep 
 ' into the lower part of the wall, thus affording a point of sup- 
 ' port for the feet of those who followed ; Mr Holland, how- 
 ' ever, who was the second in passing over, had, notwithstand- 
 ' ing, a narrow escape, for his foot actually broke through the 
 ' bridge of snow, and it was with difficulty he rescued himself 
 ' from falling into the chasm beneath. We were scarcely all 
 ' safe on the lower side of the chasm, when the mist surround- 
 ' ing us, made it extremely difficult to keep the tract by which 
 • we had ascended the mountain. When we came opposite
 
 180 
 
 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 
 
 [Ch. II. Olafsvik. 
 
 to a small bank which we had remarked in our ascent as 
 being free from snow, we desired our guide to remain where 
 he was, that we might not lose the path, while we went to 
 examine that spot. We found the bank to be almost entirely 
 composed of fragments of pumice and volcanic scoriae. After 
 our return to the former tract, we made the best of our way- 
 back to Olafsvik, which Ave reached at about a quarter past 
 six, to the great surprise of every one ; for we were scarcely 
 expected till the following morning ; such is the reverential 
 awe inspired by the Jokul. None of our party seemed more 
 gratified with the exploit than our guide, who having always 
 been accustomed to look upon the Jokul as some invincible 
 giant, greatly exulted in this victory over him ; but we after- 
 wards learned, that he found considerable difficulty in mak- 
 ing his friends credit his narrative of the ascent. 
 
 ^/,4 !?~JJ"|
 
 Ch. II. Olafsvik.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 181 
 
 ' Tliermometer at different stages. 
 
 ' At 11 o'clock on the shore 58° Fahren. 
 
 — ]2 on the mountain . . 56° 
 
 — 1 verge of the snow . . . 43° 
 
 — 2 42° 
 
 — 3 39° 
 
 — 3 17 niin. at the highest point . . 34° 
 
 On the snow at the same time . . 32°.'* ' 
 
 We remained three days with Mr Clausen at Olafsvik. 
 During this time several persons came to us for medical ad- 
 vice ; and we inoculated a great number with the vaccine 
 virus. The nearest medical practitioner resides at Stikkes- 
 holm, about forty miles distant. 
 
 During our stay at Olafsvik the weather was remarkably- 
 clear and serene, and even oppressively warm Having a good 
 opportunity from the situation of the place, of observing the 
 setting and rising of the sun, it was found by Mr Holland on 
 the night of the 5th July, that it remained under the horizon 
 exactly two hours and thirty-five minutes. Previously to set- 
 ting, it hung for a long time on the verge of the horizon, and 
 even at midnight it had sunk so little below, that the bright 
 
 * Professor Leslie, in the Appendix to the second edition of his Elements of 
 Geometry, has given a theoretical Table of the height of the curve of congelation 
 in different latitudes. In the latitude of the Snaefell Jokul, theory gives 2722 
 feet as the elevation of the curve. Sir J. T. Stanley, who reached the same sum- 
 mit of the Jokul as that described by Mr Bright, has obligingly informed me, that 
 by barometrical observation, he found the verge of the snow to be 2734 feet above 
 the level of the sea ; which differs only 12 feet from the elevation given in Pro- 
 fessor Leslie's Table ; and shews how very near, in this instance, theory has 
 approached to truth.
 
 182 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cn.n. Ohfsvik. 
 
 glow of the luminary \vas completely visible, and the light 
 sufficient for the pursuance of the most minute occupation. 
 We were at this time in latitude 64° 58' N. 
 
 While in Mr Clausen's house, we felt quite at ease. No 
 obtrusive curiosity, no restraint, incommoded us in our pur- 
 suits ; and our host, having taught himself English, was able, 
 without the uncertain assistance of an interpreter, to give us 
 much information relative both to the topography and com- 
 mercial concerns of Iceland. He had only a collection of 
 voyages, and a volume of Roderick Random, in English ; most 
 of his books in that language being at Copenhagen. He had 
 travelled through several countries of Europe, and at this 
 time talked of going to England, which purpose he has since 
 accomplished. 
 
 In a walk which we took along the coast towards the west, 
 on the last evening of our stay at Olafsvik, Ave saw a great 
 number of seals, at several of which we fired, but without 
 success. These animals are particularly nvuiierous on the 
 shores of the Breide-Fiord. 
 
 We left the hospitable house of Mr Clausen on the 6th of 
 July, and pursued our journey to Grunnefiord, having the 
 intention qf varying our returning route along the peninsula, 
 by following the line of its northern coast. We deviated 
 from the road about fo\ir miles from Olafsvik, to examine 
 some rocks which formed a promontory overhanging the sea. 
 These rocks were columnar, and covered with vast numbers 
 of kittiwakes, which took wing on our approach, and almost 
 darkened the air. We here saw two large sea eagles, which 
 prey upon the water fowl, and are very destructive to the 
 Eider-ducks. Whenever the eagles passed over the rock, the 
 noise made by the kittiwakes stunned our ears. The columns 
 forming this promontory are for the most part vertical, and
 
 Ch. u. Grunnefiord.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 183 
 
 about sixty feet in height. Some of them, however, are con- 
 torted in a very striking manner. They presented some curious 
 geological appearances, which will hereafter be noticed. 
 
 We now approached a place called Bulands-hofde, where 
 the only means of advancing is by a path on the face of a 
 precipice not less than a thousand feet high. To a consider- 
 able height, it is quite perpendicular above the sea, and the 
 path was in many places obliterated by the falling of the rocks 
 and gravel above it. A more difficult and dangerous track 
 cannot well be conceived. We were greatly alarmed lest some 
 of our horses should fall down ; but they passed safely, having 
 given remarkable proof of their steadiness and caution. This 
 pass is totally stopped during winter by ice and snow ; and 
 there are several instances of people who have perished in the 
 attempt to proceed along it. 
 
 All the way from Olafsvik to Grunnefiord, a distance of 
 nearly twenty miles, the mountain scenery is very fine. The 
 lofty precipices are varied in every form, and the summits of 
 the mountains are broken into a thousand abrupt and singu- 
 lar sha[jes. Cataracts are seen foaming and dashing from the 
 rocks, and nothing but wood is wanting to make this one of 
 the most picturesque countries in the world. 
 
 There is one singular mountain not far from Grunnefiord, 
 called Sukker-Toppen (Sugar loaf) in the charts, from its 
 resemblance to a sugar loaf. Viewed from the east or west, 
 the top appears tabular ; but when surveyed from the north 
 or south, it is seen as a cone ending in a sharp point. Thus 
 it appears that the summit of the mountain is an exceedingly 
 narrow ridge. 
 
 We found the merchant's house at Grunnefiord (Green - 
 frith) situate at the head of an arm of the sea of the same 
 name, which is derived from the extensive green flat stretch-
 
 184 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. n. Grunnefioril. 
 
 ing from the sea towards the movuitains. The merchant here, 
 Mr Miiller, was on the eve of departing from the place in 
 order to settle at Reikiavik, and had got most of his goods 
 and furniture on board a sloop which was lying at anchor in 
 the bay. We were well received, and as well entertained as 
 Mr Midler's present circumstances would admit. We slept 
 very comfortably in a room in his house ; and after the usual 
 salutations had been evaded by some of the party, and sub- 
 mitted to by others, we proceeded the next morning towards 
 Stikkesholm, which is about twenty-five miles distant. A 
 day's journey of such a length was a serious undertaking, 
 impeded as we were by a long cavalcade of baggage horses ; 
 and had any bogs been in the way, it would have been im- 
 possible to have travelled so far in one day. 
 
 Our route lay among mountains of a character similar to 
 those we had passed. In a sort of cleft of prodigious magni- 
 tude, we saw a fall of water about 150 feet high, dashing over 
 a rock, of a curious reticulated appearance from the veins 
 which intersect it, and afterwards rushing violently under 
 several arches of snow. The rock, and the whole surrounding 
 scenery, were very magnificent. 
 
 We had now to cross a steep mountain, on the other side 
 of which we met with a stream of lava, and the country be- 
 yond it appeared to be entirely volcanic. The path through 
 this stream was much better than any we had seen in similar 
 situations, and we found very little difficulty in crossing the 
 lava, though it was fully as rugged as that at Buderstad. We 
 observed several cones composed of slags ; and the face of 
 the mountain which we passed, after crossing the lava, was 
 entirely covered with cinders. 
 
 Having at length come to a green spot, near a cottage, we 
 stopped to refresh ourselves and our horses. The poor people
 
 Cb.u. Stikkesholm.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 1S5 
 
 brought us some milk, which we were glad to drink, although 
 we had recently witnessed a very disgusting instance of Ice- 
 landic uncleanliness on a similar occasion. We made our rustic 
 meal on the turf, our horses quietly grazing around us. 
 
 Crossing another stream of lava, near its termination on 
 the shore, we entered a low country, leaving the mountains 
 on our right hand. The indentations made by the sea obliged 
 us to proceed in a very zigzag direction towards Stikkesholm, 
 which is placed at the extremity of a small peninsula. Near 
 the isthmus over which we passed in entering this peninsula, 
 is a hamlet called Helgafell, or the Holy Hill, from its situa- 
 tion upon an eminence, with which certain superstitious ideas 
 and usages were in ancient times connected. On this spot 
 was established one of the earliest of those settlements which 
 the Norwegian emigrants made upon tlie coasts of Iceland. 
 While approaching Stikkesholm, we had several fine views of 
 the Breide-Fiord, which is here completely studded with small 
 rocky islands. Their number is stated to be 150, and this 
 does not seem to be an exaggeration of the fact. Many of 
 these islands contain vast numbers of Eider-ducks. Stikkes- 
 holm is singularly sit\iate close to the sea amidst abruptly 
 precipitous rocks, some of them columnar. 
 
 The houses are large, and, as well as the storehouses and 
 cottages, belong to Mr Tliorlacius, a native of the country, 
 and reputed the richest man in Iceland. He lives at a place 
 called Bildal, in the district of Bardestrand. His factor Mr 
 Benedictson, another merchant, and Mr Hialtalin a surgeon, 
 (son to the venerable priest of Saurbar), occupy the houses 
 at Stikkesholm. The latter gentleman studied at Copenhagen, 
 and was about to settle in some town in Jutland about two 
 years ago, when he was ordered to occupy a vacant medical 
 situation in Iceland. The district allotted to him is very ex- 
 
 2 A
 
 186 TRAViELS IN ICELAND. [Ca. ii. Slikkesholm. 
 
 tensive, and his salary is only about L.12 per annum. The 
 profits arising from his practice during the first year of his 
 residence at Stikkesholm have not exceeded L.6, and on tliis 
 pittance he must support a wife and family. 
 
 Before the war between England and Denmark, Stikkes- 
 holm was a place of considerable traffic. The fishery begins 
 earlier than in the Faxe-Fiord, and is very productive. Only 
 one vessel came hither during the last season, from Norway; 
 and our entertainers were of opinion, that the connection 
 intended to be established with England by the late proclam- 
 ation, would not remove their distresses. Mr Hialtalin was 
 in Copenhagen during the last attack upon that city, and his 
 house, and the greatest part of his property had been de- 
 stroyed by the bombardment. He shewed us an umbrella 
 which had been broken by a shot while he was sleeping under 
 it in a tent. It was not very agreeable to listen to these nar- 
 ratives, as we had nothing to say in vindication of the attack 
 on Copenhagen. Mr Hialtalin also spoke of some bad usage 
 he had met with from the captains of two English ships of 
 war, while he was on his passage to Iceland. He and Mr 
 Benedictson made many inquiries respecting the present state 
 of Europe, and were greatly astonished when told of the mar- 
 riage of Bonaparte. 
 
 We spent the following day, which was Sunday, in the 
 house of Mr Benedictson, at Stikkesholm. During the early 
 part of the day, all the occupations of the people were sus- 
 pended, and many of them went to the neighbouring church 
 at Helgafell ; but, at six o'clock in the evening, the store- 
 houses were again opened, and the inhabitants of the place, 
 resuming their common dresses, went to work as usual. This 
 is the case in every part of the country. The sabbath of the 
 Icelanders, according to the ecclesiastical law of the island.
 
 Ca. It. Drapuhlid.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. IS/ 
 
 begins at six o'clock on Saturday evening, and terminates at 
 the same hour on Sunday; after which time any occupation 
 or amusement may proceed as on the ordinary week days. 
 The females of the family at Stikkesholm, as in the other 
 houses of the higher class of people which we had visited, did 
 not sit at the table when we were eating our meals. We ob- 
 served here, however, that the master of the house always 
 saluted his lady, when himself rising from the table ; a prac- 
 tice which had not occurred to our notice before. 
 
 On our arrival at, and departure from Stikkesholm, we 
 were as usual honoured by the display of the Danish flag. 
 On the 9th, we left the place, accompanied by Mr Hialtalin, 
 who rode with us to the mountain of Drapuhlid, about six 
 miles to the south of Stikkesholm. This mountain, from the 
 previous accounts we had received of it, we had been led to 
 consider as something very remarkable in a mineralogical 
 point of view, and in these expectations we were by no means 
 disappointed. Mr Hialtalin remained at the foot of the 
 mountain while we were examining it; and, on our return, 
 we found the Sysselman of the district with him. This officer 
 had heard of our arrival at Stikkesholm, and came to deliver 
 a message from the Amtmand Stephenson, requesting that we 
 would take his house in our way in returning to Reikiavik. 
 
 We observed a stream of lava that had descended from 
 the mountains behind Drapuhlid, had divided, and run down 
 each side of a ridge which connects this mountain with those 
 to the south. 
 
 On a small grassy spot at the foot of the mountain, we 
 packed up the specimens we had procured ; and enjoyed a 
 draught of excellent milk, brought to us in a wooden vessel 
 from an adjoining cottage. Of this repast the Sysselman and 
 Mr Hialtalin partook with us, the whole party sitting on the
 
 1S8 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cn. ii. JVeavitig. 
 
 grass. Having taken leave of these gentlemen, we pursued our 
 journey to Narfeyre, situate on the east side of the Alpta- 
 Fiord ; an arm of the sea which runs up several miles into 
 the country, and is bounded on each side by lofty and mag- 
 nificent mountains. We had to make a large circuit towards 
 the head of the Fiord, and should have had a longer journey, 
 had not the tide luckily been out ; so that we were enabled to 
 cross the mud, by the help of a guide whom we took with 
 us from the cottage near Drapuhlid. We found a very good 
 church at Narfeyre, and took up our quarters for the night 
 in it, On examining the loft of the building, we saw lying 
 on a chest a mass which we were told was human fat that had 
 been taken out of a grave. It appeared, however, to be the 
 muscular substance converted into the saponaceous matter 
 so much resembling spermaceti, a change effected by water. 
 This is reckoned a very precious article as a medicine, and is 
 frequently used by the Icelanders in pulmonary complaints. 
 
 Before our departure from Narfeyre, we went into the 
 farm-house adjoining the church, to see the mode of weaving 
 commonly employed in Iceland. The whole process is auk- 
 ward and laborious. The threads for the woof hang perpen- 
 dicularly, being stretched by stones tied to them on a wooden 
 frame. No shuttle is used ; but a thread is passed across the 
 woof by the hand, and is stretched by rubbing a little piece 
 of wood upon the threads. A portion of the rib of a whale, 
 nicely polished, and shaped somewhat like a broad sword, is 
 then introduced between the threads, and with this the warp 
 is struck forcibly. In this way, a woman can weave a yard of 
 stuff in a day. The stuff we saw in this loom, was conijiosed 
 of red and yellow threads, and was intended for a bed-cover. 
 These articles are exchanged for fish ; and the value of three 
 yards is reckoned to be somewhat less than two dollars.
 
 Ch. II. To Snoksdalr.'\ TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 189 
 
 Having procured a guide, we set out for Snoksdalr, the 
 next stage of our journey. The wind blew sharply from the 
 north-east, and the day was the coldest we had yet experi- 
 enced. The country through which our route lay, was for 
 the most part low, and totally uninteresting. Not far from 
 Narfeyre, there was a considerable track covered with small 
 birch shrubs. Excepting the hamlet called Breidabolstadr, 
 where there is a church and a solitary cottage, no human 
 habitation appeared to enliven the dreary scene. We kept 
 along the shore of the Fiord, and after a tedious and unplea- 
 sant ride of about twenty-four miles, reached Snoksdalr at 
 eight o'clock in the evening, where we found a good farm-, 
 house and a small church. The latter did not differ materially 
 from those we had already seen, except in having a different 
 subject for the altar-piece, which was the stoning of St Ste- 
 phen. On each side of the altar was a large chair, in the bot- 
 tom of which were kept the habiliments of the priest. There 
 were two dresses ; one of them of a red stuff, having a large 
 cross embroidered in white, on each side of the robe. Tlie 
 other was made of a sort of crimson velvet or plush, the 
 crosses being formed of silver lace. Over the door- way to 
 the altar was a curious group of male figures carved in wood, 
 which appeared as if intended to represent Christ disputing 
 with the doctors. 
 
 Snoksdalr formed the limit of our northern journey. It is 
 situate at a short distance from the extremity of the Breide- 
 Fiord, on the brow of a hill, and in a very exposed situation, 
 but in the midst of plenty of grass. We took up our abode in 
 the church, while the inhabitants of the adjoining house cheer- 
 fully supplied us with curds and milk, upon which suj)ply we 
 now entirely depended, our stock of biscuit being nearly ex- 
 hausted. We remained here during tlue M'hole of the llthj
 
 190 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ii. To Iluam. 
 
 in order that the horses might recruit their strength, for a long 
 and fatiguing day's journey which they were next to encoun- 
 ter. About Snoksdah" the country begins again to be moun- 
 tainous, and towards the north and east nothing is to be seen 
 but long ranges of dreary hills stretching across the narrow 
 isthmus, which here separates the Breide-Fiord from the sea 
 on the northern shores of Iceland. The breadth of this isth- 
 mus, fi'om Snoksdalr to the nearest inlet on the northern 
 coast, does not exceed forty miles. The cold north-east wind 
 continued to blow, and to render our abode here by no means 
 comfortable. The church too was in bad repair, and ex- 
 ceedingly damp ; and at no time, during the day we passed 
 in it, did the thermometer stand above 45°, even in the build- 
 ing. The latitude of Snoksdalr is about 65° 5'. 
 
 At five o'clock on the morning of the 12th, we recom- 
 menced our journey. After crossing a rugged hill behind 
 Snoksdalr, we entered an extensive valley, well clothed with 
 grass, and studded with a number of cottages, to each of 
 which a portion of the pasture belongs. We were told that 
 there were about thirty such divisions in the valley, and that 
 the greater part of the land in it is kept for pasture, no hay 
 being made excepting round the farm-houses. From the num- 
 ber of such valleys contained in this district, the Dal^ Syssel, 
 in which we were now travelling, derives its name. 
 
 From this valley, which is called Middalur, we passed into 
 another, which gradually contracted for two or three miles, 
 till we got to the foot of a steep and lofty ridge of mountains, 
 called Brautarbrekkar. The ascent of this was long and labori- 
 ous ; but we were gratified, on arriving at the top, with a view 
 of some fine moimtains, stretching towards the south as far 
 ■as the Western Skards-heide. The descent into the valley, on 
 ihe south side, was very rapid. Having advanced a little way
 
 Cm. II. Sidumule.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. J9l 
 
 into the valley, we dismounted, and took our breakfast by the 
 side of a small stream. This done, the sun shining fvdl upon 
 us, we stretched ourselves upon the grass, and slept for an 
 hour very comfortably, though snow lay not a hundred feet 
 above. A lofty and singular mountain, called Baula, forms 
 the eastern side of the valley ; the direction of which is nearly 
 north and south. After proceeding along it for some miles, 
 we turned to the north-east, round Baula, which bears a strik- 
 ing resemblance to the mountain of Drapuhlid near Stikkes- 
 holm. We were now in the valley of the Norderaa, a con- 
 siderable river, which we crossed several times before reach- 
 ing the farm-house called Huam, where our day's journey 
 terminated. 
 
 We were now on the border of the low countrj^ through 
 the centre of which the Huitaa flows. Having passed the 
 night in the church at Huam, we recommenced our journey 
 the following morning, attended by the farmer, who very 
 readily undertook the office of guide. He was an oddly 
 shaped, merry, and active little man, mounted on a miser- 
 able horse, which, by dint of constant kicking, he made to 
 move forwards at a great rate. After crossing several rocky 
 ridges, we descended into the valley of the Huitaa, ten or 
 twelv'e miles above the place where we had formerly crossed 
 this river. In our way we passed through some birch wood, 
 which was the tallest we had yet met with, the trees, in ge- 
 neral, being from six to ten feet high. 
 
 We stopped at Sidumule, the abode of Mr Otteson, Sys- 
 selman of the Myrfe and Hnappadals Syssels. This gentle- 
 man, whom we had already seen for a (ew moments at Stad- 
 arhraun, from his answers to the various questions we pro- 
 posed to him, seemed to be fully master of the duties of his 
 office ; in which, however, he had been only a short time
 
 19^ TRAVELS IN ICELAKD, [Ch. n. Huilar-vdlir. 
 
 installed. In his library we found Danish translations of Sir 
 Charles Grandison, of Addison's Cato, and other English 
 works. If we might judge from the appearance of Mr Otte- 
 son's dairy, in which we saw twenty- four large dishes full of 
 milk, his farm, and his management of it, must be very good. 
 
 Having been informed by Mr Otteson that we could not 
 get across the river Huitaa at this place, without great risk 
 of wetting our baggage, we were under the necessity of alter- 
 ing our plans ; and instead of crossing directly to Reikholt, 
 we resolved to return to Huaneyre, and from thence visit the 
 hot springs near the former place. Mr Otteson was going to 
 Huaneyre, and offered to be our guide. The banks of the 
 river, almost the whole way, were swampy, and we had to 
 M'ind through the bogs in various directions, which rendered 
 our journey tedious and very disagreeable. We examined a 
 hot spring on the western bank of the river, but found no- 
 thing remarkable about it. The temperature was l65°. 
 
 About eight miles from Sidumule, we crossed the Huitaa 
 at a place where it was very broad, and so deep that the 
 water reached our saddles. The singular colour of the water 
 in this river was formerly mentioned. The stream, in general, 
 is about one hundred yards broad, and very rapid. The left 
 bank we found to be as boggy as the other ; but, under Mr 
 Otteson's direction, who was very skilful in selecting the best 
 route across these swamps, we got rapidly forward. On ar- 
 riving at Huitar-vellir, the place where we had before crossed 
 the river, we found that the hay harvest was just begun, 
 several peasants being engaged in cutting the grass around 
 the priest's house. Here we were informed that Amtmand 
 Stephenson had gone to Reikiavik, which to us was a piece 
 of bad news, as we had relied upon the use of his horses to 
 go to Reikholt next day. But our usual good fortune did
 
 Ch. II. Son ofiheAmtmand.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 193 
 
 not forsake us. Not only the Amtmand, but our good friend 
 Mr Fell, arrived at Huaneyrb from Reikiavik, almost at the 
 same moment with ourselves ; and tliis unexpected meeting 
 gave uncommon pleasure to the whole party. Mr Fell had 
 come over into the Borgarfiord Syssel, to make some inquiry 
 respecting the salmon fishery in this district. We also found 
 here Mr Magnuson, who is Sysselman of the Dale S^'ssel. 
 This large party, added to a very large family, occasioned 
 some consultation on the manner in which we were all to be 
 disposed of during the night. We were not suffered to wait 
 for our baggage horses ; the good people set themselves to 
 work, and, by means of chairs, and mattresses filled with 
 Eider-down, soon made up a sufficient number of beds. From 
 the noise over our heads, it was probable that the whole 
 family, males and females, were crammed together in the loft. 
 It is not uncommon in Iceland, as it must be in all countries 
 imder similar circumstances of poverty, for people of all 
 ranks, ages, and sexes, to sleep in the same apartment. Their 
 notions of decency are unavoidably not very refined ; but we 
 had sufficient proof that the instances of this which we wit- 
 nessed expressed nothing but perfect innocence. 
 
 Mr Bright being somewhat indisposed, Mr Holland and I 
 occupied the following day in visiting the valley of Reikholt, 
 leaving him behind with great regret. We were accompanied 
 part of the way by the Amtmand, Mr Magnuson, and Mr 
 Fell. The two former were going to hold a judicial court at 
 a place called Huitaar, in the Myre Syssel. The eldest son 
 of the Amtmand was our guide, a youth about sixteen years 
 of age, and of the most promising talents. The fiuency and 
 elegance with which he spoke the Latin language, and the 
 progress he had made in the English under his uncle the 
 Chief Justice, were far less surprising to us than the shrewd- 
 
 2b
 
 191 ^ TRAVELS m ICTLL\-SD.[Ch. 11. Reikholt hot springSi 
 
 ness of his remarks on every subject which occurred in con- 
 versation. His father intends to send him to Copenhagen. 
 If life shall be granted to him, and proper opportunities of 
 prosecuting his studies, we venture to prophecy, that this 
 young man will prove an honour to his native country, which 
 may derive much advantage from his public services. 
 
 After traversing a great extent of swampy ground, and 
 encoimtering many difficulties in our progress through it, we 
 at length reached the entrance of the valley ; the natural 
 curiosities of which greatly exceeded the expectation we had 
 formed of them. 
 
 The hot springs in the valley of Reikholt, or Reikiadal,* 
 though not the most magnificent, are perhaps the most curious 
 among the numerous phenomena of this sort that are found 
 in Iceland. Some of them, indeed, excite a greater degree 
 of interest than the Geyser, though they possess none of the 
 terrible grandeur of that celebrated fountain ; and are well 
 calcvilated to exercise the ingenuity of natural philosophers. 
 On entering the valley, we saw numerous columns of vapour 
 ascending from different parts of it. The first springs we 
 visited, issued from a ninnber of apertures in a sort of plat- 
 form of rock, covered by a thin coating of calcareous incrvist- 
 ations. We could not procure any good specimens, but from 
 those we broke off, the rock appeared to be greenstone. 
 From several of the apertures the water rose with great force, 
 and was thrown two or three feet into the air. On plunging 
 the thermometer into such of them as we could approach with 
 safety, we found that it stood at 212'. ••> 
 
 A little farther up the valley, there is a rock in the middle 
 
 * Reikholt, means smoky hill ; Reikiadal, smoky valley ; Reikiadals-aa, the 
 river of the smoky valley.
 
 <2ti. 11. IteikHvlt hot spr{ngs.]TnA\'r.LS IN ICELAND." 
 
 195 
 
 of the river, about ten feet high, twelve yards long, and six 
 or eight feet in breadth. From the highest part of this rock 
 a jet of boiling water proceeded with violence. The water 
 was daslied up to the height of several feet. Near the middle 
 and not more than two feet from the edge of the rock, there 
 is a hole, about two feet in diameter, full of water, boiling 
 strongly. There is a third hole near the other end of the 
 rock, in which water also boils briskly. At the time we saw 
 these springs, there happened to be less water in the river 
 than usual, and a bank of gravel was left dry a little higher 
 up than the rock. From this bank a considerable quantity 
 of boiling water issued. 
 
 About two miles farther up tlie valley, on the opposite side 
 
 ■J/lM^///'-"/- 
 
 JiDiT.iiTo Hmu^oajix'rBX arrisa BEiKiAJDAX,sa..v.
 
 19^ TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cu.u.Baih. 
 
 of the river, whose windings rendered it necessary for us to 
 cross it several times, are the church of Reikholt, and the 
 minister's house. We went thither for the purpose of ex- 
 amining a bath which was built nearly 600 years ago by the 
 celebrated Snorro Sturleson. The bath is a circular bason, 
 constructed of stones, apparently without any cement, but 
 nicely fitted together. It is about fourteen feet in diameter, 
 and altogether about six feet deep, the water being allowed 
 to fill it to the depth of about four feet. The hot water is 
 brought from a spring about 100 yards distant, by means of 
 a covered conduit, Avhich has been somewhat injured by an 
 earthquake. We were told that cold water had been brought 
 to it, so that, by mixing the hot and cold together, any de- 
 sired temperature luight be obtained. All round the inside, 
 a little way under the surface of the water, was a row of 
 projecting stones, placed apparently to serve the purpose of 
 steps. Steps were constructed as an entrance to the bath, 
 close to the orifice by which the hot water entered. At pre- 
 sent it is not much used, and the bottom is covered with 
 veiietable matter and soil. 
 
 In the absence of the minister, we were politely received 
 by his wife, who gave us some excellent cream ; a good proof 
 of the quality of the pastures of this valley. 
 
 Proceeding down the valley on the side opposite to that on 
 which we entered it, we came to a group of cottages, situate 
 close to some hot springs. In the Avater of one of them we saw 
 some pots, containing milk and curds. There is a sort of na- 
 tural dome, several feet in diameter, formed over part of this 
 spring, of clay and stones. It intermits at short and pretty 
 regular intervals. Having sat down near an orifice in the 
 dome from which steam was rushing, we obseived that the 
 noise suddenly ceased, and the water, when it was visible, sunk
 
 Cb. u.Retkhohhofspt'ngs.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 197 
 
 down amonffst the stones in its channel, leaving them dry. 
 After a short interval, the noise recommenced, steam rushed 
 forth, and boiling water followed. We observed many repe- 
 titions of this phenomenon, and the intervals were scarcely 
 two minutes. It may be easily explained in the same manner 
 as that of ordinary intermittent springs, connecting such an 
 apparatus as is supposed to belong to them, with one in which 
 steam may be brought into action in order to force the water 
 upwards. Upon part of the mound or dome mentioned above, 
 and extending a little way beyond, a hut was constructed, the 
 entrance to which was by a long, narrow, and low passage. 
 The heat of the earth occasioned by the hot water was here 
 confined, so that the temperature of the air was 73°. No use 
 was made of this hut except for the drying of clothes. It is 
 singular that the people have not contrived the means of 
 heating their apartments by the hot springs that are steady in 
 their operations. One would think, that the great scarcity of 
 fuel, and the difficulty of procuring it, would have suggested 
 this long ago. The fear of danger does not exist, for the 
 habitations are close to the springs; and near the place where 
 boiling water is thrown out with the most terrible violence, 
 and which will afterwards be described, the natives quietly 
 repose. Their not having taken advantage of this natural 
 source of comfort, must proceed from that want of enterprise, 
 which is so conspicuous in the character of the Icelanders of 
 the present day. 
 
 About a mile farther down, at the foot of the valley, is the 
 Tunga-hver, an assemblage of springs the most extraordinary, 
 perhai)s, in the whole world. A rock (uatkel'J rises from the 
 bog, about twenty feet, and is about fifty yards in length, the 
 breadth not being considerable. This seems formerly to have 
 been a hillock, one side of which remains covered with grass,
 
 198 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ii. Jlternaling Ceyser. 
 
 while the other has been worn away, or perhaps dcstroved at 
 the time when the hot water burst forth. Along the face of 
 the rock are arranged no fewer than sixteen springs, all of 
 them boiling furiously, and some of them throwing the water 
 to a considerable height. One of them, however, deserves par- 
 ticular notice. On apj)roaching this |)lace, we observed a high 
 jet of water, near one extremity of the rock. Suddenly this jet 
 disappeared, and another thicker, but not so high, rose with- 
 in a very short distance of it. At first we supposed that a 
 piece of the rock had given way, and that the water had at 
 that moment found a more convenient passage. Having left 
 our horses, we went directly to the place where this had ap- 
 parently happened ; but we had scarcely reached the spot, 
 when this new jet disappeared, and the one we had seen before 
 was renewed. We observed that there were two irregular 
 holes in the rock within a yard of each other ; and while from 
 one, a jet proceeded to the height of twelve or fourteen feet, 
 the other was full of boiling water. We had scarcely made 
 this observation, when the first jet began to subside, and the 
 water in the other hole to rise ; and as soon as the first had 
 entirely sunk down, the other attained its greatest height, 
 which was about five feet. In this extraordinary manner, these- 
 two jets played alternately. The smallest and highest jet con- 
 tinued about four minutes and a half, and the other about 
 three minutes. We remained admiring this very remarkable 
 phenomenon for a considerable time, during which we saw 
 many alternations of the jets, which happened regularly at 
 the intervals already mentioned. 
 
 This spring may be distinguished by the name of the 
 
 ALTERNATING GEYSER. 
 
 These springs have been formerly observed, though the 
 singularity of the alternations does not seem to have been
 
 Ch. n. Alternating Get/ser.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 
 
 199 
 
 attended to as any thing remarkable. Olafson and Paulson 
 mention, that the jets appear and disappear successively in 
 the second, third, and fourth openings. We observed no 
 cessation in any of the springs but in the two under consider- 
 ation. 
 
 To form a theory of this regular alternation is no easy mat- 
 ter ; and it seems to require a kind of mechanism very differ- 
 ent from the simple apparatus usually employed by nature 
 in ordinary intermittent or spouting springs. The prime 
 mover in this case is evidently steam, an agent sufficiently 
 powerful for the phenomena. The two orifices are manifestly 
 connected ; for, as the one jet sinks towards the surface, 
 the other rises ; and this in a regular and uniform manner. 
 We observed once, that when one of the jets was sinking, and 
 the other beginning to rise, the first rose again a little before 
 
 ■""^'■r-^rSt.,,. 
 
 S.Mi6A^/&f%r 
 
 THE TimOPHVXR Ainj ALTEBSATIITO OEYSEB .
 
 200 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [CH.ii.AmfmajidSlephenson. 
 
 it had quite sunk down ; and when this happened, the other 
 ceased to make any efforts to rise, and reJurned to its former 
 state, till the first again simk ; when the second rose and 
 played as usual. This communication must be formed in 
 such a manner, that it is never complete, but alternately in- 
 terrupted, first on one side, and then on another. 
 
 Not having obtained any explanation which we can con- 
 sider quite satisfactory, and having been unable entirely to 
 overcome the difficulty, we leave its solution to the ingenuity 
 of those who may think the phenomenon of the Alternating 
 Geyser worthy the exercise of their talents. 
 
 The examination of the various natural wonders in the 
 valley of Reikholt, detained us so long, that we did not reach 
 Huaneyre \mtil a late hour in the evening ; and we found the 
 rest of the party, who had left the place in the morning, 
 already re- assembled there. 
 
 Of all the Icelanders we had hitherto met with, we agreed 
 that the Amtmand Stephenson had most of the appearance 
 and manners of an Englishman. He is unassuming and mild 
 in his address, and possesses something more than good com- 
 mon sense. With the exception of Mr Steingrim Jonson of 
 Bessestad, he is the only person in Iceland who imderstands 
 the French language, which he speaks with considerable 
 facility. His property and rank, as well as character, give 
 him a high degree of respectability among his countrymen. 
 
 The Amtmand did not terminate his great civility when 
 we quitted his house the following morning, on our return to 
 Reikiavik, but attended us several miles on the road to In- 
 dreholm. Mr Fell having expressed his wonder at the swift 
 pacing of the Amtmand's horse, I was requested to try it. 
 The poney paced with me at the rate of twelve or fourteen 
 miles an hour, while I felt as if sitting in an easy chair ; and
 
 Ch.ii. Indreholm.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 201 
 
 when, on dismounting, I spoke in warm terms of my admira- 
 tion of the animal's performance, and the pleasure it had 
 given me, the Amtmand, with a politeness that could not be 
 surpassed at the most refined court, requested that I would 
 honour him by accepting his horse. In spite of my remon- 
 strances against his parting with an animal so valuable to him, 
 and which it was probably impossible for me to convey to 
 England, he pressed the matter so much that I was obliged 
 to comply with his desire. He is himself famous in Iceland 
 for the rapidity of his travelling. With two or three led 
 horses, he usually accomplishes 100 English miles in twenty- 
 four hours. 
 
 We had a charming day for viewing the stupendous pre- 
 cipices of the Eastern Skards-heide, over which mountains we 
 again passed. On our return to Leira, we found all in a 
 bustle preparing for a wedding, which was to be celebrated 
 in the afternoon. Not wishing to mtrude, we stopped only 
 to take a dish of coffee. The priest, and a number of people, 
 dressed in their holiday clothes, had already arrived. Though 
 it would have gratified our curiosity to see the marriage feast, 
 we feared lest our presence might interrupt the enjoyment of 
 the party. 
 
 We remained at Indreholm only a few hours, haAing re 
 solved, as the evening was favourable, to cross over to Rei- 
 kiavik by sea. When formerly here, we had observed a 
 quantity of the bones of small whales lying scattered upon 
 the shore. We were informed that, early in the preceding 
 winter, a shoal consisting of nearly a thousand of these whales 
 had come on shore, and had been taken. 
 
 At ten o'clock we went to the beach ; but, on getting into 
 the boat prepared for us, it filled so fast, that we were glad 
 to make our escape, notwithstanding the assurances of the 
 
 2
 
 202 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cn. ii. The Handel. 
 
 boatmen that the leaks were of no consequence. The Chief 
 Justice soon had another boat launched, but we could not 
 get away till the first had been drawn upon the beach. All 
 hands from the house were called to assist, and men and 
 women jumped out of bed on the alarm being given, and 
 came down without waiting to dress themselves. We were 
 perfectly thunderstruck with the appearance of this motley 
 group. A pleasant sail of four hours brought us to Reikiavik 
 at two o'clock in the morning, after an absence of one month 
 and two days, during which we had travelled about three 
 hundred and fifty miles. 
 
 From the 25th of June till the end of July, the Icelanders 
 frequent Reikiavik, in order to dispose of their commodities, 
 and to piirchase such articles as they may require from the 
 Danish merchants. They bring oil, fish, tallow, wool, butter, 
 fox and swan skins, &c. which are taken in exchange for to- 
 bacco, spirits, meal, rye, iron and steel, linen and cotton 
 goods, thread, &c. &c. This period of traffic is called the 
 Handel, and while it lasts, many thousands of laden horses 
 come to the town. The people bring tents with them, in which 
 they live during their stay, and on their journey. During^this 
 period of activity little b\istle is observable, excepting in the 
 shops. The Handel of this year Avas not so good as usual. 
 Butter was scarce all over the country, and tallow being used 
 in its stead, very little of that article was exposed to sale. 
 
 There was a good deal of drunkenness observable at this 
 time. The drinking of spirits is much encouraged by the 
 merchants, both for the purpose of promoting the sale of that 
 article, and of enabling them to over- reach the poor people 
 who deal with them. 
 
 During our stay at Reikiavik at this time, a day was ap- 
 pointed for taking the salmon from the Laxaa (Salmon river),
 
 Ch. II. Salmon ^shery.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 
 
 203 
 
 about three miles from the town. This is a sort of gala day, 
 and not only the people interested in the capture offish, but 
 all the ladies and principal people attend. Sometime before 
 the appointed period, parties were seen galloping off towards 
 the scene of action. 
 
 The river, which is small, divides into two branches about 
 a mile from the sea. The channel is dammed up early in the 
 morning, and the water forced into one branch, while the 
 other is allowed to run almost dry, and the salmon that hap- 
 pen to be in the river are thus easily taken. The river is held 
 on lease by Mr Scheele, who keeps the tavern, and pays a 
 rent of sixty dollars. Sometimes two or three thousand salmon 
 are taken out. At the time we witnessed the capture, there 
 
 ji.M'J 
 
 :iryiy\.i'r of Srr.iEKW i..l .Jokt'X..
 
 204 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ca.u.Amtmand TVwranson. 
 
 were only nine hundred taken. The fish are caught in the 
 early part of the season, in boxes formed like our mouse 
 traps. The salmon fishery of Iceland appears to be an ad- 
 mirable object for speculation, while the rents of our British 
 rivers are so high. From the beginning of June to the be- 
 ginning of August, vast quantities might be taken in the dif- 
 ferent rivers with very little trouble. 
 
 On the river near Reikiavik, near the place where the 
 salmon traps are set, are the remains of a mill, which was 
 erected many years ago for the purposes of the woollen ma- 
 nufacture, Avhich did not succeed. 
 
 About this time, Amtmand Thoranson, having been ap- 
 pointed one of the commissioners for managing the affairs of 
 Iceland in the absence of the Governor, came from his resi- 
 dence at Eyafiord, in the north, to Reikiavik, He honoured 
 us with a visit ; and we found him to be a man of plain sim- 
 ple manners, but sensible, and possessed of much and accu- 
 rate knowledge respecting every thing connected with Ice- 
 land; and at the same time very liberal in communicating 
 what he knew.
 
 Ca. III. Leave Reikiavik.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 205 
 
 JOURNAL. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 On the 24lli of July, we attempted to leave Reikiavik, in 
 Older to visit the Geysers, and Mount Hekla ; but the wind 
 blew so strongly from the east, accompanied by very heavy 
 rain, that, after having proceeded a few miles, we were obliged 
 to return. Next morning the weather seemed to be improv- 
 ing, and, though it was rather foggy, and heavy showers ap- 
 peared all round, we departed for Thingvalla. * We were at- 
 tended to the Geysers by Mr Fell, to whom we were very 
 much obliged, and in whose society we often found great re- 
 lief from the fatigues we underwent ; and by Mr Jorgen 
 Flood, private secretary to Count Trampe. In the direction 
 of Thingvalla the hills are low, and the country comparative- 
 ly flat, and it contains much good grass, interspersed with 
 boggy ground. We passed a deep gulley by a steep winding 
 path, and here we once more perceived the great defect aris- 
 ing, even in the most romantic country, from the want of 
 trees, f On approaching Mosfell, we saw tlie vapour of se- 
 
 * The double / is pronounced like tl. 
 
 •f- We saw no vestiges of wood in the bogs ; and were informed, that where 
 it occurs, the trees are small. Mr Hooker, however, saw one five or six feet long, 
 and about a foot in diameter.
 
 206 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch.iii. Almannagiau. 
 
 veral hot springs at the foot of the mountain, on the south 
 side of the valley. At that place are a church, the priest's 
 house, and some cottages. We found the good pastor busy 
 cutting down his grass for hay ; an employment not beneath 
 his calling, and a symptom of industry extremely pleasing. 
 In England, the most wealthy, those of highest rank, do not 
 disdain to amuse themselves in rural labour. With the poor 
 priest, it was a matter of necessity to handle the scythe ; yet 
 in necessity there is often much delight ; and there is little 
 doubt that this man, and all the Icelanders occupied in the 
 same way, were reaping the gifts of their Maker with glad 
 and thankful hearts. On our approach, the priest left his 
 work, and conducted us into his house. We were ushered 
 into a very good room, and treated with abundance of milk 
 by his wife, while he went to fasten the shoes of some of our 
 horses. Having left Mosfell, We gradually ascended, and 
 came upon an extensive tract of lava, which has been cover- 
 ed in many places to a considerable depth, with sandy soil. 
 Our ride was now dreary and tiresome, though the path was 
 good. We halted to refresh the horses on a small spot where 
 there was a little grass, the principal covering of the soil be- 
 ing dwarf willows. 
 
 Near Thing valla, we entered a deep and frightful fissure, 
 called Almannagiau. This has been formed, with many others 
 of smaller dimensions, and another large one which runs pa- 
 rallel to it at a considerable distance, by the sinking of the 
 ground during some of those terrible convulsions which have 
 shaken Iceland to its foundation?. The whole rock bears 
 marks of having been affected by fire. We came suddenly 
 upon the brink of the precipice, and were turning aside from 
 a scene so horrible, when we were told that we must descend. 
 Our horses seemed prepared to carry us to the bottom, and
 
 Ch. III. Tfiingvalla.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 20/ 
 
 we had already proceeded a little way, when compassion for 
 them, not any doubt, or fear for our own safety, while we 
 depended on these cautious and sure-footed creatures, inr 
 duced us to dismount, and allow them to find their own way. 
 Having admired this frightful scene,and the caverns which were 
 exposed to view by the disruption of the rock, we got out of 
 the hollow by a narrow path, and after crossing a small stream 
 that runs into the lake, we arrived at the place of Thing- 
 valla, which is about twenty- six miles distant from Reikiavik. 
 Here is a small, mean, and dirty church, in which, however, 
 we contrived to sleep. The priest is a very old man ; and 
 has had his coffin prepared and placed in the church, though 
 his appearance did not indicate a speedy dissolution. He was 
 the only clergyman who seemed at all to dislike our occupy- 
 ing the church ; and he did not receive ns with the same cor- 
 diality we experienced from his brethren in other parts of the 
 country. But we were treated with civility ; milk, and an 
 excellent dish of fre^^h trout, fried, were soon brought to us. 
 Trouts abound in the lake, and often go up where the water 
 gets into the fissures of the lava ; so that, by throwing a line 
 Avith a baited hook into a hole at a distance from the lake, 
 where the water is not even visible, the people frequently 
 catch them. 
 
 The scenery about Thingvalla is romantic, but the want of 
 wood, and the effects of subterraneous heat, combine to give 
 an impression of dreariness. The lake is a fine sheet of water, 
 leckoned to be about ten miles long, and from three to seven 
 in breadth. There are two pretty large islands in the lake, 
 called Sandey, and Nesey, composed entirely of volcanic 
 matter. The mountains at the south end are very pictur- 
 esque, and the vapour ascending from hot springs on their 
 sides, contributes to the solemnity of the whole scene, which
 
 208 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. m. Tkingvatla. 
 
 has been created by the most dreadful commotion, and the 
 destruction of a coinitry that may once have been beautiful 
 and fertile. 
 
 Near this place was the building where the courts of justice 
 were held formerly. Reikiavik being now the seat of govern- 
 ment, the courts are at present held there. Why Thing\'alla 
 was originally chosen as the seat of justice, does not appear; 
 but a town being once established, and trade carried on freely, 
 and to a greater extent than in former times, ready recourse 
 to the law became necessary. Though not more than ten 
 years have elapsed since the judicial courts were transferred 
 to Reikiavik, few remains are left to mark a spot so famous 
 in the history of Iceland. The only building was a small 
 wooden house in which the consultations were held, and sen- 
 tence pronounced by the Stiftamtmand, or Governor. The 
 Magistrates and people assembled on th6 occasion lived in 
 tents. Those culprits who were condemned to die, were 
 beheaded on a small island in the river Oxeraa, which here 
 flows into the lake. The females were drowned in a deep 
 pool below the lava, a little farther up the valley. 
 
 An ecclesiastical court used to be held at Thingvalla by tlie 
 Bishoj) of Skalholt, attended by the Provosts and two minis- 
 ters from each Syssel.* 
 
 Towards the north are several ranges of mountains, which, 
 from the account received, and the appearances we observed, 
 are volcanic. Among these the principal seems to be Skal- 
 breidfe, a lofty Jokul, of which description of mountains others 
 were seen at a distance. 
 
 From Thingvalla to Skalholt, a distance of twenty-four 
 
 * Tingwall in Shetland, and Dingwall in Ross-shire, are evidently the same 
 name as Thingvalla in Iceland ; and were probably, in ancient times, places where 
 justice was administered.
 
 Ca. III. Skalholt.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 209 
 
 miles, the country Is low and uninteresting ; except at a place 
 where, from an eminence, we obtained the first view of Mount 
 Hekla, and the stnpendous mountains beyond it. The road 
 lies along the north end, and part of the east side of the lake, 
 where there is a considerable tract of stunted birch, and willow 
 trees. The depth of the lake is said to be very great, a line 
 of a hundred fathoms having been sunk without bottom being 
 found. After many turnings, and crossing some bogs, we came 
 to a low hill, round which we passed, and having got safe over 
 another bog, which seemed to be fully as hazardous as any 
 we had formerly attempted, we reached the bank of a large 
 river called the Brueraa, which takes its rise from the Apa 
 Vatn. This lake receives the water of the surrounding bogs ; 
 and near it, in different places, we saw vapours ascending from 
 hot springs. After waiting and hallooing for some time, the 
 boatman arrived and carried us across the river in a very good 
 boat, the horses being obliged to swim. We stopped a few 
 minutes at the house of the ferryman, whom, with his wife 
 and family, we admired exceedingly on account of their clean- 
 liness. Their persons, house, and the utensils in which they 
 brought milk to us, were all neat , but this description must 
 be understood comparatively. About a mile farther on is 
 Skalholt, which has been erroneously denominated the capi- 
 tal of Iceland, in most English books on geography ; but for- 
 merly it might have been entitled to this appellation as well 
 as any other place. Till Reikiavik became of some note, there 
 was nothing in Iceland that could be called a town ; and it is 
 no wonder that the seat of a Bishop should be honoured in 
 preference to that of the Governor. 
 
 The situation of Skalholt is beautiful. Towards the south, 
 there is a view of a noble river, formed by the junction of that 
 discharged from Apa Vatn and the Huitaa, bounded by a 
 
 2d
 
 210 
 
 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 
 
 [Ch.iii. Skalkolt. 
 
 finely shaped hill in the distance ; another equally picturesque 
 hill rising on the eastern bank of the latter, and facing Skalholt. 
 Flat meadow land, gently swelling ground, and distant moun- 
 tains towards the east, among which are Eyafialla Jokul and 
 Hekla, form altogether a magnificent amphitheatre, and com- 
 pose a landscape which, even without wood, was highly gra- 
 tifying to the eye. 
 
 Here we found Mr Jonson, the Lector of the school of 
 Bessestad, for which place he was preparing to depart on our 
 arrival. He remained, however, till the following morning, 
 and gave us fresh cause for lamenting our having had so little 
 of his society. A daughter of the late Bishop Finnsson, very 
 attentively furnished us with the best provisions she had, and 
 one of her brothers offered to shew us the way to the Geysers. 
 
 On the 27th of July we set out to visit these celebrated 
 fountains, which are aboutsixteen miles to the north of Skalholt. 
 
 ::,,/:/.A^€^-^' 
 
 '^'■^'■2:^/ 
 
 .'^KAlLHOi.T.
 
 Cn.m. Geyser*.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 211 
 
 The country betueen is varied by gentle risings, and the pros- 
 pect towards the north and west is bounded by mountains, 
 from which there appear to have been many volcanic erup- 
 tions. All the flat ground in this quarter is swampy, but, ex- 
 cepting near the lakes, it is not so soft as to occasion any risk 
 in travelling over it. To the eastward of Skalholt are several 
 hot springs, and others rise among the low hills which we left 
 on the right hand in going to the Geyser. We passed one farm- 
 house situate on a rising ground in the midst of the bogs ; and 
 the weather being favourable, the people were busy making 
 hay ; a scene which afforded a pleasing change from dreary 
 solitude. The whole of this extensive district abounds in grass, 
 and were draining practised, might prove a very rich pasture 
 country. Further on, we found some cottages at the foot of 
 the moimtain ; round which we turned, and came in sight of 
 the hill, on one side of which are the Geysers. This hill, 
 "which does not exceed three hundred feet in height, is sepa- 
 rated from the movmtain towards the west by a narrow stripe 
 of flat boggy ground, connected with that which extends over 
 the whole valley. Crossing this bog, and a small river whicli 
 runs through it, we came to a farm-house at the east end of 
 the hill, and arrived at a place where the most wonderful and 
 awful effects of subterraneous heat are exhibited. 
 
 On the east side of the hill there are several banks of clay, 
 from some of which steam arises in different places ; and in 
 others there are cavities in which water boils briskly. In a few 
 of these cavities the water, by being mixed with clay, is thick, 
 and varies in colour; but it is chiefly red and grey. Below these 
 banks there is a gentle and uniform slope, composed of mat- 
 ter which, at some distant period, has been deposited by 
 springs that no longer exist. The strata or beds thus formed, 
 seemed to have been broken by the shocks of earthquakes, par-
 
 212 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. m. Geysers, 
 
 ticularly near the great Geyser. Within a space not exceed- 
 ing a quarter of a mile, there are numerous orifices in the old 
 incrustations, from which boiling water and steam issue, with 
 different degrees of force ; and at the northern extremity is 
 the great Geyser, s\ifRciently distinguishable from the others 
 by every circumstance connected with it. On approaching 
 this place, it appeared that a moimt had been formed of irre- 
 gular, rough looking depositions, upon the ancient regular 
 strata, whose origin has been similar. The slope of the latter 
 has caused the mount to spread more on the east side, and 
 the recent depositions of the water may be traced till they 
 coincide with them. The perpendicular height of the mount 
 is about seven feet, measmed from the highest })art of the 
 surface of the old depositions. From these the matter com- 
 posing the mount may be readily distinguished, on the west 
 side, where a disruption has taken place. On the top of this 
 mount is a bason, which we found to extend fifty-six feet in 
 one direction, and forty-six in another. 
 
 At a quarter before three o'clock in the afternoon, when 
 we arrived on the spot, we found the bason full of hot water, 
 a little of which was running over. Having satisfied our cu- 
 riosity at this time, we went to examine some other places 
 whence we saw vapour ascending. Above the great Geyser 
 at a «hort distance, is a large irregular opening, the beauties 
 of which it is hardly possible to describe. The water which 
 filled it was as clear as crystal, and perfectly still, though 
 nearly at the boiling point. Through it we saw white incrus- 
 tations forming a variety of figures and cavities, to a great 
 depth ; and carrying the eye into a vast and dark abyss, over 
 which the crust supporting us formed a dome of no great 
 thickness; a circumstance which, though not of itself agree- 
 able, contributed much to the effect of this awful scene. •
 
 
 if 
 
 5< 
 
 l> J 
 
 s. 
 
 ■it 
 
 U. 
 
 I 
 
 f 
 

 
 Cii. ni. Geysers.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 213 
 
 Near this spot are several holes from Avhich vapour conti- 
 nually rises ; and from one of which a rumbling noise proceed- 
 ed. This last might probably be taken for what Sir John 
 Stanley denominates the roaring Geyser. But as the opening 
 is not large, the beautiful cavity attempted to be described 
 may have been the seat of that once furious spring. — ' One of 
 ' the most remarkable of these springs,' says Sir John, ' threw 
 ' out a great quantity of water, and from its continual noise 
 ' we named it the roaring Geyser. The eruptions of this foun- 
 ' tain were incessant. The water darted out with fury every 
 ' four or fi\'e minutes, and covered a great space of ground 
 ' with the matter it deposited. The jets were from thirty to 
 ' forty feet high. They were shivered into the finest particles 
 ' of spray, and surrounded by great clouds of steam. The 
 ' situation of this spring was eighty yards distant from the 
 * Geyser, on the rise of the hill.' 
 
 From the last mentioned circumstance, notwithstanding 
 the noise produced by the other, we are inclined to think that 
 the first cavity described was the one whence these furious 
 jets were thrown. The quantity of water that runs from it is 
 small ; and its perfect stillness at the time we saw it, formed a 
 striking contrast with Sir J. Stanley's description. The mass 
 of incrustations which seems to have been formed by this 
 spring, was open in several places, and the cavities were full 
 of water. It is probable that an earthquake has deranged the 
 mechanism of this spring, or that the production of heat at 
 the particular spot where it is situate, has ceased to be suffi- 
 cient to produce the striking phenomena it formerly exhiljited. 
 
 Having examined several other cavities, I returned to the 
 Geyser in order to collect specimens of the incrustations on 
 the mount. I selected a fine mass close to the water on the 
 brink of the bason, and had not struck many blows with my
 
 214 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cm. in. Geysers, 
 
 hammer, when I heard a sound like the distant discharge of 
 a piece of ordnance, and the ground shook under me. The 
 sound was repeated irregularly, and rapidly ; and I had just 
 given the alarm to my comjianions, who were at a little dis- 
 tance, when the water, after heaving several times, suddenly 
 rose in a large column, accompanied by clouds of steam, from 
 the middle of the bason, to the height of ten or twelve feet. 
 The column seemed as if it burst, and sinking down it pro- 
 duced a wave which caused the water to overflow the bason 
 in considerable quantity. The water having reached my feet, 
 I was under the necessity of retreating, but I kept my eye 
 fixed on what was going on. After the first propulsion, the 
 water was thrown up again to the height of about fifteen feet. 
 There was now a succession of jets to the number of eighteen, 
 none of which appeared to me to exceed fifty feet in height ; 
 they lasted about five minutes. Though the wind blew strong- 
 ly, yet the clouds of vapour were so dense, that after the first 
 two jets, I could only see the highest part of the spray, and 
 some of it that was occasionally thrown out sideways. After 
 the last jet, which was the most furious, the water suddenly 
 left the bason, and sunk into a pipe in the centre. The heat 
 of the bottom of the bason soon made it dry, and the wind 
 blew aside the vapour almost immediately after the spouting 
 ceased. We lost no time in entering the bason to examine 
 the pipe, into which the water had sunk about ten feet, and 
 appeared to be rising slowly. The diameter of the pipe, or 
 rather pit, is ten feet, but oear the top it widens to sixteen 
 feet. The section, which is taken across the longest diameter 
 of the bason, gives a distinct idea of the whole structnre of 
 the external part of this wonderful apparatus. The perpen- 
 dicular depth of the bason is three feet ; that of the pipe be- 
 ing somewhat more than sixty feet, though there may be
 
 Cu. III. Geysers.'l 
 
 TRAVELS FN TCELAND. 
 
 215 
 
 some inaccessible hollows which extend to a much greater 
 depth. 
 
 After the water had descended into the pipe, there was no 
 appearance of any vapour issuing from it, till it had reached 
 the mouth, when a little was visible. Even when the bason 
 was full, the quantity of vapour was far from being so great 
 as might have been expected to proceed from so large a sur- 
 face of hot water. At five minutes before six o'clock it boiled 
 a little, and continued to do so at intervals. Having thrown 
 a stone into the water while it was perfectly still, we observed 
 
 y%r« i^Srr/fim on/i^, 6aj!OZ>. oftJif Oreat ffevter.
 
 ^16 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ca. ui. Geyser Si 
 
 that an ebullition immediately took place, and continued till 
 the stone reached the bottom. All the party having provided 
 themselves with large stones, threw them into the pipe, on a 
 signal, when the Mater was still. When the stones were 
 thrown in, a violent ebullition instantly followed ; and this 
 escape of steam on agitation, may serve to assist a theory of 
 tlie phenomena. 
 
 At twenty-nine minutes past six o'clock the pipe was full ; 
 and the water being within reach, its temperature was found 
 to be 209°. At twenty minutes before seven we looked into 
 the bason, and it was then hardly one-fourth full. The water 
 Avas gently moved ; and in some little hollows of the bottom 
 of the bason it had the appearance of ebbing and flowing. 
 About five minutes after, while we were collecting specimens 
 on the edge of the bason, and expecting nothing, three 
 jets took place, none of which exceeded thirty feet in height. 
 In the same manner, at a quarter past eight o'clock, jets 
 were thrown up repeatedly during the space of three minutes, 
 one of which was about forty feet high. After these casual 
 jets the water did not sink, but remained, filling about three- 
 fourths of the bason. Sir John Stanley mentions his having 
 been surprised by similar unexpected jets ; and we must take 
 this opportunity of advising travellers who may wish to see 
 the Geyser, not to be rash in going into the bason while the 
 water is rising, as an opportunity of safely gratifying their 
 curiosity will always occur immediately after every great ex- 
 ertion of the fountain. 
 
 We pitched our tent at the distance of about one hundred 
 yards from the Geyser, and having arranged matters so that 
 a regular watch might be kept during the night, I went to my 
 station at eleven o'clock, and my companions lay down to 
 sleep. About ten minutes before twelve, I heard subterraneous
 
 Cv. III. Geysers.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 21/ 
 
 discharges, and waked my friends. The water in the bason 
 was greatly agitated, and flowed over, but there was no jet. 
 The same occurred at half past two. At five minutes past 
 four on Saturday morning an alarm was given by Mr Bright. 
 As I lay next the door of the tent, I instantly drew aside the 
 canvas, when at a distance of little more than fifty yards, a 
 most extraordinary and magnificent appearance presented 
 itself. From a place we had not before noticed, we saw water 
 thrown up, and steam issuing with a tremendous noise. There 
 was little water; but the force with which the steam escaped, 
 produced a white column of spray and vapour at least sixty 
 feet high. We enjoyed this astonishing and beautiful sight till 
 seven o'clock, when it gradually disappeared. This fountain 
 we immediately conjectured to be what has been called, by 
 Sir John Stanley, the New Geyser, 
 
 We were occupied this morning in examining the environs 
 of the Geysers ; and at every step received some new gratifi- 
 cation. Following the channel which has been formed b}' the 
 water escaping from the great bason during the eruptions, 
 we found some beautiful and delicate petrifactions. The 
 leaves of birch a«d willow were seen converted into white 
 stone, and in the most perfect state of preservation ; every 
 minute fibre being entire. Grass and rushes were in the 
 same state, and also masses of j)eat. In order to preserve 
 specimens so rare and elegant, we brought away large masses, 
 and broke them up after our return to Britain ; by which 
 means we have formed very rich collections ; though many 
 fine specimens were destroyed in carrying them to Reikiavik. 
 On the outside of the mount of the Geyser, the depositions, 
 owing to the splashing of the water, are rough, and have 
 been justly compared to the heads of cauliflowers. They are 
 of a yellowish brown colour, and are arranged round the mount 
 
 2 E
 
 218 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cb. lu. Geysers, 
 
 somewhat like a circular flight of steps. The inside of the 
 bason is comparatively smooth ; and the matter forming it 
 is more compact and dense than the exterior crust ; and, 
 when polished, is not devoid of beauty, being of a grey 
 colour, mottled with black and white spots and streaks. The 
 white incrustation formed by the water of the beautiful cavity 
 before described, had taken a very curious form at the edge 
 of the water, very much resembling the capital of a Gothic 
 column. We were so rapacious here, that we did not leave 
 a single specimen which we could reach ; and even scalded 
 our fingers in our eagerness to obtain them. We found 
 the process of petrifaction in all its stages ; and procured 
 some specimens in which the grass was yet alive and fresh, 
 while the deposition of the silicious matter was going on 
 around it. These were found in places at a little distance 
 from the cavity, where the water running from it had become 
 cold. 
 
 About a hundred yards from the Great Geyser towards 
 the north, in the cleft where the disruption already men- 
 tioned had taken place, and which has probably been form- 
 ed by an earthquake, are banks of clay, in which there are 
 several small basons fvill of boiling mud. The mud is thin, 
 and tastes strongly of sulphate of alumina, of which we ob- 
 served many films attached to the clay, which seems to have 
 been forced up from below, through fissures in the ancient 
 incrustations. The clay contains also iron i)yrites ; the de- 
 composition of which has given it very rich colours. Almost 
 directly above this place, under the rock at the top of the 
 hill, are several orifices, from which steam rushes ; and there 
 are some slight appearances of sulphur. Almost the whole 
 of this side of the hill is comjjosed of incrustations and 
 clay.
 
 Cii. til. Geysers.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 219 
 
 The depositions of the present and former springs are 
 visible to a great extent, about half a mile in every direc- 
 tion ; and from their great thickness in many places, it is 
 probable that they are spread imder the surface now covered 
 with grass and water, to a very considerable distance. About 
 half a mile up the rivulet, in the direction of Haukardal, 
 where there is a church, another hot spring appears, which 
 deposits silicious matter. From thence we obtained one of the 
 most curious specimens we collected; it almost perfectly re- 
 sembles opal. The situation of this spring is mentioned to shew 
 the probability that the extent of the matter, which may for 
 ages have been collecting, is very great; and its depth, from 
 what is seen in the cleft near the Geyser, where it is visible 
 to the thickness of ten or twelve feet, is probably also very 
 considerable. 
 
 It is somewhat curious, that no particular notice has been 
 taken by the early Icelandic authorsof this, themostremarkable 
 spot in all the island. Though hot springs are without num- 
 ber, and occur in every part of the country, and may be regard- 
 ed with indifference, yet the Geysers must have been remark- 
 able at all times ; for the extent of the old incrustations shews 
 them to have been deposited by springs of no ordinary dimen- 
 sions. They are, it is true, on the verge of that vast district 
 of uninhabited and desolate country which forms the interior 
 of Iceland. In looking around as we approached the place, 
 nothing was seen but rugged mountains, far extended swamps, 
 and frightful Jokids rearing their frozen summits to the sky. 
 Nothing in this direction seemed to invite the curiosity or en- 
 terprise of people, already accustomed to the horrors of vol- 
 canic eruptions, and fully aware that their only sure subsist- 
 ence was to be derived from the sea. The indifferent and ca- 
 sual manner in which the Geysers are mentioned by Arngrim
 
 220 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cii. m. Gej/sers. 
 
 Jonas, shews this want of curiosity even among the learned 
 of the Icelanders. He speaks of some great springs near 
 Haukardal, to the north of Skalholt, which he had never him- 
 self seen, but of which he had heard that they deposited 
 incrustations, and changed vegetable matter into stone.* At 
 the present day, the number of the natives who have visited 
 these springs is comparatively very small ; and, by those who 
 live near them, their extraordinary operations constantly 
 going on, are regarded with the same eye as the most com- 
 mon and indifferent appearances of nature. Towards the 
 north-east, and east, the country is low ; the only elevated 
 ground that appears towards the south-east being the sum- 
 mits of Hekla, and Eyafialla Jokul. Several Jokuls break 
 the view towards the north ; and we remarked one mountain 
 which had several rugged and peaked summits soaring to a 
 great elevation. 
 
 However strongly the feelings excited by the produc- 
 tions of the springs, and by the appearance of the sur- 
 rounding country, were impressed upon us, we often turned 
 anxiously towards the Geysers, longing for a re])etition 
 of their wonderful operations. To them all our wishes 
 and hopes were directed ; and we felt as if our eyes could 
 never tire of beholding, nor our minds weary of contemp- 
 lating them. The descriptions we had read, and the ideas we 
 had formed of their grandeur, were all lost in the amaze- 
 ment excited on their being actually before vis ; and, though 
 we may perhaps raise their attributes in the estimation of 
 the reader, we are satisfied that we cannot convey the slight- 
 
 * Brev. Com. de Island. Hakluyfs Voyages, London 1S09, vol. 1. p. 596. — 
 Saxo Gramniaticus, in his preface to the history of Denmark, sligiitly notices the 
 Geysers ; and this is the earliest account we have. It proves them to have existed 
 at least six hundred years.
 
 Ch. III. Geysers.} TRAVELS IN ICELAND, 221 
 
 est idea of the mingled raptures of wonder, admiration, and 
 terror, with which our breasts were filled ; nor do we fear that 
 any conception which may arise of the astonishing effect of 
 the Geysers, will leave the traveller disappointed, who trusts 
 himself to the tempestuous ocean, and braves fatigue, in or- 
 der to visit what must be reckoned among the greatest won- 
 ders of the world. 
 
 After yielding u little to impatience, we were gratified by 
 symptoms of commotion in the Great Geyser. At three mi- 
 nutes before two o'clock, we again heard subterraneous dis- 
 charges, and the water flowed over the edge of the bason ; 
 but no jet took place. The same happened at twenty- five 
 minutes past five o'clock, and at five minutes before seven. 
 At thirty- five minutes past eight, it boiled over again, and 
 immediately the new Geyser began to play, and continued 
 till a quarter past nine. This Geyser gives no warning be- 
 fore it spouts, and it is therefore necessary to be cautious in 
 looking down Ihe pipe, unless it is known what time has 
 elapsed since the preceding jet. While the spray and vapour 
 are rushing out, one may approach with perfect safety, and 
 stand quite close to the very brink of the pipe on the wind- 
 ward side. The pipe is nine feet in diameter, not perfectly 
 round, and rough and uneven within. 
 
 Having been busily engaged in packing our specimens, 
 and being somewhat tired, we went to sleep a little earlier 
 than usual. We lay with our clothes on, separated from the 
 ground by sheep-skins and a rug, in order that we might start 
 up at a moment's notice. Mr Fell and Mr Flood had left us 
 to return to Reikiavik ; and we had soon cause to regret that 
 they had departed before the next eruption of the Great 
 Geyser took place. On lying down, we could not sleep more 
 than a minute or two at a time ; our anxiety causing us often
 
 222 TRAV^ELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. hi. Geysers. 
 
 to raise our heads to listen. At last the joyful sound struck 
 our ears ; and we started up with a shout, at the same mo- 
 ment when our guides, who were sleeping in their Iceland 
 lent at a short distance opposite to us, jumped up in their 
 shirts, and hallooed to us. In an instant we were within 
 sight of the Geyser ; the discharges continuing, heing more 
 freqtient and louder than before, and resembling the distant 
 firing of artillery from a ship at sea. This happened at half 
 past eleven o'clock ; at which time, though the sky was cloudy, 
 the light was more than sufficient for shewing the Geyser ; but 
 it was of that degree of faintness which rendered a gloomy 
 country still more dismal. Such a midnight scene as was 
 now before us, can seldom be witnessed. Here description 
 fails altogether. The Geyser did not disappoint us, and seem- 
 ed as if it was exerting itself to exhibit all its glory on the eve 
 of our departure. It raged furiously, and threw up a suc- 
 cession of magnificent jets, the highest of which was at least 
 ninety feet. At this time the sketch from which the engraving 
 is made was taken : but no draviang, no engraving, can pos- 
 sibly convey any idea of the noise and velocity of the jets, 
 nor of the swift rolling of the clouds of vapour, which were 
 hurled, one over another, with amazing rapidity. 
 
 After this great exertion, the water, as before, sunk into 
 the pipe, leaving the bason empty. At seven minutes before 
 seven o'clock on Sunday morning, the Geyser boiled over ; 
 and again at twenty minutes past nine ; and this was the last 
 time we saw it in motion.* 
 
 * In Olafson's and Paulson's travels, we have a description of the Geyser, in 
 which the height of the jet is stated at three hundred and sixty feet. This, making 
 every allowance for deception, is certainly an exaggeration, since in subsequent 
 observations made at distant periods, we find a striking uniformity. The heights 
 observed at the time Sir Joseph Banks visited Iceland in the year 1722, are stated
 
 S/.W<^,. J. 'n-S „;,■.'./ 
 
 £„y,-''ir^^ l/i/.A-// 
 
 EiRUPTIDIf 
 ,R EAT 13 1-: i'.^ & M 
 
 Pn^/is/ifi/ A}' A. Cof> sAiA/^ V (T- T^: Wf^iArrry/i
 
 
 NE^'' CjEYSER
 
 Ch. iir. Gei/sers.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 223 
 
 At thirty-two minutes past nine, the New Geyser began its 
 operations by throwing the water out of the pipe at three or 
 four short jets, and then some longer ones. As soon as the 
 bulk of the water was thrown out, the steam rushed up with 
 amazing force, and a loud thundering noise, tossing the water 
 frequently to a height of at least seventy feet. So very great 
 was the force of the steam, that although a brisk gale of wind 
 was blowing against it, the column of vapour remained as 
 perpendicular as it is represented in the engraving. It pro- 
 ceeded in this magnificent play for more than half an hour,, 
 during which time we had an opportunity of taking a correct 
 sketch of this beautiful fountain. A light shower fell from the 
 vapour, which has been attempted to be expressed ; but the 
 imitation is very far short of the fine effect it produced. Sir 
 John Stanley saw it throw up water to the height of one hun- 
 dred and thirty-two feet. When stones are dropped into the 
 pipe while the steam is rushing out, they are immediately 
 thrown up, and are commonly broken into fragments, some 
 of which are projected to an astonishing height. 
 
 This Geyser, we were told, had formerly been a compara- 
 tively insignificant spring, like many which we saw around. 
 There is no bason round the pipe, but there are some remains 
 of incrustations on its brink, similar to those round several of 
 the smaller springs. The water constantly boils violently, about 
 
 by Von Troil, to have been from six to ninety-two feet. Sir John Stanley men- 
 tions the highest jet to have been ninety-six feet. He visited tUe Geyser in the year 
 1789. I have stated the heights as vaiying from ten to at least ninety feet. From 
 these observations it appears tliat the great Geyser has not failed in magnificence 
 after the lapse of thirty-eight years. Sir John Stanley mentions that, as the jets 
 rose out of the bason, they reflected by their density the most brilliant blue ; and 
 that in certain shades the colour was green. We did not observe any thing of this 
 kind, which probably depended on the position of the spectator, and the bright- 
 Bess of the sun, which scarcely shone while we were near the springs.
 
 224 TRAVELS IN ICELAND, [Ch. in. Geysers. 
 
 twenty feet below the mouth of the pipe ; but no subterrane- 
 ous discharges take place to announce its operations ; and this 
 circumstance seems to render a different theory from that of 
 the great Geyser, necessary for explaining the jihenomena.* 
 Each spring seems to have its own reserv^oirs, and its own 
 mechanism distinct from the others. There is a small Geyser 
 about a hundred yards distant from the new one, as it was 
 called by Sir John Stanley, the phenomena of which we think 
 worthy of being described, though after viewing the great Gey- 
 ser, there is nothing wonderful in them. The description, how- 
 ever, may serve to shew what a singular range of cavities and 
 pipes must exist mider a small extent of surface, in order to 
 produce the extraordinary effects which have been detailed. 
 This little Geyser, for so Ave shall call it, first attracted our 
 
 * This Geyser seems to have undergone a considerable change since the time 
 of the expedition to Iceland undertaken by Sir Jolin Stanley. ' Its pipe,' says Sir 
 John, ' is formed with equal regularity as that of the great Geyser, and is six feet 
 ' ten inches in diameter. It does not open into a bason, but it is nearly surround- 
 ' ed by a rim or wall two feet high. After each eruption the pipe is emptied, and 
 ' the water returns gradually into it, as into that of the old Geyser. During three 
 ' hours nearly that the pipe is filling, the pai'tial eruptions happen seldom, and do 
 ' not rise very high ; but the water boils the whole time, and often with great vio- 
 
 * lence.' Sir John further informs us in a note, that before the month of June 
 1789, the year he visited Iceland, ' this spring had not played with any great 
 
 • degree of violence, at least for a considerable time. (Indeed the formation of the 
 
 • pipe will not allow us to suppose, that its eruptions had at no former period 
 ' 'been violent.) But in the month of June, this quarter of Iceland had suffered 
 '-some very severe shocks of an earthquake ; and it is not unlikely, that many of 
 
 * the cavities communicating with the bottom of the pipe had been then enlarged, 
 ' and new sources of water opened into them.' 
 
