W^mS&^^^^^^Ki ^SSSSasSXnm^SaS^^^^ i ^ S ^ ^^^^J^^lS^ m EX-LIBRIS G. & N. INGLETON . a^ 2^ &» 'f ' y SIR PETER SCEATCHLEY'S PAPERS AUSTEALIAN DEFENCES AND NEAV GUINEA COMPILED FEOM THE PAPERS OF THE LATE MAJOR- GENERAL SIR PETER 8CRATCHLEY, R.E., K.CJ.G. Defence Adviser to the Aitstndasutn t'ulunies find Her Majesty's Special Commissioner for New Guinea BY C. KIXLOCII COOKE, B.A., LL.M. 0/ the Inner Temjj/e, Barn.iler-al-l.aw WITH AX INTRODUCTORY MEMOIR 1L n iJ n M A C :\I I L L A N AND C 0. AND NEW YOKE 1887 All li'jhtt reseri-t-d PKINTKD BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE LONDON I DEDICATE THIS BOOK TO LADY SCEATCHTjEY IN AFFECTIONATE EEMEMBRANCE OF HEE LATE HUSBAND >4C'^.'!r;BVi PEEFACE. I HAVE endeavoured in these pages to place on record the work done by the late Major-General Sir Peter Scratchley, in connection with Australian Defences, and as Her Majesty's Special Commissioner for Xew Guinea. The opinions of a man, whose suggested System of Defence for our Australasian Colonies has been, in its salient points, actually adopted, can scarcely fail to be of public interest in the mother-country ; and I am authorised by the Colonial Secretary of State to say tliat he fully recognises Sir Peter Scratchley's im- portant services to the Empire, more especially those in connection with the defences of Australia. The account of New Guinea not only gives the most recent and accurate information respecting a compara- tively unknown territory, but affords an insight into the opinions of one who possessed both experience and knowledge of the people and politics of Australasia. The Memoir includes extracts from Sir Peter's X PREFACE. Crimean and Indian Mutiny Diaries. In these he makes many interesting allusions to his friend General Charles George Gordon, and other Engineer Officers who took part with him in those campaigns. My thanks are due to many of Sir Peter Scratchley's friends and brother officers wlio have given me valuable advice and assistance. Amongst them I would mention Field Marshal Lord Napier of Magdala ; the Hon. Sir Arthur Gordon ; Major-General Sir Charles Warren ; Major-General Sir Henry Gordon ; Sir Eobert Herbert ; Sir Frederick Abel; Major-General Nicholson; Major- General Clive; Mr. Henniker-Heaton, M.P. ; the Rev. James Chalmers ; and Mr. G. Seymour Fort, Sir Peter's Private Secretary. For the information contained in New Guinea Notes I am indebted to Mr. G. E. Askwith. By the kind permission of Mr. Knowles, the Editor of the Nineteenth Century, I am able to reproduce the Chart which was designed to illustrate an article con- tributed by me to that Eeview. And finally, I would especially thank Mr. Philip Scratchley for material aid in the composition and con- struction of the Memoir, and for his kind help in revising the matter relating to his uncle's work in New Guinea. C. KlNLOCH CoOKE. 2 Garden Court, Temple : AprU 1887. CONTENTS. PAGB MEMOIR OF SIR PETER SCRATCHLEY, AND EXTRACTS FROM HIS CRIMEAN AND INDIAN :MTTTIXT DIARIES ... 1 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. CHATTER I. GENERAL DEFENCE ...... II. NAVAL DEFENCE ...... III. COAST DEFENCE ...... IV. TORPEDO DEFENCE (DEFENSIVE AND OFFENSIVE) V. LOCAL FORCES (") • VI. LOCAL FORCES (/>) VII. NEW SOUTH WALES ...... VIII. VICTORIA ....... IX. SOUTH AUSTRALIA ...... X. QUEENSLAND ....... XI. WESTERN AUSTRALIA . . . . XII. TASMANIA . . . XIII. NEW ZEALAND ....... XIV. TORRES STRAIT ...... XV. THURSDAY ISLAND ...... 39 58 76 83 103 122 M.') l.nO 177 18;i 19o 213 224 243 2:-)0 CONTENTS. NEW GUINEA. I IIAPTER XVI. THE POLITICAL SITUATION' XVII. EARLY DIFFICULTIES XVIII. England's new colony XIX. SIR PETER's DIARY XX. NEW GUINEA NOTES . TAGX •261 271 280 303 359 APPENDICES. A. PAPERS RELATING TO AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES B. PAPERS RELATING TO NEW GUINEA . 375 410 MAPS. THE AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES AND THE PACIFIC ISLANDS . Frontispiece to face page 261 148 THE NEW GUINEA PROTECTORATE . PORT JACKSON PORT PHILIP ..... THE ENTRANCE TO PORT PHILIP BRISBANE ...... KING GEORGE SOUND HOBART ...... LAUNCESTON AND PORT DALRYMPLE . AUCKLAND ...... WELLINGTON . . . i . TORRES STRAIT AND THURSDAY ISLAND. 160 161 187 196 215 217 230 231 246 NEW GUINEA AND ADJACENT ISLANDS, SHOWING THE POLITICAL . DIVISION OF TERRITORY BETWEEN GRK.\T BRITAIN, GERMANY, AND HOLLAND ......... 263 AUSTR.\LL\ & THE PACIFIC ISLANDS 1 MEMOIE. Peter Hexry Scratchley was the youngest son of the late Dr. James Scratchley of the Royal Artillery, and was born in Paris on August 24, 1835. Dr. Scratchley, after serving for many years in India and other quarters of the globe with the distinguished corps to which he belonged, was appointed Inspector of Military Hospitals. Being, late in life, required to proceed in liis turn to tlie West Indies, he decided, having at that time a wife and young family, to retire from the army, and to start in private practice. Dr. Scratchley had already attained to eminence in his profession as the writer of various medical works, of which one became famed as the ' London Dissector,' and went through numerous editions. While considering where to settle down, it was sufjo'ested to him that Paris, the Paris of 1830, offered a good opening for an Enghsli medical man. Thither he accordingly proceeded with his family, and as consulting physician to the Embassy, and holding other official posts, speedily found himself in an exten- sive and lucrative practice. Of himself and his early life Peter Scratcliley's Diary contains the following record : — Arthur [his elder brother] and Peter Chitterbuck Avere 2 MEMOIR OF my godfathers. Peter Clutterbuck gave papa oOOZ. for having made him my godpapa. About eight years old I had the typhus fever, during which I was sixteen days dumb, caused, as mamma always said, by my having sworn very much once during mv delirium. I continued ill for thirtv-three davs. I was a miserably thin and slight boy and very short. About this time my eyes got bad, and 1 suffered from ophthalmia for two years, when I went to a French school kept by a M. Lemeignan-Mathe, Rue du Faubourg St.-Honore. I was only a day boarder, and used to go to the ' College Bourbon.' While at college I never worked at all. and used to be set to do lines. I used to sit up till twelve o'clock working at them. I remember also how we used to throw books at the masters' heads when in school. I was only ten years old when I went to school. I re- mained there till the year 1847. Di\ Scratchley died in the early part of 1848, at a time when the whole of France, and especially Paris as its centre, was convulsed by political changes. On the death of her husband Mrs. Scratchley returned to England, where she had two elder sons settled, one in the Church and the other as an Actuary. The question soon arose as to what was to be done with the boy Peter. His mother wislied him to enter a civil profession, but fortunately, as it turned out, the wiser counsels of an elder brother prevailed, and it was decided to remind Lord Palmerston of an offer he had previously made, to recognise Dr. Scratchley's profes- sional services by obtaining a nomination for one of his sons to Woolwich. Lord Palmerston and James Scratchley had been in the same form together at Harrow, and the Prime Minister, who had already shown his warm friendship for his old schoolfellow, promptly responded to the request made to him, and SIR PETER SCRATCHLEY. 3 young Peter Scratcliley, Avhile still under fifteen years of age, received his nomination as a Gentleman Cadet at the Woolwich Academy. Peter Scratchley is described by his friends as being at this time a somewhat reserved and thoughtful boy, not prone to say much, but quick and observant, and one who displayed in a striking degree that marked attachment to duty, which may justly be said to have been his distinguishing characteristic through life. An instance of the influence which this instinct (for so it may be called) had on his character, was shown in the untiring devotion with which, at the early age of twelve, he tended a dying elder brother through a long and painful illness. Owing to delicate health he was decidedly back- ward, it is said, at the age of thirteen, knowing little but French, which, however, he spoke with fluency and a true accent. Before entering the Academy he was sent to study with a tutor at Woolwich, Dr. Bridgman, and made rapid progress. No doubt he formed at an early age the habit of steady, resolute work, which continued with him tliroughout his life. In liis Diary he states : — I passed fourteenth in my Probationary or entrance exami- nation, and joined the Academy on February 1, 1850. The first half-yearly examination I passed fifteenth or sixteenth from the Fourth Academy into the Thhd. I remained in the Third Academy during this second half-year, and got up to second. The third half-year (1851) I passed second into the Second Academy. I remained there during the fourth half-year and gained my place up to third. In the fifth half-year I passed third into the First Academy. Kemained there two half-years B 2 4 MEMOIR OF (1852), and in February 1853 I passed third into the Practical Class or Arsenal. There I remained for one year. The second half-year in the examination I gained one place, so that the list stood thus : Wrottesley, Scratchley, Watson, Hale, Rideout, &c. Towards the end of bis course at the Academy, he was prevented from reading for a considerable time by an accident, which nearly cost him the sight of an eye, and confined him to a darkened room for many weeks. Xot withstanding this serious drawback, however, to his studies, he passed out of the Academy at the head of the list (April 1854), and obtained a commission in the Royal Engineers. He thus speaks qf the occurrence in his Diary : On September 6, 1853, I was out at drill, and in playing with my sword I struck a stone, and it flew up and I was blinded. My eye continued bad for three months. I remained in the Cadet Hospital, where Dr. Jarratt attended me, and I then went up to London and consulted Dr. Alexander, Oculist to the Queen. In Februar}' 1854 I returned to the Academy, and was placed first on the list, but was told I must keep my place at the head. I did so, and we got our commissions as follows : — Scratchley, Kelsall, to Royal Engineers ; De Winton, Hamilton &c., to Royal Artillery. By this illness I lost four places, as Hale, Dumaresq, Longley, and Lempriere got their commis- sions in the Engineers before me. I was gazetted on April 21, 1854, and on June 20, 1854, 1 was promoted to Fu'st Lieutenant. From Chatham I proceeded, by order of the A. A. G., to Dover. I was then ordered to the Crimea, where 1 kept a regular diary. At the Academ)' he contracted many friendships, some of them destined to be lifelong, with men who afterwards became distinijuished officers. Amon^jst them was Charles George Gordon, with whom that early acquaintance ripened, in subsequent years, into SJ/^ PETER SCRATCHLEY. 5 intimate friendship. Although Gordon was Scratchley's senior by some two years, they had many traits in common which naturally disposed them to a mutual liking, and as years passed on and the slight difference in age (which at the Academy was not without impor- tance) practically vanished, they came to hold each other in high esteem. Their paths in hfe, however, were widely different. The career of Gordon was brilliant and meteoric, almost eccentric in its orbit, terminating in a violent death ; that of his friend was less conspicuous, but none the less marked by stead- fastness of purpose and devotion to duty. Lieutenant Scratchley was attached to the 4th Company, Eoyal Engineers, with which he also served later on during the Indian Mutiny. He left England on July 24, 1855, for the Crimea, where he arrived on August 13 of that year, and remained until June 11, 1856, being present at the siege and capture of Sebas- topol. Although barely twenty years of age, his work in the trenches before Sebastopol was characterised by coolness and skill, qualities whicli were equallj^ notice- able at the final assault upon the Eedan, in which he also took part. Soon after the retreat of the Eussians from Sebas- topol, Lieutenant Scratchley was employed in surveying the enemy's works and destroying their dockyard esta- blishments. He was then selected to accompany the expedition to Kinburn, on the Black Sea, and "was present at the capture of that fortress with his Company. Subsequently he was engaged in constructing defensive works for the better protection of the British troops, 6 MEMOIR OF in which he was occupied when peace was concluded. For his services in the Crimea he was awarded the Crimean Medal, with clasp for Sebastopol, and the Turkish War Medal. His experiences during the Campaign are modestly narrated in the Diary he kept at the time, and will be best described in his own words : — CRIMEAN DIARY.' August 13, 1855. — Amved at Balaklavaat 6 p.m. Anchored outside the harbour. Saw flashes, resembhng those of lightning, caused by the firing of guns at SebastopoL ' List of Officers R.E. and Assistant Engineers doing duty at my time : — Lieut.-Gen. Sir H. Jones, K.C.B., went home Sept. 15; Lieut. Cowell, A.D.C., went borne Sept. 15: Lieiit.-Col. Chapman, C.B. (Col.), went home Oct. : Major Bfnt (C.B., Lieut.-Col.), Director L attack ; Capt. Keane (Major), home Oct., returned: Major Bouchier (C.B., Lieut.-Col.), B.M. and A.A.G. : Capt. Browne (C.B. Major), wounded, home, D.R.A. ; Capt. Montague (Major), prisoner, returned Sept. ; Capt. Cooke (Major), Survey and Director, R.A.H. ; Major Staunton (Lieut.-Col.), home Oct., returned Feb. ; Capt. De Molejns (Major) ; Capt. Ewart (Major), B.M. and Adjutant ; Capt. Nicholson (Major); Capt. Sedley (Major), home, wounded; Lieut. Ranken (Major) ; Lieut. De Yere (Major), home Oct., returned Feb. ; Lieut. Brine (Capt.), sick list Sept. 8; Lieut. Fisher, telegraph (Capt.); Lieut. Elphinstone, wounded 8th, home (Capt.) ; Lieut. Cumberland, two days before 8th not present ; Lieut. XeviUe, after 8th A.D.C. Gen. Barnard ; Lieut. Lennox, after 8th Adjutant R.L.M. : Lieut. Leahy, D.A.Q.M.G. ; Lieut. Anderson, Constantinople, after 8th returned ; Lieut. Graham (Capt.) ; Lieut. Gordon (went to Turkish boundary) ; Lieut. Edwards, two days before 8th ; Lieut. Donnelly, after 8th A.D.C. to Lieut.-Col. Lloyd ; Lieut. Somerville, died Aug. ; Lieut. Dumaresq ; Lieut. Scratchley ; Lieut. Kelsall, constant aft«r 8th ; Lieut.-Col. Lloyd, C.R.E. after Jones's departure ; Col. Gordon, C.B., C. R.L.M. after 8th ; Lieut. James, returned from prisoner Dec. 28 ; Capt. Lambert, Jan. 15 ; Capt. Barry, Jan. 15 ; Capt. Schaw, Jan. 15 ; Lieut. Stopford, April 10 (Capt.) ; Lieut. Goodall, April 10 ; Lieut. Gossett, April 10. Assistant Engineers: — Capt. Anderson, 31st, killed Sept. 5; Capt. Wolseley, 4Gth, wounded Sept. 8 ; Capt. Penn, R.A., returned to duty Sept. 13; Major Campbell, 4Gth, returned to duty Sept. 1.3. SIR PETER SCRATCHLEY. 7 Angvist 14. — Landed and went into Balaklava, but remained during the night on board ship. The crowded harbour looked very extraordinary, especially as everything was so very new to me. Augxist 15. — Landed and went up to camp. Slept in Dumaresqs tent. Our camp within the range of the Russian guns. August 16. — Got up. Went to see the field of the battle of Tractir, fought between the Russians, French, and Sardinians. The Russians were severely defeated, leaving many wounded and dead. Saw the poor fellows lying all over the plain — very shocking, bnt was not so much moved as I expected. War is a stem necessity. August 17.— Bombardment commenced at 8 a.m. Xever heard such an infernal noise in all my life. The shot and shell came poming into our camp last night. Far from pleasant. However, slept soundly. On duty in the trenches to-night. Went down at 4 p.m. Fire not very hot. Found my way down to the general hut. Elphinstone of ' ours ' on with me. Did not witness any casualty. Avugust 18. — Remained in camp, being tired of my night work. In the evening the Ruskis fired tremendously as they expected an attack. [August 19 and subsequent days were passed on duty, chiefly in the trenches, but without incident, except he records that he bought three horses at an auction for 557. 1(3^. the lot.] August 26. — Poor Somerville very ill. Stopped with him, and went, in the afternoon, with him in a litter to Balaklava to see him on board the Imperador steamer going to Scutari. I am afraid he will not be able to return, although, poor fellow, he wishes sadly to do so. Hea^'y firing in the evening. August 27. — Camp duty. An attack expected against the ' Sardines ' at Baidar on the Tchernaya, and a sortie against the French. August 28. — Nothing extraordinary except that the Russians destroyed a French magazine in the Mamelon. (It was originally a Russian one.) It is reported the French lost 200 men and 8 MEMOIR OF 600 wounded. The explosion was terrific and woke every- body all over the camp, and destroyed some of the French batteries, and wounded twenty-five of our men. Some of the timbers were seen to fly to an immense distance into our Right Attack. August 29. — On duty in the trenches in the evening. A few casualties and a heavy fire of musketry and shells. Eecon- noitred with Elphinstone in advance of the breaking out of the fifth into the sixth parallel, and found the ground very rocky. Proceeded with two men about fifty yards, and were just return- ing when a Russian picket of half a dozen men fired on us and wounded one of the men. We were only about fifteen yards from them, and if they had not been frightened we should have been taken prisoners, or perhaps been killed. Of course we re- turned to the trenches, and they ceased firing. The working party were obliged to be withdrawn on account of the casualties. Had two or three narrow escapes from shells bursting. August 30. — As I thought, the Ruskis made a small sortie on the Right Advance. Dumaresq, who was on duty, says that the picket that was in advance retired immediately, and so did the working party, and the Ruskis of course filled up the trench. A few men were killed, and they retired. August 31. — The Ruskis made another attempt at a sortie on the Right Advance. The trench was again destroyed. Sejjtemher 1. — I went to see a theatre in the sailors' camp. It was capital, though I hardly thought it was quite right to have it. September 2. — I was on duty in the trenches in the day-time, and also on camp duty. Firing very heavy against the quames. Left Attack and the French did not fire a bit. A magazine in the flag-staff battery blew up. I should not think this was Sunday, as eveiythiug goes on in the same way, except the morning service. Another sortie in the evening and the men ran. Reports confirm my opinion that the men are beginning to lose their hearts underneath these failures and this overwork. September 4. — An attack from the lower picket ravine ex- pected on our Right Advance. Anderson of the 31st, an SIR PETER SCRATCHLEY. y Assistant Engineer, killed last night. Poor fellow, I liked liim very mucli. Seftemhev 5. — Bombardment commenced this morning. On duty in the trenches to-night. Firing very light. Very few casualties. Got on very well with the advanced sap, and amused myself firing with Jones of the Artillery at the Russians in the ravine. Septemher 6. — Bombardment was much slacker last night from want of ammunition, Buckley of the Guards killed in advance of the Bight Sap. It is becoming absolute madness to venture out. Septemher 7. — Bombardment continued. It is expected the French will attack to-morrow. On duty in the trenches with Stanton. Heard that poor Bill [Somerville] died of fever at Scutari. Wrote home. Septemher 8. — To-day was fixed for the assault of the Redan and MalakofF. It began at 12.15 p.m., when they began firing as hard as they could. I was in front of the ' Lime-kiln.' The Malakoff was taken, as the Russians did not expect an assault, and ran. We attacked the Redan, as a feint, and after hard fighting were repulsed. The French were repulsed at the Little Redan, Central Bastion, and the Bastion-du-Mat (Flagstaff), and the Quarantine Bastion. They lost about 12,000 men, we 2,000. September 9. — The Russians during the night evacuated the Redan, and we took possession at 6 a.m. It is disgraceful how the attack of yesterday failed. The Highlanders, who were the supports, were on the third and fourth parallels, and the Guards were in reserve, in rear of the ' Lime-kiln,' and it would have taken them one hour to march up. Septemher 10. — On duty in the Redan. Put out severfil fires that were near magazines. Buried thirty or forty Russians who were lying dead. Went out into the town barracks and flooded a magazine, which they had intended to blow up. Our soldiers were not allowed to take an}' plunder, so the French took it all. Septemher 11. — A very windy rainy day. The place one lo MEMOIR OF mass of mud. Tlinnder and lightning at night. There are a good many incendiaries picked up here and there. They say they are Russian criminals who are promised pardon if they keep up the work of devastation. Five of them were found by Rideout after the explosion of one of the magazines in the Redan. Three of them were dead — two alive — having been buried by the fall of the earth. A general order came out to- day congratulating the army on its success, and a brigade order from Jones [laeut.