ANNEX 
 
 5 
 
 072 
 
 972 
 
 BOTANY 
 
 :EOLOSY MINERALOGY 
 
 \ 6 
 
 V;HNQLGGY. 
 

 
 PRACTICAL AIDS 
 
 TO 
 
 THE STUDY 
 
 OP 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY, 
 
 BOTANY, GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, 
 
 AND 
 
 TECHNOLOGY, 
 
 ADAPTED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 DR. CARL ARENDTS, 
 
 PROFESSOR AT THE MILITARY SCHOOL OP MUNICH. 
 
 WITH FOUR HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 TRANSLATED AND EDITED FROM THE GERMAN 
 
 BY G. L. M. STRAUSS, PH.D. 
 
 LONDON: 
 WARD AND LOCK, 158, FLEET STREET. 
 
 J1DCCCLXI.
 
 LONDON : 
 
 PRINTED BY WERTHEIJTER AND CO., 
 CIBCCS PLACE, PINSBDET.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY . . 1 
 
 I. ZOOLOGY Introduction . . 3 
 Anatomy and Physiology of Man . 3 
 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS 15 
 First Class. MAMMALIA . . .15 
 Order 1. Two Handed Animals . 16 
 2. Four Handed Animals . 17 
 3. Bats . . . .18 
 4. Beasts of Prey . .18 
 5. Marsupial Animals . 20 
 6. Gnawers . . .21 
 7. Toothless Animals . 23 
 8. Single-hoofed Animals . 23 
 9. Thick-skinned Animals 25 
 10. Ruminating Animals . 26 
 11. Seals . . . .28 
 12. Whales . ' . .29 
 Second Class. BIEDS . . .30 
 Order 1. Birds of Prey . .31 
 2. Climbers . . .32 
 3. Singing Birds . . 32 
 4. Gallinaceous Birds . 34 
 5. Runners . . .35 
 6. Waders, or Shore-birds 36 
 7. Swimming, or Web- 
 footed Birds . . 37 
 Third Class. REPTILES, or AMPHI- 
 BIOUS ANIMALS . 38 
 Order 1. Tortoises and Turtles . 39 
 2. Lizards . . .40 
 3. Serpents . . .41 
 4. Frogs . . . .42 
 Fourth Class. FISHES . . .43 
 Fifth Class. INSECTS . . . .47 
 Sixth Class. SPIDERS . . .53 
 Seventh Class. CRUSTACEOUS ANI- 
 MALS . . .54 
 Eighth Class. WORMS . . .54 
 Ninth Class. MOLLUSCA . . .54 
 Tenth Class. RADIATA . . .55 
 
 I. ZOOLOGY continued, 
 
 Eleventh Class. POLYPES . . 55 
 Twelfth Class. INFUSORY ANIMAL- 
 CULES . . .55 
 II. BOTANY Introduction . .57 
 A. ORGANS OF NUTRITION 
 1. TheRoot 2. The Stem 
 3. The Leaf ... 57 
 B. ORGANS OF GENERATION 
 
 1. The Flower 2. The Fruit 62 
 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS . . 69 
 A. Artificial System . . .69 
 B. Natural System . . .84 
 HI. MINERALOGY Introduction . 90 
 I. The Regular System . .92 
 H. The Square Prismatic System 93 
 III. The Rhombohedral, or Hexa- 
 gonal System . . .94 
 IV. The Rhombic, or Right Pris- 
 matic System . . .95 
 V. The Clino-rhombic, or Oblique 
 
 Rhombic System . .97 
 VI. The Clino-rhombic, or Doubly 
 
 Oblique Prismatic System . 97 
 
 GEOGNOSY Introduction . . .100 
 A Tabular View of the Geological 
 Formations .... 103 
 
 SUPPLEMENT Technological Part . 109 
 
 I. Weaving . . . .109 
 
 II. Manufacture of Paper . . 114 
 
 HI. Grinding . . . .11.5 
 
 IV. Distillation . . . .116 
 
 V. Cutting of Diamonds . .118 
 
 VI. Manufacture of Illuminating 
 
 Gas 119 
 
 VH. Manufacture of Glass . .122 
 VIII. Manufacture of Porcelain . 123 
 IX. Extraction of Iron from its 
 
 Ores 125 
 
 2090793
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 I. NATUKAL HISTORY. 
 