 Our author also says, that the eruptions of the new Geysw resembled those of 
 the great one, consisting of several jets succeeding each other rapidly. It will be 
 seen from the theory I have formed of the phenomena, that the change has been 
 occasioned by the supply of water to the pipe having become less, while the great re- 
 servoir of water, subject to occasional and sudden increase of heat, remains the same.
 
 Ch. III. Geysers.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND; 225 
 
 attention while watching the great one on the night of the 
 27th. There are several openings near it, from one of which 
 water occasionally spouts to the height of ten or twelve feet, 
 and a number of holes whence steam rushes. The little Gey- 
 ser does not throw its water above four or five feet high, but 
 its phenomena are similar to those of the great one, whose 
 grandeur it may one day rival. The pipe of this Geyser, at 
 the depth of eight feet, is of an irregular shape, three feet by 
 two in Avidth, and opens like a funnel into a shallow bason 
 about ten feet in diameter. When we went to examine 
 it, the water was sinking into the pipe, and was at the same 
 time very much agitated. After it had reached its greatest 
 depth, which was about seven feet, it remained quiet for a 
 considerable time, and we took the opportunity of going to 
 examine some springs near it, which boil constantly. On our 
 return we found all quiet, but in a very short time the water 
 became disturbed, and before it began to rise we counted 
 nineteen distinct bursts of steam. It then rose gently, a burst 
 of steam taking place at intervals, and at each burst the water 
 rose a few inches : sometimes it rose .ilmost a foot, and then, 
 sunk again. Thus it proceeded for some time, till at last the 
 ebullition became more constant, and the water rose faster. 
 At length there were violent bursts of steam, and the water 
 rapidly approached, being thrown up in short jets ; and at 
 this time we felt a distinct trembling of the ground, but heard 
 no subterraneous noise. The bason was now filled, and we 
 left the spring throwing up jets at short intervals. The little 
 Geyser is pretty regular, and continues its operations about 
 an. hoiu'. It is probable that the water of all these springs is 
 of the same nature with that of the great Geyser ; those, how- 
 ever, that are muddy, are different in respect to the ingre- 
 dients contained in the water. 
 
 2f
 
 226 TRAITILS IN ICELAND. {Ch. ni. Gtysers. 
 
 From all tlie circumstances which have been mentioned, 
 it is evident, that a vast variety of cavities exists in the space 
 from which the water issues in so many different ways. In 
 forming a theory of the phenomena, therefore, any kind of 
 mechanism may be supposed, that, by means of steam, is 
 capable of producing such effects. The following theory, 
 which was formed on the spot while the phenomena were 
 before us, is submitted to our readers. 
 
 Were the appearances regular in duration, and the inter- 
 vals between the jets always equal, it would not be difficult 
 to construct an apparatus which would exhibit them with 
 precision ; but in both respects, as well as in the degree of 
 violence, there is great irregularity. From whatever source 
 the heat proceeds, whether from the combustion of beds of 
 coal, the decomposition of pyrites, or any other cause, there 
 can be no hesitation in granting tlie possibility of a greater 
 quantity of heat being ev olved at one time than at another ; 
 or of the heat remaining steady at intervals. It is not merely 
 possible, but very probable, that the wonders of the Geysers 
 are caused by svidden productions of heat. By such a sup- 
 position they may easily be explained with the help of an ex- 
 tremely simple apparatus ; but without it, a very complicated 
 system of pipes and cavities, and perhaps, too, of valves, will 
 be necessary. 
 
 A column of water is suspended in a pi{>e, by the expan- 
 sive force of steam confined in cavities under the surface. An 
 additional quantity of steam can only be produced by more 
 heat being evolved. When heat is suddenly evolved, and 
 elastic vapour suddenly produced, we can at once account 
 for explosions accompanied by noises. The accumulation of 
 steam will cause agitation in the column of water, and a far- 
 ther production of vapour. The pressure of the column will
 
 Ch. III. Geysers.] 
 
 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 
 
 227 
 
 be overcome, and the steam escaping, will force the water 
 upwards along with it. Let us suppose a cavity C communi- 
 cating with the pipe PQ, filled with boiling water to the height 
 AB, and that the steam above this line is confined, so that it 
 sustains the water to the height P. If we suppose a sudden 
 addition of heat to be applied under the cavity C, a quantity 
 of steam will be produced, which, owing to the great pressure, 
 will be evolved in starts, causing the noises like discharges of 
 artillery, and the shaking of the ground. The pressure being 
 now greatly increased, the water must rise out of the pipe ; 
 an oscillation is produced ; the water is pressed downwards 
 from A to Q, and the steam having now room to escape, 
 darts upwards, breaking through the column, and carrying 
 along with it a great part of the water. As long as the ex- 

 
 228 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. m. Geysers. 
 
 traordinary supply of sleani continues, these oscillations and 
 jets will go on. But at every jet some of the water is thrown 
 over the bason, and a considerable quantity runs out of it. 
 The pressure is thus diminished ; the steam plays more and 
 more pmverfully, till at last a forcible jet takes place, a pro- 
 digious quantity of steam escapes, and the remaining water 
 sinks into the pipe. This explanation, however, is not quite 
 complete, as it requires the production of tlie extraordinary 
 quantity of heat to cease the moment after the last jet, which 
 is in general the most violent. For though we may suppose 
 the whole of the water to have been expelled, which it is not, 
 unless the accumulation of heat was stopped at the very in- 
 stant of the last and strongest jet, we should lind steam rush- 
 ing from the pipe. But it uniformly happens, that after the 
 last jet all becomes perfectly quiet ; and this unformity we 
 know has continued since the time that Sir Joseph Banks 
 saw the Geyser. It may be as allowable to infer a sudden 
 cessation, as a sudden production of heat. But it is a very 
 curious circumstance, that the heat should continue to pro- 
 duce steam, just as long as the pressure of the water conti- 
 nued considerable, and that it should cease the instant that 
 the pressure is removed. AVe think that this last fact may be 
 explained, by the diminution of temperature occasioned by the 
 escape of the vast body of vaj)Our, which accompanies the last 
 effort. 
 
 The same configuration of a cavity will explain the phe- 
 nomena of the new Geyser satisfactorily. We have only to 
 suppose that there is a smaller supply of water, and that in- 
 stead of a column reaching to P, pressing against the steam 
 in the reservoir, the water reaches only a little way, if at all, 
 above the level of that within the cavity. Things being thus 
 adjusted, a sudden evolution of heat causes no explosive
 
 Ch. hi. Geysers.] TRAVELS IN ICELA>'D. 229 
 
 escape of steam, as there is but little pressure to overcome. 
 The instant that an extraordinary supply of vapour is brought 
 into action, part of it passes through the water, and carries 
 some up with it. This is repeated, more and more water 
 being thrown out ; at last there is no interruption, and the 
 steam rushes forth with fury and noise, till, the heat abating, 
 the force of the jet is gradually weakened, at last exhausted, 
 and the phenomena cease. 
 
 Another way of accounting for the operations of these ex- 
 traordinary fountains, which appears equally plausible with 
 what has been stated, has been suggested. It requires the 
 existence of a strongly heated surface free from water ; and 
 also that of a small subterraneous fountain, operating like the 
 little Geyser we have described, expelling its water occasion- 
 ally, so that it flows over the heated surface, by which means 
 an additional quantity of steam may be temporarily produced. 
 But this explanation is perhaps more deficient than the other ; 
 for if we suppose the water which is to be suddenly converted 
 into elastic vapour to be furnished from a small subterra- 
 neous fountain, the operations of that fountain must be ex- 
 plained, and the same difliculties that remain to be overcome 
 in the case of the Geyser, meet us in this ; as they must also 
 do in whatever mode we may suppose water to be supplied. 
 
 About a mile from a place called Husavik, in the north of 
 Iceland, is the Uxahver, (ox spring,*) which is more regular, 
 and is said nearly to equal the Geyser in the magnificence of 
 its operations. 
 
 We returned to Skalholt on the 29th. This place, during 
 many centuries, was the residence of one of the Bishops. 
 On the death of the last Bishop of Skalholt, the learned John 
 
 * It is said that this name was given to it from the circumstance of an ox hav- 
 ing accidentally fallen into it, and been boiled alive.
 
 230 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch.iii. Skalholl. 
 
 Finnsson (son to Finnur Jonson, the author of the Ecclesias- 
 tical History of Iceland), and that of the Bishop of Hoolum, 
 which occurred soon afterwards, application was made to the 
 court of Denmark to sanction a union of the two sees. This 
 was granted ; and the title of Bishop of Iceland was first 
 conferred on our friend Geir Vidalin, who still holds that 
 dignity. 
 
 The church of Skalholt is a neat small building of wood, 
 erected on the site of the former one, which was taken down 
 about six years ago. That, the Bishop's house, and a few 
 cottages, constituted the supposed capital of Iceland. There 
 IS a very good picture of the late Bishop, painted at Copen- 
 hagen, in the church ; and, on the floor of the space before 
 the altar, is a beautiful white marble slab, inscribed to bis 
 memory by the present Chief Justice. The font, and pulpit 
 of the old church, which are curiously carved and painted, 
 are in the present building. Near the door of the church are 
 some epitaphs carved on stones ; none, however, of an old 
 date. The following is a specimen of them : 
 ' Priscis nobilibus creatus olim, 
 ' Virtutisque patrum beatus hseres^ 
 
 * Dilecti genitoris ipsa imago, 
 ' Et desiderium pise parentis, 
 
 ' Communisque amor omnium bonorum. 
 ' Quos secum sociavit alma fides, 
 ■ ' Et candor sibi nescius fraudis ; 
 
 ' Eheu ! precipiti nimis ruina, . 
 
 ' Mortis vulnifico peremptus oestro, 
 ' Post vita; decies duos Decembre, 
 
 * Msestse Thorstenides domus levamen 
 ' Eggertus jacet hac sepultus in urna ; 
 
 ' Amoris ergo fecit, Joliannes Vidalinus.*
 
 Cn.m. North of Iceland.'] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 231 
 
 The easiest route from the southern to the northern parts 
 of Iceland, is by the way of Skalholt. To Skagastrand, the 
 nearest road is by Thingvalla and Kahnanstunga; which last 
 place is situate a little to the north-east of Reikholt. There 
 is another route through the eastern part of the Borgarfiord 
 Syssel. The northern division of the island is usually called 
 the Nordland ; the others, Ostland, Sudland, and Vestland. 
 We had no time for exploring the Nordland : indeed, to tra- 
 vel through it would take up a whole summer ; which, pro- 
 bably, might be sjient in that quarter by a naturalist, with 
 much profit and pleasure. Respecting that part of the coun- 
 try, we obtained some information from Amtmand Thoran- 
 son, which we may take the presentopportunity of communi- 
 cating to the reader. 
 
 A journey to the northern part of the island, from Skal- 
 holt or Thingvalla, generally occupies three or four days. 
 The interior of Iceland, an extent of perhaps not less than 
 forty thousand square miles, is a dreary, inhospitable waste, 
 without a single human habitation, and almost entirely un- 
 known to the natives themselves. Through more or less of 
 this desert, a traveller going to the northern coast, or com- 
 ing towards the south, must necessarily pass ; and it is no 
 wonder that it has become customary to travel through it 
 night and day without stopping. 
 
 The greatest proportion of the Nordland is the property 
 of the farmers who occupy it. Some of it belongs to the 
 church ; and part to the crown. The lands which belonged 
 to the school of Hoolum, were sold to the farmers of the dis- 
 trict at the time when that establishment was removed.* 
 
 The population is confined to the shores of the Fiords ; 
 
 * For an account of the mode in which the land in general is possessed, see 
 the chapter cm Biira) Affairs.
 
 232 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. lii. North of Iceland. 
 
 along which, and up the valleys, an extent, in many places, 
 of above twenty miles, is occupied. In the four Syssels com- 
 posing the Nordland, viz. Hunavatn, Hegranes, Vadlfe, and 
 Thingoes Syssels, there are about 12,000 inhabitants. The 
 Vadle, in which Eyafiord is situate, is the most populous in 
 proportion to its extent, containing about 3000 people. 
 
 Tiie harbour of Eyafiord is the best on the northern coast. 
 At this place there are three wooden dwellinghouses, and 
 four storehouses. Before the war, three ships used to be 
 laden every year at this port, with tallow, wool, woollen 
 goods, salted mutton, sheep-skins, &c. ; the particulars of 
 which will be found in the tables in the chapter relating to 
 the state of conmierce. 
 
 Except during the month of June, and the beginning of 
 July, and in September and October, there are no cod-fish 
 nor haddocks found in the Fiord ; and it is only at some dis- 
 tance out at sea that the fish are taken at these times. The 
 months of April and May are chiefly occupied in taking the 
 Houkal, or Shark. The shark fishery is principally carried 
 on at Siglifiord, a place about fifty miles north-west from 
 Eyafiord. 
 
 At the last mentioned place, herrings appear in vast shoals 
 during the months of June and July ; and are taken by means 
 of Seine nets at the upper extremity of'the Fiord. We heard, 
 as no uncommon occurrence, that one hundred and fifty bar- 
 rels of herrings are taken at a single hawl of a net. The fish 
 are sold to the farmers in the neighbourhood for one rixdol- 
 lar a barrel. 
 
 Several rivers of considerable size run into the Evafiord; 
 but the courses of the rivers in this part of the island have 
 never been traced to any great distance up the country. 
 
 Hofsos, and Skagastrand, are the next most considerable
 
 Ch. III. North of Iceland.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 233 
 
 places of trade on the northern coast of Icehmd. The for- 
 mer, on the western side of the Skagafiord, is a very bad 
 harbonr, and only one merchant has settled there. This Fiord 
 receives the waters of two rivers ; one of which is as large as 
 the Huitaa of Borgarfiord, and is called Kolbeinsdalsaa. At 
 the head of the Skagafiord, not far from Hofsos, is Hoolum, 
 which, initil the close of the last century, was the seat of one 
 of the Bishops of Iceland. A public school was also estab- 
 lished there ; but now the place consists only of a few cot- 
 tages; and, in its present state, contains nothing particularly 
 worthy of notice. Skagastrand is situate on the western side 
 of the large promontory which bounds the Skagafiord, It is 
 a bad harbour ; and, towards the end of September, is par- 
 ticularly unsafe, on account of its being exposed to the north 
 wind, and floating ice. This place formerly furnished a cargo 
 for one vessel every year ; but, since the commencement of 
 the war, we believe the arrival of even one ship has not been 
 regular. 
 
 Husavik is the only commercial station which remains to 
 be mentioned. It lies to the north-east of Eyafiord, on the 
 Skialfandefiord, which receives the waters of a large and ra- 
 pid river called the Skialfandefliot, and also a river called 
 Laxaa, which flows from the lake Myvatn. There is no good 
 fishing at Husavik ; but a great many seals are caught dur- 
 ing the winter. Eider-ducks are very abundant on the 
 coast. 
 
 Throughout the whole of the northern districts, the pas- 
 ture is very good, though not so rich as that of Borgarfiord, 
 and some other parts of the Sudland. It is better calculated 
 for sheep than cows ; but it is always necessary to feed the 
 sheep with hay during the greatest part of the winter. La- 
 bourers being scarce, and the summer short, numbers of peo- 
 
 2 G
 
 234 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. iil North of Iceland. 
 
 pie go from other parts of the country, particularly from the 
 Guldbringe Syssel, to assist in securing the hay crop. The 
 Nordlancl is the only part of the country where goats are 
 kept. 
 
 The Fiords on the north coast are frozen over every win- 
 ter ; bvit the open sea only in the most severe seasons. Float- 
 ing ice frequently comes upon the coast, both during winter 
 and summer. Very little ice is ever seen on the western side 
 of the island, notwithstanding its proximity to Greenland ; 
 but, on the eastern shores, it comes often farther south than 
 Berufiord, which it completely shut up about the middle of 
 May this year. 
 
 The prevailing wind proceeds from the north. Snow 
 generally begins to fall in large qviantities about the end of 
 September, and remains on the ground till the middle of May, 
 and sometimes much later. The greatest degree of cold which 
 Amtmand Thoranson recollected to have observed, v\ as about 
 ■minus 35°. Last winter, the thermometer, about the end of 
 January, stood at minus 30°, for several weeks. The greatest 
 heat of summer he had observed, was about "/(f. These de- 
 grees are those of Fahrenheit : the thermometer used by the 
 Amtmand was that of Reaumur. 
 
 We left Skalholt on the 30th, in order to visit Mount 
 Hekla. On approaching this mountain from the westward, 
 it does not appear remarkable ; and has nothing to distin- 
 guish it among the surrounding mountains, some of which are 
 much higher, and more picturesque. It has three distinct 
 summits ; but they are not much elevated above the body of 
 the mountain. After passing some dangerous bogs, we came 
 to the noble river Huitaa, which derives its name from the 
 same cause that gives that appellation to the river of Bor- 
 garfiord. It is not, however, equally white, being somewhat
 
 Ch. III. Skalholt to Hekla.] TRAATIILS IN ICELAND. 235 
 
 of the colour of the Thames as it passes through London. 
 Having crossed this river in a boat, making the horses swim 
 over before us, we traAelled over a flat countr}-, sometimes 
 through bogs, sometimes among sand banks, and occasionally 
 on good dry turf, till we approached a farm-house, called 
 Reikuni, when we came upon lava. Indeed, we had been 
 travelling over a particular species of this substance almost 
 all the way ; as shall be more particularly explained in the 
 chapter on mineralogy. This place of Reikum, derives its 
 name from a hot spring near it, which made its first appear- 
 ance during an earthquake in the year 1789- Here we were 
 informed that there was no boat at the usual place of crossing 
 the Thiorsaa ; and that we must go down the river to a place 
 called Eyalstadir. The farmer haWng agreed to be our guide, 
 he mounted his horse, and we proceeded over an extensive 
 flat, in some parts boggy, and in others rough with lava. 
 This is part of an extensive plain, the opening of which, from 
 the sea, reaches from Eyarback to the INIarkarfliot, a distance 
 of about thirty-six miles ; and it extends a great way to the 
 north, a number of low hills and ridges rising in it here and 
 there. On many parts of this great flat, there has been a large 
 deposition of loose sand, the spreading of which by the wind 
 has done considerable mischief, and is still continuing to be 
 injurious. This district is by far the richest in pasture that 
 we saw during our stay in Iceland. 
 
 On our arrival at E3'alstadir, after a tedious ride, we 
 found the Thiorsaa to be a very large turbid river; and we 
 had some fears lest our horses should not be able to swim 
 across, as at this place the river is about a quarter of a mile 
 broad. The ferry boat which was destined for us was large 
 enough for three persons, and that number was sufficient to 
 keep the gunnel close to the w ater, so that the slightest motion
 
 236 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. hi. Eyahtadir Ferrtj. 
 
 to the right or left must have filled it in a moment; but al- 
 though the wind was blowing strong against the current, we 
 were carried in safety to the other side. In this little bark 
 the ferryman sat with the utmost composure, and rowed 
 across with two horses tied to the stern. The animals seem- 
 ed to be perfectl}' aware, that if they did not swim steadily, 
 their fate and that of the boat would he the same. We were 
 told, that it was no micommon thing to see this man cross in 
 his little boat with four or five horses at a time ; and that, 
 when the people are going to Reikiavik with their goods, he 
 frequently ferries over several hundred horses in one day, and 
 several thousands in the course of the season. The fare for 
 crossing the ferry was a mere trifle, a few of the small coins, 
 called skillings, which are equivalent to our halfpence ; but 
 we gave the man a dollar, telling him that we greatly admired 
 his skill, which made him very happy. From the opposite 
 bank the place of Kalfholt is about two miles distant ; per- 
 haps not so much in a direct line, but a bog intervenes which 
 occasions the rovite to be circuitous. We there found a 
 church, which we entered and occupied without much 
 ceremony. 
 
 The Priest presented himself in a dress through which we 
 could not possibly descry the slightest tokens of the clerical 
 character. On his head was a greasy woollen cap that had 
 probably once been white, elevated like a sugar loaf. A short 
 jacket and breeches of the same stuff adorned his body, and 
 his legs were covered with coarse black stockings reaching 
 above the knee. His father was dressed in the same mode at 
 our arrival; but he had a small white beard which rendered 
 his figure somewhat more venerable than that of his son. 
 Both of them, after some time, put on their best clothes. 
 Tlie Priest accompanied us, next day, a part of the road to
 
 Ch. III. Rangaa River.] TRAVELS IX ICELAND. 237 
 
 Storuvellir, where the Provost of the district Hves. The road 
 lay among low hills and bogs; and on our wa}-, we saw some 
 young Ptarmigans in a place not suited to the general habits 
 of that bird in our own coiuitry, where they frequent stony 
 places on the tops of mountains. 
 
 We now came into the ])lain from which Hekla rises ; but 
 we had no view of the mountain as we approached, as it was 
 covered with clouds. We j)assed through lava which had been 
 exposed to view by the blowing of the sand that covers so great 
 an extent of this country. Storuvellir is situate in the midst 
 of this tract ; and round it there is a great deal of excellent 
 grass. The Provost had a large stock of old hay, which, 
 w ithout any report in his favour as a good rvu'al economist, 
 would have been a sufficient proof of his merit. He received 
 us with great kindness, but annoyed us a little by the excess 
 of his attention or curiosity. The Provost is reputed rich ; 
 and it is said that he has made his fortune entirely by his 
 fjood management of his farm, on which we saw a con- 
 siderablc flock of sheep, and some cows. The winter provi- 
 sion of stock-fish kept in the church, was no advantage to 
 its atmosphere, which can undergo little purification ; for the 
 windows of the churches, in general, did not seem to be 
 made to open. 
 
 The weather being still foggy, we could not see Hekla as we 
 approached it. On the 1st August, we passed through lava 
 of the same description as that pervading every part of this 
 flat district we had travelled over. We crossed the river call- 
 ed Wester Rangaa, the water of which is perfectly transpa- 
 rent, and flows along the foot of Hekla, on the west side. 
 The bed of this river is very remarkable, being formed of rug- 
 ged masses of lava, which being here and there elevated in 
 peaks, cause great rapidity in the stream. Owing to the clefts
 
 238 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cji. hi. Naifurholt. 
 
 ill the lava, it is very dangerous to attempt crossing the river 
 at this place without a guide. The Provost was very oblig- 
 ing, and gave us instructions in what manner to follow him 
 across ; and as soon as he saw us safe, he took leave and re- 
 turned to Storuvellir. 
 
 On the end of a long ridge, running nearly north and 
 south, close to the base of Hekla, is a small farm, called Naifur- 
 holt. Here we halted ; and the grass having been recently 
 monn, we found an admirable station for our tent. The 
 cottager, Jon Brandtson, whom we found to be the most 
 obliging and active Icelander we had met with, was not long 
 in making his appearance, and ministering to our wants. 
 He told us that he could guide us to a place where there was 
 a great quantity of Iceland agate, or obsidian ; a piece of in- 
 formation the most welcome we had for a long time received. 
 That substance was one of the chief objects of our mineralo- 
 gical researches ; and not having before met with it, w-e had 
 given up all thoughts of seeing it in its place ; when honest 
 Brandtson, observing us employed with the minerals we had 
 already collected, brought a mass of obsidian to us, and re- 
 lieved us from a most severe mortification. He told us that 
 the place where he had seen great quantities of that substance, 
 was situate near the Torfa Jokul, and distant a long day's 
 journey from Naifurholt. Our time was now limited ; but 
 we had no hesitation in making up our minds to endure 
 considerable fatigue, in order to visit a spot so interesting to 
 us ; and even, in case of need, to relinquish the project of 
 ascending the far-famed Hekla; and, accordingly, we re- 
 solved to undertake this expedition next day, as the weather 
 did not appear favourable for the ascent of the mountain. 
 Having made preparations for both adventures, we went early 
 to bed.
 
 Ctt.m.CountrrfbeyondHekla.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 239 
 
 Finding, at two o'clock in the morning, that Hekla was 
 entirely obscured by fog, we mounted our horses ; and each 
 taking a spare one, we departed, Brandtson leading the way. 
 In the course of our journey, as the clouds dispersed, we 
 had different views of the mountain, which is completely co- 
 vered with slags. Few streams of lava seem to have taken their 
 course on the west and north sides ; indeed, we saw distinctly 
 only one. Hekla, like Snsefell Jokul, terminates a long group 
 of comparatively low hills. Viewed from the westward, when 
 Eyafialla, Tinfialla, and other Jokuls beyond it are in sight, 
 the mountain makes no great figure ; but, from the east and 
 south, it appears to rise out of the hills surrounding it, and 
 is very conspicuous. 
 
 Our road towards the obsidian lay between the Rangaa 
 and the Thiorsaa, the course of which is nearly from north- 
 east to south-west. This last mentioned river here rolls its 
 large turbid stream, over rugged masses of lava rising abrupt- 
 ly from its bed ; and in its efforts to overcome the obstruction 
 thus occasioned, dashes among the rocks, forming impetuous 
 rapids and falls. Great quantities of alluvial sand appeared 
 disposed in strata in different parts of the country through 
 which we passed ; and in other places there were extensive 
 accumulations of volcanic sand composed of pumice and 
 cinders. 
 
 Having recrossed the Rangaa, we entered a wide plain, 
 bounded by Hekla and the adjacent mountains on one side, 
 and by a lofty, precipitous, and broken ridge on the other, 
 the surface being completely covered with lava, sand, or mi- 
 nute fragments of scoriae and pumice. The lava which has 
 flowed over the plain, the termination of which we could not 
 see, appears to have been remarkably rough, from the nu- 
 merous sharp pointed masses rising out of the loose sand and
 
 240 TRA^-ELS IN ICELAND. [Cii.iii.Counlri/bei/ondHekla. 
 
 slags, the accumulation of which has rendered it passable. 
 We travelled about fourteen miles, judging of the distance by 
 the time our journey occupied, and then halted at the foot of 
 a large mass of lava, and changed our horses ; stop])ing no 
 longer than was necessary for shifting our saddles. The sub- 
 sequent part of our route, though still through an extremely 
 desolate country, was rendered more easy by the absence of 
 lava, and somewhat less forbidding by the appearance of thin- 
 ly scattered vegetation on the vallies, and on the sides of 
 some of the hills. Ere long we found ourselves inclosed in a 
 hollow among the mountains, from which there was no ap- 
 parent outlet; but following the steps of our guide, we pursued 
 a winding course, passing through a number of rivulets of 
 very thick muddy water which proceeded from under the snow 
 on the mountains.* 
 
 As we went along we observed several craters in low si- 
 tuations, from which flame and ejected matter had proceeded 
 during the convulsions to which this part of the island has 
 been particularly subjected. After having advanced about 
 fifteen miles farther, and traversed a part of that immense 
 waste which forms the interior of Iceland, and is partially 
 known only to those who go in search of strayed sheep, we 
 descended by a dangerous path into a small valley, having a 
 small lake in one corner, and the extremity opposite to us 
 bounded by a perpendicular face of rock resembling a stream 
 of lava in its broken and rugged appearance. While we ad- 
 vanced, the sun suddenly broke through the clouds, and the 
 brilliant reflection of his beams from different parts of this 
 supposed lava, as if from a surface of glass, delighted us by 
 
 * Extensive masses of clay are not uncommon in volcanic districts, especially 
 where there are hot springs, or where such have existed ; and this may account 
 for the peculiar colour of most of the large rivers of Iceland.
 
 C«.m.Cottntryhe7/ondHeJcra.]rB.AVT:,LS IN ICELAND; 241 
 
 an instantaneous conviction, that we had now attained one of 
 the principal objects connected with the plan of our expedi- 
 tion to Iceland. We hastened to the spot, and all our wishes 
 were fully accomplished in the examination of an object 
 which greatly exceeded the expectations we had formed. The 
 mineralogical facts which here presented themselves to our 
 notice, will be described in a sxibsecpient chapter. 
 
 On ascending one of the abrupt pinnacles which rose out 
 of this extraordinary mass of rock, we beheld a region, the 
 desolation of which can scarcely be paralleled. Fantastic 
 groups of hills, craters, and lava, leading the eye to distant 
 snow-crowned Jokuls ; the mist rising from a waterfall ; 
 Jakes embosomed among bare, bleak mountains ; an awful 
 profound silence ; lowering clouds ; marks all around of the 
 furious action of the most destructive of elements ; all com- 
 bined to impress the soul with sensations of dread and won- 
 der. The longer we contem})lated this scene, horrible as it 
 ■was, the more unable we were to turn our eyes from it; and a 
 considerable time elapsed, before we could bring ourselves to 
 attend to the business which tempted iis to enter so frightful a 
 district of the country. Our discovery of obsidian affordeil 
 us very great pleasure, which can only be understood by zeal- 
 ous geologists ; and we traversed an inunense and rugged 
 mass of that curious substance, with a high degree of satis- 
 faction ; though various circumstances prevented our tracing 
 it so fully as we wished. 
 
 Towards the east, at the distance of three or four miles, 
 we observed a very large circular hollow, the sides of which 
 were chiefly of a bright red colour; from which circumstance, 
 and its general apjiearance, we concluded that it was the cra- 
 ter of an extinct volcano. The waterfall, the noise of which 
 ■jve distinctly heard, though at the distance of several miles, 
 
 2h
 
 ^42 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ctt. m. Ascent of Hekla. 
 
 was formed by the Tunaa, a large ri^'er, which takes its 
 course in this part of the country, and joins the Thiorsaa. 
 
 Brandtson told us that he had never been farther in this 
 direction ; and pointed out to us the Sprang^ Sands, a vast 
 plain, consisting of volcanic matter, which is stretched over 
 a great part of those inhospitable regions already mentioned. 
 Numerous obstacles present themselves to any person who 
 may think of entering this dreadful country, among which 
 the want of food for horses is the principal. The rivers, lakes, 
 streams of lava, all the horrors of nature combined, oppose 
 every desire to penetrate into these unknown districts ; and 
 the superstitious dread in which they are held by the natives 
 is readily excused, the instant they are seen, even from afar. 
 We saw the lake called Fiske Vatn, and the summits of se- 
 veral Jokuls, in the distance, which will be more particularly 
 noticed afterwards, as we observed them more distinctly from 
 another station. 
 
 Before we had satisfied our curiosity, rain fell in torrents, 
 and continued to do so for an hour or two. We had not 
 proceeded far on our return to Naifurholt, when it ceas- 
 ed, and was succeeded by a very thick fog, through which 
 Brandtson guided us safely, and we reached our tents soon 
 after twelve o'clock at night, having been absent twenty-two 
 hours, during seventeen of which we were on horseback. 
 
 After the fatigue we had undergone in our excursion to- 
 wards tlie Torfa Jokid in search of obsidian, we did not ex- 
 pect to find ourselves sufficiently refreshed to attempt ascend- 
 ing Mount Hekla on the following day ; but, as we had been 
 long in the constant habit of enduring daily hardships, we 
 rose at an early hour on the third of August, quite alert ; and, 
 on seeing the whole of the mountain free from clouds, we 
 were soon ready to finish our labours, by ascending Hekla,
 
 Ch. in. Ascent of Hekla.] TRAVELS IN ICELANU. 
 
 243 
 
 and attaining the summit of a mountain whose fame has spread 
 to every quarter of the world. At ten o'clock, we were ready ; 
 and Brandtson having collected our horses, we mounted 
 them, and began our expedition under circumstances as fa- 
 vourable as we could wish. We rode through sand and lava 
 about three miles, when the surface became too rugged and 
 steep for horses. Our guide proposed leaving the poor ani- 
 mals standing till we returned ; but though they would not 
 have stirred from the spot, we sent them back, not chusing 
 that such valuable and steady servants should remain a whole 
 day without food. We now proceeded a considerable way 
 along the edge of a stream of lava, and then crossed it where 
 
 .■''^"^^^ri'^fiM. 
 
 .55 p NT > ' ! T ' . ■•' 1-J JiKi.v AS 3 KEIY FK OJ>I I^fATTTrKJaOLT . 
 
 &i£lduM_^^,^^'
 
 244 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. {Cii. nr. Jscent of Hckla. 
 
 5t was not very broad, and gained the foot of the south end 
 of the mountain. From this place we saw several mounts and 
 iioUows from which the streams of lava below aj)peared to 
 have flowed. While we had to pass over rugged lava, we ex- 
 perienced no great difficidty in ad\ ancing ; but when we ar- 
 rived at the steepest part of the n)ountain, which was cover- 
 ed with loose slags, we sometimes lost at one step, by their 
 yielding, a space that had been gained by several. In some 
 places we saw collections of black sand, which, had there 
 been any wind, might have proved extremely troublesome. 
 The ascent now became very steep, but the roughness of the 
 surface greatly assisted us. 
 
 Before we had reached the first summit, clouds surround- 
 ed us, and prevented our seeing farther than a few yards. 
 Placing implicit^ confidence in our guide, we proceeded, and 
 having attained what we thought was the nearest of the three 
 summits, we sat down to refresh ourselves, Avhen Brandtson 
 told us that he had never been higher up the mountain. The 
 clouds occasionally dividing, we saw that we had not yet 
 reached the southern summit. After having passed a number 
 of fissures, by leaping across some, and stepping along masses 
 of slags that lay over others, we at last got to the top of the 
 first peak. The clouds now became so thick, that we began 
 to despair of being able to proceed any farther. Indeed it 
 was dangerous even to move ; for the peak consists of a very 
 narrow ridge of slags, not more than two feet broad, hav- 
 ing a precipice on each side many hundred feet high. One 
 of these precipices forms the side of a vast hollow which 
 seems to have been one of the craters. At length the sky 
 cleared a little, and enabled us to discover a ridge below, 
 that seemed to connect the peak we were on with the middle 
 one. We lost no time in availing ourselves of this opportu-
 
 CH.ni.JscentofHekh] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. i2 1 J 
 
 nity, and by balancing ourselves like rope-dancers, we suc- 
 ceeded in passing along a ridge of slags so narrow that 
 there was hardly room for our feet. After a short, but very 
 steep ascent, we gained the higliest point of this celebrated 
 mountain. 
 
 We now foiuid that our usual good fortune had not yet 
 forsaken us ; for we had scarcely begun to ascend the middle 
 peak, when the sky became clear, and we had a full view of 
 the surrounding country. Towards the north it is low, ex- 
 cept where a Jokul here and there towers into the regions of 
 perpetual snow. Several large lakes appeared in different 
 places, and among them the Fiske Vatn was the most conspi- 
 cuous. In this direction we saw nearly two-thirds across the 
 island. The Blaefell and the Lange Jokuls, stretched them- 
 selves in the distance to a great extent, presenting the appear- 
 ance of enormous masses of snow heaped up on the plains. 
 The Skaptar Jokul, whence the great eruption that took place 
 in the year 1/83 broke forth, bounded the view towards the 
 north-east. It is a large, extensive, and lofty mountain, and 
 appeared to be covered with snow to the very base. On the 
 side next to us, though at a distance of about forty miles, 
 we plainly discerned a black conical hill, which very pro- 
 bably may be one of the craters that were formed during 
 the eruption. The Torfa, Tinfialla, and Eyafialla Jokuls, 
 limit the view of the eastern part of the country. To- 
 wards the south, the great plain we had passed through seem- 
 ed as if stretched under our feet, and was bounded by 
 the sea. The same valley was terminated towards the west 
 by a range of curiously peaked mountains, those in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Thingvalla, and to the north and west of the 
 Geysers. 
 
 The middle peak of Hekla forms one side of a hollow,
 
 246 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. III. Ascent of Hekla. 
 
 which contains a large mass of snow at the bottom ; and is 
 evidently another crater. The whole summit of the mountain 
 is a ridge of slags, and the hollows on each side appear to have 
 been so many different vents from which the eruptions have 
 from time to time issued. We saw no indications that lava 
 had flowed from the upper part of the mountain ; but our 
 examination, from the frequent recurrence of fog, was una- 
 voidably confined. 
 
 After we had satisfied ourselves in surveying the surround- 
 ing country, we began to collect specimens of the slags, and 
 perceived some of them to be warm. On removing some 
 from the surface, we found those below were too hot to be 
 handled ; and on placing a thermometer amongst them, it rose 
 to 144". The vapour of water ascended from several parts 
 of the peak. It had been remarked to us by many of the 
 inhabitants, that there was less snow on Hekla at this time 
 than had been observed for many years. We supposed, there- 
 fore, that the heat now noticed might be the recommence- 
 ment of activity in the volcano, rather than the remaining 
 effects of the last eruption which took place in the year I766. 
 
 The crater, of which the highest peak forms a part, 
 does not much exceed a hundred feet in depth. The bot- 
 tom is filled by a large mass of snow, in which various ca- 
 verns had been formed by its partial melting. In these the 
 snow had become solid and transparent, reflecting a bluish 
 tinge ; and their whole appearance was extremely beautiful, 
 reminding us of the description of magic palaces in eastern 
 tales. 
 
 At the foot of the mountain, the thermometer at half pgst 
 nine o'clock stood at 59°. At eleven, it was at 55°, and at 
 four, on the top, at 39°. 
 
 Our descent was greatly retarded by thick fog ; and we
 
 Ch. in. Volcanoes.] TRAVELS IN ICELA^■D. 24:7 
 
 found it much more hazardous than the ascent. Wc miss- 
 ed ovir way and were under the necessity of crossing the 
 lava we had passed in our way up, at a place where it had 
 spread to a much greater breadth, and, from the rapidity 
 of the slope along which it had flowed, had become fright^- 
 fully rugged. 
 
 Mount Hekla has acquired a degree of distinction among 
 volcanoes, to which it does not seem to be entitled. It is far 
 behind Etna and Vesuvius, both in the frequency and magni- 
 tude of its eruptions. We could not distinguish more than 
 four streams of lava ; three of which have descended on the 
 south and one on the north side ; but there may be some 
 streams on the east side, which we did not see. The early 
 eruptions of this mountain do not seem to have been regular- 
 ly recorded. Olafson and Paulson say, that after careful re- 
 search they found that the number of eruptions amounted to 
 twenty-two; and none are recorded as having happened before 
 the year 1004. There were eruptions in the years 1137, 1222, 
 1300, 1341, 1362, 1389, 1538, l(il9, 1636, and 1693. Flames 
 appeared in the neighbourhood in 1728. In 1554, there were 
 eruptions from the mountains to the eastward ; and in 1754, 
 flames burst out to the westward. From the mountain itself, 
 no eruption took place between the years 1693 and 1766, an 
 interval of seventy-three years ; and during this last period of 
 activity, no lava was thrown out. The following year, flames 
 broke out afresh, and the mountain was not perfectly quiet 
 in the year I768 : since that time, it has remained inactive. 
 We had no opportunity of measuring the height of Mount 
 Hekla ; but we have been informed by Sir J. Stanley that 
 the elevation which resulted from his observations, was 4,300 
 feet, and this, from different circumstances, we believe to 
 be correct.
 
 248 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ui. Volcanoes. 
 
 In the year 1755, Ji terrible eruption proceeded from the 
 mountain called Kattlagiau Jokul, which is situate to the 
 eastward of Eyafialla. From the accounts of this erup- 
 tion, it does not appear that any lava flowed ; but immense 
 torrents of water carried destruction before them through 
 the neighbouring country ; and ignited stones and ashes were 
 thrown in all directions. The electrical phenomena that ac- 
 companied this eruption, seem to have been very tremendous; 
 several people and cattle having been killed by the lightning. 
 The moimtain continued in a state of violent activity during 
 a whole month ; and, indeed, it may be said to have been 
 so during a whole year ; for, between January and Septem- 
 ber of the year 1756, five difl'erent eruptions took place. 
 We heard a report, that early in the summer the inhabitants 
 in the neighbourhood had some reason to apprehend an im- 
 pending eruption ; but we could get no distinct account of 
 the symptoms that had been observed. The earliest eruption 
 of Kattlagiavi, appears to have happened about the year 900 ; 
 and, since that period, to the great one in 1755, only five have 
 occurred. 
 
 It is mentioned, in the history of Iceland during the IStli 
 century, that an eruption took place from Eyrefa Jokul, in 
 the south-east part of the island, in the year 17-0 » ^"d one 
 from the lake of Grimsvatn in the year I716.* 
 
 In the north-east quarter of Iceland, near a large lake 
 
 * I am uncertain of the position of this lake. The only one of the name 
 which I could tind marked on the maps of Iceland, is noted on the small map ; 
 but, from the circumstance of all the most recent eruptions having proceeded 
 from the southern part of the island, I suspect that there may be a lake of the 
 same name somewhere to the eastward of the Markarfliot; ai'd, since the publi- 
 cation of the first edition, I have received such information as leads me to believe 
 my conjecture right.
 
 Crt. III. Volcanoes.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 249 
 
 called Myvatn, is Mount Krabla, which became remarkable 
 by dreadful eruptions of lava that proceeded from it between 
 the years 1/24 and 173 ). Some of the streams of lava flow- 
 ed into the lake, destroyed the fish, and almost dried it up. 
 There werfe eruptions also from the mountains round Krabla; 
 and an extensive district of inhabited country was laid waste. 
 At a place called Reikiahlid, near Krabla, sulphur is foiuid 
 in the same circumstances as that at Krisuvik, but in larger 
 quantities. It was from the former place that most of the 
 sulphur brought from Iceland was exported. 
 
 In the year 1000, an eruption took place in the Guld- 
 bring^ Syssel. Another broke out near Reikianes in the year 
 1340 ; and one is said to have been seen at a great distance 
 in the sea, in the year 1583, similar to that which was observ- 
 ed preceding the great eruption of 1783. 
 
 The total number of recorded eruptions appears to l>€ th^ 
 following : 
 
 From Hekla, since the year 1004, inclusive - - - 22 
 
 From Kattlagiau Jokul 900, .... 7 
 
 From Krabla, 1724, - - . . 4 
 In different parts of the Guld- 
 
 bringe Syssel 1000, - - - . 3 
 
 At sea, 1583, _ . _ . 2 
 
 From the lake Grimsvatn, in 1716, _ _ « _ 1 
 
 From Eyafialla Jokul * in 1717* - - - - l 
 
 * This mountain is often called Oster Jokul (eastern Jokul), in contradistinc- 
 tion to Snsefell Jokul, which is called western The eruption of the eastern 
 Jokul in 1717, and the one from Grimsvatn, are recorded by Mr Stephenson in 
 his History of Iceland during the eighteenth century. 
 
 2l
 
 250 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. III. Volcanoes. 
 
 From Eyrefa Jokul, in 1720, -_--__. i 
 
 From Skaptar Jokul, in 1783, ------- i 
 
 42 
 
 In chronological order, the different eruptions mentioned 
 by Icelandic authors stand recorded thus : In the years 900, 
 1000, 1104, 1137, 1222, 1300, 1340, 1341, 1362, 13S9, 1422, 
 1538 (Vesuvius erupted the same year), 1554 (Etna), 1583, 
 1619, 1636 (Etna), 1693 (Vesuvius, I692 ; Etna, 1694), I716, 
 1717 (Vesuvius), 1720, 1724, 1728, 1730 (Vesuvius), 1754 
 (Vesuvius), 1755 (Etna), 1756, I766 (Etna and Vesuvius), 
 1771j and 1772, flames seen on Hekla; 1783. Thus it appears, 
 that many of the eruptions that are known to have taken 
 place since Iceland was inhabited, have not been particularly 
 noticed ; and it is very probable, that numerous eruptions of 
 less note have been passed over. We may reckon active all 
 those mountains which have burned within the last century. 
 Of these there are six; — Hekla, Krabla, Kattlagiau, Eyafialla, 
 Eyrefa, and Skaptar, Jokuls. 
 
 The most recent eruption that took place in Iceland seems 
 also to have been the most awful. It proceeded from the 
 low country near the Skaptar Jokul in the year 1783. 
 Mr Stephenson of Indreholm was ordered by the King 
 of Denmark to proceed from Copenhagen, where he hap- 
 pened to be diuing the eruption, and to visit the district, 
 that his Majesty might be enabled to alleviate the distresses 
 occasioned by the eruption. That gentleman has published 
 a laboured account of the whole ; but, although there is no 
 doubt of the eruption having been one of the most terrible in 
 the annals of volcanoes, he seems to have depended too much 
 on reports and information, which appear to be exaggerated.
 
 Ch. III. Volcanoes.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 2o\ 
 
 He himself told us, that the lava was so hot at the thne he 
 approached it, uhich was about ax'ear after the eruption, thai 
 it could not be examined, and that it has never been traced to 
 its source. Another account has been written, which, from 
 what we heard in Iceland, is the most correct. It is to be 
 lamented that the present state of the Icelandic press, pre- 
 vents its being given to the public* 
 
 The whole tract between Hekla and Krabla is a desert 
 quite impassable and unknown ; and there is still subsisting a 
 ridiculous notion that it is inhabited by a tribe of robbers. 
 Did such people really exist, and did they know the dread 
 which they inspire, they might easily procure more comforta- 
 ble quarters. 
 
 No single volcanic mountain which we saw, appeared to 
 have thrown out much lava. Probably this has been owing 
 to the vast number of apertures which have given vent to the 
 rage of subterraneous heat. In other countries, where it has 
 for ages continued to explode from one or two mountains, the 
 lava is confined to one place, and is abundant. 
 
 There is no country in the known world where volcanic 
 eruptions have been so numerous as in Iceland, or have been 
 spread over so large a surface. No part of the island is whol- 
 ly free from the marks of volcanic agency ; and it may be 
 truly called the abode of subterraneous heat. Various vol- 
 
 * I have accidentally procured a map, which appears to have belonged to some 
 description of thh dreadful event, and by which it appears, that the lava 
 burst out at three different points about eight or nine miles distant from each 
 other, and spread in some places to a breadth of 30 miles. The extent from 
 north to south as far as the lava seems to have been observed, is upwards of 40 
 miles, and it is known to have flowed mudi farther ; though it has not been 
 traced.
 
 252 
 
 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 
 
 ICu. III. Volcanoes. 
 
 canic mountains and streams of lava, are mentioned as exist- 
 ing in the eastern and northern districts, by Eggert Olafson, 
 in his Ennarrationes Historicce de Natura et Const'itutione Is- 
 landicc. In the north-west quarter, in the district of Isafiord, 
 there is a volcanic mountain called Glama, which he de- 
 scribes as rivalhng the magnitude of the Snsefell Jokul. 
 Thus it appears, that the force of subterraneous fire has 
 heen exerted upon every part of this extensive island ; and 
 when we consider the eruptions that have been seen at 
 a distance in the sea, we are safe in estimating, that, in 
 this part of the earth, one continued surface of not less 
 than 60,000 square miles has been subjected to that engine 
 of destruction. 
 
 On the 4lh of August we took leave of Hekla, and our 
 excellent guide Brandtson, Avhose great activity, and obliging 
 disposition, must recommend him to all travellers who may 
 
 3Ior:?f'r JlK.icj^AFKo.'yi xme Schl'tm.
 
 Ch. III. Hltderendl] TKAVELS IN rcELANI>i 253 
 
 have occasion for his services. After passing the different 
 streams of lava on the south side of the mountain, we left the 
 plain, and ascended a ridge from which we had a view of the 
 Westmann Islands and Eyafialla Jokul. Having descended 
 towards the valley of the Markarfliot, we arrived at Hlide- 
 rende, the house of Sysseluian Thoranson, brother of the 
 Amtmand. The Markarfliot is a large and remarkable river. 
 Its course to the sea is short, and it is formed by nume- 
 rous streams, which descend precipitately from the Jokuls, 
 bringing down a quantity of clay which gives it a white 
 colour, and a fetid smell, especially perceptible in au- 
 tumn. It divides into numerous branches, and very fre- 
 quently changes its course, sometimes keeping close to the 
 moim tains, and at other times flowing ten or fifteen miles to 
 the westward. 
 
 We were received very hospitably at Hliderende ; and had 
 we been less welcome, we should have very readily excused 
 any deficiency of attention, when we saw how very busy the 
 people were in getting home the hay, during the fine wea- 
 ther which had prevailed for some time. The Sysselman has 
 a large farm ; and such of the pastures as we saw were excel- 
 lent. A considerable quantity of angelica grows here, which 
 is used as an article of food in many parts of the island. The 
 carraway grows abundantly in the meadows at this place, but 
 is not indigenous. A small quantity of seed was brought 
 from Coi)euhagen by some person, and in a short time it dis- 
 seminated itself. 
 
 Our supper consisted of baked mutton and melted tal- 
 low; a sauce of which we could not partake. In the 
 morning we had coffee ; and for breakfast the same viands 
 which were presented to us at suj)per ; and our dinner 
 was a repetition of the breakfa>^t. There was no kind of
 
 254 TRAVELS "IN ICELAND. [Ch. hi. Eyafialla Jokul. 
 
 bread in the house ; and the only hquor presented to us was 
 corn brandy. It was with much difficulty we could obtain 
 leave to drink water ; and we were afraid lest our entertainers 
 should tliink our asking for it as great a piece of rudeness, as 
 they esteem offering such liquor to their guests. 
 
 From the Sysselman's lady we purchased the dress whicli 
 has been already described. We were shewn how the figured 
 stuff used for saddle-cushions, and with which the cloaks are 
 ornamented, is manufactured. It is first made as our country- 
 women make coverings for footstools ; only instead of work- 
 ing on canvas, the Icelandic women use a small frame, on 
 which threads are stretched. These are crossed with others, 
 and worsted loops are wove in, which being afterwards cut, 
 the stuff resembles a very course velvet. To form the figures 
 on trimming, part of the rough nap is cut out with scissars. 
 By using different needles and different coloured worsteds, 
 very neat figures are worked in this manner ; and the piece 
 we saw>in the little loom was really very pretty. 
 
 The scenery hereabouts is very interesting and picturesque. 
 Many fine streams precipitate their waters over the lofty cliffs 
 forming the western boundary of the Markarfliot. One of 
 these streams falls upon a ledge in the rock, and has worn a 
 pipe through if, having four apertures at different heights, 
 when there is little water in the river, it falls directly 
 down the pipe, and issues only from the lowest ; but 
 when swelled by rain, it rushes from all the apertures, 
 forming a very curious and magnificent cascade. Some of 
 the rocks composing these cliffs, consist of very fine ranges 
 of lofty columns. Eyafialla Jokul soars above the eastern 
 side of the valley. It is covered with perpetual snow for 
 nearly two thirds of its height, which has been ascertained 
 by the Danish officers now engaged in surveying the coast
 
 Ch. in. Weslmann Islands.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 255 
 
 to be about 5,500 feet. On some parts of the sides of this 
 mountain, magnificent glaciers have been formed, the snow 
 having descended in several places almost to the valley, 
 and become frozen into solid masses, which assume a great 
 variety of singular and abruj^t forms. 
 
 The appearance of the Westmann Islands from Hliderende 
 is very picturesque ; and we were told that they consist entirely 
 of lava. The nearest to the coast is about twelve m.iles dis- 
 tant; and the most remote about twice that distance. Only 
 one of them, called Heimaey, is inhabited ; and the people 
 are by no means respected by their neighbours on the main- 
 land, who represent them as being remarkably indolent, and 
 depraved in their habits. Their food consists chiefly of ful- 
 mars and puffins, (the procellaria Glacialis, and Alca Arctica 
 of LinnceusJ, which are slightly salted and barrelled. This is 
 the principal aliment of the people of St Kilda, the most re- 
 mote of the western islands of Scotland, which J visited in the 
 year 1800 ; and a peculiar and fatal disease which attacks 
 children, is common in both places, and may probably be 
 occasioned by the mode of living. These islands produce a 
 great quantity of feathers ; and, until the great eruption took 
 place in 17*^3, there was abundance of fish around them ; but 
 since that period, the fishing on this coast is reported to have 
 been much less productive. There is a church in the island 
 of Heimaey, said to be one of the best in Iceland ; but it does 
 not appear to be of much use in improving the characters of 
 those for whose benefit it is intended. In the same island, 
 there is a small creek, which forms a tolerable harbour, but it 
 is equally difficult to enter or to leave it, on account of the 
 strong currents, and the heavy sea, which generally rolls 
 around the islands when the wind is a httle more than mo- 
 derately high.
 
 256 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cir. in. Oddf. ' 
 
 A journey to the eastern part of Iceland, along the south- 
 ern coast, is rendered very difficult by the rivers ; and is not 
 often attempted, even by the natives of the country. From 
 Kattlagiau Jokul, the road is chiefly along the shore ; but 
 when the rivers are swollen, it is usual to cross some of the 
 mountains to avoid them. During two days of the journey 
 to Berufiord, which is the most southerly station on the east- 
 ern coa*t, no habitations are met with ; and an express cannot 
 reach that place from Reikiavik in less than fourteen days. 
 Berufiord, Rodefiord, and Vapnafiord, are the only ports on 
 this side of the island. 
 
 We had intended to proceed farther to the eastward, in 
 order to examine Kattlagiau Jokul, and the lava of 1783; but 
 being aware, that should the Elbe return, even at this time, 
 we should necessarily be detained till a late period of the 
 year, and probably the greatest part of the winter ; and hav- 
 ing been informed that the brig Flora, which we had left at 
 Stromness, after failing to procure a cargo on the east and 
 north coasts, was daily expected at Reikiavik, and would re- 
 main there only a few days, we resolved to avail ourselves of 
 this opportunity of returning to Britain. We therefore pro- 
 ceeded, on the evening of the 5th, down the valley of the 
 Markarfliot, towards Reikiavik, having been furnished with * 
 fresh horses by Sysselman Thoranson, who attended us to 
 Odde. The Sysselman is famed in the country as a good 
 horseman, and for being possessed of an excellent stud. All 
 the Icelanders shew a great regard for their riding-horses, and 
 emulate each other in breaking them to pace rapidly. They 
 also pay great attention to their cushions, and other trappings, 
 which they arrange and put on with much pains, and after- 
 wards tie up the horses tails into a knot, to prevent their being 
 spoiled.
 
 Ch. in. 0(ldA] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 257 
 
 The pasture in this district, and the appearance of inclo- 
 snres, are far superior to any thing we had seen before ; and if 
 ever an attempt shall be made to raise corn, potatoes, orturnips, 
 this is the district which, in respect to soil and situation, 
 seems to holdout the greatest temptations to agricultural ex- 
 periment. The vicinity of Eyafialla, and the other lofty 
 Jokuls to the eastward, render the climate perhaps too un- 
 steady for extensive cultivation. We passed the church of 
 Breide-bolstadr, which is the richest living in Iceland ; the 
 stipend being 182 dollars. 
 
 We found Odde under some small green hills, not far from 
 the bank of the Rangaa. The church is one of the best struc- 
 ture, very like that of Skalholt; and the priest's house is 
 large and commodious. The house was at this time occu- 
 pied by the widow of the late minister, whose successor, the 
 Lector Theologise, Steingrim Jonson, had not yet taken pos- 
 session of it. The widow and her family were very hospitable ; 
 and her son, a young man of superior manners and under- 
 standing, was very assiduous in his attentions. Although we 
 arrived at a late hour, and were not much disposed for eating, 
 it was thought necessary to prepare a repast for us ; and ac- 
 cordingly, a little before twelve o'clock, baked mutton, and a 
 dish of rice boiled in milk, were set before us. 
 
 Early in the morning of the Gth, we were preparing for 
 our departure, when a substantial breakfast of mutton, coffee, 
 and chocolate, detained us ; and, in the course of conversa- 
 tion, we discovered that a number of books were in the house, 
 some of which we might purchase. Accordingly, simdry chests 
 and other receptacles were opened, and various volumes were 
 released from dust and cobwebs. We made several purchases ; 
 but the most curious, and perhaps the most valuable, was a 
 superb Icelandic Bible, which fell to the lot of Mr Bright, 
 
 2k
 
 258 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cn. m. Reikum. 
 
 The way to Eyarback from Odde, is long and tiresome. We 
 first passed through the Rangaa by a deep and difficult ford; 
 and, after scrambling among bogs, we crossed the Thiorsaa 
 at a place where it was very broad. Owing to the shallow- 
 ness of the stream, the boat grounded when not much more 
 than half way over, and we had to mount our horses, and ride 
 about a hundred and fifty yards through a very dangerous 
 quicksand. 
 
 We now went towards the coast, where the plain becomes 
 more sandy. On approaching Eyarback, we saw, at the dis- 
 tance of a few miles, the vapour ascending from the hot springs 
 of Reikum, which, had our time not been much limited (an 
 express having been sent to Odde by Mr Fell, acquainting us 
 of the arrival of the Flora, and wishing us to hasten our re- 
 turn, if we desired to seize this opportunity of embarking), 
 and had we not been quite familiarized with similar pheno- 
 mena, we should have visited. Our not having done so is not 
 to be regretted, as Sir John Stanley has given an excellent 
 description of Reikum, in a letter to the late Dr Black, which 
 is printed in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edin- 
 burgh ; from which I shall now transcribe it. 
 
 ' The valley is in this place fertile, and nearly half a mile 
 ' in breadth. It becomes more narrow towards the north ; 
 ' and it is there rendered barren by heaps of crumbled lava, 
 ' or other rubbish, brought down from the hills by the waters. 
 
 * These have the appearance of artificial mounds, and a great 
 ' number of springs are continually boiling through them. 
 ' Below the surface, a general decomposition seems taking 
 ' place : for almost wherever the ground is turned up, a 
 « strong heat is felt ; and the loose earth and stones are 
 ' changing gradually into a clay, or bole of various colours, 
 
 • and beautifully veined, resembling a variegated jasper.
 
 Cb. lit. Reikum.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 259 
 
 The heat may possibly proceed from a fermentation of the 
 materials composing these mounds ; but more probably 
 (I should conjecture) from the springs and steam forced up 
 through them. The springs must have acquired their heat 
 at some greater depth, from some constant, steady cause 
 (however difficult to explain), adequate to the length of 
 time they have been known to exist, with the same unvaried 
 force and temperature. 
 
 ' Springs do not boil on or near these banks onlv. Tliey 
 rise in every part of the valley ; and, within the circumfe- 
 rence of a mile and an half, more than an hundred might 
 easily be counted. Most of them are very small, and may 
 be just perceived simmering in the hole from whence the 
 steam is issuing. This, trailing on the ground, deposits, in 
 some places, a thin coat of sulphvn-. The proportion varies, 
 for, near some of these small springs, scarce any is percep- 
 tible, whilst the channels by which the Avater escapes from 
 others, are entirely lined with it for several yards. Neither 
 the water nor the steam from the larger springs, ever ap- 
 pear to deposit the smallest proportion of sulphur ; nor can 
 the sulphureous vapour they contain be discovered, other- 
 wise than by the taste of what has been boiled in them for 
 a long time. 
 
 ' Many springs boil in great cauldrons or basons, of two, 
 three, or four feet diameter. The water in these is agitated 
 with a violent ebullition, and vast clouds of steam fly off 
 from its surface. Several little streams are formed by the 
 water which escapes from the basons ; and as these retain 
 their heat for a considerable way, no little caution is re- 
 quired to walk among them with safety. 
 
 ' Tlie thermometer constantly rose in these springs to the 
 ' 212th degree; and in one small opening, from whence a
 
 260 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. hi. Keikunu 
 
 * quantity of steam issued with great impetuosity, Dr Wright 
 ' observed the mercury rise, in two successive trials, to the 
 ' 213th degree. 
 
 ' I have already said, that the ground through which many 
 " of the springs were boiling, was reduced to a clay of vari- 
 ' ous colours. In some, the water is quite turbid ; and, 
 ' according to the colour of the clay through which it has 
 ' passed, is red, yellow, or grey. 
 
 ' The springs, however, from whence the water overflows 
 ' in any great qxiantity, are, to appearance, perfectly pure. 
 ' The most remarkable of these was about fifty or sixty yards 
 ' from ovu" station, and was distinguished by the people of 
 ' the neighbourhood, by the name of the Little Geyser. The 
 ' water of it boiled with a loud and rumbling noise in a well 
 
 * of an irregular form, of about six feet in its greatest dia- 
 ' meter ; from thence it burst forth into the air, and subsided 
 
 * again nearly every minute. The jets were dashed into spray 
 
 * as they rose, and were from twenty to thirty feet high. 
 ' Volumes of steam or vapour ascended with them, and pro- 
 ' duced a most magnificent effect, particularly if the dark 
 ' hills, which almost hung over the fountain, formed a back- 
 ' ground to the picture. The jets are forced, in rising, to an 
 ' oblique direction, by two or three large stones, which lay 
 
 * on the edge of the bason. Between these and the hill, the 
 ' ground (to a distance of eight or nine feet) is remarkably 
 ' hot, and entirely bare of vegetation. If the earth is stirred, 
 ' a steam instantly rises ; and in some places it was covered 
 ' with a thin coat of sulphur, or rather, I should say, some 
 ' loose stones only were covered with flakes of it. In one 
 ' place, there was a slight efflorescence on the surface of the 
 ' soil, which, by the taste, seemed to be alum. 
 
 ' The spray fell towards the valley, and in that direction
 
 Ca. in. Reihim.] TRAVELS IN ICELAN13. 261 
 
 * covered the ground with a thick incrustation of matter, 
 ' which it deposited. Close to this, and in one spot, very near 
 ' the well itself, the grass grows with great luxuriance. 
 
 ' There is another fountain in the valley, not much infe- 
 ' rior in beauty to that which I have described. It breaks 
 
 * out from under one of the mounds, close to the river. Its 
 ' eruptions are, I think, in some respects, more beautiful than 
 ' those of the former. They rise nearly to the same height ; 
 
 * and the quantity of water thrown up at one time is greater, 
 ' and not so much scattered into spray. The jets conti- 
 
 * nue seldom longer than a minute ; and the intervals be- 
 ' tween them are from five to six minutes. They are forced 
 ' to bend forwards from the well, by the shelving of the bank, 
 
 * or probably their height would be very considerable ; for 
 
 * they appear to be thrown up with great force. We never 
 ' dared approach near enough to look deep into the well ; 
 ' but we could perceive the water boiling near its surface, 
 ' from time to time, with much violence. The ground in 
 ' front of it was covered with a white incrustation, of a more 
 ' beautiful appearance than the deposition near any other 
 
 * spring in this place. By a trial of it with acids, it seemed 
 ' almost entirely calcareous. 
 
 * I have now described to you the two most remarkable 
 
 * fountains in the valley of Reikum, the only two which 
 ' throw up water to a considerable height with any regulari- 
 ' ty. There are some from whence, in the course of every 
 ' hour, or half hour, beautiful jets burst out unexpectedly ; 
 ' but their eruptions continue only a few seconds, and be- 
 ' tween them the water boils in the same manner as in the 
 ' other basons. 
 
 ' Towards the uj)per end of the valley, there was a very 
 ' curious hole, which attracted much of our attention. It
 
 262 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. nt. Reikum. 
 
 seemed to have served at some former period as the well of 
 a fountain. It was of an irregular form, and from four to 
 five feet in diameter. It was divided into diflferent hollows 
 or cavities at the depth of a few feet, into which we could 
 not see a great way, on account of their direction. A quan- 
 tity of steam issued from these recesses, which prevented us 
 from examining them very closely. We vs'ere stunned while 
 standing near this cavern, and in some measure alarmed, by 
 an amazing loud and continued noise which came from the. 
 bottom. It was as loud as the blast of air forced into the 
 furnace from the four great cylinders at the Carron iron- 
 works. 
 
 ' We could discover no water in any of the cavities ; but 
 we found near the place many beautiful petrifactions of 
 leaves and mosses. They were formed with extreme deli- 
 cacy, but were brittle, and would not bear much handling ; 
 their svibstance seemed chiefly argillaceous. 
 
 ' We perceived smoke issuing from the ground in many 
 places in the higher parts of the valley, much further than 
 we extended our walks. I am sorry to say we left many 
 things in this wonderful country unexamined ; but we were 
 checked in our journey by many circumstances, which al- 
 lowed us neither the leisure nor the opportunity for explor- 
 ing every part of it as we could have wished. The sub- 
 stances deposited near the diflferent springs seemed to me, 
 in general, a mixture of calcareous and argillaceous earths ; 
 but near one spring, not far from our tents, there seemed 
 to be a slight deposition of silicious matter. To the eye it 
 resembled calcedony ; but with its transparency, it had 
 not the same hardness, and, if pressed, would break to 
 pieces. The water you have analysed came from this 
 spring, and we were obliged to take some care in filling
 
 Ch. hi. Eyarback.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 263 
 
 ' the bottles ; for though gradually heated, they would break 
 « when the water was poured into them, if it had not been 
 ' previously exposed to the air for some minutes in an open 
 ' vessel. 
 
 ' The water of this spring boiled, as in most of the 
 ' others, in a cauldron four or five feet broad, I do not 
 ' recollect to have seen any of it either thrown up above a 
 ' foot, and some meat we dressed in it tasted very strong of 
 ' sulphur. 
 
 ' Mr Baine, by a measurement of the depth, the breadth, 
 ' and the velocity of the stream flowing from the Little Gey- 
 
 * ser, found the quantity of water thrown up every minute 
 ' by it to be 59*064 wine gallons, or 7^-96 cubic feet. Mr 
 ' Wright and myself followed the stream, to observe how 
 ' far any matter continued to be deposited by the water. 
 
 * We found some little still deposited where it joined the 
 *■ river a quarter of a mile at least from its source. At 
 ' that place, it retained the heat of S3' by Fahrenheit's ther- 
 
 * mometer.' 
 
 We found Eyarback near the mouth of the river Elvas, 
 which is formed by the rivers which join near Skalholt, 
 and that which flctws from the lake of Thingvalla. Here 
 a large quantity of the fiicus palmatiis (called in Scotland, 
 dulse) is prepared by drying. It is packed in casks, and in 
 a short time gives out a white and somewhat saccharine 
 powder. In this state it is eaten by the natives, either 
 raw or with butter, or boiled in milk. The merchant who 
 is settled here is a Mr Lambasson, who was at this time in 
 Denmark. During his absence, the business is carried on by 
 his wife, and his agent Mr Peterson, who received us very 
 civilly. The harbour is by no means a safe one ; and, in 
 bad' weather, exceedingly dangerous of approach. Finding
 
 264 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ca. iii. Reiktavik. 
 
 that owing to the state of the tide, we could not cross the 
 river (which is here about half a mile broad) till midnight, we 
 refreshed ourselves by sleeping a few hours. We had some 
 trouble in getting the ferrymen out of their beds, but we vvere 
 carried over in an excellent boat, our horses swimming after us. 
 Many thousand horses cross at this place during the summer, 
 and we were told that sometimes so many as 900 crossed in 
 one day. 
 
 Having proceeded a mile or two along the river, we began 
 to ascend the ridge of volcanic hills which extends almost with- 
 out interruption from the lake of Thingvalla to the extremity 
 of the Guldbringe Syssel. We had a fine view from the 
 heights, of Hekla, and the whole country we had passed 
 through, towards Eyafialla Jokul, which bounded the scene. 
 We now encountered lava, many streams of which we pass- 
 ed ; and after travelling through twenty-five miles of a dis- 
 trict entirely laid waste by fire, we arrived at Reikiavik 
 about, noon, on the 7th of August, considerably fatigued ; 
 our progress having been very slow on account of the ex- 
 treme ruggedness of the country. The length of the journey 
 we had now accomplished, was about 280 miles. Thus our 
 travels terminated ; and we immediately commenced our 
 preparations for leaving a country, whose inhabitants and 
 natural curiosities we had surveyed with singular gratifi- 
 cation. 
 
 We found the vegetables, the seeds of which we had 
 sown on our arrival in Iceland, tolerably well advanced. 
 The white turnips were of a good size ; the pease were just 
 out of blossom ; the radishes, cress, and mustard, had most- 
 ly gone to seed ; but the cabbages had not made much 
 progress. In Mr Frydensberg's garden, the potatoes were 
 very good, and we partook of a dish of them, and of well-
 
 Ch. III. Letter from the TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 265 
 
 Governors.] 
 
 grown kol-rhabie. Nasturtium, lupines, and some other 
 hardy annual flowers, had advanced to perfection in Mr Fry- 
 densberg's dining-room, which they greatly contributed to 
 ornament. 
 
 The attentions of all our friends were renewed on our ar- 
 rival, and the Bishop repeated a present of a sheep for the 
 third time ; a mark of his hospitality which we shall never 
 forget. That our wants might be supplied, we had only to 
 express them to Mr Frydensberg or Mr Simonson. 
 
 On Sunday the 12th, we went to an entertainment to which 
 we had been invited by the merchants, who desired to pay us 
 a compliment before we departed. In the morning they all 
 displayed their flags from, their houses, and at two o'clock we 
 sat down to a very good dinner. 
 
 Having, a short time before our departure, addressed a 
 letter to the Deputy-governors, expressive of our gratitude 
 for all the attention which had been bestowed upon us, and 
 requesting them to communicate our thanks to the people of 
 the various districts through which we had travelled, for their 
 hospitality and kindness, Ave received the following letter in 
 reply : — 
 
 ' Perillustri, nobilissimo Domino Georgio Mackenzie, 
 salutem plurimam. 
 
 ' Literas tuas, vir nobilissime, humanissimas aecepimus, 
 ' et nostri ofticii crit, incolas regionum, per quas iter fecisti, 
 ' de singulari tua, et itineris sociorum, humanitate, benigni-, 
 ' tate, et grata erga eos animo certiores facere. Te et socios 
 ' vicissim excusare rogamus, si antiqua ilia hospitalitas, quae 
 ' incolis hujus insulie a primis usque temporibus propria fuit, 
 ' vobis alicubi defuerit, et ut hoc verecundise, paupertati, ac 
 
 2.L
 
 266 TRAVELS IN ICT.L\JsT>.[Ca.m.CharacteroflJiepeople. 
 
 * linguae vestrae, iit et vitae consuetiidinis, imperitise, non in- 
 
 * humanitati gentis tribuatur, enixe postulamus. 
 
 • Accipe denique, vir nobilissinie ! nostras integerrimas 
 ' grates, pro tua et sociorum dulci, arnica, et urban& conver- 
 ' satione, quam grata diu colemus memoria. Prosperrima te, 
 
 * tuosque itineris socios, nostra et insulae hujus incolarum 
 ' prosequuntur vota ! 
 
 * Thoranson. 
 
 ' EiNARSON. 
 
 ' Frydensberg. 
 ' Reikiavicae, d. 13 Augusti 1810.' 
 
 We must not omit mentioning, that we also received a let- 
 ter written in tolerably good English, from the Chief Justice 
 Stephenson, in which he expressed himself in terms highly 
 flattering to iis. He presented several books and his picture 
 to us ; and of these, as well as many other marks of his re- 
 gard and hospitality, we shall ever retain a grateful remem- 
 brance. 
 
 We were now about to take leave of a people whose situ- 
 ation had often excited our pity. Being of quiet and harmless 
 dispositions ; having nothing to rouse them into a state of 
 activity, bvit the necessity of providing means of subsistence 
 for the winter season ; nothing to inspire emulation ; no ob- 
 ject of ambition ; the Icelanders may be said merely to live. 
 But they possess innate good qualities, which, independently 
 of the consciousness o( their former importance, have pre- 
 served their general character as an amiable community. 
 They have indeed become negligent with respect to the clean- 
 liness of their persons and dwellings; but they deserve a high 
 place in the scale of morality and religion. The example of 
 the Danes has done very material injury to the moral cha-
 
 Ca.m.Characterofthepeopk.]TRA.VELS IN ICELAND; 26/ 
 
 racter of those with whom they have constant intercourse ; 
 but beyond tlie precincts qf Reikiavik, the people are found 
 possessed of their pristine worth and simplicity. To religious 
 duties they are strictly attentive ; and though the clergy are 
 not in general raised above the level of the peasantry, in any 
 respect but in their sacred office, yet they have been able to 
 preserve the regard due to those who are considered as pecu- 
 liarly the servants of the Supreme Being. 
 
 To say that crimes are rare, is perhaps a slight compli- 
 ment to people who have few temptations to commit them. 
 Except at Reikiavik, vice is hardly known ; and even there, 
 when we reflect on the loose lives of some of the Danes, it is 
 astonisliing how little progress it has made among the natives. 
 
 To the laws of hospitality they are particularly attentive. 
 If they give little, it is because they have little to give. To 
 measure their disposition by their power of bestowing, would 
 be a very unjust estimate. 
 