-General Sii* Henry Jones, K.C.B.] thanking us for the way we had done our duty. I expect we will get a year's pay for our trouble. I am sure I hope so. The Russians sank theii" remaining steamers. Sefpiemher 14. — I marched eighty-five men of diflferent regi- ments to ' Mother Seacole's ' on the railway with two sergeants. They were all drunk, and I never had such trouble. However, I harangued them and appealed to their feelings as British soldiers, and I managed to get them there safe. September 16. — I believe we are never going to do any- thing. I cannot say I look forward to spending the winter here. September 18. — Left camp for Sebastopol Dockyard with fifty-six men, four non-commissioned officers, and one bugler. September 20. — Set the men to work at the shafts. The masonry of the docks perfect, but the stones very soft, and would wear away in short time. September 21. — Same hard work looking after men. Got up at 5 A.M. like yesterday, and worked till night. Dined yesterday with General Wyndham, Governor of Sebastopol. September 22. — To-day the siege train marched in. In the usual way that we do things, they came in with colours flying and drums beating and in broad daylight. The consequence was the Ruskis began firing. The second shell killed a man in the Buffs. September 25. — Lost a rifle found in the Redan. Stolen by a Frenchman. September 26. — I am very sorry I lost my rifle, as it is the only thing I had worth having out of Sebastopol. SIR PETER SCRATCHLEY. ii September 27. — An explosion in one of the creek magazines to-day, killing and wounding some men. October 1. — Eeports flying about that the Ruskis are in full i-etreat and Czar Alexander dethroned. I hope the former is true, as it will save us much trouble next spring. October 2, 1855. — Ordered to hold myself in readiness for embarkation at Balaklava with the fourth company. Captain Nicholson, Charlie Gordon; Major Bent, R.E., to be C.R.E. October 4. — Started from camp at 7 a.m. Embarked that morning on board the Indian s.S. October 11. — Odessa is a very fine town, with large massive buildings. The people seem very busy, and I have no doubt very much frightened. October 12. — It was intended that we should start last night to arrive at Kinburn Foi't and land there, but the sea became very rough. The wind, however, went down, so we might have landed this morning. To-day was very fine. Sunday, October 14. — Got under way about 7 a.m. with the Arabia in tow. The fleet proceeding towards the north of Kinburn, and we to the south. Monday, October 15. — Landed at 10 a.m. We pitched our tents by 7 p.m. Tuesday, October 16. — Last night I entrenched the sixty- third on our left ; made a pretty good trench. The night was very dark. To-day made small redoubts to the right and left, advanced pickets, each to be armed with two guns en barbette. Worked till late at night. Wednesday, October 17. — Continued the redoubt. At 8 a.m. the fleet bombarded the fort, and after a terrific fire of six or seven hours it gave in. It was a splendid sight ; the finest I ever saw in all my life. The garrison, twelve to thirteen hun- dred, surrendered with the honours of war. They were most of them small men — young and old — evidently the worst part of the Russian troops. To-day I also worked at our entrenched position. An attack expected from the Imperial Guard, who marched from Warsaw intending to proceed to Sebastopol ; but hearing of the ' fall," they were expected here. 12 MEMOIR OF Thursdai/, October 18. — Continued the redoubts; but the completing of our intrenched position was discontinued. Fridaif. Octoher 19.— Shifted our camp to the village ; the English taking the south and the French the north side (which is the best). Saturday, Octoher 20. — To-day almost all the allied troops, with the exception of 2.000. went on a reconnaisance of six days. Chai'lie Gordon went on the Q.M.G. staff. I would have liked to have gone. Staiday, Octoher 21, to Sunday, 28. — Employed in Kinburn Fort., repairing the buildings to convert them into barracks. The French officers were very cinl. To-day we embarked on board the Indian. Sunday, Xovernher 11. — Landed at Razatch, and slept (in camp) on shore. Monday, Kovernher 12. — Marched up to camp from Razatch. A long march, only took two and a half hours. Had a bad toothache. Thursday, November 15. — Memorable day. About 2 p.m. a magazine in the French right siege train, by the windmill, blew up. Our shell magazine was destroyed. Eight artillery- men killed and many wounded. All the huts and tents round about were blown down, and the shell and shot flew up in all directions. A truly magnificent sight. I believe the French have lost a great many men. Friday, November 16, 1855. — We turned out at 5 a.m. ex- pecting an attack. The fire at the Right Siege train went out in the right. I went over with the 4th Company to repaii- damages, but had such a bad toothache that I returned, getting Charlie Gordon to do my work. Had tooth out. Til ursday, November 22. — Winter commencing ; still under canvas. Saturday, November 24. — ]SIoved into my quarter-of-an- officer's hut, next to Ranken. A good change. Received my Crimean medal. December 2, 1855. — Went into Sebastopol to meet ^lon- SIR PETER SCRATCHLEY. 13 tague about making sections of Russian works for a report to be sent in. Wednesdai/^ December 19. — My hut is fearfully cold, 8*^ during sunrise. My sponge, ink, &c. frozen — in fact, every- thing. I had hardly had my bath when the sponge I had been using got as stiff as possible. Friday, Becemher 21.- — Armed with a French pass I went to the Quarantine Fort and took some angles for the surv^ey. Fort Constantine appeared unpleasantly close. Wrote home. Christmas Day, 1855. — Took the Communion. In the afternoon took a walk over to Inkerman. We were five or six walking, and the Ruskis fired two or three shots at us. We had a dinner up in our new mess hut. It passed off very well. Thirteen at dinner. Monday, December 31. — Surveyed from Fort Artillery to Quarantine Fort. Sat up to see the new year in and the old year out. Friday, January 11, 1856. — Went out triangulating. Left off the Left Siege attack and commenced another. Wrote home . Went to the theatre. Yesterday went out on a paper hunt. Had a fine run. Monday, January 21. — Sketching by Kamiesch Lines. There are two reports flying about : (1.) That peace is nearly settled by Russia accepting the proposals of Austria (doubtful !). (2.) That a battle was fought at Baidar between French and Ruskis. Ruskis, 30,000 men, defeated — 400 prisoners (veiy doubtful !). Tuesday, January 22. — Drawing indoors, weather being bad. Peace news confirmed to-day. Wednesday, January 23. — Went out sketching. In the evening we had two live generals to dinner — Generals Barnard and Crauford and A.D.Cs. Peace news certain. Thursday, January 24. — Did not go out sketching. Peace said to be certain. Tuesday, February 19. — Yesterday was a oold, miserable day, blowing a fierce gale N.E. There were thirteen at table, viz. 14 MEMOIR OF Gordon, Bent, Ewart, Cooke, ' Nick,' Ranken, Scliaw, Charlie Gordon, Dumaresq, Gimlinton, Combe, Lennox, and myself — an unlucky number (as it turned out, poor Ranken was killed at the docks afterwards). Friday, February 22. — Corps meeting to-day about monu- ment to be erected to the fellows who have fallen during this war. Great discussion, and, as generally happens on such occasions, nothing was agreed upon, and the meeting was ad- journed. Sunday, February 24. — To-day the army (25,000) was re- viewed. A splendid sight. The Highlanders and Guards looked splendid. Monday, February 25. — Packed up preparatory to moving to Cossack Bay, between Balaklava and Karance. Went to the 1st Division Theatre — very good. Tuesday, Feh'uary 26. — Marched down to Cossack Bay with 8th Company. Fine day for the march. Slept in a single tent. We had a snowstorm that night. Tent not very cold. Wednesday, February 27. — Had my tent covered with another, which made it much warmer. Selected position for Lines. Friday, February 29. — Poor Ranken was killed last night while employed destroying the ' White Buildings.' He was crushed by the fall of one of the building walls. He was not found till 5 a.m. this morning. Poor fellow, I liked him ex- cessively. He is a fearful loss to us. Saturday, March 1, 1856. — The preliminaries of an armis- tice were settled on Friday, 29, and it was to be until the 31st. Works of defence to be continued and destruction of Sebastopol. Wednesday, March 5. — Miserable work for tents. Went round to Balaklava. Some parts of the hills waist-deep with snow. Thursday, March 6. — Nasty day. South-west wind turned into a gale in the morning. Expecting my tent to come down every moment. S/J? PETER SCRATCHLEY. 15 Monday^ March 10. — Change in the weather — warm spring day. Wednesday, March 12. — Beautiful fine warm day. Spring regularly set in, I hope. Laid out the Batteries, &c. to-day, and sketched the ground around them. Peace news expected to-morrow. Thursday, March 13. — Telegraphic message came to-day to suspend all work at the lines. Reason not known. Nothing known about the peace. Monday, March 17. — Commenced working at wharf at Leander Bay. Tuesday, March 18. — Still working at wharf. Suiiday, March 23. — -Rumoured that Lord Panmure has resigned, and that Lord Hardinge retires, and that the Duke of Somerset becomes Minister of War. Monday, March 24. — This day there were races on the Tchemaya plain. Went to see them. It was a beautiful day, and I should think that from 50,000 to 60,000 men were pre- sent. The Russians were invited, but General Luders declined on the plea that peace was not settled. Tuesday, March 25. — Reported that peace had been signed. Working at big plan. Wednesday, March 26. — General McMahon's (French) "Corps d'Armee ' was inspected to day. Tuesday, April 8. — Moved to ground on the west of the 82nd. Camp above Balaklava, so as to be nearer to the works in Balaklava. Thursday, April 10. — Charlie Gordon is repairing the old Inkennan bridge that was burnt when the Allies came. Our fellows went over to the north side and invited the Russian sapper officers to come and dine with us. They come on Saturday and are to cross over at Fort Paul, where we are to have horses ready for them. Saturday, April ^ 2. — The Russian Engineers dined at our mess to-day. Thursday, April 17. — General review of the army before 1 6 MEMOIR OF General Luclers Staff. The French Anny was reviewed in the morning. Wednesdai/, April 23. — I was ordered yesterday to take over the command of the 8th Company R.E. Saturdat/, May 3. — To-moiTOW I hope to start on my trip to the interior of the Crimea. Friday, May 23. — Stopford takes the command of the Company from me — rather a bore, as I lose contingent. Saturday, May 24. — Queen's birthday. Review of part of the army and distribution of part of the French war medals. May 28. — Gave over command of 8tli Company to Devere, my old captain. Saw Colonel Crauford. He is an old friend of the family. Stopford came down to our camp to command 3rd Company. May 31. — Went to the Alma with Lennox and Leahy. June 1. — Returned from the Alma early, having slept in an orchard on the banks of the river — slept in the open. June IL — Embarked on board S.S. Peninsula for England at 10 A.M. Sunday, July 6. — Arrived at Spithead. After his return from the Crimea, Lieutenant Scratchley was employed on engineering works at Portsmouth for over twelve months. Upon the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny in 1857 he was ordered to the front mth the 4th Company, R.E., and embarked for Calcutta on October 2 of that year. On arrival he at once proceeded with his Chief, Lieutenant-Colonel Harness, R.E. (afterwards Sir Henry Harness, K.C.B.), to Cawnpore to join General Wyndham, who had been left behind by Sir Cohn Campbell to keep open communication while the last- SIR PETER SCRATCHLEY. 17 named officer was relieving Sir James Outram at Luclv- now. Lieutenant Scratcliley served throughout the Oude campaign from October 1857, and was present at the actions near Cawnpore as Acting Adjutant of Eoyal Engineers under General Wyndham. The following extracts are taken from his Diary : — Nuvemhcr 29 to Decemher 1, 1857. — Shut up iu Cawnpore Fort with the enemy bombarding. Sir Colin Campbell arrived with his army and formed camp on the other side of the Ganges. The enemy shelled the camp. Some of the 93rd were killed, and Colonel Ewart (our Ewart's brother) wounded. Decemher 2. — Left Cawnpore Fort with the C.R.E [Colonel Harness] for headquarters' camp (Sir Colin Campbell's). Becemher 5. — The Gwalior force sent about 300 men across -the Canal, and made a demonstration on our left. The cavalry of the army and three batteries moved out, and a cannonade ensued for two and a half hours or more. Very unsatisfactory work. One gunner and one horse killed. Returned to camp. Sunday, Decemher 6. — Present at the Battle ot Cawnpore and defeat of the Gwalior Force. This morning, at 8 a.m., the tents were struck and the army prepared to attack the Pandies. The ball was opened by a violent cannonade from the intrench- ment (where General Wyndham, with the force under him, was), which was not answered by the enemy. We advanced steadily until we came upon the enemy's camp, which was deserted, tents, &c., being left standing. We halted for a short time. In the meantime the cavalry, with some artillery, had been sent to turn the enemy's right flank. The pursuit was continued on to the Kalpee road. During the pursuit the C.R.E. was ordered to take a message to Brigadier Grant (who had been detached with a small force to attack the ' SubaddarTank,' and cover our communication with the rear), and I went with him. After advancing several hundred yards we got into a road which led up to a mudhouse. When within fiity yards or so of it, the Pandies commenced firinor at us. We retreated unhurt. I can- 1 8 MEMOIR OF not praise them for their shooting. As we were going I heard a great deal of firing from two Companies of the 38th, who had been sent to attack the three guns annoying them. When we returned these guns had been taken in style. Sir Colin and the column returned about 6 p.m., and we bivouacked in the open. Becemher 13. — Took command of the Company from yester- day, Nicholson being made Chief Engineer to Head Quarters on that date. Lieutenant Scratchley served with the 4tli Company E.E., in the subsequent operations with the Com- mander-in-Chief's army, and accompanied the columns under Brigadier-General Walpole through the district of Stayah as Commanding Eoyal Engineer. He was attached to a Company of Eoyal Engineers during the operations before Lucknow and the defence of Fort Jellalabad, and accompanied the storming party Avhich attacked the Begum's palace. He was Orderly Officer to General Sir Eobert Napier (Lord Napier of Magdala), Chief Engineer, during tlie siege and capture of Luck- now. He served during the subsequent operations with General Grant's Force in Oude as Adjutant of the Engineer Brigade, and was present at the action of Baree. As Commanding Engineer, he accompanied the flying columns that were sent to clear the country of the rebels, under the command of General Wetherall, and was present at the famous assault whicli resulted in the capture of the strong fort Kussin Dampoor. During later operations in Oude, 1858-9, he commanded the 4th Company E.E., under General Grant, and took part in the passage of Gofra. He was specially men- tioned by Lord Clyde, General Wyndham, and General SIR PETER SCRATCHLEY. 19 Wetlierall in tlieir despatches, and included by General Napier in the list of officers deemed deserving of Honour- able Mention. He was awarded the Indian Medal and Clasp for Lucknow at the close of tlie Campaign. In October 1859 Lieutenant Scratchley was promoted to the rank of Captain, and in January 1860, General Napier offered to make him his Aide-de-camp ; but this offer he was compelled to decline, for the reasons ex- plained in liis Diary : — January 13, 1860. — Received a telegram from Brigadier- General Sir Robert Napier, K.C.B., about coming on his staff as A.D.C. Telegraj^ilied back to Gwalior tliat I could not leave my Company as I commanded it. In fact an A.D.C-ship would have suited me admirably, if I had not been going with the Company. January 21. — About five miles from Doomree, Brigadier- General Napier and Captain Lumsden came up to the Train. I got out and walked to the Dak Bungalow with them. General Napier was veiy civil to me. I explained to liim about the A.D.C-ship. He seemed to agree with me He spoke very kindly. Captain Scratchley was much disappointed when he found that his Company was not to go with the expe- dition under General Napier to China, as his Diary records : — February 11, 1860. — I received the unpleasant news that the 4th Company has to go to ]Mauritius ; of all places the one I dislike most, wlien war is going on in China. I wish Napier would give me another chance of going with him. Lord Napier thus speaks of him in a letter to Mr. Philip Scratchley : — 38 Cornwall Gardens, S.W. : April 13, 1886. Dear Mr. Scratchley, — I often heard of Peter Scratchley 's visits to my mother, who was much attached to Doctor and 2 20 MEMOIR OF Mrs. Scratchier, but did not meet him till he came to Lucknow with his company of sappers for the duties of the siege in 1858. He acted during the short siege as my orderly officer. He was most punctual and strict in the performance of every duty, and impressed me with the assurance that he would be found thoroughly reliable and trustworthy in the performance of any difficult duty, and I considered him able and clever. He was very reserved indeed, and apparently severe in dis- position. I believe I must have applied to have him included in the China expedition of 1860, for which he was at first ordered; but a demand for his company was made in another direction, and when I was on my way to Calcutta I passed him on the road with his company of sappers ; he was disappointed, but, with characteristic self-control, turned to his new duty without a word of complaint or regret. I was very gi-eatly pleased to read of his appointment to be the High Commissioner of Xew Guinea. The corps and the country have lost a very valuable officer by his untimely death. Believe me, dear Mr. Scratchley, yours sincerely, (Signed) Napier of Magdala. About this time (1860) the Government of Victoria applied to the Imperial Government for an officer of Engineers to superintend the erection of defences in that Colony, and Captain Scratchley, then twenty-five years of age, was selected for this important post. He says :— March 13, 1860. — Received orders thus: — 'Captain Scratch- ley with a detachment, to be taken principally or wholly from the 4th Company, will proceed to Melbourne, Victoria, and report his arrival to the Governor for emplo\'ment on the Colonial Defences.' S7J? PETER SCRATCHLEY. 