 FIG. PAGE FIG 
 
 1. Human Skeleton .... 3 46. 
 
 2. Skull of Man .... 4 47. 
 
 3. Teeth of Man .... 4 48. 
 
 4. Vertebra seen from the Surface of 49. 
 
 the Articulation ... 5 50. 
 
 5. Thorax of Man .... 5 
 
 6. Arm, Fore-arm, and Hand of Man 6 
 
 7. Shoulder of Man G 51. 
 
 8. Lower Extremities of Man (with- 
 
 out the Bones of the Haunch and 52. 
 
 Hip) 7 53. 
 
 9. Vertical Section of the Brain . 7 54. 
 
 10. Brain and Spinal Marrow, showing 55. 
 
 also the Trunks of the principal 56. 
 
 Nerves ..... 8 57. 
 
 11. TheEur 8 
 
 12. Incus, or Anvil .... 8 58. 
 
 13. The Labyrinth .... 8 59. 
 
 14. Vertical "Section of the Ear 9 60. 
 
 15. The Bali of the Eye laid open .9 61. 
 
 16. Vertical Section of the Mouth and 62. 
 
 Pharynx 10 63. 
 
 17. Digestive Organs of Man . 11 64. 
 
 18. Vertical Section of the Heart, shew- 
 
 ing the Trunks of the large Ar- 65. 
 
 tcries and Veins . . .11 66. 
 
 19. The Lungs, the Heart, and the 67. 
 
 principal Arterial Trunks ..11 68. 
 
 20. General View of the Arterial Sys- 69. 
 
 tcm 12 70. 
 
 21. Ideal Representation of the Two 71. 
 
 Systems of Circulation . . 13 72. 
 
 22. Trdchea and Lungs ... 13 73. 
 
 23. Skeleton of the Ourang Outang .16 74. 
 2-1. Skull of an Old Ourang Outang . 17 75. 
 
 25. Skull of a Chimpanzee . . 17 76. 
 
 26. Skeleton of the Bat, shewing the 77. 
 
 outline of the Membrane consti- 78. 
 
 tilting the Wings . . .17 79. 
 
 27. Head of the Vampire, shewing the 80. 
 
 leaf-like Nasal Appendage .18 81. 
 
 28. Skull of the Hedgehog . . 18 82. 
 
 29. Skeleton of the Fox . . .19 83. 
 
 30. Skull of the Badger ... 19 84. 
 
 31. Skull of the Fox .... 19 85. 
 
 32. Skull of the Lion . ... 20 86. 
 
 33. Skull of the Cat .... 20 87. 
 
 34. Skull of the Pole-cat . . 20 88. 
 
 35. Skull of the Otter . . . 20 89. 
 
 36. Skeleton of the Kangaroo . .21 '90. 
 
 37. Skull of the Squirrel ... 21 91. 
 
 38. Skull of the Marmot ... 21 92. 
 
 39. Skull of the Field Mouse . . 22 93. 
 
 40. Skull of the Beaver ... 22 94. 
 41 Tail of the Beaver ... 22 95. 
 
 42. Fore-paw of the Beaver . . 22 96. 
 
 43. Hind-paw of the Beaver . . 22 97. 
 
 44. Skull of the Common Hare . . 22 98. 
 
 45. Skull of the Pangolin . . .23 99. 
 
 Head of the Omithorhynchus 
 
 Skeleton of the Horse . 
 