 The history of the Icelanders points out sufficient reasons 
 for the decline of activity and enterprize. In pronouncing 
 upon their character, therefore, some caution is necessar\'. 
 Travellers, when they find themselves obliged to submit to 
 privations before iniknown to them, when they experience a 
 deficiency of alacrity in supplying their wants, and a great 
 degree of indifference in the behaviour of the people among 
 whom they sojourn, are too apt to form a hasty and partial 
 judgment of their character. Some of the occurrences we ex- 
 perienced in Iceland might have entitled us to speak un- 
 favourably of the inhabitants, had we been disposed to judge 
 of them inconsiderately. But when we recollected what Ice- 
 landers once were ; when we saw the depressed state of this 
 poor, but highly respectable people ; and perceived that they 
 still retained that mild spirit (once, too, an independent and an
 
 268 TRAVELS IN TCELAKP. [Ch. hi. Leave Iceland. 
 
 enterprizing one) which taught them to legTilate their affairs 
 with prudence, and to live together in the utmost harmony; 
 we could not help admiring their patience and contentment. 
 Yet still, e'en here, content can spread a charm, 
 Redress tlie clime, and all its rage disarm. 
 Tho' poor the peasant's hut, his feasts tho' small. 
 He sees his little lot, the lot of all ; 
 Sees no contiguous palace rear its head. 
 To shame the meanness of his humble shed ; 
 No costly lord the sumptuous banquet deal. 
 To make him loathe his hard-earn' d scanty meal ; 
 But calm, and bred in ignorance and toil, 
 Each wish contracting, fits him to the soil. 
 In these pages enough will probably be found to excite 
 compassion in every British breast, for the calamitous situa- 
 tion of an innocent and amiable people, at that critical period 
 when oppression or neglect may overwhelm them in misery. 
 The distracted state of Europe will not, we trust, be consider- 
 ed as a reason that Britain should disregard their wants, or 
 withhold relief; for Iceland requires no sacrifice of blood or 
 treasure. In the present state of Europe, however, Iceland 
 cannot be supplied without our permitting the trade with Den- 
 mark to go on as heretofore. 
 
 On the 19th of August we set sail for England, and, after 
 a tempestuous voyage of fourteen days, during which Cap- 
 tain Butterwick of the Flora paid us every attention in his 
 power, we landed at Stromness. The only occurrence, dur- 
 ing the voyage, worth mentioning, was that of a flock of 
 wagtails and two sparrow-hawks perching on the rigging 
 of the ship one morning, during a heavy gale, when we 
 were at least 100 miles from any land. On our coming in 
 sight of the rocks called Barra and Rona, off the north of
 
 Ch. hi. Leave Iceland.'] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 269 
 
 the island of Lewis, the wagtails left us. The sailors had 
 deprived one of the hawks which was caught, of the means 
 of flying, by clipping its wings. We saw, at different times, 
 a considerable number of large whales ; and were struck with 
 the resemblance between the forcible jets of water which they 
 threw from their nostrils, and some of the fountains we had 
 seen in Iceland. We remained in Orkney two days, and went 
 to see the town of Kirkwall. Although this country did not 
 strike us as by any means beautiful when we first saw it, we 
 now derived very high gratification from the sight of corn 
 fields and gardens ; and were particularly delighted with the 
 few small trees which grow about Kirkwall. Having hired a 
 boat, we intended to proceed by water to Inverness ; but 
 bad weather forced us into the harbour of Wick in Caithness- 
 shire. From thence we proceeded to Dunrobin, and crossed 
 the Dornoch Frith to Ross-shire, pursuing our journey by 
 land to Edinburgh, where we arrived in health and safety, 
 after an absence of nearly five months.
 
 270 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. iv. Tenures'. 
 
 RURAL AFFAIRS. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 The terms on which a tenant holds a farm in Iceland, are 
 similar to what is called steelhoiv in Scotland. The rent is 
 paid in two parts. First, there is a land rent, or Land-skuld 
 as it is called, which is a fixed sum rated according to an old 
 valuation ; secondly, there is a certain rent paid for a per- 
 manent stock of cattle and sheep, which is transferred from 
 tenant to tenant, every succeeding one being obliged to take 
 it on certain conditions, and to leave the same number on his 
 quitting the farm. The tenant, however, is at liberty to keep 
 as much stock as he can support, without paying any addi- 
 tional rent. The Land-skuld is paid in various ways ; in 
 money, wool, tallow, &c. &c. ; that for the permanent stock 
 chiefly in butter. 
 
 Leases for a term of years are not common in any part of 
 the island. The same tenant continues to possess the land, 
 unless the proprietor can prove that the farm has been ne- 
 glected, or that the farmer has misconducted himself. The 
 law is effectual in preventing abuses in the dismissal of ten-
 
 Cb. III. Pent.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND, 27 1^ 
 
 ants ; for if a farmer can prove by a survey of the Hrcpsti- 
 ore, or two respectable persons of his own profession, that 
 his farm has not been neglected, he cannot be removed ; 
 but he may quit his farm whenever he pleases. The practice 
 of letting farms from year to year is not uncommon ; six 
 months notice being necessary for the tenant to quit. 
 
 A farm, the disposable value of which is about 200 rix- 
 dollars, pays a Land-skuld of from four to six. The nominal 
 price of land has, in many instances, doubled within the last 
 forty years ; not, however, in consequence of any improve- 
 ment, but of the depreciation of the government paper. The 
 rixdollar, which is paper, is worth four shillings English, 
 when at par. A guinea in Iceland, at the time we left the 
 island, was worth fifteen paper dollars ; and since my arrival 
 in Scotland I have been offered twenty for a guinea.* The 
 increase of rent has taken place chiefly on the permanent 
 stock of the farm. 
 
 Besides the rent payable to the proprietor, a farmer is 
 obliged to pay a proportion to the parish priest, according to 
 the rent of his farm ; and to keep a lamb for him during the 
 winter season, taking it in October, and returning it in good 
 condition about the middle of May. 
 
 A general description of a farm-house was given in the 
 account of our first excursion. We shall now describe one of 
 the best sort, that of the provost at Storuvellir, of which an 
 accurate plan was taken. 
 
 a. The entrance passage, 40 feet long, and 4 feet wide. 
 
 b. The kitchen. 
 
 c. Fuel-room. f 
 
 * At present (July 1812) the exchange is 25 rixdoUars for a pound sterling. 
 f Bad turf, dried cow and sheep dung, and fish bones, are the articles used as
 
 272 
 
 TRAVELS IN ICELAND, 
 
 [Ch. IV. Farm-house. 
 
 d. Bunn, or store-room. 
 
 €. Bed- room, 40 feet long by 8 feet wide, with a recess 10 
 feet by 8. 
 
 /. A wainscotted room, with bedsteads. This is an. ap- 
 pendage only to some of the principal dwellings, and 
 is usually crowded with saddles, harness, and imple- 
 ments of various kinds. It has fretjuently a small 
 window in the .end. 
 
 g. Dairy. 
 
 h. Out- house. 
 
 i. Smithy. 
 
 fuel. In the Westmann islands, they use dried sea-birds. Fuel is very scarce ; 
 and in the houses of the Icelanders, there is only one fire in the kitchen, which is 
 placed on the floor ; stoves being seldom seen even in the houses of the better sort 
 of farmers.
 
 Ch. IV. Winter occupations.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 2^3 
 
 k. Out-house. 
 
 /. Cattle-house. 
 
 VI. An enclosure for hay and turf, to which there is a path, 
 
 often over the top of the house. 
 The servants are generally orphans, or the children of very 
 poor farmers. As they are considered nearly on a level with 
 their master's children, it is not uncommon for marriages to 
 take place between them ; and a poor farmer sends his son 
 or daughter to serve in the house of one in more affluent cir- 
 cumstances, in hopes of such a connection being formed. 
 
 The wages given to servants, male and female, amount to 
 from four to six dollars a-year, sometimes more, besides food 
 and clothes. By these, and the other members of the family, 
 every thing that is necessary for subsistence and clothing is 
 prepared, and all business performed. During the winter 
 season, the family rises about six or seven o'clock in the 
 morning. One is sent out to look after the sheep ; another 
 attends the cattle ; some are employed in making ropes of 
 wool or horse hair ; one is in the smithy making horse shoes 
 and other articles. Spinning is performed with a spindle and 
 distaff, and sometimes with a wheel. Some, both men and wo- 
 men, knit and weave, and others prepare sheep-skins for fish- 
 ing dresses. While so many are thus occupied, one generally 
 reads aloud, in a singing tone, different tales and histories. 
 Most farm-houses are supi)lied \vith books containing such 
 tales ; and the people exchange books with each other for the 
 sake of variety. The only opportunity they have of making 
 this exchange is when they meet at church, where, even dur- 
 ing the mt)st inclement part of the season, a {ew always con- 
 trive to be present. The people sometimes amuse themselves 
 with a game somewhat like drafts ; with cards ; and many 
 
 play chess extremely well. 
 
 2 m
 
 27^ TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. iv. Mamfacturtii 
 
 The Icelanders divide the day and night into nine periods. 
 From midnight to three o'clock in the morning they call Ot- 
 ta; from three to six, Midurmorgnn; from six to nine, Dag- 
 mal ; from nine to twelve, Hactei ; the first hour and a half 
 after noon, Midmunda; from half past one to three o'clock, 
 Noon ; from three to six, Miduraftur ; from six to nine» 
 Nattmal ; from nine to twelve, Midnat. There are but few 
 clocks in the island, and they are not very good. 
 
 We saw in different places, particularly at Huaneyre, pieces 
 of very good cloth which had been manufactured in the coun- 
 try. The sort called wadmal differs from cloth, in being what 
 is called in this country, tweeled. Blue and black are the 
 most common colours. One piece of cloth which we saw was 
 a mixed black and white. Different shades of yellow are used, 
 and not unfrequently for stockings. The processes of dyeing 
 are very simple. The leaves of the arbutus uva ursi, the lycO" 
 podium alpimim, the lichen Islandicus, and some others, are 
 employed. Stockings are filled with the lichen Islandicus, 
 and boiled. When cloth is to be dyed, the vegetable sub- 
 stances are chopped small, and spread over the cloth, which 
 is then rolled up and boiled. Black is obtained by strewing 
 a rich black earth, found in some of the bogs, over the cloth, 
 after it has been boiled with the arbutus uva ursi, when it is 
 again rolled up and boiled. We saw none of this earth, but 
 probably it contains a considerable proportion of iron, which, 
 with the astringent matter of the plant, affords the black co- 
 lour. Indigo is used for dyeing blue. 
 
 The skins of horses and cows, after having been steeped 
 for some time in urine, are frequently put into the liquor 
 ■which has been used for dyeing black ; by which means they 
 undergo a slight degree of tanning. Sheep-skins are pre- 
 pared by being soaked in water till the wool loosens, which
 
 Ch. IV. ^oy.) TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 275 
 
 is removed ; and then the skins are drawn over a ram's horn 
 fastened to the roof by its ends. 
 
 Farm-houses are for the most part built on dry knolls, and 
 the ground immediately around them is allotted for hay. The 
 extent is greater or less according to circumstances; and 
 though hay is by far the most important article to a farmer 
 in Iceland, we do not recollect to have seen any signs of 
 exertions to improve a hay field by draining, or otherwise. 
 All the manure is bestowed upon the little hillocks, which 
 surround the houses like graves, into which the hay ground 
 is generally partitioned. About the time of our arrival in 
 Iceland, the people were busy spreading the dung; and about 
 the end of Jvdy, the hay harvest had begun in many places. 
 The grass is neither close, nor long, at the time it is reckoned 
 fit for cutting. We did not observe any field in which the 
 useless or less nutritious plants did not exceed, or at least 
 equal in number, those that were really valuable. Every thing 
 that grows is cut down by means of a short narrow scythe, 
 with which the Icelanders work expeditiously and neatly, 
 making all the little knolls perfectly bare. When cut, the 
 grass is commonly gathered together on some even place, 
 where it can be turned and tossed conveniently. We observed 
 in many places, that no more was cut at a time than what 
 would employ the people on the farm to dr\'; and before any 
 more was cut, the first portion was carried home. When 
 bog-grasses are accessible, they are carefully cut and made 
 into hay. Tlie process of drying is the same as with us; and 
 when carried home, the hay is made up into long and nar<- 
 row stacks, often before it is perfectly dry, and consequently 
 much of it is spoiled by heating. The hay is kept chiefly for 
 the cows, on which the people depend for m\ich of their sub- 
 sistence. In severe weather, a little is given to the sheep aud
 
 276 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. iv. Harvest-home, 
 
 horses ; but they often struggle through a hard winter with- 
 out any sustenance but what they can procure for them- 
 selves. 
 
 As soon as the hay around the house is secured, the far- 
 mers give a feast, or harvest-home. This is a supper of which 
 the chief delicacy is porridge, made of meal of some sort, 
 and milk. When the whole hay-harvest is finished, another 
 feast takes place, when a fat sheep is killed. Though neither 
 dancing nor singing are called in aid, these feasts are chear- 
 ful and merry. 
 
 The immense extent of the bogs and swamps of Iceland 
 renders it obvious to any one who has attended to the subject, 
 that the climate must be greatly deteriorated by the evapora- 
 tion from them. Were the people to set about draining the 
 bogs, they would find not only the climate improve, but the 
 quantity of grass fit for hay to increase largely. There seems 
 to be some prejudice against draining, which a little inter- 
 course with Britain may probably remove. We do not know 
 any place where draining could be more easily or more ad- 
 vantageously practised than Indreholm, and in the country 
 lying between Akkrcfell and the Skardsheide. 
 
 The cattle, in point of size and appearance, are very like 
 the largest of our highland sorts, except in one respect, 
 that those of Iceland are seldom seen with horns. As in 
 other countries, we meet with finer cattle on some farms than 
 on others ; but, from every observation we could make, and 
 information we could obtain, the Iceland farmers know nothing 
 of the art of breeding stock. The bulls are in general ugly, 
 and no use is made of them till after they are five years old. 
 In rearing a bull-calf no more attention is paid to him than 
 to others. Taking all the circumstances of management to- 
 gether, we had some reason to be surprised to find the cattle
 
 Ch. IV. Cattk^Butter.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 277 
 
 upon the whole SO handsome. The cows in general yield a 
 considerable quantity of milk, many of them ten or twelve 
 quarts per day, and some a good deal more. Milk is usually 
 made into what is called skier, which has been already men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Sour whey, mixed with water, is a favourite beverage of 
 the Icelanders, and they seldom travel without a sujjply of it. 
 Butter, however, is the chief article among the products of 
 the farm, and of this the Icelanders eat a surprising quanti- 
 ty. They value it most after it has been barrelled, without 
 salt, and kept several years. It is wonderful how well butter 
 keeps in this manner ; it arrives at a certain degree of ran- 
 cidity, beyond which it does not pass. The smell and taste 
 of the sour butter are very disagreeable to English palates, 
 though Icelanders delight in it. When there is a scarcity of 
 butter, the people eat tallow.. The former was not very plen- 
 tiful last summer, and consequently little tallow was brought 
 to market ; and we have seen children eating lumps of it with 
 as much pleasure as our little ones express when sucking a 
 piece of sugar-candy. When people go to the northern dis- 
 tricts for the purpose of cutting hay, they are paid for their 
 work in butter, at the rate of 301bs. per week. It is made in 
 churns of the form most common in this country, in which 
 the cream is agitated by the perpendicular motion of a 
 plunger. Sometimes two are worked by one handle, fastened 
 to a cross piece of woodj to which the plungers are connect- 
 ed by projecting arms, the cross piece forming the angle be- 
 tween them and the handle, and turning on two pivots. 
 There is not much cheese made in Iceland, and they do not 
 begin to manufacture it till late in the season. It is of very 
 inferior quality. The manufacture of butter and sour whey 
 employs the farmer's wife during his absence, while he is eur
 
 278 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cb. iv. Sheepi 
 
 gaged in fishing. In some parts of the country, the servants 
 or children are employed in gathering lichen and angelica 
 root. The former is carefully dried and packed for use; and 
 the latter is buried, and vised more as an article of luxury 
 than of subsistence. 
 
 The sheep of Iceland appear to be the same with the old 
 Scotch highland sort, which is now nearly extinct. They are 
 larger, however, and the wool is long and soft, but not 
 fine. Many of them are entirely black, and a great pro- 
 portion are black and white. The wool is never shorn; 
 but pulled off. Much of it is lost before it is taken off; 
 and what remains, after hanging for a lime on the animal's 
 back, becomes spoiled and felted by the rain. The sheep are 
 very much infested by vermin, known in England by the 
 names of ticks and keds. The lambs are early restrained from 
 sucking ; the ewes are milked, and butter is made from the 
 produce. 
 
 It is part of the employment of the women, during winter, 
 to pick and clean the wool, and to spin it. A considerable 
 quantity is exported ; and it is so valuable an article in Den- 
 mark, that it sells in Iceland for as much as coarse wool in 
 the north of Scotland. 
 
 Abovit the year 1756, an attempt was made to improve the 
 wool in Iceland, by the introduction of Spanish rams ; but, 
 owing to negligence, it was unsuccessful. With that zeal for 
 bettering the condition of his country which distinguishes 
 him, Mr Stephenson of Indreholm brought a few Merino rams 
 and ewes from Norway in the year 1808. Their wool is toler- 
 ably fine, but by no means so good as that of the Merinos in 
 England. We saw the lambs of the first cross between them 
 and the Iceland ewes, and they promised very well. If Mr 
 Stevenson perseveres in his laudable exeitions, and if the
 
 Ch. IV. Sheep.] TRAVELS LN ICELAND. 279 
 
 people can be made sensible of the advantages to be derived 
 from improving the wool, he will have the satisfaction of hav- 
 ing begun a most beneficial improvement. 
 
 The gathering of the sheep from the mountains before the 
 commencement of winter, is a very important part of the 
 business of an Iceland farmer. As soon as the hay harvest is 
 over, and when the Hreppstiore, or parish officer, thinks that 
 the farmers are ready, he informs the Sysselman of the district, 
 who causes a notice to be given in the churches, that on a cer- 
 tain day the gathering of the sheep shall commence, and, at the 
 same time, appoints a place of rendezvous. Every farmer who 
 has a considerable- part of his stock feeding.on the mountains, 
 must send one man ; or, if the number of his sheep be very 
 small, he may join with another whose case is similar, and 
 together they send one. When the men destined for this 
 service assemble, they chuse one who has had much experi- 
 ence, whom they agree to obey, and they give him the title 
 of king, and the power of selecting two associates as counsel- 
 lors. On the appointed day they meet at the place fixed up- 
 on, perhaps to the number of 200, on horseback. Having 
 pitched their tents, and committed their horses to the care of 
 children who have accompanied them, the king, on horse- 
 back, gives his orders, and sends the men off two and two, 
 strictly enjoining them not to lose sight of their comrades. 
 Having collected as many sheep as they can find, they drive 
 them towards the tents, and then shift their quarters. Thus 
 they go on during a week, when they take all the sheep to 
 one of the large pens constructed for the purpose, which con- 
 sist of one large enclosure, surrounded by a number of smal- 
 ler ones, for the purpose of separating the sheep belonging to 
 different persons. This business is quite a rural festival; but 
 the meiriment is often mingled with the lamentations of those
 
 280 TRAVJiLS IN ICELAND. [Ch. IV. Sheep-~Horses. 
 
 who have lost some of their sheep, or the quarrels of others 
 who have accidentally fixed upon the same mark for their 
 property. The search for sheep is repeated about the middle, 
 and again about the end, of October. At this last time, those 
 only who have failed in recovering their sheep on the former 
 occasions, are engaged. Every animal that is unproductive, 
 or which cannot be used, must, by a law which is strictly en- 
 forced, be sent to the mountains about the end of May, in 
 order that as much fine grass as possible may be saved for the 
 milch cows and ewes, and for making hay. 
 
 Mention has been made in the Journal, of the excellence 
 of the riding horses of this country. When a young horse is 
 thovight to promise well, his nostrils are slit up; the Iceland- 
 ers believing, that when exercised, or ridden hard, this opera-; 
 tion will allow him to breathe more freely. It is not likely 
 that the horses of Iceland could run on our roads at the great 
 rate at which we have seen them go, for any length of time* 
 They are accustomed to scramble slowly through the bogs 
 and over rocks, and to dart rapidly forward whenever they 
 come to dry and smooth ground. In travelling, a man has 
 generally two or three horses with him, and he changes from 
 one to another as they become tired. 
 
 The saddle for the use of Avomen resembles an elbow- 
 chair, in which they sit with their feet resting on a board. 
 Some of them are highly ornamented with brass, cut into va- 
 riovis figvires. The common people all ride in the same way, 
 with the legs astride, the women having their feet raised so 
 high, that their knees are considerably above the back of the 
 horse. 
 
 For grinding corn, the Icelanders use small handmills, the 
 same with those known in Scotland by the name of querns. 
 Though there is little encouragement from the climate, yet
 
 he state of the population of 
 is taken from the register of 
 rns are regularly made by the 
 contains also a detailed state- 
 le population of the island, of 
 [eneral result :— 
 
 Males. Females. 
 
 6231 6300 
 
 3207 3299 
 
 3385 4060 
 
 3190 3901 
 
 1838 2460 
 
 1707 2453 
 
 1162 1842 
 
 592 1096 
 
 158 285 
 
 6 35 
 
 21476 25731 
 
 I could only furnish us with the 
 greater than that of the men. 
 
 [To face page 2Sl.
 
 No. I. 
 POPULATION. 
 
 Names of Districts. 
 
 Fanns. 
 
 Families. 
 
 FanncrB. 
 
 HircUngi 
 having 
 grass. 
 
 Hirelings 
 williout 
 
 Pricsta. 
 
 Civil oai. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Total In. 
 
 habitants. 
 
 This Table, cxliibiting the state of the population of 
 Iceland in the year 1801, is taken from the register of 
 the Bishop, to whom returns are regularly made hy the 
 priests. The original table contains also a detailed state- 
 ment of the ages of the whole population of the island, of 
 which the following is the general result ; — 
 
 Males, Females. 
 
 Under 10 years of age 6831 6300 
 
 From 11 to 20 3207 3299 
 
 21 ... 30 ,. 3385 4060 
 
 31 ... 40 3190 3901 
 
 41 ... 50 1838 2460 
 
 61 ... 60 1707 2+53 
 
 61 ... 70 1168 18+2 
 
 71 ... 80 592 1096 
 
 81 ... 90 158 285 
 
 91 ...100 6 35 
 
 Southern Ami. 
 Kflst Skantafells Svssel 
 
 S3 
 133 
 
 37+ 
 418 
 256 
 28T 
 
 ISO 
 2T0 
 181 
 803 
 123 
 170 
 118 
 
 375 
 412 
 4+8 
 
 387 
 217 
 211 
 
 126 
 
 2+8 
 664 
 709 
 70+ 
 
 885 
 
 235 
 
 652 
 231 
 374 
 861 
 305 
 150 
 
 433 
 492 
 535 
 451 
 
 267 
 279 
 
 88 
 21+ 
 530 
 495 
 302 
 850 
 
 202 
 337 
 208 
 332 
 236 
 255 
 1+0 
 
 +05 
 459 
 +99 
 420 
 222 
 231 
 
 89 
 86 
 10+ 
 153 
 138 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 143 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 9 
 6 
 1 
 32 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 40 
 
 8+5 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 167 
 
 + 
 81 
 13 
 88 
 
 6 
 2 
 
 13 
 7 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 8 
 1+ 
 21 
 13 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 7 
 10 
 
 7 
 7 
 6 
 
 80 
 20 
 17 
 23 
 11 
 12 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 + 
 
 I 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 2 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 3 
 3 
 1 
 1 
 
 400 
 678 
 1876 
 8063 
 1949 
 85+ 
 
 69+ 
 1627 
 099 
 
 iiei 
 
 88+ 
 961 
 +38 
 
 18SS 
 1385 
 1572 
 1337 
 781 
 839 
 
 511 
 
 ■ 861 
 8311 
 8572 
 2066 
 1028 
 
 784 
 191 + 
 
 893 
 1332 
 
 9«6 
 1076 
 
 5+4 
 
 1592 
 1756 
 1881 
 1665 
 1981 
 998 
 
 911 
 1539 
 +187 
 +623 
 4015 
 1882 
 
 1478 
 3511 
 1598 
 2493 
 1850 
 2037 
 982 
 
 8880 
 3141 
 3+53 
 3002 
 1762 
 1837 
 
 
 Rangaavalle Si Westmann Isles. 
 
 Guldhringe and Kiose Syssels... 
 
 IVeslem Jml. 
 
 Myreand Hnappadals Syssels .. 
 Snajfell Svssel 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Northern and Eastern Amts. 
 
 
 Total 81476 25731 
 
 
 
 North Mule Syssel 
 
 
 Total 
 
 47B1 
 
 7+01 
 
 5881 
 
 735 
 
 590 
 
 231 
 
 +5 
 
 21476 
 
 35731 
 
 47207 
 
 The Bishop not having made up tables from the most recent returns, and having been unable to arrange them before our departure, could only furnish us with the 
 general results of the years 180+ and 1808. He said, that the population was on the increase. 
 
 It appears that the excess of the female population of the island is very considerable ; and that the average longevity of the women is greater than that of the men. 
 The population has varied little during the last 100 years. * 
 
 In the year 1703 it amounted to 50,+++ 
 
 1770 46,201 
 
 1783 47,887 
 
 1801 47,807 
 
 180+ +6,3+9 
 
 1808 48,063 ,„ . ...
 
 No. II. 
 
 TABLE iUustmtive of tlic FOLITICAL ECONOMY of ICELAND. 
 
 In the Year 1804. 
 
 Taken ffavi Mr Slephntson^s ISth Century. 
 
 Names of Districts. 
 
 East Skaptafell 
 
 West Skalitofell.... 
 Westniaiin Islands 
 
 Rangaavalle 
 
 Aarnes 
 
 Guldhringe 
 
 Kiose 
 
 Borgarfiord ..... 
 
 833 
 1499 
 
 157 
 385+ 
 4898 
 2866 
 10S8 
 1796 
 
 Myre&Hnappadals' 1924 
 
 3341 
 1506 
 2225 
 3887 
 895 
 
 2873 
 3080 
 3234 
 2928 
 1845 
 1900 
 
 Total... 
 
 94 
 
 224 
 42 
 358 
 505 
 915 
 1.35 
 260 
 
 276 
 346 
 128 
 448 
 418 
 
 260 
 209 
 189 
 246 
 285 
 365 
 
 11 
 17 
 
 5 
 48 
 105 
 739 
 37 
 130 
 
 41 
 598 
 
 41 
 123 
 
 fiO 
 
 26 
 
 79 
 29 
 128 
 43 
 30 
 59 
 
 Heifers 
 
 with one 
 
 Calf. 
 
 391 
 
 747 
 
 39 
 
 2074 
 
 2371 
 
 490 
 
 444 
 
 764 
 
 701 
 671 
 408 
 665 
 965 
 201 
 
 894 
 1086 
 1012 
 677 
 47.5 
 520 
 
 2,349 15,593 
 
 Butls and 
 Oxen. 
 
 34 
 
 102 
 
 8 
 
 251 
 
 336 
 
 36 
 
 31 
 
 69 
 
 94 
 
 S5 
 50 
 61 
 
 87 
 114 
 74 
 29 
 28 
 31 
 
 1,556 
 
 29 
 150 
 1 
 174 
 176 
 6 
 110 
 94 
 
 1,132 
 
 36 
 116 
 
 325 
 375 
 SO 
 109 
 120 
 
 113 
 36 
 60 
 76 
 84 
 16 
 
 86 
 52 
 116 
 
 74 
 75 
 83 
 
 Ramnand 
 Wethers 
 
 above one 
 year 
 
 Rams. Ewe-: 
 Lainh.s, and ^ 
 Wethers, of 1 Lambs, 
 year old. 
 
 2241 
 
 3230 
 268 
 8079 
 8550 
 1022 
 1449 
 3870 
 
 3898 
 1995 
 1662 
 3374 
 6182 
 2489 
 
 11310 
 9398 
 9113 
 
 10013 
 8039 
 3921 
 
 408 
 371 
 88 
 744 
 700 
 14fl 
 244 
 426 
 
 372 
 339 
 218 
 610 
 1911 
 33 
 
 479 
 641 
 263 
 616 
 1116 
 1082 
 
 Horses &. Horses & 
 Mures |iMarcs not 
 broken in. brokenin 
 
 1134 
 
 1989 
 
 165 
 
 3750 
 
 2944 
 
 500 
 
 979 
 
 1841 
 
 1697 
 214 
 867 
 1809 
 4048 
 235 
 
 2620 
 2299 
 1842 
 3106 
 3735 
 2910 
 
 102,305 10,803 38,724 
 
 2024 
 3153 
 
 225 
 7479 
 7050 
 
 974 
 1487 
 3230 
 
 2929 
 1671 
 1471 
 2443 
 
 3382 
 942 
 
 4370 
 1322 
 6069 
 3217 
 6549 
 4779 
 
 615 
 
 1209 
 
 39 
 
 2889 
 
 2886 
 
 745 
 
 469 
 
 900 
 
 1112 
 670 
 543 
 550 
 493 
 324 
 
 1885 
 
 1462 
 
 1241 
 
 943 
 
 733 
 
 663 
 
 66,986 20,373 4,109 
 
 97 
 
 323 
 
 1 
 
 949 
 331 
 
 38 
 203 
 249 
 
 218 
 92 
 
 173 
 
 45 
 
 54 
 
 7 
 
 294 
 
 432 
 
 177 
 
 38 
 
 71 
 
 97 
 
 ^olts and 
 FiUies. 
 
 78 
 
 135 
 
 468 
 
 255 
 
 30 
 
 94 
 
 125 
 
 105 
 27 
 38 
 23 
 39 
 8 
 
 137 
 
 165 
 
 109 
 
 32 
 
 73 
 
 79 
 
 2,042 
 
 Boats 
 with 1 
 and 6 
 Oils, 
 
 Small 
 Boats. 
 
 19 
 1 
 
 11 
 8 
 
 30 
 225 
 
 16 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 118 
 
 31 
 115 
 119 
 
 30 
 
 42 
 40 
 56 
 68 
 40 
 35 
 
 Number 
 of Gar- 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 232 
 
 139 
 
 31 
 
 13 
 
 88 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 SO 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 90 
 
 17 
 
 129 
 
 16 
 
 67 
 
 — 
 
 293 
 
 The population 
 of Keikiavik in the 
 year 1806 (includ- 
 ing 27 prisoners in 
 the Toght-Huus,) 
 was 446. Of this 
 number 134 were 
 working men. Be- 
 longing to the town 
 there were 35 cows, 
 
 2 sheep, 92 horses, 
 
 3 large boats, 26 
 of a middle size, 9 
 small ones, and 17 
 gardens. 
 
 1703 
 1770 
 1783. 
 1801. 
 1804. 
 
 50,444 
 46,201 
 47,287 
 47,207 
 46,349 
 
 4039 
 3647 
 3567 
 4661 
 
 35,860 
 30,096 
 21,457 
 t9,986 
 20,325 
 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1760. 
 1770, 
 1784 
 
 279,812 
 
 491,934 
 
 112,809 
 
 42,243 
 
 218,818 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1770.. 
 
 17S3.. 
 1784., 
 
 26,909 
 32,689 
 36,408 
 8,395 
 26,524 
 
 A. D.< 
 
 1770 
 
 According to the above 
 table 
 
 1,869 Total 
 2,163 
 
 •In the year 1707, the small-pox destroyed 16,000 people. Between 1753 and 1759, famine carried oflT 10,000, and vast numbers of cattle perished. 
 f In the year 1783. the great eruption from Skaptar Jokul destroyed a great number of cattle; but the loss in this table appears to be exaggerated. 
 
 h
 
 Cb. IV. Husbandry.] TRAA'ELS IN ICELAND. 281 
 
 tliere are some parts of Iceland where experiments might be 
 made in cultivating barley, potatoes, and turnips. Along the 
 shores, where the soil is sandy, and where sea- weeds can be 
 procured m abundance, sometliing in this way might be done. 
 But nothing can be effected without the superintendance of 
 some active and intelligent person, able to combat the pre- 
 judices, and to encourage the exertions of the natives. 
 
 2 N
 
 ^^■2r TRAVELS 7N ICELAND. fCn. v. Commerce. 
 
 STATE OF COMMERCE. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 From the beginning of the l/th century till the year 177^, 
 the trade of Iceland was in the hands of a chartered company, 
 during the existence of whose monopoly the Icelanders were 
 greatly oppressed. The Iceland trade however did not con- 
 tinue to hold out its original temptations ; and at length an 
 unwillingness to risk capital in prosecuting it, became appa- 
 rent. These circumstances induced the Danish government 
 to adopt a system, the liberality of which deserves the highest 
 praise. Before the trade was declared free, it was nominally 
 vested in the King for a period often years, and was carried 
 on with a fund, amoiuiting to 4,000,000 dollars, provided by 
 the government, and of which the King was director. At the 
 end of ten years, when the vessels and stock were sold at 
 greatly reduced prices, it was found that the capital had 
 diminished 600,000 dollars. The remainder of the fund was 
 placed under the management of commissioners, who were 
 empowered to lend money at four per cent, interest to those 
 who embarked in the trade to Iceland. The merchandize
 
 Ch. v. Commerce.} TRAVELS IX ICELAN1>. 283 
 
 being now freed from imposts of every kind, the encourage- 
 ments held forth did not fail to take effect. The present state 
 of the fund is not known in Iceland ; but the events of the 
 war in retarding, and indeed })utting a stop to regular com- 
 munication, render it probable that considerable loss has been 
 sustained. The freedom from impost was proclaimed to con- 
 tinue for twenty years, at the end of which period, in the year 
 I8O7, it was further prolonged for five years. It is impossible, 
 however, that, in so short a time, the ttade can recover from 
 the severe shock it has recently received. In the years 1797» 
 1798, and 1799» a very considerable traffic in fish, was carried 
 on to Spain and the Mediterranean ; and this period was cer- 
 tainly one of the most favourable for the commerce of Ice- 
 land that has ever occurred. Mr Thorlacius, a native mer- 
 chant residing at Bildal, in the north-western part of the 
 island, speculated largely at that time, and made a consider- 
 able fortune. At present he is esteemed the most wealthy 
 man in Iceland. 
 
 Before the war, about fifty vessels, chiefly galliots of 100 
 to 250 tons, were employed in the trade. Last year, not 
 more than ten ships arrived in Iceland ; and while we remain- 
 ed there, not more than seven, including three from Britain, 
 and one galliot laden with salt from Liverpool, on account of 
 Messrs Phelps and Company of London. 
 
 The nature of the trade with Iceland will be seen in the 
 following tables, taken from Mr Stephenson's history of Ice- 
 land during the 18th century; and, to render them intelligi- 
 ble, the weights and measures are annexed.
 
 384 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. v. Current Prias, 
 
 Current Prices of IcelatuVw Produce, 
 in the Year 1810. 
 
 I Pair of Mittens, .... 4 to 6 Skillings. 
 1 do. of Stockings, ... 12 to 18 do. 
 
 1 do. do. fine, 6l Sk. to 1 Rixdollar. 
 
 1 Woollen Jacket, . . . . 40 to 64 Skillings. 
 
 1 do. fine 2 to 3 Rixdollars. 
 
 1 Fund Wool, 12 to 20 Skillings. 
 
 1 do. Eider-down, ... 2 Rixd. 48 Sk. to 3 Rixd. 
 I do. Feathers, . . , . . l6 to 20 Skillings. 
 
 1 do. Tallow, 16 to 22 do. 
 
 I do. Butter, 10 to 28 do, 
 
 1 Skippund Stock-fish, . 12 to 20 Rixdollars, 
 I do. Salted Fish, .... 15 to 30 do. 
 
 1 Barrel of Oil, 12 to 20 do. 
 
 1 White Fox-skin, .... 80 Skillings to 3 do. 
 
 1 Black do 5 to 8 do. 
 
 100 Swan-quills, .... 2 Rixd. 48 Sk. to 3 Rixd. 
 
 A Horse, 6 to 40 do. 
 
 A Cow, 16 to 24 do. 
 
 A Ewe with Lamb, ... 2 io 2\ do. 
 
 A Wether, 2 to 5 do. 
 
 A Lamb, 80 Sk. to 1 Rixd. 32 Sk. 
 
 The circulating medium of Iceland is the same as that of 
 Denmark ; the coins being 10 sk., 8 sk., 4 sk., 2 sk., and 1 
 skilling pieces. A considerable number of specie dollars are 
 in the island, but are seldom seen ; the natives being in the 
 practice of hoarding them. The paper rixdollar is used in 
 all transactions.
 
 
 
 
 
 Brandy. 
 
 Rum. 
 
 Wine. 
 
 
 
 \ French. 
 
 Grape. 
 
 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 B.irrclj. 
 
 BaireUi. 
 
 Hhils. 
 
 43 
 
 149 
 
 28 
 
 60 
 
 98 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 52 
 
 23k 
 
 12^ 
 
 6A 
 
 33^ 
 
 32 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 226i 
 
 212i 
 
 47i 
 
 86^ 
 
 
 
 
 Pipes. 
 
 13? 
 
 14 
 
 361 
 
 12^ 
 
 
 57J 
 71 
 
 18 
 
 np. 
 
 Fishing 
 Lines. 
 
 Cable. 
 
 Twine. 
 
 Unhack- 
 
 led. 
 
 
 
 
 Skpd. L. lb. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Skpd. L.lb. 
 
 17 6 
 
 7117 
 
 1122 
 
 4 8 
 
 
 817 
 
 907 
 
 3630 
 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 16 
 
 ' 3 
 
 23 
 
 19 5 
 
 12471 
 
 
 6 12 
 
 
 34412 
 
 
 9 1 
 
 
 
 12890 
 
 
 9 5i 
 
 \ 
 
 
 (To face page 285.)
 
 No. I. 
 TABLE of IMPORTS into ICELAND in the Year 1806. 
 
 Districts. 
 
 Meal. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Bailey. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Peas. 
 
 Pearl 
 Barley. 
 
 Barley 
 Groale. 
 
 Buck 
 Wheal. 
 
 Oat 
 Groata. 
 
 Rice. 
 
 Wheat 
 Plour. 
 
 Rye 
 Bread. 
 
 Biscuit. 
 
 Wheaten 
 Bread. 
 
 Brandy. 
 
 Bum. 
 
 Wine. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 French. 
 
 Grope. 
 
 Reikiavik 
 
 Eskefiord 
 
 Eyafiord 
 
 Baneb, 
 
 3502 
 563 
 97S 
 
 1017 
 
 Barren. 
 
 2365 
 575 
 
 2965 
 701 
 
 27 
 ""32 
 
 26 
 
 Barrclr. 
 72 
 
 4 
 6 
 2 
 
 Barrel!. 
 
 777 
 310 
 856 
 136 
 
 Barreli. 
 
 531 
 145 
 
 190 
 161i 
 
 128 
 109 
 80 
 
 56j 
 
 7 
 
 Barreir. 
 
 8 
 4 
 
 *i 
 4 
 
 Liapa. lb. 
 
 3 10 
 
 I'o 
 
 30 13 
 
 LLpcl, lb. 
 
 66 
 
 Skpd.L.lb 
 
 90 15 
 51 12 
 35 14 
 S3 6 
 
 SkpJ.L.lb. 
 
 226 4 
 
 21 4 
 
 19 17 
 
 3 5 
 
 Skpa.L.tb 
 
 47 4 
 
 255 
 
 59 
 105 
 150 
 
 Barrvli. 
 
 ■13 
 
 98 
 52 
 
 33.) 
 
 BJrrrU. 
 
 149 
 6 
 
 32 
 
 Bambi. 
 
 28 
 4 
 
 124 
 3 
 
 HhdJ. 
 
 GO 
 8 
 
 64 
 13 
 
 SI 
 2 
 
 28 5 
 16 12 
 
 13 
 2 15 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 In tUe year 1630 
 1743 
 1779 
 
 6U0 
 
 6506 
 
 85 
 
 84 
 
 2079 
 
 1027i 
 
 373 i 
 
 14J 
 
 201 
 
 35 7 
 
 111 l'231 7 
 
 270 11 
 
 50 12 
 
 569 
 
 236" 
 
 212; 
 
 47.> 
 
 86i 
 
 4501 
 8038 
 10,665 
 
 "475 
 
 1138 
 
 ""98 
 
 17 
 52 
 133 
 
 83 
 135 
 367 
 
 ZZ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Barren. 
 
 352 
 1239 
 986 
 
 Barreli. 
 
 93 
 684 
 422 
 
 
 262 
 
 722 
 116U 
 
 
 
 
 Pipes. 
 
 13J 
 67J 
 71 
 
 
 14 
 
 36J 
 
 12i 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 Districts. 
 
 Vinegar. 
 
 Mead. 
 
 Beer. 
 
 MoJt. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Treaele. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Paper. 
 
 Soap. 
 
 Salt. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Tar. 
 
 foal. 
 
 Hemp. 
 
 Fishing 
 Lines. 
 
 Cable. 
 
 Twine. 
 
 Hackled. 
 
 Unhack- 
 led. 
 
 
 Hhdj. 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2J 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 24. 
 
 9 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 BarrelJ. 
 7 
 
 Barreli. 
 10 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 SkpU.L.lb 
 
 13 15 
 
 4 10 
 2 7 
 6 6 
 
 Skpd.L.lb 
 
 24 17 
 10 
 
 6 13 
 
 7 5 
 
 Skpd.LJb. 
 
 13 14 
 
 4 6 
 
 5 10 
 1 13 
 
 Skpd.L.ib. 
 
 96 19 
 
 52 5 
 44 3 
 44 13 
 
 Rcarru, 
 
 63 
 
 25 
 
 65 
 
 4 
 
 Firkinj. 
 
 4B 
 
 1 
 7 
 
 Barreli. 
 
 843 
 325 
 549 
 
 862 
 
 SlpiUb. 
 
 170 13 
 
 5 4 
 
 2 13 
 
 21 14 
 
 Barrel!. 
 
 159 
 31 
 13 
 
 116 
 
 Lull. Bar. 
 
 26 4i 
 9 
 
 2 17 
 
 3 
 
 SkF«].L.1b. 
 
 27 
 
 Skpd. L. lb 
 
 17 6 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 7117 
 
 817 
 
 907 
 
 3630 
 
 ISeeei. 
 
 1132 
 
 Skpd. L.lb. 
 4 8 
 3 
 1 
 2 
 
 
 
 34i 
 U 
 
 1 16 
 3 
 
 1 16 
 3 
 
 
 23 
 
 Total 
 
 Intlieyearl693... 
 17M... 
 
 1779... 
 
 
 lOJ 
 
 53 
 
 S2i 
 
 39 
 
 26 18 
 
 48 15 
 
 25 3 
 
 238 
 
 157 
 
 55 
 
 2378 
 
 200 4 
 
 319 
 
 32 12 J 
 
 27 4 
 
 19 5 
 
 12471 
 
 
 U 12 
 
 
 216 
 67 
 
 67 
 
 
 38 
 IS 
 
 313 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 834 
 1864 
 
 2954 
 
 781 
 272- 
 
 310 
 
 61 
 147 
 
 291 
 
 
 
 
 34412 
 
 
 9 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 10 
 256 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 7J 
 
 27 
 
 
 218 
 
 Iba. 
 
 2054 
 
 23 
 
 IS 
 
 
 12890 
 
 
 9 54 
 
 (To face page 285.^
 
 No. II. 
 TABLE of EXPORTS from ICELAND in the Year 1806. 
 
 Districts. 
 
 Fish. 
 
 Dried Fish. 
 (Slock Fish.l 
 
 Sdltetlcad 
 in barreN 
 
 Salted coO 
 m bulk. 
 
 OiJ. 
 
 Fish 
 Liver. 
 
 Tallow. 
 
 Sailed 
 Salmon. 
 
 Wool 
 
 Woollen 
 Yarn. 
 
 Stockings. 
 
 Wa'ghla and Measures used in the Island. 
 LIQUID MEASURE. 
 
 1 Pipe contains 3 Amc, or 120 Gallons. 
 
 1 Oxhoved, (Hogshead), 60 
 
 1 Anie 4 Ankers, or 40 
 
 
 Cod. 
 
 Shark. 
 
 Seal. 
 
 White. 
 
 Mised. 
 
 
 
 Sklb. I-.ib 
 
 1606 3 
 
 8klb. L. lb, 
 
 1809 3 
 
 Barreb. 
 
 06 
 28 
 36 
 20 
 
 Sklb. L. lb. 
 
 2 8 
 
 BatTClj. 
 
 495i 
 36 
 17 
 
 259 
 
 BamU. 
 
 no 
 
 79i 
 561 
 913 
 
 Baireti. 
 
 10 
 
 BaiTcli. 
 
 12 
 
 sklb. L. lb. 
 
 149 15 
 
 151 10 
 
 278 6 
 
 19 8 
 
 Barrelt. 
 
 28J 
 
 
 Sklb. L. lb. 
 
 327 14 
 92 12 
 
 166 17 
 92 6 
 
 Sklb. L. lb. sub. L. lb. 
 
 58 14 9 
 56 4 4 3 
 11 524 11 
 
 Pairs. 
 
 19,507 
 26,186 
 79,900 
 56,023 
 
 
 Vt\coRnre{* 
 
 
 
 30 18 
 364 5 
 
 
 'f'is" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 524 16 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 7 18 
 
 
 1 Anker 5 Kutting,or 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 3001 6 233 IS 
 
 150 
 
 10 1 
 
 S07i 
 
 1663.S 24 1 12 
 
 598 19 
 
 28i [679 8|134 129 3 
 
 181,670 
 
 1 Kutting 4 Kandcr, or -2 
 
 1 Kandc 2 Potter, or OJ 
 
 1 Pot 4 Piele, or 3 Pints. 
 
 
 
 
 In the year 1624... 
 1630... 
 
 1743... 
 1779... 
 
 843 
 207 
 
 393 
 3613 
 
 5817 
 2823 
 
 5380 
 4901 
 
 444i 
 142 
 
 658 
 1905 
 
 
 930 
 1445 J 
 
 471 
 1402 
 
 
 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 337 
 133 J 
 
 SIslb. L.lb. 
 
 475 6 
 
 609 8 
 
 5i 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 16^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Paele or Oi Pint. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 365 
 
 
 
 
 CORN MEASURE. 
 
 1 Tonde, (Barrel), = 8 Skepper, or 4 English 
 
 Bushels. 
 1 Skepper, (!, Bushel), contains 18 Potter or 
 
 Quarts. 
 
 CLOTH MEASURE. 
 I Alen, or Yard, := 25 English inches, or two- 
 thirds of a Yard, and is divided into Quarters. 
 
 WEIGHTS, 
 
 1 Skippund, = 20 Lisepund, or 3 cwt. 22 lb. 
 English. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Districts. 
 
 Frocks or 
 Jackets. 
 
 Mittens. 
 
 Wadmal. 
 
 Lamb 
 SkitiG. 
 
 Salted 
 Sheep 
 Skins. 
 
 Small 
 Shark 
 Skins. 
 
 Fox 
 Skins. 
 
 Swan 
 Skins. 
 
 Goat 
 Skins. 
 
 Eider 
 Down. 
 
 Feathers. 
 
 Iceland 
 Moss. 
 
 Rcin.deei 
 Horns. 
 
 
 
 Reiktavik 
 
 130 
 
 345 
 
 5790 
 
 17 
 
 Pslr.. 
 
 77,203 
 
 0,737 
 
 57,798 
 
 141,338 
 
 Pleee». 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 2442 
 642 
 
 3723 
 G20 
 
 190 
 
 23,516 
 
 9,091 
 
 6 
 
 233 
 
 63 
 32 
 
 15 
 35 
 
 52 
 
 
 sklb. L.lb 
 1 11 
 
 19 
 19 
 
 3 7J 
 
 sklb. L. lb. 
 
 14 12 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 Eskefiord 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 115 
 
 
 
 153 
 
 
 
 
 1335 
 
 3 
 
 12 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 Total.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,283 
 
 283,076 
 
 11 
 
 7427 
 
 32,803 
 
 1568 
 
 145 
 
 55 
 
 115 
 
 6 16jl 26 is! 41 
 
 153 
 
 
 
 In tlieyear 1624... 
 
 
 
 12,232 
 
 13,004 
 
 110,507 
 
 186,624 
 
 EUi. 
 
 12,251 
 
 4,042 
 876 
 621 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Fund = lOOnzer or lib. 
 
 The Danish Pound is 12 per cent, heavier than 
 the English. 
 
 
 1630... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1743... 
 1779... 
 
 121 1 
 
 884 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20,722 
 
 
 
 406 
 
 98 
 
 
 6 
 
 2 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A volume was published in the year 1787, at Copenhagen, by Royal authority, entitled, ' Regulations for the Trade and Navigation of Iceland.' This was at the time when the 
 trade was declared free ; and the volume contains Tables of the Exports of Iceland from 1764 to 1784 ; but I have not had an opportunity of copying them. 
 
 • Eskefiord is situate on the same bay as Rodefiord. 
 
 3_
 
 Ch. v. Cotnmerce.1 
 
 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 
 
 28j 
 
 In the preceding tables, it will be seen that the island is 
 divided into four commercial districts; viz. Reikiavik, Eske- 
 fiord, Eyafiord, and Isafiord. Formerly, there were six dis- 
 tricts. This division is not merely nominal, regulations be- 
 ing established for merchant ships visiting each district, and 
 the settlement of Danes or Icelanders as merchants. A ves- 
 sel arriving from Denmark in any district, is allowed to 
 visit all the ports included in it ; but is not allowed to go into 
 any of the harbours of the other districts.* Every person de- 
 sirous of settling in Iceland as a merchant, must become a 
 burgher or freeman, of the district in which he wishes to 
 ^tablish himself. A settlement is obtained without difficulty, 
 most commonly through the favour of the Governor or the 
 Sj'sselmen ; and vs ith no other expence than that of a few dol- 
 lars for writings. 
 
 The districts of Reikiavik and Isafiord supply the greatest 
 quantity of salted and dried fish ; and from the latter the 
 greatest exportation of oil takes place, on account of the pro- 
 ductiveness of the cod and shark fisheries. The northern and 
 eastern coasts furnish the greatest quantity of tallow, salted 
 mutton, wool, and woollen goods. The large quantity of tal- 
 low and woollen stuffs exported from the Reikiavik district, 
 is not owing to the number of sheep and cattle kept in this 
 
 ♦Reikiavik includes, 
 
 EsKEFIORD, 
 
 Eyafiord, 
 
 Isafiord, 
 
 Keikiavik. 
 
 Eskefiord. 
 
 Eyafiord. 
 
 Isafiord. 
 
 Havnefiord. 
 
 Rodefiord. 
 
 Husavik 
 
 Patrixfiord. 
 
 Kieblivik. 
 
 Berufiord. 
 
 Siglefiord. 
 
 Bildal. 
 
 Eyarback. 
 
 Vapnafiord. 
 
 Hofsos. 
 
 Olafsvik. 
 
 Westmann Islands. 
 
 
 Skagastrand. 
 
 Gronnefiord 
 Stikkesholm 
 Stappen. 
 Buderstad.
 
 2S6 
 
 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. t. Commerce. 
 
 part of Iceland, but to these articles being brought by the 
 people from different j)arts of the island, for the purpose of 
 bartering with the merchants of this place.* 
 
 There is perhaps no part of the world where the cod fishery 
 can be carried on so extensively, so easily, or so safely, as in 
 Iceland. When the distance of Newfoundland, and the stormy 
 weather which prevails in that quarter, are comparatively 
 considered, together with the expence of our establishments 
 there, Iceland offers the most important advantages as a 
 fishing station. The facility with which the fishing is carried 
 on by the natives is really astonishing. In the morning they 
 go out in small skifts, to the distance of a (ew miles from the 
 shore, and in the afternoon return with as many fine fish as 
 their boats can contain. Even in the very harbours, as was 
 the case at Reikiavik soon after we left it, abundance of cod 
 are sometimes taken. The rivers are frequented by vast num- 
 bers of salmon, an article on great demand both in this coun- 
 try and in the West Indies. But they are neglected ; no 
 means being employed for a regular capture, except in the 
 small river near Reikiavik ; and the salmon from that river 
 are almost all consumed in the country. 
 
 Fish and oil are the chief articles of export, which could 
 be extended to an indefinite amount. Wool is an article not 
 required in Britain ; but, by improving the land, the stock of 
 cattle and sheep might be greatly increased, so that the 
 quantity of hides and tallow would become considerable. 
 The disposition of the English Government to be humane 
 towards that miserable country, cannot be doubted ; and to 
 the feelings which dictated the Order in Council, dated in 
 Februarv 1810, much credit is due. That compassionate 
 
 * See Journal, page 202.
 
 Ch. Y. Commerce.^ ' TRAVELS IX ICELAND, '28/ 
 
 and well-meant Order was not at first attended with any ad- 
 vantage to the Icelanders. Though permission was given to 
 trade with the natives, the duties on the goods brought home 
 still remained prohibitory ; and several ships belonging to Ice- 
 land, which came to this country on the faith of the Order, 
 were, on account of the duties, long detained at Leith, till 
 strong representations being made, they were permitted to 
 sail to Denmark with their cargoes. Sir Joseph Banks, Avith 
 that humanity which distinguishes him, has made many ap- 
 plications in behalf of Iceland ; and we have not failed to re- 
 present the case of that country, as we found it, to those 
 under whose management our foreign relations and trade arc 
 placed. The Board of Trade has shewn a great inclination 
 to favour the Danish merchants trading to Iceland ; and in- 
 dulgences, far beyond any which have ever been given to an 
 enemy, have been granted to them. Unless these merchants 
 be permitted to carry Icelandic produce to Denmark they 
 cannot afford to carry provisions to Iceland. As the enrich- 
 ment of a few individuals, who are subjects of a hostile power, 
 cannot possibly injure this country, humanity to the wretch- 
 ed Icelanders dictates the permission of free intercourse with 
 Denmark.
 
 288 TRAVELS IN ICELAND, [Ch. vi. Government 
 
 0"N THE GOVERNMENT, LAWS, AND RELFGION. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 vSiNc E ihe period when Iceland was first annexed to a European 
 monarchy, the progress of time has effected little change either 
 in the physical condition or political situation of its inhabit- 
 ants. The general form of government, which was established 
 nearly six centuries ago, is still preserved ; and the circum- 
 stances of the people have required few important alterations 
 in the code of laws, which was then transmitted to them 
 by the Norwegian monarchs. Even this form of govern- 
 ment, and these laws, were founded upon the existing usages 
 of the country ; and we must principally look to the wisdom 
 of those, who framed the ancient commonwealth of Iceland, 
 for the origin of institutions, which, in this later age, preserve 
 to their posterity all the blessings of tranquillity and social 
 order. 
 
 The government of Iceland is committed to an officer, ap- 
 pointed by the crown of Denmark ; who is occasionally a 
 native of the island, but more frequently a Dane or Norwe- 
 gian by birdi. This supreme magistrate has the title of Stift-
 
 Ch. VI. Government.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 289 
 
 amtmand. It is his office to conduct the various public con- 
 cerns of the country ; to preside in the courts of law ; to 
 superintend the execution of the laws, and the collection and 
 disposal of the public revenue ; and, in conjunction with the 
 Bishop, to regulate the schools and certain ecclesiastical con- 
 cerns of the island. He receives a salary, as Governor, of 
 2,000 rixdollars per annum ; and has a house appropriated 
 to his use. 
 
 Since the disturbances which occurred in Iceland in the 
 sximmer of I8O9, there has been no regular governor in the 
 country ; and it is probable that the appointment of one will 
 not be made, till the war between England and Denmark has 
 been brought to a termination. After Jorgensen had been 
 deposed, and Coiuit Trampe taken to Britain in the Talbot 
 sloop of war, the functions of the government were undertak- 
 en by Mr Stephenson, who retained this office till the month 
 of June 1810 ; when the change took place which has already 
 been mentioned in the narrative. 
 
 Immediately subordinate to the Governor are the Amtmen, 
 or Provincial Governors. The island is divided into four 
 provinces ; but as the jurisdiction of the northern and eastern 
 are united, and as the Governor of Iceland assumes the office 
 of Amtmand of the southern province, in which he resides, 
 there are, in fact, only two officers who possess this title. 
 Their duties are very similar to those of the Stiftamtmand, 
 though on a more limited scale. They inspect the conduct 
 of all the subordinate officers, and hold provincial courts, at 
 which a report is made of all the public proceedings within 
 their districts. The present Amtmen are Mr Stephenson of 
 Huaneyre, who has the jurisdiction of the western province ; 
 and Mr Thoranson, who holds the northern and eastern pro- 
 vinces of the island. 
 
 2o
 
 290 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. vi. Magistrates, 
 
 The S^'sselmen, though of inferior rank, are, in the offices 
 they sustain, of great importance in the country. The}' have 
 the personal charge of collecting the taxes in their several dis- 
 tricts or Syssels ; they hold courts of law and pronounce judg- 
 ment in all cases ; they watch over the public peace, officiate 
 as public notaries, and maintain the rights of inheritance. 
 The Sysselman is appointed by the Crown ; and the office, on 
 account of its importance, is always given to one of the most 
 respectable landed proprietors within the district. 
 
 There is still a subordinate local officer, called the Hrepp- 
 stiore, whose jurisdiction is a parochial one, and whose duty 
 it particularly is to attend to the condition and maintenance 
 of the poor, and to assist the proceedings of the Sysselman 
 in all that relates to the preservation of public order. Where 
 the population of a parish exceeds four hundred persons, the 
 office is committed to two individuals ; who usually belong to 
 the class of farmers, and are invariably chosen from a regard 
 to their abilities and steadiness of character. By a late edict 
 of the Danish Government, these inferior magistrates, as well 
 as their children, are exempted from the levies for the sup- 
 port of the poor, and are allowed also to use a dress appro- 
 priate to their situation. In each parish, beside the Hrepp- 
 stiore, there are a certain number of individuals (Forlikunar- 
 men), appointed for the express purpose of accommodating 
 any disputes which may arise among the inhabitants. 
 
 The laws of Iceland, it has been already remarked, are 
 founded ])rincipally upon the ancient code, called the Jons- 
 bok, which was introduced into the island A. D. 1 280. Cer- 
 tain changes have since been introduced into the substance 
 of these laws, and several additions made to them by the 
 edicts of the Norwegian and Danish Kings ; but none such as 
 to affect materially their general spirit or character. The al-
 
 Ch.\i. Inferior Courts.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 291 
 
 leratlons, however, which have taken place in the judicial 
 establishments of the country, have been much more con- 
 siderable; and the forms of justice, in consequence of progres- 
 sive changes, are now in many respects similar to those in the 
 continental dominions of Denmark. 
 
 Of the judicial establishments of the island, the court of 
 the Sysselman is the first to which all cases, whether criminal 
 or civil, are referred. This court, which is called the Hierads- 
 thing, is officially held only once in the year in each Syssel ; 
 but should the public business of the country require it, an 
 extraordinary court may at any time be appointed, with the 
 same jurisdiction ; either by the Crown in criminal cases, or 
 by the petition of the litigants in causes of a civil nature. 
 Every public suit brought before this tribunal is instituted 
 by the Amtmand of the province, as the representative of the 
 Crown. 
 
 In criminal cases, an examination of the suspected person, 
 and of the witnesses, is made immediately after the apprehen- 
 sion of the former; and the results of the examination are 
 transmitted to the Amtmand, who decides upon these grounds 
 whether a trial is required. If it be deemed necessary, the 
 prosecution is conducted in the Sysselman's court by a public 
 pleader on the part of the Crown, who is opposed by another 
 pleader appointed for the defendant. Upon the evidence 
 and the pleadings, the decision of the court is founded ; the 
 Sysselman in his judicial capacity being assisted by four per- 
 sons, called Meddoms-menn, fconsessores judiciij who both 
 register the proceedings, and give their suiFrages, together 
 with the Sysselman, in the decision upon every cause.* The 
 
 * A similar institution, with respect to the assistant inferior judges, exists in 
 the inferior courts of Denmark. See Dissert, de Offic. Judicuni Inferior, in Da- 
 nia. (Havnioe 1801, p. 17,) by Snsebiorn Stadfeldt.
 
 2^3 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. |^Ch. vi. Superior Courts. 
 
 sentence proceeds upon a plurality of these suffrages. At 
 Reikiavik the Bifoged, or Sheriflf of the town, has a jurisdic- 
 tion similar to that of the Sysselmen in the larger districts. 
 
 From these provincial courts appeals are permitted, and 
 are usually made in all important civil or criminal cases, to 
 the superior court of justice, which has its ordinary sittings 
 at Reikiavik six times in the course of the year.* This tri- 
 bunal, in its present form, was constituted as lately as the 
 year 1800 ; at which period the judicial assemblies, held an- 
 nually at Thingvalla during so many centuries, were finally 
 abolished, and their place supplied by the present establish- 
 ment, considerably altered in its constitution and forms. The 
 court is composed of the Stiftamtmand or governor ; of three 
 judges ; of a secretary ; and two public pleaders. The go- 
 vernor officiates as president, but takes no part whatsoever 
 in the judicial proceedings. Of the judges, one has a superi- 
 or rank, with the title of Justitiarius, which office, since the 
 institution of the court, has been held by Mr Stephenson of 
 Indreholm, with credit to himself, and advantage to his coun- 
 try. The other judges, entitled the Assessors, are Mr Gron- 
 dal of Reikiavik, whose poetical celebrity has elsewhere been 
 mentioned, and Mr Einarson of Bessestad. Though inferior 
 in rank to the Justitiarius, they have an equal weight with him 
 m the decisions of the court, every sentence being determined 
 by a plurality among their three votes. In the proceedings 
 of the tribunal, much impartiality is observed. The evidence 
 and jileadings for each party are respectively heard ; and the 
 sentence is pronounced by the Justitiarius, after the votes of 
 the other judges are obtained. As was remarked in the Pre- 
 
 * This court is called the Konunglegi Lands-^ur-rettur: according to a literal 
 translation, The Royal court of justice over the land.
 
 Ch. VI. Superior Courts.'] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 293 
 
 liminary Dissertation, there are at present in Iceland no ves- 
 tiges of the trial by jury. 
 
 From the superior court of justice at Reikiavik, a final ap- 
 peal is still in all cases reserved to the authority of the higher 
 courts at Copenhagen. Since the interruption, however, of 
 the ordinary intercourse between Iceland and Denmark, by 
 the war with England, it has been found desirable to estab- 
 lish a court in the island, with the authority of passing a final 
 judgment in criminal cases ; which court is constituted by the 
 governor, the three judges, and one or two other members 
 specially appointed by the governor in every cause. This 
 tribunal, being created by an emergency, will doubtless be 
 abolished as soon as the necessity for it has ceased. 
 
 Though the transference of the superior court from Thing- 
 valla to Reikiavik has probably, on the whole, been attended 
 with advantage, yet there are some reasons why the Iceland- 
 ers, as a people, should contemplate this change with feelings 
 of regret. The annual meeting at Thingvalla was not merely 
 that of a tribxmal of justice, but an assembly of the nation ; and 
 though the importance of this assembly was diminished, and 
 its dignity degraded, by the subjection of the island to a fo- 
 reign power, yet, on the spot where the greatest among his 
 ancestors had so often stood, the mind of the Icelander must 
 ever have been awake to enthusiasm and patriotic pride. 
 * Hie sacra, hie genus, hie majorum multa vestigia!' To the 
 eye too of the poet, every thing is lost in this change. The 
 Icelanders are now summoned to the public courts of the 
 country in a small and miserable apartment, destitute of all 
 ornament, and even of common furniture; where there is no- 
 thing present to confer external dignity upon the meetings, 
 or to mark the character of a national establishment. At the 
 assemblies of Thingvalla, though artificial splendour was
 
 294 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. vi. Thingmlla. 
 
 wanting, yet the majesty of nati're presided, and gave a su- 
 perior and more impressive solemnity to the scene. On the 
 banks of the river Oxeraa, where its rapid stream enters a 
 lake, embosomed among dark and precipitous mountains, was 
 held during eight centuries, the annual convention of the 
 people. It is a spot of singular wildness and desolation ; on 
 every side of which appear the mast tremendous effects of 
 ancient convulsion and disorder ; while there is now a death- 
 like silence amidst the horrors of the scene. Here the legis- 
 lators, the magistrates, and the people met together. Their 
 little group of tents placed beside the stream, was sheltered 
 behind by a rugged precipice of lava ; and on a small grassy 
 spot in the midst of them was held the assembly, which pro- 
 vided by its deliberations for the happiness and tranquillity 
 of the nation. 
 
 The study of their own laws, as well as of the principles 
 of law in general, has ever been a favourite pursuit among 
 the Icelanders; and both in ancient and modern times, a great 
 number of writings, connected with this subject, have appear- 
 ed in the island. In consequence of this minute attention, 
 all the laws of the country, both civil and criminal, are very 
 distinctly defined ; and even among the inferior magistrates, 
 are so well understood, that their execution is every where 
 conducted with fidelity and exactness. 
 
 The punishments for theft, prescribed in the criminal law, 
 are varied by the degree of the offence. In cases where the 
 theft is of little importance, or the crime committed for the 
 first time, the offender is whipped, in the presence of only the 
 judge and two witnesses. This punishment is allotted also to 
 other trifling offences, when the poverty of the persons con- 
 victed makes it impossible for them to pay a pecuniary fine. 
 In cases where petty thefts have been a second time commit-
 
 Gh. Vf. Criminal Laws.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 295 
 
 ted, the criminal is usually sent to Copenhagen ; in the work- 
 house of which city he is confined for the term of three or 
 five years, according to the degree of his guilt. Thefts of a 
 more serious nature, as the breaking into churches or houses, 
 or the stealing of horses, are punished either by public whip- 
 ping, or by a sentence of perpetual confinement in the Co- 
 penhagen work -house.* Where such thefts have been com- 
 mitted for the fourth time, or still more frequently, the pun- 
 ishment is confinement for life in the public prisons of Den- 
 mark. The operation of these more severe laws is, however, 
 very seldom required ; crimes of this description being by no 
 means frequent among the natives of Iceland. 
 
 The only public prison in the island is that of Roikiavik, 
 which was erected about fifty years ago. By a mistake, not 
 imnatural in such a country as Iceland, this building has been 
 rendered greatly more comfortable than the common habita- 
 tions of the natives ; so that, were it not for the privation of 
 liberty, the Icelander might well be content to exchange his 
 own abode, for one where his actual comforts are little infe- 
 rior, and Avhere he is exempted from many of the evils inci- 
 dent to his usual mode of life. Sheep-stealing is the most 
 common offence for which imprisonment here is adjudged ; 
 the term of confinement extending from two to five years, 
 and a certain portion of daily labour being appointed for 
 each prisoner. The crime of adultery committed for the 
 third time, is piinished by a confinement of two years. At 
 the time we visited Iceland, there were six people imprisoned 
 
 * In the work-house at Copenhagen there are different sections, allotted to 
 different classes of ciiminals. The men condemned to c .nfinement there are kept 
 in a part of it called the Rusp-huus, where they are employed in rasping dye-woods ; 
 an occupation considered very dangerous to the health.
 
 296 TBAVELS IN ICELAND, [Ch. vi. Criminal Laws, 
 
 in this place ; but this is probably rather below the usual 
 number. 
 
 Capital punishment, though strictly provided for by the 
 laws in cases of murder, &c. is scarcely ever required among 
 a people, gentle in all their dispositions, and possessing moral 
 qualities of an excellent kind. Examples of this have been 
 so very rare, tliat a few years ago, when a peasant was 
 condemned to die for the murder of his wife, no one in the 
 island could be induced to perform the office of executioner, 
 and it was necessary to send the criminal over to Norway, 
 that the sentence of the law might be carried into effect. The 
 method prescribed for inflicting death, is that of taking off the 
 head with an axe. In all cases where capital punishment or 
 perpetual imprisonment have been adjudged by the courts, 
 the ratification of the king of Denmark is required, before 
 the sentence can be acted upon. 
 
 By a law enacted a iew years ago, it is provided that no 
 Icelander, imless under an accusation which might subject 
 him to capital punisliment, or to imprisonment for life, shall 
 be kept in confinement before the time of his trial. When 
 an individual is accused of any inferior crime, he is admonished 
 by the Hreppstiore in the presence of witnesses, not to leave 
 the parish in which he resides. If he infringes upon this 
 •obligation, and is afterwards apprehended, he remains under 
 strict confinement, until judgment upon his case has been 
 pronounced. 
 
 Some of the Icelandic laws with respect to property have 
 been mentioned in the chapter on Rural Affairs. The law of 
 inheritance is well defined, and acted upon with much strict- 
 ness. No entail of landed property is allowed ; but upon the 
 decease of an individual, a division is made of his lands, or of 
 ja value equivalent to them by estimate, in which an equal
 
 Ch. VI. Taxes.} TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 297 
 
 share is allotted to every son ; with the right, however, in the 
 case of the eldest, of chusing the farm or share of the property, 
 which may be most agreeable to him. The daughters have 
 each the half of a son's portion. If the wife survives her 
 husband, she has half of his estate ; or if she dies first, the 
 husband retains the same proportion of the property which 
 she brought him at her marriage. 
 
 The tributes paid by the Icelanders are by no means con- 
 siderable ; and do not even suffice for the support of the civil 
 establishment of the island. They are collected in different 
 ways. Some of them are strictly taxes on property ; founded 
 upon an estimate which is annually made, under the snper- 
 intendance of the Hreppstiores, of the possessions of the se- 
 veral individuals in each parish. This estimate is conducted 
 in a somewhat singular way ; its basis being a very ancient 
 regulation of property, according to the number of ells of 
 tvadmal, the cloth of native manufacture, which each indivi- 
 dual possessed, or was enabled to manufacture in the course 
 of the year. The term hundred, which was formerly a division 
 derived from the number of ells, is now applied to other de- 
 scriptions of property. An Icelander is reckoned the posses-- 
 sor of a hundred, when he has two horses, a cow, a certain 
 number of sheep and lambs, a fishing boat furnished with nets 
 and lines, and forty rixdollars in specie ; and it is by this ratio, 
 that the amount of all possessions is ascertained, and the 
 tributes le\'ied upon them. One of the tributes called the 
 Tuind's, requires from every person possessing more than five 
 hundreds, the annual payment of twelve fish, or an equiva- 
 lent amounting to twenty- seven skillings, or somewhat more 
 than a shilling of English money. This tax increases in an 
 uniform ratio with the increase of property ; and its produce 
 
 is allotted in equal portions to the public revenue, to the 
 
 2 p
 
 29S TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. VI. Taxes. 
 
 priests, to the churches, and to the maintenance of the poor. 
 Another tribute, called the Skattur, consisted in former times 
 of twenty ells of wadmal, but is now commuted to money, at 
 the rate of four skillings and a half per ell. It is paid to the 
 public revenue by the owners of farms, and by all whose pro- 
 perty, estimated in hundreds, exceeds the number of indivi- 
 duals composing their families. A third tax, called the Olaf- 
 tollur, is paid cither in fish or money ; likewise in proportion 
 to the property of each individual. A few others are col- 
 lected in the country ; but they are very inconsiderable in 
 amount, and devolve little burthen upon the inhabitants. 
 The commerce of the island, since the year 1787j has been 
 exempted from all duties. 
 
 The management of the taxes is entirely in the hands of 
 the Sysselmen, who collect them from the inhabitants at the 
 public meetings which they hold in their respective districts. 
 The payment is for the most part made in produce of various 
 kind ; fish, tallow, butter, fox-skins, wool, or woollen goods. 
 As the Sysselman is required to pay the amount of the taxes 
 in money to the Landfoged, or treasurer of the island, it be- 
 comes a part of his office to dispose of these articles to the 
 merchants ; in which transaction, he is himself subject to the 
 chances of gain or loss that may arise from fluctuations in the 
 market price. A third part of the produce of the taxes is 
 retained as his own salary ; nor is this more than sufficient to 
 compensate him for the labour and responsibility which he 
 incurs in the discharge of his various duties. 
 
 The Icelandic laws respecting the condition and mainte- 
 nance of the poor, are very strictly enforced ; and become 
 much more burthensome to the farmers and peasants of the 
 country, than the taxes to which they are subject. With the 
 exception of three smairbuildings, for the admission of a few
 
 Ch. VI. Religion.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 299 
 
 incurable lepers, there is no public establishment in the 
 island, which affords a permanent abode to the aged and 
 destitute ; and by all such, the more immediate assistance of 
 their fellow-citizens is therefore imperiously required. The 
 laws render it necessary for every farmer or householder to 
 receive into his family, and to give support, to those of his 
 relations, even in the fourth degree of kindred, who may be 
 in a destitute condition. If he has no such calls made upon 
 him by consanguinity, he is still required to assist in the sup- 
 port of the poor, either by admitting some orphan or aged 
 person into his house, or by contributing an annual sum 
 proportioned to the value of his property. It not unfre- 
 quently happens, that a landed proprietor, who pays little 
 more than two rixdollars to the public revenue, is called 
 upon for forty, fifty, or even sixty, as his ratio towards the 
 maintenance of the poor in the district ; when he is unwilling 
 to receive any of these into his own habitation. The exe- 
 cution of the poor-laws is committed to the Hreppstiore of 
 each parish ; and form the most essential part of the duties 
 of his office. 
 
 In the preceding parts of this volume, much has been said 
 respecting the history of religion in Iceland, the services of the 
 Icelandic church, and the general condition of the priests 
 throughout the country. A brief account of the nature of 
 the religious establishment, and the mention of a few miscel- 
 laneous facts, will give the reader all the information that re- 
 mains upon this subject. 
 