21 For three years and a half Captain Scratchley was actively employed in devising a system of defence for Victoria, during which period he also took a prominent part in the Volunteer movement, and acted as Honorary Lieutenant-Colonel of the Volunteer Artillery and En- gineers. His evidence given before the Royal Local Commission, appointed to report upon the best means of defending the Colon}', shows that he had correctly grasped the situation. The works he advised failed to secure the sanction of the Victorian Parhament, owing to a change in the jVIinistry, and he consequently re- turned to England at the end of 1863. The following correspondence shows how highly his services to the Colony were appreciated : — Victoria Volunteer Office: Melbourne, September 18, 1863. Sir, — I have the honour to express my regret at losing the services of Captain Scratchley, R.E., now under orders for Europe. Captain Scratchley organised and trained the Volun- teer Engineers, and has been since 1861, Honoraiy Lieutenant- Colonel of the Royal Volunteer Artillery. The large portion of his time which Captain Scratchley has given for the benefit of these portions of the Force makes me anxious that his services should be recognised. I desire therefore to place on record my thanks for the valuable assistance he has, as an officer of the garrison, been allowed to give me in connection with the duties of the Force under my command. (Signed) W. A. D. Anderson, Colonel-Commandant of Volunteers. The Major of Brigade, &c., Melbourne. Government House : Melbourne, September 24, 1863. Sir, — I have the honour to request that you will convey to Captain Scratchley, of the Royal Engineers, the thanks of the 2 2 MEMOIR OF Militarv Department of this Goverrimeut, for the ' services he has rendered in devising and controlling Works of defence for this colony, and in the establishment of a Colonial Military Store Department.' It will also be very satisfactory to the Government, if you will make known the opinion it entertains of Captain Scratchley's services to His Eoyal Highness the Field -Marshal Commanding-in-Chief. (Signed) C. H. Darlixg. Brigadier- General Chute, Commanding H.M, Forces. Melbourne: September 25, 1863. Sir, — This letter will be presented by Captain Scratchley, R.E., who is returning to England to rejoin his corps, after carrying out his plan of fortifpng Port Philip as far as the Local Government has decided to do so for the present. It was my intention, had I continued a few days longer in the administration of the Government, to have forwarded, on receiving Captain Scratchley's final report, a full account of the armed system of earthworks he has constructed around the shores of Hobson's Bay, and to that end I had paid them a special visit, but under pi'esent circumstances I shall confine myself to stating that in my opinion, and in that of all military men whom I have consulted, they are well devised for mutual support, and as complete and effective as the means placed at his disposal admitted. I may add, having just returned from Sydney, that notwith- standing the far superior facilities for defence afforded by Port Jackson, Captain Scratchley appears to me to have accom- plished for 30,000^. (exclusive of the armament) more than has been effected there with double or triple the expenditure. The Victorian Ministry have, I understand, requested my successor to communicate to the Imperial authorities the high sense they entertain of the services rendered by Captain Scratchley to the Colony, and I have no doubt Sir Charles Darling has written accordingly" ; but as I am, of course, better cognizant both of the value of these services and of the many difficulties with which he has had to contend whilst rendering SIR PETER SCRATCHLEY. 23 them, I have thought it only proper to write these few lines in support of any recommendation which the Duke of New- castle may think proper to make to the War Department in his favour. They will serve at the same time to introduce an officer, who can give His Grace the amplest and most recent informa- tion on many questions connected with the Defence of the Colony of Victoria. (Signed) Hexry Barkly. C. Fortescue^ Esq., JI.P. mc. War Office : April 22, 1S64. Sir, — I am directed by the Secretary of State for War to transmit to you, for the information of His Eoyal Highness the Field-Marshal Commanding-in-Chief. the accompanying copy of a letter which has been addressed to the Under Secretary for the Colonies by Sir Henry Barkly, late Governor of Victoria, in which he expressed his sense of the great value of the ser- vices rendered by Major Scratchley in the construction of the Fortifications at Hobsons Bay. (Signed) Edward Lugard. The Military Secretary, Horse Guards. Referred to the Dej)uty Adjutant-General of Eoyal En- gineers, who is informed that H.R. Highness has expressed to the Secretary of State for War, his satisfaction at receiving so favourable a report regarding Captain Scratchley. (Signed) W. F. F. Horse Guai'ds : April 29, 1864. Noted, returned to the Military Secretary, Major Scratchley having been informed of H.E. Highness the Commanding-in- Chief 's satisfaction at receiving this report. (Signed) Fred. E. Chap:man, Colonel Deputy Adjutant- General, Royal Engineers. Horse Guards : April 29, 1S64. lu the foUowiug year (1864) Captain Scratchley 24 MEMOIR OF was promoted to the brevet-rank of Major for liis services in India. During the next six months lie commanded a Company of Sappers at Portsmouth, but at the end of that period the Government, wishing to secure his services at Headquarters, appointed liim Assistant Inspector of Works for the manufacturing- department of tlie War Office under Col. Inghs, RE. After a short time he became Chief Inspector, which office he held for twelve years. Major Scratchley was in that capacity much associated w^ith Sir Frederick Abel, C.B., F.E.S., the Chemist to the War Department, in a great variety of work. The latter writes of him thus : — I had not come in contact with Scratcliley since he was my pupil at the Royal Military Academy in 1852-4 until he entered upon his duties at Woolwich in 1864. As a Cadet I had found him industrious, hut extremely reserved in manner. On renew- ing my acquaintance with him in 1861 I found that this natural reserve, which had certainly not diminished, led those who only knew him superficially to consider him haughty and ahnost unsociable. But he was just and considerate to all employed under him, his reserve vanished with the formation of friendships, and those who learned to know him became warmly attached to him. The important and very extensive duties which he had to discharge as the Director of Construction and Engineer officer- in-charge of many important works connected with the War Office manufacturing establishments at Woolwich, Enfield, and Waltham, the School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness, &c., were performed by him with marked ability and success. He was associated with me in several subjects of enquiry of very special nature, such as the disposal of sewage by irrigation in connection with the Government establishment at Enfield, and the elabora-: tion of a system of manufacture of hydrogen gas for balloon- service in the field, and he devoted himself zealouslv to the S/J^ PETER SCRATCHLEY. 25 acquisition of the special scientific knowledge essential in dealing with such matters. Colonel Scratchley was the first Officer to avail himself of an arrangement made between the War Office and the Mint for the instruction of Officers of the Royal Engineers in assaying. He spent several months of the year 1875 in the Royal Mint Laboratory, and Professor Chandler Roberts-Austin, the Chemist to the Mint, says, ' he entered upon the work of assaying, which demands the exercise of minute accuracy, with singular zeal and interest, and acquired considerable skill as an assayer.' In 1874 Major Scratchley was promoted to Lieu- tenant-Colonel, and in 1876 was selected by Lord Carnarvon, upon the recommendation of the Secretary of State for War, to act in conjunction with General Sir William Jervois ^ in the important work of advising the Australasian Governments upon the best means of defending the Colonies against foreign aggression. Li o 00 Co 1878 Sir William Jervois became Governor of South Australia, whereupon Colonel Scratchley was appointed Commissioner of Defences,^ and remained in Australia until the beginning of 1883, visiting the different Colonies from time to time. The position, although responsible, was one scarcely to be envied, as he was continually harassed by the ever shifting policy of the Colonial Governments. It happened more than once that after he had taken much trouble to prepare a scheme of defence, which was approved by the party in power, the Government went out of office, and the next ministry refused their sanction, unless the esti- mated cost was reduced. Sometimes fresh plans were ^ Now Governor of New Zealand. '•^ In New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania, :md South Australia. 26 MEMOIR OF insisted on, and when, after much trouble and delay, these were made, the original scheme was selected. The choice depended upon the caprice of legislators and the ebb and flow of public entliusiasm. In 1879 Colonel Scratchley was awarded a C.M.G. ' for his valuable services in connection with the Defences of Tasmania,' and was afterwards (1885) made K.C.M.G. for services in Australia. These services are referred to in the following Dispatches : — Governor Weld fo the Earl of Carnarvon. Tasmania, Government House, Hobart Town : Jan. 19, 1878. My Lord, — I have the honour to report for Your Lordship's information that His Excellency Sir William Jervois and Lieut. - Colonel Scratchley, R.E. an'ived in Tasmania on the 30th ultimo in order to report upon the Defence question. I should also be gratified should your Lordship see fit to express in the proper quarter our appreciation of the services of Colonel Scratchley, who whilst here was indefatigable in examin- ing into everything connected with the Defence Department, and who made many valuable suggestions. I trust that his services may be permanently retained by the Australian Colonies to superintend the carrying out of works recommended by Sir William Jervois. I have &c. (Signed) Fred. Weld, Governor. The Rt. Hon. the Earl of Carnarvon. Downing Street : March 21, 1878. Sir, — I am directed by the Secretary of State for the Colonies to transmit to you for the information of the Secre- . tary of State for War a copy of a despatch (No. 1. Jan. 19, SIJi PETER SCRATCHLEY. 27 1878) from the Governor of Tasmania respecting the recent visit of Sir W. Jervois, R.E., and Lieutenant-Colonel Scratchley, R.E., to report upon the Defences of the Colony. I am to call attention to the remarks of the Governor in respect of the services rendered by Colonel Scratchley on this occasion. I am &c. (Signed) W. R. Malcolm. The Under-SecrotaTy of State, War Office. Horse Guards, War Office: April 17, 1878. Sir, — I am directed by the Field-Marshal Commanding-in- Chief, to inform you that a letter has been received from the Colonial Office covering a copy of a despatch from the Governor of Tasmania, respecting the valuable services rendered by you in reporting upon the Defences of that Colony, and to acquaint you that His Royal Highness has been pleased to express his great satisfaction at receiving so favourable a report. I have &c. (Signed) J. Grant, Deputy Adjutant-General, R.E. Lieut.-Colonel P. H. Scratchley, R.E., Melbourne. War Office : April 17, 1878. Sir, — With reference to your letter of the 21st ult., cover- ing a copy of a despatch from the Governor of Tasmania re- specting the valuable services rendered by Major-General Sir W. Jervois, K.C.B., and Lieut.-Colonel Scratchley, R.E., in reporting upon the defences of that Colony, I am directed to acquaint you for the information of the Secretary of State for the Colonies, that both Secretary Colonel Stanley and H.R.H. the Field-Marshal Commanding-in-Chief have expressed their great satisfaction at receiving so favourable a report, and the officers have been informed accordingly. I have &c. (Signed) Ralph Thompson. The Under-Secretary of State, Colonial Office. 28 MEMOIR OF 111 1881 Colonel Scratchley visited Thursday Island at the request of the Imperial authorities. Some details connected with his visit, given in the following letter written to his son Victor, then a boy of eleven years, are interesting : — Tt.M.S. Cliyebasga, at sea, Nov. 18, ]8S1. My dear Boy, — I left Thursday Island yesterday. It was Very hot ou the second day, because the wind from the south- east, which blows steadily for nine months in the year, had dropped. I spent the day on board a ketch, which is smaller than a schooner. We sailed about for nearly eleven hours, and were very tired on getting home. I wish you had been there, as you would have enjoyed seeing the crew working the sails and ropes. The water was quite calm, and the breeze steady, except toward the evening, when I think it must have taken ns two or three hours to go six miles. We had to tack when going against the wind. We had a crew of four men. The ketch had a tonnasfe of twelve tons. The old man who owned the boat showed us a letter written some forty years ago by a sailor who was the only survivor from a murderous attack made upon the crew of a ship he was in by the natives on the coast of Queensland. It described the attack by the natives, the way they got on board, and by pretending to come to trade, they deceived the captain and crew. They suddenly rose upon them and tomahawked all except this man, who described in the letter how after being wounded he hid himself below. The daughter of the native chief saved him. He lived for some time on their island, then he was rescued. We were also told of the emigrant ship, that was bringing 300 or more Chinese to Victoria in 1858, during the gold fever, which was attacked by a large number of natives in canoes. The ship was captured, and the Chinese taken on shore. They were surrounded by a stockade, and it is believed that the whole of the wretched men were eaten. Each day a few were killed, roasted, and eaten. This was done in the sight of the survivors. One Chinaman escaped ; it is supposed that the SIR PETER SCRATCHLEY. 29 natives did not think lie would be good eating. Of course things are not so bad now, as the natives have been very severely punished after each massacre. At any rate there are no hostile cannibal blacks near Thursday Island. In New Guinea there are some, but that is ninety miles off. I saw at Thursday Island a Malay boat, a proa it is called, in which nine men drifted for 1,000 miles, and were thirty-two days at sea. They only had rice and a few fowls on board. They kept the fowls until the end. Each day they caught rain-water (it was the rainy seasan) and boiled the rice, drinking the tcater only. They kept on day after day reboiling the rice. AVhen they arrived at Thursday Island they were mere skin and bone, but quickly recovered under kind treatment. My trip has been very interesting. Near Thursday Island I saw ant-hills on shore six feet high. I wonder whether your books will tell you anything of this. I am told that besides sharks, there are alligators in the sea in certain parts. This is very curious, as I always thought that alligators only lived at the mouth of rivers, or in them. Read and find out about them. On board our ketch there was a turtle about three feet across. He had been caught the day before. He had just escaped from a shark, which had nearly bitten off one of his — I forget the name for the legs of a turtle. The poor creature is now lying on his back, tied up. He now and then tried to free himself, but being on his back could not. The turtle-soup you used to drink was made in Queensland from turtles. I am told that when the shark wants to attack a turtle he dives below it, turns over, and then rises to make a snap. A shark has to turn on his back to attack people. I was told that sharks are very easily frightened. At the pearl fishery station, near Thursday Island, we were told on our arrival that a poor native swimmer had lost his leg by being bitten by a shark. He had been lying in a barn for twelve days. Our doctor from the ship went on shore and made it all right, giving the native chloroform. The magistrate told me that one day he was out in his cutter sailing, and suddenly felt as if the boat had struck 30 MEMOIR OF on a rock. They tacked, and found it was a large turtle floating on the top of the sea. They are much given to that sort of thinor. The natives in India attack sharks by diving under them and stabbing them. This morning a Chinese boat came off. It was the queerest thing I have seen for a long time. There were five Chinamen, each with an oddly-shaped straw hat on ; each had an oar tied to the side of the boat, and a rudder which looked a thousand years old. The sails were quite different from our sails, and the boat was very like the Malav proa I have already told you of. I also saw at Thursday Island a native canoe with calico sails. These canoes are made out of trees, the insides being burnt out. On each side of the canoe there is an outrigger very tight, which prevents its upsetting. You will remember your Cingalese canoe. Good-bye, my dear boy. Ever your most affectionate father. P. H. S. I shall be back soon. In October 1882 Colonel Scratchley was retired from the Army with the rank of Major-General, and upon his return to England, in the early part of 1883, he was appointed Adviser on Defences for Xew South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Tasmania, and South Australia, in which capacity he rendered signal service to the Imperial and Colonial authorities in solving many important questions connected with the defence of the Australasian Colonies. However, his services in this respect came to a somewhat abrupt end towards the close of 1884. The Government having at last determined to protect a part of Xew Guinea, it was necessary to place at the head of affairs a man possessing Colonial experience. Everything seemed to point to General Scratchley S/J? FETER SCRATCHLEY. 31 as the man best qualified to act as her Majesty's representative in this part of the world. His ability for great work had been proved. His popularity in Australia was well known at home, and considering the soreness then existing between the Colonies and the mother-country, owing to the half-hearted policy dis- played by the Government regarding the annexation of New Guinea, and the fact that the Colonies were paying the expense, it was very necessary to send out some one whose past career would render him acceptable to the Colonists. The appointment was pressed upon him, and accepted. In November 1884, General Sci'atchley once more left England to further the interests of his country in another hemisphere. On the voyage out he Avas never idle. When not reading or writing; he was walkinor or conversing. In the tropics he was up soon after five and retired early. He ate and drank little, and in every way endeavoured to keep up his physical condition for the work that lay before him. Essentially a family man, he was never so happy as when seeing after the wants of his wife and children. Nor were his attentions entirely given to his kith and kin ; strangers in misfortune were to him as brothers. He was particularly kind to one young fellow on board, whom he nursed through a serious illness. A somewhat remarkable incident on the voyage may be recorded here. On Christmas Eve, the night being perfect and the sea like glass, General Scratchley, seated on the quarter-deck, told his intimates how, in a dream the night before, he saw his friend Charles 32 MEMOIR OF Gordon, Avho ap])cared to be in great trouble and danger, although for what reason was not apparent. A few weeks later the world heard of the hero's death. Within twelve months it heard of the death of his friend. Sir Peter Scratchley carefully considered those work- ing under him, and, though strict, was never severe. Still he exacted from his subordinates the amount of w^ork he judged them capable of doing, and refused to recognise an idle man in any way. Though tolerant in his judgment of men, he never forgave dishonesty of purpose, or placed further confidence in any one who had once deceived him. Thorougrh himself in all his Avork, he expected thoroughness in others. The maxim ' What is worth doing at all is worth doing well,' was carried out in every detail of his life. Whether it were letters or despatches, if, when written, they did not express what he meant to say, he would write them over and over again, until they appeared to his mind entirely satisfactory. It is not intended to imply by this that he liked entering into minute matters, but his every action exhibited a determination to do well what- ever he undertook to perform. This trait is character- istically illustrated in a letter General Scratchley wrote to his brother (the Eev. Charles Scratchley) concerning the latter's sons : — It may, I suppose, be said that 1 have been successful ; but whatever success I may have attained I attribute to the circum- stance that, Avhatever I had to do, I have endeavoured to do not only well, but to the ver}- best of my power. Whoever follows this plan will in time attract the attention of his superiors, and. get on. Tell this to your sons. S/J? PETER SCRATCHLEY. 33 He was also heard to remark on one occasion, ' I hate details, but whenever it is necessary for me to master them, I do.' Curiously enough, this charac- teristic was also to be found in his friend General Gordon, wdio not unfrequently altered his tactics and dictated new directions on the eve of a battle. Through- out his career General Scratchley, strong himself, was never unmindful of the weakness of others ; yet neither the pressure of circumstances nor the force of temptation had any weight w4th his sense of justice. He would punish the individual who erred from the path of duty, whether it were public or private, at all hazards, but having once passed judgment, not unfrequently with a sternness approaching almost to severity, he would after- wards encourage the culprit by deeds of kindness and words of advice. In everything he displayed untiring energy and fixity of purpose. Independent to a degree bordering some- times on indifference, he would act from experience rather than rule. Tact coupled with fearlessness car- ried him successfully through many imj^ortant under- takings, where others more erratic and less bold would have failed. His manner, though at times brusque and offhand, was manly and refined. But his forethought for others was often remarked by those about him. Practical instances of this trait in his character were seen in his personal inspection of the arrangements made for the crew of the ship that took him to New Guinea, and again in his care of a petty ofiicer who was ill from fever. Sir Peter Scratchley personally saw that his wants were attended to, and frequently visited liim, D 34 MEMOIR OF and not on]}- sent him in a special steamer to Sydney, but also took much trouble in making arrangements for his comfort upon his arrival there. His interest in the man never flagged, and when ill himself from the same fearful malady, he called his private secretary to his side and asked him to Avrite and tell the officer how sorry he was that he had not shown greater sympathy witli him during his severe illness. The most decrepit native was treated by him with the same amount of kindness that he bestowed on the liale and hearty. Hence it is not a matter of surprise that he won in a very short space of time the confidence and love of the natives of New Guinea. ' Alas for Xew Guinea! ' said Mr. Lawes,^ when he heard of Sir Peter's premature death ; ' she has indeed lost a true friend and father.' Mr. Chalmers thus writes : ' The General was a grand man ; I loved and trusted him. Poor Xew Guinea has lost a true and loyal friend, and one in whose hands native interests were safe. The General did too much hard mental and physical work.' An instance of his kindness to the native children was shown when one day some fishing canoes came alongside the Governor Blackall. A little girl, between five and six years old, seated in one of them, attracted his attention. He sent one of the crew to bring lier on board, and himself pre- sented her witli beads and a looking-glass — gifts which greatly pleased the little thing, and caused much chatter about tlie new arrival tliat night in the native village. ' The ReTs. AV. J. Lawee and J. Chalmere are the Heads of the London MissiAn in >'ew Guinea. SJR PETER SCRATCHLEY. 35 Other instances of Sir Peter's kind treatment of the natives will be found recorded in the part of this book devoted to his work in New Guinea. Suffice it to say here, that by the exercise of tact and judgment coupled with generosity and kindness, Sir Peter sowed seeds of friendship for white men in the hearts of those who formerly feared and hated them. This life, so devoted to duty, was destined to be closed prematurely by jungle fever, contracted in New Guinea ; the same deadly form of disease to which, early in this century, his maternal grandfather, Captain Eoberts, Commandant of Colombo, had fallen a victim in the jungles of Ceylon. Sir Peter Scratchley died at sea on December 2, 1885. The greatest sorrow was expressed throughout Australia at his untimely death. His body was con- veyed to Melbourne and there received the honour of a public funeral, which was attended by delegates from the other Australasian colonies. The body was afterwards brought to England and interred in Old Charlton Cemetery. AUSTEALIAN DEFENCES. CHAPTEE I. GENERAL DEFENCE. The Australasian Colonies are favourably situated for defence against foreign aggression, and no hostile power is likely to incur the expense, or run the risks involved, in sending out an expedition for the purpose of gaining a permanent footing in that part of the world. At the same time it is extremely unwise to disregard the possibility of such an attempt being made, more especially in the event of the mother country being unable to render any assistance. The Colonies should therefore look the question fairly in the face, and in any event be prepared to protect themselves. ' No one who is acquainted with Australia,' said Sir Peter Scratchley, ' can deny that it possesses the best material for establishing, in an economical manner, a sound system of self-defence, and should the Colonies delay the adoption of ordinary precautions, they will remain exposed to the risk of a successful raid by a well-armed cruiser, which would be productive of the most serious consequences.' ^ He considered that the influence which torpedoes, especially of the offensive class, must have upon all ^ This opinion was expressed before the present schemes of defence were adopted. E 2 40 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. defensive arrangements in the future was scarcely appreciated in Australia. ' It is admitted,' he said one day, when addressing a technical audience on tlie subject, ' that their introduction simplifies and reduces the cost of coast defence to a very large extent ; but it is not generally recognised that offensive torpedoes may be brought to such a high degree of perfection as to render it necessary to abandon the construction of ironclads, and resort to unsinkable unarmoured sliips of great speed and heavy armament. Until this point is reached, however, defensive torpedoes must be the main element of protection, wherever the question of cost is of paramount importance ; but at the same time it is to be distinctly understood that no scheme of coast defence by torpedoes, whether offensive or de- fensive, can be considered complete, unless the tor- pedoes are supported and protected by guns and a land force. A good system of submarine mines is a para- mount necessity for an efficient defence, and nothing must be allowed to stand in tlie way of establishing and main- taining in liustralia the requisite organisation in as complete a manner as possible, as without torpedoes ^ a reliable defence of the Australian Colonies cannot be carried out.' The Russians employed torpedoes during the Crimean war for the defence of their ports in the Baltic, but without success. Tlie Confederate States of America, however, used them to some purpose, and their employ- ment had a marked influence upon the naval opera- ^ The employment of torpedoes in the scheme for Port Jackson enables ITf ew South Wales to depend upon a siug-le or outer line of defence instead of .t^'O lines. See p. 151. GENERAL DEFENCE. 41 tions of the Northei'iiers during the hitter part of the War of Secession. From that time up to the present, the attention of every European nation, and also of the United States of America, has been directed to the subject. Great Britain, possessing special facilities and experience in the manufacture of electrical cables, ex- plosives, and other appliances for submarine defences, soon took the lead in this as in other branches of defen- sive warfare ; but foreign Powers rapidly began to show equal activity in the matter, and now there is scarcely a foreign port of any importance which, in time of war, would not be found well protected by means of torpedoes.^ In planning any complete system of Australasian defence the external or naval defence for the protection of conmierce must not be overlooked. As a matter of economy, Sir Peter Scratchley considered that small armaments of the heaviest guns,^ both on land and sea, should be adopted, as only a moderate force is necessary to secure their efficient working. ' Any country,' he said, ' that selects the heaviest guns, the most power- ful armoured forts, and the most perfect system of defensive and offensive torpedoes on the smallest scale, secures at once for itself an undoubted superiority for very many years to come, and avoids the constantly recurring expense of making changes in order to keep up with the times.' The main object in view when planning the defence of a port is to prevent an enemy's ships from entering, hence the first line ' For farther information on this subject, see chapter on Torpedo Defence ^ An instance of this policy is to be found in the adoption bj' the Italian Government of 100-ton guns for their navy. 42 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. of defence should naturally be established as near tlie entrance as possible. For this purpose the natural configuration of the land in the Australasian Colonies is favourable. Several persons think that to secure a really re- liable defence, Australia should depend entirely upon a permanent force. Sir Peter Scratchley believed that this was a wrong view, and, being satisfied from what he had seen of Volunteers in England as Avell as in Aus- tralia, encouraged everything that tended to promote the efficiency of a Volunteer force in the Colonies.^ ' Knowledge and experience,' he remarked at a Colonial inspection of Volunteers, ' are more than ever the moving springs of all naval and military operations, and the Australian Governments should not delay in establishing proper schools of instruction. A still greater necessity for this step exists in consequence of the local forces in Australia being almost entirely com- posed of Volunteers. Further efforts should also be made to train every officer in the theory as well as the practice of his duties, while facilities ought to be afforded to the non-commissioned officers and men to gain similar knowledge. All exercises should be conducted exactly as they would have to be put into practice in time of war, and should be rehearsed as frequently as possible upon the actual ground to be occupied to resist an attack, in oixler that every officer and soldier may know his exact place and what is expected of him, and in this manner only can the inherent defects of a Volunteer orcanisation be counteracted.' ' For further information on this subject see pp. 107-9. GENERAL DEFENCE. 43 Now as to the modes of attack to which the Australasian Colonies are exposed. They may be briefly sumraarised thus : An enemy might — (i.) Despatch one or more cruisers to make a de- scent upon the coast, or operate against her commerce. A squadron intended for such an operation would prob- ably consist of three or four vessels, one or two of which might possibly be ironclads. These vessels, eluding our cruisers, and appearing suddenly before one of the capitals or chief towns, might capture the merchant ships lying in the harbour, intercept any of the nume- rous ships conveying gold and colonial produce, or, under threat of bombardment, demand a payment of many millions of money. Supplies of coal might be procured from any unprotected coal depot. (ii.) Endeavour to force his way into a port, or blockade the entrance. (iii.) Attempt to capture the batteries with a view to permanent occupation, or land a force with the object of meeting the local troops assembled to arrest his advance. (iv.) Attempt to bombard an exposed town from the open sea. These attacks Sir Peter Scratchley considered could only be provided against by a combination of military and naval defences.^ The schemes of defence set forth in the following pages, for the several Australasian Colonies, were based upon the suppositions : — * Sir Peter Scratchley adopted the data thus laid down in liis recommen- dations for the defences of New Zealand, so far as the fortification of the principal harhours was concerned. 44 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES That til ere was no probability of an expedition on any extensive scale being despatched against Australia, so long as Great Britain retained command of the seas. That, in the event of Great Britain being engaged in hostilities with any great maritime Power, a sufficient watch would be kept by the Imperial Navy, to intercept, or follow up, an expedition dii-ected against Australia. The scliemes aim at fortifying the principal harbours and approaches to the capitals by batteries and torpedo defences, provide field forces where required to resist a landing of the enemy, and recommend armed vessels (in some cases armoured) and torpedo launches, not only for the general defence of tlie towns on the sea coast, but also for the protection of local commerce, and as a provision against bombardment. Notwithstanding the soundness of these views. General Scratchley found people in Australia who either did not believe in the necessity for any defence whatever, or who proposed to throw the burden upon the mother country. The number of persons holding these opinions is, however, rapidly diminishing. Again, he met individuals who, being in favour of a policy of inaction, advocated submission to the enemy with the view of buying him off, expecting that their losses w^ould be made good out of the indemnity they assumed the mother country would be able to extort from the defeated enemy. In fact, in the course of duty, he came across an extraordinary diversity of opinion on the subject. Tliis is greatly to be regretted, because it leads to half- GENERAL DEFENCE. 45 hearted measures, frequent changes in mihtary poHcy, and in the long run prevents the question of defence being dealt with in a thorough, comprehensive, con- sistent and businesslike manner. Economists, he ob- served, oppose a large expenditure on defences, and prefer to run a certain risk and a possible disaster, involving the loss of enormous sums of money if the enemy were successful, rather than face the difficult}' in good time, and, by incurring the necessary expenditure, effect what may fairly be looked upon as an insurance upon the property of the country. This may without impropriety be designated ' the penny wise and pound foolish' policy, a policy that leaves to chance what should be carefully planned beforehand, and whicli can only result in disgrace and disaster. Some people in Australia think the Colonies would be unable to hold their own against a determined enemy ; an impression that gained ground, no doubt, owing to tlie incomplete and desultory character of former ^ defence preparations. This belief, however, is fast disappearing now that the Colonial Governments have determined to follow the advice given at their request by the highest authorities. Others say that Australia is not worth attacking ; while a few are of opinion that the colonies cannot afford the expense of self-defence, and therefore it would be better to separate from the mother country, rather than remain liable to attack whenever Great Britain may be at war with a foreign Power. The first argument may be dismissed at once as absurd. The second apparently seems more ' Preparations made before 1877. 46 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. feasible ; but recent events show that the friendly rela- tions between the mother country and her colonies are fast becoming closer and closer, and tliat therefore any plan of defence involving separation would now meet with little or no support. Sir Frederick "Weld/ speaking at Launceston some 5"ears ago upon ' The Eelation between England and her Colonies, and their Duties in reference to Defence,' referred to these points as follows : England -will no doubt defend us, but it is impossible that her fleets should be everywhere, and you cannot expect her single unarmoured ships of no great size to lie in ports where they would not be assisted in case of need by batteries, and might be caught in a trap by a superior force. Were such a ship, for instance, lying at Hobart To^va, and were there reason to suspect a probable visit fi'om a more powerful enemy, it would be clearly her duty to put out to sea, where she could escape, or manoeuvre, unless there existed a local system of defence with which to co-operate. It must also be remembered that it may often be the duty of a naval commander to keep his force well in hand, ready to direct it on any point that might be threatened, or himself to attack an enemy, for offensive operations are often the best defence. I think that it may be reasonably ex- pected that in a war England would be able to prevent any powerful expedition being directed against the colonies. Such an expedition could not be fitted out and get to sea secretly ; it would probably never get to sea at all ; and if it did, it would almost certainly be taken or destroyed. I doubt not also but that England would take vigorous measures, by the employment of swift cruisers, to protect commerce and to capture hostile cruisers or privateers ; indeed, we already hear that she is prepai'ed to do so ; but the seas are wide, and even in the old days of sailing vessels, at the end of last century and ' Sir Frederick A. Weld, K.C.M.G., was then Governor of Tasmania. He is now Goyeinor of tte Straits Settlements. GENERAL DEEENCE. 