 The reformation of religion in Iceland took place A. D. 
 1551 ; since which period the doctrines of the Lutheran 
 church, as it exists in the northern kingdoms of Europe, have 
 been strictly maintained in the island. At the present time.
 
 300 TEAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. vi. Religion. 
 
 not a single dissentient is to be found from the established 
 religion of the country ; and the only instance of the kind on 
 record, is one which occurred about the end of the 17th 
 century ; when Helgo Eiolfidas, a man who had acquired 
 much knowledge of German literature, espoused the Socinian 
 doctrines, and taught them openly to his children and friends ; 
 till compelled by the judgment of the Ecclesiastical Court to 
 make a public renunciation of his belief. Doctrinal discus- 
 sion is of course little known among the Icelanders ; and the 
 contests which have existed in their church, relate chiefly to 
 external ordinances, and to the situation and rights of the 
 clergy of the island. 
 
 The religious establishment of Iceland is formed on a more 
 extensive scale, than might have been expected from the na- 
 ture of the country and the condition of the people. The 
 inhabited parts of the island are divided into 184 parishes ; 
 a division which gives to each parish an average population of 
 about 260 persons. From the great extent, however, of these 
 districts, it has in many instances been found necessary to 
 erect more than one church in a parish ; and the total num- 
 ber of churches in the island somewhat exceeds three hundred. 
 The duty of each parish devolves upon a single priest ; with 
 the permission, however, if his own circumstances do not al- 
 low the full discharge of his duties, to take an assistant from 
 among theyovuig men educated for the church, who have not 
 yet obtained a permanent situation in life. The number of 
 the officiating ministers of religion is of course various at 
 different times, though never greatly exceeding that of the 
 parishes. Immediately superior to the common priests are 
 the Provosts, or Deacons, whose office it is to exercise a ge- 
 neral superintendance over the churches in each Syssel, and 
 who are chosen in general from a regard to their talents and 
 
 i
 
 Ca.vi. Clergy.l TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 301 
 
 respectability of character. There are nineteen of these dea- 
 cons in the island ; but their number is included among that 
 of the priests, just mentioned, as they severally have parishes 
 allotted to them, of which they discharge all the ordinary 
 duties. A small additional stipend is attached to the office, 
 which renders their situation somewhat superior to that of the 
 other clergy. ,; - 
 
 During a period of seven centuries, Iceland was divided 
 into two bishoprics ; that of Skalholt comprehending the 
 southern, that of Hoolum the northern, districts of the island. 
 The sees becoming vacant at the same time, they were united 
 in 1797 t)y the order of the Danish government ; and the 
 title of Bisliop of Iceland w^s conferred upon the learned and 
 respectable Geir Vidalin, the present possessor of this digni- 
 ty. The duties of the office are important and extensive. 
 The Bishop superintends tlie general concerns of the religi- 
 ous establishment ; he inspects the conduct of the priests, 
 regulates any ecclesiastical disputes which may occur, or- 
 dains those who are entering upon the pastoral office, and 
 watches over the education and moral conduct of the people 
 at large. It is a part of his duty also to visit at stated pe- 
 riods the different districts of his diocese, for the purpose of 
 personal inspection ; and the farmers of the country are re- 
 quired to assist him, while making these journies, with every 
 accommodation which their means may afford. The appoint- 
 ment of the Bishop is vested in the Crown. While there 
 w»ere two bishoprics in Iceland, the revenues of each were 
 very small, and ill adapted to support the dignity, scarcely 
 even the necessary duties of the ofKce. In consequence of 
 the union of tht sees, a considerable augmentation Was made 
 in the revenues of the present Bishop, which now amount to 
 about 1800 dollars per annum ; derived chieHy from the pub-
 
 303 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. {Cn. vi. THthci. 
 
 lie treasury of the island. Did he reside in the interior of the 
 country, this sum woukl raise him to the highest rank of opu- 
 lence ; but making his abode in Reikiavik, he is subject to 
 many additional expences, not only from the different mode 
 of life among the Danes, but also from the necessity of en- 
 tertaining the country priests, who come to barter their com- 
 modities with the merchants at this place. The singular hos- 
 pitality .and kindness of heart, which distinguish the character 
 of Bishop Vidalin, would keep him in a state of poverty, even 
 were his means of exercising these dispositions much greater 
 than they actually are. 
 
 The patronage of the church in Iceland was formerly in 
 the hands of the people and the proprietors of land ; was af- 
 terwards assumed by the Bishops, as the representatives of 
 the Papal authority ; and finally, at the period of the refor- 
 mation, was transferred to the crown of Denmark. The 
 power is now, in most cases, exercised by the Governor of 
 the island, with the assistance and advice of the Bishop. The 
 reveni>es of the clergy are derived in part from the lands an- 
 nexed to the churches ; partly from tithes upon the landed 
 property of the country. These tithes are paid by the farm- 
 ers, in a ratio determined, not by the quantity of produce 
 raised upon each farm, but by the fixed rents of the land • 
 from the nature of which rents, as described in the chapter 
 on Rural Affairs, it will appear that the value of the tithes is 
 subject to very little variation. More than half a century has 
 elapsed since the estimate was made, upon which the regula- 
 tion of their value was founded ; but this regulation probably 
 falls little short of the present revenues of the Icelandic 
 church, in as far as they are derived from tithes. To afford 
 an idea of the extreme scantiness of the provision which is 
 thus made for the clergy, it may be sufficient to state, from
 
 Ca. yi. Tithes.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 303 
 
 the tables drawn up at that time, that the whole revenue by- 
 tithe, in 18.1 parishes, does not exceed the sum of 6400 specie 
 dollars ; giving an average of 34 or 35 dollars for each parish 
 in the island. The distribution of the stipends is by no means 
 equal, owing to the difference in the extent and value of the 
 land under cultivation in different districts. The most valua- 
 ble living in the island is that of Breide-bolstadr, in Rangaa- 
 valle Syssel, the stipend of which is upwards of 180 dollars : 
 the parish contains 376 people. In the parish of Krciss, in 
 the same district, where there are two churches, and a popu- 
 lation exceeding 500, the stipend amounts only to 33 dollars. 
 In Aarnes Syssel, the parish of Torfastadir, in which the 
 Geysers are situated, contains five churches ; while the salary 
 of the priest and his assistant, amounts scarcely to 30 dollars. 
 In numerous instances, however, the stipends are still much 
 smaller ; and there are two or three parishes in the island, 
 where the annual sum of five dollars forms the whole provi- 
 sion which is made by tithe for the support of the ministers 
 of religion. The stipends, though specified according to their 
 value in luoney, are very generally paid, like the taxes, in 
 different articles of produce ; which the priests either consume 
 in their own families, or barter with the merchants for other 
 articles which they more immediately require. 
 
 These scanty pittances would obviously be insufficient to 
 the support of the religious establishment, were they not as- 
 sisted by the value of the glebe-land, which is annexed to the 
 church in each parish. Every priest thus becomes a farmer; 
 and though the land which they hold is in general of small 
 extent, yet there are certain rights attached to it, which aug- 
 ment considerably the profits derived from this source. Be- 
 side the tithe upon his rent, each farmer in the parish is re- 
 quired to give annually to the priest, either a day's work, or
 
 304 TRAVFXS IN ICELAND, [Ch. vi. Churches, 
 
 an equivalent value in money; and likewise to keep one of his 
 lambs during the winter season ; taking it home in October, 
 and returning it in good condition the following spring. It is 
 customary, also, for the more wealthy of his parishioners, to 
 make him a small offering, of the value of eightpence in Eng- 
 lish money, three times in the course of the year ; besides 
 Avhich, a trifling perquisite is occasionally obtained for the per- 
 formance of particular services, as baptism, marriage, and 
 burial. These are all the sources from which the Icelandic 
 priest obtains a livelihood for his family. 
 
 In the preceding narrative of our travels, the general ap- 
 pearance and construction of the churches in Iceland has 
 been minutely described. It would be difficult, indeed, to 
 convey to one who has not visited the country, an adequate 
 idea of the extreme wretchedness of some of the edifices which 
 bear this name. But it must be recollected, that if a greater 
 size, or more decoration, had been given to these places of 
 Avorship, their number would have been diminished in the 
 same proportion ; and in looking therefore at the Icelandic 
 churches, as they now are, no feeling of contempt can have 
 place in the mind, but rather a sentiment of admiration, for 
 the judgment with which the means of the people have 
 been applied to the great object in view. The charge of 
 attending to the condition of the churches is committed to 
 the Hreppstiore of each parish ; while to provide for any ne- 
 cessary repairs, a small tax is levied upon the inhabitants, 
 and the personal labours of the peasants are occasionally re-- 
 qiiired. The present war between England and Denmark, 
 unfortunate for Iceland in so many points of view, has here 
 also inflicted some of its evils. The accustomed supply of 
 timber from Norway being suspended, many of the churches 
 in the country are getting into a ruinous state ; and d\iring
 
 Cb.yi. Priests.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 305 
 
 the last siiniiner, communications were made to the Bishop 
 from different parishes, representing the impossibility of con- 
 tinuing public worship from this cause. 
 
 The education of the priests at the school of Bessestad, 
 will be described in the next chapter. When a young man, 
 intended for this office, has undergone the required examina- 
 tions, he leaves the school, and usually returns to his native 
 place ; where, in assisting his family to obtain their scanty 
 and hardly-earned provision, he submits to the same labours 
 as the meanest of those around him. During our first jour- 
 ney in Iceland, we were attended by a person in this situa- 
 tion, who performed for us all the menial offices of a servant 
 and guide. These young men are still called upon, however, to 
 pursue their theological studies in as far as their limited means 
 will allow ; and, to provide for this necessary part of discipline, 
 the superintendance of the Bishop is continued, who annually 
 transmits to each candidate for the priesthood, a series of 
 Latin questions, as a test of his diligence and proficiency. 
 The nature of these questions will be seen from the subjoined 
 list, which was sent to some of the students of divinity in the 
 summer of 1810.* The dissertations in reply to them, are 
 conveyed to the Bishop at Reikiavik by those who come down 
 
 * Examen Theologicum Candidato solvendum. 
 
 1. Quanam cautione opus est in prophetiis Veteris Testament! explicandis? 
 
 2. Quid libri Veteris Testamenti docent de resurrectione mortuorum. 
 
 3. An niali genii Iiomines ad peccandum solicitant ? 
 
 4. In quo consistit venia peccatorum nobis per Jesum parta ? 
 
 5. ^ternitas poenarum post hanc vitam quibus argumentis probator, et quo- 
 
 modo cum benignitate Summi Numinis concilianda est .'' 
 
 6. Explicentur Matt. xv. 4, 3, 6 ; et i. Cor. in. 15, 16. 
 
 7. Qualis fuit status religionis in patria nostra ante Reformationem ? 
 
 8. Cur Deus hominibus salutem seternam, tantum conditione vitae emcndandae, 
 
 pollicetur .'
 
 306 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ca. it. Church servict. 
 
 to this part of the coast to fish, or to dispose of their tallow 
 and other commodities to the merchants. After a certain 
 period of probation, and a personal examination by the 
 Bishop on the doctrines and duties of their profession, the 
 candidates are received into orders, and await the occurrence 
 of vacancies, which may afford them a place of final settle- 
 ment. It is not, however, a life of luxurious ease which they 
 enjoy, when their abode is thus determined. From the scan- 
 tiness of the provision which is made for them in their public 
 situation, the toil of their own hands is necessary to the sup- 
 port of their families ; and besides the labours of the liltle 
 farm which is attached to his church, the priest may often 
 be seen conducting a train of loaded horses from the fishing 
 station to his distant home ; a journey not unfrequently of 
 many days ; and through a country wild and desolate beyond 
 description. Their habitations are constructed merely of 
 wood and turf, like those of the farmers of the country, and 
 are equally destitute of all internal comforts. A stove, or 
 place for containing fire, is scarcely ever to be found in them : 
 often there is only one apartment in the house to which 
 the light of the sun has free access, or where there is any 
 flooring but the naked earth ; and the furniture of this room 
 seldom comprehends more than a bed, a broken table, one 
 or two chairs, and a few boxes, in which the clothes of the 
 family are preserved. Such is the situation during life of 
 the Icelandic priests ; and amidst all this wretchedness and 
 these privations, genius, learning, and moral excellence, are 
 but too frequently entombed. 
 
 The ordinary service of the churches in Iceland consists of 
 prayer, psalms, a sermon, and readings from the Scriptures. 
 The prayers and readings are rather chaunted than spoken 
 by the priest, who performs this part of the service at the
 
 Cb. VI. Sabbath scene.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 30/ 
 
 altar of the clnirch. The sermons appear in general to be 
 previously composed, and are delivered from notes. Of the 
 style and character of these compositions we had not the 
 means of forming an accurate judgment; but in those in- 
 stances where we attended the public worship of the coun- 
 try, it seemed, from the warm and empassioned manner of 
 their delivery, and from the frequent use of the figure of in- 
 terrogation, that a powerful appeal was made to the feelings, 
 as well as to the understanding, of the audience. In the con- 
 duct of the religious service, considerable decorum is main- 
 tained. 
 
 The moral and religious habits of the people at large may 
 be spoken of in terms of much commendation. In his do- 
 mestic capacity, the Icelander performs all the duties which 
 his situation requires, or renders possible ; and while by the 
 labour of his hands, he obtains a provision of food for his 
 children, it is not less his care to convey to their minds the 
 iflheritance of knowledge and virtue. In his intercourse with 
 those around him, his character displays the stamp of honour 
 and integrity. His religious duties are performed with cheer- 
 fulness and punctuality ; and this even amidst the numerous 
 obstacles, which are afforded by the nature of the country, 
 and the climate under which he lives. The Sabbath scene at 
 an Icelandic church is indeed one of the most singular and 
 interesting kind. The little edifice, constructed of wood and 
 turf, is situated perhaps amid the rugged ruins of a stream of 
 lava, or beneath mountains which are covered with never 
 melting snows ; in a spot where the mind almost sinks under 
 the silence and desolation of surrounding nature. Here the 
 Icelanders assemble to perform the duties of their religion. 
 A group of male and female peasants may be seen gathered 
 about the church, waiting the arrival of their pastor ; all
 
 308 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. vi. Bibles. 
 
 habited in their best attire, after the manner of the country ; 
 their children with them ; and the liorses, which brought them 
 from their respective homes, grazing quietly around the little 
 assembly. The arrival of a new-comer is welcomed by every 
 one with the kiss of salutation ; and the pleasures of social 
 intercourse, so rarely enjoyed by the Icelanders, are happily 
 connected with the occasion which summons them to the 
 discharge of their religious duties. The priest makes his 
 appearance among them as a friend : he salutes individually 
 each member of his flock, and stoops down to give his almost 
 parental kiss to the little ones, who are to grow up under his 
 pastoral charge. These offices of kindness performed, they 
 all go together into the house of prayer. * 
 
 There are two translations of the Bible into the Icelandic 
 language ; the first by Gudbrand Thorlakson, Bishop of 
 Hoolum, from the German Bible of Martin Luther, and pub- 
 lished in 1584 ; the second was executed chiefly by Bishop 
 Skulasson, in conformity with the Danish version of Resenius, 
 and appeared about sixty years afterwards, under the more 
 immediate patronage of the King of Denmark. The latter of 
 these versions is preferable to the former, merely from the 
 division of the text into verses ; which division the edition of 
 Bishop Thorlakson did not supply. At present, owing to the 
 length of time which has elapsed since any edition appeared, 
 there is a great deficiency of Bibles in every part of Iceland ; 
 an evil which, from the depressed state of the printing esta- 
 blishment of the island, it is scarcely possible that the unaided 
 efforts of the people should be enabled to remove.
 
 Ch. VII. Literature] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 309 
 
 PRESENT STATE OF EDUCATION AND LITERATURE. 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 In the Dissertation prefixed to this vohime, an attempt has 
 been made to explain the circumstances in which the Htera- 
 ture of the Icelanders originated, and to trace its progress 
 through the successive periods .of the history of the island. 
 It will be the object of this chapter to complete the view of 
 Icelandic literature, by exhibiting the present state of mental 
 cultivation among the people ; their institutions for the pro- 
 motion of learning ; and the modes of education among dif- 
 ferent classes of the community. From the more minute de- 
 scription to which they lead, these circumstances could not 
 with propriety f»>rm a part in the general history of the coim- 
 try ; though, as a sequel to it, they may possibly be interest- 
 ing to the reader. 
 
 The picture of the present state of Hterature in Iceland is 
 much less imposinj; than that of its early condition and growth. 
 The changes, however, which the lapse of time has effected, 
 are rather relative than absolute in their nature ; and thouj,h 
 the glory of the Icelanders is now for ever sunk, and llieir
 
 310 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cii. vii. School 
 
 name almost lost among nations, yet in their own island they 
 still keep alive much of that spiritof literary pursuit by which 
 the character of their ancestors was so greatly distinguished. 
 A few of the names which adorn the modern history of the 
 country have already been mentioned. At the present time, 
 there are many individuals, living on this remote spot, and 
 from their situation exposed to innumerable privations, whose 
 talents and acquirements would grace the most refined circles 
 of civilized society. The business of education is systematic- 
 ally carried on among all ranks of the inhabitants ; and the 
 degree of information existing, even among the lower classes, 
 is probably greater than in almost any part of continental 
 Europe. 
 
 This state of mental culture will appear more wonderful, 
 when it is considered that the circumstanceis of the country 
 do not allow of any extended scheme of public education, 
 and that the transmission of knowledge can take place only 
 through the private and domestic habits of the people. In 
 the existence among the Icelanders of habits which are fitted 
 to this end, we contemplate a feature which is justly entitled 
 to admiration and esteem. 
 
 At the present time, the school of Bessestad is in fact the 
 only establishment for education in Iceland. About the 
 middle of the l6lh century, when the reformation of religion 
 took place in the island, two schools were founded ; one at 
 Skalholt, the other at Hoolum in the northern province ; and 
 a landed property was attached to these institutions, sufficient 
 for the support of between twenty and thirty scholars at each 
 place. Towards the close of the last century, the two schools 
 were united into one, and transferred to Reikiavik ; while in 
 lieu of the school lands, which were appropriated by the 
 crown, an annual sum from the public money was allotted to
 
 Ch. vm. School.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 311 
 
 the support of the estabhshment. A few years ago, the school 
 was again transferred to its present situation atBessestad; the 
 building being vacant which was formerly the abode of the 
 Governors of Iceland. This edifice, though by no means in 
 good repair, is from its size better adapted than any other in 
 the covuitry for the purposes to which it is now applied; and, 
 but for the intervention of the war between England and 
 Denmark, would ha\'e been further improved by the comple- 
 tion of some additional buildings, which are yet in an un- 
 -finished state. 
 
 The establishment at Bessestad consists at present of three 
 masters, and twenty- three or twenty- four scholars ; the funds 
 of the school not allowing the reception of a greater number. 
 The head master, or Lector Theologise, has an annual salary 
 of 600 rixdollars. It is his office to superintend the general 
 concerns of the school, and to conduct more especially the 
 theological department, and the study of the Hebrew lan- 
 guage. At the time of our arrival in Iceland, the person who 
 held this situation was Mr Steingrim Jonson ; a man ap- 
 parently not more than thirty-five years of age, but possessed 
 of talents and learning which well fitted him for the discharge 
 of its important duties. For several years he was the pupil 
 and secretary of the late bishop FInsson at Skalholt, after 
 whose death he studied some time at Copenhagen ; where, as 
 a classical scholar, he acquired very great credit. His know- 
 ledge of the Greek and Hebrew languages is said to be ac- 
 curate and extensive ; and to theological studies he has given 
 a very minute attention, being intimately acquainted with ihe 
 writings of the most eminent of the- German tlieologians. 
 This gentleman, during our stay in Iceland, was removed 
 from Bessestad to the church of Odde, in Rangaavalle Syssel, 
 one of the most valuable livings in the island. He was sue-
 
 31!^ TRAVELS TN ICELAND. [Ch. vii. School. 
 
 ceeded by another person, of the same name, who is likewise 
 reputed to be a man of learning and acqxiirements. 
 
 The two inferior masters of the school have salaries of 300 
 rixdoUars each. The office of the second master compre- 
 hends the instruction of the scholars in Latin, history, geo- 
 graphy, and arithmetic ; while the third is occupied in teach- 
 ing the Greek, Danish, and Icelandic languages. It is a sin- 
 gular circumstance in the regulations of the school, that each 
 scholar, whether intended for the pastoral office or not, is 
 obliged to study the elements of Hebrew, and to undergo 
 some examination in this language. By far the greater num- 
 ber, however, of those who attend the school, are preparing 
 themselves for this future situation in life ; and in the admis- 
 sion of scholars, a preference is always given to the children 
 of priests. A youth is not allowed to enter until he has been 
 confirmed ; and a certificate of his talents and disposition is 
 required from the minister of the parish in which he has re- 
 sided. The period of annual study extends from the begin- 
 ning of October to the end of May ; the summer being made 
 the season of vacation, to accommodate the rural occupations, 
 in which all ranks among the Icelanders are obliged to par- 
 take. It is a part of the office of the Bishop to visit the school 
 at the commencement and close of each session ; and at the 
 latter time, to superintend the examinations of the scholars; 
 which then take place. These examinations continue during 
 several days with a prescribed form of proceeding, of which 
 a sketch has already been given in the narrative. 
 
 After a certain degree of progress in the studies allotted 
 to him, each scholar becomes what is termed a c/eniissus : 
 leaving the school, and pursuing his future studies at home. 
 No particular period is fixed for a demission. This is deter- 
 mined solely by the proficiency of the student, as ascertained
 
 Cb. YU. School] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 313 
 
 by an examination ; for which it is required that he should be 
 able to read and write Latin with accuracy ; that he shoidd 
 have some knowledge of Greek and Hebrew ; and of the rules 
 for interpreting the Old and new Testaments ; and that he 
 should be acquainted with the Danish language, with history, 
 arithmetic, and geography. The knowledge of Greek and 
 Hebrew, though officially required, is, however, in the prac- 
 tice of these examinations, by no means very rigorously ex- 
 acted. Where the students are preparing for the priesthood, 
 as is generally the case, they are farther questioned upon the 
 Bible and ecclesiastical history, upon the doctrines of the 
 Lutheran church, &c. If a youth has continued seven years 
 without attaining the qualifications which entitle him to be- 
 come a Jemissus, the Lector writes to his family, representing 
 the matter to them, and he is not allowed to remain longer at 
 the school. 
 
 A library is attached to the establishment at Bessestad, 
 containing probably twelve or fourteen hundred volumes ; 
 among which are a few good editions of the classics. The 
 greater part of the library consists of Icelandic and Danish 
 works; beside which there are a considerable number of vo- 
 lumes in the German language, and a few in the English and 
 French. The number of manuscripts is very considerable, 
 and they appear to be of little value. The private library of 
 the Lector Theologise, though smaller, is more select ; and 
 contains the works of Mosheim, Heinzius, Rcinhard, Lowth, 
 Griesbach, Michaelis, and numerous other authors of minor 
 note, on ecclesiastical history and doctrine. It is the best 
 theological collection in the island. ' 
 
 Among the young men educated at this school, there are 
 some who afterwards go to Copenhagen, with the view of 
 prosecuting their studies at the university there ; this advan- 
 
 2 R
 
 314 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. vii. Literary habits. 
 
 tage being. occasionally afforded to the children of those who 
 hold civil offices, or possess landed property, and to the sons 
 of some of the wealthier among the clergy of the country. 
 The number of students, however, mIio enjoy such opportuni- 
 ties is very limited ; and the remainder, oppressed by poverty 
 and the necessities of their situation, are generally compell- 
 ed to take up their abode for life in solitary spots, where 
 their intercourse, even with each other, is almost wholly sus- 
 pended, and where any future progress in knowledge can 
 only be effected by their independent and unaided exertions. 
 This is the condition of all the country priests in the island, 
 and of many of the more respectable of the proprietors and 
 farmers. Deprived, as they thus appear to be, both of the 
 means and motives for mental cultivation, it could scarcely 
 be expected that instances should occur, where the ardour of 
 literary pursuit is still maintained, and the acquisitions of 
 former study not only preserved but even increased and im- 
 proved. The occurrence, however, and even the frequency 
 of examples of this kind, may render necessary some explana- 
 tion of a fact so extraordinary. Among the more obvious 
 of the causes which present themselves, is the long period of 
 leisure which the Icelanders enjoy, during the protracted 
 winters of their northern region. This leisure, those who have 
 acquired in their youth the habits of literary pursuit, will 
 naturally devote to a continuance in occupations, which are 
 so well adapted to relieve the weariness of the passing time. 
 Their means of study are indeed very limited, and the enjoy- 
 ments of participation almost wholly denied; but these com- 
 parative disadvantages are in some measure o\ercome by the 
 habits of perseverance, which necessity creates, and which 
 are maintained from an exi-erimental sense of their value. 
 Nor is the great name of their ancestors without its influence
 
 Ch.yu. Priests.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 315 
 
 upon the present generation of Icelanders. There are few 
 amongst them who cannot refer back to the times, when 
 those, born on the same soil with themselves, were raised to 
 honours and renown in foreign lands : and never is this ap- 
 peal made without an animated feeling of patriotic pride and 
 satisfaction. 
 
 Among the class of priests, another motive to mental cul- 
 tivation is the desire of maintaining in their office, an influ- 
 ence, which cannot be derived from any difference of external 
 circumstances. The pastor must undergo the same labours 
 and hardships as the meanest of his flock : he enjoys few ad- 
 ditional comforts or refinements of life ; and but for the 
 superiorit}' of his intellectual attainments, would speedily 
 lose that station in society, which it is so necessary he should 
 retain. It forms, too, an important part of his duty, to 
 superintend the business of domestic education in the fa- 
 milies placed under his pastoral care. This oftice is not, in- 
 deed, strictly required by the ecclesiastical statutes of the 
 country ; but it is founded upon usage, and ultimately upon 
 a sense of the necessity for such a superintendance, W'here 
 the public means of education are so greatly limited by 
 the poverty of the people, and tlie dispersion of their num- 
 bers. An interesting example of the attention with which 
 this duty is sometimes exercised, has been given in the 
 Journal, (p. 141) ; and the instance of the parish priest of 
 Saurbar is by no means singular among the ministers of 
 religion in Iceland. Their poverty, indeed, rather increases 
 than lessens the influence of these exertions, by associ- 
 ating them more intimately with their parishioners, and 
 promoting that free, and unreserved communication, which 
 a more refined state of society has so much tendency to 
 preclude.
 
 316 TRAVFXS IN ICELAND. [Ca. fix. Domsttc education. 
 
 By this supcrintendance of the priests, and the long estab- 
 lished habits of the people, a regular system of domestic edu- 
 cation is maintained, in the benefits of which even the low- 
 est ranks of the community partake. With the exception of 
 those who inhabit the coast, in the vicinity of the great fish- 
 ing stations, it is a rare thing to meet with an Icelander who 
 is unable to read and write, or who does not possess con- 
 siderable intelligence on all subjects to which his situation 
 allows him access. The instruction of his children forms one 
 of his stated occupations, and while the little earthen hut 
 which he inhabits is almost buried by the snows of winter, 
 and darkness and desolation are spread universally around, 
 the light of an oil lamp illuminates the page, from which he 
 reads to his family the lessons of knowledge, religion, and 
 virtue. The importance of these domestic habits has been 
 well understood by the Icelanders themselves. In the eccle- 
 siastical code of the country, an article is extant, singular 
 perhaps in its natiu'e, but admirable in its design, which gives 
 to the Bishop, or even the inferior clergy, the power of pre- 
 venting any marriage where the female is unable to read. 
 This law, which provides so powerful a pledge for the instruc- 
 tion of the rising generation, is still occasionally acted upon, 
 though probably not with so much strictness as in former 
 times. The books in the possession of the lower classes are 
 chiefly of a religious nature ; a great niunber of these works 
 having been printed in Iceland during the last two or three 
 centuries, and very generally circulated through the conntry. 
 In many parishes, there is a small collection of books be- 
 longing to the church ; from which, under the supcrintend- 
 ance of the priest, each family in the district may derive 
 some little addition to its means of instruction and improve- 
 ment.
 
 Cu.yii. Ancient wrilings.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 31/ 
 
 The historical and poetical writings which the early litera- 
 ture of Iceland produced, are by no means generally known 
 among the Icelanders of the present time; such studies being 
 principally confined to the priests, and to those of the higher 
 classes. The calamities which oppressed the island during 
 the 15th century, and which entirely extinguished the cele- 
 brity, and almost even the name of the people, interposed a 
 sort of barrier between the ancient Icelanders and their pos- 
 terity. Learning was restored under an altered form ; the 
 works of former genius were only partially revived ; and 
 these circumstances, together with the changes progressively 
 taking place in the language of the country, have removed 
 from the possession of the present race of people, all the more 
 striking evidences of the ancient condition of their commu- 
 nity. A great number of manuscripts are still to be found in 
 the churches, and in the houses of the priests and principal 
 inhabitants ; but, with few exceptions, they are all of modern 
 date, and are merel}' the representatives of works which were 
 intended for publication, but which the poverty of their 
 writers, or other circumstances, have unavoidably suppressed. 
 The greater proportion of the Icelandic manuscripts which 
 derive value from their antiquity, have been graduall}' trans- 
 ferred to Copenhagen, and deposited in the public or private 
 libraries of that metropolis.* Here they have been carefully 
 collated, with a view to the pubhcation of those which were 
 found most remarkable or important ; and it is principally 
 through this channel that the earlier wrilings of the Iceland- 
 ers are known to the present inhabitants of the country. The 
 
 * The library of Professor Thorkelin, which contained a valuable collection 
 of Icelandic works, is said to have been destroyed during the late bombardment 
 of Copenhagen.
 
 318 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cii.vii. Classical literature. 
 
 valuable editions of these writings printed at Copenhagen, 
 have come into the possession of all who bear a literary cha- 
 racter among the Icelanders; and a few editions of the works 
 of this period, which have been printed in the island, have 
 given a further diffusion to this branch of knowledge among 
 the people. It is, however, by no means general ; the tales 
 and traditions which now prevail in the country, relating for 
 the most part to more recent times, and being in few instances 
 derived from the Sagas and poems, in which the events of 
 antiquity are described. 
 
 Among those individuals of the present day who have made 
 the early literature of Iceland an object of study, the name 
 of Finnur Magnuson may particvdarly be mentioned. This 
 young man, who holds the situation of public pleader in the 
 courts of law at Reikiavik, and is distinguished by his clas- 
 sical acquirements, has bestowed very great attention upon 
 the early writings, and especially upon the ancient poetry of 
 his country ; and is considered to have a more intimate know- 
 ledge of them than any other person in the island. He has 
 likewise been enabled, from his residence on the spot, and 
 from his family connections with several eminent Icelanders, 
 to collect some manuscripts of considerable value from their 
 age and rarity. The industry and success of Professor Thorke- 
 lin in the same pursuits are more generally known ; but the 
 long absence of this gentleman from Iceland has lessened^ 
 in some degree, his connection with the modern literature of 
 the country. 
 
 In describing the state of knowledge among the present 
 race of Icelanders, their attainments in languages and in 
 classical literature must particularly be noticed. This is one 
 of the first of those circumstances which engage the atten- 
 tion and admiration of the stranger, in visiting the island.
 
 Ch. vn. Classical literalure.l TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 319 
 
 He sees men whose habitations bespeak a condition little re- 
 moved from the savage state; who suffer an almost entire pri- 
 vation of every comfort or refinement of life ; and who, amid 
 the storms of the surrounding sea, seek, in their little boats, 
 the provision upon which alone their families can securely de- 
 pend. Among these very men, he finds an intimate know- 
 ledge of the classical writings of antiquity ; a taste formed 
 upon the purest models of Greece and Rome ; and a suscep- 
 tibility to all the beauties which these models disclose. While 
 traversing the country, he is often attended by guides who 
 can communicate with him in Latin ; and, arriving at liis* 
 place of nightly rest, he not un frequently draws forth from 
 the labours of his little smithy, a man who addresses him in 
 this language with the utmost fluency and elegance. This 
 cultivation of the ancient languages has been common among 
 the Icelanders from an early period in their history ; and it 
 will be seen from the Preliminary Dissertation, that many of 
 the principal works which distinguish their literature, and 
 especially those of the historical kind, have been composed 
 in Latin. At the present time, this language forms a part of 
 tlie education of the priests, and of all the principal inhabit- 
 ants of the island. It is still very frequently the vehicle of 
 their writings ; and a great number of inediled Latin books, 
 both in poetry and prose, may be found throughout the coun- 
 try, destined for ever to remain in the obscurity which gave 
 them birth. Epigrams and short descriptive poems in the 
 same language are exceedingly common ; and, through this 
 metlium, the Icelanders <>ften indulge that tendency to per- 
 sonal satire, which it formerly required even the operation of 
 laws to restrain. 
 
 The study of Greek, as might be expected, is by no means 
 equally general ; but there are, notwithstanding, several very
 
 320 TUAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. vii. PhUnlogi/. 
 
 excellent Grecian scholars, who now do credit to the litera- 
 ture of the island. In the first place among these is the pre- 
 sent Bishop, Geir Vidalin ; a man whose acquirements in 
 every department of literary pursuit, would do honour to any 
 country, or condition of society. To classical studies, he has 
 devoted peculiar attention ; and, in his colloquial Latin, he 
 displays a facihty and correctness of style, and a richness 
 and propriety of quotation, which evince the most intimate 
 acquaintance with the writers of the best ages of Rome. In 
 Grecian literature, his reading has been almost equally ex- 
 tensive ; and he is said to be a very good Hebrew scholar. 
 Among the other Icelanders of the present time who have 
 distinguished themselves in classical literature, are. Stein- 
 grim Jonson of Bessestad ; the Rector Hialmarson, who for- 
 merly conducted the school at Hoolum ; and Arnas Helge- 
 son, the priest of Vatnsfiord, at the most northerly extremity 
 of the island. Few translations from the classics have been 
 published in the Icelandic language, though it is probable 
 that many manuscripts of this kind exist in the country. The 
 Transactions of the Icelandic Society, a work afterwards to 
 be mentioned, contain translations of the Idylls of Theocritus, 
 which possess very great merit ; and, in the same work, there 
 is a translation of Plutarch's Paidagogia by the Assessor 
 Einarson. The fables of j^sop, and many of the odes of 
 Horace, have likewise been given to the Icelanders in their 
 native verse. 
 
 It may be proper to notice here the great attention to the 
 studies of philology and criticism, which has existed among the 
 learned men of Iceland during the last two centuries. Many 
 valuable works, connected witii this department of literature, 
 have been already published, either in the island or at Co- 
 penhagen ; and numerous writings of the same kind are still
 
 Ch. vii. Modern languages.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 321 
 
 to be found in manuscript, in different parts of Iceland. A 
 catalogue of a few of these works is given in the subjoined 
 note.* 
 
 In the study of the modern languages, the proficiency of 
 the Icelanders is as great as can be expected from their limited 
 intercourse with the continental nations. With the Danish 
 language all the higher class of inhabitants are perfectly fa- 
 miliar ; the German is imderstood by many; and of late years 
 the English has been cultivated by a few individuals with much 
 success. All these languages, as is well known, originate from 
 the same root ; and the resemblance still retained between the 
 Icelandic and Danish, or still more the Norwegian, is such, 
 that the natives of each country can, without much difficulty, 
 make themselves mutually understood. Through these differ- 
 ent channels, the Icelanders have acquired considerable in- 
 formation respecting the modern literature of Europe, parti- 
 cularly that of Germany and Denmark ; and they possess not 
 
 * Lexicon Runicum Magni Olavii. Havniae, 1650. -^ 
 
 Lexicon Islandicum Gudmundi Andrea. Havniae, 1683. 
 Monosyllabica Islandica Johanm's Rugmanni. 1676. 
 Prsecepta Grammatica et Syntactica Theodori Thorlacii, 
 
 Linguae Septentrionalis Elementa, per Runolphum Jonte. Havnise, 1652. Re- 
 published at Oxford, 1689; and in Hickes's Thesaurus, 1705. 
 Gustus ad Isocratem Argrimi Vidalini. Havniae, 1698. it 
 
 Dissertatio Philologica Arngrimi Vidalini, de vocis 11X3 (Psalm xx. v. 11.) ge- 
 
 nuina lectione et significatione. 1689. 
 Lexicon Juridicum Patili Vidalini. 
 
 Exposito Alphabeti Hebraici Gunnlaugi Snorronis. Havniae, 1775. 
 Tractatus de Orthographia Islandica Eggerti Olavii. 
 Claves Metricae Thorsteini Magni, Gudmundi Olavii, Thorlaci Gudbrandi, &c. 
 
 NOT PUBLISHED. 
 
 Lexicon Islandico-Latinum Johan. Arnai, Episcopi Skalholtensis. 
 Lexicon Islandicum Gudmundi Olavii. 
 Lexicon Islandicum Johan. Olavii, kc. &c. 
 
 2s
 
 ..>, 
 
 322" TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. vii. Poetry. 
 
 only the originals, but translations of many of the works, 
 which have acquired reputation in these countries in later 
 times. Their knowledge of English literature is obtained 
 chiefly through the medium of the Danish and German ; in 
 which languages the works of Addison, Pope, Richardson, 
 and Young, are known and admired by many individuals in 
 the island. They possess likewise a few translations of English 
 works into their native language. Twenty or thirty years ago, 
 the whole of Milton's Paradise Lost was translated into Ice- 
 landic verse by Jonas Thorlakson, a priest at Backa, in the 
 northern part of the island ; of which translation two books 
 were published in the Acts of the Icelandic Society : the re- 
 mainder are yet in manuscript. The merits of the poetry in 
 this translation are spoken of in terms of high eulogium by 
 the Bishop ; who is, however, unacquainted with the original. 
 The same Jonas Thorlakson has also translated Pope's Essay 
 on Man, of which a considerable edition was printed at Leira 
 in 1798, in a duodecimo form. 
 
 The cultivation of poetry in Iceland, though by no means 
 so general as in ancient times, still forms a striking feature in 
 the literature of the coimtry. Among those of the natives 
 who enjoy the reputation of talents or learning, there are few 
 who have not occasionally tempted the Muse ; and where 
 ^ such efforts have been seconded by the true inspiration of 
 genius, the poet still receives his reward in the applause and 
 admiration of his fellow- citizens. The days indeed are past, 
 when the bard ' poured forth his unpremeditated lay' to 
 the assembled and admiring multitude ; but in exchange 
 for these irregular effusions of fancy, a more classical style 
 has been acquired, and greater selection and taste are 
 exercised irt poetical compositions. A few only can be 
 mentioned of those individuals who still adorn this branch
 
 Ch. vii. Poetry.] TRAVELS IN ICELAXD; 525 
 
 of Icelandic literature. One of the most eminent is the 
 Assessor Benedict Grondal, a judge in the higher court of 
 justice, and a man of an elegant and cultivated mind. His 
 published poems, which are regarded as the best modern spe- 
 cimens of the Icelandic language, are not, however, either very 
 numerous or considerable in length; consisting chiefly of odes, 
 epitaphs, and other detached pieces; among which are many 
 excellent translations from Theocritus, Anacreon, and Horace. 
 A translation of Pope's Temple of Fame, which was published 
 some years ago, is greatly esteemed by the best judges of Ice- 
 landic poetry. He has composed also several poetical satires ; 
 in which, according to the information of the Bishop, there 
 is much successful ridicule, after the manner of Horace, 
 of the follies and vices of his countrymen ; but these satires, 
 in consequence of the express prohibitory article in the laws 
 of the island, he has not ventured to publish. The general 
 style of his poetry is described to be terse, pointed, and ele- 
 gant, Finnur Magnvison is another of the Icelandic writers 
 of the present day, who has acquired much credit from the 
 facility with nhich he composes in the Latin and Danish lan- 
 guages, and for the extreme accuracy of his Icelandic style. 
 He has translated into Danish verse, the poem of his uncle 
 Eggert Olafson, on the rustic life of the Icelander, and pub- 
 lished also several smaller pieces. Jonas Thorlakson, the ve- 
 nerable translator of Milton, is still living in a remote part of 
 the island, and has composed many original poems of great 
 merit ; of which, however, nearly all are unpublished. An- 
 other individual, possessing some reputation, is Sigurdar Pe- 
 turson of Reikiavik, who has written among other works a 
 poem in six books, called Stella ; in which, under a fictitious 
 form, the manners and habits of the Icelanders are minutely 
 described. This poem is likewise unpublished, and will pro-
 
 324 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. vii. Poetri;. 
 
 bably ever remain in obscurity. The poverty and other cir- 
 cumstances of the Icelanders, offer indeed such multiplied ob- 
 stacles to their literary progress, that it is impossible not to 
 admire the ardour and industry which, in pursuits of this 
 ^ nature, they continue to display. In the department of poetry, 
 more especially, the number of manuscript works, doomed, 
 from the situation of their authors, to perpetual oblivion, is 
 . X, exceedingly great; yet the mvise is still invoked; and the taste 
 ^ and feeling for such compositions are still awake in the minds 
 IH^ of the people, though so little cherished by opportunity, or 
 
 - . # by the aspect of surrounding nature. 
 
 The religious character of the Icelanders has strongly dis- 
 posed them to the cultivation of sacred poetry ; and a great 
 number of writings of this kind have appeared in the island 
 during the last two centuries. Besides numerous collections 
 ♦ of psalms and hymns, various parts of the Old and New 
 
 Testament, as the books of the Pentateuch, the history of 
 David, and the life of the Apostle Paul, have been published 
 in the form of poetical paraphrase ; and a few of these works 
 ft '■ niay be found in the possession of almost every family in the 
 
 country. 
 
 With the scanty materials for history which the Icelanders 
 possess, it is scarcely wonderful that this branch of literature 
 should be less cultivated now than it was in former times. 
 Among those of the natives who have received patronage and 
 support at Copenhagen, many, during the last century, have 
 ^v'ell maintained, by their historical writings, the reputation of 
 their country ; but in Iceland itself, few considerable worJis 
 of this kind have lately appeared ; and the greater number of 
 these relate merely to the events of the passing age. The Chief 
 Justice Stephenson is untloubtcdly entitled to the first j)lace 
 uijiiong the present historical writers of the island. This gen-
 
 Ch. VII. Poetry.] TRAVELS TN ICELAND. 325 
 
 tleman, whose zeal in the pursuit of knowledge has been se- 
 eonded by better opportunities than most of his countrymen 
 enjoy, has held, during the last twenty years, tlie most con- 
 spicuous place among the literary characters of Iceland; 
 a situation to which his acquirements and influence would 
 seem to justify his claim. The attainments he has made are 
 varioiis and extensive; a residence of several years at Copen- 
 hagen having afforded him access, not only to the literature, 
 but also to some part of the science of modern times. To the 
 English language he has paid particular attention ; and be- 
 sides speaking and writing it with facility, he is famihar with 
 all the more eminent of our writers in the department of the 
 belles-lettres. Mr Stephenson is himself a very voluminous 
 author. As President of one of the Literary Societies of Ice- 
 land, he has published many books for the use of the Society; 
 and from the catalogue of his writings, which is given in the 
 note, it will be seen that his labours have comprehended a 
 singular extent and variety of subjects, * The most important 
 
 • 1. Treatise on Meteors, 1783. 
 
 2. Description of the eruption of a new volcano in Skaptaa-fell Syssel, with 
 
 engravings, 8vo. 1783. 
 
 3. ^lournful Thoughts, and a Funeral Song, at the tomb of the celebrated and 
 
 beloved Bishop Finsson, 8vo. 1796. 
 
 4. A Panegyric on Bishop Finsson, read to a meeting of the Icelandic Society, 
 
 8vo. 1797. 
 
 5. Amusements for Friends ; containing useful pieces in prose and poetry, on 
 
 natural history, physic, astronomy, Iiistory, morals, and divinity, 8vo. 
 1797. 
 C. A Biographical Memoir of the Lady of the late Bishop Teitson, 8vo. 1797. 
 
 7. MtHnisvcrd 7'idindi, or Memorable News, containing the most remarkable 
 
 historical events from 1795 to IHOl; in five vols. 8vo. 
 
 8. Jest and Earnest ; or a collection of pieces in poetry and prose; on jurispru- 
 
 dence, morals, theology, medicine, and the belles-lettres, 8vo. 1798. 
 
 9. A Defence for the injured Icelandic Magistrate, 8vo. 1798.
 
 326 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. vn. Hislori/i 
 
 among his writings, is the History of Iceland in the 18th cen- 
 tury ; a work which abounds in vahiable information respect- 
 ing the civil condition, the natural history, and the literature 
 of the island during this period. In the style of the book, by 
 a singular example of the prosopopeia, Iceland is made occa- 
 sionally to tell her own tale, and to speak in a personal form 
 of the various events which have befallen her ; a mode of 
 narrative which, though sometimes verging towards the ludi- 
 crous, has nevertheless a simplicity congenial to the subject, 
 and capable even of rising into the pathetic and sublime. 
 Another historical work, edited and chiefly written by Mr 
 Stephenson, is a sort of political register, of which, in the period 
 between 1795 and 1802, a volume was published annuallyatthe 
 Leira printing-office, under an octavo form. This contained a 
 narrative of the political events which had occurred in Europe 
 during the preceding year ; a separate article being allotted 
 to the affairs of every state. The narratives appear to be 
 drawn up with much care and considerable minuteness. Under 
 the article of England, as an example, not only are the more 
 
 10. A select collection of Hymns and Psalms for the Churches, 8vo. 1801. 
 
 11. Translations from the Danish of select Royal Edicts; published by the 
 
 Court General of Iceland at different periods since 1801. 
 
 12. A speech made at the establishment of the Royal Court Greneral, 8vo. 1801. 
 
 13. Iceland in the 18th century, 8vo. 1806. 
 
 14. The same book translated into Danish, with additions, 8vo. 1808. 
 
 15. A Treatise on the Fuci ; published by the Royal Society of Denmark, 1809. 
 
 16. A Treatise on the Sheep, Cows, and Horses of Iceland ; published by the 
 
 Copenhagen Veterinarian Society, 1809. 
 
 17. Encouragement to the good people of Iceland during these times of war. 
 
 Written and published by the King's order, 8vo. 1808. 
 
 18. Instructions for the Officers of the Police, 8vo. 1809. 
 
 19. Commentary on these Instructions, 8vo. 1810. 
 
 20. Help in Distress ; or Instructions to the Icelandic Farmers in their Hus- 
 
 bandry, 8vo. 1810.
 
 Ch. VII. Tkcologi/.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 327 
 
 important national events described; but the state of parties is 
 accurately detailed; extracts are given from the Parliamentary 
 debates ; and notice is taken of many provincial occurrences. 
 The information necessary to this work was almost entirely 
 obtained through the medium of Denmark. The greater num- 
 ber of the volumes were Avritten by Mr Stephenson ; one by 
 his brother the Amtmand Stephenson ; and the last which 
 was published, by Finnur Magnuson of Reikiavik. 
 
 The vast number of works of divinity, which have appeared 
 in Iceland since the period of the Reformation, testify the 
 diligence with which such studies have been pursued by the 
 learned men of the country ; and from catalogues which are 
 extant, it would appear that the writings on this subject, yet 
 inedited, are much more numerous than those already pub- 
 lished. Man}' of these works are translations from the Ger- 
 man and Danish ; with a few also from the Danish language. 
 Among the latter, may be mentioned the translation of the 
 * Whole Duty of Man' by John Vidalin, a Bishop of Skal- 
 holt at the beginning of the last century, very eminent for 
 his piety and learning. The original writings of the natives 
 are for the most part either commentaries on particular parts 
 of scripture, or collections of prayers, homilies, and sermons ; 
 the doctrinal parts of theology being less frequently the sub- 
 jects of discussion. At the present time, the works of the 
 Bishop, whose name has just been mentioned, possess great 
 reputation in the country ; and of the collections of sermons 
 which he published, some are to be found in almost every 
 habitation. In all departments of literature, there is a strong 
 disposition among the Icelanders to critical severity ; and in 
 theological writings more especially, this severity has occa- 
 sionally assumed a very rigorous form. A curious instance 
 of this kind occurred about a hundred years ago, when an
 
 328 TRAVELS in ICELAND. [Ch. vii. Metaphysics, ^X. 
 
 unfortunate man was publicly whipped, as a punishment for 
 the errors he had committed in a translation of the book of 
 Genesis. 
 
 Metaphysical studies do not engage much attention among 
 the learned men of Iceland. A iew individuals, from their 
 residence at Copenhagen, have become intimately acquaint- 
 ed with the metaphysics of the German schools, and have 
 themselves pviblished treatises connected with the subject ; 
 but these writings are by no means numerous, nor does it 
 appear that they possess any peculiar value. * Publications 
 connected with practical morality are, however, very com- 
 mon in Iceland ; and several excellent books of this kind 
 have lately appeared in the island, adapted chiefly to the use 
 of the farmers, or those of the middle class ; in which moral 
 instruction is judiciously blended with amusing informa- 
 tion in various branches of knowledge. The most valuable 
 of these writings is a work, called ' Evening Hours,' which 
 was published by the late Bishop Finsson, a iew years before 
 his death. 
 
 While the studies of literature are thus cherished among 
 the Icelanders of the present time, science, strictly so called, 
 engages but few votaries ; and these follovv^ with feeble and 
 tardy steps the rapid progress which has been made among 
 the European nations. Even in the department of natural 
 
 * Tlie following are some of the metaphysical writings of the Icelanders : 
 Dissertatio de Essentia Consecutiva ; by Stephen Biornson, 1757. 
 Dissertatio de Ente ; by Finnur Thoralfson, 1770. 
 Examen facultatis cognoscitivae superioris et inferioris ; by the same author, 
 
 1773. 
 Dissertatio de Infinite; by Skule Thorlacius, 1762. 
 Disputatio de Nihilo ; by John Olafson. 1758, &c. 
 The Dialectics of Aristotle, and the Logic of Peter Ramus, have been translated 
 
 jnto the Icelandic language.
 
 Ch. vu. Natural hUort/.l TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 329 
 
 history, where the situation of the people does not oppose 
 the same obstacles as in other scientific pursuits, there are few 
 individuals who have acquired more than a superficial know- 
 ledge of the subject, and few works have been published, 
 which possess value either from tlic extent or accuracy of 
 their information. Most of the writings of the Icelanders 
 upon the natural history of their own country, display indeed 
 a singular vagueness of description, and more of superstitious 
 belief than is consistent with the other habits and attainments 
 of the people. When considered, however, the latter cir- 
 cumstance will scarcely be thought surprising. In forming 
 the scenes which surround them, nature seems to have de- 
 serted all her ordinary operations, and to have worked only 
 in combining the most terrific extremes which her powers can 
 command. Nor is it merely a passive and silent desolation 
 which marks this tremendous influence. After the lapse of 
 ages, the fire of the volcano still bursts out among regions 
 of eternal snovv, the earthcpiake shakes the foundations of the 
 island, and the impetuous thundering of the Geyser continues 
 to disturb the stillness of the surrovuiding solitude. Living 
 amidst so many wonders of nature, and ignorant of natural 
 causes, the Icelanders are readily infected by superstition 
 relating to these objects ; and this influence is observable in 
 most of the descriptions they have given of their country. In 
 later times, however, such superstitions have greatly declined; 
 and during the last century, several works have appeared, 
 descriptive of the natural history of the island, in which 
 accurate observation is conjoined with some degree of scien- 
 tific knowledge. The author of most reputation in this de- 
 partment is Eggert Olafson, who in 1749 printed his ' Enarra- 
 tiones Historicce de hlamUce Naturd et Const ifiitione ;' and after- 
 wards in conjunction with Paulson, another naturalist, pub- 
 
 2t
 
 330 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ca. \ii. Natural hislorj/. 
 
 lished a larger work, xinder the title of ' Travels in Iceland ;' 
 in which the various objects in its natural history are carefully 
 and minutely described. The niineralogical details in this 
 book are very am[)le ; but owing to the want of arrangement, 
 and of suitable nomenclature, they are not easily intelligible 
 to the reader. In 1780, a work by Olaf Olafson, entitled, 
 ' Economical Travels through the northern parts of Iceland,' 
 was published in two volumes quarto ; containing much valu- 
 able information upon the natural history of this district. Two 
 smaller treatises are svibjoined to the work ; one on the Sur- 
 turbrand, the other on the Sulphur beds of Iceland. Several 
 descriptions have been published of the different volcanic 
 eruptions during the last century; among which may be men- 
 tioned, the treatises of John Saemundson on the eruptions 
 around the lake of Myvatn, in 1724, 1725, 1727, and 1728; 
 the treatise of Bishop Finsson on the eruption from Hecla in 
 1766 ; and that of Mr Stephenson on the great eruptions in 
 1783, at Cape Reikianes, and from the mountains of the Skap- 
 taa Jokul. The person said at present to be the best naturalist 
 in Iceland, and particularly intimate with botanical science, 
 is Swein Paulson, one of the medical practitioners of the coun- 
 try, whose abode is near the volcano of Kattlagiau Jokul on 
 the southern coast. His principal original work is on the 
 diseases of Iceland ; but he has written also several treatises 
 on the natural history of the island, and on the rural economy 
 of the people, which are said to possess great merit. Mr 
 Stephenson has distinguished himself in tlte same department ; 
 and in many of his writings, has laboured to make his coun- 
 trymen avail themselves of all the means of improving their 
 condition, which are rendered possible by the nature of their 
 soil and climate. ^^ 
 
 The sciences of mathematics and astronomy are by no
 
 Cb.vii. Mathematics.] TRAVELS IN ICELANdI 331 
 
 means generally cultivated among the Icelanders ; though 
 there are some individuals who have pursued these studies, 
 either in the island itself, or with the better opportunities 
 which were afforded by a residence in the Danish metropolis. 
 A few of the astronomical treatises published during the last 
 century are noticed below.* The study of the mathematics, 
 though prescribed by the regulations of the school at Besses- 
 tad, receives bvit little attention there ; nor does it in general 
 form a part of the private occupation of those, who enjoy a 
 literary character in the island. No purely mathematical 
 work is extant in the Icelandic language ; but in a book of 
 arithmetic, which was written some time ago by the elder 
 Mr Stephenson, trigonometry and equations are briefly in- 
 cluded. Stephen Biornson, formerly the master of the school 
 at Hoolum, published in the acts of the Icelandic Society a 
 treatise on statics, which is well spoken of. This man, whose 
 acquirements in various branches of science were very con- 
 siderable, died at Copenhagen about the beginning of the 
 present century. 
 
 After all that has been said in the preceding pages of the 
 poverty of the Icelanders, and of the nature of the country 
 upon which their destiny is cast, it will not be thought won- 
 derful that the fine arts should desert a clime so little conge- 
 nial to their growth. Painting exists here only in its rudest 
 
 * Dissertations on the Zones of the Terrestrial Globe, and on the Phases of 
 the Moon ; by Magnus Areson. 1710. 
 
 Dissertations on the Astronomy of the Chaldeans ; on the Sphere of the Fixed 
 Stars; on the Pj-lhagorcan Harmony, &c. ; by Thorieif Haltorson; 1706, 1707, 
 1708. 
 
 Dissertation on the Solar Year of the Ancients ; by Jonas David Gam. 17S3. 
 
 Dissertation on the efliects of Comets ; by Stephen Biornson. 175S. 
 
 Dissertation on Celestial Physics ; by the same. 1760. 
 
 Introduction to Tetragonometry ; by the same. 1780.
 
 332 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. vii. Socieliet. 
 
 forms ; the native music of the island is inharmonious and 
 uncouth ; while the art of sculpture is almost entirely un- 
 known. In proof, however, that these deficiencies must be 
 ascribed to the situation of the people, and not to a defect 
 in original genius, it may be mentioned that Thorvaldson, 
 the son of an Icelander, dwelling on the classic ground of 
 Rome, is at the present moment second only to Canova 
 among the statuaries of Europe. 
 
 Before closing this sketch of the literature of Iceland, it 
 will be necessary to say something of the Icelandic Societies, 
 to which a reference has already more than once been made. 
 The first of these was instituted at Copenhagen in 1779, with 
 the professed object of aiding the literature of the island, and 
 bettering the condition of the inhabitants, by the suggestion 
 of improv'ements in their rural economy. The Society, at its 
 first establishment, was composed of only twelve members ; 
 but the number was afterwards extended to about a hundred 
 and thirty ; comprising all the most learned and intelligent 
 men in Iceland ; and, as extraordinary members, many in- 
 dividuals of much eminence on the continent of Europe. 
 Fourteen volumes of transactions have been published by the 
 Society; the contents of which are various, comprehending 
 many valuable papers upon the fishery, agriculture, and na- 
 tural history of Iceland ; poetry ; historical essays, &c. The 
 principal writers were Bishop Finsson ; the elder Mr Ste- 
 phenson, then Governor of the island ; Mr Ericson ; Mr Paul- 
 son ; Mr Ketilson, Sysselman of Dale ; and many others of 
 the literary Icelanders, whose names have before been men- 
 tioned. These transactions were entirely composed in the 
 Icelandic language, and great attention was paid to the pre- 
 servation of its purity ; two censors being ap[)ointed to judge 
 of the style of every essay which was presented for publica-
 
 Ca. VII. Societies.] TRAVELS IN ICKT. AND. 333 
 
 tion. In 1790, considerable dissensions arose in the Society, 
 in consequence of a project for transferring it to Iceland ; 
 and this circumstance, with other concurring events, had the 
 effect of suspending all the proceedings of the institution. 
 Though still nominally in existence, it has now for a long pe- 
 riod been entirely dormant. 
 
 The second Icelandic Society was established in the island 
 in 1791 ; chiefly under the auspices of the Chief Justice Ste- 
 phenson, who had been a strenuous advocate for the removal 
 of the former Society from Copenhagen. The original num- 
 ber of members was not less than twelve hundred ; most of 
 the farmers, as well as the priests and civil officers of the 
 country, being included. The object of the institution was 
 the promotion of knowledge and improv-ement among the 
 people ; and with this view, a fund was provided by the an- 
 nual contribution of a dollar from each member, and devot- 
 ed to the publication of books, to be distributed among the 
 subscribers. The printing establishment at Hoolum, which 
 had fallen into decline, and another which in 1773 was in- 
 stituted at Hrappsey, an island in the Ereide Fiord, were 
 purchased by the Society ; and a printing-office, under their 
 management, established atLeira, in the Borgar-Fiord Syssel. 
 From this press have issued, for the use of the Society, fifty 
 or sixty different works ; some of them translated, but the 
 greater number original, and comprising a very great variety 
 of subjects; history, poetry, divinity, law, medicine, natural 
 history, and rural economy. In his situation of President, 
 Mr Stephenson has had the superintendance of the funds of 
 the Society, the entire direction of their various publications, 
 and the management of a small, but well chosen collection 
 of books, which was presented to them by some literary 
 characters of the Danish metropolis. Though his exertions,-
 
 334 TRAVEL!? IN ICELAND. [Ch. vii. Socuties. 
 
 however, for the support of the institution liave been incessant, 
 it has notwithstanding greatly decUned during the last few 
 years ; and, at present, the number of members does not 
 exceed thirty or forty. The successive occurrence of several 
 unfavourable seasons, and the evils entailed upon the Ice- 
 landers by the war between England and Denmark, have 
 contributed in some degree to produce this decline. It was 
 found, too, that there was much difficulty in accomplisliing 
 the scheme for the distribution of books, among a people 
 dispersed over so vast an extent of coimtry, and during a 
 great part of the year so entirely separated from each other 
 by the barriers of nature. Some little fault has, perhaps, also 
 existed in the general management of the institution. The 
 office of censorship of the press, vested in one individnal, 
 has had the effect of disgusting or deterring many, whose 
 connection would have done credit to the Society ; while, by 
 giving too much to this single judgment, it has been the means 
 of bringing forth many works, little adapted to the compre- 
 hension of those for whose us€ they were designed. In the 
 present state of the Society, it is particularly unfortunate 
 that the only printing establishment in Iceland should be thus 
 exclusively appropriated ; and as a matter of general policy, 
 it may be doubted whether, under any circumstances, such a 
 corporate institution ought thus to monopolize the literary 
 growth of the coimtry. As guides and protectors to the pro- 
 gress of knowledge, institutions are good ; — when they be- 
 come arbitrary rulers, their influence but retards the course 
 of mental improvement, and proves baneful to the very ener- 
 gies which gave them birth. 
 
 Such is the present state of mental cultivation among this 
 singular ]>eople. The disparity of their physical and moral 
 x;ircumstances forms an interesting fact equally in the his-
 
 Ch. VII. Literature.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 335 
 
 tory of literature, and in that of the human species. While 
 the calamities of internal Avarfare, and the oppression of 
 tyrannical governments, have clouded with ignorance and 
 harbarity countries on which the sun of nature sheds its 
 brightest beams, — the possession of peace, of political liberty, 
 and well ordered laws, has given both intellectual and moral 
 exaltation to a community, which has its abode at the very 
 confines of the habitable world.
 
 336' TRAVELS IN ICELAND. {Ch. viii. Zoologj/. 
 
 ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 In a general outline of the zoological productions of Iceland, 
 it is by no means necessary to be minute; nor, indeed, would 
 the few observations we were enabled to make, authorise such 
 an luidertaking. 
 
 Iceland does not present many of those species of animals 
 which are strictly confined to the land ; but of those which 
 require land only as a resting place, while the sea supplies 
 their other wants, many have found in this country every 
 requisite for support. We will proceed, however, to take a 
 cursory survey of all the tribes of animated nature which ex- 
 ist there under any circumstances. 
 
 The catalogue of mammiferous animals inhabiting Iceland, 
 is nearly confined to the following : — The dog, the fox, the 
 cat, the rat, the mouse, the rein-deer, the goat, the sheep, 
 the ox, and the horse ; together with seals and whales, and a 
 few Polar bears which annually make their appearance. Bears 
 cannot be considered as inhabitants; tliey are merely visitors, 
 brought on detached masses of ice. They are chiefly landed
 
 Ch. Tin. Zoology.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND, 33"/ 
 
 on the north coast ; and twelve or thirteen appears to be the 
 greatest nviniber ever seen in one year. They are not suffer- 
 ed long to enjoy themselves on land ; for, hinigry and vora- 
 cious after their voyage, they commit great devastations 
 among the flocks. The people take the alarm ; and, with 
 whatever weapons they can command, generally with mus- 
 quets, they attack, and soon destroy them. 
 
 The dogs which are generally seen in Iceland, bear a strong 
 resemblance to those of Greenland. Like them they are co- 
 vered with long hair, forming about their necks a kind of 
 ruff. Their noses are sharp, their ears pointed, and their tails 
 bushy, and curled over their backs. Their predominant co- 
 lour is white ; yet they vary considerably ; and some are en- 
 tirely brown or black. Very few of them can be induced to 
 go into the water; and though some are of service in guard- 
 ing the cottages and flocks, and preventing the horses from 
 eating the grass intended for hay, yet the greater number 
 appear very useless. Scarcely any family, however, is with- 
 out one or two of them. 
 
 Two distinct varieties of the fox present themselves in 
 Iceland : the arctic, or white fox, (Canis Lagopus), and one 
 which is termed the blue fox, (Canis Fuliginosus), and varies 
 considerably in the shades of its fur, from a light brownish 
 or blueish grey, to a colour nearly approaching to black. It is a 
 more gracefully formed animal than the white fox ; has longer 
 legs, and a more pointed nose. Horrebovv mentions a dark 
 red coloured fox, in the existence of which we had no reason 
 to believe. He likewise says, that the black fox is sometimes 
 brought over on the ice. Frequently at night, in travelling 
 through the comitry, you hear the discordant cries of the two 
 former varieties. But if we may judge from the quantity of 
 skins exported, the number of foxes in Iceland, though con- 
 
 2 u
 
 338 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. viii. Zoology. 
 
 siderable, cannot be great. The inhabitants do their utmost 
 to destroy them ; being induced not only to prevent the great 
 devastation which they commit among the young lambs, but 
 to obtain the reward given by government, and to profit by 
 the furs, which is an advantageous article of traffic. There 
 is no particular ingenuity, however, displayed in the methods 
 by which they are taken ; they are shot, caught in gins, or 
 forced from their holes by smoke. 
 
 Rats in considerable numbers, and mice, are met with, 
 particularly at the Danish factories ; but, as far as our ob- 
 servation went, there was nothing to render them particularly 
 ■worthy of attention. 
 
 The hog, which has from time to time been imported from 
 Denmark, has, from the scarcity of proper food, been found 
 so expensive- to keep, that it has never been much propagat- 
 ed ; and it is doubtful whether, independently of two or three 
 sows and pigs which were taken from England during the last 
 summer, a single animal of the species exists in tlie coun- 
 try. 
 
 The rein-deer has been introduced into the island, and has 
 increased rapidly. Out of thirteen which were exported from 
 Norway in I77O5 three only reached Iceland. They were sent 
 into the mountains of the Guldbringe Syssel ; and they have 
 since multiplied so considerably, that it is now no uncommon 
 thing for those who pass often through the mountains in va- 
 rious part of the island, to meet with herds, consisting of 
 from forty to sixty, or a hundred. They are very little mo- 
 lested, the Icelanders satisfying themselves with complaining 
 that the deer eat their lichen ; and though, sometimes, for 
 the sake of amusement, the Danes go out in pursuit of them, 
 very few are destroyed. They live almost entirely among the 
 mountains, and are very shy ; but sometimes, in the depth of
 
 Cw.-rm. Zoology.] TRAITILS IN ICELAND, 339 
 
 winter, come down into the plains, particularly about Thing- 
 valla, to feed on the moss which abounds in that quarter. 
 
 Goats were at one time more numerous in Iceland than 
 they now are. At present, they seem to have been complete- 
 ly expelled from the southern part, because vegetation be- 
 ing very scanty, they were constantly injuring the roofs of 
 the houses by climbing on them in search of food. There 
 are still a few in the north, where farmers keep flocks of thirty 
 or forty. 
 
 The cow, the horse, and the sheep, afford the principal 
 source of wealth, comfort, and subsistence to the Icelanders. 
 Milk is almost their only summer beverage. Whey becomes 
 a wholesome, and to them a pleasant drink in winter. Even 
 fish itself, their primary article of food, is scarcely palatable 
 to an Icelander without butter ; and curds, eaten fresh in 
 summer, and kept through the winter, yield the most pre- 
 cious change of diet, both for health and pleasure, which he 
 enjoys. A cow on the farm of the Amtmand Stephenson, we 
 were assured, gave regularly every day twenty-one quarts of 
 milk. The value of their cattle is well known and appreciated 
 by the Icelanders, who take the greatest care of them through 
 the winter, and seem to shake off" their habitual listlessness, 
 while employed in gathering in the hay that is to support them 
 through the inclemencies of that season. 
 
 If the horse be less useful in Iceland than the cow, the 
 care which is devoted to him is proportionally less : still, how- 
 ever, the assistance which he affords is by no means to be 
 overlooked. But it will be \mnecessary, after what has been 
 stated respecting the frequent intercourse between different 
 parts of the island, and the extreme roughness of the coun- 
 try, to say any thing farther of the utility of this animal. The 
 Iceland horse is about thirteen hands in height, stoutly made,
 
 340 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch.vcu. Zoologj/. 
 
 and frequently evincing much spirit. These animals are in 
 very considerable numbers throughout all the inhabited parts 
 of the island ; no farmer being able to carry on the necessary 
 affairs of life without their assistance ; and many of the Ice- 
 landers, particularly those who, from their avocations as 
 judges or magistrates, are obliged to take long journies, are 
 at great pains in the breeding and rearing of them. But by 
 the inhabitants in general, they are let loose to provide them- 
 selves with food and shelter : in consequence of which, a 
 great number are annually carried off by the severity of the 
 winter. 
 
 The sheep furnish much milk and butter ; and besides af- 
 fording, when smoked or salted, a part of the Avinter food of 
 the inhabitants, form a considerable article of export. Almost 
 every part of the Icelandic dress is manufactured from wool : 
 and of the sheep-skins, without much preparation, they make 
 their fishing-dresses, Avhich they smear repeatedly with oil, 
 for the pvirpose of rendering them impervious to water. 
 
 Of the seal, three or four species (Phoca vitulina, Lepor- 
 rina, Barbata, and Groenlandica) frequent the shores. Their 
 number is considerable. A few are taken for the oil which 
 they afford ; and their skins are applied to various useful pur- 
 poses, being formed into shoes and thongs, and particularly 
 into a kind of travelling bag, in which the Icelanders carry 
 their sour butter, fish, and other little supplies, when passing 
 from place to place. 
 
 Very few of the great northern whales (Balsena Mysticetus) 
 approach Iceland. The fin-fish (Balsena Physalus) is more 
 common. A species of dolphin, the bottle-nose, (Delphinus 
 Bidens ?) is sometimes driven on shore in very considerable 
 shoals. During the winter 1809-10, eleven hundred came 
 towards the shore in the Hvalfiord, and were captured.
 
 Ch. vm. Zoology.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 341 
 
 Of the Linnean order Accipitres, we only saw one, the 
 Great Erne, or Cinereous Eagle (Falco AlbicilUi). Accord- 
 ing to Pennant, the following other species exist in Iceland : 
 — the white-headed eagle (Falco Leucocephalus) ; the Ice- 
 land falcon (Falco Gryfalco) ; Falco fulvus ; and the Lan- 
 ner. Of all these, the Erne is, at present, certainly the most 
 frequent, the others being very seldom seen. It is constantly 
 observed hovering over the shores, and is a determined enemy 
 to the Eider-duck ; and, as such, of course draws upon itself 
 the hatred of the Icelanders, The Iceland falcon, once so 
 much valued in Denmark for its excellence in falconry, is 
 now suffered to remain unmolested ; yet it does not seem to 
 multiply as might be expected ; and during our residence in 
 the island, we had not a single opportunity of seeing it, even 
 at a distance. 
 
 The raven is very common in Iceland. A pair or more sit 
 near every habitation on the sea- shore, ready to feed on the 
 ofFal of the fish ; and they frequently do great mischief to the 
 fish itself, when split and left on the beach to dry. They 
 build their nests in the cliffs, and sometimes resort for this 
 purpose to rocks a considerable way inland. 
 
 The snow-flake, or snow-bunting, (Emberiza nivalis), re- 
 sides here during the whole year, occurring in pairs, or soli- 
 tary, during the summer, when it loses much of its snowy 
 plumage ; and collecting into flocks in the winter. This is 
 the only bird in Iceland which can truly be said to attempt 
 singing. The song is pleasing, but short, and much resem- 
 bles the first two or three notes of the robin-redbreast. 
 
 The wheat-ear (Motacilla Oenanthe) was not uncommon ; 
 and we sometimes saw another small bird, of a brownish co- 
 lour, in the marshy places, which we had no opportunity of 
 examining.
 
 342 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. viii. Zoo/ogy. 
 
 The white wagtail (Motacilla Alba) frequents the margins 
 of the pools and rivulets. Very few of the swallow tribe ever 
 arrive in Iceland. Some of our party saw one or two flying 
 about the church at Reikiavik early in the month of July; 
 but to what species they belonged, was not ascertained. 
 
 Ptarmigans (Tetrao Lagopus) are generally very abundant 
 in this country ; but when we were there, we were told that 
 they were scarce in the neighbourhood of the towm, and in 
 some other parts of the country. Towards the latter end of 
 July, we observed a bird of the grouse kind, with a brood of 
 young ones : it was possibly the species which Paulson, in his 
 catalogue of Iceland birds, has called the hazel grouse. It 
 had less white, and in general differed somewhat in its plu- 
 mage from the common ptarmigan, and appeared to be 
 larger. 
 
 Of all the land-birds which are seen in Iceland, none are 
 more common than the golden plover and the whimbrel. These 
 birds are frequently the only enliveners of dreary plains and 
 extended marshes, where their wild and inharmonious notes 
 accord well with the surrounding scenery. The snipe is like- 
 wise common in the same situations ; and in some instances 
 seemed to have lost much of that wildness of disposition which 
 it exhibits in this country. Thus we saw it associating, as it 
 were, with the Eider-ducks, and sitting on its eggs within an 
 hundred yards of the house at Vidoe. 
 
 The variety of birds which frequent the sea- shore is very 
 great. The high rocky islets on the south are covered with 
 gannets (Pelicanus Bassanus). The shag (Pelicamis Gracu- 
 lus) and the corvorant (Pelicanus Carbo) sit constantly on the 
 rocks. Innumerable guUs, fulmars, and shearwaters, breed in 
 the cliff's. The arctic gull (Larus parasiticus) we saw frequently 
 in the swamps, in considerable numbers. Ducks, mergau-
 
 Ch. VIII. Zoologi/.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 343 
 
 sers, and divers, in great variety, are at one time seen float- 
 ing on the bays, and at another, suffer themselves to be car- 
 ried along by the rapid streams, or accompany their young 
 broods in the marshes. Large flocks of auks and guillemots 
 live about the coasts, which, together with the kittiwake, and 
 other species of the gull, present in their eggs and feathers a 
 valuable reward to the Icelanders for the fatigue and labour 
 they vmdergo in their pursuit. 
 