47 beginning of this, when we had clouds of cruisers and privateers of our own on the seas, we never did absolutely succeed in clearing them of small hostile cruisers and privateers, though we did clear them of hostile fleets. We must not forget Paul Jones ; and we all remember how much injury the Alabama inflicted upon the commerce of the Northern States before she was met and captured, though several vessels were solely occu- pied in her pursuit ; thei'efore I do think that it is probable that some vessels of that class, for which telegrams tell us a national subscription is now being raised in Russia, may succeed in eluding English cruisers for a while, and may attack and levy subsidies upon, or, in default, plunder, British settlements that are not ready to resist them. Are we worth attacking ? The bullion in the banks would be a rich prize, as has been noted in Russian newspapers, which have latel}' published the colonial bank returns ; but the bullion in the banks would by no means be necessarily the measure of the subsidy required — the measure of the ransom would be the measure of the strong man's cupidity and the defenceless man's fear. Moreover, the destruction of shipping and of stores, the interruption of commerce, the collapse of public works and of public and private credit, would only be remedied by time and by the imposition of heavy taxation. I once asked an eminent mer- chant what he would do under the circumstances ; and he said, ' Well, it might happen, and, if it did, I think I should arrange my affairs as well as I could, and move off to safer quarters.' I said, ' Would it not be wiser to pay a small insurance in the form of defence, and make things safe ? ' Remember, too, that to pay subsidies and ransoms is the surest way to invite future visits. It is a policy as fallacious as it is disgraceful ; it has ever had the same result ; it is like offering a premium for robbery. And further, Ifear in mind that, having once bought experience, people would raise an outcry for defence — for lock- ing the door after the purse was stolen, and very little left wherewith to buy a lock. This remarkable address, cominfj from an old New 48 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. Zealand colonist, who had become acquainted with the subject in its different aspects,^ attracted much attention at the time. It is worthy the consideration of all who take an interest in the question of Australasian defence. Wlien the annual expenditure of a country has to be reduced, the attention of its rulers is but too often directed to retrenchment in the military expenditure. ' In Australia, in times of peace, with no immediate danger, and with so many persons indifferent to the subject of defence, no hesitation is shown in making the reduction.' The mihtary engineer, therefore, in devising a scheme of defence for the Australasian Colonies, has to consider the cost fully as much as the requirements. ' His function,' said Sir Peter Scratchley, ' is not only to study the resources and necessities of the country to be defended, hut also to ascertain from the Government tlie amount that can be fairly expended for establishing and maintaining a system of defence. In other words, he must cut his coat according to his cloth. The problem presented to the mihtary engineer is how to estabhsh and maintain a reliable defence, organised with the resources available for tlie purpose, at the lowest possible cost.' It has been stated that the military engineer lias little or nothing to do with the expenditure, and that his duty should be confined to advising what is requisite for an efficient defence. Sir Peter thought the process should be reversed, and that the Australasian Parliaments should severally decide what annual expenditure each colony could afford for defence purposes for a term of ^ In bis capacities of colonist, Colonial Minister and Governor. GENERAL DEFENCE. 49 years, and agree to have peace and war establishments for the defence forces, together with reserves which can be embodied in time of war. The hand-to-mouth policy which unfortunately prevailed for so long a time was the natural outcome of dealing with the defence question from year to year, and he considered it unreason- able to expect satisfactory results, unless some security was offered that a fair trial would be given to any approved scheme. The military authorities of the Colonies ought not to lose sight of the fact that they are providing for a defence organisation different from that of any other country, inasmuch as it may never necessarily have to bear the test of war. They should carefully consider the peace arrangements as much as the war requirements. ' Once,' said General Scratchley, ' the necessary defensive measures represented by the capital expenditure have been provided, they must endeavour to arrange for their maintenance with local means which are readily available. But whether the defensive arrangements are on a large or small scale, the details must be entirely planned or marked out during peace, and nothing must be left to chance, for in proportion to the degree of preparation in time of peace, will be the power of efficient defence in case of war.' The tendency of English-speaking races is to disregard this maxim, and place too much reliance upon pluck and readiness of resource. The secret of German superiority in recent times is without doubt to be found in their recognition of this axiom. A lavish and needless expenditure will invariably result from neglect of preparation. Indeed too much stress cannot 50 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. be laid upon this aspect of the question, and if tliis advice is followed, there will probably be no recur- rence of that uneasiness which of late years has so frequently alarmed the Australasian Colonies, whenever there is a chance of England being engaged in a European war. General Scratchley considered the true value of forti- fication was not understood in Australia. Speaking on the subject he said: 'Fortification is unquestionably the most economical way of securing a place from attack. It enables the defenders to utilise their defensive powers in the most effective manner. It leads to direct economy, not only in the first cost, but in the main- tenance of the defences. Where fortification is not resorted to, a very large expenditure has to be incurred in the provision of floating defences, and in the main- tenance of naval and military forces. This heavy expenditure goes on from year to year, without adding to the defensive power of the country. On the other hand, with fortification, once the first cost has been in- curred, the annual cost of maintenance is insignificant, and the defensive resources are ever present and imme- diately available.' One of the objects of acting on the defensive is to gain time. Addressing the Queensland Volunteers on this point, he observed that field fortification was a means to this end, and that as Australia will be more or less unprepared, everything that may tend to retard the operations of the enemy by sea or land will be so much gain. ' At the same time,' he said, ' the maxim that the attack is often the best defence must never GENERAL DEFENCE. 51 be lost sight of, and field defences must invariably be so planned as to admit of the free movement of the defenders, and nothing must be allowed to stand in the way of their being able to assume the offensive at the right moment. Fortified positions may be strong independent points of support in the rear of a force, to secure its communications ; or strong self- contained defensive positions upon the line of the enemy's advance, in which the defenders would await his attack ; or, again, in which an over-matched or defeated force may continue a resistance no longer possible in the open field. There is much for Australia to learn from recent wars, and especially from the last Kusso-Turkish War. General Valentine Baker, who commanded a Turkish force in Bulgaria, remarked that the extraordinary vahie of a system of shelter trenches or hght field fortifications was constantly exemplified during the war. I never once during the campaign saw a position which had been lightly fortified in this manner taken by a front attack by either one side or the other. The moment the Turkish soldier moved into a position near the enemy, even if it were possible that he might only remain in that position for one day, the pack-horses carrying the shovels and pickaxes were immediately brought to the front, and there and then each battalion entrenched itself: with this result, that if a Turkish army advanced, it left behind it a succession of entrenched positions on which to fall back in case of a reverse. The system of shelter trenches adopted by the Turkish army varied as they gained experience. It was singular to note the extraordinarily small loss suffei'ed by the men, even if exposed for hours to a continuous and heavy fire of artillery. The same system was used for guns with an equally good effect, and gun-pits sunk almost to the level of the earth were found to be most practically useful. 52 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. If a soldier is taught to tlirow up shelter trenches wherever he rests, and consequently to leave those trenches for more for- ward positions as opportunity offers, there is no falling off in his willingness to attack. It is true that, conscious as he will be of the value which he himself derives from entrenchments, he may hesitate to attack with vigour positions so entrenched ; but, in ray opinion, his reasoning is both just and natural and com- manders, who in the future urge their men forward to frontal at- tacks upon previously prepared and entrenched positions, simply court disaster antl defeat. ' Positions are generally open to turning move- ments. This is a point which engineers must not lose sight of in planning the fortification of positions between Sydney and Broken Bay, as well as other points on the coast.' ' The infantry must be capable of doing every kind of work required for its own security without relying on the engineers, who will have to devote their time to fortifj'ing the key points of a position. The infantry will liave to construct rifle-pits, trenches for compact bodies of troops to fire from, and trenches intended for shelter only.' ' The construction of gun-pits will fall upon the field artillery. All this points to the necessity of imparting instruction to the artillery and infantry in field de- fences. By first training the engineers carefully to a thorough knowledge of the Avork, there would be no difficult)^ in carrying out such a course of instruction. This opens out another very important question as to the arrangements for supj)lying the infantry with tools. This can be done by adopting the pack- horse, a mode of transport with which Austrahans are GENERAL DEFENCE. 53 well acquainted. After deciding upon the general plan of defence the salient points should be the first to be fortified, and, in making the necessary connections between these points, the main object should be to obtain a certain amount of immediate cover for the infantry and artillery, this cover being afterwards improved should time be available.' ' As regards obstacles, they may be used either in conjunction with defensive works, or in the open field to stop an advance or to increase the difficulties of a night attack. In Australia, where the country is much wooded and long ranges cannot in consequence be secured, and the enemy has only a short distance to pass over under fire, obstacles are especially valuable. They will perform their part if only they retard the progress of the enemy's advance and break up his formations. Natural features of the ground can be readily converted into serious obstacles by cutting wet ditches, making deep cuts and holes in shallow water, and rendering steep places precipitous. Ahattis formed of limbs of trees laid close together are particularly suited to the AustraUan bush. Entanglements made with wire and placed in front of the ditches of a redoubt, or where the rapid advance of the enemy must be checked, can be employed to a very large extent. They require little skill, and can be very expeditiously constructed. Ordinary post and rail fences would also be found to be very useful obstructions. Palisades, trouti-de-loup, or pits with stakes at the bottom, barricades, fougasses, and especially mechanical mines for very important points, should be introduced in the field defences. The mere P 54 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. knowledge of the fact that carefully fortified positions had been selected to resist his progress, would render it most improbable that an enemy woidd attempt to land ; but to gain this degree of preparation no line should be lost. The roads, tracks, and country gene- rally over which the enemy may be expected to advance, must be carefully reconnoitred and studied.' ' Plans giving the fullest detailed information are essential. When tliese plans are issued, officers of the several arms should be invited to reconnoitre roads and tracks, to study the ground, and submit projects ol attack and defence for the consideration of the com- mander, who would then issue his instructions to his officers selected to prepare the positions, whenever war was declared.' In organising a system of the defence for a country, care must be taken so to combine the several parts as to produce a complete and harmonious whole. This is what Sir Peter Scratchley did when he came to the conclusion that the best scheme of defence for the Australasian Colonies was one including the following defensive elements in due relation to each other : On Land. 1. Defensive works. 2. Guns. 3. Torpedoes— defensive or stationary, offensive or locomotive. 4. Obstructions — passive and active. 5. Military forces — cavalry, artillery, engineers, torpedo men, and infantry. GENERAL DEFENCE. 55 At Sea and Afloat. /Defen-f Armoured — Floating batteries. ^ -^,1 ^. sive. i Unarraoured — Gun-boats, o. Jbloating T\ ^ ^ {r\cx- (Armoured — Ironclad vessels JJeiences Unen- - sive. \ Unarmoured — Swift cruisers, \ \ torpedo-boats. The first step aimed at was to devise a means of protection against the minor attacks of cruisers, by the employment of defensive and offensive torpedoes, in combination with guns on. land and gunboats armed with heavy guns. At the same time he advocated that more powerful defensive works at sea should be begun, and arrangements for repelling a landing in force organised. As great difficulty would be experienced in maintaining a large force of trained gunners w^ithout incurring a very heavy expenditure, he considered that the defensive works should be designed on the smallest scale compatible with efficiency and so as to include modern improvements. The guns required for the protection of the submarine mines should be mounted in inexpensive works, but those intended to check and beat off vessels attempting to force a passage should be protected so as not to be silenced by the enemy's fire. Leading public men in the Australasian Colonies have given much consideration to the question of defence, and there can be no doubt that, if aided in the future as they have been in the past by the advice of competent Imperial officers, they will be able to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion as to the F 2 56 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. proper measures to be adopted in each case. The system of defence advocated ' does not involve any large expenditure of money without adequate results ; and there are no real impediments which cannot be readily overcome, provided the Colonial Govern- ments approach the subject in a broad and liberal spirit.' Considering, however, the difference of opinion which exists, even among acknowledged authorities, as to the relative merits and importance of eacli element of a complete system of defence under various circum- stances, Sir Peter considered it preferable to start from a common basis, and leave the decision to the officers entrusted with the duty of advising. In some instances, he acknowledged, it would not be practicable to provide the several elements in the order advocated. For example, ' where the channel to be defended is narrow and well defined, with suitable sites for guns, it would be preferable to establish a system of submarine defence, combined with the heaviest arma- ment on land, to the exclusion of unarmoured gun- boats ; while on the other hand, if the channel is broad and a large expanse of water has to be protected, the best combination would be to employ heavily armed gun-boats to support the submarine defences, with torpedo vessels as auxiharies. Again, as in the case of Port Pliillip, where the channels are broad and nu- merous, and there are other points besides the entrance to be defended, no doubt a turret-ship, and one or more gun-boats with torpedo vessels, will be considered to be most advantageous. In every case, however, such of the elements of defence as arc omitted for the GENERAL DEFENCE. 57 present may be added in future years, when tlie power and efficiency of the defences will be increased in pro- portion as each element is added ; while, long before the full development is reached, the defensive arrange- ments will be sufficient to repel any attack that may reasonably be expected for many years to come.' Lastly, General Scratchley wished the Colonies to bear in mind that although they cannot affiDrd to be satisfied with the best of existing defensive appliances, yet, by the exercise of foresight and enterprise, they must endeavour to reduce within the narroAvest limits the constantly recurring expense of keeping pace with the improvements in naval and military science. 58 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. CHAPTER IT. NAVAL DEFENCE. 'Every complete scheme of coast defence consists of two parts, which must be combined to produce the best results.' The Australasian Colonies are fortunately situated in respect of the first part, that of acting on the offensive in the open sea, as it is practically under- taken by the mother-country ; while their own interests should naturally induce them to provide the other, or defensive part, themselves. With regard to this latter step, Sir Peter Scratchley considered that each Colony should undertake the entire charge and responsibility of its own defensive arrangements, and so lessen the difficulties surrounding the Imperial Government in providing adequate protection for Australasian com- merce in time of war, and increase the chances of effective assistance being afforded to the Colonies by the mother-country, in the event of their being attacked. 'According to the completeness and thoroughness of the defensive measures adopted will the naval supremacy of the British Empire be strengthened, and the Aus- tralasian Colonies themselves directly benefited, as in- creased freedom and power will thus be afforded to the Royal Navy, for encountering any hostile expedition that may be despatched against them.' NAVAL DEFENCE. 59 It is evident that the efficiency of the Australian squadron would be seriously impaired if it were liable to be called upon to render assistance to individual Colonies. This squadron has too extended a sphere of action to do more than cruise in search of hostile ships and afford general protection to Australasian commerce, although it would appear, if the Admiral ' received reliable information of any intended attack, it would be his duty to render assistance so long as he did not impair the efficiency of his force in carrying out the main objects for which it is provided by the mother-country.' Here it may be pointed out that Sir Peter deemed it ' imperative that the instructions given to the officer in charge of the squadron should be in specific terms, and well understood by the Australasian Governments, so as to ensure combined action and avoid misunderstanding from the fact of the responsi- bilities undertaken by the mother-country and her Colonial dependencies, respectively, not being clearly defined.' Although Sir Peter Scratchley looked upon the pro- gress made in the military defences of the Australasian Colonies as highly satisfactory, he considered that much remained to be done in the matter of their naval de- fences. In his opinion the several Governments should combine and establish one general scheme of naval de- fence, to be worked in conjunction with the Imperial Navy. Admiral Tryon has lately been endeavouring to bring about a combination of this kind, but the difficulty of cost has hitherto proved insurmountable. Not long 6o AUSTRALIAN DEFEXCES. since the Governors of tlie Australasian Colonies ad- dressed to Mr. Edward Stanhope, then Colonial Secretary of State, a joint telegraphic message requesting informa- tion as to what steps the Admiralty proposed to take for strengthening the naval defences of the Australian station, in the event of England being involved in a European war. The Colonial Governments and the Admiralty, al- though united as to the necessity of augmenting the permanent naval forces in Australian waters, are unable to agree upon the apportionment of the cost ; and, even if this question were satisfactorily adjusted, probably two years would elapse before the new vessels required could be constructed and sent out. Meanwhile the Colonial Governments are of opinion that it is a matter of urgency that the Australian naval squadron should be strengthened, in view of their being suddenly called upon to protect the merchant shipping. Under the present system the Australasian Colonies must ne- cessarily be in time of war a source of weakness and anxiety to the mother- country, whereas if the several Colonies acting together were to combine with Great Britain in keeping up a joint system of naval defence, the combination would directly strengthen the defensive power of the Empire, and go far to assuage the present uneasiness that exists in Australia, ' Whenever there has been a chance of Great Britain being involved in war with a naval power, the Austra- lasian Colonies have hitherto taken alarm, and expense has often been incurred on defensive measures which would be inefficient if war had actually taken place.' NAVAL DEFENCE. 6i The feeling of alarm, however, ceases when war no longer appears imminent, and the question of defence fails once more to occupy a prominent position in Australasian politics. Opinions difier as to the nature of the attacks to which the Australasian Colonies are exposed ; but at the same time both naval and military authorities concur as to the absolute necessity of fortifying the harbours of the capitals, together with such other ports and coal depots as may afford places of refuge and shelter in case of need. Sir William Jervois deemed it necessary that the Colonies should be prepared to resist the attack of a squadron composed of three or four vessels, one or two of which might be ironclads, and capable of landing a force of about 1,200 men. In this opinion Sir Peter Scratchley entirely concurred. Sir William thus remarks upon the nature and degree of attack to which the Australasian Colonies might be subjected : In the event of Great Britain being engaged in hostilities with any great maritime Power, the enemy would retain the most powerful portion of his fleet in European waters, or in the Atlantic, for the protection of his country or for operations in the immediate neighbourhood of hostilities. If he sent his fleet, or any considerable portion of it, on an expedition against the Aus- tralian Colonies, a suflacient part of our Home fleet would in turn be set free to intercept it, and our squadrons in the Pacific, on the China, the Australian, and Indian stations, might, if neces- sary, be concentrated to oppose it. But whilst the bulk of the enemy's naval forces would be occupied in the immediate scene of action in Europe or America, he might no doubt despatch one or more cruisers to operate against our maritime commerce, or make a descent upon any of 62 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. our colonial possessions ; and the Australian Colonies, owing to their wealth and prosperity, would, if undefended at certain points, be tempting objects of attack. A squadron intended for such an operation might consist of some three or four vessels, one or two of which would probably be armoured, and might issue from the Russian ports of Vladi- vostok or Petropaulovski, from the French port of Saigon, from San Francisco, or from some other quarter. Eluding our cruisers, and appearing suddenly before Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, or in Moreton Bay, it might capture the merchant vessels lying in the harbours, intercept any of the numerous vessels conveying valuable shipments of gold, or under threat of bombardment, or after actually firing into one of the large towns, demand and obtain a payment of many millions of money. Or this object might possibly be attained by an enemy land- ing a small force in the vicinity of one of the places named, if the configuration of the country were favourable to such a plan, and if steps were not taken to prevent it. Admiral Wilson states that the defence question must be considered ' under the supposition that England retains her command of the seas, for were she to lose it, as a matter of course the Colonies would go too ; and the defence and force required to maintain independence of a foreign Power would necessarily be totally different from what, under present conditions, is required.' It has been suggested as possible that during war a squadron of fast frigates, including even an ironclad, might escape the vigilance of our fleet and make a descent on the Australian coast. There is no doubt that such is j^ossihle, but I cannot allow that it is reasonably probable, and it appears to me that we have to deal with probabilities more than possibilities. But to examine this branch of the subject, it must be re- membered that, in these days of steam and telegraphic commu- NAVAL DEFENCE. 63 nication, the locale of every war ship in the world is known, and that, as a matter of fact, the moment war is declared, each and every ship of any power would be watched by our cruisers. Still there is the possibility of enemies' ships evading our vessels, or we may be beaten in action, and so leave them uncontrolled, but even then it is by no means clear that they could or would make an attempt at attack. My reason for arriving at this conclusion is that no war ship has yet been built which can steam 2,500 miles at full speed, except some light steel vessels, and it is but reasonable to conclude that enemies' vessels attacking these Colonies could only hope for success by dealing a sharp unexpected blow, therefore speed is an essential element in the calculation. Another point is that, although coal is abundant in Australia, no judicious commander would attempt such an expedition as we are now contemplating on the chance of picking up a coal ship at sea, or of being able to get it by capture from the shore. Thus we find that a war ship could not, with a reasonable hope of success, make a descent on an enemy's coast at a greater distance from a coal depot than is represented by (say) two- thirds of her full speed coal power. If my hypothesis be correct, an examination of the chart will show that there are few places within the limits prescribed from which cruisers could be sent. The three nearest possible enemies' ports, belonging to first-rate Powers, from which ships of war could be despatched, are — PetropauloTski, distant from Melbourne . 5,900 miles Sau Francisco „ „ . 6,800 „ New Caledonia „ „ . 1,550 „ The last-named place need hardly be included, as no armament of any strength could be prepared or assembled there without the knowledge of the Colonies. It might be argued that war ships would be preceded by coal ships, and replenish at one of the numerous islands in the Pacific ; but against such a premise must be set the delay it would entail, and the amount of arrangement and preparation, which would seriously diminish the chances of the attacking 64 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. force, while it would give ample time for places likely to be the scene of attack to prepare. There are, it is true, some coaling depots amongst the Western Pacific Islands belonging to Germans and Americans ; but as these are quite unprotected by batteries, and would at once be destroyed by the regular navy in the event of war being declared by or with the nations to which they belong, they cannot be looked upon as depots for war purposes. He concludes by observing that the probable class of vessels to be expected in time of war, and which the Colonies should be prepared to meet, are armed merchant vessels, possessing great speed and coal vitality. Such vessels, if well commanded, might do immeasurable damage both to shipping and exposed ports, and could more easily evade the watchful eye of our cruisers and consuls abroad, while from their coal capacity they might be fitted out at remote ports, and pass unobserved, disguised as traders, over half the world. General Scratchley admitted the force of Admiral Wilson's arguments, but refused to accept his conclu- sions. ' Were such recommendations to be adopted, uncertainty and risk would be introduced in the defence preparations of the Australasian Colonies.' He was, however, entirely in favour of providing defences capable of securing the principal ports of Australia against the more formidable attacks contemplated. Admiral Hoskius,^ although doubtful as to the prac- ticability of ironclads attacking Austraha, believes in the possibility of a sudden raid h^ a flying squadron ' Admiral Ilo&kins was Admiral "Wilson's prtdeces.«or in command of the Australian squadron. NAVAL DEFENCE. 65 capable of landing a force of over 1,000 men. He insists upon the necessity of fortifying all important points in Australia, in order that the navy may be free to operate at sea in the best manner possible for the general defence of the Colonies. In his opinion the Imperial squadron could not undertake the defence of any Australian port, and each Colony should defend its own harbours.^ These officers agree that the defences of Australia must be planned on the assumption that Great Britain retains command of the seas. ' If this should not be the case,' General Scratchley admitted, ' a larger expen- diture will have to be incurred by the Colonies, and the present defence arrangements somewhat modified.' This assumption, however, is not universally accepted. Some advocate preparations ' on a scale sufficient to repel large expeditions, which would be undertaken with a view of destroying Australasian commerce and of occupying portions of the Australian continent.' They insist upon the necessity of the Australasian Colonies being prepared to fight an enemy single-handed, and argue that the contingency of the mother-country being at war with several foreign Powers, whose combined navies would keep the Imperial navy fully employed in Europe and elsewhere, is within the bounds of possibility, if not probability. Admiral Wilson, acting upon his estimate of the danger to be apprehended, condemned the defence mea- sures recommended by Sir William Jervois and Sir Peter Scratchley in the following terms : ' For Admiral Iloskins' own words on this subject, see p. 70. 66 A USTRALIAN DEFENCES. It appears to be useless to advocate a system which, though it may be perfect from a military point of view, is too expensive either to be adopted, or, if adopted, to be kept up in a state of efficiency. Again : It is, to my mind, in a combination of the two (fortifications and ships) security will be found ; but where money is limited — as it is in new countries, and where the attacking force can never, so long as we hold the seas, be anything more than one or two armed merchant vessels — expensive fortifications, such as are being constructed at enormous cost throughout these Colonies, absorbing all the money available for defensive pur- poses, I contend are out of place. Sir Peter Scratchley considered that opinions so strongly expressed, whether supported or not by suffi- cient arguments, would have a prejudicial effect upon public opinion in Australia, and raise a doubt in the minds of the Colonial Governments. They are opinions from which lie entirely dissented. Looking at the wealth, the revenue, and the resources of the Austra- lasian Colonies, he was of opinion that the expenditure proposed for the establishment and maintenance of the defences was not more than these flourishing commu- nities could afford to pay in return for security against attack, although he frankly admitted that there was ample room for economy in the matter of organisation.^ Although Admiral Wilson objected to the expendi- ture on fortifications, he recognised the necessity for them in the case of such places as Sydney, Glenelg (Adelaide), Brisbane, Auckland, Welhngton, and Hobart, * It should be noted too that the exj^cnditure for the defence schemes was approved by majorities in the several Legislatures. NAVAL DEFENCE. 67 as ' fortified places are important as ports of refuge, and as stations for coaling.' Admiral Hoskins has laid down very clearly that, on sucli a wide and extended station as the Australian Colonies, no place is safe from an isolated attack which is not properly fortified and protected by its own local defences, thus practically indorsing Sir Peter Scratchley's recommendations, so far as they concern the defence of the principal Australasian harbours. The important question of maintaining fortified coal depots at Thursday Island, King George Sound, Fiji, and elsewhere, is not yet settled. It has been suggested to construct earthworks ^ at these places when war is imminent, and for this purpose to maintain at Sydnej'' a reserve of two hundred marines. Sir Peter Scratchley, however, feared that extemporised defences of this character would be of no value whatever when the dis- tances between the places to be suddenly defended were taken into account and the small number of men to carry out the preparations was considered. He strongly advocated the necessity of placing all defence arrange- ments in the Australasian Colonies on a permanent basis to start with, and on a scale suited to their resources, but capable of expansion in the future. Admiral Wilson's recommendations before the Syd- ney Royal Commission'^ were to the effect that, besides any batteries that might be erected, gun-boats for harbour defence, torpedo launches, and the guns and appliances ^ The guns to lie kept in store at the uaval headquarters, and the sites selected for batteries purchased. '' See pp. 152-54. 68 AUSTRALIAN DEFEXCES. for arming merchant vessels in time of war, should be kept ready for use at the principal ports of the Australian Colonies. These merchant vessels would, with the Imperial Xavy, aid in the general defence of commerce and seaboard. Eor the manning of these ships, as well as for the naval harbour defences, he recommended the establishment of naval brigades, under the supervision and instruction of officers of the Royal Navy. He further urged that the Australasian Colonies should jointly agree to estabhsh these auxihary naval defences, which would be under the orders of the senior officer of the Imperial Xavy in time of war, and yet be subject to the control of the several Govern- ments in time of peace. Xothing in these proposals would, in Sir Peter Scratchley's opinion, interfere either with what has already been done in the way of defence preparations, or with the recommendations contained in the schemes of defence set forth in the following pages. On the contrary, the naval measures suggested, he con- sidered, would immensely increase the defensive power of the Colonies, and could be provided by degrees and at any time. In Admiral Wilson's recommendations relating to the naval defences of the Colonies, although the mihtary expenditure was strongly condemned, no naval estimates were submitted. Taking as a guide the estimate handed in to the Sydney Royal Commiasion^ the expenditure on the personnel of the naval contingents recommended for the Austrahan station Avould amount to 76,000/. a year.^ In the absence of a clear understanding as to * Reckoned by Sir Peter Scratchley. It is fair to state, however, that NAVAL DEFENCE. 69 whether this large sum was to be incurred in addition to, or partly in substitution of, the mihtary expenditure, it was, of course, impossible for Sir Peter Scratchley to form a correct opinion upon the proposal. He was, however, decidedly of opinion that, although the Colonies would be willing to spend a fair amount of money for naval defence, they would not be prepared to go the length suggested. At the same time he advised that the matter should be ventilated, and more definite proposals laid before the Australasian Govern- ments. 'The large expenditure proposed supports the ob- jection so often urged against the adoption oi floating in the place of fixed defences.' Referring once to the common impression that naval men, artillerists, and engineers will, each in their turn, show a preference for their own arm, and advocate its employment for defence purposes to the exclusion of others. Sir Peter said, ' This is quite a mistake. No engineer, artillery- man, or sailor that I have ever met, who really knew his business, ever thought of taking this one-sided view.' ^ As an indication of the importance which naval authorities attach to fixed defences, Admiral Hoskms,^ nearly two-thirds of the personnel proposed was required for manning the armed steamers which would be commissioned on the outbreak of war. In estimating the amount Sir Peter did not include the cost of maintainuig the materiel of the naval defences, which would comprise ' seventeen gunboats, eleven torpedo boats, and forty-four improvised torpedo launches ; ' nor was the first cost of providing this materiel, or the armament and fittings for the steamers, taken into account. ^ He advocated the use oijixed only where they would effect the object in view more economically Xhaxi floating defences. * See also Sir William Jervois's remarks on p. KU. G 70 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. when discussmg the question of Australasian defence, held that the principal duty of the commander of a naval force is to me€t a hostile squadron wherever it can be found, and endeavour to stop its ravages In limine, and not by dividing and shutting up his ships in the different ports, to give the enemy the com- mand of the sea and the power of attacking them separately in detail. He has a right to expect that the principal ports shall be protected by land forces and batteries, either afloat or on shore, sufficiently strong to protect them against an ordinary cruising squadron, and by heading it off, or delaying it, to give him a better chance of intercepting it, and also to afford him a refuge and shelter in case of his being worsted or overpowered in a sea-fight. To call on ships to protect the ports, instead of the ports the ships, is to invert the obligation and prevent their performing their proper duties. Should the enemy not send a squadron to these seas, but only single cruisers, acting independently against our commerce, coiTesponding steps would, of course, be taken ; but even then, to enable detached vessels to act with vigour and success, it would be necessary for them to have fortified places to fall back upon in case of need. Here it is distinctly pointed out that, unless the Colonies are prepared to help the navy, the navy can- not assist them in their defence. Sir Peter Scratchley thought that the proposal to place any floating defences maintained by the Colonies directly under the supervision of the Australian squa- dron was worthy ol serious attention, as therein ' lay the only security for maintaining the ships, crews, and naval reserves in a really efficient condition.' All local forces, whether naval or military, must suffer deteriora- tion, for reasons too obvious to require demonstration, and how to counteract this is only one of the many dif- ficult problems connected with the defence organisation NAVAL DEFENCE. n of these Colonies which press themselves upon the atten- tion of Australasian statesmen. Briefly then, Sir Peter Scratchley admitted the de- sirability of organising sea-going defences for the pro- tection of Australasian commerce, in order to reinforce the Imperial squadron in time of war ; but thought that the nature of these defences should be considered as following upon the suggested schemes of land defence, and not as antagonistic to them. In the second column of the following tabulated statement will be found the princij^al harbours and other places in the Australasian Colonies which Sir Peter con- sidered should be taken into account in a well-considered Colony Principal harbours and other Points d'appui or coal depots places for Shipping and Navy Queensland . Thursday Island (Torres Strait) Thursday Island Cooktouii CooMoum ToicnsviUe Toicnsville Keppel Bay (Rockhamp- Keppel Bay ton) ]\Ioreton Bay (Brisbane) Moreton Bay New South Wales Port Jackson (Sydney) Newcastle Botany Bay Wollongong Port Jackson (Sydney) ViCTOBIA Port Phillip (Melbourne) Portland Portland Warnambool Belfast South Australia . Glenelg (Adelaide) Glenelg Port Victor Or PoH Victor Western Australia Freemantle (Perth) King George Sound King George Sound Tasmania Hobart Hobart Launceston Launceston New Zeal.and Auckland Auckland Wellington Wellmgton Port Lyttelton (Christ- church) Port Chalmers (Duuedin) Bluff Harbour BluffHarbour G 2 72 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. scheme of military and naval defence ; in the third column those places suggested as points d'appui for the Imperial navy,^ and such auxihary Colonial naval de- fences as may be organised.