 The tern (Sterna Hirundo) is another bird which is very 
 common, always choosing, for the purpose of breeding, a 
 piece of fresh water situated in a marsh near the sea-shore. 
 The egg of this bird is a very delicate article of food, and 
 frequently formed a principal relish in our homely repasts. 
 We saw the tern, for the first time, on the 27th of May, at 
 ^ Grundevik; and, as we had not seen it atReikiavik when we 
 were there only a few days before, this was probably about 
 the time of its arrival in Iceland. Mr Macwick, in the Lin- 
 nean Transactions, gives as an average of 26 years observa- 
 tions, that the Sterno Hirundo is first seen in England April 
 Ist, and last seen October 8th. He likewise-represents the snipe 
 as appearing Xovember 20th, and disappearing March 20th. 
 The most m.ajestic bird of Iceland is undoubtedly the Swan. 
 It in general seeks the more remote lakes among the moun- 
 tains, resorting at times to the salt marshes about the sea- 
 shore, where forty or fifty are sometimes seen feeding toge- 
 ther. During the breeding season, they retire in pairs to small 
 lakes, where they may be concealed among the reeds, and 
 thus protect themselves from the attacks of the Icelanders, 
 who receive the value of a few shillings for their skins from 
 the Danish merchants. Of the eggs, we once had an oppor- 
 tunity of partaking ; and though somewhat heavy, they were 
 very palatable.
 
 344 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch.viii. Zoology. 
 
 So much has already been said respecting the manners and 
 habits of that most curious and interesting bird, the Eider- 
 duck, that it will be unnecessary to do more than merely 
 mention its name in this place. 
 
 Some parts of the coast of Iceland, particularly the bays 
 on the west, abound with varieties of very fine cod; for which, 
 before the discovery of Newfoundland, a considerable fishery 
 was carried on ; so that, in the reign of James I., no less than 
 150 British vessels were employed in the Iceland fisheries. 
 Great numbers are still taken by the Icelanders, chiefly for 
 the Danish merchants, who dry them, either with or without 
 salt, and export then) to Denmark. Some are consumed by 
 the Icelanders themselves; but their number is comi)aratively 
 small, as they either prefer haddocks, or are obliged to eat 
 them, because the merchants will scarcely take any thing 
 but cod. The best season for fishing is from the beginning 
 of February to the middle of May. In June, the fish become 
 meagre and watery, as this is the month in which they gene- 
 rally cast their spawn. 
 
 The haddock is likewise very plentiful, apparently asso- 
 ciating with the cod, for they are always taken together. 
 They grow to a size not inferior to the cod, frequently mea- 
 suring above three feet in length ; and are to the inhabitants 
 of greater importance than any thing with which nature or 
 art has supplied them. 
 
 The ling, the skate, and the hollibut, occur in considerable 
 numbers, though not nearly so common as the two last. The 
 hollibut arrives at a great size ; and, like the wolf-fish, is 
 cut up and dried for winter use. Flounders abound on the 
 shores ; and herrings are taken in great numbers on the north 
 coast. They come in extensive shoals in the months of June 
 and July, not less than 150 barrels of them having been taken
 
 Ch. VIU. Zoologt/.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 345 
 
 at one draught of a net. Sharks are taken in great abundance 
 on the north and western coasts. 
 
 Eels are found in the rivers ; and we once observed a 
 very fine one in a stream, which was rendered tepid by the 
 admixture of the water arising from a hot spring. Two or 
 three species of the sahnon frequent the rivers and lakes, 
 among which the sea-trout is in great perfection. 
 
 The Zeus Opah has been seen in Iceland. One, of which 
 we saw a tolerable drawing, was taken about two years ago. 
 
 Of the insect tribes, we saw nothing very remarkable. A 
 large Tipula (Plumosa ?) began to appear in considerable 
 numbers about the middle of May ; and although, as the sum- 
 mer advanced, a few of the most common species of flies and 
 moths were seen, — once only, in a low and marshy situation, 
 in the month of July, did we experience any inconvenience 
 from them. At that time, the air was thickly peopled by a 
 small yellow-coloured fly, probably a species of Empis. 
 
 ' The entomological productions of Iceland,' says Mr 
 Hooker, ' are extremely scanty. A very small collection of 
 
 * insects indeed, rewarded my researches in this department 
 ' of natural history ; and of these there were none that were 
 
 * in the least remarkable for their beautv. Some of the Le- 
 
 * pidopterous species were new to me ; among which I think 
 
 * I had five or six nondescript Phalense. No Papilio or 
 
 * Sphinx has ever been met with in the country. Of Coleop- 
 
 * terous insects, there is scarcely a greater variety; and I 
 
 * saw only a single Scarabaeus, and a very few Curculiones 
 ' and Carabi, most of which, however, to make me amends, 
 
 * were such as 1 was unacquainted with. I, by mere acci- 
 
 * dent, have still preserved a sj)ecimen of an undescribed 
 
 * species of Cocciuella, which I found killed by the steam of 
 
 2x
 
 M6 TRAVELS IN icrn AND. [Ca. vm. Sotanj^. 
 
 * one of the hot springs at the Geysers ; it was the only one 
 ' of the genus that 1 saw. 
 
 Small crabs, of two or three species, are thrown upon the 
 shore, together with the star-fish and echinus ; of which lat- 
 ter, we once observed a great number carried by- the birds, 
 and dispersed along an extensive marsh to a considerable dis- 
 tance from the sea. 
 
 Mussels are in great abimdance, and also whelks, snails, 
 and limpets ; and the barnacle often forms a firm coating to 
 the rocks.' 
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 In the variety of soil which Iceland presents, from the 
 deep bog to the light burnt earth which can scarcely stand 
 against the storm, even the verge of the arctic circle may af- 
 ford some objects of interest to the botanist. There is, in 
 fact, no small variety of plants in Iceland ; and what is want- 
 ing in the gaiety of the individual blossom, is frequently com- 
 pensated by its abundant production, and the length of time 
 that it remains in perfection. It was partly, perhaps, from 
 the contrast with surrounding objects, and partly from the 
 effects of association, that the flowers of the Dryas Octope- 
 tala, and the Silene Acaulis, have excited in us as much 
 pleasing admiration as the lively scenes of an English flower- 
 garden. The blossoms of this plant last but for a short time, 
 but their succession is rapid and uninterrupted during the 
 greater part of the months of July and August; and at the 
 same time the intervening spaces were filled by a great variety 
 of less conspicuous flowers, among which the wild thyme 
 and the Cerastium latifolium were particularly observable;
 
 Cw. vm. Botanj/.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 347 
 
 and in two or three places, the Koenigia Icelandica grows 
 v/ith great luxuriance. Less striking in itself, but still more 
 abundant than the Dryas, or perhaps than any other flower, 
 may be mentioned the Statice Armeria, which in many 
 places, especially near the sea-side, was thickly and widely 
 distributed among the grass ; and in many high vallies, at a 
 distance of fifty miles from the sea, formed the only tufts of 
 vegetation on which our eyes coidd fix as a relief, when wea- 
 ried with the constant succession of cinders and lava. Some- 
 times different species of sorrel, or the yellow poppy, would 
 assist in cheering tlie dreariness of such places ; and occasion- 
 ally a great variety of moss and lichen grew amidst the cinders. 
 It was in the roughest tracts of lava that the mosses grew with 
 the greatest luxuriance. The Trichostomum Canescens, was 
 the prevailing species, v^hich in dry weather renders the places 
 on which it grows of a greyish colour, but after a little rain 
 it becomes of a light and cheerful green. Many species of 
 Saxifrages are found among the moss ; and in some places 
 the Bearberry (Arbutus Uva virsi), the Crowberry (Empe- 
 trum Nigrum), and a little heath (Erica vulgaris), afford a 
 more substantial covering to the stones. As you leave this 
 broken scene, you may become insensibly involved in an Ice- 
 landic forest, -where the most stately birch rises to the height 
 of only ten feet. These trees find it difficult to raise them- 
 selves above three or fovir feet from the ground. They con- 
 sist of the common and dwarf birch (Betula alba and nana), 
 several varieties of the willow, and a (ew solitary individuals 
 of the pyrus domestica. Though in some instances we travel- 
 led over four or five miles of such forests, they are by no means 
 common, and wc did not see above five of them. A great part 
 of the surface of the ground is covered with bogs, where ve- 
 getation is more luxuriant, affording considerable variety of
 
 348 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cn. vm. Botany. 
 
 carices and coarse grass, the dark green of which was but 
 little enlivened with flowers. Such is the general view of ve- 
 getation in Iceland. It is, however, very unequally distri- 
 buted. In some parts, as in the Guldbringe Syssel, the tra- 
 veller may pass over many miles, and scarcely find a single 
 spot of earth covered with vegetation ; while, in the Borgar- 
 fiord and Myre Syssels, the verdure at times almost equals 
 that of the pasture districts of England. But were the ver- 
 dure much greater than it is in the most favoured spot, the 
 entire want of any thing deserving the name of a tree would 
 give a wearisome nakedness to the prospect. 
 
 It is not consistent with the object of this sketch to enter 
 into a detailed enumeration of the different species of plants 
 observable in Iceland, with their localities. None of our 
 party was skilled in botany ; and the collection we made was 
 chiefly intended to make up, in some degree, the severe losses 
 which Mr Hooker sustained in the destruction of his collec- 
 tion. That gentleman has kindly permitted us to make ex- 
 tracts from his interesting work ; and we shall now present 
 onr readers with his general view of the botany of Iceland ; 
 and in the Appendix will be found the Icelandic Flora by the 
 same gentleman. 
 
 ' My inclination, rather than my ability, leads me, in the 
 ' first place, to offer a few remarks on the botany and zoology 
 
 * of the country. In these two great kingdoms of nature, 
 
 * perhaps it would be difficult to find any spot of land of a 
 
 * similar extent, in an equal degree of latitude, which can 
 
 * lay claim to so small a number of species. The arctic re- 
 
 * gions of Norway, Lapland, and the Russian empire, are 
 
 * comparatively rich in these departments ; a circumstance 
 
 * most probably to be attributed to their warmer sunnners, 
 
 * and to the undisturbed state of the soil. In spite of this.
 
 Ch. VIII. Bo(any.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 349 
 
 ' however, a botanist, coming from the more temperate cli- 
 ' mate of Great Britain, will still meet with many vegetable 
 ' productions that will interest him, such as Azalea procum- 
 
 * bens, Cardamine hastulata, of English botany, Rubus sax- 
 ' atilis, Erigeron alpinum, Saxifraga nivalis, rivularis, cernua, 
 ' and oppositifolia, Silene acaulis, Veronica alpina, and fru- 
 ' ticulosa, with many other species, which he has been ac- 
 ' customed to see only on the summits of his loftiest moun- 
 
 * tains, but which will here be found growing in the plains 
 ' and vallies, and near the shores of the sea. Ranunculus 
 ' lapponicus, glacialis, and hyperboreus, Eriophorum capi- 
 ' tatum, Koenigia islandica, Gentiana tenella, detonsa (the 
 ' ciliata of Retzius), and aurea, Andromeda hypnoides, Cha- 
 ' maenerium halamifolium, Angelica Archangelica, Lychnis 
 ' alpina, Papaver nudicaule, Draba contorta of Retzius, Or- 
 ' chis hyperborea, Carex Bellardi, Salix Lapponum, and 
 ' other plants peculiar to high northern latitudes, together 
 
 * with some, as yet undescribed, will likewise offer themselves 
 ' for his examination, and afford him a pleasure, of which no 
 ' one but a naturalist can form an idea, as well as what is 
 
 * happily termed by Dr Smith one of the highest sources of 
 ' gratification attending upon this and similar pursuits, " the 
 " anticipation of the pleasure he may have to bestow onkin- 
 •' dred minds with his own, in sharing with them his disco- 
 " veries and his acquisitions."* But a richer field is open 
 
 * before him in the class Cryptogamia. The Muscologia of 
 
 * the country is little known ; and I am sure, from what I 
 ' myself found, that many new and rare species would re- 
 
 * ward a careful search among this tribe, though, like me, he 
 ' might seek in vain for the magnificent Splachnaof the Nor- 
 
 * Preface to the " Introduction to Botanj."
 
 350 TRAVELf, IN ICULANO,' [Ca. viii. Botany, 
 
 wegian and Lapponian Alps, rubruni and luteiim, two plants 
 that J. had most earnestly reckoned upt)n "athering. Tor- 
 tula tortuosa, Polytrichuni sexangidare, and hercynicum, 
 the former always barren, as in Scotland, Buxbauuiia fo- 
 liosa, Dicranum piisillum, Hypnum revolvens, Silesianum, 
 and filanientosum, Meesia daalbata, Conostomtuii boreale, 
 Splachnum vasculosum, and urceolatum, Trichostomum 
 ellipticum, Fontinalis squamosa, and falcata, both abund- 
 antly provided with capsules, and Encalypta alpina, as well 
 as many other mosses, which I cannot with any degree of 
 certainty now call to my remembrance, are met with upon 
 the lava, in the morasses, or in the rapid torrents. Most 
 of the known alpine species of Jungermannia are also na- 
 tives of Iceland, and some new ones, the loss of which I 
 peculiarly regret. Of Lichens, there are comparatively but 
 few, as indeed may reasonably be expected, from the ex- 
 treme scarcity of trees, to which so many of them are ex- 
 clusively attached ; and even the rocky species are far from 
 abounding ; the lava which covers so great a proportion of 
 the island, being eminently unfavourable to the growth of 
 them. On the primitive mountains I observed the more 
 common crustaceous Lecidese and ParmeliiE, with some 
 others unknown to me, which the exceeding severity of the 
 weather prevented my examining carefully in their places of 
 growth, and the exceeding hardness of the stone prevented 
 my getting specimens of. The perennial snow that caps 
 the higher hills, forbids any of them to grow on very high 
 elevations, as in more temperate climates. In the plains, 
 BEBomyces rangiferinus, so useful in Lapland as the food of 
 *-*he rein-deer, is found in the greatest profusion and luxu- 
 riance ; and the singularly elegant Celraria nivalis, which 
 is almost equally abundant, though always barren, makes
 
 Ch. vin. Botany.] THAVET.S IN ICELAND,' 351 
 
 amends by its beauty for the absence of a greater variety 
 of species. The shores of the island are too much exposed 
 to the most heavy and tempestuous seas, to suffer the more 
 delicate species of submerged Algse to attach themselves to 
 the rocks ; and the violence of the surf prevents such as 
 come from more sheltered spots, from being thrown unin- 
 jvired upon the beach. Ulvae I saw none, except U. lactuca 
 and umbilicalis ; and, among Fuci, F. ramentaceus was the 
 only one which came under my observation, that has not a 
 place in the British list. With the larger kinds employed 
 in the making of kelp, the rocks everywhere abound ; and 
 I should think, that the advantages resulting from the ma- 
 nufacture of this article, which is carried on in Scotland to 
 such a great extent, and has proved so enormous a source 
 of wealth to many of the Hebrides, might also, with the 
 fostering aid of a benevolent and liberal government, be 
 extended to the wretched Icelanders, who have so much 
 greater need of it. A plant, which has been found in Lap- 
 land, and which Dr Wahlenberg, in a letter to Mr Dawson 
 Turner, calls Rivularia cylindrica (sec page Jl of his MSS.), 
 is extremely common in the rivers and fresh-water lakes of 
 Iceland, but appears to me to have no nearer an affinity to 
 the genus Rivularia, than it has to Conferva ; to which lat- 
 ter, Dr Roth has lately referred a plant formerly known 
 under the name of Ulva lubrica, with which, in its texture 
 and the disposition of its seeds, it appears exactly to coin- 
 cide. It extends from three inches to as many feet in length, 
 unbranched, and, as its name implies, cylindrical, forming 
 an uniform tube, of a pale green colour, and thin delicate 
 semigelatinous substance, studded all over with darker green 
 seeds, that are almost universally placed in fours, standing 
 in small squares. As I have been fortunate enough to save
 
 352 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. viii. Botany. 
 
 ' specimens of this plant, and a drawing that I made upon 
 ' the spot, I sliall probably, at some future time, take an op- 
 ' jiortunity of making a figure, and more full description of 
 ' it public. The water of the pools, that have been formed 
 ' in the morasses, by cutting away the turf for fuel, generally 
 ' abounds with our common sjjecies of Confervae, such as 
 ' G. nitida and bipunctata : and a few of our marine ones are 
 * found in the basins among the rocks, and upon the sea- 
 ' shores. But other more interesting species are met with on 
 ' spots of earth and rock that are heated to a great degree, 
 ' either by the steam of the boiling springs, or by the waters 
 ' themselves. Most of these seem to belong to the Vaucherian 
 ' genus, Oscillatoria. Of Fungi, the island can boast but few, 
 ' except some Agarici, scattered in such small quantities, that 
 ' they are not used for food, and Lycoperdon Bovista, which 
 ' is found everywhere.'
 
 Oh. IX. Mineralogi/.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. B53 
 
 MINERALOGY. 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 In describing, as well as in examining a country, where the 
 operations of subterraneous heat have been very widely dif- 
 fused, accurate discrimination is indispensable. When new 
 facts are met with, the difficulty of description becomes so 
 great, while the necessity of clearness and precision is so ob- 
 vious, that even the most expert mineralogists are rendered 
 diffident when called upon to give an account of what they 
 have seen. Being fully aware of the difficulty of the task we 
 have undertaken, we are the more sensible of our inability to 
 do justice to what we have seen. It is fortunate, however, 
 that we are not under the necessity of appealing to solitary 
 facts, nor of describing any thing which fell only under the 
 observation of a single individual. Our sole desire is to be 
 faithful, and to render our details as cl^ar as possible with- 
 out the aid of specimens. We cannot help, however, ex- 
 pressing a wish, that the language of mineralogy were divested 
 of theory. In so far as it relates to his own system, the lan- 
 guage of Werner is admirably contrived ; but few, it is be- 
 
 2 Y
 
 354 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. (Ch. ix. Mineralogy. 
 
 lieved, will acknowledge the right of the proposer of a theory 
 to alter the whole language of a science, expressly for the 
 purpose of adapting it to that theory. Neither the disciples 
 of Dr Hutton, nor Werner, have any title to assume such 
 authority; and there ought to be a language, independent of 
 all theory, "which might be used in all discussions, as being 
 imiversally understood. Such a language does not at pre- 
 sent exist. 
 
 With respect to individual minerals, a settled language is 
 not so indispensable, though certainly very desirable. But 
 in what regards the great rocky masses in which individual 
 minerals occur, and which compose the crust of the earth, 
 without a fixed language, geologists will always be at vari- 
 ance. While the science of geology is thus deficient in terms, 
 we feel ourselves at a loss when attempting to describe a 
 country hitherto unknown to mineralogists. The language 
 of Werner having excited a good deal of attention, is perhaps 
 better understood than any other; and though we by no means 
 approve of it, some of its terms shall be used. Were a de- 
 scriptive language employed, and mineralogists left to guess 
 at what was meant, our labours would infallibly prove fruit- 
 less ; and therefore it is considered better, in the present in- 
 stance, to make use of a faulty language, which can be ex- 
 plained, than one in any respect ambiguous. When any of 
 Werner's expressions which may involve theory are used, they 
 must be understood in no other than a descriptive sense. 
 Having deposited a collection of Icelandic minerals in the 
 cabinet of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, a catalogue is 
 annexed, with the marks and numbers affixed to the speci- 
 mens. This will admit a short and easy mode of reference 
 to any particular rock or substance. And as, on proper ap-" 
 plication, any person interested iu the science of mineralogy.
 
 Ch. IX. Mviemlogi/.'] TRAVELS IN ICELAKD. 355 
 
 may have access to the cabinet, it is hoped that such an ap- 
 pendix will be found useful. This chapter will therefore be 
 chiefly confined to geological discussion. 
 
 It is proposed, in the first place, to describe the appear- 
 ances that present themselves in Iceland, which are similar to 
 those observed in other countries, and then to point out such 
 geological facts as distinguish that country from all others 
 hitherto described. This arrangement is considered to be the 
 best ; and it is presumed that the reader is now well acquaint- 
 ed with the map, and the names of different places, from the 
 perusal of the Journal. 
 
 The external efforts of volcanoes have excited a greater 
 degree of interest than any other natural operations, to the 
 influence of which our globe is subjected. In the infancy of 
 geological science, the minds of philosophers naturally tvu'ned 
 towards fire, as an omnipotent agent, demonstrating its tre- 
 mendous effects by awful appeals to the senses, and display- 
 ing its capacity of producing mineral bodies, as well as of 
 destroying those that had been already formed. As soon as 
 chemistry had advanced so far as to assume the character of 
 a science, and the effects of fire upon mineral bodies began 
 to be investigated, it was discovered that a theory of the 
 earth, founded on the external operations of volcanoes, could 
 not be maintained. Recourse was then had to water, as an 
 agent whose power was sufficient to remove all difficulties. 
 
 In Iceland, the eflfects of heat constitute not only, as in 
 some other parts of the world, one of the principal geological 
 features, but they seem to embrace the whole mineral masses 
 of the country. If we take a general view of the continent 
 of Europe, we find that only in a very tew spots siditcrra- 
 neous heat has shown itself externally in full activity. With 
 regard to the extent to which its operations may be traced,
 
 356 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ix. Mineralogy. 
 
 geologists differ very widely. Those who are disposed to 
 ascribe the most extensive influence to fire, even the most 
 decided Huttonians, consider heat as having acted with but 
 little intensity on by far the greatest proportion of rocks. 
 Thus, wherever stratification occurs, they consider the heat 
 that operated in this instance as having been comparatively 
 moderate ; since a strong degree would have reduced the 
 strata to such a state of liquidity as would have obliterated 
 every trace of deposition. Even in those strata which appear 
 to have lost almost the whole of their original structure, the 
 heat supposed to have acted upon them has been confined 
 within certain limits. The instance of tuffa excepted, we saw 
 no trace of stratification in Iceland ; all the rocks having, 
 according to the igneous system, been subjected to a degree 
 of heat sufficient to reduce them to a state of perfect fusion. 
 We can judge of the intensity of subterraneous heat, only 
 by comparing its effects with others which are known ; and, 
 even here, we are greatly limited; for the degree of liquidity 
 in any mass depends on its fusibility ; and its peculiar cha- 
 racters, when solid, depend on the circumstances under which 
 it has cooled, and are totally independent of the intensity of 
 the heat. 
 
 There is, however, one general distinction among the rocks 
 of Iceland. Some bear the marks of having been in a state 
 of fusion in the open air, as those of Vesuvius, &c. ; others 
 possess the same characters which distinguish the unstratified 
 rocks about Edinburgh and other places in Scotland, from 
 lava, by containing nodules of calcareous spar and zeolite, 
 substances which, being destructible in open fire, could not 
 exist, or be produced, in the matter ejected from external 
 volcanoes. There is a set of rocks of this description seen in 
 Mount Etna, which Dolomieu regarded as lavas which had
 
 Ch. IX. Mintralogy.'] TRAVELS IN ICELAND, ' 357 
 
 been covered by the sea. Thai some, if not all, of the Ice- 
 landic masses which are not the production of external erup- 
 tions, are really submarine lavas, various circumstances con- 
 spire to prove ; circumstances which could not come under 
 the contemplation of Dolomieu, since they are derived from 
 principles which were unknown to him. In the present state 
 of geology, nothing can be of greater importance than to 
 ascertain with accuracy what are the results of heat acting 
 on bodies under strong compression ; since, by means of that 
 knowledge, we are enabled to compare the ordinary deduc- 
 tions from Dr Button's principles, with the phenomena of 
 nature, and bring to the test of actual observation the merits 
 of a system which promises fair to put us in possession of a 
 most simple and beautiful view of the mineral kingdom. 
 
 Dr Hutton has clearly pointed out the reason why calca- 
 reous spar may occur in the productions of subterraneous 
 heat, while it could not exist in those of open fire, by ascrib- 
 ing the presence of carbonic acid to the effects of powerful 
 compression. Since Dr Hutton's death. Sir James Hall has 
 confirmed, by actual experiment, the truth of these theoreti- 
 cal deductions. The rocks of Etna, to which Dolomieu ascrib- 
 ed a submarine origin, present a result in the works of nature 
 by which these principles are brought to a test. But that 
 philosopher, having no such ideas in contemplation, could 
 derive no such advantage from the facts before him. His 
 natural sagacity, however, induced him, from other circum- 
 stances, to conclude that the rocks of Etna, which contained 
 calcareous spar and zeolite, had actually been in a state of 
 fusion, and that their vesicles had been filled by submersion 
 in the sea. Doing every justice to so admirable an observer, 
 we may be allowed, availing ourselves of the elucidation of 
 the subject by Dr Hutton, to derive still greater light from
 
 358 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ix. Mt'neralogi/. 
 
 the phenomena which present themselves in Iceland ; and by 
 tracing every circumstance peculiar to this intermediate class 
 of bodies, acquire the means of rigorously scrutinising the 
 application of the same principles to the rocks of our own 
 country, in which the influence of pressure seems to have had 
 its full effect. We shall have occasion to resume the consi- 
 deration of this subject hereafter ; and shall now proceed to 
 offer some observations on common lavas, of which a vast 
 quantity is to be seen in Iceland. 
 
 All lavas that have flowed in the open air, have assumed a 
 rugged aspect, which cannot be mistaken. Those who have 
 seen lava actually flowing, have described the mode in which 
 this rugged appearance is produced. On its first issuing from 
 the volcano, it flows with the rapidity of a torrent of water; 
 but in its progress it becomes gradually more and more viscid ; 
 it proceeds more tardily; the surface cools; and in that process 
 a crust is formed upon it. This crust is burst, and the broken 
 masses are tossed about, by the slow, but powerful current. 
 Occasionally the formation of a crust stops for a time the 
 progress of the lava, which at last forces its way through, and 
 continues its course. This distinguishing character of erupt- 
 ed lava, its rugged aspect, soon becomes familiar. Instances 
 may occur, in which, owing to the current being impeded, 
 the surface may remain comparatively smooth ; but it is pro- 
 bable that, on being traced, every stream of lava will be found 
 to possess a greater or less degree of ruggedness in different 
 parts. 
 
 The escape of volatile matter renders the upper surface of 
 streams of lava very porous and slaggy. The internal por- 
 tions are more or less vesicular, and possess characters more 
 or less similar to those of basalt, greenstone, &c. A great 
 many varieties of those substances may be matched by speci-
 
 Ch. IX. Mineralogi/.] TRAVELS IN ICELANIT. 359 
 
 mens from streams of lava. So striking, indeed, is the resem- 
 blance, that the most skilful mineralogists cannot, from hand 
 specimens, distinguish the one from the other. Tiie chemical 
 analyses, by the much lamented Dr Kennedy, have proved 
 their perfect similarity in composition ; and there now re- 
 mains no doubt that the materials of which both consist, are 
 exactly the same. * But the supporters of the two great 
 theories which divide geologists, differ materially in their ac- 
 counts of the production of lava. The followers of Werner 
 maintain that lava is melted greenstone; and this supposition 
 is not grounded upon the result of the chemical analysis of 
 the two substances, but is a necessary acknowledgment aris- 
 ing out of the Wernerian theory of volcanoes, which assumes 
 the heat to be occasioned by the burning of beds of coal. 
 The theory of Hutton is not thus limited ; for whatever va- 
 riety there may be in lavas, the matter composing them is 
 supposed to have been produced as well from materials iu 
 the bonels of the earth, independently of any rock formation, 
 as from the destruction of rocks; to which last circumstance 
 the Wernerians confine themselves. They have given no 
 satisfactory account of the mode in which beds of coal may 
 be set on fire, or how the combustion is to be kept up, wheu 
 a sufficient mass of fuel is provided. The presence of water 
 they very properly consider indisjjensable for producing aa 
 eruption ; but a variety of other causes are required to com- 
 
 * Mucli stress has been laid on the circumstance, that lava contains no water, 
 while every variety of trap yields more or less. But this is of little importance 
 in a theoretical point of view ; for, as all the varieties of trap are supposed to 
 have been melted under the influence of strong compression, the Huttonian theory 
 leads us to expect that water may be found in them, as well as carbonate of 
 lime ; while lava flowing in the open air, and red hot, must necessarily be de- 
 prived of any water which it might previously iiave contained.
 
 360 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ix. Mineralogy, 
 
 "bine and act in regular succession. The Huttonians are not 
 under the necessity of going in search of any accidental 
 causes. They infer the existence of an internal source of 
 heat ; but how, or where that heat is produced, or maintain- 
 ed, is not of any importance to the fundamental principles 
 of their system. Philosophers may speculate respecting the 
 existence of a central source of heat, the casual effects of 
 electricity, or the inflammation of the metals of the earths 
 and alkalies; but though it was absolutely impossible to prove 
 that any of these causes was the true one, it is surely as rea- 
 sonable to infer the existence of internal heat from the phe- 
 nomena of volcanoes, as to believe in the Wernerian rising 
 and falling of the waters of the globe, without the evidence 
 of any analogous fact whatever. Much ingenuity has been 
 exercised in combating and defending what is really not ne- 
 cessary for the support of the Huttonian theory ; and it is 
 by no means fair to interweave detached speculations on the 
 possibility or probability of the existence of a central source 
 of heat, with a theory which has the widely extended pheno- 
 mena of volcanoes to refer to, in proof of the existence of 
 subterraneous fire. The point, whether lava is, or is not, 
 melted greenstone, is really not worth disputing. 
 
 The lava of Mount Hekla * cannot be distinguished from 
 some varieties of basalt; and that of the Snaefell Jokul is 
 of the same character. A great many lavas in Iceland con- 
 tain olivin and felspar; and several of them have, in addi- 
 tion to these, a large proportion of augit. Since erupted 
 la^as have this great resemblance, it is impossible to doubt 
 that, had the volatile matter which caused the vesicularity 
 been confined, complete greenstone would have been formed. 
 
 * See Catalogue; C 21 to 27, and B 51, &c.
 
 Ch. IX. Mineralogy.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 36l 
 
 Thus it appears, that the lavas of Iceland have the same 
 affinity to that class of rocks, as the lavas of other coun- 
 tries. 
 
 There are two minerals which have of late become of very 
 considerable importance in geological discussion, but which 
 we think ourselves entitled to range with volcanic productions. 
 We allude to obsidian and pumice. These had been consi- 
 dered as indubitably volcanic, till, having been discovered in 
 connection with rocks whose origin was not so apparent, they 
 were likely to overset the great system that had been con- 
 structed by Werner, who had no other resource but to deny 
 altogether their igneous origin, and to assert that they were 
 of aqueous formation. Obsidian and pumice having been 
 found connected with rocks, supposed by Werner to have 
 been produced by water, is the only proof that has been ad- 
 duced, to render of no avail the testimony of many philoso- 
 phers, who have asserted from their own observations, that 
 these substances are distinctly among the productions of vol- 
 canoes ; though they have been observed in countries where, 
 so far as is known, no external volcanoes appear ever to have 
 existed. 
 
 The evidence we possess of the igneous origin of the sub- 
 stances imder consideration, is such as to render its ever hav- 
 ing been doubted, a matter of wonder. The first authority 
 w€ shall quote is that of Dolomieu. * 
 
 • It has been announced, that Werner has acknowledged the origin of the 
 obsidian and pumice of Lipari and Iceland to be volcanic ; but, as their igneous 
 origin is still denied by many of his disciples, we think it proper not to omit 
 what was stated on this subject in the first edition. We may soon expect from 
 Dr Holland, who has gone to visH the Sicilian volcanoes, more accurate and full 
 information on this subject. It may be added, that some Wernerians have stated, 
 that the substances in question may be formed both by heat and by water. That 
 water strongly heated may operate powerfully on mineral substances, there is no 
 
 2 Z
 
 362 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. IX. Mineratogi/. 
 
 This celebrated observer of nature, after describing a num- 
 ber of funnel-shaped cavities, and a rent about twenty feet 
 deep, Avliich opened into the crater of the island of Vulcano, 
 proceeds thus, * — ' It was from a fissure of this sort that, a 
 ' few years ago, a black vitreous lava flowed, the course of 
 ' which is still seen on the side of the mountain, and I walk- 
 ' ed along it while ascending. This melted glass had reach- 
 ' ed the base of the cone, without entering the valley. ' 
 
 Of this vitreous lava the stream principally consisted, and 
 he mentions that some of it was of a grey colour. At the top 
 of the new cone he found the most perfect glass adhering to 
 this stream, and thus describes it, — ' A black, solid, heavy, 
 ' and very hard glass, giving strong sparks with steel. In 
 ' somewhat thick masses it is perfectly opaque, and resem- 
 ' bles the bitumen of Judsea ; but when its fragments are 
 ' thin, they are semitransparent.' There can be no doubt 
 that the substance here described is obsidian. Dolomieu 
 mentions another black glass not differing from the former, 
 except in being traversed by veins of pumice. Another is of 
 a greyish colour, and has the grain of porcelain, and ap- 
 proaches to pumice, and is stated to be a very common pro- 
 duction of the volcano. 
 
 Spallanzani mentions the existence of obsidian and pumice 
 in the cone of Vulcano. After describing the obsidian on the 
 mountain of Delia Castagna, he observes, that the appear- 
 ance of streams of it, on the top and sides of the mountain, 
 indicate its having flowed. 
 
 Dr James Home, who travelled through the Lipaii islands 
 
 reason to doubt; and it does not appear improbable, that appearances, wliich 
 cannot be well explained either by the aqueous or igneous systems, may yet b« 
 accounted for by the joint action of heat and water under compression. 
 
 * Voyage aus lies de Lipari.
 
 Ch. IX. Mineralogy.] TRAVELS IN ICELAKD. 363 
 
 with Sir James Hall, has often expressed to us his conviction 
 of the volcanic origin of obsidian and pumice, and has gone 
 over with us the specimens which he and Sir James brought 
 from these islands, in order to evince how clearly the speci- 
 mens themselves point out their origin. He has very kindly 
 permitted us to peruse his journal, and to extract from it 
 whatever we thought worthy of notice in regard to the mine- 
 rals in question. Dr Home's observations amply confirm 
 those of Dolomieu, in respect to the stream of obsidian that 
 issued from Vulcano in the year 1775 ; and he notices its 
 passing into pumice, and being very like the lava in the 
 northern part of Lipari. In that island. Sir James Hall and 
 Dr Home visited a mountain that had not been observed by 
 Dolomieu, whom they afterwards met. Arriving at a stream 
 of Avhat they took at a distance for common lava, they were 
 surprised to find it entirely composed of obsidian and pumice, 
 which passed into each other. The former was split into 
 large masses, and white specks were disseminated through 
 some of it. The pvunice, of which there were varieties, had 
 evidently flowed along with the obsidian, and formed the 
 upper surface of the stream. The travellers mounted along 
 / this lava, and observed that it had liurst by different mouths 
 from the great crater. The greatest breadth of the stream 
 was about two miles and a half, and it had flowed about 
 three miles ; and seemed to have been produced by the last 
 effort of the volcano. 
 
 After such descriptions, coming from observers of acknow- 
 ledged acuteness and industry, it appears surprising that the 
 least doubt should be entertained respecting the origin of 
 obsidian and pumice. 
 
 What was observed in Iceland will be found to agree well 
 ,with the descriptions of the naturalists just quoted. After
 
 364 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ix. Mineralogy. 
 
 having gone round Mount Hekla to the northward, and then 
 travelled in an easterly direction about twenty miles, wind- 
 ing through valleys covered with volcanic productions, and 
 surrounded by hills of tufFa, we descended by a steep bank 
 of loose earth, into a small valley closed on all sides, and 
 having a small lake in one corner. Opposite was what we 
 •took to be a stream of coiumon rough lava, presenting its usual 
 rude and fantastic appearance. On seeing this, we were 
 greatly disappointed, as we had been on horseback during 
 ten hours, and had seen neither obsidian nor pumice, ex- 
 cepting some detached masses scattered on the ground. On 
 reaching this supposed stream of lava, we were most agreeably 
 surprised to find it consist of obsidian, pumice,^ and slags. 
 Those who have seen a stream of rough lava, filling up a v-al- 
 ley to the depth of thirty feet, will have a just conception of 
 the appearance which was before us. Having scrambled to 
 the top, we saw this stream extending about two miles, its 
 limits being concealed by hills, behind which it disappeared. 
 At some distance from the place where we had ascended to 
 the upper surface of the stream, we observed a separation, as 
 if the matter had divided, while flowing, into two branches. 
 Having gone to examine the further branch, as it had an 
 aspect somewhat diff'erent from that on which we stood, we 
 found the difference to be owing to a greater quantity of 
 pumice being on the surface ; when that was removed, obsi- 
 dian was found beneath. The great extent of this stream; 
 and several untoward circumstances, prevented our ascertain- 
 ing its limits. We traversed it in various directions, and se- 
 lected specimens, which bear every mark of the action of 
 heat, and of which a description will be found in the cata- 
 logue. 
 
 No doubt can be entertained of heat having affected this. 
 
 I
 
 Ch, IX. Sfineralogy.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND." 3G5 
 
 mass of obsidian and pumice, in some way or other. This 
 being the fact, it is fair to infer from its general aspect, with- 
 out any reference to what has been seen in the Lipari islands, 
 that what we saw was no other than a stream of lava of a par- 
 ticular species. 
 
 There is another very remarkable fact in the history of the 
 volcanoes of Iceland, which seems to have favoured the idea 
 of the igneous origin of pumice. About the end of January 
 in the year 1783, flames were observed rising from the sea, 
 about thirty miles off Cape Reikianes. Several small islands 
 also appeared, as if they had emerged from the sea ; but no 
 new ones were afterwards found (though it has been asserted 
 that there was one) ; but a reef of sunk rock now exists in the 
 direction in which the flames were seen, terminating in what 
 is called the Blind Bird Rock, over which the sea breaks. 
 The flames lasted several months, during which time vast 
 quantities of pumice and light slags were washed on shore, 
 along the southern coasts of the Guldbringe and Snaefell Sys- 
 sels, and along different other parts of the shores of the 
 Faxefiord. In the beginning of June, earthquakes shook the 
 whole of Iceland ; the flames in the sea disappeared ; and the 
 dreadful eruption commenced from the Skaptar Jokul, which 
 is nearly two hundred miles distant from the spot where the 
 marine eruption took place. This remarkable fact seems to 
 indicate a communication having subsisted between those two 
 places from which the fire burst out ; and, when we consider 
 that Hekla is almost in the direct line between them, we may 
 conjecture that the depth of the source from whence both 
 proceeded was very great. * 
 
 * Having procured a map which appears to have belonged to some description 
 of the terrible eruption of 1 783, we have reduced it to the scale of the map of our 
 journey, and caused it to be added to the plate.
 
 366 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ix. Mineralogy. 
 
 The connection of obsidian and pumice is so very intimate, 
 that the origin of the one must also be the origin of the other ; 
 and the evidence we already possess, seems to be perfectly 
 sufficient to establish their igneous origin. Pumice generally 
 occurs above obsidian ; and may be considered as bearing 
 the same relation to the latter, as the common slags of a 
 stream of lava bear to the body of lava.* 
 
 Numerous cones are to be found in Iceland, composed 
 entirely of loose volcanic substances. The whole of Mount 
 Hekla is a collection of these matters. But the most remark- 
 able appearance connected with the volcanoes of that coun- 
 try, is that of hills of tuffa, which invariably accompany lava. 
 This substance forms whole ranges of mountains in the Guld- 
 bringe Syssel ; and the hills round Hekla, and wherever erup- 
 tions have happened, are composed of it. The tufFa of Ice- 
 land closely resembles that of Italy and Sicily ; and the mode 
 of its formation is a curious subject of inquiry; but we shall 
 defer entering upon it, till we have described some other ap- 
 pearances with which it is connected. 
 
 The general appearance of the sulphur mountains of Kri- 
 suvik have been already described .f The rocks above the 
 highest banks of sulphur are a species of tuffa, (a consider- 
 able portion of which appears to be pearlstone), decomposed 
 greenstone, and what has been called porphyr}- slate. 
 
 The rocks of the portion of Iceland which we examined, 
 that have no external marks of the effects of heat, are of that 
 
 * When a mass of obsidian is subjected to heot it swells, piiffs up, and is con- 
 verted into pumice. We have formed several specimens of pumice which cannot be 
 distinguished from the natural prodtiction ; and have successfully imitated some 
 natural specimens in which the pumice is blended with the obsidian. The pitch- 
 stone of Iceland is much more refractory ; but in the strong heat of a forge, it 
 l)€come5 frothy. 
 
 t P. "3.
 
 Ch. IX. Mineralogt/.'] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 36/ 
 
 class known by the general appellation, trap. They are chiefly 
 amygdaloidal, and contain all the varieties of zeolite, calce- 
 dony, calcareous spar, &c. Greenstone and basalt occur in 
 the island of Vidoe, and on the opposite shore. They are 
 seen massive, in beds and veins, and often assume the colum- 
 nar form. Some of the columns in Vidiie are composed of 
 tables several inches in thickness, and from three to five feet 
 in diameter. Others have the tables composed of oval masses, 
 rendered visible by the decomposition of the rock. There is 
 a peculiarity in all the veins we examined in various parts of 
 the country, which was first observed in the island of Vidoe 
 It is a black vitreous coating on their sides, which varies in 
 thickness in different instances, and gradually blends with the 
 substance of the veins. This is accoimted for by the Hutto- 
 nian hypothesis, by supposing that, when the matter of the 
 vein was forced into the fissure which it fills, the portion next 
 the walls was suddenly cooled, and reduced to the state of 
 glass, while the internal part, by cooling more slowly, be- 
 came gradually more crystalline in its texture, Werner sup- 
 poses that, when a solution entered the fissure, the first de- 
 position was so rapid as to have little or none of the crystal- 
 line appearance, and, as it became more gradual, the matter 
 shewed more tendency to crystallize. 
 
 The structure of the mountains is, in general, finely dis- 
 })laycd. The beds of greenstone and amygdaloid are of great 
 thickness, often from twenty to thirty feet. We frequently 
 observed beds of tut£i, alternating with the greenstone and 
 other rocks. The most remarkable rock to which the Wer- 
 nerian term tu^ can be applied, occurs iji the island of Vidiie, 
 and on the road from Reikiavik to Havnefiord. It is com- 
 posed chiefiy of masses of black jiearlstone imbedded in a <liill 
 blackish green matrix. It contains also masseaof amyg<laloid,
 
 368 TRAVP.T.S IN ICELAND. [Ch. ik. Mineralogy: 
 
 and we found a few nodules of pyrites in it, coated with pitch- 
 coal. Professor Jameson found a rock very like this in 
 Dumfries- shire. 
 
 Pitchstone and pearlstone occur in Iceland. Near Houls, 
 on the Rvalfiord, the former was observed among the debris of 
 a precipice, where it appeared in a bed along with amygda- 
 loid and claystone, and perhaps also porphyry slate and tufFa. 
 These last we did not see in situ, but found them among the 
 masses that had fallen from the rocks in the neighbourhood. 
 We found pitchstone in veins traversing greenstone, on the 
 western side of the mountain of Baula. This mountain greatly 
 resembles, in external appearance, that called Drapuhlid, to 
 tbe immediately described. Near one of the veins, where 
 the rocks were much broken and contorted, was a bed of what 
 appears to be a variety of porphyry slate. (B. 9S.) 
 
 The situation in which pearlstone occurs is somewhat 
 curious. The mountain of Drapuhlid is remarkably distin- 
 guished from those in its neighbourhood. Viewed from 
 Stikkesholm, it appears of a conical shape ; and is almost 
 entirely destitute of vegetation, being covered by loose frag- 
 ments of stone, giving it a reddish-yellow colour. 
 
 It was with great difficulty, and considerable hazard, that 
 we succeeded in reaching a precipice, where the rocks of this 
 mountain were visible in situ. During our ascent we found 
 some small fragments of pearlstone, which the Icelanders mis- 
 took for obsidian, which they call Iceland agate. We also met 
 with masses of wood, mineralised in a manner different, we 
 believe, from any hitherto observed. In external appearance, 
 it is similar to a mass of charcoal; but on taking it up, we were 
 surprised to find it heavy. It contains calcedony, which oc- 
 curs in transverse fissures ; and, when exposed to heat, it 
 hums without flame. After the carbonaceous matter is con-
 
 Ch. nt. Mineralogy.] TRAVELS IV ICELAND. 369 
 
 Slimed, (which is done with difficulty on account of the inter- 
 position of the mineral matter), the texture of the substance 
 remains unaltered, and the weight is scarcely affected. Its 
 colour and general aspect is precisely that of fresh wood, but 
 its other properties are very different. From the minute di- 
 vision of its fibres, when crushed, it strongly resembles as- 
 bestos ; these fibres are transparent, but very brittle. 
 
 This substance has not yet been chemically examined. It 
 is quite different from +he surturbrand of Iceland, found in 
 the north-west quarter of the island, which we had not time 
 to visit. We procured, however, a very good specimen of it, 
 which was used as a table in the farm-house of Snoksdalr. 
 The surturbrand burns with flame. We could procure no 
 satisfactory account of the situation in which it occurs. It 
 was said by some that it was found in rocks ; and by others, 
 in alluvial soil. From Olafson and Paulson's account, it 
 would appear that it occurs in both, and also in connection 
 with volcanic productions : but their description catinot be 
 relied on ; and we may look on this substance as one of the 
 interesting objects that remain to be investigated in this re- 
 markable country. 
 
 The wood seems to be oak. We recollect having seen, on 
 board of a Russian frigate that was in Leith Roads, many 
 years ago, a chest of drawers made of black oak taken out 
 of the Neva. This wood was not, however, of so deep a 
 black as the surturbrand. This last substance can easily be 
 cut and shaped for use ; but it does not cut into shavings, 
 being somewhat brittle. In this respect it resembles very 
 much masses of oak that have been sometimes taken out of 
 lakes and rivers in the Highlands of Scotland, and which, 
 at first, are soft, but afterwards, on drying, become remark- 
 ably hard. 
 
 3 A
 
 370 TRAVELS TN TCP.I.AND. [Ch. ix. Mineralogy. 
 
 To find the fossil wood of the mountain of Drapiihlid in its 
 place, was an object of considerable importance. After some 
 fruitless attempts, we at last succeeded in discovering a track 
 on which we could fix our feet with tolerable firmness, and 
 reached the lowest bed that was visible. This was at an ele- 
 vation of about 700 feet, and proved to be a bed of tuffa, of 
 a loose texture, containing pieces of lava and slags, in which 
 Mr Bright discovered some of the wood. Though the moul- 
 dering of this bed, which was in a decomposed state, account- 
 ed for our having found masses of the wood below, it did not 
 expose the origin of this singular substance. Immediately 
 above the tufi'a was a bed of ash grey pearlstone, which pass- 
 ed into greenish black. From the manner in which this stone 
 disappeared among the other rocks, becoming gradually mix- 
 ed and blended with them, and having some appearance of 
 veins, we were led to think that the bed itself was an interpos- 
 ed branch, or the trunk of a vein. Resting on the pearlstone 
 was a bed of rock, resembling some varieties of pitchstone, 
 which, in different places, appeared to approach to pearl- 
 stone. It contains reniform, botruoidal, and globular masses, 
 the external aspect of which is smooth and somewhat polish- 
 ed ; and varying from a bluish green to a brownish grey co- 
 lour. These are in some instances mere specks, in others 
 half an inch in diameter, and all of them appear radiated 
 from the centres. In some instances, the masses are seen im- 
 bedded in a yellowish white substance, having a smooth shin- 
 ing fracture ; it may be cut with a knife, and appears to be 
 steatite. Except insomuch as regards the steatite, this rock 
 greatly resembles specimens we have seen, from one of the 
 pitchstone veins in the island of Arran. 
 
 Above this is a rock greatly resembling some we observed 
 near Houls, in connection with pitchstone. Its colour is dark
 
 Ch. IX. Mineralogy.'] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 371 
 
 bluish grey, with reddish white round specks. Tlie fracture 
 is rough, uneven, and earthy, and the structure is somewhat 
 slaty. The bed above this appears to be a rock of the same 
 nature ; but it is entirely slaty in its structure, and the specks 
 are hardly visible. These two are also similar to fossils which 
 accompany the veins of pitchstone in Arran, and are pro- 
 bably varieties of claystone. All these beds were apparently 
 horizontal; and those above, to the top of the mountain, ap- 
 peared to be precisely of the same nature. 
 
 In all that part of Iceland which we had an opportunity 
 of examining, the only rocks that did not bear external marks 
 of heat, were greenstone, basalt, amygdaloid, and some varie- 
 ties of claystone and porphyry slate. There was nothing 
 resembling sandstone, except some of the tufFas ; and no 
 trace of transition rocks was seen. But we were so fortunate 
 as to discover a class of rocks, which appear to be of very 
 great consequence in a geological point of view, as we believe 
 they will be found to form an important link in the great 
 chain, which is supposed to connect the external operations 
 of volcanoes, with that modified condition of heat, which is 
 the foundation of the Huttonian theory of the earth ; and to 
 give certainty to the conjecture of Dolomieu respecting cer- 
 tain rocks of Etna. The rocks in question extended over a 
 very large tract of country. For particular description, we 
 shall select a very fine example in the mountain of Akkrefell. 
 
 This mountain stands perfectly detached, being separated 
 from the mountains of Esian by the Hvalfiord; and from those 
 towards the north, by a flat swampy country extending several 
 miles. It is bounded on the south and west partly by the 
 Faxefiord, and partly by the Borgarfiord. On the southern 
 side, the structure of the mountain is exposed almost from 
 top to bottom in a precipice about 2000 feet high. From
 
 Z'JI TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. IX. Mineralogy. 
 
 Indreholm, the beds appear horizontal ; but on going round 
 the mountain, we found that they dipped towards the north- 
 east, forming a consideral)le angle with the horizon. From 
 the sea at Indreholm to the foot of the mountain, there is a 
 flat swamp extending more than a mile. 
 
 To the height of about 800 feet, the mountain of Akkre- 
 fell is composed of beds, generally from ten to twenty, and 
 sometimes extending to forty feet thick, of varieties of amyg- 
 daloid and tufFa. The latter occurred sometimes not more 
 than a foot in thickness, and was interposed between the beds 
 of amygdaloid. Where it was so thin, it much resembled 
 red sandstone. While scrambling among the loose stones, 
 we- had met with quantities of slags, for which we were at a 
 loss to account, as we had been told that nothing like lava 
 existed on, or near this mountain. Its appearance indicated 
 nothing volcanic ; and our surprise on finding any undoubt- 
 ed productions of fire in such a place w as increased, when, 
 at the height above mentioned, we saw the under part of a 
 bed completely slaggy, and bearing the most imequivocal 
 marks of no slight operation of fire ; and, on continuing to 
 ascend, we foxmd every bed, excepting those of tuffa, one of 
 which was at least forty feet thick, presenting the same ap- 
 pearances, and many of them having an amygdaloidal cha- 
 racter. Our astonishment was not lessened on discovering a 
 vein of greenstone, about four feet thick, cutting these beds, 
 and having a vitreous coaling on its sides, which seems to be 
 common to all the ^1eins of the country. 
 
 Similar beds occur in the mountains of Esian, where ihe 
 most important fact connected with them was found in a 
 mass of slag, which contained calcareous sjiar. * Forcibly 
 
 * See Nos. 88 and 89 in the catalogue.
 
 Ch. is. Mineralogt/.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 373 
 
 struck with these facts, we soon endeavoured to account for 
 their existence. That heat had affected these rocks in some 
 way or other, was too apparent to require any further con- 
 sideration ; but under what circumstances that liad liappen- 
 ed, it is of some consequence to inquire. 
 
 Having h)ng meditated on this subject, the earhest conjec- 
 ture that was formed appeared to be the most rational. It 
 was, that the rocks in question were really lavas that had 
 flowed, but under circumstances very different from those 
 which have determined the aspect of common lavas. We all 
 agreed that they must have flowed under the sea. The ex- 
 istence of submarine volcanoes seems to be put beyond a 
 doubt, by the extraordinary phenomena that have been men- 
 tioned as having ajjpeared off the south-west point of Ice- 
 land in the year 17^3, and by many other facts which might 
 be cited. * f 
 
 In order that the theory formed, for explaining the sin- 
 gular appearances described above, may be fully understood, 
 we must refer to the experiments made by Sir James Hall, 
 on the effects of heat modified by compression, which are 
 
 * The most recent occurrence of a marine volcano, was that which appeared 
 near St Michaels, one of the Azores, in February 1811. 
 
 •|- Those to whom the bare inspection of indiridual minerals affords the great- 
 est pleasure, and who conceive that the highest enjoyment to be derived from the 
 study of mineralogy, is to be found in that skill which is necessary to enable 
 them to place a specimen in the class assigned it, despise theory, and, on that ac- 
 count, may consider what follows as very unimportant. Fully acknowledging 
 the indispensable utility of Oryctognosy, we cannot but consider Geology as not 
 the least sublime department of mineralogy ; and, wliile we are daily adding to 
 our knowledge of the structure of the globe, we cannot conceive a more noble oc-. 
 cupation for the mind, than endeavouring to trace the means which have been 
 employed by the great Creator in the formation and establishment of our terres- 
 trial abode.
 
 374 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ix. Mineralogy. 
 
 recorded in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edin- 
 burgh. After a long and unwearied aj)plication to the ob- 
 ject he had in view, Sir James was not content with merely 
 ascertaining the fact, that carbonate of lime could be melt- 
 ed and artificially brought to a state of crystallization ; but 
 Avitli that perseverance which distinguishes him, and which is 
 almost always sure of meeting at length with its due reward, 
 he estimated the amount of the pressure required to retain 
 carbonic acid in imion with lime at a high temperature. From 
 a table he has given, it appears * that, imder a sea no deeper 
 ' than I7O8 feet, near one third of a mile, a limestone would 
 
 * be formed by proper heat ; and that, in a depth of a little 
 ' more than one mile, it would enter into entire fusion. 
 ' Now, the common sounding of mariners extend to 200 fa- 
 
 * thoms, or 1200 feet. Lord Mulgrave found bottom at 
 ' 4680 feet, or nearly nine-tenths of a mile ; and Captain 
 ' Ellis let down a sea-gage to the depth of 5346 feet. It 
 ' thus appears that, at the bottom of a sea which would be 
 ' sounded by a line much less than double of the usual 
 
 * length, and less than half the depth of that sounded by 
 ' Lord Mulgrave, limestone might be formed by heat ; and 
 ' that, at the depth reached by Captain Ellis, the entire 
 ' fusion would be accomplished, if the bed of shells were' 
 
 * touched by a lava at the extremity of its course, when its 
 
 * heat was lowest. Were the heat of the lava greater, a 
 
 * greater depth of sea would of course be requisite to con- 
 
 * strain the carbonic acid eifectually ; and future experiments 
 ' may determine what depth is required to co-operate with 
 
 * any given temperature. It is enough for our present pur- 
 
 * pose to have shewn, that the result is possible in any case, 
 
 * and to have circumscribed the necessary force of these 
 ' agents within moderate limits. At the same time, it must
 
 Ch. IX. Mineralogy.'] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 3/5 
 
 ' be observed, that we have been far from stretchinff the 
 ' known facts ; for when we compare the small extent of sea 
 ' in which any soundings can be found, with that of the vast 
 * unfathomed ocean, it is obvious that, in assuming a depth 
 ' of a mile or two, we fall very short of the medium. M. de 
 ' la Place, reasoning from the phenomena of the tides, states 
 ' it as highly probable that this medium is not less than eleven 
 ' English miles.' 
 
 In making these remarks, Sir James Hall had not sub- 
 marine volcanoes in view ; but let us consider what would be 
 the effect of a submarine eruption. Let us imagine one to 
 take place at a depth sufficient to restrain carbonic acid. The" 
 bottom of a mass of fluid by heat, flowing over a cold and wet 
 surface, will certainly become vesicular and slaggy. In its 
 progress, the matter may have a slaggy crust formed upon 
 its front, which may occasionally be burst, propelled, and 
 turned downwards. 
 
 We must believe that, in a case of this sort, steam will be 
 produced abundantly ; and although in such circumstances it 
 must also be rapidly condensed, still there will be a constant 
 supply, and a stratum will always be j)resent separating the 
 hot mass and the water, in the same manner as a drop of 
 water is kept detached from a plate of red hot iron. Thus 
 no water could enter the substance of the lava from above, 
 for, when in the form of steam, it always has a tendency up- 
 wards. In its progress we may suppose the lava to displace 
 the water ; biit still a sufficient quantity of moisture may 
 also be supposed to remain on the bottom over which it 
 flows, to produce the appearances for which we are now 
 endeavouring to account. This moisture at the bottom when 
 converted into steam, operates differently from that above the 
 lava. It must, from its tendency upwards, act upon the fluid
 
 376 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. {Ch. ix. Mineralogy. 
 
 lava, and produce that great porosity and slagginess exem- 
 plified by the rocks in question, and render the lava more or 
 less vesicular, according to its degree of fliiidity. When the 
 lava is very hot, and consequently very liquid, the steam will 
 have less difficulty in penetrating it, than when it is viscid. 
 We may conceive cases in which the lava burst forth in such 
 a high state of liqviidity, as to permit the whole of the mois- 
 ture to pass through it in the form of steam ; in such a state 
 of viscidity as to admit of its escaping very slowly, so that the 
 lava may become solid, and by confining the steam, more or 
 less vesicular ;* and lastly, so tough, that the exertions of the 
 elastic vapour shall be confined entirely to the lower surface 
 of the lava. In the first case a compact mass of stone would 
 be formed, having no appearance of the action of heat ; in 
 the second, on account of the pressure of the superincumbent 
 water being sufticient to prevent the escape of carbonic acid 
 and other volatile ingredients, a vesicular, and amygdaloidal 
 mass would be produced ; and from the last would result a 
 mass entirely compact, excepting at the under surface. It 
 may occur to some, that the lava under such circumstances 
 as those stated, would be so rapidly cooled as to have none 
 of the stony character. But a moment's consideration of 
 the high temperature to which the superincumbent water, to 
 a certain extent next the hot mass, must have been raised, 
 will shew that the cooling of the lava could not have been 
 rapid. Sir James Hall, when he had recourse to steam to 
 
 * In such a case, it is possible that the steam when condensed, would in some 
 instances remain confined in the stone in the form of water ; and thus the fact of 
 water being found in the vesicles of basalt and other rocks, may be accounted for. 
 It must be observed, that the steam, in such circumstances, must have been very 
 much condensed, so much indeed as to be almost in the state of water greatly 
 heated, much more so than in the familiar experiment made with Papin's digester.
 
 SaAnt^t^t^t^ ^tim ^ Zh.ffa. on fAr t-^aJ-Z'fi^-u^^n-rrjrrA 
 
 
 ''isamffp;.,^ '''"''''■ ----- 
 
 ''''WlMllliiJIII^ 
 
 
 Sl^^/.J.^/ fr S-- f' -I/. 
 
 j^ir,,/it,/ir^':-'i'r''i'' Pt^ ■':''■
 
 Ch. IX. Mineralogy.] TRAVELS IN ICELAKD'.' 3 J J 
 
 assist the compression in his experiments, rlid on a small scale, 
 what Nature is here supposed to have done on a large one, 
 in producing what we shall distinguish by the name of sub- 
 marine lavas. On the mountain of Akkrefell, and in various 
 other parts of Iceland, the three cases which have been stated 
 ; are illustrated. Some of the beds in the upper part of Akkre- 
 ; fell are very compact, others are vesicular, and the greatest 
 number, when closely examined, appear to have more or less 
 of the amygdaloidal character. On the coast near Krisuvik 
 is a series of beds, very slaggy at the bottom, and so compact 
 above as not to differ from some varieties of what is called 
 porphyry slate. On the banks of the Thiorsaa, near Eyalsta- 
 dir, we saw, on the west side, a bed of compact basalt the 
 under surface of which was slaggy ; and on the east side abed 
 of amygdaloid in the same circumstances, resting on tuffa full 
 of slags. Near the pass called Bulands-hofde, on the Breidc- 
 fiord, is a bed of amygdaloid columnar tlwoughout, and hav- 
 ing the same appearance on its lower surface. The extensive 
 and beautiful ranges of lofty columns at Stappen present the 
 same fact, and have slaggy masses included in them. The 
 same thing occurred in the columns of greenstone, between 
 Olafsvik and Bulandshofde, but the inidcr surface in this in- 
 stance, instead of having a marked slaggy appearance, was 
 waved, and covered with the same vitreous coating mentioned 
 as peculiar to the veins of Iceland. 
 
 Such is one way in which the curious fact of beds of rock 
 being found, having all the characters of common lava in one 
 part of their substance, and not at all in others, may be 
 explained, and the truth of Sir James Hall's conclusions 
 amply confirmed. But there yet remains to be considered, 
 a fact connected with these, which adds greatly to their 
 importance, and, if the theory now offered be correct, 
 
 3 B 
 
 ««
 
 378 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ca.ix. Mineralogy, 
 
 gives confirmation to the doctrines of Hutton, and places 
 them almost beyond dispute. We allude to the veins of green- 
 stone and basalt which traverse these rocks. 
 
 Along the west side of Esian, on the eastern shore of the 
 Hvalfiord, a perpendicular vein is exposed to a great height, 
 and to a considerable distance. Its side is seen sometimes to a 
 great extent, and where the rocks have been ruptured the sec- 
 tion appears. This vein cuts the rocks from top to bottom, as 
 well those that have no slaggy matter on their under surface, 
 as those that have. The same is the case of the vein we saw 
 on Akkrefell, though we could not trace it so far. These veins 
 are all split horizontally into fragments of a columnar form. 
 It is hardly necessary to observe, that the matter of a vein 
 must be of newer formation than the rocks which it traverses. 
 Here then, we have veins of greenstone and basalt cutting 
 submarine lavas ; and it seems probable that they have been 
 formed of lava which has been forced up from below, and that 
 the matter filling the rents has become greenstone by slow 
 cooling. On the coast between Havnefiord and Be«sestad, 
 below Garde, veins of greenstone are seen intersecting tuffa, 
 and their course is marked by confusion, and evidences of the 
 action of heat. Veins of greenstone, which has more of the 
 characters of erupted lava, by being much mingled with slaggy 
 matter, are seen to the westward of Olafsvik, cutting through 
 the bank of loose gravel, which there forms the beach, and 
 appears to be an unconsolidated tuffa. 
 
 The veins which appear in the mountain of Somma, and 
 were taken notice of by Sir James Hall in both his memoirs, 
 have been described by Breislak.* ' The southern face of 
 * Mount Somma shaped into a peak, is intersected by many 
 
 * Voyages Physiques, et Lithologiques dans la Campanie. Paris ISQl.
 
 €h. IX. Mineralogy.'] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 379 
 
 * veins of lava, some vertical, others inclined at difforcnl 
 
 * angles, or zig zag, which in some places arc hardly three 
 
 * feet wide. They form the support of the mountain ; for 
 
 * the spaces which they separate are only heaps of loose mat- 
 
 * ter. Their substance is the same, a lava full of crystals of 
 
 * pyroxene, and containing a great quantity of leucites ; it is 
 
 * often prismatic, the prisms having their axes lying across the 
 
 * direction of the vein. Some of these prisms being detached 
 
 * by decomposition, they form by that means steps which 
 
 * recal the memory of trap.' Our author goes on to slate 
 the theory of these veins, which have been considered, bv 
 every one who has seen them, as lava that had filled up the 
 rents during an eruption. These veins of Somma appear to 
 bear a strong resemblance to most of the veins in Iceland, so 
 far as respects the prismatic or columnar form, a tendency to 
 which is very conmion in the veins of that country. Breislak 
 supposes the prismatic form to have been occasioned by sud- 
 den refrigeration ; that form seems, however, to be owing to 
 some other cause. The submarine lavas are sometimes co- 
 lumnar and sometimes not. We did not see any common 
 lava in Iceland that had assumed the columnar form, though 
 in other volcanic countries it is said to be frequent. But it 
 appears in rocks of igneous origin, and is remarkable in one 
 which we shall soon have occasion to describe.* 
 
 * I have some doubts of what has been very often stated, and is at this time 
 generally believed, that rich soil has been formed by the decomposition of lava. 
 I saw much lava in Iceland which had flowed long before tliat country was in- 
 habited, but had not been affected in the slightest degree by exposure to the air 
 for above a thousand years. I state this for the purpose of inducing travellers to 
 examine lava strictly, and to distinguish its varieties, some of whicii may possibly 
 be really liable to decomposition. But there are other volcanic substances which 
 are capable of being speedily reduced to the state of soil, and these may perhaps 
 have been mistaken for decomposed lava.
 
 380 TRAVELS IN ICELANT). [Ch. ix. Mineralogy;. 
 
 We proceed to make some remarks on the tuffa of Iceland. 
 When we find it alternating with the submarine lavas, the 
 two substances mutually assist in proving the origin of each 
 other. In this instance the tuffa invariably includes masses of 
 lava, and slags of various sizes, many of very great bulk, and 
 all of them are more or less rounded by the action of water, 
 and the beds are sometimes not less than forty feet in thick- 
 ness. That the materials composing these beds have been 
 ejected by a submarine volcano, seems to be very probable, 
 both from their nature and their connection with the lavas. 
 On the coast near Krisuvik this connection appears very re- 
 markable, and is best illustrated by the sketch. The quantity 
 of black slags that apjiear in the tuffa at this place, leave no 
 doubt of the source whence it has been derived. 
 
 TufFa is found alternating with the beds of amygdaloid 
 which form the lower part of the mountain of Akkrefell, but 
 they present nothing indicative of the action of heat. We 
 must therefore conclude, that these beds are also submarine 
 lavas that have been ervipted at a much greater depth than 
 those above ; at a depth sufficient to prevent water taking 
 the elastic form of steam ; imless we suppose that they were 
 placed in the situation described in the first of the three cases 
 already stated, viz. that the lava was so hot and so fluid, as 
 to admit of the escape of all the moisture on the surface over 
 which it flowed. 
 
 Tufflx is found in another form, composing whole moim- 
 tains, and even long ranges of them. In these there is no 
 appearance of regularity, but all is heaped uj) in confusion. 
 One of the best examples of this is the mountain of Helgafell, 
 a few miles distant from Havnefiord. This moimtain is about 
 1000 feet above the level of the sea, and stands quite insu- 
 lated. It is a very remarkable fact, that wherever the opera-
 
 Ch.ix. Mineralogy.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND, 381 
 
 tions of volcanic fire are seen, hills of tuflfa are found. Lava 
 and tuffa are sure indications of each other. The mountains 
 of the Guldbringe Syssel are almost entirely composed of tufFa. 
 The hills round Mount Hekla, near the Sneefell Jokul, and in 
 the neighbourhood of every lava we met with, consist of that 
 substance. Whether these hills and moimtains have been 
 formed under the sea, or have been produced by the ejections 
 of the volcanoes nhich they surround, is a cpicstion of some 
 interest to a geologist. We are not yet sufficiently acquainted 
 with the tufFas of Italy, which are known to have been formed 
 by external volcanoes, to enable us to compare their situa- 
 tion and appearance with those of other countries ; nor do 
 we know that the tulfa which overwhelmed Herculaneum 
 has been ever fully explored, so as to determine whether it 
 proceeded from the volcano in a stream, or whether the ma- 
 terials composing it fell down in an ejected shower.* While 
 this is the state of our knowledge respecting one of the most 
 curious and interesting events in the history of volcanic erup- 
 tions, it is needless to enter into much discxjssion. 
 
 We are disposed, however, to attach very great importance 
 to the investigation of the tuffa of Iceland. It has been al- 
 ready seen interbedded with trap rocks, and with submarine 
 lavas placed above them ; and is a connecting link in that 
 strong analogical chain, which seems to bind all together to 
 a common origin. The paste of almost all the tuffas appears 
 to be the same, and they only differ in the nature of the in- 
 cluded masses. Those interbedded with trap rocks contain 
 
 * Something which, from the description of Mr Stephenson, appears to be 
 tuffa, covered part of the country, alter the eruption of 1755, from Kattlagiau 
 Jokul. He says, — ' The sand which fell, afterwards united, and covered the 
 ' meadows with a yellow and copper-coloured crust, quite compact, and in many 
 ' places exhibiting a perfect lava/ Yellow is the prevailing colour of the paste 
 of the tuffa.
 
 382 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ix. Minerahgf/i 
 
 masses of greenstone, basalt, and amygdaloid; those connect- 
 ed with submarine or external lavas, contain lava and slags. 
 The submarine lavas are always ujjpermost ; and the funda- 
 mental principles of the Huttonian theory, confirmed by ex- 
 periment, teach us to believe, that the greater the depth at 
 which an eruption took place, the formation of rock would 
 be the more perfect. Whether tuffa contains perfect rock, 
 or lava and slags, there can be little doubt of its mode of 
 formation being the same in both cases. 
 
 The rounded appearance of the masses indicates the ope- 
 ration of water, and leads us irresistibly to the bottom of the 
 sea, as the scene of the great labours of nature. The indu- 
 bitable proofs of the action of heat presented by submarine 
 lavas ; the striking connection between the operations of ex- 
 ternal volcanoes and tuffa; and the presence of that sub- 
 stance among rocks which bear no evident marks of having 
 been acted upon by heat, connect the rocks together, in an 
 origin which the enlightened Hutton first conceived, and 
 which, since that profound philosopher's death, has been al- 
 most demonstrated. 
 
 Nor must the fact of veins of greenstone cutting tuffa be 
 omitted, in the consideration of this interesting subject. Some 
 remarkable facts of this sort we observed to the westward of 
 Havnefiord, below Garde, on the shore. There we saw the 
 veins fairly cutting tuffa, and their sides, in contact with it, 
 presented the same vitreous appearance, which is so remark- 
 able a feature of the veins in Iceland. In some places, the 
 irruption of the matter of the Aeins has caused the utmost 
 confusion ; and the marks of heat, which the specimens we 
 have brought from the place in question present, * seem to 
 us unequivocal. 
 
 * See 47 to 52 in the catalogue.
 
 Ch. IX. MiTieralogy.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 383 
 
 Nothing seems to bear more strongly against the Nep- 
 tunian system than the alternation of what, in its language, 
 are called mechanical and chemical deposits. It is nothing 
 uncommon, in this country, to see highly crystallised green- 
 stone resting on sandstone ; and, in Icelat^d, we see it placed 
 above tufFa, which has been formed by mechanical exertions, 
 far more violent than those required to form sandstone. To 
 suppose (which is necessary in such cases) that, when the 
 waters of the globe rose at one time, they were fit only to 
 act mechanically; while, afterwards, they were in every re- 
 spect adapted to act the part of a chemical solvent ; appears 
 to be a violent trespass on the steady, simple laws of nature. 
 
 There yet remain to be mentioned some effects of subter- 
 raneous heat, which seem to be peculiar to Iceland ; at least, 
 nothing similar has been described as existing in other vol- 
 canic countries, so far as we know. 
 
 The first rocks which we examined in Iceland were those in 
 the vicinity of Reikiavik. Along the coast, we traced two beds 
 of rock, both of which bore strong marks of having been 
 affected by heat, Both of them assumed the colunuiar form 
 in many places ; but this was most remarkable in the lowest, 
 ■which was entirely columnar, the columns varying from a few 
 inches to several feet in diameter. From descriptions and 
 specimens, we had formed a very different idea of the appear- 
 ance of lava from that now before us ; and concluded, rather 
 hastily perhaps, that though the rocks in question had been 
 subjected to heat, they had never flowed from a crater. On 
 examining the elevations in the neighboiu'hood, we found 
 them composetl of the same substance, which appeared as if 
 it had been raised up, as it was burst in many places.* This 
 
 * For a description of these rocks^ see catalogue A 1. to A 5.
 
 384 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ix. 3fiiieralogjf. 
 
 circumstance seemed to confirm our conjecture; for we could 
 not conceive how a stream of lava should flow over, and 
 cover the hills, while nothing appeared to prevent it from 
 going round on all sides. On the way to Havnefiord, we 
 found the hills to consist of the sanie siibstances; and, about 
 two miles from that place, we saw a real stream of lava ; one 
 that accorded fully with the ideas we had formed ; and we 
 were instantly struck with the importance of attending par- 
 ticularly to the distinction between two lavas, one of which 
 seemed to have been formed in a manner hitherto unnoticed. 
 We observed, in many places, that the stream which had 
 passed by Havnefiord had flowed over the other lava. Hav- 
 ing travelled a few miles along the lava, and passed across a 
 ridge covered with slags, we descended into a valley, where 
 we had an opportunity of ascertaining that there really were 
 two distinct formations of lava, one of which had every ap- 
 pearance of not having flowed. It was heaved up into large 
 bubbles or blisters, some of which were round, and from a 
 few feet to forty or fifty in diameter ; others were long, some 
 straight, and some waved. A great many of these bubbles 
 had burst, and displayed caverns of considerable depth. On 
 account of this peculiar character, we shall distinguish it by 
 the name of cavernous lava. This was stretched as far as the 
 eye could reach, over a widely extended plain. In some 
 parts of it, we observed numerous little craters, from which 
 flames and ejected matter had issued, but no lava. They were 
 generally covered at the top with domes of slaggy matter, 
 and the flames seem to have got vent from the sides. This 
 lava occurred in some places much broken, but presenting a 
 different aspect from streams of lava. Deep rents traversed 
 it, and shewed that the rock below was more compact than 
 that above.
 