^ Various authorities have from time to time advised the fortifying of most of the harbours and other places above mentioned. Sir Peter, however, added Cook- town and Townsville, as lie considered these two ports could be easily defended, and were admirably placed for the general naval protection of the coast of Queensland, being links of the chain connecting Torres Strait with Keppel Bay. Indeed, it would be very unwise, in any scheme of naval defence that may be ultimately adopted, to ignore these two ports, seeing that the distance be- tween Thursday Island and Moreton Bay (Brisbane) is 1,400 miles. The only important places in Australia ^ which are not hkely to be fortified for some time to come are the ports of Cooktown in Queensland ; Belfast, Warnambool, and Portland in Victoria ; and Port Victor in South Australia. A small Volunteer ArtiUery corps has been estabhshed at Townsville, and if Sir Peter Scratchley's suggestion is carried out, when the breakwater at that port is completed, a small work will be placed at its head to command the anchorage and protect the town and harbour. ' When employed in its proper sphere of protecting commerce andtrade, and keeping up communication with Europe and British Possessions in the East and elsewhere. - The ports in the third column — excluding those in italics, which were added by Sir Peter Scratchley — were also selected by Admiral Wilson for coal depots during war. ^ Excluding Western Australia and Thursday Island. NAVAL DEFENCE. 73 Should it be decided to fortify the ports above mentioned as suitable for coal depots, General Scratchley considered that naval defences would have to be esta- blished in all the Colonies, and that naval reserves ^ Avould be required at King George Sound, Adelaide, Melbourne, Hobart, Launceston, Sydne}^ Brisbane, Auckland, and Wellington. lie strongly supported Admiral Wilson's recommendation regarding armed merchant steamers, and considered that if his scheme were put before the Australasian Governments on its merits, apart from the shore defences, the majority of the Colonies would enter into a general agreement on that basis. ^ At the Intercolonial Conference^ held at Sydney in 1881, where all the Colonies were represented, a dis- cussion was raised on the subject of naval defences by Mr. Morgan, the Premier of South Australia. ' Mr. Morgan no doubt intended that special vessels belong- ing to the Imperial navy should be set apart for Colonial service, and take the place of the ironclads recommended for South Australia and New South Wales, and the small unarmoured vessels suggested for Victoria and Queens- land. Many feel that a purely Colonial navy can never remain thoroughly efficient or keep pace with modern improvements; and Colonial opinion generally coincides with what Admiral Wilson has said on this subject.' ^ These reserves would man the gun-boats, torpedo-boats, launches, and armed merchant vessels. ''■ The Anglo- Australian mercantile marine is very numerous, and every day improves in quality and speed, so that no difficulty would be experienced in securing the required number of vessels. ^ For extracts from the published proceedings of the Conference, see Appendix A. 74 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. Sir Peter Scratchley had good reason to believe, there- fore, that the proposal to provide Colonial naval re- serves and equipments of guns, for manning and com- missioning merchant steamers on the outbreak of war, would meet with ready acceptance in Australia, ' pro- vided the Governments received an assurance that the employment of this class of vessels was to be preferred to Mr. Morgan's proposal, which would be very costly, and yet not provide a sufficient number of vessels.' In order to move the Australasian Colonies to con- sider a federal scheme of naval defence, Sir Peter considered the lead should be taken by the Imperial Government, and the outhne of a scheme suggested. NAVAL DEFENCE. 75 NOTE. The naval assistance afforded to the AustraUan Colonies, New Zealand, and Tasmania, during the past five years (1881-86) in regard to ships, &c., is as follows : — ^ Colony Victoria Tasmania . South Aus- tralia Queensland- New South Wales 2 second-class torpedo boats Torpedo boat Childers . r\ \ ^ \ Victoria Gunboats |^^^^^.^ _ _ 56 feet steam life pin- nace Second-class torpedo boat Gunboat Protector . . Nature of Assistance given Gunboats ! Pdluma ■ Gayundah . Second - class torpedo boat Wolverene ' Construction inspected and pay- ments certified to by Admi- ralty officers. 1 Casual inspection during con- y struction, and certificates for J payment granted. Construction inspected and pay- ments certified to by officers of Portsmouth Dockyard. Do. by Admiralty officere Do. /Do. Work was also done at our Dockyards on these two ves- sels at the expense of the colony Construction inspected and pay- ment certified to by Admi- ralty officers Tons Dispt. I.H.P. A screw corvette 2,540 1,490. Presented to the colony in 1881 for use as a training ship ' So far as known in the Ship and Dockyard bi'anches. '^ Statement showing description and value of naval, victualling, and medical stores on board H.M.S. Violrerene. Where practicable, actual prices, as new, have been taken ; in other cases approximate values only inserted r— Naval Stores : — Boatswains' Carpenters' . Engineers' . Gunners' Victualling Stores. Medical Stores Total £.3,624 2,067 1,234 432 £7,357 162 51 £'7,570 76 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES CHAPTER III. COAST DEFENCE. The subject of coast defence, when considered in con- nection with Aiistraha, Tasmania, and New Zealand — exposed as these countries are to formidable attacks by sea — is one of much importance. Having already dealt with Sir Peter Scratchley's views generally on this point, in the previous chapters, I do not propose here to treat the matter at great length, but the fol- lowing particular remarks made by him on the subject may not be without interest.^ The defences of the Australasian Colonies are planned so as to secure the capitals and principal harbours from attack by a squadron of several ships, of which one or more might be ironclads. For this purjiose, floating, or what may be termed naval, defences are being provided as auxiliaries to the coast batteries. These naval de- fences should be classed under two heads : — (I.) Naval Harhour Defences. Ironclads, although adding very largely to the effective power of any scheme of coast defence, are so ^ I have collected Sir Peter's remarks on the stibject and arranged them under his own headinors. COAST DEFENCE. 77 costly that tliey cannot be generally recommended for the Austrahan ports. If introduced, however, it would be most important that they should possess seagoing qualities, and be capable of assuming the offensive, in order to attack and pursue hostile ships blockading a port. For purely defensive purposes unarmoured gun- boats are to be preferred, as being less costly to build and maintain, and as requiring smaller crews. Whether ironclads will be able to maintain their superiority either for offence or defence, is a point upon which it is impos- sible to speak with any degree of certainty ; but, con- siderino- the o;reat advance attained in offensive and defensive torpedoes, which may fairly be expected to continue, and that we may be on the eve of a great revolution in naval warfare, the employment of unsink- able ships, with protection provided for the guns and other vital parts, must be considered. All authorities on the subject of coast defence agree in recommending the employment of heavy guns, mounted upon small vessels of light draught, unpro- tected by armour, to supplement the fixed and floating defences of a port or harbour, and vessels of this class have been introduced into the Imperial service, and are being adopted by foreign Powers. These gun-boats are not intended to take the place of forts, on land or in the water, in those cases where the latter have to be resorted to for securing an effective defence ; but it is considered that whenever it is not possible to carry into execution a complete system of defence at once, they should rank as next in importance to stationary torpedoes as an element of the system. The fact that they can be 78 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. constructed to carry the 38-ton gun, which is capable of piercing the armour of any ironclad afloat at the present date, is only one of the many arguments which can be adduced in favour of their adoption for the Aus- tralian Colonies. Their small cost, too, when compared with that of armoured turret-ships, the few men required to man them, and the moderate expenditure necessary for their maintenance, are all points worthy of the most careful consideration wherever the question of erecting forts or of providing and maintaining turret-ships cannot be entertained. They may be employed to act either singly or in numbers, in support of land or other fixed defences or in conjunction with turret-ships, and, under certain circumstances, could attack the vessels of the enemy lying off the entrance to a port. If stationed inside the entrance they should be protected by an advanced hne of torpedoes, and if advancing to the attack they might be covered by steamers of great speed, adapted to discharge any kind of locomotive torpedo ; while in time of peace these gun-boats should be hauled up on shore, and could be easily and economically main- tained in a thoroughly efficient state. The principal objection to theu' employment is due to the fact that they are vulnerable to the fire of small guns, owing to theii* being entirely unprotected by armour ; but, on the other hand, as they would almost invariably open fire when end on to a hostile vessel, they would present but a very small mark to the enemy's guns. It has been proposed to plate their bows so as to render tliem proof against the fire of moderately large guns and thereby make them nearly COAST DEFENCE. 79 as effective as small ironclads. The unsteadiness of the platform from which the gun is fired is a defect common to all floating defences, and, although not to be disregarded, is not a serious objection, as in most situations these o-un-boats would manceuvre in mode- rately calm water, and the superiority of their armament would enable them to engage the enemy with great effect at loner ranges. The best vessel for the purpose is one of mode- rate size and speed, with a small draught of water, and armed with one or two heavy guns. Boats of this type are being built in England, and have been introduced in the British and foreign navies. One of the most suitable is the gunboat of the Alpha type, carrying one 8 -inch gun forward and one 6-inch aft, both B.L. new type chambered Ai'mstrong guns. The boat is built entirely of steel ; its principal dimen- sions are as follows : ^ Extreme length Breadth . Draught of water . Displacement . Indicated horse-power Estimated speed Besides the heavy guns tliere are two 9-pounder B.L, new type guns and two machine guns. The en- gines are of the most improved type ; they and the boilers are placed beloAV the water hue. The bunker capacity is equal to 200 hours' full-speed steaming. The boat sails well. Several boats have made the voyage from England to China. For the sea voyage ' This was written by Sir Peter Scratchley in 1882. feet inches 118 6 27 7 6 319 tons. 180 10 knots. 8o AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. they are rigged, and when equipped for figiiting tlie rigging is dispensed with, so as to reduce the visible bulk of the boat. These boats can be utilised in time of peace for Government service along the coast. Besides gun-boats, torpedo-boats are now considered to be necessary for harbour defence ; and, where the choice has to be made, they should be provided before the gun-boats. There are numerous classes of torpedo- boats. They vary in size from the small boats of 13 knots' speed, 58 feet long, costing 2,000/., to the 20-knot boat, 110 feet long, costing 10,500/. The larger boats are intended to go to sea, and will stand roucrh w^eather. They also carry machine-guns. ... Of course to ob- tain the best results two or three boats are required ; but wdiere economj'^ has to be exercised the presence ol one boat would have a very great moral effect on the enemy's proceedings. Where suitable steam launches are owned by private parties, they should be surveyed and registered for use in time of war. This is a matter which should be looked into at once. The number of men required to man torpedo-boats is very small. (II.) External Defence of the Seaboard and Commerce. Under tliis head should be classed swift cruisers and armed merchant vessels, which would form part of a federal naval defence maintained by all the Colonies, In 1882 Sir W. G. Armstrong & Co. forwarded to the Government of New South Wales a memorandum on their Protected Barbette system of mounting and COAST DEFENCE. 8i loorking Coast Guns} This memorandum was sulDmitted to Sir Peter Scratchley, who after much care and consideration put his ideas and criticism into writing. The ''Protected Barbette' System for mounting Guns in Coast Defences. The views contained in the memorandum on this subject from Sir William Armstrong & Co. are generally- correct. When they were submitted to Sir WilHam Jervois and myself in 1878, their soundness was recog- nised, and we decided to adopt the system in the Aus- tralian Colonies, wherever 7iew guns had to be mounted in the coast batteries. A battery on the ' protected barbette' system is in course of construction at Middle Head, to receive two 25-ton guns purchased last year from Sir Wilham Armstrong & Co., and should addi- tional guns be provided for the batteries of Port Jackson, it is proposed to mount one or more of them at South and Middle Heads on the same plan. Batteries of the same type have been constructed at Adelaide and Brisbane, and are now being built at Hobart and in Victoria. The system, however, does not admit of universal application, any more than that unarmoured ships will do all the work of ironclads. That the system is greatly superior to the present plan of mounting guns en barbette must be admitted. In the plan hitherto adopted, the gunners are very much exposed, especially when loading — the operation which takes most time ; * This memoranduiu will be found set out in Appendix A. 82 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. in Sir William Armstrong's plan tliey are well under cover; and, excepting the man who aims the gun, the gun detachment is screened from the enemy's view. But, if we take as examples the extreme points of South and Middle Heads in Port Jackson, where it is necessary to mount additional guns it will be found that at these two points the lateral range is very great (over 250°), the sites are cramped, and their height above the sea is small, conditions which are not favour- able to guns mounted en harbette. These are two cases where some kind of overhead cover, such as cupolas, should, if practicable, be provided to protect the guns and gunners against shell and machine-gun fire. Although the bombardment of Alexandria is an event which could not under any circumstances occur in Port Jackson, much valuable information con- cerning the vexed question of coast defences v. ships, will no doubt be obtained. I think the lessons to be learnt from that bombardment are that in order to render coast batteries thoroughly reliable, a portion of the guns must be protected so that they cannot be silenced ; and that highly trained artillerymen to man the guns are absolutely necessary. 83 CHAPTER IV. TORPEDO DEFENCE {DEFENSIVE^ AND OFFENSIVE) Torpedoes, both defensive and offensive, are relied upon to so great an extent in the systems of defence suggested for the various Australasian Colonies, that no account of Sir Peter Scratchley's connection with that work would be complete that did not include some reference to his views on this important subject. I have, there- fore, collected together and arranged in narrative form various opinions expressed or written by him on this subject during the period he was advising the Australasian Governments. Even before submarine mines were recognised to be valuable weapons of defence, it was an accepted axiom among naval and military men that guns alone, un- supported by obstructions, would not effectually prevent vessels from steaming past a battery or fort at moderate ranges. Passive obstructions in the shape of booms, sunken vessels, and barges were generally supposed to form part of the defensive arrangements of a port ; but, owing to the great cost, want of durability, and ^ Or submarine mines. 84 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES unwieldiness, the provision of these booms was never seriously provided for. The employment of sunken vessels to close a channel was only intended as a last resort, and should on no account be adopted Avhen time and the necessary appHances for torpedo defences are available. To say nothing of the permanent injury which may result to the channel so obstructed, the cost of restoring it for navigation, and the impossibility of estimating the damage which might be done, there is an obvious objection in the fact that the obstruction exists for both the enemy and the defenders. It is necessary to direct especial attention to this mode of obstructing a channel, because it has often been urged as a simple way of providing for the defence of the West Channel of Port Phillip.^ Considering how easy and economically this channel can be closed by a battery and torpedoes, it would be tlie height of folly to think of such a plan. These defensive weapons have passed out of the theoretical stage, and their utility and rehabihty have been practically tested in actual warfare. If success has been attained in former years wdth comparatively crude torpedo defences, what may not Austraha, New Zealand, and Tasmania expect from the present per- fected arrangements ? Yet in face of the proofs that can be produced as to the reliability of sub- marine defences, attempts have been made to throw doubt upon their efficacy. Some critics assert that naval officers undervalue their employment, as they can readily be removed by counter-mining and other well- 1 See p. 162. TORPEDO DEFENCE. 