 Ch. IX. Mineralogi/.] TRAVELS IX ICELAND. 3Sj 
 
 Having now ascertained the characters of the cavernous 
 lava, and guarded ourselves against deception, we carefully 
 noticed every appearance of it, that occurred during our 
 travels, and we had soon reason to be surprised at its great 
 extent. We did not see any thing in the common streams of 
 lava like a defined approach to the columnar form ; in the 
 cavernous lava, nothing can be more common, or more cha- 
 racteristic. The external characters of this substance vary a 
 little, some of it being pretty compact; but, for the most 
 part, it is very vesicular, and generally contains abundance 
 of felspar. 
 
 We traced this lava to a great distance. It forms large vallies ; 
 is often covered by more recent lava, sometimes with alluvial 
 sand, and very generally with soil. Sometimes it is dilficult to 
 distinguish cavernous lava from that which has flowed over it 
 when such a junction occurs. It is very distinct at the very base 
 of Hekla, and has, no doubt, been always taken for lava erupted 
 from that mountain. On comparison with those great streams 
 which may be traced from the volcano, the difference between 
 the two lavas becomes at once apparent. The whole of the 
 great plain below Hekla is composed of the cavernous lava, 
 Avhich is more elevated and more broken in some places than in 
 others. On the map, this species of lava, and such districts 
 as have undergone the action of fire, are marked by light 
 blue. * The greatest extent of it which we traced was from 
 the Guldbringe Syssel, where it reaches from Cape Reikianes 
 towards Thingvalla in a north-easterly direction, and east- 
 ward towards the Markarfliot. The country towards the 
 Geysers we believe to be chiefly submarine lava. 
 
 At Thingvalla there are two great parallel rents, about a 
 
 * Lava that seems to have flowed in streams, is shaded darker. The subma- 
 rine lavas are not distinguished. 
 
 3 c
 
 386 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ix. Mineralogi/. 
 
 mile distant from each other, eighty or ninety feet deep, one 
 of which exposed the structure of the cavernous lava. The 
 other we did not examine. The rock exhibited the remains 
 of beds or strata, the whole bearing the marks of fire in a 
 greater or less degree, the uppermost one being heaved up 
 into large bubbles. The formation of these rents has been 
 owing to the ground sinking ; at the time when that hap- 
 pened, it is probable that the lake of Thingvalla was thus 
 formed. 
 
 From all these facts we were led to conclude that the ca- 
 vernous lava had been formed by subterraneous heat having 
 affected a vast extent of surface, and softened, and indeed 
 melted the rocks in situ. But perhaps it may belong to the 
 class of submarine lavas, and has been erupted at no great 
 depth. The circumstance of alluvial sand covering it to a 
 considerable thickness in many places, particularly near 
 Mount Hekla, and the appearance of a tract of gravel upon 
 it in the Guldbringe Syssel, seem to be sufficient evidence of 
 the sea having once been above it. This seems also probable 
 from the appearance of the little craters mentioned above. 
 The water may have been the cause of the domes being form- 
 ed, as it would prevent the flames from darting straight up, 
 and would cool the matter thrown out. 
 
 With little interruption the cavernous lava is seen dipping 
 into the sea from Ca|)e Reikianes to Krisuvik, and from 
 Eyarback to the Markarfliot. But had it flowed, even under 
 the sea, it is probable that it would have assumed a dif- 
 ferent appearance, and the bubbles would not have preserv- 
 ed so much regularity in figure, where they do not happen to 
 be burst. We are disposed, therefore, to think, that internal 
 fire has attacked the surface, and penetrated ihe rocks so as 
 to soften and even fuse them. We have thrown out these
 
 Ch. IX. Mineralogy:] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 397 
 
 conjectures chiefly with the view of inducing travellers to 
 ascertain whether any thing similar is to be found in other 
 volcanic countries-; and those who may visit Iceland, to ex- 
 plore so remarkable an appearance. 
 
 Volcanic countries, though their aspect has been described 
 by the most eminent naturalists, have never been minutely 
 examined, since it has been in the power of geologists to make 
 themselves understood by one another, and to view the ma- 
 terials which compose the crust of the earth, as connected 
 together in a system, disclosing the various revolutions to 
 which the globe has been subjected. Whether the views we 
 have taken of the rocks of Iceland will hereafter be found to 
 accord with the structure of other volcanic regions, we dare 
 not positively assert ; but it is very probable that, enclose 
 investigation. Mount Etna will be found to contain geological 
 facts, far more interesting and important than any which have 
 yet been discovered in the vicinity of that celebrated volcano. 
 We consider it probable that the active volcanoes of the pre- 
 sent day, are merely the prolonged exertions of subterraneous 
 fire, which first broke out in the depths of the ocean, form- 
 ing the beds and veins of the trap genus at the greatest depth; 
 then those which we have denominated submarine lavas, un- 
 til the solid materials reached the surface, and formed dry 
 land. The subsequent eruptions have produced accumula- 
 tions of matter differing from the above mentioned substances 
 in their structure, but not in their component parts ; differ- 
 ing, because they were no longer exposed to the important 
 influence of the pressure of the superincumbent water. 
 
 Beside the filling iip of the ocean, and the formation of 
 land by such repeated operations of internal heat, this power- 
 ful agent seems to have raised vast masses of rock out of the 
 sea, to a great elevation. But it would lead us into a dis-
 
 388 ~ TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Ch. ix. Mineralogy. 
 
 cussion foreign to the objects of this chapter, to treat, ge- 
 nerally, of the elevation of land above the surface of the sea. 
 It may be just observed, that the aspect of the rocks of Ice- 
 land exhibits striking evidence of violent disruption, such as 
 seems to have been the universal cause of the present uneven 
 appearance of the surface of the globe. To consider the 
 slow operations of the atmosphere, or rivers, as sufficient for 
 shaping out huge mountains, and forming stupendous preci- 
 pices, which are known to defy the most violent external at- 
 tacks the destructive agents of nature can make, is a poor 
 resource, either for those philosophers who can raise and sink 
 the waters of the ocean as fancy may prompt, or for those 
 who have seen the effects of the earthquake and the volcano, 
 and can appreciate the power of subterraneous heat. 
 
 From the best information we could procure ; from spe- 
 cimens of the rocks ; and from the descriptions of the natu- 
 ral historians of Iceland ; it appears, that the whole of the 
 island is of the same formations ; that is, of the trap and vol- 
 canic. On the eastern coast, chiefly in the vicinity of Beru- 
 fiord, are foimd those beautiful specimens of calcareous spar 
 which adorn the cabinets of mineralogists. Zeolites, calce- 
 donies, and agates, are also found there, as well as in vari- 
 ous other parts of the country. 
 
 Such, then, is the result of our mineralogical researches in 
 Iceland, where, we are confident, a very wide field is yet open 
 for geological discovery. If the details we have given shall 
 have afforded any amusement to geologists ; and if they shall 
 induce them to pay more accurate attention to \olcanic 
 countries than has hitherto been bestowed upon them, we 
 shall recollect only with pleasurse, the difficulties and dangers 
 to which we subjected ourselves, in exploring a country, which 
 every where presents objects to fill the scientific mind with 
 astonishment and delight.
 
 Ch. IX. Mineral waters.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 389 
 
 MINERAL WATERS. 
 
 The most remarkable mineral water in the world, is that of 
 the most wonderful fountain, the Great Geyser. The deposi- 
 tion of siliceous earth was a fact at which chemists were 
 greatly surprised, and which annoiuiced a property of water 
 unexpected and important. The celebrated Dr Black, in his 
 elegant and accurate analyses of the Geyser water, and that 
 of a spring at Reikum, has pointed out the cause of these 
 waters containing silica in solution ; and has given it as his 
 opinion, that the uncombined alkali contained in them, as- 
 sisted by the grefit heat to which the water is subject in its 
 subterraneous caverns, is the agent which enables the water 
 to dissolve that refractory earth. It is to be regretted that 
 Dr Black did not analyse the matter which is deposited by 
 these waters. The appearance of the ancient depositions is 
 various, and presents some singular forms ; and it will not 
 be an uninteresting inquiry, to ascertain whether, at for- 
 mer periods, the water has held different substances in solu- 
 tion. 
 
 The contents of the water of the Geyser, as ascertained by 
 Dr Black, are as follow : 
 
 In gr. 10,000 of Geyser water — 
 
 Soda ---_-- 0.95 gr. 
 
 Alumina ----- 0.48 
 
 Sihca 5.40 
 
 Muriate of soda - - - 2.46 
 
 Dry sulphate of soda - 1.46 
 
 Total - - - 10.75
 
 890 ' TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cb. IX. Mineral tcalers. 
 
 In gr. 10,000 of Reikum water — 
 
 Soda ------ 0.51 
 
 Alumina ----- O.'Oo 
 
 Silica ------ 3.73 
 
 Muriate of soda - - - 2.90 
 Dry sulphate of soda - 1.28 
 
 Total - - - 8.47 
 Dr Black has also given the proportions contained in an 
 English gallon of the waters : 
 
 Gej/ser. 
 
 Soda 5.56 gr. 
 
 Alumina ----- 2.80 
 
 Silica 31.38 
 
 Muriate of soda - - - 14.42 
 Dry sulphate of soda - 8.57 
 
 Reikum. 
 Soda ------ 3. gr. 
 
 Alumina ----- 0.29 
 
 Silica 21.83 
 
 Muriate of soda - - 16.96 
 Dry sulphate of soda - 7-53 
 There are some hot springs at Reikum which deposit car- 
 bonate of lime in considerable quantities. The muddy springs 
 near the Geyser have not yet been examined ; nor the waters 
 which escape from the sulphur mountains. 
 
 The first cold mineral water which we procured was from 
 Stadarhraun. The minister of the place informed us, that he 
 had discovered the spring not very long ago ; and that, on 
 drinking some of it, he felt considerable uneasiness in his 
 bowels. When fresh from the spring, from which it issues in 
 a small quantity, the water tastes acid and astringent, and
 
 Ch. IX. Mineral waters.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND. 391 
 
 is not perfectly transparent. It rises at the distance of a few 
 yards from the bank of a small river, seemingly from amongst 
 lava, of which the valley is full. This water was put into the 
 hands of Dr Thomas Thomson, who favoured us with the 
 following remarks. 
 
 1. This water is transparent and colourless ; its taste is 
 acid, and rather unpleasant. Its specific gravity, at the tem- 
 perature of 60°, is 1,0025. This, according to Mr Kirwan's 
 formula, gives us 3.5 as the quantity of saline matter in 100 
 parts of the water. 
 
 2. Ten cubic inches of this water, which are equivalent to 
 2533.52 grains, were found to contain 2^ cubic inches of car- 
 bonic acid gas, or ^th of their bulk. No other gas could be 
 detected in the liquid. 
 
 3. From 10 cubic inches of the Avater, Sf grains of car- 
 bonate of lime were obtained, partly by boiling, partly by 
 evaporation, 
 
 4. The only other constituent detected in the water was 
 muriate of soda. The quantity was not determined ; but it 
 was not much greater than what is found united to water in 
 most cases. 
 
 5. This water, then, owed its peculiarities entirely to the 
 portion of carbonate of lime (held in solution by the carbonic 
 acid gas) which it contained. 
 
 The water of the spring called Olkilda, or the ale-well, 
 was contained in a hollow near the banks of a small stream, 
 about two miles from Roudemelr. The temperature was 45*. 
 The water was in constant and violent agitation, owing to 
 the escape of a great quantity of carbonic acid gas, with 
 which it was very highly impregnated. Unluckily, the water 
 which we succeeded in bringing home, froze and burst the 
 bottle in wliich it was contained, so that its other gaseous
 
 392 TRAVELS IN ICEI-ANP. [Cn. ix. Mhieral waters. 
 
 contents could not be ascertained. When thawed, the water 
 had nothing pecnhar in taste or smell. According to Dr 
 Thomson, its specific gravity, at 60°, was 1.0001, which in- 
 dicates a water of great purity. Accordingly, nothing could 
 be detected by re-agents, except traces of muriate of soda. 
 
 The spring at Lysiehouls was of the temperature 9^°, and 
 was considerably agitated by the escape of a gaseous fluid ; 
 9 probably carbonic acid gas. The following is Dr Thomson's 
 account of it. 
 
 1. This water was transparent and colourless. Its smell 
 was peculiar, and probably proceeded from a minute por- 
 tion of sulphurated hydrogen gas which it contained, as was 
 indicated by the brown colour of the precipitate when nitrate 
 of silver was dropped into it. Its taste was acid and disa- 
 greeable. Its specific gravity, at 60°, was 1.0020. 
 
 2. The constituents detected in 10 cubic inches of this 
 water were as follows : 
 
 3.7 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas, probably mixed 
 with a minute portion of sulphurated hydrogen gas; 
 
 0.9 grain of carbonate of lime ; 
 
 1.7 grain of crystallised subcarbonate of soda ; 
 
 1 grain of muriate of soda ; and 
 
 Traces of a sulphate, probably sulphate of lime 
 The next mineral water we found not far from Buderstad. 
 It was in a hole, in a flat piece of ground, close to a swamp. 
 There was a little agitation, from the escape of a small quan- 
 tity of gas, and the water appeared slightly turbid. Its taste 
 was acid and disagreeable, and very like the former. Dr 
 Thomson found, 
 
 1. Its specific gravity, at 60% to be 1.00217- 
 
 2. Ten cubic inches were found to contain the following 
 constituents :
 
 Cb. K. Mineral waters.] TRAVELS IN ICELAND^ oO^ 
 
 3.8 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas mixed, probabl)- 
 with some sulphurated hydrogen gas. For nitrate 
 of silver was thrown down, of a dark brown colour, 
 by the water; and this took place even after the 
 liquid had been boiled for an hour in an open 
 flask; 
 4 grains of crystallised subcarbonatc of soda ; 
 0.8 of carbonate of lime ; 
 
 0.33 of a white powder, which docs not fuse with soda, 
 but dissolves without effervescence in hot sulphuric 
 acid. It is therefore alumina. 
 A minute portion of muriate of soda. 
 Thus the examination of the mineral waters of Iceland 
 has shewn the possibility of two of the earths, not before sus- 
 pected to be soluble in water, being held in solution by means 
 of a small portion of soda. Dr Black does not seem to have 
 attributed any influence to the neutral salts ; though it is not 
 unlikely that the presence of alumina may be owing to the 
 action of the sulphate of soda. Suli)hate of alumina will pro- 
 bably be found to constitute a princi})al ingredient in the 
 water of the muddy springs. The source from which the water 
 derives the substances it holds in solution, nuist be involved in 
 mystery, till some convulsion of nature shall lay open its hid- 
 den laboratories. Dr Black has supposed that the muriate 
 and sulphate of soda, conveyed by sea water, has been ap- 
 plied, under the influence of violent heat, to the strata which 
 contain siliceous and argillaceous earth. The analyses by 
 Dr Kennedy have shewn, that silica, alumina, soda, and 
 muriatic acid, exist in lava and in greenstone ; so that the 
 conveyance of the saline matter, by means of sea water, need 
 not be had recourse to, when we can suppose a more proba- 
 ble source of supply. The springs that are turbid, seem really 
 
 3 D
 
 394 TRAVELS IN ICELAND. [Cs. ix. Mineral waters. 
 
 to have acted on rocks liable to decomposition ; and pyrites 
 being found in considerable quantity among the clay which 
 they throw out, is sufficient evidence of the fact. But the 
 remarkable transparency of the water of the Geyser, while it 
 is subject to the most violent agitation, renders the supposi- 
 tion of decomposed rocks being the source of the ingredients 
 found in the water improbable. The iron, and other matter 
 which might have destroyed the transparency of the water, no 
 doubt, may be left by the water in its progress to the place 
 from whence it is thro^vn out. Some may be disposed to 
 think, that both the heat and the solution, are caused by water 
 meeting with the metals of the earths, and that of the alkali ; 
 but, notwithstanding such conjectures being interesting and 
 reasonable, they do not carry us beyond bare possibility, and 
 Jeave the inquiring mind still dissatisfied.
 
 APPENDIX.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 No. I. 
 
 ON THE DISEASES OF THE ICELANDERS. 
 
 The poverty of the Icelanders, and the dispersion of their 
 small community over so vast an extent of country, render it 
 almost impossible that medical practitioners should obtain an 
 independent subsistence in the island. To obv iate, as far as 
 possible, this evil, a small medical establishment is provided 
 at the public expence ; consisting of a superintendant physi- 
 cian, who has the title of Landphysicus, an apothecary, and 
 five subordinate medical men, who are stationed in different 
 parts of the island. The physician and apothecary are settled 
 in the vicinity of Reikiavik ; where a house, somewhat supe- 
 rior in size and accommodation to the common class of Ice- 
 landic habitations, is provided for their reception. Independ- 
 ently of this provision, and the use of some land annexed to 
 the house, the Landphysicus has an annual salary of 600 rix- 
 dollars, with the liberty to avail himself of the profits of any 
 practice which his situation may afford. The present pos-
 
 398 APPENDIX. [Diseases. 
 
 sessor of the office is Dr King, a native of Iceland, but edu- 
 cated at Copenhagen. Of the country practitioners, one is 
 stationed on the southern coast of the island ; another on 
 the eastern coast; a third on the northern ; and two in the 
 western province. The reader will readily conceive how en- 
 tirely destitute of medical assistance many parts of the coun- 
 try must be, when it is mentioned that some of these districts, 
 subject to the care of a single individual, extend nearly 200 
 miles along the coast, with a breadth varying from ten to thirty 
 miles. We had the opportunity, while in Iceland, of seeing 
 two of the country practitioners ; both very respectable men, 
 and well informed in their profession. One of them, Mr 
 Paulson, has already been noticed, as possessing a more ex- 
 tensive knowledge of natural history than any of his country- 
 men. 
 
 li'jfWith the exception of three hospitals, in which a few incu- 
 rable lepers receive gratuitous support, no medical institution; 
 exists on the island. These hospitals are maintained at the, 
 public expence; and in a method worthy of being noticed 
 from its singularity. On a certain specified day, at that time 
 of the year when the fishery on the coast is most abundant, 
 and successful, every fishing boat in the island is required to 
 contribute one man's share of the captiu'e that has been made. 
 A provision is added to the law, that if the number of fish 
 taken by any boat on this day does not afford a share of five 
 to each fisherman, the contribution to the hospitals shall be 
 delayed, until the next time when the produce of a day's fish- 
 ing e«juals or exceeds this amount. 
 
 . In speaking of the diseases of Iceland, it will be necessary 
 to allude only to those, which furnish any facts peculiar and 
 interesting ; or which are more especially connected with the 
 climate and mode of living among the inhabitants.
 
 Diseases.] APPENDIX. 399 
 
 The diet of the Icelanders consists almost solely of animal 
 food ; of which, fish, either fresh or dried, forms by far the 
 largest proportion. During the summer they have milk and 
 butter in considerable abundance; but of bread, and every 
 other vegetable food, there is the utmost scarcity, and, among 
 the lower classes, an almost entire privation. The want of 
 cleanliness in the personal and domestic habits of the people 
 Jias been frequently alluded to in the preceding pages. It is 
 an evil incident to their situation ; the removal of wjiich could 
 probably only be accomplished by the sacrifice of other habits 
 still more essential to their comfortable existence. As an 
 effect of these circumstances in the mode of life of the Ice- 
 landers, cutaneous diseases, arising from a cachectic state of 
 the body, are exceedingly frequent among them, and appear 
 under some of their worst forms. Scurvy and leprosy are 
 common in the island ; occurring especially in the districts of 
 Guldbringe and Snaefell Syssels, and on other parts of the 
 western coast, where the inhabitants depend chiefly upon 
 fishing, and where the pastures are inferior in extent and 
 produce. The scurvy (krcppusott,) as it appears in Iceland, 
 presents no remarkable peculiarity of symptom. The disease 
 is observed to occur with greatest frequency at those periods, 
 when there has been a deficiency of food among the inhabit- 
 ants, or vvhen the snow and frost of the winter succeed im- 
 mediately to a v^et autumnal season. For its cure, a vegeta- 
 ble diet is employed, in as far as the circumstances of the 
 Icelanders will allow of such means. Fruitsof every kind are 
 altogether wanting to them ; but some advantage is derived 
 from the em})loynieut of the cochlearia (Olficinahs et Danica,) 
 of the trefoil (Trifuliiim repcus,) of the berries and tops of 
 the juniper (Junipenis connnunis,) and of the Sedumacre ; 
 plants whicli are ail indigenous in the island.
 
 400 APPENDIX. IDiseasei. 
 
 The leprosy of the Icelanders, (Lihlira, Holdsveike, or 
 SpitelsJia,) exhibits in many instances all the essential cha- 
 racters of the genuine Elephantiasis, or Lepra Arabum ;* and 
 is a disease of the most formidable and distressing kind. In« 
 dolent tumours of the face and Hmbs are generally among the 
 first symptoms of the complaint, attended by swellings of the 
 salivary, inguinal, and axillary glands. The nostrils, ears, and 
 lips are progressively affected with swelling and deformity. 
 The skin over the whole, or different parts of the body, be- 
 comes thick and hard ; sometimes exhibiting a shining or 
 imctuous surface, sometimes one rough and scabrous, which 
 at a more advanced period of the disease, displays numerous 
 cracks or fissures. The senses are usually much enfeebled ; 
 and ansesthesia of the extremities generally occurs. The voice 
 assumes a peculiar hoarseness and nasal tone, frequently with 
 swelling of the tonsils, but without any hindrance of degluti- 
 tion, until the disease has made great progress in the habit of 
 the patient : the breath and perspired matter are extremely 
 fetid ; and the hairs and nails frequently fall off. The tumours 
 in different parts of the body gradually pass into malignant 
 ulcers, which discharge an acrid, unhealthy matter. In this 
 state the patient often lingers during a long time ; or where 
 the disease has a more speedy termination, all the symptoms 
 are rapidly aggravated, and he is carried off in a state of ex- 
 treme debility and wretchedness.f 
 
 When it is considered how frequently unsuccessful the 
 treatment of this disease is in more auspicious regions, it will 
 not excite surprise that in Iceland the attempt at cure should 
 
 * The Elephantiasis of CuUen ; the Elephantiasis Legitima of Sauvage. 
 
 ■f- The description given by Dr T. Heberden of the Elephantiasis occurring in 
 the island of Madeira, accords very exactly with the appearance of the disease as 
 it exists in Iceland. See London Medical Transactions ; Vol. 1. ,
 
 Diseases.] APPENDIX. 40 J 
 
 generally be unavailing. Where, from the situation of the 
 patient, medical assistance can be obtained, laxatives, diapho- 
 retics, and issues, or sometimes even venesection, are employ- 
 ed in the earlier stages, or with a prophylactic view. The 
 indigenous plants which the natives employ as remedies, arc 
 the Juniper, the Vaccinium Myrtillus, the Rhodiola-Rosea. 
 and the Dryas Octopetala ; the latter of which particularly 
 grows in great abundance on the island. These remedies, 
 however, appear to be of little avail in relieving any of the 
 urgent symptoms of the disease. 
 
 It does not appear that any distinct record exists in Ice- 
 land of the first appearance of the leprosy in this covmtry. 
 The Chevalier Bach, in his letter to Dr Van Troil on the sub- 
 ject, thinks it probable that the disease was brought into Ice- 
 land from Asia or the South of Europe, at the time of the 
 Crusades ; in which he asserts that these islanders bore a part 
 Avith the other nations of Europe.* From the Ecclesiastical 
 History of Iceland, it appears that the latter statement is not 
 well founded ; but though not participating in the holy wars, 
 the Icelanders had at this period an intimate connection with 
 the European continent ; and the disease, of which we are 
 speaking, when once introduced, would readily be kept up, 
 partly by its contagious character, principally perhaps by the 
 food and personal habits of the people. In the rest of Eu- 
 rope, it has gradually disappeared, in consequence of the 
 progressive improvement in the modes of living among every 
 class of society. 
 
 The ravages committed by the small pox in Iceland have 
 been such as to render this disease important even in the 
 political history of the island. Introduced from the conti- 
 
 * See Van Troil's Letters on Iceland. 
 3 E
 
 402 APPENDIX. [Diseases. 
 
 nent at different periods, and these in general distant from 
 each other, it has spread rapidly, and under its most virulent 
 form ; producing effects almost unexampled in the history of 
 this dreadful disease. The most remarkable instance of this 
 kind occurred in 1707 ; during which year the mortality 
 amounted, according to the most accurate estimate, to about 
 16,000 souls ; more than a fourth part of the whole popula- 
 tion of the country, at that period. Several similar instances 
 are recorded in the history of Iceland, though none attended 
 with effects so extensively disastrous. A few years ago, the 
 vaccine matter was introduced into the island from Denmark ; 
 but owing to the smallness of the population, and its disper- 
 sion over so wide a surface, this was soon lost again ; and at 
 the time of our arrival, we found the practice of inoculation 
 entirely suspended. In the contemplation of this circumstance, 
 we had taken out with us a few vaccine crusts, with the de- 
 sign of recommending the method lately proposed by Mr 
 Bryce. Almost immediately on our arrival, we inoculated 
 several children at Reikiavik, and afterwards in other parts of 
 the country; and having a communication with theLandphy- 
 sicus on the subject, we had the satisfaction of knowing, 
 before we returned to Britain, that the vaccine crust had 
 found its way into every part of the island. The adoption of 
 the plan of inoculating from the crust will doubtless secure 
 to the inhabitants a permanent continuance of this bless- 
 ing. 
 
 The Icelanders have occasionally suffered much from the 
 measles, as well as from the small pox ; the epidemic being 
 attended \vith inflammatory affections of the chest. In ]797> 
 six hundred people were carried off by this disease. 
 
 Syphihs cannot be said to exist in Iceland. Single cases 
 have sometimes occurred from communication with foreign-
 
 Diseases.] APPENDIX. 403 
 
 ers ; but the disease has always been Intercepted before it 
 made any progress in the country. 
 
 Psora is an almost universal complaint in Iceland, appear- 
 ing indiscriminately among all classes of the inhabitants. No 
 discredit is attached to it, nor does it seem that any means of 
 cure are attempted, though the most efficacious remedy exists 
 in so great abundance in the country. 
 
 It would seem that scrophulous affections are not of fre- 
 quent occurrence in the island. 
 
 Inflammatory visceral affections are verv common amonar 
 the Icelanders. The variable nature of the climate, and the 
 constant exposure to wet and cold which is incurred in the 
 occupation of fishing, give a strong tendency to pulmonary 
 complaints ; and out of the annual number of deaths in the 
 island, a very large proportion are referable to this cause. 
 This fact was ascertained from the examination of certain 
 statistical registers, which are annually drawn up by the 
 priests of the several parishes, and transmitted to the Bishop 
 at Reikiavik. In these pulmonary affections, and especially 
 in cases of Phthisis, the Lichen Islandicus is much employed 
 by the natives ; and possesses a reputation among them, which 
 the experience of its effects in other countries would scarcely 
 seem to warrant. As a demulcent remed}^ however, it probably 
 in some degree alleviates the symptoms, and, as an article of 
 diet, in such cases its use may certainly be advantageous. 
 
 Inflammatory affections of the abdominal viscera are like- 
 wise very common among the Icelanders ; chiefly perhaps in 
 consequence of the peculiar nature of the diet to which they 
 are accustomed. It is ])ossible also that a disposition may be 
 given to these complaints by the treatment of the children in 
 their early infancy. A mother in Iceland seldom suckles her 
 child ; but nourishes it from the time of its birth, with cows or
 
 404 APPENDIX, [Diseases. 
 
 slieep's milk, which the infant sucks from a piece of moistened 
 rag, or a sponge. Where from extreme poverty, or other cir- 
 cumstances, milk cannot be obtained, a little fish or flesh meat, 
 rolled up in cloth and linen, and put into the infant's mouth, 
 is the substitute most commonly employed. The diet of the 
 Icelanders likewise gives much disposition to worms ; and the 
 ascarides are observed to be particularly frequent. 
 
 The climate and the occupations of the people, particularly 
 that of fishing, render rheumatic affections very common. It 
 is said that gout also occasionally occurs ; but it may be 
 dovibted whether it is not some modification of rheumatism 
 which obtains this name. 
 
 Hypochondriasis is a frequent complaint among the natives 
 of Iceland ; induced probably by the physical circuiustances 
 of their situation, and the long confinement to their habita- 
 tions, which is necessary during the winter season. Yet the 
 general temperament of the Icelanders does not appear to be 
 a melancholic one, and the vivacity of their manner frequently 
 forms a striking contrast to the wretchedness which their ex- 
 ternal condition displays. 
 
 Besides the diseases which have already been noticed, I 
 had the opportunity, while in Iceland, of seeing cases of Epi- 
 lepsy, Hysteria, Amenorrhoea, Menorrhagia, Asthma, Icterus, 
 &c. No case of idiopathic fever, either intermittent or conti- 
 nued, occurred to my observation. With respect to intermit- 
 tents, however, I was informed that they occasionally appear 
 among the inhabitants under a well marked form ; an effect 
 no doubt of the vast extent of bogs and marshy ground, which 
 are found even in the most populous districts of the island. 
 
 A singular complaint remains to be noticed, the effects 
 of which, though limited to a small spot, are eminently 
 disastrous as far as they extend. This is the disease, called
 
 Diseases.} APPENDIX, 405 
 
 GiuMofe by the Icelanders ; the Tetanus or Trismus Neonato- 
 rum of medical writers ; which invades children at a very early 
 age, and almost invariably proves fatal in its event. It oc- 
 curs very rarely, if at all, on the mainland of Iceland ; but is 
 confined principally to the group of islands, called West- 
 mann-Eyar, situated on the southern coast, of which a de- 
 scription has already been given in the Journal, p. 255. The 
 population of Heimaey, which is the only one of these islands 
 that is inhabited, does not amount at present to 200 souls, 
 and is almost entirely supported by migration from the main- 
 land; scarcely a single instance having been known, during 
 the last twenty years, of a child surviving the period of infancy. 
 During a great part of the year, the island is wholly inacces- 
 sible in consequence of storms, currents, and the nature of 
 the coast. The inhabitants are therefore left almost solely to 
 their own resources. Their chief article of food is the sea- 
 fowl, called the Fulmar, which they procure in vast abun- 
 dance ; using the eggs and flesh of the bird, and salting the 
 latter for their winter food. The destructive effect upon the 
 fishery around these islands, by the great volcanic eruptions 
 in 17S3, has before been mentioned. Of vegetable food the 
 inhabitants have none, and there are only a few cows and 
 sheep on the island. 
 
 The distressing consequences of this disease led the Danish 
 government to give an official direction to the Landphysicus 
 of Iceland, to visit the Westmann Islands, for the purpose of 
 investigating its nature and causes. This gentleman went over 
 to the islands during the summer of 1810, and remained three 
 weeks on the spot. Though he did not himself see a case of the 
 disease, he obtained all the principal facts connected with it 
 from the priests, and those of the inhabitants who had had 
 children. The sym])toins of the complaint are brieHy these.
 
 406 APPENDIX. [Diseases. 
 
 Very soon after birth, strabismus and rolling of the eyes arc 
 observed ; subsultus tendinum occurs ; and the muscles of 
 the back are often drawn together and stiffened, evidently by 
 incipient spasm. These appearances infallibly denote the ap- 
 proach and event of the disease. Having continued during a 
 period varying from one to seven days after birth, trismus ge- 
 nerally comes on, sometimes attended by Opisthotonos, which 
 is strictly called the GinMofe, occasionally with Emprostho- 
 tonos, to which the name of Kliims is given by the natives. 
 The trismus present impedes deglutition, and the paroxysms 
 becoming more violent, the infant is speedily carried off. 
 When the rare event of a favourable termination occurs, it is 
 portended by a critical diarrhoea, or by an exanthematous 
 eruption, with the evacuation of the meconium. 
 
 The following Table, which includes a period of twenty- 
 five years, shews the mortality consequent upon this disease 
 in the Westmann Islands ; and exhibits also the days upon 
 which death has happened. 
 
 Children. Days. Children. Days. 
 
 1 . . . lived ... 2 18 . . . lived ... 9 
 
 2 3 ]0 10 
 
 14 4 2 11 
 
 16 5 1 12 
 
 22 6 1 13 
 
 75 7 5 14 
 
 16 8 1 21 
 
 It will be seen from this Table, that the number of deaths 
 on the yxXx day greatly exceed those on any other ; and also 
 that they are more frequent on the 14th day, than on the days 
 immediately preceding or succeeding it. From the propor-
 
 Diseases.] APPENDIX, 407 
 
 tion which these cases of fatal event bear to the whole popu- 
 lation of the island, it is probable that few, if any, instances 
 of recovery have occurred, during the period included in the 
 Table. No methods of cure have hitherto been resorted to by 
 the inhaljitants. 
 
 This disease is well known to prevail in other parts of the 
 world ; and has been particularly described as it appears in 
 the West Indies, and in the island of iNIinorca.* It exists also 
 in Switzerland, and in some northern districts of Scotland ; 
 especially in the island of St Kilda ; the inhabitants of which, 
 in their diet and mode of life, much resemble the natives of 
 the Westmann Islands. The exciting causes are involved in 
 much obscurity. It may be presumed, however, that they 
 must vary considerably, when the disease appears in countries 
 so widely diflerent with respect to climate, and the situation 
 of the inhabitants. Its occurrence in the Westmaim Islands 
 may reasonably be supposed to have some connection with 
 the extraordinary diet of the natives ; and this is the more 
 probable, as it appears that the complaint has been much 
 more frequent, since their fishery was destroyed by the vol- 
 canic eruptions in 1/33. Independently of any effect which 
 the peculiarity of the mother's constitution may have uj)on 
 her offspring, the practice of giving to the infant a strong and 
 oily animal food almost immediately after birth, will neces- 
 sarily create irritation in the bowels, and dispose to spasmo- 
 dic affections. Dr Klog, in some remarks he gave me on 
 this subject, attributes much to the effects of the sea air, and 
 of a moist atmosphere ; but had these causes any considcra- 
 l)le influence, we might expect that the disease would be more 
 
 * See the works of Hillary, Cliisholm, and Clarke, on the Diseases of the 
 West Indies ; and Cleghorn's Diseases of Minorca.
 
 408 APPENDIX. {Dtseasis. 
 
 frequent in different parts of the world, than is actually found 
 to be the case. 
 
 The age which the Icelanders usually attain presents no- 
 thing very remarkable in either extreme. From the Table of 
 Population, given in a preceding part of this volume, it ap- 
 pears that in 1801, when the numt)er of inhabitants was 
 47,207, there were 41 persons between the ages of 90 and 
 100 ; 443 between 80 and 90; and I698 between 70 and 80. 
 The number of females was 25,371 : of males, only 21,746. 
 The longevity of the females exceeds considerably that of the 
 males ; owing no doubt to their less exposure to the severi- 
 ties of labour, and the hardships of the climate. Of the 41 
 persons between 90 and 100, 35 were females ; of those be- 
 tween 80 and 90, 285 wer^ females, while the number of males 
 was not more than 158. A comparison of facts would proba- 
 bly prove, that the longevity of the Icelanders rather exceeds, 
 than falls short, of the average obtained from the continental 
 nations of Europe. 
 
 The Icelanders are in general of a tall statute ; arising, 
 however, rather from -the length of the spine, than of the 
 limbs : the head is of the middle size : the countenance open : 
 the complexion exceedingly fair, and among the women, often 
 very Horid. The hair is almost universally of a light colour, 
 and seldom curled. Corpulency is rarely observed among 
 the natives of the island.
 
 Flora.] 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 409 
 
 No. II. 
 
 LIST OF ICELANDIC PLANTS.* 
 
 By W. J. Hooker, Esq. 
 
 1. MONANDRIA. 
 
 I. Mofwgynia. 
 HiPPLRis vulgaris 
 Zostera marina 
 
 2. Digyuia. 
 Callitriche aquatica 
 1 y autumnalis 
 
 II. DIANDRIA. 
 
 1. Mo?iogynia. 
 Veronica officinalis 
 
 — serpyllifolia 
 
 — Beccabunga 
 
 — Anagallis 
 
 Veronica scutellata 
 
 — alpina 
 
 — fruticulosa 
 
 — marilandica 
 Pinguicula vulgaris. — " Les 
 
 Islandais s'en scr- 
 vent quelcjuefois en 
 guise d'ail." lot/age 
 en Islandc. 
 
 — alpina 
 
 2. Digyu'm. 
 Anthoxantlium odoralum 
 
 * Tliis catalogue is principally taken from Zoega's Flora Islaniica, (attached 
 to the Danish edition of Poveiseii and Olafsen's account of Iceland) and Mohr's 
 Forfijg til en Islandsk Naturliislorie, published at Copenhagen in 1786. The few 
 additional species, which I am enabled to insert by means of Sir George Macken- 
 zie's and Mr Paulsen's collections and my own researches, are distinguished by 
 being printed in Italics. 
 
 3 F
 
 410 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 [Flora, 
 
 III. TRIANDRIA. 
 
 1. Monogynia. 
 Valeriana officinalis 
 Schoenus compressus 
 Scirpus palustris 
 
 — lacustris 
 
 — csespitosus 
 
 — acicularis 
 
 — setaceus 
 
 Eriophorum polystachion. Of 
 the pappus of this plant 
 thenativesmake wicks for 
 their lamps. 
 
 — vaginatum 
 
 — capitatum. Hoppe. 
 • — alpinum 
 Nardus stricta 
 
 2. D'lgynm. 
 Phlenm pratense 
 
 — nodosum 
 
 — alpinum 
 
 Alopecurus geniculatus 
 Milium effusum 
 Agrostis rubra 
 
 — stolonifera 
 
 — canina 
 
 — vulgaris 
 /S pumila 
 
 — alba 
 
 — arundinacea 
 
 — c^erulea 
 Aira csespitosa 
 
 Aira flexuosa 
 
 — montana 
 
 — subspicata 
 
 — alpina 
 
 — aquatica 
 
 — prsecox 
 
 Holcus odoratus. — Said to be 
 used by the Icelanders to 
 perfume their apartments 
 and their clothes. 
 
 Sesleria cserulea 
 
 Roa pratensis 
 
 — trivialis 
 
 — compressa 
 
 — annua 
 
 — angustifolia 
 
 — alpina 
 
 — maritima 
 
 — slauca. — Both this and the 
 following species are far from 
 uncommon in Iceland. 
 
 — ccesia 
 Festuca ovina 
 
 — rubra 
 
 — elatior 
 
 — fluitans 
 
 — duriuscula 
 
 — v'wapara 
 Arundo Phragmites 
 
 — Epigejos 
 
 — arenaria 
 
 Elymus arenarius. — ^The sqeds
 
 Flora.] 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 411 
 
 are occasionally made in- 
 to a sort of bread. 
 Triticum caninum 
 
 — repens 
 
 3. Tryginia. 
 Montia fontana 
 Koenigia islandica 
 
 IV. TETRANDRIA. 
 
 1. Monogynia, 
 Scabiosa succisa. — ^The Ice- 
 landic names for this 
 plant, Piikabit and Die- 
 velsbid, have both the 
 same signification as our 
 Devil's bit. 
 Galium verum 
 
 — palustre 
 
 — Mollugo 
 
 — pit si Hum 
 
 — boreale 
 
 — Plantago major 
 
 — lanceolata 
 
 — maritima 
 
 — alpina. — This I recollect 
 
 seeing, in some plenty, at 
 Thing valla, and I have 
 since received specimens 
 from Sir George Macken- 
 zie and Mr Paulsen. 
 
 — Coronopus 
 Sanguisorba officinalis 
 Alchemilla Anilgaris 
 
 Alchcmilla alpina 
 
 3. Tetragynid, 
 Potamogeton natans 
 -^ marinum 
 
 — compressum 
 — lucens 
 
 — crispum 
 
 — perfoliatum 
 
 — pectinatum 
 
 — pusillum 
 Sagina procumbens 
 Tillaea aquatica 
 
 V. PENTANDRIA. 
 
 1. Monogynia. 
 
 Myosotis scorpioidcs a and /S 
 
 Pulmonaria maritima 
 
 Echium vulgare 
 
 Primula farinosa 
 
 Menyanthes trifoliata. — This 
 plant is important to tra- 
 vellers who are not ac- 
 quainted with the route 
 in the morasses ; for they 
 are wellaware thatwhere- 
 soever it grows they may 
 safely pass ; its closely 
 woven roots makinga firm 
 bed upon the soft sub- 
 soil. The Icelanders call 
 it Reic/inga, and employ 
 the matted tufts to pre- 
 vent the saddle or any
 
 412 
 
 .APPENDIX. 
 
 IFlora. 
 
 load from chafing the 
 
 horses' backs. 
 Azalea proctimbens 
 Campanula rotundifolia 
 
 — patula 
 Viola canina 
 
 — tricolor 
 
 — palustris 
 Glaux maritima 
 
 2. Digi/nia. 
 Gentiana campestris 
 
 — amarella 
 
 — nivalis 
 
 — aurea 
 
 — detonsa 
 
 — bavarica 
 
 — tenella 
 
 — verna 
 
 — rotata 
 
 Hydrocotyle vulgaris 
 Ligusticum scoticum.— To this 
 
 plant, which Mr Paulsen 
 named by mistake Inipe- 
 ratoria Ostrutliium, was 
 attached the 
 
 ' elFectus in hydaridibus 
 ' abdominalibus. (isl. me- 
 ' iulceti): 
 Angelica Archangelica. — The 
 Icelanders gather the 
 stems and roots of this 
 plant, which they eat raw, 
 and generally with the 
 addition of fresh butter, 
 
 — sylvestris '' 
 Imperatoria Ostruthium 
 CarumCarui. — Naturalised in 
 
 Iceland, according to Sir 
 George Mackenzie. 
 
 4. Tetragynia. 
 Parnassia palustris 
 
 5. Pentagynia. 
 Statice Armeria 
 Linum catharticun> 
 
 4. Hexogynia. 
 Drosera rotundifolia 
 
 — longifolia - - 
 
 following 
 
 VI. HEXANDRIA. 
 
 1. Mouogynia. 
 Convallaria biflora 
 observation : ' Haic (in Juncus efFusus. 
 ^ Islandia) rarissima her- — arcticus. — Discovered by 
 ' ba, in saxis solum et 
 ' montibuspreernptis ma- 
 ' ritimis reperiunda. De- 
 ' voratisradicibushic Ira- 
 ' ditur divinos edidissc 
 
 Mr Bright. 
 
 — sqnarrosus 
 
 — trifidus 
 
 — articulatus 
 
 — bulbosus
 
 flora.] 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 413 
 
 Junciis bufonius 
 
 — biglumis 
 
 — triglumis 
 ■ — pilosus 
 
 — canipestris 
 
 — spicatus 
 
 2. Trigynla. 
 Rumex digynus. — All the spe- 
 cies of Kumex are boiled 
 and eaten by the Icelan- 
 ders ; though only the 
 vounsT shoots of acutus 
 
 before me it appears that 
 this species is subject to 
 considerable variation, as 
 well in the proportional 
 breadth of its leaves, as 
 in the size of the flowers. 
 ■ — Mr Paulsen remarks, 
 ' Crescit fer^ solum ad 
 ' fluvios montium glacia- 
 ' lium, in argilla et areni 
 ' vulcanica.' 
 
 — angusti folium 
 Epilobium montanum 
 
 — palustrc 
 
 are employed. Of the 
 
 Acetosa a beverage is 
 
 made by the common — origanifoUum 
 
 people, by steeping the — alpinuni 
 
 plant in water till all the — tetragoninn 
 
 juice is extracted. This Vaccinium Myrtillus 
 
 drink is kept some time ; — Oxycoccos 
 
 but soon becomes bad — uliginosum. 
 
 and putrid in warm wea 
 
 then 
 
 Erica vulgaris. 
 
 magna 
 
 — acutus 
 
 — Acetosa 
 
 — Acetosella 
 Triglochin palustrc 
 — maritimum 
 Tofieldia palustris 
 
 VIIl. OCTANDRI.A. 
 
 1. Monogyn'ia. 
 Chamsenerium halimifoliuni. 
 — From specimens now 
 
 ' Ex ejus 
 florescentiu de 
 magna nivis hyemalis co- 
 pid augurantur Islandi.' 
 Paulsen in Epist. 
 
 2. Trigynia. 
 Polygonum viviparuni 
 — Bistorta. — The roots arc 
 often eaten raw, and 
 sometimes converted iuto 
 bread.
 
 4U 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 ■ [Flora. 
 
 Polygonum Hydropiper 
 
 — amphibium 
 
 — Persicaria 
 
 — aviculare 
 
 3. Tetragynia. 
 Paris quadri folia 
 
 X. DECANDRIA. 
 
 1. 3Ionogynia. 
 Andromeda hypnoides 
 Arbutus Uva Ursi 
 
 — alpina 
 
 Pyrola rotundifolia 
 
 — secunda 
 
 — minor 
 
 2. Digynla. 
 Saxifraga Cotyledon 
 
 — stellaris 
 
 — nivalis 
 
 — Hirculus* 
 
 — palmata 
 
 — punctata 
 
 — oppositifolia 
 
 — autumnalis 
 
 — aizoides 
 
 — bulbifera 
 
 — cernua 
 
 — rivularis 
 
 — tridactylites 
 
 Saxifraga csespitosa 
 
 — groenlandica. — My speci- 
 
 mens of this, gathered by 
 Sir George Mackenzie, 
 exactly accord with the 
 figure of this species in the 
 Flore de Pyrenees. La Pey- 
 rouse has observed it grow- 
 ing at the height of sixteen 
 hundred toises above the 
 level of the sea. 
 
 — hypnoides 
 
 — tricuspidata 
 
 — petrsea 
 Scleranthus annuus 
 
 3. Trigynia. 
 Silene maritima 
 
 — acaulis. — Boiled and eaten 
 
 with butter by the Iceland- 
 ers. 
 Stellaria media 
 
 — biflora 
 
 — cerastoides 
 
 Arenaria peploides.— This is 
 steeped in sour whey, 
 where it ferments ; then 
 the liquid is strained off, 
 and fresh water added to 
 
 * I am informed by Mr Holland, that this beautiful Saxifraga which is abun- 
 dant in Iceland, is only found on one small spot in Britain, near Knutsford in 
 Che shire. G. M.
 
 Flora.] 
 
 APrENDIX. 
 
 415 
 
 the beverage, 
 
 which is 2. Penfagyma. 
 
 said to taste like oUve- Pyrus domestica. — This was 
 
 oil ; whence the name of 
 the plant in Iceland, 
 SmkUu-kaal. — loyage en 
 Islande. 
 
 — serpylli folia 
 
 — ciliata 
 
 4. Pentagynia. 
 Sedum saxatile 
 
 — rupestre 
 
 — annum 
 
 found by SirGeorge Mac- 
 kenzie, growing eight feet 
 high in a cheft of lava 
 near Buderstad in Snse- 
 fellSyssel. Another plant 
 of the same was brought 
 to Sir George Mackenzie, 
 from Eyafiord, on the 
 north coast. 
 
 — aucuparia' 
 
 * 
 
 acre. — ' Vulgatum inlslan- Spiraea Ulmaria 
 dia vomitorium.' — Paul- 3. Polygynla. 
 
 sen in Ep'ist. 
 
 — villosum 
 Lychnis Flos-Cuculi 
 
 — alpina 
 
 var.fi. albo. 
 
 Cerastium viscosum 
 
 — vulgatum 
 
 — alpinum 
 
 — hiflfuliuni 
 Sjjergula arvensis 
 
 — nodosa 
 
 — saginoides 
 
 XII. ICOSAKDRIA. 
 
 Rosahibernica. — This, the on- 
 ly species of Rosa disco- 
 vered in Iceland, was sent 
 me by Mr Paulsen with 
 the following remark : 
 ' NuUi hie prius obvia. 
 ' Crescit in rupe unica 
 ' ad villam Selj aland.' 
 
 Rubus saxatilis 
 
 Fragaria vesca 
 
 Potentilla verna 
 
 — anserina. — The roots are 
 frequently eaten in the 
 
 * It is probable that tite Pyrus Domestica has been taken for Aiicuparia, which, 
 on that account, pcrliaps, should have no place in the Flora. It was only on close 
 examination that Mr Hooker and Dr Smith discovered the specimen I found to 
 be Domestica.
 
 416 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 [Flora. 
 
 southern parts of the 
 
 island. 
 
 — aurea 
 Tormentilla officinaUs 
 Geum rivale 
 Dryas octopetala. — Its leaves 
 
 are gathered, and made 
 
 into a sort of tea. 
 Comarum palustre 
 
 XIII. POLYANDRIA. 
 
 1 . Alonogynla. 
 Papaver nndicaule 
 
 5. Polygyn'ia. 
 Thalictrum alpinum 
 Ranunculus acris. — Often us- 
 ed for making blisters. 
 Ranvmculus hederaceus 
 
 — reptans 
 
 — aquatilis 
 
 — lapponicus 
 
 — re pens 
 — A rare plant in 
 
 Iceland. I was not so 
 fortunate as to meet with 
 it myself. Sir George 
 Mackenzie has favoured 
 me with the only speci- 
 men which he procured ; 
 and which he found grow- 
 ing among loose stones 
 on the declivity of a 
 mountain between Sta- 
 
 — glacialis 
 
 dar-hraun and Kolbein- 
 stadr. 
 
 — nivalis 
 
 — hyperboreus 
 
 — Caltha palustris 
 
 XIV. DIDYNAMIA. 
 
 1. Gymnospennia. 
 Lamium purpureum 
 Galeopsis Ladanum 
 
 — Tetrahit 
 
 Thymus Serpyllum. — An in- 
 fusion of the leaves is of- 
 ten used to give an aro- 
 matic flavor to the sour 
 whey. 
 
 Prunella vulgaris 
 
 3. Anglospermia. 
 
 Bartsia alpina 
 
 Rhinantluis Crista-Galli 
 
 Euphrasia officinalis. — I pos- 
 sess alpine varieties of this 
 plant from Iceland, which 
 (though bearing perfect 
 flowers) scarcely rise a 
 quarter of an inch above 
 the surface of the ground. 
 
 Pedicularis svlvatica 
 
 — flammea 
 Limosella aquatica 
 
 XV. TETRAD VN A 3IIA. 
 
 1. SUiculoso. 
 Subularia aquatica
 
 •Flora.] 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 417 
 
 Draba verna 
 
 — muralis 
 
 — incana 
 
 var. contorta. Refzhis. 
 
 Tlilaspi Bursa Pastoris 
 
 — campestre 
 Cochlearia officinalis 
 
 — danica. — Occasionally eat- 
 
 en as spinage, and reck- 
 oned of service in the cure 
 of the scurvy, though sel- 
 dom made use of. 
 Bunias Cakile. 
 
 2. Siliquosa. 
 
 Cardamine pratensis. 
 
 — hirsuta. — Asingular variety 
 
 of this plant, if not a dis- 
 tinct species, has been 
 sent mebothbySir George 
 Mackenzie and Mr Paul- 
 sen, having the lower 
 leaflets round, the upper 
 ones linear, and all very 
 entire. 
 
 — bellidifolia 
 Sisymbrium terrestre 
 Arabis alpina 
 
 — hispida 
 
 Brassica alpina, — Sent me by 
 /Sir George Mackenzie. 
 
 XVr. MONADELPHIA. 
 
 5. Decandria. 
 Geranium sylvaticum 
 
 — pratense 
 
 — montanum 
 
 XVm, DIADELPHIA, 
 
 3. Ocfandria. 
 Polygala vulgaris 
 
 4. Decandria. 
 Lathyrus pratensis 
 Vicia cracca 
 Pisum maritimum 
 Lotus corniculatus 
 Anthyllis vulneraria 
 Trifolium arvense 
 
 — pratense 
 
 — repens. — ' Les gens de la 
 
 ' campagne, dans la par- 
 ' tie Nord et Est de cet- 
 ' te ile, en mangent en 
 ' legume.' — Poyagc en 
 ' Islande. 
 
 XIX. SYNGENESIA. 
 
 1. Poh/gamia ^qitalis. 
 Leontodon taraxacum 
 
 — autumnale 
 Hedypnois Taraxaci 
 Hieracium Pilosella 
 
 — Auricula 
 
 — alpinum 
 
 — praemorsum 
 
 — Murorum 
 3 G
 
 41S 
 
 .: APPENDIX. 
 
 IFlorn, 
 
 Serratula arvensis 
 Carduiis lanceolatus 
 
 — heteropbyllns. 
 
 2. Poly garni a Superjlua, 
 Gnaphalium alpinum 
 
 — uliginosum 
 ' — sylvatlciim 
 
 ^— fuscatum. Per&. 
 Erigeron alpin\im 
 Senecio vulgaris 
 Pyrethrum inodorum 
 
 — maritimiivi 
 
 Achillea Milkfolium. — The 
 Icelandic appellation, ^/Z- 
 Humall (field-hops) seems 
 to imply that this planthas 
 been used instead of hops 
 in that island, as it is still in 
 some parts of Sweden. At 
 present the natives only 
 make an ointment of its 
 leaves with butter, which 
 they apply to cutaneous 
 and other external sores. 
 
 XX. GYNANDRIA. 
 
 1 . Diandria. 
 Orchis maculata 
 
 — Mori a 
 
 — mascula 
 
 — latifolia 
 
 — hyperborean 
 Satyrium viride 
 
 Satyrium albidum T 
 
 — nigrum 
 
 Epipacfis ovata. — I possess the 
 only specimen of this ever 
 gathered in Iceland: it was 
 found at a place called f^k^ 
 by the son of Mr Paulsen. 
 
 — Nidus avisP—-^\\.\\eY this or 
 a new species of Epipacfis 
 has been sent me by Sir 
 George Mackenzie. The 
 specimen is destitute of its 
 root, so thgit I cannot as- 
 certain it with certainty. 
 
 Cymbidium corallorhizon. 
 
 XXI. MONffiCIA. J 
 
 1. Monandria. 
 
 Zostera marina. — This the 
 cattle eat, and the natives 
 gather and, dry for their 
 beds. 
 
 Chara vulgaris 
 
 — hispida, 
 
 3. Triandna. 
 
 Sparganium natans 
 
 Cobresia scirpina. fFilld.- Carex 
 Bcllardi of preceding au- 
 thors. 
 
 Carex dioica j^ 
 
 — capitata .
 
 JFYofa.] 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 419 
 
 Carex pulicaris 
 ■ — arenaria 
 
 — uliginosa 
 
 — leporina 
 
 — vulpina 
 
 — muricata — 
 
 — loliacea 
 
 — canescens 
 
 — elongata 
 
 — flava 
 
 — pedata 
 
 — montana 
 
 — rigida 
 
 — limosa 
 
 — atrata 
 
 — pallescens 
 
 — capillaris 
 
 — Pseudo-cyperus 
 ' — acuta 
 
 — a/H/zM/Zoreflf.- -The specimen 
 sent me by Sir George 
 Mackenzie is a slight va- 
 riety with branched spikes. 
 
 — vesicaria 
 
 — hirta. 
 
 4. Tetandrla. 
 Urtica dioica 
 
 r — urens. — This I only saw 
 growing in Mr Savigniac's 
 garden at Reikiavik. 
 8. Polyandria. 
 Myriophyllum spicatum 
 
 Myriophyllum verticillatum 
 CeratophyHum demersum 
 Betiila alba 
 
 — nana, 
 
 XXII. DIOECIA. 
 
 2. Diandria. 
 Salix Myrsinites 
 
 — arbuscula 
 
 — herbacea. — The downy 
 substance from this and 
 other species of Willow is 
 applied by the natives to 
 wounds both of man and 
 beast. The leaves steeped 
 in water are employed in 
 tanning skins. The wood 
 is used in making ink, be- 
 ing steeped in a decoction 
 of the leaves, to which is 
 added some of the earth 
 used in dyeing j it is then 
 all boiled together until the 
 liquid has acquired a pro- 
 per consistency. 
 
 Salix purpurea 
 
 — reticulata 
 
 — m^rtilloides 
 
 — glauca 
 
 — lanata 
 
 — Lapponum 
 
 — arenaria 
 — f fusca
 
 420 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 IFlotiu 
 
 Salix capraea 
 
 — pentandia 
 
 3. Triandria. 
 Empetrum nigrum 
 
 8. Octandria. 
 Rliodiola rosea 
 
 13. Monadelphia. 
 Juniperis communis 
 
 XXIII. POLYGAMIA. 
 
 1. Monoecia. 
 Atriplex laciniata 
 
 — patula 
 
 XXIV. CRYPTOGAMIA. 
 
 1. Filices. 
 
 Equisetum sylvaticum. — ^Va- 
 rious species of Equisetum 
 are given to the cattle in 
 Iceland, where they are 
 said to be excellent food 
 for the saddle horses. 
 
 -— arvense 
 
 — limosum 
 
 — palustre 
 
 — fluviatile 
 
 — hyemale 
 Osmunda Lunaria 
 Ophioglossum vulgatum 
 Lycopodium alpinum 
 
 — clavatum 
 
 Lycopodium annotinum 
 
 — Selago 
 
 — selaginoides 
 
 — dubium* 
 Polypodium vulgare 
 
 — fontanum 
 
 — ilvense 
 
 — arvonicum 
 
 — Phegopteris 
 
 — Dryopteris 
 Aspidium Lonchitis 
 
 — Thelypteris 
 
 — Filix mas 
 
 — Filix faemina 
 
 — fragile. — I possess a curious 
 and elegant species of As- 
 pidium (Cyathea of Dr 
 Smith) somewhat allied to 
 this, but hitherto imde- 
 scribed. 
 
 Asplenium septentrionale 
 
 Isoetes lacmtris. 
 
 2. Musci. 
 
 Phascum muticum 
 
 Sphagnum obtusifolium.-The 
 same use being made of this 
 moss in Iceland as in Lap- 
 land, I shall be readily ex- 
 
 cused for 
 
 inserting 
 
 Lin- 
 
 * Surculis simplicissimis, erectis, compressis ; foliis complicatis, carinitas, acutis, 
 alternis, distiche imbricatis. Konig^
 
 Slora.'] 
 
 . APPENDIX-. 
 
 421 
 
 naeus' words upon the sub- 
 ject. ' Feminis Lapponicis 
 maxima notus est hie 
 muscus ; hunc enim, lin- 
 teiscum destituantur, in* 
 fantibus, dum cunis suis 
 continentur,undique cir- 
 cumponunt, qui et pul- 
 vinaris et tegmenti vices 
 servat, urinam acremab- 
 sorbet, calorem conser- 
 vat, sericisque stragulis 
 gratior est tenellis ; mu- 
 tatur deinde vesperi et 
 mane, dum purus et re- 
 cens substituitur in pri- 
 oris locum.' — Fl. Lapp, 
 p. 337. 
 
 Sphagnum capillifolium 
 
 Gymnostomum truncatulum 
 
 — fasciculare 
 
 Tetraphis pelhicida 
 
 Andraea rupestris 
 
 — Rothii 
 Splachnum ampuUaceum 
 
 — urceolatum 
 
 — mnioides 
 
 — rubrum 
 
 — vasculosum 
 Conostomum horeale 
 Encalypta vulgaris 
 
 — alpina 
 
 Grimmia apocarpa 
 
 — maritima.— Not uncommon 
 on rocks by the sea shores. 
 
 Weissia cirrata. 
 
 — lanceolata 9 — ■ 
 Dicranum scoparium 
 
 — undulatum 
 
 — heteromallum 
 
 — purpureum 
 
 — flexuosuni 
 
 — squarrosum 
 ' — pusillum 
 
 — pulvinatum 
 
 — taxifolium 
 Trichostomum fontinalioides 
 
 — fasciculare 
 
 — canescens 
 
 — cllipticum 
 Syntrichia ruralis 
 
 — subulata 
 Tortula torfuosa 
 
 — convoluta 
 Catharinea licrcynica 
 Pollytrichum commune * 
 
 — alpimun 
 
 — sexangulare 
 
 — mnigerum 
 
 — aloides 
 
 — subrotundum 
 Orthotrichum striatum 
 Neckera curtipendula 
 Bryum androgynum
 
 422 
 
 APPENDIX. \ 
 
 Bryum argenteum 
 
 Bartraniia ithyphylla 
 
 — Zierii 
 
 — pomiformis 
 
 r— caespititium 
 
 Fontinalis antipyretica 
 
 — dealbatum 
 
 — squamosa \ 
 
 — hornum 
 
 — falcata 
 
 — cruduni 
 
 Funaria hygrometrica 
 
 — tiirbinatum 
 
 Buxbau mia /o//o«a 
 
 — serpyllifolium 
 
 3. Hepaticcs. 
 
 — pyrifornie 
 
 Jungermannia concinnata 
 
 — dendroides 
 
 • — julacea 
 
 Hypnum sericeum 
 
 — asplenioides 
 
 — abietinum 
 
 — scalaris 
 
 — jilamentosum 
 
 — Sphagni 
 
 ■— praelongum 
 
 — angulosa 
 
 — velutinum 
 
 —— hyssoides 
 
 — proliferum 
 
 — bicuspidata 
 
 — nitens 
 
 — disticha. Mohr. 
 
 — illecebrum 
 
 — albicans 
 
 — purura 
 
 — nemorosa 
 
 — filicinum 
 
 — resupinata 
 
 — aduncum 
 
 — complanata 
 
 — uncinatum 
 
 — dilatata 
 
 — revolvens 
 
 — ciliaris 
 
 — denticulatum 
 
 — epiphylla 
 
 — triquetrum 
 
 — pinguis 
 
 — squarrosum 
 
 — furcata 
 
 — cuspidatum 
 
 Marchantia polymorpha 
 
 — Crista castrensis 
 
 — hemispherica 
 
 — cupressiforme 
 
 — tenella 
 
 — scorpioides 
 
 Targionia hypophylla 
 
 — sihsianum 
 
 Blasia pucilla 
 
 Bartraniia fontana 
 
 Riccia crystallina 
 
 IFlorH, 
 
 i
 
 JFlora.] 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Riccia glauca 
 
 Anthoceros punctatus 
 
 4. Lichenes. — — 
 Lepraria botryoides 
 
 — Jolithos 
 Lecidea sanguinaria 
 •-P- fusco-atra 
 
 — fusco-lutea. — About ReU 
 kiavik. 
 
 — atro-virens a and y 
 
 — pustulata 
 Gyrophora glabra /S 
 
 — deusta 
 
 — erosa - 
 
 — cylindrica. — ^Used, in times 
 of scarcity, as food, but 
 more frequently for dyeing 
 
 (.rx woollen cloth of a brown- 
 ish green colour. 
 -— hirsuta. — ' Longe optimum 
 
 * in re cibaria Lichenis 
 ' genus. — Pagina inferior 
 ' pilosa. Crescit unice in 
 ' lapidibus magnis discre- 
 
 * tis, et rupibus alpini*, 
 ' imprimis summis cacu- 
 ' minibus, ubi Falcones 
 
 * ssepius insident.' — Paul- 
 sen in Epist. 
 
 — vellea 
 Endocarpon Hedwigii 
 
 Endoc^rpon tephroides. About 
 
 Reikiavik. 
 Sphserophoron compressum 
 Isidium defraudans 
 Urceolaria calcaria — 
 
 Parmelia tartarea 
 
 — sub fu sea — 
 
 — pallescens 
 
 — candelaria ,..,;'. 
 
 — briimiea.— About Reikiavik. 
 
 — gelida 
 
 — stygia 
 
 •— fahlunensis 
 
 — omphalodes 
 
 — saxatilis 
 
 — stellaris 
 
 •— parietina — • 
 
 — olivacea — • 
 
 — scrohiculata — 
 
 — nigrescens 
 
 — physodes 
 
 — furfuracea 
 
 — ciliaris 
 
 — Prunastri 
 
 — fraxinea 
 
 — farinacea 
 
 — ochroleuca I 
 
 — sarmentosa 
 
 — jubata 
 
 Pelt idea venosa 
 
 — res\i|)inata 
 
 — canina
 
 '424 
 
 APPENDIX* 
 
 [Flora. 
 
 Peltidea apthosa 
 
 — crocea 
 
 — saccata 
 Cetraria islandica 
 
 — nivalis 
 Cornicularia lanata 
 
 — pubescens 
 Usnea hirta 
 Stereocaulon paschale 
 
 .— - globiferum. — About Reikia- 
 vik and other places, not 
 uncommon. 
 
 Baeoniyces cocciferus 
 
 — digitatus 
 
 — deformis 
 
 — pyxidatus 
 
 — cornutus 
 
 — gracilis nv 
 
 — end'wifoUus.—hXiovX Reikia- 
 vik. 
 
 — imcialis 
 
 — subulatus 
 
 — rangiferinus 
 
 — vermicidaris 
 
 — tauricus 
 
 5. Algce Aquatkce. 
 Fucus serratus. — This and va- 
 rious other large species of 
 Fucus serve occasionally 
 for food for the cattle and 
 fuel for the poor natives. 
 
 — vesiculosus 
 
 Fucus vesiculosus 
 
 ■ var. divaricatus 
 
 — excisus 
 
 inflatus 
 
 spiralis 
 
 — ceranoides 
 
 — canaliculatus 
 
 — distichus. fFl.Dan. 351.) 
 
 — nodosus — 
 
 — siliquosus 
 
 — loreus 
 
 — aculeatus 
 
 — purpiirascens 
 
 — lycopodioides 
 
 — ramentaceus 
 
 — muscoides 
 
 — Filum 
 
 — lanosus. Mohr. 
 
 — fastigiatus. (F1. Dan, 393.) 
 
 — digitatus 
 
 — palmatus. — This, the Sol of 
 the Icelanders, is the most 
 frequently prepared and 
 eaten of any of the genus. 
 
 — esculentus 
 
 — saccharinus 
 
 — edulis 
 
 — sanguineus 
 
 — ciliatus 
 
 — crispus 
 
 — alatus 
 
 — dentatus
 
 Flora.] 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 425 
 
 Fucus rubens 
 
 — plumosus 
 
 — cartilagineiis 
 
 — spermophorus 
 
 — gigartinus 
 
 — confervoides 
 — JiagelUformis 
 
 — plicatus 
 
 — albus. (Fl. Dan. 408.) 
 
 — corneus 
 
 — fungularis. (Fl. Dan. 420.) 
 
 — clavatus. Mohr. 
 
 — coronopifolius 
 
 — fcen iculaceus.— (Conferva 
 
 Huds.J 
 Tremella lichenoides 
 
 — verrucosa 
 
 — hemispherica 
 
 — adnata 
 
 — Nostoc 
 Ulva umbilicalis 
 
 — intestinalis 
 
 — latissima 
 
 — compressa 
 
 — pruniformis 
 
 — Lactuca 
 
 — lanceolata 
 
 — Linza 
 
 — plicata. Mohr. 
 Rivularia cylindrica. — JVahl, 
 
 MSS. 
 
 angulosa 
 
 Conferva dichotoma 
 
 — spiralis 
 
 — bi punctata 
 — ' nitida 
 
 — flavescem 
 
 — aeruginosa 
 
 — vaginata 
 
 — limosa 
 
 — littoralis 
 
 — scoparia 
 
 — cancellata 
 
 — polymorpha 
 
 — rupestris 
 
 — aegagropila 
 
 — corallina 
 Byssus Cryptarum. 
 
 6. Fungi. 
 Agaricus campanulatus 
 
 — finietarius 
 
 — campestris 
 Boletus luteus 
 
 — bovinus 
 
 Helvella atra. fFl. Dan. 354.) 
 
 — aeruginosa. fFl. Dan. 354.) 
 Peziza lentifera 
 
 — scutellata 
 
 — cupularis 
 
 — zonalis 
 Clavaria coralloides 
 
 — muscoides 
 Lycoperdon Bovista 
 Mucor Mucedo 
 
 3 H
 
 426 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 [Flora, 
 
 In the collection of Mr Bright, a specimen of a very 
 minute plant has been lately discovered, which Mr Hooker 
 and Mr Brown think has been mentioned only by Wahlen- 
 berg, who found it in Lapland, but has not yet published an 
 account of his travels ; at least his work has not reached this 
 country. If it is really the one discovered by Wahlenberg, 
 its name is ' Polytrichum Glabratum.'
 
 Mt'nerah.] APPENDIX. 42/^ 
 
 No. III. 
 
 CATALOGUE OE ICELANDIC MINERALS, BEING CHIEFLY 
 GEOLOGICAL SPECIMENS. 
 
 Presented to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and deposited 
 
 in their Cabinet. 
 
 A 
 
 No. 1. Rock, in the vicinity of Reikiavik. Its colour is ash 
 grey ; it has a rough uneven fracture, and the frag- 
 ments have blunt irregular edges ; it is not very com- 
 pact, and with difficulty scratches glass : it contains 
 particles of olivin. There is much resemblance, I am 
 informed, between this rock, and the clinkstone of 
 Andernach on the Rhine, where it is said to alternate 
 with pumice. As some specimens contain a minute 
 portion of hornblende, and the rock appears to 
 be principally composed of compact felspar, it might 
 be considered a variety of greenstone. It is, how- 
 ever, a lava, (page 383.) 
 
 A2,A,A'On examining these specimens, which are from the 
 lower part of the same bed of rock, they all bear the 
 most unequivocal marks of fusion. Tlris is the case 
 on the whole of the lower surface ; hence I con- 
 clude that this rock is a species of lava.
 
 428 APPENDIX. [Minerals. 
 
 A 
 
 No. 3 In this specimen, which is broken from a columnar 
 
 mass, the effects of decomposition are apparent, and 
 the oHvin seems to have been destroyed. 
 
 4, 5, 6 Are from the bed of rock under A 1. It seems to be 
 the same, only it is entirely vesicular ; the vesicles 
 are partly filled with a reddish white decomposed 
 matter, quite soft and friable. This bed may be 
 readily distinguished by its columnar form, as exem- 
 plified in the two last specimens. Some of the spe- 
 cimens contain specks of a brilliant golden lustre, 
 which are olivin in an altered state. 
 
 7 Wacke lying horizontally above A 1, but visible only 
 
 for a few yards. 
 
 8, 9 The same with A 4, 5, 6, from a place where it ap- 
 pears mixed with clay, slags, and other matter form- 
 ing a tuffa. 
 
 10 Friable white steatite, forming a tumulus near the 
 hot springs in the neighbourhood of Reikiavik. It is 
 
 11 also found where the hot water bubbles up. This 
 circumstance, and the tumulus being hollow at the 
 top, make it probable that the latter has been the site 
 of a boiling spring, of a larger size than any which 
 now exist at this place. 
 
 1^ The steatite occurs reddish brown, and has, in some 
 
 places, recently deposited matter adhering to it, some 
 
 13, 14 of which effervesces with acid, though not all. Here 
 
 15 is also found tuffa the same as A 9* 
 
 16. Greenstone containing splendent crystals of felspar 
 
 from the island of Vidoe. 
 
 17 Fine grained basalt, having a conchoidal fracture, 
 
 from a vein cutting the greenstone. It contains small 
 vesicles, some of which had water in them.
 
 Minerals.] APPENDIX. 429 
 
 A 
 
 No, 18 This specimen sh ws a peculiarity common to all the 
 veins we saw in Iceland ; a vitreous coating on the 
 sides which becomes gradually blended with the sub- 
 stance of the stone. 
 
 19j 20 Columnar greenstone, from the same place. The 
 latter contains small specks of a black vitreous sub- 
 stance, the fracture of which is conchoidal. The same 
 has been observed by Professor Jameson in the trap 
 rocks of Fifeshire, and by Mr Allan in the western 
 parts of Mid Lothian. 
 
 21 From a vein of vesicular greenstone which cuts a 
 mass of trap tuff.* 
 
 22 A slaggy mass from the tuff. 
 
 23 Mass of vesicular greenstone from the same ; many 
 of the vesicles coated with zeolite. 
 
 24 This rock may be considered as non-descript. It is 
 composed principally of the brilliant black substance, 
 small specks of which were observed in A 20 ; but 
 here it occurs in larger masses, mixed with a dull 
 blackish green matrix, which circumstance denotes it 
 
 25 to be a tuff. It contains masses of amygdaloid ; and 
 A' 1 nodules of pyrites, some of which have a small quan- 
 tity of pitchcoal adhering to them. Professor Jame- 
 son informed me, that he observed a rock in Dum- 
 fries-shire which resembles this. The black substance 
 seems to be pearlslone ; and the rock may there- 
 fore be called pearlstone tuff. This rock appears 
 irregularly connected with greenstone. There is in 
 the island of Vitliie, a rock ot fragmented amygda- 
 loid, which in some j>laces appears divided into large 
 
 * The term tuff is used here, because this rock is similar to the trap tuff of 
 "Werner.
 
 430 APPENDIX. [Minerah. 
 
 A 
 
 masses by a sort of net work of veins ; the substance 
 
 No. 26 of which is similar to A 23. Columns of vesicular 
 greenstone are seen resting on it. 
 
 27 A great portion of the island of Vidoe consists of A 1. 
 In A 27, there are specks of olivin, of a brilliant bliie 
 colour in a state of decomposition. In one place 
 we observed a vein of greenstone about forty feet 
 thick, in such a situation that it must have cut A 27, 
 though we did not see the junction of the rocks; 
 several yards between the beds on each side and the 
 vein, being covered with soil. 
 
 28 From columnar greenstone, near the above-mention- 
 ed vein. 
 
 29 Columnar greenstone ; the columns being composed 
 of tables from three to six inches thick, and from 
 three to five or six feet in diameter, from one of 
 which, A 29 was broken. 
 
 30, 31 From a vein of basaltic tuff cutting greenstone. 
 
 32 Broken from the wall of a rent in greenstone which 
 
 appeared to have been once filled with matter form- 
 ing a vein. This mass has a curious reniform ap- 
 pearance, and the vitreous coating mentioned as be- 
 ing common to the veins of Iceland. 
 
 •33 From the same place ; tinged green by some metallic 
 
 substance. 
 
 34 Another from the same place, having a vitreous me- 
 ^ tallic glaze on its surface. 
 
 35 The rock from which this specimen was taken, is on 
 the mainland opposite to Vidoe. It has, on the great 
 scale, an external appearance from which one might 
 be led to think that it had a slaty structure ; but 
 this seemed to be owing to decomposition. It is^
 
 JIfimrah.] APPENDIV, 431 
 
 A 
 
 No. 35 fine grained greenstone, and it passes into the co- 
 lumnar form, the columns being horizontal. Near the 
 place where this was observed, we saw diverging co- 
 lumns of amygdaloid resting on vertical columns of 
 greenstone. We could not discover any connection 
 of A 1 and A 5 with this greenstone. 
 
 36 Tuffa, found a few miles to the south of Reikiavik, 
 on the sea-shore. It contains masses of greenstonfe, 
 basalt, amygdaloid, small specks of the substance 
 forming so large a proportion of A 24, (black pearl-, 
 stone ?) of A 1 and 5. 
 
 37 Under the tuffa is a bed of wacke, containing shells, 
 in some places four or five feet thick. This was tra- 
 versed by a vast number of cracks, on each side of 
 which at right angles with them, were innumerable 
 
 o8 minute columnar masses, of which A 38 is a speci- 
 
 men. 
 
 39 From an included mass in the tuffa. 
 
 40 Appears to be wacke much indurated. 
 
 41 Under these we observed A 1 ; and also a rock the 
 same as A 24. 
 
 42 Is a specimen of the tuffa, with the wacke adhering 
 to it. 
 
 13 Is part of a large mass of colnmnar greenstone, con- 
 
 tained in a rock similar to A 41, which we saw on 
 the sea-shore, in going to Havnefiord. 
 
 44, 45 Specimens of the lava near Havnefiord, This lava is 
 of a bluish grey colour, dense and vesicular. It 
 contains crystals of selspar, and has olivin disseminat- 
 ed through it. In several parts of this stream of lava, 
 
 46 we observed that the olivin, from decomposition
 
 432 APPENDIX. [Mineralt^ 
 
 A 
 
 No. 46 or alteration, presented a beautiful irridescent appear- 
 ance. 
 
 47 At the extremity of this lava, towards the west, on 
 the shore of the bay, we found a considerable extent 
 of rock similar to A 1. We did not see the junction 
 of this with any other rock ; but we soon came to a 
 tuffa, with a vein of the same rocks passing through 
 
 48 it. The sides of this vein have the vitreous appearance 
 
 49 already mentioned. A little beyond this vein, a large 
 50, 51 extent of tuffa occurs, with the same rock passing 
 
 through it in so many directions, that the two seem- 
 ed as if mixed together. The tuffa has here a paste 
 similar to A 9j inclosing round, black, vitreous masses 
 like obsidian, perhaps black pearlstone. 
 52 A specimen of this has part of a vein adhering to 
 
 it, presenting an appearance which many will con- 
 sider to be the effect of heat, and which strikes me as 
 such. Above these we found A 1. Not far from this 
 place ar€ some hot springs, which are covered by 
 the sea at high water. 
 53, 54, Are specimens of slags from the cave, mentioned page 
 55, 56, 106 of the journal. The first three are from the roof; 
 
 57 56 is from the bottom, and 57 is part of a mass which 
 appeared to have been squeezed, while soft, from the 
 side. 
 
 58 Is a slag from one of the little craters, mentioned in 
 the same part of the Journal. 
 
 59 Is a specimen of tuffa, of which whole ranges of 
 mountains are composed in the Guldbringe Syssel. 
 
 60 Soft white clay, from a bank on the side of a moun- 
 tain on the road to Krisuvik, It has evidently been
 
 Minerals.} APPENDIX. 433 
 
 A 
 
 No. 60 produced in the same manner as the banks on the 
 sulphur mountains, which are not far distant. 
 
 61, 62 Masses from the same place ; the first two are de- 
 
 63 positions, the last is an altered rock. The speci- 
 
 mens of sulphur are deposited in this part of the col- 
 lection, but are not marked, on account of their de- 
 licacy. 
 
 64, 65 A rock above the sulphur banks ; it appears to be a 
 tufFa in a state of decomposition, and very friabie. 
 
 65 Similar to the last, but not so much decomposed; 
 from the same place. It may perhaps be a variety 
 of A 24, from the appearance of specks of pearl- 
 stone. 
 
 66 Porphyry slate, from the same place. 
 
 67 We observed a great quantity of the rock A 63, ap- 
 pearing above the surface of the clay and sulphur. 
 It is difficult to give it a name. It is composed of 
 soft roundish masses about the size of a walnut, of a 
 greyish yellow colour, separated by irridescent ferru- 
 ginous films ; and is extremely fragile. It has evi- 
 dently been altered, and is probably wacke. It has, 
 too, some resemblance to steatite. 
 
 The specimens of sulphate of lime which are ar- 
 ranged in this part of the collection, are not marked. 
 They were taken from different places where masses 
 occurred irregulaaly projecting through the clay. 
 They are very beautiful ; chiefly white, tinged with 
 .j„ red ; and are confusedly crystallised, some of them 
 
 fibrous, and some of them stellated. 
 
 68 From the submarine lavas on the coast near Kri- 
 suvik. It greatly resembles porphyry slate, and the 
 specimen marked above B. 
 
 3 1
 
 434 APPENDIX. {Minerals, 
 
 A 
 No. 69 Lava between Krisuvik and Grundcvik. 
 
 70, 71 Specimens of the pumice and slag, which were wash- 
 ed on shore during the marine eruption of 17S3. 
 
 72, 73 Specimens of lava from Grundevik, containing fel- 
 spar and olivin, the latter irridescent. 
 
 74, 75, Varieties of A 1. The first was found on the road from 
 
 76 Grundevik to Kieblivik, where subterraneous heat 
 
 had acted in a tremendous manner ; the two last near 
 Kieblivik, in beds. 
 
 77 Part of an amygdaloidal vein, near Brautarholt. It 
 seems to be a variety of basalt. Its colour is dark 
 bluish grey. The fracture is imperfect conchoidal 
 passing into uneven. It is difficultly frangible; and 
 the fragments have very sharp edges. It may be 
 scraped by a knife ; but it scratches glass easily. It is 
 very compact ; and on the whole greatly resembles 
 indurated clay. Beside calcareous spar, and com- 
 mon radiated zeolite, it contains nodules for the 
 most part long and cylindrical, or rather of the shape 
 of an egg much elongated, and sometimes flattened. 
 These nodules are lined with Laumonite, a variety 
 of zeolite lately described ; the crystals of which are 
 characterised by their extreme brittleness ; so much 
 so, that we could not preserve a single entire speci- 
 men. The outside of the nodules was coated with 
 green earth. 
 
 77' Part of one of the largest of the nodules. 
 
 78 Vesicular slaty clinkstone through which the former 
 
 79 passed. It likewise appeared to traverse greenstcne, 
 which also had a slaty structure, and contained much 
 green earth. The mountain of Esian, arid those which 
 belong to the same range, are composed of varieties
 
 Mtnerals.} APPENDIX. 435 
 
 A 
 
 No. 79 of greenstone and amygdaloid, traversed by veins of 
 
 basalt, such as have been described, and of jasper 
 80, of various colours. The veins have the vitreous coat- 
 
 81 ing on their sides. The jasper is often mixed with cal- 
 careous spar, and passes sometimes into opal jasper. 
 
 82 A specimen taken from the centre of a vein ; it is 
 much less compact than the jasper, and appears to 
 have been an included portion of some other rock in 
 an altered state. Sometimes the jasper, from decom- 
 
 83 position, is vesicular. 
 
 84, 85, Are varieties of jasper. The last specimen is inte- 
 
 86 resting, in so far as it shows the jasper passing into 
 opal jasper, and f''om that into pitchstone. 
 
 87 Amygdaloid, containing agate. 
 
 88, 89 These two specimens are particularly deserving of 
 notice, especially the last. A 88, is an amygdaloid 
 containing calcareous spar in elongated vesicles. I 
 do not wish to lay any particular stress upon this 
 specimen, because it has been unfortunately damaged, 
 and because certain appearances which it presents 
 may be attributed to the effects of the weather. But 
 as it was found along with the next specimen, I may 
 state what strikes me in regard to it, in order to in- 
 duce future travellers to attend particularly to the 
 spot where these were found, which is in the face of 
 rock on the shore of the Hval Fiord, before turning 
 into the valley on the road to Houls. Several days 
 might be well spent in this district. 
 
 The spar in A 88, is not attached closely to the 
 sides or bottom of the vesicles, which are lined with 
 a immber of minute, round, yellowish coloured 
 masses, which have left impressions on the spar.
 
 436 APPENDIX. [MintraUj. 
 
 A 
 
 No. 88, These are also seen in the body of the stone, and 
 
 89 must have Hned the vesicles before the spar was 
 
 formed. If the spar entered in a state of solution, 
 it ought to have reached the bottom of the vesicles 
 and adhered closely to the sides. If any empty space 
 was left at all, it should have been in the heart of the 
 spar itself; but A 89, which was found at the same 
 place, exhibits marks of fusion which cannot be mis- 
 taken. I may here mention, that, among the debris 
 of the rocks in this place, great quantities and varie- 
 ties of slags were observed ; but these did not at first 
 excite particular attention, as we were at the time 
 quite ignorant of whence they came. Nor did I take 
 particular notice of the specimen under considera- 
 tion, excepting as a slag, till I was repacking it to be 
 sent home. This remarkable specimen contains cal- 
 careous spar ; and is one which, together with others 
 to be soon described, gave rise to the discussion in 
 the chapter on Mineralogy. At this place there are 
 fine calcedonies and zeolites. 
 
 The rocks near Houls consist of apparently hori- 
 90, 91, zontal beds of amygdaloid, porphyry slate, and of 
 92, 93, blackish pitchstone. Beyond this place masses of 
 94, 95, porphyritic pitchstone, of a dull black colour, were 
 965 97 found ; and also a species of tufFa, and a variety of 
 wacke in a state of decomposition. 
 
 On the western side of the Hval Fiord, nothing par- 
 ticular occurred, all the rocks being greenstone or 
 amygdaloid, excepting a variety of the former, of an 
 98 ash grey colour. 
 
 The following specimens illustrate the structure of 
 the mountain of Akkrefell, and probably of almost
 
 Minerals.} APPENDIX. 437 
 
 A 
 
 No. 98 all the mountains in this part of Iceland. It was 
 with difficulty and hazard that we obtained so com- 
 plete a series of specimens, which are peculiarly in- 
 teresting, as proving the existence of a new set of 
 B rocks in the structure of the crust of the earth. 
 
 1, 2, 3, TufFa which appears on the shore near Indre- 
 holm. 
 
 4, 5 Amygdaloidal greenstone containing fine crystals of 
 chabasie, or cubic zeolite, on the shore above the 
 former. 
 
 6 Another tuffa, which formed the lowest visible bed- 
 
 of the mountain. It is similar to what is found in the 
 Guldbring^ Syssel ; but no lava nor slags were ob- 
 served in it. It contains cavities lined with minute 
 crystals, unconnected with any included masses. 
 
 7, 8, 9, Amygdaloid from three different beds. 
 
 10 This fossil is very similar to red sandstone ; but is in 
 
 fact a fine grained tuffa. The mass of it which we 
 saw, was not more than a foot thick, and was irregu- 
 larly interposed between the beds. 
 
 lltolG Varieties of amygdaloid from different beds. The 
 next specimen is wanting in the series, on account of 
 the package having got wet, and the number having 
 been lost. 
 
 18 to 22 Varieties of amygdaloid follow. 
 
 23 Is similar to B 10 ; and, being coarser, serves to eluci- 
 
 date the nature of that substance. Above, amygda- 
 
 25 loid again appears. One variety of it is very \esicu- 
 
 lar; some of the vesicles being empty, and others 
 filled with chabasie, the crystals of which, in one in- 
 stance, assume a slalactitic disposition. 
 
 No. 1 After experiencing great difficulty, we arrived at a bed.
 
 438 APPENHTX. [Minerals. 
 
 the lower part of which was slaggy. Under some of 
 No. 2 the slags was a substance, apparently indurated litho- 
 marga, of the same red colour as that which forms so 
 prominent a feature in the aspect of the Giant's Cause- 
 way, and which abounds in many parts of the county 
 of Antrim, 
 
 3 This specimen shews the junction of the slag with 
 the rock. 
 
 4 The rock itself, which resembles the lava of Havne- 
 fiord, (A 44, 45.) 
 
 5 Above this we found amygdaloid, an unexpected oc- 
 currence in this situation, but we afterwards found it 
 again in another part of the same mountain ; the 
 amygdaloid being placed between two beds, the lower 
 
 6, 7> 8, surface of which were slaggy. 
 
 9 From a vein of basalt, which cut the beds nearly in a 
 perpendicular direction. 
 
 10 Part of the edge of the vein, vitreous at the sides. 
 
 Above this, to the top of the mountain, all the 
 
 beds, except those of tuffa, were slaggy on the lower 
 
 surface. 
 
 11, 12, Some were amygdaloidal as 11 ; and others compact 
 
 13 as 1'2; and some were vesicular and scorified looking 
 
 throughout, as 13. One of the beds of tuffa was very 
 
 large, not less than fifty feet thick, and contained slags 
 
 and lava. Many of the included masses were several 
 
 feet diameter. The average thickness of the beds 
 
 composing this remarkable mountain, I suppose to 
 
 be abovit 20 feet. Above this great bed of tuffa, were 
 
 several beds slaggy underneath. The \ippermost re- 
 
 15 sembles the Havnefiord lava. 
 
 This singular assemblage of rocks, which I have endeavour-
 
 ifinerats.] APPENDIX. 439 
 
 ed to show to be a series of lavas erupted at the bottom of the 
 sea, I believe will be found to extend over the whole of Ice- 
 land ; and it is very probable that the future researches of 
 geologists will prove that the whole island has l)ecn produced 
 by the agency of heat ; the power and efficacy of which 
 seems to be vastly underrated by many philosophers who have 
 not seen or sufficiently considered its elFects. 
 
 B 
 No. 26 Deposition of the hot springs near Leira. 
 27 Conglomerate, formed by the deposition of the same 
 
 springs. 
 28, 29, Siliceous petrifactions, apparently of peat, contain- 
 30, 31 ing roots ; from the same place. These have been 
 formed by more ancient springs, which no longer 
 exist. 
 
 In passing over the eastern Skardsheide, the same 
 rocks, we had already observed, occurred ; and among 
 them pitchstone. In the vast precipices, which were 
 everywhere exposed to view, we saw the finest possi- 
 ble display of the structure of the mountains ; and 
 recognised the tufFa, so often mentioned, at a great 
 elevation. Zeolites and calcedonies were scattered 
 about in abundance, but we did not see any that 
 were remarkably fine. 
 
 The rocks of the Western Skardsheide continued 
 amygclaloidal, till we met with lava of the same na- 
 32 ture as that at Havuefiord. Hills of tuffa were on 
 
 every side. Leaving the defile which was filled with 
 lava, nothing particular occurred till we met with a 
 greenstone very highly crystallised, partly amygdaloid- 
 33, 34 al, and partly porphvrilic. The crystals of felspar 
 occurred more than half an inch thick. Beyond tlie
 
 440 ATPENDIX. TMineral^ 
 
 B 
 
 No. 33, valley of Stadarhravin, which was full of lava, the 
 
 34 mountains consisted of the same materials as those we 
 had left behind ; and contained great plenty of zeo- 
 lites of every description. I found one remarkably 
 fine specimen, half of which is placed in the cabinet 
 of Mr Allan, and the remainder in that of the college 
 of this city. It was found entire, among the debris, 
 and was afterwards broken, when it displayed a most 
 beautiful cavity. \^_ 
 
 35 A specimen of the amygdaloidal rock containing stil- 
 bite. 
 
 36 Lava from Roudemelr. It contains a great quantity 
 of augit, and altered olivin. 
 
 37 A specimen of the range of columns near that place. 
 This rock does not differ, except in its being more 
 compact, from the lava of Havnefiord and other 
 places. 
 
 38 Part of a rolled mass of sienitic greenstone, the fel- 
 spar white. 
 
 39, 40 Depositions from the spring at Lysiehouls, chiefly 
 41 calcareous. Not far from this spring are large quan- 
 
 42, 43, titles, several acres, of petrifactions that have been 
 
 44 formed by some ancient springs which held silica in 
 solution. 
 
 45 Lava of Buderstad, which differs from that at Havne- 
 fiord in containing augit. 
 
 46 From the columns at Stappen. Here there is still a 
 resemblance to common lava, only this contains less 
 olivin than the lavas we had met with before. 
 
 47 From the lower end of a column. Wherever we saw 
 48, 49, the lower ends they were slaggy. Slags were found 
 50 in the heart of some, and lining every cavity we ob-
 
 ^^n^rals.] APPENDIX, 441 
 
 B 
 No. 50 served. The specimens can hardly leave a doubt of 
 
 the action of heat. 
 
 51, 52, From a stream of lava that has flowed from Sneefell 
 
 53, 54 Joknl. The more compact specimens are exactly 
 
 similar to black basalt. In several parts of this 
 
 stream, we saw masses very different from the lava in 
 
 55 general. They contain a (ew minute vesicles, some 
 very small crystals of felspar, and specks of augit. 
 The general colour of the stone is ash grey, spotted 
 with white, and it appears to have a slaty texture. 
 
 56 A specimen of pumice, picked up from among many 
 that still remain of those heaps which were washed on 
 shore during the eruption in 1783. Masses of pumice 
 exactly similar to this, have been frequently found 
 on the north coast of Ireland ; and, in all probabi- 
 lity, were deriv ed from the same source, having float- 
 ed on the surface of the ocean from the place were 
 the marine eruption took place. 
 
 57, 58, Slags, pumice and obsidian, from the Snaefell Jokul. 
 59, 60, These were picked up by my friends, from a bank 
 61 composed of them, and which was free from snow, 
 
 62, 63, Specimens from a bed on the mountain between 
 
 64 Stappen and Olafsvik. The upper part of this bed 
 (B62) is a perfect greenstone, containing small specks 
 of olivin, augit, and felspar. The middle part of the 
 bed (63) has a coarse and scorified appearance ; and 
 the lower part (64) is completely slaggy. 
 
 65 From another bed on the same road. It contains 
 the largest masses of augit we had observed. We 
 should have reaiiirked that we did not sec any augit 
 distinctly crystallised. 
 
 (^ Part of a rock which is heaved up into blisters, like 
 
 3 K
 
 442 APPENDIX. [Mi7ieraff. 
 
 B 
 
 No. 66 those near Reikiavik. It is very like A 1, but is more 
 
 generally vesicular. 
 
 67 TufFa on which a grand range of columns, on the ' 
 road to Olafsvik, rested. 
 
 68 Is a part of one of the columns, which differ from 
 those at Stappen in being more compact. 
 
 69 From a large rolled mass in the river near the co- 
 lumns. It is a highly crystallised greenstone, con- 
 taining augit and large crystals of felspar. 
 
 The rocks abovit Olafsvik are amygdaloidal ; and, 
 in several places, beds of tuffa present themselves. 
 The most curious appearance in this neighbourhood, 
 is a vein of slaggy matter, passing through the bank ' 
 of gravel which forms the beach. 
 
 On a point of land several miles to the eastward 
 of Olafsvik, are some fine ranges of columns over- 
 hanging the sea. Some of these appear as if they 
 had been twisted. At the only place where they 
 were accessible, they presented an undulated ap- 
 pearance on the lower ends, at the separation of the 
 
 71 columns from a bed of amygdaloid on which they 
 rested ; but of this it was difficult to obtain speci- 
 mens. When broken, the fracture exhibits the vi- 
 
 72 treovis appearance so often observed on the sides of 
 
 73 veins. In some places the same slaggy appearance 
 74, 75 is seen on the sides, and also in the very heart of the 
 
 columns. 
 
 76 Specimens of greenstone, from a mass that had fallen 
 from a precipice not far from Bulandshofde. 
 
 77 Another mass from the same place. It is of an ash 
 grey colour, vesicular, the vesicles being irregularly 
 shaped, and lined with minute transparent crystals.
 
 Minerals. ] APPENDIX. 443 
 
 h 
 
 No. 77 Some of the vesicles contained minute diverging crys- 
 tals of calcareous spar. Near a cascade, mentioned 
 7S, 79, in the Journal, p. 184, we observed numerous veins of 
 80 greenstone passing through rock, of the same sub- 
 
 stance, tufFa, and amygdaloid, all in the greatest con- 
 fusion. 
 
 In this part of the country, tufFa frequently oc- 
 curs ; and when it forms the tops of mountains, it is 
 easily recognised by the rugged and fantastic peaks 
 which they present, similar to those in the view of the 
 sulphur mountains. At Stikkeshohn, we observed a 
 vein of greenstone, standing erect like a wall, about 
 the height of ten feet, the beds of greenstone on each 
 side having been worn away. The sides, as usual, 
 were vitreous. It contained nodules of obsidian. 
 Shows both sides of a vein, containing small no- 
 dules of the same substance. A vein of calcareous 
 spar traverses the rock in varioiis directions ; from 
 one of which we took a specimen of semi-opal. 
 Is a specimen of highly crystallised greenstone, which 
 is disseminated through part of the rock near this 
 place. 
 
 Mineralised wood from Drapuhlid. fl-ld.p. 368 et seq. 
 Ash grey pearlstone from the same mountain. 
 Greenish black pearlstone from the same. 
 Tliis rock was immediately abo»e the preceding. 
 Above the last. This rock greatly resembles some 
 we observed near Houls, where it was connected 
 with pitehstone. The colour is dark bluish grey, 
 with round reddish white specks. The fracture is 
 uneven and earthy, and is somewhat slaty in the 
 texture. 
 
 82 
 
 
 83 
 
 
 84 
 
 
 85 
 
 
 86 
 
 
 87 
 
 
 88, 
 
 89 
 
 90, 
 
 91 
 
 92, 
 
 93
 
 444 APPENDIX. [Mtnerah. 
 
 B 
 
 No. 94 This appears to be the same rock, entirely slaty, with 
 
 the specks hardly visible ; the beds were horizontal. 
 These two rocks are similar to the fossils which ac- 
 company some of the pitchstone veins in the island 
 of Arran. 
 
 95 From a vein of pitchstone at the base of the moun- 
 tain of Baula, on the west side. The colour is green- 
 ish grey. This has much of the character of pearl- 
 stone. 
 
 96 Dark green pitchstone, from the same place. 
 
 97 Pitchstone porphyry, from the same place. 
 
 98 This is from a rock connected with the pitchstone 
 veins of Baula, probably a variety of porphyry slate. 
 
 99, 100 Small masses of coaly matter, which were given to me 
 as having been found on the mountain of Baula. 
 Both have a strong resemblance to wood, but are 
 different from that of Drapuhlid. They contain a 
 small quantity of pyrites, and burn with flame. 
 C 
 
 No. 1 This tuffa was found at Eyalstadir, and is the same 
 with B 10, from the mountain of Akkrefell. It is 
 here connected in the same manner with submarine 
 lava. 
 
 2 The under surface of a bed of amygdaloid resting 
 on tuffa, which has the peculiar characters of a slag. 
 The bottom of this bed is not exposed in many places, 
 being concealed by debris. It is probable, that, in 
 the course of the river Thiorsaa, in places higher up, 
 some interesting examples of submarine lava may be 
 seen. 
 
 3 The upper part of the rock, containing analcime. 
 
 4 The same, with green steatite.
 
 MineraU.'] APPENDIX. ii5 
 
 C 
 
 No. 5 Black obsidian. This occurs only in detached masses 
 at the place where this specimen was found. It ex- 
 ists in great quantity in the neighbourhood of Mount 
 Krabla; from whence, we were informed, all the spe- 
 cimens of Icelandic agate, in she European cabinets, 
 were brought. This is not so perfectly vitreous as 
 specimens we have seen from the north of Iceland. 
 
 6 The most common variety in the great stream which 
 we saw. It is vesicular, with white crystals of felspar 
 scattered through the mass. 
 
 7 In this the vesicles are elongated, and flattened so 
 much, that when viewed in one direction, it seems 
 as if composed of plates. The other fractures show 
 distinctly the vesicular structure. The crj'stals of fel- 
 spar are nearly disengaged. We have seen many si- 
 milar specimens from Lipari. 
 
 8 Contains more felspar ; the vesicles are minute ; and 
 it approaches to pumice. 
 
 9, 10 Show the whole gradation from compact obsidian, to 
 the most perfect pumice. 
 
 11 This contains felspar, and is blackish grey. It wants 
 the vitreous lustre, and its fracture is uneven. It is 
 dense, and somewhat vesicular. This and the follow- 
 ing have been called compact pearlstone by Mr 
 Jameson. 
 
 12 The vesicles of this are studded with minute globular, 
 white, and hard masses. It is of an ash grey colour, 
 
 13 and passes into obsidian. One variety has a pecu- 
 liar aspect ; appearing, when fresh broken, as if dust- 
 ed over with a purplish grey powder. 
 
 14 These are seen, in different specimens, passing to 
 15, l6 obsidian, which appears in layers. One specimen
 
 446 APPENntX. (Afinerals. 
 
 C 
 
 (C 14) exhibits small globular masses of a reddish 
 grey colour, dispersed through the obsidian. 
 
 No. 17 In this specimen, all these are seen connected, as well 
 as the gradation into pumice. 
 
 18, 19 These specimens have masses of slag attached to 
 them. Pumice occurs above the obsidian ; and from 
 the motion of the stream when flowing, has been 
 sometimes included in it. 
 
 20 This is a remarkable and beautiful specimen, the last 
 of the series from the stream of obsidian. It is a mass 
 of slag, in a cavity of which some fusible matter has 
 been included, and reduced to the state of glass. 
 The cavity is lined by it in stalactitic masses ; and 
 some of the matter has been drawn out to the fine- 
 ness of hair. No operation of water could possibly 
 produce these appearances. 
 
 21 to 27 Are specimens of lava from Mount Hekla, which are 
 
 very like those from the Snaefell Jokul, B51, &c. 
 
 The remaining numbers to C 40, inclusive, are va- 
 rieties of slags from Hekla ; C 33, 34, being from the 
 very summit of that celebrated mountain. 
 
 39 Is the only mass we found having the appearance of 
 an ejected stone : it is little altered, and is probably 
 sienite. 
 
 40 Is a specimen from the hills of tufFa which surround 
 Hekla. 
 
 The specimens from the Geysers are marked from 
 
 D 1, toD 41. 
 
 As the productions of the hot springs in Iceland, are of a 
 
 nature entirely different from those of any other springs in 
 
 the known world, it is jirobably not presuming too much 
 
 when it is proposed to mineralogists, to form a separate class
 
 'Minerals.] APPP-NKIX. 447 
 
 of those minerals, which have been deposited from chemical 
 solution in water, under the general name of Hydrolile, and 
 to arrange the stony depositions of water under the heads of 
 calcareous and siliceous Hydrolite. This is perhaps a more 
 precise denomination than Sinter, the word used by Werner, 
 and at once conveys the knoivn mode of the formation of such 
 substances. We shall, at present, only point out the speci- 
 mens in a very general manner. 
 
 D 
 No. 1 too The outer part of the mount, 1, 2, being the sur- 
 face, and much resembling the head of cauliflowers; 
 or, both in colour and appearance, a piece of spunge. 
 6, 7 From the inside of the bason. This takes a tolerable 
 polish, and is very pretty. The vertical section has 
 a dendritic appearance, from the intermixture of 
 brownish streaks with the mass which is chiefly white. 
 The cross fracture presents roundish white spots sur- 
 rounded by the brownish matter. The fracture is vi- 
 treous, and the substance is very brittle. It scratches 
 glass with difliculty. 
 
 8 Is a mass of old incrustation, coated over with re- 
 cently deposited matter. It was taken from a hollow 
 on the mount in which the water was retained. 
 
 9 Is part of the depositions of the New Geyser, form- 
 ed, apparently, when that fountain presented phe- 
 nomena different from what it now does. 
 
 10, 11 From the beautiful cavity described p. 212. The 
 specimens resemble the capital of a Gothic column. 
 
 13 Is from the same place. 
 
 14 A mass of turf, on which the water, after having 
 cooled, was depositing its contents while the grass 
 was yet growing.
 
 4iS APPENDIX, [Minerals. 
 
 D 
 
 15 to 18 Masses of petrified leaves, &c. 
 
 19 This was picked up among ihe old incrustations. The 
 opaline matter is arranged in waved lines, which are 
 separated by layers of an open texture, resembling 
 the tables of the scull separated by cellular bone. 
 
 20 Contains leaves and rushes, and is discoloured by 
 iron. 
 
 21, 22 Masses of petrified peat, containing rushes and 
 branches. 
 
 23 Clay from the muddy springs. 
 
 24 Shows the opaline matter in layers. 
 
 25 Appears to have been produced by the deposition 
 having taken place upon a conferva. 
 
 T0D37 Varieties of depositions and petrifactions. 
 
 38, 39 From the spring to the northward of the Geysers. 
 It bears a very striking resemblance to opal. 
 
 40 A very curious specimen picked up on the clay bank 
 
 above the great Geyser. It is in a state of decom- 
 position, and is a good model of a rocky promon- 
 tory.
 
 Miscellaneous arlicles-l APPENDIX. 44g 
 
 No. IV. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES, CONNECTED WITH HISTORV 
 LITERATURE, &C. 
 
 BY H. HOLLAND, M. D. 
 
 The Berserkhie Superstitmr . 
 
 A SHORT account of this superstition has been given iu a 
 note to the PreUminary Dissertation, p. 39. The Berserkir, 
 or magical wrestlers, are thus described in the Hist. Eccles. 
 Island, torn. 1. p. 45, note : — ' Tales athletae, antiqua lingua 
 ' vocantur Berserkir, id est, nudi et sine lorica in caedes et 
 
 * pugnas ruentes. Erant viri robusti, sed facinorosi, et ut 
 
 * plurimum incantatores, qui cutem arte diabolica induravc- 
 
 * rant, ne iis ferrum ignisve nocere posset. His furore per- 
 
 * citis, ita ad tempus intendebantur vires, ut postea debiles 
 ' et languidi fierent.' In the treatise De Berserhs, annexed 
 to the Kristni Saga, the following account is given of the pa- 
 roxysms to which these men were subject : — ' Effcctus furo- 
 
 * ris Berserkici ex veterum traditionibus praecipui fuerunt, 
 ' quod CO occupati, ferocitate caniun luporumve semula, ore 
 ' torvum infremerent, clypeosque morsibus non modo attrec- 
 ' tarent, sed et ex parte consumerent ; porro quod robore 
 
 * tauros ursosve aequante augerentur, ferro impenctrubiles 
 
 3 L
 
 45d APPENDIX. [MtsceUanems articled 
 
 ' evaderent, incendia et flammas nudis etiam pedibus percur- 
 ' rerent et penetrarent ; denique et torridas prunas igneosve 
 ' carbones deglutirent.' p. 159. By Snorro Sturleson and 
 others, the origin of this superstition is ascribed to Odin 
 himself, who was supposed, in those times, not only to have 
 instructed the original Berserkir in the magical arts, upon 
 •which their powers depended, but also to exercise an imme- 
 diate influence upon the mind in every instance wliere this 
 furor was present. With respect to the real history of the 
 superstition, it is probable that some of the Berserkir were 
 men of weak judgment and a depraved imagination, who be- 
 came almost involuntary agents in these absurdities : others, 
 doubtless, were merely impostors, who assumed this strange 
 character that they might the better work vipon the preju- 
 dices and terrors of those around them. 
 
 For some centuries past, it has been customary among the 
 Icelanders, during the period of any great volcanic eruption, 
 to appoint a day of general prayer and supplication. This 
 was first done in the northern parts of the island in 1477> 
 when a great assembly Avas convened of the inhabitants of 
 the district. The following is the preamble to the record 
 preserved of the vows and other religious ceremonies of this 
 
 meetnig. 
 
 ' In nomine Domini, amen ! Die Martis primo mensis hye- 
 mis ultimi, anno P. C. li/?? in Grund in Eyafiord, conve- 
 nere clerici et laici inter Vargaa et Gleraa habitantes, et 
 locuti sunt de terribilibus prodigiis, quae tunc premebant ; 
 eruptio nenipe ignis, dispersio decidentis arenae atque cine- 
 ris, tenebrte et horrendi stridores, Horum prodigiorum 
 causa, pecora alimentis destituebantur, terra licet nive va-
 
 Miscellaneous drtictes.'] APPENDIX. 451 
 
 f^ cua esset. Convenit inter eos hoc profectb accidisse in 
 ' peccatorum et praevaricalionum humanarum poenam : hinc 
 ' onines in id consenserunt, ut graliam et misericoidiam ibi, 
 ' ubi abundant, scilicet apud Deum ipsum quaererent, ut 
 ' ille suae irae vindictum a nobis avertere vellet. Non isitur 
 ' ulterius divinas castigationes et pocnas in hoc mundo de- 
 
 * precabimur : ne autem regnum coelorum nobis occludat, 
 ' elegimus, ut Deus, qui omnia scit atque potest, et ea quae 
 
 * optima sunt, vult, nobis omnibus et in praesens et in futu- 
 ' rum consulat. In primis votum vovebamus omnipotenti 
 ' Deo, illi qui est fons omnium bonorum : illustri deinde re- 
 ' ginae Virgini sanctae Mariae ; sancto Michaeli Archangelo, 
 ' et omnibus Dei angelis : sancto Johanni Baptistae,' &c. 
 
 The structure of the ancient Icelandic or Scandinavian 
 verse has been briefly described in the Preliminary Disserta- 
 tion, p. 22. The following verses will furnish a specimen of 
 the modes of alliteration which were employed in the poetry 
 of these times, and upon which its harmony was considered 
 so much to depend. They form the beginning of a sacred 
 poem, called the Lilium, which was composed during the 
 14th century, by Eystein, an Icelandic monk, who possessed 
 much reputation at this period. 
 
 Almattigr Gud, allra stetta All powerful God, who presidest over 
 
 Yferbiodandinn, engla og thioda, all orders of beings, both angels and 
 
 Ei thurfandi stadi ne standir, mortals; who, independent of place and 
 
 Stad halldandi i kyrrleiks valldi ; time, continucst undisturbed in thy so- 
 
 Senn verandi uti og inni, vereign power ; who at once art with- 
 
 Uppi og nidri og thar i niidiu, out and within, above and below, and in 
 
 Lof se ther um alldr og eefi the midst ; praise be unto thee for ever 
 
 Eining sonn i ihrenuum gieinuni ! and ever, the true unity iu trinity !
 
 452 appendix; [Miscellaneous articki. 
 
 Mski ec tliiii en mikla miskunn I ask of thee, that in thy great mercyj 
 
 Mer veitist, er ec epterleita thou wouldst grant me what I implore 
 
 Af klockum hug ; thui ec ynnist ecki with a submissive soul ; for I desire no 
 
 Annad gott, nema af ther, Drottinn : other good than what comes from thee, 
 
 Hreinsa briost, oc leid med listum Lord : Cleanse my breast, and dispose 
 
 Loflig ord i studia skordum, suitable words with elegance into poeti- 
 
 Stefnlig giord svo visan verdi cal numbers, that a song of graceful 
 
 Vunnin ydur af thessum niunni. structure may be offered up unto thee 
 
 from my mouth. 
 
 The alliteration employed here is of two kinds ; one cor- 
 respondence appearing in the initial letters or syllables, an- 
 other in certain letters which occur in the middle of words. 
 Where the alliteration is initial, the same letters generally 
 occur twice in the first line of each distich, and are once re- 
 peated in the second. Thus, in the first distich of the se- 
 cond verse, we find mikla, mishun, mer; in the third we have 
 hid, listum, loflig; in the fourth, visan, verdi, vunnin. The 
 rythm in the middle of the words is also of two kinds. In the 
 first line, the same consonants twice occur, with different 
 vowels preceding them ; in the second, the alliteration is 
 complete, both as to the consonants and vowels. Thus, in 
 the first verse, we have of the former kind, alma^/igr, stc/z'a, — 
 thurfa/2c/i, siundir, — %enn, inn'i, — lof, ce^i. Of the second kind, 
 we have, yferb/oWandinn, ihidda, — ha//f/andi, \alldi, — uidri, 
 mid'm, — ei?nng, greinum. 
 
 This poem, which consists of a hundred stanzas, was, at 
 the time it was written, in much repute among the Iceland- 
 ers for the elegance and accuracy of its style. There is an 
 old saying in the language, Oil skdlld villdti Liliu kuedit hafa; 
 or, ' Every poet would wish to have composed the Lilium.' 
 
 The following verses are jiart of a poem composed by 
 Finnur Magnuson of Reikiavik, in commemoration of the
 
 Miscellaneous articles-l 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 453 
 
 events which occurred in Iceland in 180.9. The first nine 
 verses are descriptive of the earher condition of Iceland. 
 Those succeeding, which are taken from another part of the 
 poem, describe the usurpation of Jorgcnsen, in language 
 which certainly assumes some license in the poetic embellish- 
 ment of facts. In these verses, it will be observed that the 
 alliteration is very frequent, in imitation of tiie ancient Ice- 
 landic poetry. 
 
 Fieck theim frelsi 
 Frsedi skopud, 
 Rit og mal 
 Retti nadu. 
 
 Gall thai- greppa 
 Gullinn harpa ; 
 Fedra saung 
 Fraeg tlirekvirki.' 
 
 Sin og kuiinra 
 Sam lifenda 
 Or log og verk 
 Adrir skradu. 
 
 Liberty brought forth the ele- 
 gant arts : writing and speech 
 obtained their proper privi- 
 lege. 
 
 The golden harp of the bard 
 gave forth its sound : it sung 
 the heroic deeds of our forefa- 
 thers. 
 
 The fates, and the deeds, of 
 themselves and of their con- 
 temporaries, were written by 
 others. 
 
 Skalda log, 
 Skrifs og maelsken, 
 Lista og ydna 
 Litu ritinn. 
 
 Undrast enn 
 Europear 
 Frodir visindi 
 Fedra vorra. 
 
 Breyttist fron, 
 Breyttust landar; 
 jErdust their auds 
 Og seru-syki. 
 
 The laws of poetry, of com- 
 position, of oratory, of the arts, 
 and of workmanship, were 
 committed to writings. 
 
 The European nations even 
 now admired the learning and 
 wisdom of our forefathers. 
 
 The land was changed, the peo- 
 ple were changed : the seek- 
 ing of wealth and honours be- 
 came a madness among them.
 
 45i 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 IMiscellaneous arttclesi 
 
 Mottu hvarfveggia 
 Mentum fiemur : 
 Kings og Klerka 
 Kugun hrepptu. 
 
 Soadi meingi 
 Svartur daudi : 
 Hvarf ur landi 
 Hrodur forni. 
 
 Forust lystir 
 Fie og saela : 
 Vesladist fold 
 Og fegurd tyndi. 
 
 They preferred these things 
 to the pursuit of knowledge : 
 kings and priests obtained the 
 mastery over them. 
 
 The Black-Death* devoured the 
 people : its ancient glory de- 
 parted from the land. 
 
 The arts, wealth, and happi- 
 ness, perished : the ground, 
 diminished in fertility, lost its 
 pleasantness. 
 
 Lietst hann Engla 
 Lofdung thioua 
 Hermagtar hanns 
 Hafa fylgi. 
 
 Vopnadiz brodir 
 Bormum moti : 
 Enn otti greip 
 Adra lydi. 
 
 Hofdu ei sied 
 Sverd nie dreira, 
 Lagaleysi 
 Lutu naudgir. 
 
 Sa hinn oblgarl 
 Ebldi virki 
 Og heldocku 
 Hreikti mirki. 
 
 He pretended that he served 
 the English king ; that he de- 
 pended on the protection of 
 his armies. 
 
 brothers against 
 
 He armed 
 
 each other : tenor seized the 
 
 remainder of the people ; 
 
 Who had never before beheld 
 the sword or blood, and unwil- 
 lingly submitted to the inso- 
 lent yoke. 
 
 He more powerful raised for- 
 tifications ; and erected his 
 standard black as hell. 
 
 * The plague which devastated Iceland at the beginning of the 14th century, 
 is emphatically called, in the writings of the country, Svartur Daudi, or the 
 Black Death.
 
 Miscellaneous articles.] APPENDIX. 455 
 
 Tok hann tignar He took a lordly title ; having 
 
 Titil jarla, dared to assume possession of 
 
 Vogandi mildings the supreme power. 
 Magt eigna. 
 
 Lietst at thiod vorri He pretended that our people 
 
 Th ar til kiorim, wished for these things ; and 
 
 Ad hun uppreitar that they all demanded these 
 
 on svo krefdi. tumults. 
 
 The following verses are an extract from the translation 
 of Pope's Essay on Man by Jonas Thorlakson, the priest of 
 Backa. They include the first twelve lines of the fourth epis- 
 tle, beginning, 
 
 " O Happiness ! our being's end and aim !" 
 
 O ! farsald ! thu vort einka hnoss, 
 Astefnda lifs og veru mid ! 
 Lust, gledi, rosemd, alnsegd oss ! 
 Oeld hvad hellst nafn thig brufar vid I 
 Eitthvad sem girnast allir menn 
 jEvarandi med stundun frekt, 
 Sem gioerir lifid yndaellt, en 
 Andlat daudlegum bcerilegt ; 
 Er svo ei nalaeg shnist oeld 
 Samt iirrist iafnan hendur manns ; 
 Imist ei siest, eda'' ert tvoefold 
 Augum ens visa' og heimskingians. 
 Seig, himin-saedis himna blom 
 Hia OSS ef bygd ther gefin var, 
 Hvoer hreppti joerd, than heilla dom, 
 Ad haef se til, thu varir thar ? 
 Maske hofgoerduni megir a 
 Med allt thit finnast glansa skraut .'' 
 Ertu med demant hoeddum hia 
 Hulin malm-aeda rikt vid skaut P
 
 456 APPENDIX. IMiscdlaneons articles. 
 
 Maske Parnassum byggir blid 
 Blandin larberia kransa vid ? 
 Hoendla thig their, sem heyia strid, 
 Og hioervi brytia sigrad lid ? 
 
 Translation of Anacreon's 3 ith Ode, by the Assessor Be- 
 nedict Grondal. 
 
 M>7 |M.s (pvyrig, o^uara.. 
 Fly thu mig ecki, fagra mey ! 
 
 Tho mer af haerum herdar vidur 
 
 Hrynie fannhvitir lockar nidur, 
 Fyrilit mina elsku ei, 
 Medan ther aesku endiz blom, 
 
 Thui ofurvel a milli rosa 
 Miallhuitar ser, at minum dom, 
 
 I mai-kroensum liliur hrosa. 
 
 The following is a short extract from the M'mn'isverd Ti- 
 dlndi, or Icelandic Historical Register, for the year interven- 
 ing between the summers of 1801 and 1802. It is a part of 
 the account of the debates which took place in the British 
 Houses of Parliament, upon the peace of Amiens. The cele- 
 brated speech of Mr Windham on this occasion, is given at 
 considerable length. 
 
 * Merkileg var fyrsta seta ens enska Parlaments eptir Fri- 
 dar-gioerdina, tha Hertoginn af Bolton, eptir nockra bid, 
 ■ — thui thenari bans Icom orseint med raeduna, — baud Yfir- 
 husinu ad samglediast med ser yfir stridsins luckulegu en- 
 dingu, og quad tilhlydilegt, ad thetta Rikisins haa rad leti 
 thess vegna Konunginumskriflegathackargioerd i tie, hvoer 
 ogsvo af oellum Radhernmum i einii hliodi alyktadist ad 
 ske skyldi. I Undir-husinu framsetli Lord Lovainc lika 
 osk, og gafu flestir mali hans godann ordrom. Medal
 
 Miscellaneous aWic/es.] APPENDIX, 457 
 
 * theirra reis thar upp fyrstur fals-vinurinn Fox, og na;rst 
 ' eptir hann hinn iiafnkunni Pitt, er badir urdu a cinu niali. 
 ' hvad thessi sagdi gleddi sitt hiarta, thar their Fox og haiin, 
 ' aldrei tyrr hefdu ordid, samthyckir a aefi sinni, en — luoti 
 ' theim reis upf) gamall viniir Pitts, og fyrrverandi Stiornai- 
 
 * herra Windham, er sagdist engannveginn geta samsiunt 
 ' thcssu thacklaiti, thar scr vyrdtist fridur vid Frankariki, 
 ' i thessum kringumsta^dum, vera mioeg htryggur, og jafnvel 
 ' skammarlegur fyrir-hina enskii thiod, og, eins og hann tok 
 
 * til ords, Thangadur med eifmd ogolucku — " Eg verd " sagdi 
 ' hann, " ad vera syrgiandi i gledinnar hop," &c. &c. 
 
 The following is a catalogue of a few of the papers which 
 appeared in the Transactions of the first Literary Society of 
 Iceland. They are taken indiscriminately from the different 
 volumes of this work. 
 
 List of Icelandic plants, fishes, and birds, with their Linnxan names. By 
 Olaf Olafson. 
 
 Treatise on the catching of whales. By John Ericson. 
 
 On the mines and merchandize of sulphur in Iceland. By Bishop Finnson. 
 
 On the maintenance of orphans and crippled persons. By Sysselman Ketilson. 
 
 On the catching of sea-fowl at Skaga-fiord. By Olaf Olafson. 
 
 On the sea and river-fisheries of Iceland. By Olaf Stephenson. 
 
 On the cultivation of trees in Iceland. By Skule Magnuson. 
 
 Review and correction of the Icelandic version of certain passages in the Pro- 
 phecies. A series of treatises by John Olafson. 
 
 On the advantages of horned cattle. By Olaf Stephenson. 
 
 On the catching of foxes. By Thord Thorkelson, farmer in Eyafiord Syssel. 
 
 On faithfulness and affection in servants ; and how these qualities may best be 
 
 produced and cultivated. By Sysselman Einarson. 
 
 Treatises on the wheel and axle, inclined plane, screw, &c. By Stephen Bi- 
 ornson. 
 
 On the alkaline salt from sea-ware. Translated from the Danish by Assessor 
 Benedict Grondal. 
 
 3 M
 
 458 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 ^Miscellaneous articles. 
 
 A short commentary on the flowing back of the waters of the Red Sea for the 
 passage of the Israelites. By Stephen Thorarenson. 
 
 A key to meteorological changes, of the sun, moon, stars, air, winds, &c. By 
 Stephen Biornson. 
 
 On the causes of the diseases prevailing in Iceland. By John Peterson. 
 
 On the building of habitations in Iceland. By Provost Sweinson. 
 
 Dr James Home's Essay on the Scurvy. Translated into Icelandic by Land- 
 physicus Sweinson. 
 
 On the cookery of fish, flesh, meat, and milk, in Iceland. By Olaf Olafson. 
 
 Some words on the free trade of Iceland. By Olaf Olafson 
 
 The alphabet of the Icelandic language presents no strik- 
 ing peculiarity, except in the letter called Thorn, P, which has 
 been transferred from the Runic to the modern alphabet. 
 This letter has a double sound. At the beginningof a word, 
 it appears to be equivalent to the Hebrew Thau; and has a 
 sound intermediate between Th and Tsh, such as is not un- 
 known in the English language. At the end of a word, or af- 
 ter a vowel in the same syllable, it is pronounced like d, as 
 in inathnr, a man, which is pronounced madur. 
 
 The following are the cardinal numbers in the Icelandic 
 language; which, to thenvimberyoMr, are declinable : the re- 
 mainder, lip to the hundred, are indeclinable words. 
 
 Eyrn, 
 
 One. 
 
 Threttan, 
 
 Thirteen. 
 
 Tveir, 
 
 Two. 
 
 Fioortan, 
 
 Fourteen. 
 
 Thryr, 
 
 Three. 
 
 Tuttugu, 
 
 Twenty. 
 
 Floorer, 
 
 Four. 
 
 Thriatyu, 
 
 Thirty. 
 
 Fimm, 
 
 Five. 
 
 Fiorutyu, 
 
 Forty. 
 
 Sex, 
 
 Six. 
 
 Fimmtyu, 
 
 Fifty. 
 
 Sioe, 
 
 Seven. 
 
 Hundrad, 
 
 Hundred. 
 
 Aatta, 
 
 Eight. 
 
 Tvo-hundrad, 
 
 Two hundred. 
 
 Nyu, 
 
 Nine. 
 
 Thriu-hundrad. 
 
 , Three hundred. 
 
 Tyu, 
 
 Ten. 
 
 Thusund, 
 
 Thousand. 
 
 Ellefu, 
 
 Eleven, 
 
 Eyrn thusund, 
 
 One thousand, &c. 
 
 Twolf, 
 
 Twelve. 
 

 
 Miscellaneous articles. 
 
 APPKNDTX. 
 
 459 
 
 The following short catalogue of Icelandic words will show 
 the similarity between this language and the English, derived 
 from their origin in a common source. Numerous other ex- 
 amples of the same kind might have been obtained. 
 
 Aska, 
 
 Ashes. 
 
 
 Graata, 
 
 To weep — Scotch, <t. 
 
 Back, 
 
 The Back. 
 
 
 
 greet. 
 
 Bane, 
 
 Bane. 
 
 
 Grey, 
 
 A Aog—grey-hund^ 
 
 Barn, 
 
 A child— Scotch, bairn. 
 
 
 hunter's dog. 
 
 Bed, 
 
 Abed. 
 
 
 Greip, 
 
 A gripe. 
 
 Bende, 
 
 To bend. 
 
 
 Gulur, 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 Ber, 
 
 Bare. 
 
 
 Haena, 
 
 A hen. 
 
 Blad, 
 
 A leaf or blade. 
 
 
 Hag], 
 
 Hail. 
 
 Bladra, 
 
 A bladder. 
 
 
 Hil,Pret.Hulde,To cover— a hull. 
 
 Blek, 
 
 Black. 
 
 
 Hlaatur, 
 
 Laughter. 
 
 Bloma, 
 
 Flower or blossom. 
 
 
 Hlaup, 
 
 A leaping — Scotch, 
 
 Dey, 
 
 To die. 
 
 
 
 to laup. 
 
 Dyn, 
 
 To make a noise. 
 
 
 Ida, 
 
 An eddy. 
 
 Dyr 
 
 Dear. 
 
 
 Ilia, 
 
 Ill— bad. 
 
 Domur, 
 
 Doom— judgment. 
 
 
 Klyufa, 
 
 To cleave. 
 
 Draumur. 
 
 , A dream. 
 
 
 Kref, 
 
 To crave — to beg. 
 
 Dregg, 
 
 The dregs. 
 
 
 Kioosa, 
 
 To choose. 
 
 Duyn, 
 
 To fall off— Scotch; 
 
 , to 
 
 Magur, 
 
 Meagre. 
 
 
 dwine. 
 
 
 MoUd, 
 
 Soil — mould. 
 
 Erende, 
 
 Errand. 
 
 
 Nakenn, 
 
 Naked. 
 
 Eymnpria,Embers. 
 
 
 Naut, 
 
 An ox — Scotch, nowt. 
 
 Fader, 
 
 Father. 
 
 
 01, 
 
 Ale. 
 
 Fsede, 
 
 Food. 
 
 
 Oop, 
 
 A weeping. 
 
 Fsere, 
 
 I move my place— (icajz/ar- 
 
 Poke, 
 
 A bag or poke. 
 
 
 ing man.) 
 
 
 Rettuys, 
 
 Righteous. 
 
 Fel, 
 
 I conceal — Scotch, to 
 
 feal. 
 
 Rif, 
 
 A rib. 
 
 Fie, 
 
 IMoney — a fee. 
 
 
 Spade, 
 
 Spade. 
 
 Fingur, 
 
 The finger. 
 
 
 Stam, 
 
 A stammering. 
 
 Fiskur, 
 
 A fish. 
 
 
 Thif, 
 
 A thief 
 
 Foolk, 
 
 People. 
 
 
 Tidinde, 
 
 Tidings. 
 
 Frys, 
 
 To freeze. 
 
 
 Torff, 
 
 Turf. 
 
 GabI, 
 
 A limit — (gable oid.) 
 
 
 Tuinne, 
 
 Thread — twine. 
 
 GieU, 
 
 To shout, or yell. 
 
 
 Vellde, 
 
 Power — to wield a 
 
 Giora, 
 
 To make — Scotch, to 
 
 gar. 
 
 
 aceplre.
 
 460 APPENDIX. [Miscellaneous articles. 
 
 Translation of a letter of recommendation, addressed by 
 the Landfoged Frydensberg to the inhabitants of Guldbringe 
 Syssel. 
 
 ' Sir George Mackenzie is come from Scotland to Iceland, 
 ' for the purpose of examining the natural curiosities here ; 
 
 * the mountains, lava, and hot-water springs. He, and the 
 ' other gentlemen who are travelling with him, will first make 
 ' a journey through Guldbring^ Syssel; and as they are 
 ' strangers in the places where they are going, it is my ear- 
 
 * nest request that all good and respectable people will pay 
 ' every attention to them, and shew kindness to these stran- 
 ' gers, as good and hospitable Icelanders are wont to do to 
 ' travellers ; assisting their journey in every way they are 
 ' able, guiding them in the road from place to place, and 
 ' providing food for their horses. For this purpose, I give 
 ' this letter open into the hands of the Baronet to shew to 
 ' the people. 
 
 ' Frydensberg. 
 ' Reikiavik, 2lsf May, 1810.'
 
 rfdi. 
 
 b-s 
 
 ^•"■rrf r if J r i ff^fJ i r. ,iir^ rri:J 
 
 :f:?c 
 
 ff 
 
 ifO- 
 
 j:'j;^'j^i^iiJl|J^V i iTfTr.Tn
 
 Music] APPENDIX. 461 
 
 No. V. 
 
 MUSIC 
 
 It has been mentioned that, in modern times, the Icelanders 
 have shewn neither genius nor taste for music. It is said, 
 however to have been formerly taught in the island ; and 
 from the merit of some ancient sacred tunes, which we copied 
 from a manuscript, in the possession of Mr Stephenson of 
 Indrcholm, it appears that music was known as a science. 
 We were assured by Mr Stephenson and others, that these 
 tunes were very old, and really native compositions suited to 
 various hymns. Having no reason to doubt these facts, I 
 think that it may gratify the curiosity of some of our readers, 
 to present them with a selection from the tunes alluded to, 
 transposed from the soprano clef, in which the originals are 
 written, to suit the piano iort6.
 
 462 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 No. VI. 
 
 REGISTER OF THE WEATHER. 
 
 * 
 
 
 Barometer and 
 
 
 
 Days of the 
 Month. 
 
 Thermometer at 
 Reikiavik. 
 
 Atmosphere. 
 
 Thermometer at different Places of the Journey , 
 and Miscellaneous Observations. 
 
 Baiom. 
 
 Ther 
 
 May 14. 
 
 
 28» 
 
 NE. Breeze. Clear. 
 
 
 15. 
 
 
 34° 
 
 N. Gale. Do. 
 
 
 16. 
 
 
 30° 
 
 Do. Do. Do. 
 
 
 17. 
 
 
 32' 
 
 Do. Do. Do. 
 
 
 18. 
 
 
 29° 
 
 Do. Do. Do. 
 
 Ice within doors early this morning; 
 \ inch thick. 
 
 19. 
 
 
 38° 
 
 NW. Moderate. Cloudy. 
 
 Snow in the afternoon. Full moon. 
 High water of the second tide at 
 V^, 14 feet. 
 
 20. 
 
 
 43° 
 
 N. Do. Clear. 
 
 
 21. 
 
 
 40° 
 
 SW. Do. Clear morning. 
 
 Went to Havnefiord. Snow in the 
 afternoon. Thermometer 30°. 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 W. Calm. Clear. 
 
 
 23. 
 
 
 
 Do. Breeze. Do. 
 
 Evening cloudy. Wind N. Thermo- 
 meter 32° at Kaldaa. 
 
 24. 
 
 
 
 SE. Gale. Rain. 
 
 Th. 45°. Wind, evening, NNE. Fair. 
 
 25. 
 
 
 
 S. Breeze. Clear. 
 
 — 47°. — E. At Krisuvik. 
 
 26. 
 
 
 
 SE. Do. Do. Evening cloudy. 
 
 _ 50°. At do. 
 
 27. 
 
 
 
 Do. Moderate. Cloudy. 
 
 — 46°. To Grundevik. Wind fresh- 
 ening. 
 
 28. 
 
 
 
 Do. Gale. Cloudy. Showers. 
 
 — 50°. To Kieblivik. 
 
 29. 
 
 
 
 Do Do. Rain. 
 
 — 50°. At do. 
 
 30. 
 
 
 
 Do. Do. Showery. 
 
 — 56°. At do. 
 
 31. 
 
 
 
 Do. Heavy gale. Rain. 
 
 — 56°. At do. 
 
 June 1 . 
 
 
 
 SSW. Moderate. Showers. 
 
 — 52°. Evening calm. To Havnefiord. 
 
 2. 
 
 
 
 Do. Breeze. Clear. 
 
 — 50°. To Reikiavik. Evening, 
 Wind S. 
 
 3. 
 
 
 53° 
 
 S. Do. Cloudy. 
 
 — 52°. Do. 
 
 4. 
 
 30.311 
 
 58° 
 
 SW.Morn.clear.Even.cloudy. 
 
 
 * The observations were generally made between 8 and 10 o'clock a. m., unless when 
 otherwise mentioned.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 463 
 
 
 Barometer 
 
 and 
 
 
 
 
 Thermoinet 
 
 er at 
 
 
 
 Days of the 
 
 Month. 
 
 Reikiavik. 
 
 Atmosphere. 
 
 Thermometer at different Places during the 
 Joumej, and Miscellaneous Observations. 
 
 A'MVLAlrL*^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Barom. 
 
 Ther. 
 
 
 
 June 5. 
 
 30.01 
 
 58» 
 
 Do. Do. Rain. 
 
 
 6. 
 
 29.718 
 
 47° 
 
 Do. Do. Do. Fog. 
 
 
 7. 
 
 29.87 
 
 480 
 
 Do. Do. Do. 
 
 Afternoon clear. Breeze from NE. 
 Th. 35°. 
 
 8. 
 
 30.14 
 
 46° 
 
 Do. Do. Clear. 
 
 
 9. 
 
 29.851 
 
 50° 
 
 SE. Do. Do. 
 
 Evening. Wind NE. Th. 47°. 
 
 10. 
 
 29.117 
 
 49° 
 
 NE. Calm. Do. 
 
 Fair afternoon. Th. at 12 o'clock, 
 in the sun 72°, shade 61°. 
 
 11. 
 
 29.513 
 
 50° 
 
 Do. Moderate. Showers. 
 
 
 12. 
 
 29.619 
 
 55° 
 
 NNE. Do. Do. 
 
 
 13. 
 
 29.7 
 
 46° 
 
 SE. Do. A few clouds. 
 
 Showers towards evening. 
 
 14. 
 
 29.65 
 
 48° 
 
 Do. Do. Rain. 
 
 
 15. 
 
 29.82 
 
 51° 
 
 Do. Gale. Rain. 
 
 Left Reikiavik. 
 
 16. 
 
 29.8 
 
 51° 
 
 Do. Squally. Showers. 
 
 Th. at Brauturholt, 53". 
 
 17. 
 
 29.8 
 
 60° 
 
 E. & NE. Breeze. Few clouds. 
 
 — at Houls, 56°. 
 
 18. 
 
 29.83 
 
 59° 
 
 SW. Do. Clear. 
 
 — at Saurbar, 56° ; at 2 P. m. 65° ; 
 in the sun, 86°. 
 
 19. 
 
 29.83 
 
 62° 
 
 Do. Calm. Do. 
 
 At Indreholm. Th. 56°. In the sun, 
 at 2 p. M. 85°. 
 
 20. 
 
 29.92 
 
 56° 
 
 SW. & S. Moderate. Cloudy. 
 
 At do. 49°. Fog in the morning. 
 
 21. 
 
 29.64 
 
 54° 
 
 SW. Do. Do. 
 
 49°. At 12 at night, 50" at 
 
 Leira. 
 
 22. 
 
 29.91 
 
 56° 
 
 E. Do. Do. Rain, Evening. 
 
 At Leira, 53°. 
 
 23. 
 
 29.83 
 
 56° 
 
 SE. Do. Do. Do. 
 
 At Huaneyre, 60°. Hea\'y rain, eve- 
 ning. .At Svignaskard. " 
 
 24. 
 
 29.51 
 
 54° 
 
 E. Do. Thick rain. 
 
 At Svignaskard, 56°. Rain. At 4 p. 
 M. 58° ; at 8, 55°. 
 
 25. 
 
 30.1 
 
 48° 
 
 Do. Do. Morning foggy, with 
 Showers. 
 
 Evening, at Stadarhraun, NNW. At 
 1 1 A. M. 49° ; evening, 39°. 
 
 26. 
 
 30.32 
 
 50° 
 
 SSW. Calm till evening. 
 
 Th. at 6 A. M. 43° ; at 2 p. m. 55° at 
 Roudemelr. 
 
 27. 
 
 30.33 
 
 54° 
 
 SW. Moderate. Thick fog. 
 
 — 49^ ; 10 p. M. 48°, at Miklaholt. 
 
 28. 
 
 30.13 
 
 53° 
 
 Do. Calm. Clear. 
 
 — 52°, at 4 p. M. 61°, at 11 p. m. 52°, 
 at Stadarstad. 
 
 29. 
 
 30.14 
 
 60° 
 
 Do. Breeze. Morning foggy. 
 
 — 52". To Buderstad. 
 
 30 
 
 30.21 
 
 61" 
 
 W. Calm. Clear. 
 
 Wind, evening, N.Th. 56°, at Stappen. 
 
 Julu 1. 
 
 30.01 
 
 64° 
 
 Do. Do. I loudy. 
 
 Th. 57°, at 10 p. M. 56", at do. 
 
 2. 
 
 30.02 
 
 62" 
 
 NNW. Do. Clear. 
 
 — 54°: at 2 p. m. in the sun, 82°; 
 shade, 61°; at Olafsvik. 
 
 3. 
 
 29.94 
 
 56° 
 
 W. Do. Few clouds. 
 
 — 56°. 
 
 4. 
 
 29.74 
 
 58° 
 
 NW. Calm. Cloudy. 
 
 — 55°. Some very light showers at 
 01a^^vik. 
 
 5. 
 
 29.82 
 
 59" 
 
 Do. Do. Morning foggy. Eve- 
 ning clear. 
 
 — 51" ; at midnight, 48°. Sun 2 h. 
 35 m. under the horizon, and rose 
 55"E. ofN. At Olafsvik.
 
 46i 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 
 Barometer and 
 
 
 
 
 Thermometer at 
 
 
 
 Days of the 
 Month. 
 
 Reikiav] 
 
 k. 
 
 Atmosphere. 
 
 Thermometer at different Places during the 
 Journey, and MisceUaneous Observations. 
 
 ^■A^'A^ VAlfr 
 
 
 
 
 
 Barom. 
 
 Thcr. 
 
 
 
 July 6. 
 
 29.92 
 
 63° 
 
 NW. Calm. Cloudy. 
 
 Th. 60 ; 10 p. M. 51°, at Grunnefiord. 
 
 7. 
 
 29.9 
 
 50° 
 
 N. Ureeze. Clear. 
 
 
 8. 
 
 29.84 
 
 63° 
 
 Do. Calm Do. 
 
 — 50°. At do. 
 
 9. 
 
 29.84 
 
 58° 
 
 SE. Breeze. A few clouds. 
 
 — 50°. At do. 
 
 10. 
 
 29.84 
 
 58° 
 
 NE. Gale. Clear. 
 
 — at 6 A. M. 45°. At Narfeyre. 
 
 11. 
 
 29.65 
 
 48° 
 
 Do. Do. Do. 
 
 — 42°. Rain towards evening. 
 
 12. 
 
 29.62 
 
 ... 
 
 Do. Moderate. Clear. 
 
 — at 4 A. M. 42°. At Snoksdalr. 
 
 13. 
 
 29.71 
 
 
 Do. Do. Showery. 
 
 — at 5 A. M. 41°. At Hvam. 
 
 14. 
 
 29.68 
 
 
 N. Do. A few clouds. 
 
 — 45°. At Huaneyre. 
 
 15. 
 
 29.72 
 
 
 Do. Do. Clear. 
 
 — 52°. At do. 
 
 16. 
 
 29.75 
 
 60° 
 
 NW. Calm. Clear. 
 
 At Reikiavik. 
 
 17. 
 
 29.91 
 
 60° 
 
 W. Breeze. A few clouds. 
 
 
 18. 
 
 30.015 
 
 60° 
 
 Do. Calm. Clear. 
 
 Th. in the sun, at 1 p.m. 60°; shade 68°. 
 
 19. 
 
 30.26 
 
 58° 
 
 Do. Bieeze. Cloudy. 
 
 
 20. 
 
 30.22 
 
 57° 
 
 Do. Do. Clear. 
 
 
 21. 
 
 30.18 
 
 61° 
 
 NW. Moderate. Clear. 
 
 Evening. Wind E. Rain. 
 
 22. 
 
 29.77 
 
 60° 
 
 W. Do. Showery. 
 
 
 23. 
 
 29.69 
 
 54° 
 
 Do. Do. Cloudy. 
 
 Evening. Wind E. 
 
 24. 
 
 29.23 
 
 52° 
 
 E. Gale. Heavy rain. 
 
 
 25. 
 
 29.045 
 
 54° 
 
 Do. Moderate. Showery. 
 
 
 26. 
 
 29.13 
 
 54° 
 
 SE. Do. Do. 
 
 Evening. At Thingvalla. Th. 52". 
 
 27. 
 
 29.2 
 
 53° 
 
 E. Do. Do. 
 
 Evening. At the Geysers. 
 
 28. 
 
 29.2 
 
 52° 
 
 Do. Breeze. Cloudy. 
 
 Th. 55°. 
 
 29. 
 
 29.72 
 
 53° 
 
 Do. Do. Showery. 
 
 — 56". 
 
 30.- 
 
 29.91 
 
 55° 
 
 SE. Do. Do. 
 
 — 56". At Skalholt. Evg. atKalfholt. 
 
 31. 
 
 29.94 
 
 54° 
 
 Do. Do. Do. 
 
 — 58°. Do. Evg. at Storuvellir, 52°. 
 
 Aug. 1. 
 
 29.93 
 
 54° 
 
 SW. Moderate. Rainy, even. 
 
 — at Storuvellir 57°. 
 
 2. 
 
 29.94 
 
 60° 
 
 SE. to SW. Do. Do. 
 
 
 3. 
 
 29.94 
 
 60° 
 
 SW. Breeze. Clear. 
 
 Fog on M. Hekla. Th. at 10 a. m.59°. 
 
 4. 
 
 29.91 
 
 57° 
 
 S. Do. Do. 
 
 Th. 60°. 
 
 5. 
 
 29.84 
 
 50° 
 
 S. Do. A few clouds. 
 
 — 50° at Hliderende. 
 
 6. 
 
 29.94 
 
 46° 
 
 NW. Do. Clear. 
 
 — 55,°. 
 
 7. 
 
 29.93 
 
 49° 
 
 Do. Do. Do. 
 
 — 59° at Odde. 
 
 8. 
 
 29.71 
 
 60° 
 
 S. Do. Cloudy. 
 
 
 9. 
 
 2961 
 
 56° 
 
 SE. Do. Showers. 
 
 
 10. 
 
 29.582 
 
 62° 
 
 NW. Do. Clear. 
 
 
 11. 
 
 29.61 
 
 62° 
 
 E. Do. Cloudy. Rain aftern. 
 
 
 12. 
 
 29.723 
 
 61° 
 
 N. Do. Do. 
 
 
 13. 
 
 29.86 
 
 58° 
 
 Do. Do. Clear. 
 
 
 14. 
 
 30.18 
 
 57° 
 
 NW. Do. Cloudy. 
 
 
 15. 
 
 30.21 
 
 57° 
 
 S. Calm. Clear. 
 
 
 16. 
 
 29.798 
 
 55° 
 
 SE. Gale. Rain. 
 
 
 17. 
 
 29.06 
 
 55° 
 
 Do. Do. Do. 
 
 • 
 
 18. 
 
 29.08 
 
 50° 
 
 W. Heavy gale. Cloudy. 
 
 
 I
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 46c 
 
 
 Barometer and 
 
 
 
 
 Thermometer at 
 
 
 
 Days of the 
 Month. 
 
 Reikiavik. 
 
 Atmosphere. 
 
 Miscellaneous Observations. 
 
 Barom. 
 
 Ther. 
 
 Aug. 19. 
 20. 
 
 29.33 
 
 54° 
 
 
 Sailed for Britain. 
 
 The observations were now made by 
 
 SE. Rain. 
 
 21. 
 
 g<*.21 
 
 52° 
 
 SW. Do. 
 
 Mr Fell, a barometer having been 
 
 22. 
 
 29.3 
 
 54° 
 
 SW. Clear. 
 
 left with him. 
 
 23. 
 
 29.31 
 
 * < . 
 
 N. Frostv night. 
 
 
 24. 
 
 29.31 
 
 50° 
 
 N.NE. Rain. 
 
 
 25. 
 
 29 53 
 
 
 N. Clear. 
 
 
 26. 
 
 29.54 
 
 56° 
 
 N. Heavy gale. Frosty night. 
 
 
 27. 
 
 29.7 
 
 46° 
 
 N. Moderate Clear. 
 
 The people observed that frost was 
 about to set in, and dug up their 
 potatoes. 
 
 28. 
 
 29.84 
 
 52° 
 
 Do. Calm. Do. 
 
 
 29. 
 
 30.01 
 
 46° 
 
 NW. Do. do. 
 
 Frost at night. 
 
 30. 
 
 30.1 
 
 49° 
 
 Do. do. do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 31. 
 
 30.14 
 
 52" 
 
 Do. do. do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Sept. 1. 
 
 30.10 
 
 60° 
 
 N. Do. do. 
 
 Remarks made by the people that so 
 fine a summer was never known, 
 and that a severe winter might be 
 expected. 
 
 2. 
 
 29.81 
 
 50° 
 
 E. Breeze. Rain. 
 
 
 3. 
 
 29.92 
 
 52° 
 
 N. Do. Clear. .'\t night rain. 
 
 
 4. 
 
 29.54 
 
 47° 
 
 Do. Gale. Cloudy. 
 
 Before next morning it blew a heav)- 
 gale. 
 
 5. 
 
 29.41 
 
 40° 
 
 NE. Do. Rain. 
 
 The mountains covered with snow. 
 
 6. 
 
 29.9 
 
 52° 
 
 S. Moderate. Rain. 
 
 
 7. 
 
 29.52 
 
 50 
 
 Do. do. do. 
 
 
 8. 
 
 29.3 
 
 48° 
 
 SE. Do. Heavy rain. 
 
 
 9. 
 
 29.2 
 
 50° 
 
 Do. do. do. 
 
 
 10. 
 
 29.42 
 
 48° 
 
 NW. Breeze. Cloudy. 
 
 
 11. 
 
 29.5 
 
 48^ 
 
 N. Do. Clear. 
 
 - 
 
 12. 
 
 29.2 
 
 39° 
 
 NE. Very heavy gale. Rain. 
 
 13. 
 
 29.6 
 
 48° 
 
 N. Calm! Clear. 
 
 
 14. 
 
 29.6 
 
 50° 
 
 SE. Moderate. Rain and fog. 
 
 
 15. 
 
 29.83 
 
 51° 
 
 NE. Do. do. Gale at night. 
 
 
 16. 
 
 29.8 
 
 53° 
 
 Do. do. do. Showery. • 
 
 
 17; 
 
 29.33 
 
 48° 
 
 SSE. Do. Rain and fog. 
 
 
 18. 
 
 29.34 
 
 48° 
 
 S. Squally. Rain. 
 
 
 19. 
 
 29.73 
 
 48° 
 
 Do. do. do. 
 
 
 20. 
 
 29.91 
 
 49° 
 
 N. Do. do. Gale at night. 
 
 
 21. 
 
 29.42 
 
 42° 
 
 Do. Calm. Clear. 
 
 * 
 
 22. 
 
 29.4 
 
 4r° : SE. Squaily. Rain. 
 
 
 23. 
 
 29.51 
 
 47° i SW. Do. do. 
 
 
 24. 
 
 29.54 
 
 45° 1 Do. do. do. Clear afternoon. 
 
 
 25. 
 
 29.4 1 
 
 51° Do. do. do. At night a heavy 
 
 
 
 
 
 gale. 1 
 
 
 3 N
 
 466 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 
 Barometer and 
 
 
 
 Thermometer at 
 
 
 
 Days of the 
 
 Month. 
 
 Reikiavik. 
 
 Atmosphere. 
 
 Miscellaneous Observations, 
 
 Barom. 
 
 Ther. 
 
 Seji. 26. 
 