85 known means. Now the very reverse of this opinion prevails amongst naval authorities, who admit that only in very special cases will it be possible to attempt to force a passage defended by torpedoes, provided they are adequately protected by strongly constructed forts or batteries. Experimental attacks upon defensive torpedoes have to be conducted Avithout that all-important element of defence — guns firing at the ships and boats ; conse- quently they prove nothing. Such experiments are useful as affording the navy an opportunity of prac- tice, and to the engineers they disclose the weak points in the working of a system of submarine mines ; but what can be done with ease during peace could only be achieved in time of war by sacrifices of life and material. Of recent years all appliances have been much simplified, and the details of working have been very carefully elaborated. Experiments are still being carried on in almost every country. In England several companies of the Eoyal Engineers are specially trained to take the charge of the submarine defences of the Imperial ports and harbours at home and abroad.^ There is a special school of submarine mining at Chatham ; while at Portsmouth, besides the military submarine mining depot, a naval torpedo school exists for the instruction of officers and men ^ R.E. — Submarine Mining Companies. — 4tli Company, Chatham : 21st ditto, Chatham ; 22nd ditto, Gosport ; 27th ditto, Halil'ax, N.S. (2nd Section, Bermuda); 28th ditto, Gravesend ; 30th ditto, Tlymouth ; 8.3rd ditto, Gosport (2nd Section, Hong Kong) ; 34th ditto, Malta ; 3oth ditto, Chatham ; M ditto (Depot Co.), Chatham. 11 86 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. of the Eoyal Navy ; and already militia submarine mining corps ^ are established to act as auxiliaries to the Eoyal Engineers — in fact, the arrangements for training both officers and men, and carrying on a systematic course of experiments, are very complete, and the Imperial authorities fully recognise that there is no finality in anything relating to torpedo -warfare. The submarine defences of England are being placed on a very satisfactory and permanent footing. A broad Hne of separation has been estabhshed between offensive and defensive torpedoes, and the conclusion arrived at by the War Office, on this point, was that the former of necessity belonged to the navy, as they were requii'ed for attacking ships and floating defences generally ; whilst the latter, being intended purely for defensive purposes, should be placed under the charge of the military authorities. At first sight one is dis- posed to think that because the torpedoes are laid in water, necessitating the employment of steamers, barges, boats, and other naval appliances, seamen are more likely to be fitted by their training for undertaking the charge of them. A little consideration, however, re- moves this impression. Defensive torpedoes, being fixtures, worked and maintained from the shore, under the protection of batteries or forts, form part of the land defences of a place, and therefore must be under the immediate and undivided control of the military commander. ' Southern Submarine Min'uuj Militia. — Tlie Hampshire, 1st aud 2iid Company, Gosport ; the Devonshire, 3rd Company, Plymouth; the Kent, 4th Company, Chatham. TORPEDO DEFENCE. S- In exceptional cases, such as the protection of a dis- abled or inferior fleet, which cannot take refuge under land defences, a system of defensive torpedoes may have to be extemporised and guarded by the fire of the ships. But such cases are exceedingly rare, and never likely to occur in AustraHa. The experience of the Imperial service, and of European nations generally, support the view that the custody and working of submarine defences in the Australian Colonies should be entrusted to special corps, organised for the purpose, and composed of professional electricians, skiUed artificers, and persons accustomed to the use of mechanical apphances, assisted by seamen and handy men possessing a general knowledge of seafaring matters. To ensure the proper working of submarine defences, the corps entrusted with them must be rendered thoroughly efficient by regular and systematic training. The success of the torpedo defences in Australia will depend not only upon the knowledge and experience of both officers and men, but also upon the degree of preparation beforehand. The mistake is not to be made of supposing that a torpedo defence can be readily extemporised. The popular notion of a torpedo is a kerosene oil thi filled with an explosive, fitted with a fuse, and attached to a piece of coated wire, which, when placed in the water, is made to explode by electricity, the whole con- stituting a very simple and easily managed arrangement, wliich any one, be he landsman or seaman, can easily undertake. H 2 88 A USTRALIAN DEFENCES. What is the real fact ? Simple as the apphcation of submarine mines undoubtedly is, there is probably no defensive weapon which requires more careful manipu- lation, more experience and practical knowledge on the part of the officers and men placed in charge. Xot only must the necessary appliances for instruction be provided, but the men must be frequently exercised in laying out portions of the systems of mines in the actual positions they will occupy in time of war. Ex- periments must be encouraged, and every eflbrt made to keep pace with modern improvements. If, at any time, retrenchment should be called for in the annual expenditure for the maintenance of a system of de- fence, the pruning knife must not be applied either to the submarine mining or the artillery arrange- ments. These two defensive elements represent the essentials of the defence organisation. It needs no demonstration to show that torpedoes without guns to protect them, or that batteries without torpedoes to bar the channels, will not prevent an enemy's ships from entering a harbour. These two branches of defence are absolutely inseparable and of equal importance, so much so that I am inchned to think that it ^vill be advisable to secure the close connection which should exist between the artillery and the submarine defences by attaching the Torpedo corps to the Artillery force. ^ ' A committee has very recently been sitting on this question, and it has been decided to leave submarine mining arrangements in the hands of the Royal Engineers. TORPEDO DEFENCE. 89 DEFENSIVE' TORPEDOES. The primary object to be attained by their em- ployment is either to prevent an enemy's ships from passing through a channel in which the mines are laid, or to protect certain waters where ships could take up positions for purposes of bombardment. If judiciously laid and thoroughly efficient, submarine mines will compel the enemy's ships either to retire and blockade the port, or to undertake the task of silencing the fire of the defenders' guns, when the mines would have to be removed in order to force an entrance. To render stationary torpedoes really effective, it is absolutely necessary that they should be adequately protected by guns in suitable defensive works ; other- wise a passage could be cleared through them either by countermining., creeping., or sweeping. These opera- tions, although very difficult and risky, may no doubt be undertaken by a determined enemy, and no system of torpedo defence can be considered to be efficient w^hich does not provide against them. Countermining is the term applied to the operation of destroying the defenders' submarine mines by the explosion of heavy charges in their proximity. It is asserted that countermines can be laid by the aid of steam launches with the requisite accurac^y, except in channels properly guarded and swept by artillery fire. Creeping is the operation of removing electrical cables, nnnes, and other obstructions in the water, by dragging ' Or suhnuirme iniiies. go AUSTRALIAX DEFEXCES. for them along the bottom by means of grapnels, technically termed creepers. Sweeping is employed to ascertain the position of mines by dragging a rope, technically termed ' the sweep,' up or down a channel. For forcing a passage through mines countermining is the best, but creeping and sweeping could also be attempted so as to clear as large an area as possible. Apart from the protection afforded by guns, these operations may be counteracted either by providing an advanced system of mines or by dummy mines, chains, and other obstructions in the water, while electrical hghting of the channels must be adopted during the night. There are two classes of submarine mines : — f^i • <((/) Ground. • -m ^ • 1 Observation -^ ^ 1. Electrical ,(^/,) Buoyant. (Electro-contact, ii. Mechanical. It is not possible to lay down any absolute rules for the employment of the different kinds, but tlie following observations will serve as a guide to the choice of the most suitable mines : Ground Mines consist of iron cases, containing charges varying from 250 to 500 lbs. of gun-cotton, laid at the bottom of a channel, and are best suited for the defence where free navigation for friendly vessels has to be pre- served, and in waters where there is great variation of tide but the depth does not exceed forty to fifty TORPEDO DEFENCE. 91 feet at any state of the tide. They are often so fitted as to be able to be fired either by observation or by contact, and in groups, as twin mines, or singly, and should only be adopted under conditions such as are found in Port Jackson and at Newcastle in New South Wales, where the navigable channels are narrow and well defined, and favourable sites exist for the observing and firing stations, and where an enemy's vessel could scarcely pass, except almost over a submerged mine. There is, in fact, a degree of uncertainty inseparable fi'om this mode of firing, owing to inaccuracy in the instruments used, errors of observation by the men employed, and the consequent possibility of the circuit not being closed by them at the correct moment. It should be observed that the effect of large charges fired under water is much more circumscribed than was formerly supposed, and consequently considerable accuracy as to the relative positions of the ship and mine must exist if the former is to be damaged. Buoyant Mines are similar to the ground mines except that the charge floats at any required depth below the surface, and is kept in position by heavy sinkers. They are employed where the depth of water is too great for ground mines, and are fired in the same manner. Electro -contact Mines are intended to float about twelve to fifteen feet below the surface of the water, and can only be fired by contact. They are laid at shorter distances from each 92 AUSTRALIAN DEFENCES. other than tlie larger mines — preferably 100 to 150 feet apart, and in several rows at least 120 feet apart, the intention being that no ship of moderate size should escape striking one or more of them in passing through the channel. They are growing very much into favour on account of their small cost and the certainty attend- ing their employment, and are admirably suited for closing the portions of a channel which need not be kept open for navigation, and as advanced mines where observation mines are adopted. Mechanical Mines are arranged to explode upon being struck ; they re- quire no cables, and are altogether cheaper and more convenient than electrical mines. They must also be placed so that ships cannot avoid striking them. They can be readily extemporised, and their chai'ge should be about 100 lb., the same as for electro-contact mines. The main objection against their employment at present is a certain risk in laying them down, and the difficulty of recovering them without first exploding the charges, an operation which sometimes may lead to a loss of life. Strong hopes, however, are entertained that a mine is to be produced which mil be safe both to lay and to remove. It is evident tliat as these mines are always in action, they cannot be laid in channels which have to be used by friendly ships, and the general opinion is that they should only be employed for closing the minor channels of a port, or as a last resort if the electrical mines are not to be had. The plan of attack which would probably be TORPEDO DEFENCE. 93 adopted by an enemy, who attempted to force a channel defended by torpedoes, now requires consideration. Having obtained as much information as possible on the subject, the hostile commander would have to decide whether he was strong enough to force the passage. He would then determine the width of the passage he intended to clear through tlie defenders' mines and obstructions. Assuming that he was provided with all the necessary apphances, and that he had a sufficient number of steam launches, the first operation would be to creep with exploding creepers, so as to destroy the electrical cables of the defenders' mines ; the next, to send forward the countermining boats, which, if successful in exploding the countermines, would be followed by the attacking ships. At the same time, if booms protected the lines of mines, they would have to be breached with charges attaclied to them from fast steam launches. Provided, of course, that tlie enemy possessed a sufficient number of launches and steamers which lie was prepared to sacrifice, that he was able to follow- up the attack very quickly, and that circumstances of wind and weather were in his favour, it is not difficult to conceive that he might succeed in forcing his way through the mines ; but the chances of success must be entirely based upon the assumption that the de- fenders were culpably neghgent, that they were utterly unprepared or taken unawares, or that they were un- provided with the necessary guard-boats to enable them to attack the enemy's launches as they commenced their operations. Moreover, as I have already re- 94 AUSTRAL! AX DEFENCES. marked, I do not tliink that it woukl be possible for any enemy attacking the Australian Colonies to bring with him appliances superior to those which we should possess, if only the right steps are taken to provide them. To reach this state of preparedness, careful forethought and patient elaboration in time of peace are needed. OFFENSIVE TORPEDOES. Under this designation should be classed any tor- pedo employed for the purpose of attacking an enemy's ship, whether from on shore or from ships. There are several kinds of offensive torpedoes. The Lay, the Yon Scheliha, and the Erickson, which belong to one par- ticular class of locomotive torpedoes, being all steered and controlled from a distance. They differ from each other in important details, and have not been found suitable for the Imperial service. The Whitehead, also a locomotive torpedo, which, after projection, is no longer under control, and therefore subject to the action of currents until it has run the distance for which it has been adjusted. There are also the Harvej' and other towing torpedoes, which do not carry any source of motive power, together with the outrigger and drifting class, and also plunging boats. The Harvey torpedo is not in favour, as all towing torpedoes require very great skill in tlieir employment, and it is necessary for the vessel using them to approach within forty j'ards from the ship attacked. The outrigger torpedo is attached to a spar projecting from the boat or vessel carrying it, and the distance at which it can be used is limited by TORPEDO DEFENCE. 95 the length of the spar, which can be conveniently handled, and it is exposed, like the towing torpedoes, to the enemy's fire. Opportunities for using it from boats may not often occur, yet it is a weapon which is likely to be largely employed now that steam launches of great speed are being introduced. The success of outrigger torpedoes will mainly depend upon the practicability of getting near the ship to be attacked without being seen. Speed, therefore, is of paramount importance. Plunging boats for attaching torpedoes to the bottom of a ship, by means of the crew on board of them, have not been tried in England because they are considered to be so destructive to hfe, and have proved unsuccess- ful when experimented with by foreign nations. The Whitehead torpedo, which consists of a steel cylinder pointed at botli ends, and is propelled at any required depth below the surface by compressed air at high pressure, is now being issued to all fighting ships of the Eoyal Xavy. Special launches of great speed have been built to carry the Whitehead torpedo. Although the effective range of the Whitehead will be limited when fired from ship against ship, there can be no doubt that for the defence of narrow channels, whether fired from the shore, rafts, or barges, it mil be an invalu- able submarine weapon. It can be fired from a tube, placed on the deck of a vessel, or below tlie water- line. The Lay torpedo,^ an American invention, intended ' Colonel Beaumont, R.E., strongly advocated the employment of this class of offensive torpedoes, and submitted designs for boats in which the motive power was compressed air at very high pressure. 96 A USTRALTAN DEFENCES. to carry a iiuicli heavier charge tlian the Whitehead, is a submarine boat, propelled under water by liquid carbonic acid, but steered from the shore or ship by an electrical cable paid out from the boat. It has a cylindrical hull with conical ends, and is constructed of light steel. It varies from twenty to thirty feet in length, and from two to four feet in diameter, and is propelled by a screw, the engine, ten to forty horse- power, being worked by the expansive force of car- bonic acid or ammoniacal gas. Through the propeller shaft, which is hollow, passes the electrical cable, which pays itself out, and by which the boat is steered. A coil of cable is placed within the torpedo. There are horizontal rudders to regulate the depth at which the torpedo is to travel under water, also guide-rods, one fore and one aft — by which the position of the torpedo is determined by the operator. At night these rods show an electric spark in the direction of the operator, the light being invisible to the enemj^ The shore end of the electrical cable is attached to a key- board connected with a powerful battery for generating the electrical current. The cable is composed of several insulated wires ; one is used for starting or stopping the engines, another steers, another regulates the depth below surface, another elevates or lowers the guide-rods, one is devoted to exploding the torpedo ; thus every part of the machinery in the boat is under the control of the operator on shore, for whose infor- mation tell-tale dials register the action of every part. The valves, which regulate the admission of the car- bonic acid gas into the cylinders of the engines, are TORPEDO DEFENCE. 97 opened and shut by means of the electrical current. The charge for destroying the enemy's vessel can be detached and lowered underneath it, and the boat returns back to land to receive another charge. The accuracy of this torpedo boat is said to be marvel- lous, but the speed has not so far exceeded seven to eight miles an hour. Mr. Lay has, I am told, made great improvements in its construction, but they have not, I think, been submitted for trial in England. Messrs. Brennan and Calvert, of Melbourne, have invented a very ingenious locomotive torpedo, about the size of a Whitehead, in which the motive power is derived from two wires, coiled upon drums inside the machine, which are placed on a shaft that works twin screws in the tail. On starting the torpedo, the wires are unwound from the drums inside on to larger drums on shore, which are rotated by steam, and so the torpedo is propelled forward. At the same time con- trol is retained over the torpedo, deviation from the course being obtained by means of a break, which re- tards the revolution of one of the drums on shore at will. I have witnessed trials of the torpedo which have been attended with success, and the inventors have wisely decided to submit the torpedo to tlie Imperial authorities.^ In the Colonies spar torpedo boats will in many cases be required to take the place of defensive mines, such, for instance, as the New Zealand harbours, where submarine defences will be expensive. For tlie defence of such important capitals as Melbourne and Sydney, ' This is Ji