 29.8 
 
 53" 
 
 NE. Gale. Rain till afternoon. 
 
 
 27. 
 
 29.6 
 
 49° 
 
 SW. do. do. 
 
 
 28. 
 
 29.64 
 
 49° 
 
 Do. Moderate. Foggy . Showers 
 
 Thunder was heard to-day. 
 
 29. 
 
 29.71 
 
 50° 
 
 Do. do. do. 
 
 
 30. 
 
 29.7 
 
 50° 
 
 Do. do. Showery. 
 
 
 Oct. 1. 
 
 29.43 
 
 51° 
 
 SE. do. Heavy rain. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 29.61 
 
 54° 
 
 SW. Breeze. Rain. 
 
 
 3. 
 
 29.4 
 
 54° 
 
 SE. Squally, do. 
 
 
 4. 
 
 29.64 
 
 46° 
 
 S. Moderate, do. 
 
 
 5. 
 
 30.03 
 
 50° 
 
 Do. do. Clear till evening. 
 
 
 6. 
 
 29.81 
 
 50° 
 
 Do. do. Rain. 
 
 
 7. 
 
 29.9 
 
 55° 
 
 Do. do. Cloudy. 
 
 
 8. 
 
 29.91 
 
 48° 
 
 Do. do. Rain afternoon. 
 
 
 9. 
 
 29.8 
 
 50° 
 
 SE. Gale. Rain. 
 
 
 10. 
 
 30.12 
 
 48° 
 
 NW. Moderate. Cloudy. 
 
 
 11. 
 
 30.01 
 
 49° 
 
 S. do. Rain. 
 
 
 12. 
 
 29.82 
 
 42° 
 
 SW. A heavy gale. Cloudy. 
 
 
 13. 
 
 30.11 
 
 41° 
 
 Do. do. do. 
 
 
 14. 
 
 29.63 
 
 46° 
 
 SSE. Gale. Thin rain. 
 
 
 15. 
 
 29.53 
 
 45° 
 
 S. Moderate. Rain. 
 
 
 16. 
 
 29.7 
 
 44° 
 
 N. Breeze. Clear. Showers at 
 
 2 P.M. 
 
 
 17. 
 
 29.51 
 
 44° 
 
 NE. Gale. Cloudy. 
 
 
 18. 
 
 29.02 
 
 43° 
 
 SE. do. Thin rain. 
 
 
 19. 
 
 28.91 
 
 44° 
 
 N. Breeze. Cloudy. 
 
 
 20. 
 
 29.04 
 
 42° 
 
 Do. Calm. Clear. 
 
 
 21. 
 
 29.22 
 
 41° 
 
 ENE. do. do. 
 
 
 22. 
 
 29.41 
 
 38° 
 
 SE. Breeze. Cloudy. 
 
 
 23. 
 
 29.6 
 
 38° 
 
 S. do. Showery. 
 
 
 The following Register of the Weather, kept by Mr Fell since the 
 above date, has fortunately reached me in time to be presented 
 to the public. It exhibits a dismal picture of an Icelandic win- 
 ter ; and rouses the most lively feelings of compassion for the 
 condition of the inhabitants of so desolate a region.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 467 
 
 Days of the 
 Month. 
 
 Oct. 24. 
 
 25. 
 
 26. 
 
 27. 
 
 28. 
 
 29. 
 30. 
 31. 
 Nov. 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 5. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 9. 
 
 10. 
 11. 
 12- 
 13. 
 14. 
 1.5. 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 
 Rarometer and 
 Thrmometer at 
 Reikiavik. 
 
 Barom. Ther. 
 
 29.90 
 
 29.54 
 
 29.34 
 
 29.32 
 29.81 
 
 29.72 
 29.5 
 
 29.80 
 30.24 
 30.02 
 29.92 
 
 29.72 
 29.3 
 
 29.84 
 
 30.21 
 
 30.23 
 30.10 
 
 29.90 
 29.73 
 29.84 
 30.14 
 29.71 
 29.12 
 29.11 
 29.84 
 30.13 
 29.83 
 
 43° 
 
 48° 
 41» 
 
 32° 
 24° 
 
 40° 
 
 45° 
 24° 
 29° 
 45° 
 39° 
 
 34° 
 
 24° 
 
 14° 
 
 24° 
 
 28° 
 28° 
 
 32° 
 32° 
 34° 
 
 35" 
 30° 
 39° 
 40° 
 
 28" 
 26° 
 
 38° 
 
 Miscellaneous Observations. 
 
 SE. Very dark thick weather. Between 7 and 8 a. m. an 
 earthquake was felt in Reikiavik. 
 
 SSE. Blew very hard, and rained all day. 
 
 SW. Blew heavy, with showers of snow, hail, and rain, 
 the whole day. Frost at night. 
 
 NW. Blew very hard all day. Do. 
 
 NE. Blew a gale of wind all day, with showers of snow, 
 hail, and rain. 
 
 SE. More moderate weather, and rain. 
 
 Do. Fine, but rain at times ; frost at night. 
 
 N. Clear. 
 
 NE. A fine day ; thaw before night. 
 
 SW. Blew very hard, and rained all day. 
 
 SSW. Blew very hard all day ; with hail, rain, and snow, 
 at night. 
 
 SW. Blew hard all day, with hail and snow. 
 
 N. Blew extremely hai'd all day, with showers of snow 
 and hail. During the night came on a most tremendous 
 gale of wind. Dark at 2 p. m. 
 
 N. A most terrible and awful gale of wind during the whole 
 24 hours. Boats on the beach were taken up into the air, 
 and dashed to pieces. The thermometer in my warmest 
 room, though the stove was red hot, could only be brought 
 to 30°. The weather extremely dark ; and the country 
 for several miles round, was covered with salt water driven 
 from the sea, in the form of rain, which destroyed what 
 little vegetation was left. 
 
 N. Blew hard, with clear frost. Towards night the wind 
 increased ; and early next morning blew a hurricane. 
 
 N. A fine clear day. 
 
 N. A clear hard frost ; the day passed without a cloud be- 
 ing seen. Saw the Snaefell Jokul at 12 p. m. The noith- 
 ern lights were beautiful. 
 
 NE. A day without a cloud. Thaw at night. 
 
 Do. Snow and wind the whole day. 
 
 Do. Fine day ; frost at night. 
 
 ENE. Clear weather, but frost at night. 
 
 Do. A fine clear day. 
 
 Do. A dark day. 
 
 NE. A fine day, but frost at night. 
 
 Do. A fine day. 
 
 S. Remarkably fine weather, and hard frost. 
 
 NE. Cloudy, with small rain. A heavy gale, and rain at 
 night.
 
 m 
 
 AfPENDLV. 
 
 
 Barometer 
 
 and 
 
 
 
 . hermome 
 
 ti- at 
 
 
 Days of the 
 Month. 
 
 Keikiavik. 
 
 Miscellaneous Observations. 
 
 Barom. 
 
 Thcr. 
 
 Nov. 20. 
 
 29.50 
 
 38° 
 
 ENE. Rain the whole 24 hours. 
 
 21. 
 
 29.50 
 
 35° 
 
 NE. Frost and thaw by turns the whole day. 
 
 22. 
 
 29.62 
 
 34° 
 
 N. Fine day ; a few showers. 
 
 23. 
 
 29.80 
 
 32° 
 
 Do. Fine frosty day, but cloudy at night. 
 
 24. 
 
 29.81 
 
 34° 
 
 E. Fine day. 
 
 25. 
 
 29.60 
 
 38° 
 
 ENE. Fine weather. 
 
 26. 
 
 29.53 
 
 34° 
 
 NE. Fine day. 
 
 27. 
 
 29.11 
 
 39° 
 
 Do. Dark day ; blew hard at night. 
 
 28. 
 
 29.64 
 
 34°' 
 
 Do. Do. Do. 
 
 29. 
 
 29.72 
 
 24° 
 
 N. Blew hard all day, and very hard at night. 
 
 30. 
 
 30.02 
 
 11° 
 
 Do. Blew hard all day. 
 
 Dec. 1. 
 
 29.74 
 
 22° 
 
 NE. Dark day, heavy snow, and wind at night. 
 
 2. 
 
 29.81 
 
 30° 
 
 SW. Dark weather, and snow at night. 
 
 3. 
 
 29.22 
 
 26° 
 
 Do. Dark day, and heavy snow at night. Saw lightning 
 at 1 1 p. M. but heard no thunder. 
 
 4. 
 
 29.51 
 
 24° 
 
 S. Clear. 
 
 5. 
 
 29.12 
 
 24° 
 
 NE. Do. 
 
 6. 
 
 29.41 
 
 23° 
 
 Do. Blew a heavy gale of wind the whole day. 
 
 7. 
 
 29.94 
 
 18° 
 
 Do. Clear weather, and the gale continued till 12 p. m. 
 
 8. 
 
 30.11 
 
 4° 
 
 ENE. Clear weather. Thermometer 2° at 2 p. m. ; water 
 froze under the stove. 
 
 9. 
 
 29.84 
 
 16° 
 
 NE. Clear. 
 
 10. 
 
 29.72 
 
 15° 
 
 Do. Do. 
 
 11. 
 
 29.61 
 
 24° 
 
 ENE. Dark weather. 
 
 12. 
 
 29.34 
 
 26° 
 
 NE. Blew hard all day, but fine. 
 
 13. 
 
 29.32 
 
 32° 
 
 Do. Dark weather. 
 
 14. 
 
 29.43 
 
 18° 
 
 Do. Clear weather. 
 
 15. 
 
 29.84 
 
 22° 
 
 ENE. Very fine day. 
 
 16. 
 
 29.64 
 
 35° 
 
 S. Rain the whole day, and very thick. 
 
 17. 
 
 29.80 
 
 27° 
 
 NE. Dark weather. 
 
 18. 
 
 29.73 
 
 28° 
 
 Do. dark ; rained a little towards night, and froze again. 
 
 19. 
 
 29.61 
 
 27° 
 
 N. Dark weather ; towards evening began to blow hard, 
 and at night a gale of wind. 
 
 20. 
 
 28.82 
 
 32° 
 
 Do. Dark thick weather ; during the day a heavy fall of 
 snow. 
 
 21. 
 
 29.22 
 
 27° 
 
 Do. Hard frost ; at 4 p. m. a very heavy fall of snow, and 
 during the night a very heavy gale of wind. 
 
 22. 
 
 28.42 
 
 29° 
 
 SW. A heavy gale of wind the whole day, which drifted 
 the snow to the tops of the houses. At night the light- 
 ning (or snow lights) was incessant for a few hours. 
 
 23. 
 
 28.61 
 
 32° 
 
 NE. Fine weather. 
 
 24. 
 
 29.01 
 
 22° 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 25. 
 
 29.10 
 
 23° 
 
 Do. do. 
 
 26. 
 
 29.51 
 
 17° 
 
 Do. do.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 469 
 
 Days of the 
 Month. 
 
 Barometer and 
 
 Thermometer at 
 
 Reikiavik. 
 
 Barom. Then 
 
 Dec. 27. 
 
 28. 
 
 29. 
 30. 
 
 31. 
 
 1811. 
 Jan. 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 10. 
 11. 
 
 12. 
 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 22. 
 23. 
 
 24. 
 
 25. 
 
 29.71 
 30.12 
 
 29.94 
 
 29.74 
 
 29.93 
 
 30.14 
 
 30.20 
 30.42 
 30.50 
 30.60 
 30.22 
 
 29.90 
 
 29.62 
 
 28.90 
 
 28.81 
 28.60 
 
 28.33 
 28.61 
 28.61 
 28.80 
 29.14 
 29.01 
 29.21 
 
 28.90 
 29.12 
 28.83 
 28.90 
 29.91 
 
 29.34 
 
 29.70 
 
 12° 
 32° 
 
 38° 
 
 43° 
 
 43° 
 
 44° 
 
 43° 
 37° 
 36° 
 33° 
 37° 
 
 34° 
 
 36° 
 
 37° 
 
 35° 
 33° 
 
 36° 
 
 32° 
 
 28° I 
 
 26°! 
 
 21° 
 
 22° 
 
 18° 
 
 27° 
 24= 
 23° 
 28" 
 33» 
 
 35° 
 
 27° 
 
 Miscellaneous Observations. 
 
 NE. Very fine day. 
 
 Do. Blew hard all day, which increased towards night to 
 
 a heavy gale. Gentle thaw. 
 SE. The gale of wind continued the whole 24 hours, with 
 
 heavy rain at night. 
 Do. The gale still continued blowing very hard, with rain 
 
 The whole place inundated. 
 Do. The gale still continued blowing very hard, with heavy 
 
 showers of rain. 
 SSE. The gale continued the whole day blowing hard, with 
 
 showers of rain. 
 Do. Blew hard all day; but calm towards night. 
 SSW. Fine mild day, with rain towards night. 
 ENE. Mild weather, with a little rain; frost at night. 
 Do. Fine mild weather. 
 Do. Fine day ; a few showers, which, in some places, froze 
 
 into ice directly ; this is not uncommon. 
 S. Fine day, and a little rain, which, in some places, be- 
 came ice. 
 SE. Blew hard all day, with rain ; and during the night 
 
 came on a gale of wind. 
 Do. A heavy gale of wind the whole day, with showers of 
 
 rain ; before morning, a hurricane. 
 SSE. Heavy squalls of wind and rain all day, frost at niirht 
 N. Blew hard most of the day ; calm at night, with rain, 
 
 and frost. 
 Do. Mild weather, but frost at night. 
 Do. Fine day ; the whole face of the country like glass 
 NE. Dark day ; snow in the evening. 
 N. Fine weather. 
 Do. Fine day ; snow at night. 
 NE. Do. do. 
 
 Do. Fine day, and frost at night ; when it blew hard, withj 
 
 hail, snow, thunder, and lightning : the latter not un 
 
 common in the winter. 
 SSW. Heavy fall of snow the whole day. 
 NE. Heavy snow the whole day, and very dark. 
 Do. Fine weather, but heavy snow at night. 
 N. Fine day. 
 SE. Mild weather, and a little rain ; at night, blew very 
 
 hard, with hail and rain. 
 SW. Blew a very hard gale of wind the whole 24 hours, 
 
 with showers of hail. 
 Do. Blew bard in the morning, but was moderate at night.
 
 470 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Days of the 
 Month. 
 
 Barometer and 
 
 Thermometer at 
 
 Reikiavik. 
 
 Barom. Ther, 
 
 Miscellaneous Observations. 
 
 Jan. 26. 
 
 27. 
 
 28. 
 29. 
 
 30. 
 31. 
 
 Feb. 1. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 7. 
 8. 
 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 
 16. 
 17. 
 
 18. 
 
 19. 
 
 20. 
 21. 
 
 30.00 
 
 30.32 
 
 30.30 
 30.12 
 
 30.12 
 29.64 
 
 29.74 
 
 29.51 
 29.42 
 29.54 
 29.43 
 29.40 
 29.00 
 28.91 
 
 29.60 
 
 29.30 
 29.11 
 
 28.83 
 
 29.70 
 29.41 
 29.43 
 
 30.10 
 29.50 
 
 28.50 
 
 28.63 
 
 28.62 
 29.70 
 
 8° 
 
 10° 
 
 8° 
 10" 
 
 16" 
 
 16° 
 
 5° 
 
 4° 
 29° 
 19° 
 16° 
 15° 
 27° 
 22° 
 
 26° 
 
 30° 
 12° 
 10° 
 
 16° 
 15= 
 
 8° 
 
 1° 
 26° 
 
 38° 
 
 33° 
 
 36° 
 
 27° 
 
 N W. Fine weather ; blowing fresh, which increased to a 
 
 gale of wind. 
 N. Blew a tremendous heavy gale of wind the whole 24 
 
 hours. 
 Do. The gale still blowing. 
 Do. do. Sea frozen from the land out to the Islands (about 
 
 a quarter of a mile^, and strong enough to bear a horse 
 Do. Moderate weather. 
 ENE. Blew very hard all day, and towards night a gale of 
 
 wind. 
 N. A heavy gale of wind the whole day ; Th. at night, 6° 
 
 below 0°. 
 Do. Towards night blew hard. 
 NNE. Dark weather, blowing hard all day. 
 Do. Blew hard all day, and fine. 
 Do. Snow, with a gale of wind the whole day. 
 Do. Very fine weather. 
 
 Do. A very heavy gale of wind the whole 24 hours. 
 Do. The gale continued the whole day, with heavy showers 
 
 of snow. 
 ENE. Blew hard most of the day, but was moderate to 
 
 wards night. 
 WSW. Remarkably fine day. 
 ENE. Fine day, but blew hard towards night. 
 NNE. Blew the whole day one of the hardest and heaviest 
 
 gales of wind we have yet had ; the whole country to a 
 
 distance of many miles was covered with salt water snow 
 
 from the sea. 
 NE. Fine weather. 
 
 ENE. Blew hard, with showers of snow, the whole24 hours. 
 NNE. Blew a gale of wind all day ; Th. at night. 4° be- 
 low 0. 
 ENE. Fine day, but blew hard towards night. 
 Do. Blew a gale of wind the whole day ; and before 12 p. m. 
 
 a thaw. 
 SSW. Blew a heavy gale of wind all day, from all points 
 
 in the compass, with showers of rain and snow. 
 ENE. Blew a tremendous gale of wind, with showers of 
 
 rain and snow; but towards evening it was terrible; many 
 
 people were blown clean off their legs, and the whole 
 
 place was inundated. 
 SSE. Blew very hard all day, with rain and snow. 
 N. Blew hard in the early part of the day, but became fine 
 
 and moderate.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 4/1 
 
 Days of the 
 
 Month. 
 
 Barometer and 
 
 Thermometer at 
 
 Reikiavik. 
 
 Barom. Ther. 
 
 Miscellaneous Obscrrations. 
 
 Feb. 22. 
 
 23. 
 24. 
 25. 
 26. 
 27. 
 
 28. 
 March 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 
 11. 
 
 12. 
 13. 
 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 
 17. 
 
 18. 
 19. 
 
 20. 
 
 21. 
 22. 
 
 29.13 
 
 29.10 
 29,02 
 28.94 
 
 28.72 
 28.81 
 
 29.94 
 29.14 
 28.61 
 29.24 
 29.03 
 28.83 
 28.81 
 29.01 
 
 29.33 
 
 28.92 
 29.34 
 
 29.54 
 
 30.02 
 29.73 
 
 30.10 
 29.60 
 29.31 
 
 29.02 
 29.03 
 29.42 
 
 29.31 
 
 29.24 
 29.73 
 
 22" 
 
 30° 
 30° 
 26° 
 36" 
 
 38" 
 
 28° 
 25° 
 28° 
 19° 
 23° 
 23° 
 22° 
 12° 
 
 24° 
 
 33° 
 
 24° 
 
 23° 
 
 26° 
 40° 
 
 33° 
 35° 
 41° 
 
 35° 
 27° 
 26° 
 
 22° 
 
 33° 
 32° 
 
 NE. Blew hard, with fine weather ; at night the northern 
 
 lights were brilliant. 
 ENE. Fine weather, and calm. 
 N. Very fine. 
 Do. do. 
 
 ENE. Very fine day. 
 Do. Fine weather, but rained a little towards night; and 
 
 a heavy fall of snow. 
 Do. Fine weather, and clear. 
 SW. Fine day, and sunshine. 
 ENE. A dark day, and blew hard. 
 N. Fine weather. 
 
 ENE. Fine day, and clear ; heavy snow at night. 
 Do. Very thick, and snow the whole day. 
 N. Very thick, and snow till the afternoon. 
 Do. Fine morning ; but before noon began to blow hard, 
 
 with snow, and continued all day. 
 SW. \'ery thick, with storms of snow, from all points in 
 
 the compass, the whole day. 
 NE. Mild weather, and fine. 
 SW. A continual succession of terribly heavy storms of 
 
 snow the whole day and night ; and very thick. From 
 
 3 A. M. to 6, was an eclipse of the Moon, when the wind 
 
 thundered like heavy pieces of ordnance. At night came 
 
 on a heavy gale of wind. 
 SSW. One of tlie most terrible days we have yet had ; 
 
 blew a most tremendous gale of wind all day, with snow. 
 ENE. Dark weather ; at night blew hard. 
 SE. Rain the whole day, which, melting the snow, deluged 
 
 the whole country ; frost at night, with snow. 
 SW. A little snow. 
 
 SSW. Blew hard all day ; rain at night. 
 ESE. A very heavy gale of wind the whole day, with rain; 
 
 frost at night. 
 E. Fine weather, with a little rain ; sharp frost at night. 
 ENE A tolerably fine day, but heavy snow towaids night. 
 SW. A fine day, but blew fresh towards night ; Th«r. 8° 
 
 10 p. M. 
 ENE. A most terrible storm of snow and wind nearly the 
 
 whole day, and so thick that one could not see twenty 
 
 yards. 
 SW. A continual succession of heavy storms of snow and 
 
 wind the whole day, and vcrj- dark. 
 S. Blew hard all day, with snow ; at night a thaw.
 
 472 
 
 APPENDIX, i 
 
 Days of the 
 Month. 
 
 Barometer and 
 
 Thermometer at 
 
 Ucikiavik* 
 
 Barom. iTher. 
 
 Mar. 23. 
 
 29.43 
 
 24. 
 
 29.30 
 
 25. 
 
 28.92 
 
 26. 
 
 29.31 
 
 27. 
 
 29.73 
 
 28. 
 
 30.23 
 
 29. 
 
 30.20 
 
 30. 
 
 30.20 
 
 31. 
 
 29.84 
 
 April 1. 
 
 29.74 
 
 2. 
 
 29.74 
 
 3. 
 
 29.92 
 
 4. 
 
 29.82 
 
 5. 
 
 30.11 
 
 6. 
 
 30.51 
 
 7. 
 
 30.23 
 
 8. 
 
 29.92 
 
 9. 
 
 30.11 
 
 10. 
 
 30.11 
 
 11. 
 
 30.01 
 
 12. 
 
 29.51 
 
 13. 
 
 29.21 
 
 14. 
 
 29.84 
 
 15. 
 
 29.10 
 
 16. 
 
 28.84 
 
 17. 
 
 29.24 
 
 18. 
 
 29.21 
 
 19. 
 
 29.54 
 
 20. 
 
 29.60 
 
 21. 
 
 29.41 
 
 22. 
 
 29.73 
 
 23. 
 
 30.00 
 
 24. 
 
 30.03 
 
 25. 
 
 30.51 
 
 
 
 42' 
 36' 
 
 39' 
 34° 
 35° 
 
 43° 
 43° 
 36° 
 32° 
 35° 
 31° 
 
 36° 
 35° 
 
 16° 
 
 22° 
 24° 
 15° 
 15° 
 
 18° 
 
 22° 
 34° 
 38° 
 50° 
 45° 
 46° 
 38° 
 44° 
 44° 
 40° 
 43° 
 44° 
 50° 
 50° 
 52° 
 
 Miscellaneous Observations. 
 
 SW. Blew very hard all day, with small rain ; and before 
 
 night a heavy gale of wind. 
 Do. Heavy squalls of wind ; snow, hail, and rain, most of 
 
 the day. By the Icelandic almanack, an eclipse of the 
 
 Sun, but not visible here. 
 SE. Blew hard all day, with rain ; frost and snow at night. 
 SSW. Blew hard all day, with squalls of snow and rain. 
 Do. Hail, rain, snow, and smishine, by turns, the whole 
 
 day ; blowing hard. 
 E. Dark weather, blowing fresh, with rain all day. 
 S. Dark, calm weather, and rain. 
 W. A tolerably pleasant day ,• little wind. 
 NE. Snow with wind almost all day. 
 N. A fine morning, but wind and snow towards evening. 
 NNE. Blew hard all day, with a little snow ; sharp frost 
 
 at night. 
 W. A fine morning ; but rained towards night. 
 NW. Excessively thick, and heavy rain the whole day ; 
 
 but cleared up at night, with a heavy gale of wind, and 
 
 hard frost. 
 Do. Blew an extremely heavy gale of wind all day, accom- 
 panied by sea-water rain. Th. 8° at 10 p. m. 
 N. Remarkably fine day. 
 
 Do. Blew fresh all day, and severe frost. Th. 8° at 9 p. m. 
 Do. Heavy squalls of wind all day, but fine. 
 Do. Fine clear weather, with heavy squalls of wind all day. 
 
 Th. 6° at 9 p. M. 
 ENE. Fine clear weather, and squalls of wind ; blew a 
 
 gale before night. 
 NE. Fine clear weather. 
 ENE. Dark thick weather. 
 
 NE. Dark weather, with small rain ; blowing hard all day. 
 E. Dark wrather, and rain most of the day. 
 ENE. Do. 
 SE. Do. 
 
 S. Very thick, with hail and rain all day. 
 ENE. Blew a gale of wind all day, with showers of rain. 
 Do. Dark Meather, blowing hard all day. 
 E. Fine weather, blowing fresh all day. 
 ENE. Dark weather, blowing fresh all day. 
 E. Fine weather ; blowing fresh, with a little rain. 
 Do. Remarkably fine clear weather. 
 N. A fine warm day. 
 Do. Fine clear weather; frost at night. Theiirst day of 
 
 summer by the Iceland almanack. |l
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 473 
 
 Days of the 
 Month. 
 
 AprU26. 
 27. 
 
 May 
 
 28. 
 29. 
 30. 
 
 I. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 G. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 
 Barometer and 
 
 Thermometer at 
 
 Reikiavik. 
 
 Barom. 
 
 30.53 
 30.41 
 
 30.30 
 30.22 
 30.00 
 30.00 
 39.91 
 29.73 
 29.80 
 29.84 
 29.74 
 
 29.80 
 29.93 
 29.84 
 29.91 
 30.00 
 29.72 
 29.72 
 29.82 
 
 Ther. 
 
 28° 
 34° 
 
 24" 
 24° 
 26° 
 26° 
 26° 
 28° 
 34° 
 38° 
 45° 
 
 44° 
 
 49° 
 46° 
 50° 
 49° 
 46° 
 50° 
 50° 
 
 Kfiscellaneous Observations. 
 
 N. Fine weather, and hard frost. 
 
 ENE. Cold dark weatlier ; blew hard towards night, and 
 
 before morning a heavy gale of wind. 
 N. Blew a lieavy gale of wind all day, and very cold. 
 Do. Fine weatlier, and hard frost ; blew hard at night. 
 Do. Blew a lieavy gale of wind all day, and liard frost. 
 Do. Fine day, blowing fresh all day. 
 Do. do. do. 
 Do. Fine weather. 
 
 Do. Fine weather, blowing fresh all dav. 
 E. Dark weather, blowing very iVesh all day. 
 ESE. Dark weather, and rain; blowing a gale of wind the 
 
 whole day. 
 Do. Dark weather, blowing a gale of wind all day. 
 ENE. Dark weather ; but cleared up at night, and froze. 
 W. Fine clear weather. 
 Do. Fine pleasant day. 
 N. Very fine weather. 
 E. Dark weather and sunshine by turns. 
 W. Dark and sunshine at intervals ; rain at night. 
 Do. Fine ; frost at night. 
 
 The Greenland ice grounded in the northern parts of the country some time in 
 February, and continued to increase daily till it enclosed nearly two thirds of the 
 island. In the month of June, the sea was not visible from the tops of the highest 
 mountains ; so completely was the land beset with these tremendous Icebergs. 
 Numbers of the polar bears made their appearance. From the accounts I have been 
 able to gather, the winter has been a very severe one ; and the oldest people do not 
 recollect such a succession of gales of wind. In the north country, and in those places 
 where the ice grounded, the inhabitants suffered greatly from the want of provisions, 
 not being able to go to sea for fish ; they lost also a great number of cattle, sheep, 
 and horses, which died for want of food. 
 
 3 o
 
 i.7-i: APPENDIX. [IcekKdic Revolution. 
 
 No. VII. 
 
 Icelandic revolution, I8O9. 
 
 Motives of delicacy withheld from the first edition of this 
 work, a detail of some disturbances which happened at Reikia- 
 vik in I8O9. Several circumstances have since come to our 
 knowledge, which render extremely difficult any attempt to 
 give an impartial view of the subject, without impeaching the 
 discernment of some, and the conduct of other individuals.* 
 We shall, however, endeavour to satisfy the public curiosity, 
 respecting this business, in so far as the best information we 
 have been able to procure will enable us ; and having heard 
 all parties, and possessing written documents to support us, 
 we can with confidence assert, that we are inclined to favour 
 none, being convinced that, in some degree, all were to blame. 
 It appears, that towards the endof thej-earlSOS, a person of 
 the name of Savignac, who had been a clerk to Mr Troward, 
 (one of the partners in the house of Phelps, Troward and 
 
 * We are under very great obligations both to Mr Phelps and Count Trampe ; 
 and have no reason to be more partial to the one than to the other. Indeed so 
 hif^hly do we respect both, and so deeply do we lament the misfortunes to which 
 the spirit and liberality of Mr Phelps have subjected him, that the necessity we 
 feel ourselves under to give an account of the transactions to the public, is exceed- 
 ingly painful.
 
 Icelandic Revolution.'] APPENDIX. 4/5 
 
 Bracebrklge of London), informed Mr Phelps that a friend 
 of his, just arrived from Iceland, had a large quantity of tal- 
 low there, which he would dispose of, could a licence be ob- 
 tained to bring it to England. The business of this house 
 being the manufacture of soap, and tallow being at the time 
 very scarce, Mr Phelps listened to Savignac, who introduced 
 to him Jorgen Jorgensen, a Danish prisoner of war, who be- 
 came the chief actor in the scenes which followed. 
 
 This person stated, that he, and his connections in Ice- 
 land, could fill a vessel of 300 tons with tallow, at a juice 
 which was very tempting to Mr Phelps. It turned out, how- 
 ever, that Jorgensen had never been in Iceland, and liad no 
 connections there. 
 
 Being of a singular character, of a bold enterprising dis- 
 position, and possessing talents of no desj)icable cast, this 
 Dane had contrived to impress Sir Josejih Banks, and others, 
 with a good oj)inion of him. The licence was accordingly 
 obtained, and a ship called the Clarence was chartered at 
 Liverpool, and laden with goods which Jorgensen pointed 
 out as being most proper for Iceland, where she arrived 
 about the end of January ISO9. 
 
 The Danish merchants opposed the landing of the cargo; 
 which was very natural, as any interference on the j)art of 
 another nation threatened them with ruin. But their pru- 
 dence in the present case may very well be called in question ; 
 for they must have been aware that it was in the power of the 
 British to exclude them altogether from the island, and that 
 a refusal on their part to admit them to a share of the trade, 
 misiht have been attended with the most disastrous conse- 
 quences to the natives, as well as with the aiuiihilation of 
 their own commerce. 
 
 The Captain of the Clarence threatened to take possession
 
 476 APPENDIX. [Tcda7i(!ic licvolution. 
 
 of a Danish vessel which was at anchor In the harbour ; and 
 having proceeded to put his threats into execution, matters were 
 brought to accommodation; the cargo was landed ; and the 
 Danish ship given up. Thus it appears that the first act of ag- 
 gression was committed by the British ; and it was no wonder 
 that the Danes should refuse to trade, and endeavour to pre- 
 vent the natives from doing so. The Clarence returned 
 to Liverpool with ballast of stones, having Jorgensen on 
 board ; Savignac being left to take care of the goods. The 
 latter informed Mr Phelps, by letter, that a return cargo 
 could not then be obtained on account of the opposition of 
 the Danes. But he advised that some articles, which were 
 wanted in the island, should be sent out, and that several 
 return cargoes would be procured in summer, when the peo- 
 ple came from the country to barter their commodities. 
 
 Jorgensen said that his friend had gone to Denmark, owing 
 to which circumstance he was disappointed of the expected car- 
 go of tallow. It now became a matter of deliberation whether 
 llie Iceland trade should be prosecuted. Mr Phelps consulted 
 Sir Joseph Banks ; and having reason to believe that protec- 
 tion would be granted by the Admiralty, and the Board of 
 Trade ; and the Treasury having promised encouragement, 
 he and his partners determined to send out two ships. Mr 
 Phelps resolved to attend this expedition himself; and on his 
 approaching Reikiavik, a pilot came on board his ship, the 
 Margaret and Anne, and informed liim that death was the 
 penalty to be inflicted on any one who piloted an Enghsh 
 ship into the harbour. With this information began that 
 tissue of falsehoods by which Mr Phelps ajipears to have been 
 deceived, probably invented by those in whom he had im- 
 fortunately confided, and by some of Count Tramj^e's personal 
 enemies.
 
 Icelandic licvolution.] APrENDIX. 477 
 
 The Count had recently arrived from Copenhagen as 
 Governor of the island ; and his general character, and 
 the circumstance of his being much l)eloved in Iceland, 
 are sufficient evidence of his beini; totallv incai)able of actinir 
 as Mr Phelps was led to believe. But that gentleman 
 Avas informed, that the Count had prohibited all intercourse 
 •with the English in the way of trade, under pain of death. It 
 must be remarked here, as a circumstance very extraordi- 
 nary, that Mr Phelps seems to have had no interview, no com- 
 munication of any kind, with Count Trampe, who speaks and 
 writes English remarkably well; but received all his information 
 from Jorgensen, Savignac, and some jjeople of the country, 
 who were displeased at a Dane having the chief authority. 
 
 Mr Phelps ^vas informed, that Count Trampe was raising 
 a body of men for the pinpose of taking his ship and him- 
 self; and on this information, without any communication with 
 Count Trampe, he resolved to seize him, and ordered Captain 
 Liston, who commanded the Margaret and Anne, to do so. 
 Mr Phelps and Captain Liston went to the Governor's house, 
 and told him he was their prisoner. 
 
 During this transaction, Jorgensen and Savignac kept out 
 of the way. Their ends were accomplished ; and it was wise 
 in them to retire from the reach of danger. The only blame 
 which seems to attach to Count Trampe, appears to have been 
 some delay in publishing a treaty he liad concluded with 
 Captain Nott, of the Rover sloop of war, a short time before 
 Mr Phelps arrived, permitting a free trade to the English 
 during the war. The distance of the printing office was not 
 a sufficient excuse for printed copies not having been distri- 
 buted eight days after the treaty was signed ; besides, a writ- 
 ten copy might have been posted up where proclamations 
 are usually affixed ; and in not publishing it in this manner.
 
 478 APPENDIX. {Icelandic licvolutiort. 
 
 the Governor was certainly to blame. It has been said that he 
 also directed a placard to be posted, threatening the most se- 
 vere punishment to those who traded with the English; but 
 the authority on which this assertion is made, has not been 
 stated. As Count Trampe has denied that the alleged ob- 
 structions to the trade of the English existed, it may be sus- 
 pected that Mr Savignac's information was incorrect. But 
 CountTrampe had very good reason to be jealous of Mr Phelps, 
 when he saw a Dane with him, acting the part of a traitor, and 
 promoting discord by every means in his power. It ought to 
 be remembered too, that Count Trarnpe was in a very difficult 
 situation. On one hand he was bound, as far as his means would 
 allow, to obey the orders of his own Government. On the other, 
 the island being defenceless, an armed ship lay close to the town 
 which covdd have been destroyed in a very short time, even 
 by a single cannon. While Mr Phelps believed that his pro- 
 perty and life were in danger, it was very natural for him to 
 act as he did ; but it was extraordinary that he had no 
 communication with Covmt Trampe. Had an interview 
 or correspondence taken place, Mr Phelps might have been 
 undeceived, and the losses he has since suffered prevented. 
 Mr Phelps had received encouragement from his own Govern- 
 ment to go out to Iceland ; but no authority to commit hos- 
 tility. Having received this encouragement, he had good 
 reason to expect indemnification, had he returned to Eng- 
 land, and informed Government of the refusal on the part of 
 the people to trade with him ; and prudence certainly ought 
 to have dictated his immediate return home. Any property 
 he might have on shore, was perfectly safe till he should re- 
 turn with instructions from his Government; for it is evident, 
 that as Iceland was completely exposed, the seizure of that 
 property could have been well revenged. In a long account
 
 Icelandic lievoliUion.^ APPENDIX. 479 
 
 of the wliole affair received from Mr Phelps, not the slightest 
 allusion is made toany interviewer correspondence with Count 
 Trampc. Every information conveyed by Jorgensen and Sa- 
 vignac, and some natives before alluded to, appears to have 
 been implicitl}' credited. 
 
 In the revolution which followed the seizure of the Go- 
 vernor, Mr Phelps has declared he had no concern. Jorgen- 
 scn however was brought to Iceland by him, and though Mr 
 Phelps was an idle spectator, it is to be regretted that some 
 degree of responsibility must remain attached to him. 
 
 As soon as the Governor Avas conveyed a prisoner on 
 board the Margaret and Anne, Jorgenscn proceeded to as- 
 sume the command of tlie island. 
 
 It is probable that Jorgenscn tampered with the natives 
 about Reikiavik, and deceiving them also, procured his eleva- 
 tion to the chief authority. Whatever money he got hold of, 
 he lavishly bestowed ; and by the appearance of great gene- 
 rosity, imposed upon those he kept about him, and probably 
 excited in the minds of many, who were incapable of seeing 
 his designs, a desire for a change of masters. While the na- 
 tives are entirely dei)endent on the Danes for supplies of pro- 
 visions, and for the sale of the produce of the country, it is 
 not surprising that they should wish for something like free- 
 dom in trade. Good-natured as they are, we cannot be- 
 lieve that the people could have approved of Jorgensen's 
 proceedings, imless they believed them to be sanctioned by 
 the British Government.- 
 
 But it may be asked, why did not the Danes, who are a 
 brave people, resist the usurpation of Jorgenscn and destroy 
 him as a traitor ? The only reason which we can assign for 
 their passive conduct, and it seems to be a suflicient one, is, 
 that believing the usurper's proceedings to be authorised by
 
 480 APPENDIX. [IcekmUc lievolutmu 
 
 Mr Phelps, they were afraid lest the guns of the Margaret 
 and Anne should lay their town in ashes, and involve them in 
 utter ruin, 
 
 Jorgensen being invested with the chief command, he 
 proclaimed the cessation of Danish authority, and ordered 
 the Danes to remain in their houses under pain of instant 
 death. A body of natives was formed into a regular arm- 
 ed force, and the new Governor, or Protector, as he styled 
 himself, proceeded to seize upon all public and even private 
 property ; and travelled about the country for that purpose. 
 The arrival of Captain Jones of the Talbot sloop of war, was 
 unfortunate for Jorgensen, who was soon stripped of his 
 power. Count Trampe went to England, and made such re- 
 presentations to our Government as have been the means 
 of saving the inhabitants of Iceland from destruction by 
 famine, although still their condition is but very miserable. 
 The trade began to revive; and, during the years 1811 and 
 1812, seventeen or eighteen ships sailed to various ports of 
 Iceland. A severe check has, however, been lately given to 
 the trade, by the prohibition against the exportation from 
 Iceland of oil and salt fish. These are the only commodi- 
 ties of real consequence Avhich the island affords ; and a large 
 tract of country depends for provisions entirely on the oil 
 which it has to exchange. No doubt, the Danish merchants 
 trading to Iceland have of late made large profits ; but un- 
 less a free trade in fish and oil be allowed, our humane feel- 
 ings will be of no use to the poor Icelanders. 
 
 It will be observed from the foregoing statement, that 
 more or less blame is attached to all concerned ; and there 
 can be little doubt, that very natural irritation on the part of 
 Count Trampe, and imposition being practised on Mr Phelps, 
 might have led to consequences even more disagreeable than
 
 Icelandic Revolution.'] APPENDIX. 481 
 
 those which actually ensued. The character of IVIr Phelps, 
 as an honest and good man, is unimpeachable. To Jorgen- 
 sen are to be attributed the whole of the disagreeable events 
 which occurred ; and the art and address with uhich he ma- 
 naged the transactions from first to last, proved that he was 
 not without talents, which he seems to have been capable of 
 misapplying. 
 
 It has been thought quite unnecessary to detail a variety 
 5f circumstances, which prove the absurdity of Jorgensen's 
 conduct. It would be an insult to common sense, to show 
 the folly of any attempt to render Iceland an independ- 
 ent country, while it possesses no resources within itself; 
 and in truth some apology is required, for having taken up 
 so much of the reader's time with an affair which will soon 
 be forgotten ; even, perhaps, in the country where it hap- 
 pened. 
 
 THE END.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Akkrefell, mountain of, described, 148, 
 372 
 
 Algerines make a descent upon Iceland, 
 6^ 
 
 Allan, Mr, 429 
 
 Almannaijiau, a frightful fissure in the 
 earth near Tliingvalla, '20(> 
 
 Alphabet, Icelandic, peculiarities of, 4.58 
 
 America, coast of, discovered by the Ice- 
 landers, 43 
 
 Amt, a term applied to the principal 
 divisions of Iceland, 96 
 
 Apa Vatn, lake of, 209 
 
 Areson, John, first erects a printing 
 press at Hooluni, 57 
 
 Bach, Chevalier, leprosy when introdu- 
 ced into Iceland, according to liini, 
 401 
 
 Ball at lieikiavik, account of, 02 
 
 Banks, Sir Joseph, 83, 222, 228, 475, 
 470 
 
 Bath, ancient, described, 190 
 
 Baula, mountain of, 191 
 
 Beds, of eider down, 99 
 
 Benedictson, Mr, of Stikkesholm, 1S5 
 
 Berserkine superstition, account of, 449 
 
 Bessestad, the seat of the only school 
 aow Iceland, 99. Description of 
 
 the church, 102. Account of the sdiool 
 establishment, 311. Library, 313 
 
 Bible, Icelandic versions of, 308 
 
 Birds found in Iceland, 341 
 
 Black, J)v, analvsis of the Geyser water 
 bv, 389 
 
 Bla>"fell Jokul, 245 
 
 Brandtson, Jon, 238 
 
 Brautarbrekka, mountain of, 190 
 
 Brautarholt, church, &c. of, 134 
 
 Breakfast, Icelandic. 91 
 
 Brcide-bolstadr, church of, 189. The 
 richest living in Iceland, 257 
 
 Breide Fiord, 175 
 
 Brucr-aa river, 211 
 
 Bright, Mr, 124, 175, 193, 2.'>7 
 
 Budcrstad, a trading station, 108. Mi- 
 neral water near, 392 
 
 Bulands-hofde, dangerous path at, 183 
 
 Butter, sour, 277 
 
 Cataract, 184 
 
 Cattle, Icelandic, 276 
 
 Cave near Kaldaa river, lOG 
 
 Character of the Icelanders, 206 
 
 Christianity, when introduced into Ice- 
 land, 40. Period of the Tapal autlio- 
 ritv, 55. Beformation of religion, 58 
 
 Churches, 304
 
 486 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Church service, 30G 
 
 Classics, ancient, much studied in Ice- 
 land, 319 
 
 Clausen, Mr, 131, 175 
 
 Clergy, 300, 301 
 
 Climate less severe formerly than at pre- 
 sent, 37 
 
 Clouston, Rev. Jlr, minister of Strom- 
 ness, 7-4 
 
 Coin, current, 2S4< 
 
 Commerce, state of, 282. Current prices 
 of produce, 284 
 
 Composition, extemporarj', frequent a- 
 mong the Icelanders, 2-1 
 
 Courts of justice, 291 
 
 Cowpox inoculation introduced into Ice- 
 land, 142, 402 
 
 Craters, volcanic, 107, 159, 241, 244, 
 246 
 
 Crusades preached, but with little suc- 
 cess, 55 
 
 Dale Syssel, 190 
 
 Diet, &c. of the Icelanders subjects them 
 to cutaneous diseases, 399 
 
 Dinner, Icelandic, described, 86 
 
 Diseases of the Icelanders, 397 
 
 Doloniieu, 357, 361, 362 
 
 Draining might be advantageously prac- 
 tised in Iceland, 276 
 
 Drapuhlid, mountain, account of, 187, 
 368 
 
 Dress of the Icelanders, 78, 79, 83, &c. 
 
 Duel, trial b}-, abolished in Iceland, 39 
 
 Dyeing, articles used in, 274 
 
 £dda of the northern nations, account of 
 the, 25 
 
 Education, domestic, of the Icelanders, 
 316 
 
 Eider-ducks, account of, 125, &c. 
 
 Einerson, Mr, 104, 128 
 
 Ellis, Captain, depth sounded by, 374 
 
 Eric, a Norwegian, discovers Greenland, 
 42 
 
 Eruptions, volcanic, 64, 247, 365 
 
 Esian, mountain of, 133 
 
 Etna, mount, 387 
 
 Exports, table of, 285 
 
 Eyafialla Jokul, eruption from, 249. 
 'Height of, 254 
 
 Eyafiord, harbour of, 232 
 
 Eyalstadir, ferry at, 235 
 
 Eyarback, harbour, &c. of, 235, 263. 
 
 Eyrefa Jokul, eruption from, 248 
 
 Earms, how held in Iceland, 270 
 
 Fat, human, used as a medicine by the 
 Icelanders, 188 
 
 Faxe-fiord, 78 
 
 Fell, Mr, 75, 193, 200, 205 
 
 Fisherv, account of the, 118, &c. 
 
 Fiske Vatn, lake of, 242 
 
 Floed, Mr, brings letters of recommend- 
 ation to the travellers from Count 
 Trampe, 127. Accompanies the author 
 to the Gej'sers, 205 
 
 Floke, a pirate, conducted by a flight of 
 ravens to Fceland, 6 
 
 Erode, Scemund, the reputed author of 
 the ancient Edda, 33 
 
 Frydensberg, Mr, 81, 128. Breakfast at 
 his house described, 91 
 
 Funeral service of the Icelandic church, 
 89, 90 
 
 Gardar, a Swede, circumnavigates Ice- 
 land, 6 
 
 Geysers, or boiling fountains described, 
 211. Sir John Stanley's account of, 
 213. Have been little regarded by 
 the Icelandic writers, 221. Theory 
 to account for the operation of, 226. 
 Analysis of their waters, 389 
 
 Gevser, alternating, description of, 198 
 
 Ginklofe, a disease fatal to children, 405 
 
 Glania, a volcanic mountain, 252 
 
 Government of Iceland, account of, 288 
 
 Greenland, discovery and colonization of, 
 42, 45 
 
 Grimsvatn, eruption from the lake of, 
 248 
 
 Grondal, Benedict, an eminent Icelandic 
 poetical writer, 323 
 
 Grundevik, village of, 118 
 
 Grunnefiord, 183 
 
 Giidmundson, Mr, of Buderstad, 168 
 
 Gudmundson, Mr, of Houls, 137 
 
 Guldbringe Syssel, 96 
 
 Gunnlaug and the poet Rafn, story of, 30 
 
 Hall. Sir James, 357, 363, 373, 375, 376, 
 377, 378 
 
 Handel, the term applied to the annual 
 period of traflic at Reikiavik, 202 
 
 Harold the fair-haired, subjugates the 
 petty states of Norway, 6
 
 INDFA'. 
 
 48; 
 
 HavneSorJ, and adjoining countrj- de- 
 scribed, 98, 125 
 
 Hay liarvesl, 27.5 
 
 Heimaey, an island on the coast of Ice- 
 land, 2.!>j 
 
 Ilckia, Mount, distant views of, 23i, 
 239. Account of the aullior^s journcv 
 to the summit of, 243. Appearance 
 of the surrounding country from, 24-.5. 
 List of eruptions from, 24-7. Height 
 of, ih. 
 
 Helgafell, hill of, number of volcanic 
 craters near, 107. One of the earliest 
 Norwegian settlements at a place of 
 the same name, 185 
 
 Heriolfson, Biorn, discovers Labrador, 43 
 
 Hialtalin, Madame, account of, and her 
 residence at Stappen, 171 
 
 Hialtalin, Mr, priest of Saurbar, account 
 of, 138. Extract from his parish re- 
 gister, 141. Author inoculates some 
 of his family with cowpox, 142 
 
 Hialtalin, Mr, surgeon at Stikkesholm, 
 ISo 
 
 Hliderende, the abode of Sysselman Tho- 
 ranson, described, 2.53 
 
 Hofsos, harbour of, 233 
 
 Home, Dr James, 362 
 
 Honn, a remarkable mountain, 152. Hot 
 springs near, ib. 
 
 Hoolum, village of. 233. Once the seat 
 of a school, 310 
 
 Hooker, Mr, 80 
 
 Horses, Icelandic, 96, 280 
 
 Hospitals, how maintained in Iceland, 398 
 
 Houls, farm-house at, described, 13t> 
 
 Houses of the Icelanders, 112 
 
 Hraundalur, village of, 158 
 
 Hval-fiord, scenery in the neighbourhood 
 of, 135, 143 
 
 Iluam, church of, 101 
 
 Huaneyre, the abode of Amtmand Ste- 
 phenson, described, 153 
 
 Huitar-vellir, ferry of, 154, 192 
 
 Huitaa, river, and valley of, 152, 155, 
 191,234 
 
 Husavik, a commercial station, 233 
 
 Hution, Dr, 357 
 
 Hyindarmule, priest of, an exception to 
 the general character of the Icelanders, 
 257 
 
 Holland, Dr. 63, 1.33, 179 
 
 Iceland, peculiarities in the history of, 
 .3. When first discovered, 5. Is co- 
 lonized by some Norwegian exiles, li. 
 Sketch of the government established 
 by them, 11. \Vas tiie seat of learn- 
 ing and civilization when the rest of 
 Europe was involved in ignorance, 15. 
 Causes which contributed lo the literary 
 character of the people, 17. Character 
 of their jioetry, 19. Of their histori- 
 cal writings, 29. System of educa- 
 tion established among them, 30. Cli- 
 mate formerly less severe, 37. Esta- 
 blishment of Christianity, 40. The 
 country falls under the dominion of 
 Norway, 48 ; and along with it, is an- 
 nexed to Denmark, 49. Change pro- 
 duced by that event on the character 
 and condition of the peo|)le, 50 ; and 
 on their intellectual habits, o.i. In- 
 troduction of printing, and the esta- 
 blishment of the reformed religion, 57. 
 Men of learning in the Itjth century, 
 60. State of the country in the 17th, 
 62. Dreadfid volcanic eruptions, 64. 
 Present state of literature, 65. .Ap- 
 pearance of the country viewed from 
 the sea, 77. Dress of the inhabitants, 
 79, 85. Entertainments, 86. Funeral 
 service, 91. Marriage ceremony, 93. 
 IVIaimer of travelling, 96. Houses, 
 113. Eishery, 119. Volcanic erup- 
 tions, 24-7. Character of the people, 
 266. Kural affairs, 270. Population, 
 
 281. Present state of education and 
 literature, 309. Government, laws, 
 Sec. 288. Religion, 299. Commerce, 
 
 282. Zoology, 336. Uotany, 340. 
 Mineralogy, 353. IVIineral waters, 
 389. Diseases, 398. List of plants, 
 409. Of minerals, 427. Specimen of 
 Icelandic verse, 4-51. Music, 461. Re- 
 gister of the weather, 462. Disturb- 
 ances in 1809, 474 
 
 Imports, table of, 285 
 
 Indrehnim, the abode of Chief Justice 
 
 Stephenson, 143, 201 
 Ingolf, a Norwegian exile, leads a colony 
 
 to Iceland, 6 
 Insects, 345
 
 488 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Isleif, bishop of Skalholt, one of the ear- 
 liest Icelandic historians, 33. Founds 
 a school at Skalholt, 30 
 
 Jacolxens, JMr, 122 
 
 Jameson, Professor, 429 
 
 Jokul, a term applied to mountains per- 
 petually covered with snow, 78 
 
 Jonas, Arngrini, an eminent writer, 61 
 
 Jonson, Finnur, an historian, (i7 
 
 Jonson, Jon, 118, 120 
 
 Jonson, Mr, minister of Staderstad, 105 
 
 Jonson, Mr Steinj^rini, head master of 
 the school of Bessestad, 102, 104 
 
 Jorgensen, Jorgen, account of the usur- 
 pation of, in 1809, 474 
 
 Kattlagiau Jokul, terrible eruption from, 
 248 
 
 Ivaldaa river, 106 
 
 Kalfholt, priest of, 236 
 
 Kennedy, Dr, 359, 393 
 
 Kieblivik, village of, 122 
 
 Kleisar-vatn, lake of, 111 
 
 Klog, Dr, first physician in Iceland, 88 
 
 Kolbeinstadr, church of, 100 
 
 Krabia, Mount, dreadful eruptions of 
 lava from, 249 
 
 Krisuvik, village and church of, 111 
 
 Labrador discovered, and receives the 
 name of Vinland, 43 
 
 Lambasson, Mr, 263 
 
 Landnama book, one of the earliest re- 
 cords of Iceland, 7 
 
 Languages, study of, prevalent among 
 the Icelanders, 318 
 
 Lang-spiel, an Icelandic musical instru- 
 ment, described, 145 
 
 Lava, 98, 105, 124, 157, 159, 184, 187. 
 Observations on, 358 
 
 Laxaa, river, salmon fishing in, 202, 
 233 
 
 Leira, the abode of Sysselman Scheving, 
 described, 149. Hot springs near, 
 • 150. Printing-office at, 151. AVed- 
 ding at, 201 
 
 Leprosy of the Icelanders, account of, 
 400 
 
 Letter of introduction given to the au- 
 thor, 460 
 
 Library at Bessestad, 313 
 
 Limestone, remarks on the formation of, 
 by Sir James Hall, 374 
 
 Lipari islands, account of the obsidian 
 of, 363 
 
 Liston, Captain, 75 
 
 Literature, present state of, 309 
 
 Lysie-houls, hot springs near, 107. An- 
 alysis of the waters of, 392. 
 
 ]\Iagistrates, 289 
 
 Magnsus Arnas, a learned Icelander, 66. 
 
 Magnuson, Mr, Sysselman of Dale, 193 
 
 Magnuson, Mr, minister of GardC, 99, 
 105 
 
 Magnuson, Finnur, one of the most dis- 
 tinguished Icelandic literati of the pre- 
 sent day, 318, 323 
 
 Mallet, Mr, remarks of, on the Icelandic 
 government, 1 3 
 
 IVIanuscripts, 317 
 
 Markarlliot, a remarkable river, 253 
 
 Marriage ceremony of the Icelanders, 
 93. Clergy may refuse to perform, 
 where the female cannot read, 316. 
 
 Merino sheep introduced into Iceland, 
 278 
 
 Middalur, valley of, 190 
 
 IVIiklaholt, church and priest of, 163 
 
 Mineralogy, 353 
 
 Mineral waters, 389 
 
 IMinerals, catalogue of, 427 
 
 ]Mosfell, priest of, 206 
 
 Mud, boiling, 110, 114 
 
 Mulgrave, Lord, 374 
 
 Muller, Mr, of Grunnefiord, 184 
 
 Music, 461 
 
 Myvatn, lake of, 233 
 
 Naddodr, a Norwegian, discovers Ice- 
 land, 5 
 
 Naifurholt, farm of, 233 
 
 Narfeyre, church of, 188 
 
 Necromancy, belief of, formerly general 
 in Iceland, 63 
 
 Niardivik, village of, 122 
 
 Nordland, general description of, 231 
 
 Norderaa, river and valley of, 191 
 
 Norway, a body of exiles from, colo- 
 nizes Iceland, 0. Annexation of, to 
 the power of Denmark, 49 
 
 Numbers, cardinal, in the Icelandic lan- 
 guage, 4.58 
 
 Obsidian, where found in Iceland, 238, 
 241. I'roofs of the igneous origin of, 
 361
 
 iNDrx. 
 
 489 
 
 Odde, church, Sec. of, 2.57 
 
 Olafson, Olaf, an Icelandic naturalist, 
 
 329 
 Olafsvik, vil!as;e of, 175 
 Ol-kilda, or the Ale Well at Roudemeh-, 
 
 described, IGl, 391 
 Orkney, some particulars respecting, 
 
 Otteson, Mr, Sysselman of Myrc and 
 
 Knappadals, 191 
 Oxeraa, river, 208 
 Papal authority, state of Iceland under, 
 
 55 
 Patronage of the church, 302 
 Paulson, Mr, physician, 12S 
 Paulson, Swein, an eminent naturalist, 
 
 ajo 
 
 Peterson, Mr, 263 
 
 Peterson, Sigurdar, author of a work on 
 the manners and habits of the Iceland- 
 ers, 323 
 
 Phelps, Mr, 474 
 
 Plague depopulates Iceland, 52 
 
 Pirates ravage Iceland, 62 
 
 Plants, Icelandic, 346. List of, 409 
 
 Place, M. de la, 375 
 
 Poetry of the Icelanders, remarks on, 
 19. Still mueh cultivated among them, 
 322 
 
 Poor-laws, 298 
 
 Population, tables of, 2S1 
 
 Priests, Icelandic, remarks on, 305, 
 314 
 
 Printing introduced into Iceland, 57 
 
 Printing-office at Leira, the only one 
 now in the island, 151, 333 
 
 Prison at Ileikiavik, 295 
 
 Pulmonary complaints frequent in Ice- 
 land, 403 
 
 Quadrupeds found in Iceland, 336 
 
 Rangaa river, 237, 239 
 
 Reformation, establishment of, 58 
 
 Reikholt, hot springs at, J 94. Ancient 
 bath, 196 
 
 Reikianes, Cape, view of the country 
 near, 77. Volcanic eruption at, 249, 
 365 
 
 Reikiavik, the capital of Iceland, de- 
 scribed, 79. Hot springs near, 91. 
 
 Ball given to the ladies of, 93. Tcre- 
 mony of confirmation at, 129. Annual 
 fair at, 2l)2 
 
 Reikuni, hot springs of, 235, 258. 
 
 Rein-deer introduced into Iceland, 338 
 
 Religious establishment, 300 
 
 Revolution, late, account of, 474 
 
 Roudemeir, mineral water near, 160. 
 Columnar rocks at, and church of, de- 
 scribed, 161 
 
 Runic characters, when used in Iceland, 
 36 
 
 Sabbath of the Icelanders, 186. An in- 
 teresting scene, 307 
 
 Saddle, Icelandic, described, 96, 280 
 
 Sagas, or historical narratives of the Ice- 
 landers, 29 
 
 Sailor falls from the main-yard, and kill- 
 ed, 76. Buried in Iceland, 00 
 
 Salmon-fishery of Iceiaud worthy of no- 
 tice, 204 
 
 Saurbar, church of, 139 
 
 Scheele, Mr, 203 
 
 Sciences, much neglected by the Iceland- 
 ers, 328 
 
 Scurvy, causes and treatment of, in Ice- 
 land, 399 
 
 Shark-fishery, 174 
 
 Sheep of Iceland described, 278. Ac- 
 count of the collecting of, from the 
 mountains, at the approach of winter, 
 279 
 
 Siglifiord, shark-fishery at, 232 
 
 Sigurdson, Mr, minister of Reikiavik, 
 88, 128 
 
 Simonson, Mr, 81 
 
 Sirnames, how formed among the Ice- 
 landers, 142 
 
 Siverston, Mr, 99, 127 
 
 Skagastrand, harbour of, 233 
 
 Skalbreide Jokul, 208 
 
 Skalds, or bards, of the northern na- 
 tions, account of, 19 
 
 Skalholt, situation of, 209. Church, 
 230. Once the seat of a school, 230, 
 and of a bishop, 229 
 
 Skapta Jokul, great eruption from, 245. 
 Account of, written by Mr Stephen- 
 son of Indreholm, 250
 
 490 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Skardsaa, Bioni ilc, an eminent liisto- 
 rian, (il 
 
 Skardsliciilc, mountains of, 151, 157, 201 
 
 Skirtliandctliot river, 233 
 
 Skier, a j)reparation of milk, 156 
 
 Smallpox, terrible mortality from, 64, 
 401 
 
 Sneefell Jokul, 78. Journey to, 131, 
 J 53, 165. Height of, 170. Narra- 
 tive of the ascent of, 1 75 
 
 Suoksdalr, description of the church of, 
 and adjoining country, 189 
 
 Snuff-boxes, Icelandic, form of, 163 
 
 Societies, account of, 332 
 
 Somma, Mount, 378 
 
 Spallanzani, 362 
 
 Sprange Sands, a vast plain of volcanic 
 matter, 24-2 
 
 Springs, hot, 91, 110, 114, 150, 152, 167, 
 194, 212, 258 
 
 Stadarhraun, church and priest of, 158. 
 Analysis of a mineral water at, 391 
 
 Stadarstad, village of, 165 
 
 Stanley, Sir John, his account of the 
 Geysers, 213. Of the hot springs of 
 Re'ikum, 258 
 
 Stappen, cave near, 169. Village of, 
 171. Remarkable aspect of the coast 
 near, 172 
 
 Stephenson, Amtmand, account of, 153, 
 192, 200, 201 
 
 Stephenson, Mr Magnus, chief justice 
 of Iceland, 90, 128, 131. Visit of 
 the travellers to, 143. Account of 
 his library, habitation. Sic. 146. Is 
 the most eminent of the present his- 
 torical writers in the island, 324. Ca- 
 talogue of his works, 325 
 
 Stephenson, Mr Olaf, account of, and 
 his habitation, 82 
 
 Stikkesholm, account of, 185 
 
 Sti])ends of the clergy, 302 
 
 Storuvellir, provost of, 237 
 
 Stromness, description of, 73, 74 
 
 Sturleson, Snorro, account of, 34. Bath 
 . constructed by, 196 
 
 Svigna Skard, 155 
 
 Sukker-toppen, a remarkable mountain 
 near Grunnefiord, 183 
 
 Sulphur mountains, account of, 110, 113 
 Surturbrand, or fossil wooil, description 
 
 of, 369 
 Syssel, a term applied to the subdivisions 
 
 of Iceland, 9(i 
 Taxes, how collected in Iceland, 297 
 Tlicft, punishment of, 295 
 Thingvalla, church, priest, and lake of, 
 
 207. Formerly the scat of justice, 
 
 208. Transference of, to Rcikiavik, 
 why regretted by the people, 293 
 
 Thiorsaa river, 235, 239 
 
 Thomson, Dr, his analyses of some Ice- 
 landic mineral waters, 391 
 
 Thoranson, Amtmand, 204 
 
 Thoranson, Mr, 128 
 
 Thoranson, Sysselman, description of his 
 residence, 253 
 
 Thordson, Olaf and Sturta, the last of 
 the ancient eminent Icelandic writers, 
 56 
 
 Thorgilson, Are, an Icelandic historian, 
 33 
 
 Thorkelin, Professor, 69 
 
 Thorlacius, Mr, of Bildal, 185 
 
 Thorlakson, Gudbrand, bishop of Hoo- 
 lum, account of, 60 
 
 Thorlakson, Jonas, translates Milton's 
 Paradise Lost, 322 
 
 Thorvaldson, an Icelander, one of the 
 most eminent modern statuaries, 332 
 
 Thule of the ancients, by some supposed 
 to have been Iceland, 5 
 
 Time, division of, 274 
 
 Tithes, 302 
 
 Torfa Jokul, abundance of obsidian found 
 near, 238 
 
 Torfaeus, Thormodus, a celebrated his- 
 torian, 66 
 
 Trampe, Count, governor of Iceland, 80, 
 81, 128 
 
 Transactions of Icelandic societies, 332 
 
 Travelling, manner of, in Iceland, 97 
 
 Tunga-hver, an assemblage of extraor- 
 dinary boiling springs, 197 
 
 Tunaa river, 242 
 
 TufTa, hills of, 367 
 
 Verse, ancient Icelandic, specimen of, 
 431
 
 INDEX. 
 
 491 
 
 V'idalln, Geir, bishop of Iceland, account 
 of, 82. Letter from, to tlie author, 
 100. Distinguished for his literary 
 knowledge, 320. 
 
 Vidoe, island of, 95. Account of the 
 eider-ducks on, 126 
 
 Vinland. See Labrador. 
 
 Volcanic eruptions, 6+, 247 
 
 Vulcano, obsidian found in the island of, 
 362 
 
 Uxa-hver, a spring near Husavik, simi- 
 lar to the Geyser, 229 
 
 Waterfall, remarkable, 184 
 
 Weather, register of, 462 
 
 Weaving, how performed in Iceland, 188 
 
 Werner, language of, exclusively adapt- 
 ed to his own system, 3j3. Asserts 
 the aqueous origin of obsidian, Sjc, 
 
 361. Proofs of their being produced, 
 on tlie contrary, by tiie action of fire, 
 from Doloniieu and Spallanzani, 362. 
 Dr Home and Sir J. Hall, 362, 363 
 Observations of the author, 363, &:c. 
 
 Westniann islands, 77. Account of, 
 25.5. Disease fatal to children, preva- 
 lent in, 4^J5 
 
 Winter-occupations of the Icelanders, 
 273 
 
 Wood, mineralized, found in Iceland^ 
 368 
 
 Words, Icelandic, showing the^similarity 
 between that language and the Eng- 
 lish, 459 
 
 Writers, Icelandic, account of, 318, 
 330 
 
 Wrestling, mode of, 120 
 
 I
 
 DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDEB. 
 
 Maps at the end. Large INIap to fold out to the right band. 
 
 Plate I. View of Reikiavik to face page 80 
 
 2. Costume 85 
 
 — — 3. View of Havnefiord .• 98 
 
 4. Krisuvik 113 
 
 — — 5. Caldron of boiling mud 116 
 
 —— — G. Great jet of steam ; 117 
 
 —— 8. Natural Arch near Stappen 172 
 
 8. Map of the Geysers 212 
 
 9. View of the Great Geyser 222 
 
 10. New Geyser 223 
 
 11. Hliderende 254 
 
 12. Mount Hekla from Odde 257 
 
 13. Eyafialla Jokul, Hekla, &c 264 
 
 14. Geological Sketches 377 
 
 15. Music 461 
 
 T. Allan & Co. 
 FiiiUers, Edinburgh.
 
 ? 1 <i^^ 
 
 5 1 <r^ ^ 
 
 4;0FCAllF0ff^ 
 
 5 
 
 ^OFCAIIFOP^ 
 
 
 ^W[UNlV[Ry/A 
 
 5 ^— '» V C; 
 
 
 
 ^«E UNIVERJ//, 
 
 > 
 
 
 ^^J133NVS01=^ 
 
 ^tllBRARYO/C 
 
 ^Aa3MNniftV 
 
 ^tUBRARYQ^ 
 
 § 1 ir^^ § 
 
 
 ^.yOJIlVDJO'*^ '%0jnV3J0'^ 
 
 3;OFCA1IFOR^ 
 
 ^OFCAIIFOff^ 
 
 ^CAavaan-5^^ 
 
 ^<?Aavaan# 
 
 AttEUNIV 
 
 I 
 
 <I5UDNV: 
 3 
 
 University of California 
 
 SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 
 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388 
 
 Return this material to ttie library 
 
 from which it was borrowed. 
 
 lilJANie \m 
 
 .UR»= 
 
 ^OFCAI 
 
 \Qm 
 
 ^■^6m> 
 
 aweun 
 
 >- 
 
 < 
 
 MW 
 
 If 
 
 •5 
 
 c-i 
 
 IB 
 
 b 
 
 CO 
 
 so 
 
 I 
 
 — CO 
 
 
 
 ^lUNIVtKV^ 
 
 ^TJUDNVSOl^ 
 
 -^WEUNIVERS/a 
 
 •<f3l30NVSOl^ 
 
 ^tUBRARYQc 
 
 <f,OfCAllF0J?^ 
 
 
 .^MEUNIVERy/A 
 
 5MEUNIVERS/A 
 
 AjclUVANCl 
 
 O 
 
 Of 
 
 O 
 
 ^ J5 
 
 ^.. 
 
 o 
 
 avIOSANCE 
 
 o 
 
 ^JVlJDNVSOl^^^ 
 
 .\WEUNIVERJ/>i 
 
 ^lOSANCEl^^ 
 
 .^tUBRARYG^ .^^^ItlBRARYO/^ 
 
 ^■Til^NVSOl^ "^/yaaAlNflJWV^ '^^OJIIVDJO'^ %OJI1VDJO'^ 
 
 ^\«EUNIVER% 
 
 ^lOS-WICEl£r^ 
 
 
 ■^/iaaAiNniftv* 
 
 ^tfOJITVDJO'^ "^,90 
 
 ^^\\EUNIVER%. 
 
 — £3 
 
 ''-TJlJONVSOl^ 
 
 ^lOSANCElfj-^ 
 o " ^ 
 
 vAa3MN(l-3UV 
 
 ^OFCAIIFOR^ ^.OFCAIIFOR^ 
 
 r— fc" 
 
 "^<?A8vaan-# '^Aavaaiii'*^ 
 
 jj?J\EI)NIVER% 
 
 ■^mwm'^ 
 
 ^lOSANCEtfj> 
 
 %a3AIN(l-3l\V^ 
 
 ^OFCAllFOff^ 
 
 ''jt?Aava8ii-^^ "^^oy 
 
 ^tllBRARYOc 
 
 <:^tllBRARYQc. 
 § 1 ir^ ^ 
 
 i;OFCAllF0ff^ 
 
 ^OFCAIIFOR^ 
 
 ''OAavaani^ 
 
 ^ ,— '» I- § 
 
 >&Aavaani'^ 
 
 ,\WEUNIVER% 
 
 "<ri]33fWS01^ 
 
 A«EUNIVER% 
 
 ^TJUDNYSOl^ 
 
 ^lOSANCEl^^ 
 
 so 
 
 %- - -I 
 
 v/yaJAiNnrnv' 
 
 ^10SANCEI% 
 
 '^/smmav^ 
 
 ^lUBRARYO/r 
 § 1 </"' ^ 
 
 i^lllBRARYOc. 
 § 1 «<^^ 
 
 ^^«EUNIVER% ^lOSANCfl 
 
 '^^OJIIVDJO^' '^OJnVDJO^ <'5133NVS01^ "^Aa 
 X;OFCAIIFO% .^;OFCA1IFO%. aME UNIVERJ/a vvlO^ 
 
 '^<?Aavaaiii^ 
 
 ^<?Aavaan-^^ 
 
 <rii3DNVS01^
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ is 
 
 o 
 
 IFOff^ ^OFCAlfFOff^ 
 
 ^lOSANCflfx^ 
 
 <ivuowsoi'^ ■^/JajMNnrnv'^ 
 
 >- 
 
 ^lOSANCflfr^ 
 
 <rjuoNvsm^ 
 
 3 
 
 ^tfOJIlVD JO'f^ 
 
 ■'^/JIUAINIHWV^ 
 
 ... ^ 
 
 C! ■ -■ — 
 
 5 
 
 <}NIUBRAIIY(3<: 
 
 '^^JIlVDiO'^ 
 
 ^OfCAUF(%, 
 
 5 
 
 ^OFCAIIFORU 
 
 ^<7Aav!ian^^' 
 
 
 SJ d 
 
 
 L 005 458 863 7 
 >- 
 
 
 .^;OFCAllfO% 
 
 ^OFCAIIFO*^ 
 
 
 .^WEUNIVERS/A 
 
 ^lOSANCEltr. 
 
 <r?13DKVS01'^ 
 
 ■^/SaiAINIlHV^ 
 
 aOFCAllFWi^ 
 
 ^ >— 'I I- § 
 
 >OAavaani'<^ 
 
 ^OfCAUfOf^^ 
 
 
 <\\FUNIVER£{^ 
 
 
 ^lOSANCEt^^ 
 
 o " 
 
 ■^/iajAiNiii;'. 
 
 ^lUBRARYO/ svMUBRAfiYQ^^ 
 
 ^AOilWDJO"^ 
 
 
 .\WEUNIVKyA 
 
 ^lOSANCfltr^ 
 
 "^J^UONVSOl^ 
 
 > 
 
 IFOBlto ^OFCAIIFOff^ 
 
 amS^ 
 
 ■*a;iv:4' 
 
 AWEUNIVER% 
 
 I 
 
 ^lOSANCEl^^ 
 
 ^AaiMNIlii. 
 
 ^OFCAUFOR^ 
 
 ^OFCAllFOff^ 
 is 
 
 
 , ^E UNIVERS/, , 
 
 <r;i]'jsYSOi'*^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 •SOV<^ %a]AlNll3Wv 
 
 ^•UBRARYO/. 
 
 ^<SOJI1VDJO'^ 
 
 ^<!/0JnV3JO'*^ 
 
 '^JJUDWSOl'^ 
 
 ^lOSAKCEl£r> 
 
 o , 
 
 
 
 ^WJITWJU 
 
 ■'^aojnvjjo^ 
 
 mS//^ ^lOSANCEl/j: 
 
 "v/iajAisiuwv 
 
 'OH^y ^OFCAllFORj^ 
 
 ^OAUvaani^"^ ^OAavaanv^"^ 
 
 
 ^lOSANCEl£r^ 
 
 S 3 
 
 ■^/SMJAINMrt^ 
 
 x,OFCAIIF0% 
 
 ■^<?Aaviiaii# ^OAMvaani^^ 
 
 ^^tUBRARYQr 
 
 Q.JO';*' ^ 
 
 ^tfOJIlVD JO'^ 
 
 ^\WEUNI\' 
 
 ^lOSANCElfTA 
 
 
 \iNnmv 
 
 j^>iiUBRARYQr^ ^jMUBRAfiYQc^ 
 
 ''uUIIVDJO'*^ 
 
 
 
 aiii^ 
 
 ^OAUvsani^ 
 
 AWUNIN 
 
 
 
 ^OFCAUFOftfe, ^OFCAllFOftfc, 
 
 ,\'«an#