 Right Hind Leg of the Horse 
 
 Skull of the Horse 
 
 Grinding Surface of Molar Teeth 
 
 of a Horse, shewing the Enamel- 
 
 plated Sinuous Furrows . 
 Representation of the Changes of 
 
 the Teeth in a Young Horse 
 Right Hind Leg of the Hog . 
 Skull of the Indian Elephant 
 Right Fore-foot of the Roe . 
 Skull of the Roebuck . 
 Stomach of a Ruminating Animal 
 Stomach of a Ruminating Animal 
 
 opened 
 
 Skeleton of the Camel . 
 Skeleton of the Seal . 
 Skeleton of the Dolphin 
 
 Whalebone 
 
 Skull of a Whale . 
 Skeleton of the Sea-Mew 
 Digestive Organs of the Domestic 
 
 Fowl 
 
 Head of the Grey Vulture . 
 
 Head of the Red-legged Falcon . 
 
 Foot of a Falcon .... 
 
 Climbing Foot of the Wryneck . 
 
 Stepping Foot of the Kingfisher . 
 
 Head of the Cuckoo 
 
 Head of the Green Parrot . 
 
 Head of the Woodpecker 
 
 Head of the Shrike 
 
 Head of the Flycatcher , 
 
 Head of the Fieldfare . 
 
 Head of the Wren 
 
 Head of the Titmouse . 
 
 Head of the Bearded Titmouse . 
 
 Head of the Crested Lark . 
 
 Foot of a Lark .... 
 
 Head of a Bullfinch ... . 
 
 Head of the Hooded Crow . 
 
 Head of the Nuthatch . 
 
 Head of the Humming Bird . 
 
 Head of the Goat-sucker 
 
 Head of the Wood-pigeon . 
 
 Skeleton of the Domestic Fowl . 
 
 Left Foot of the African Ostrich . 
 
 Head of the African Ostrich 
 
 Foot of the Indian Cassowary 
 
 Head of the Indian Cassowary 
 
 Head of the Crane 
 
 Right Foot of the Crane 
 
 Head of the Water- rail 
 
 Foot of the Water-hen . 
 
 Head of the Lapwing . 
 
 Head of the Snipe 
 
 Head of the Avocette . 
 
 Head of the Flamingo . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 23 
 23 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 2-t 
 
 24 
 25 
 25 
 26 
 26 
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 28 
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 35 
 
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 83 
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 36
 
 VI 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 no. PAGE 
 
 100. Eight Foot of the Flamingo . 36 
 
 101. Head of the Ibis ... 37 
 
 102. Head of the Heron . . 37 
 
 103. Head of the Swan . . 37 
 
 104. Head of the Goose . . 37 
 
 105. Head of the White Goosander 37 
 
 106. Foot of the Goosander . 37 
 
 107. Head of the Pelican . . 38 
 
 108. Foot of the Pelican . . 38 
 
 109. Head of the Laughing Gull . 38 
 
 110. Ideal Representation of the Circu 
 
 lation in Reptiles . . 39 
 
 111. Skeleton of a Turtle . . 39 
 
 112. Skeleton of the Common Slow 
 
 Worm 39 
 
 113. Skeleton of the Crocodile of the 
 
 Nile without the Tail . . 40 
 
 1 14. Skeleton of the Common Lizard . 41 
 
 115. Skeleton of the Common Adder, or 
 
 Ringed Snake . . . .41 
 
 116. Skull of the Rattle-Snake . .41 
 
 117. Poison Apparatus of the Rattle- 
 
 Snake 41 
 
 118. Common Viper . . . .42 
 
 119. Rattle of the Rattle-Snake . . 42 
 
 120. Skeleton of the Frog . . . 42 
 
 121. Tadpole, when first hatched . . 43 
 
 122. Tadpole, when first hatched, with 
 
 the Gills 43 
 
 123. Tadpole, after the Development of 
 
 the Hind Feet . . . .43 
 
 124. Tadpole, with the four Feet com- 
 
 plete 43 
 
 125. Tadpole, with the tail in process of 
 
 falling off 43 
 
 126. The young Frog, completely trans- 
 
 formed 43 
 
 127. Head and Respiratory Apparatus of 
 
 the River Perch . . .43 
 
 128. Ideal Representation of the Circu- 
 
 lalion in Fishss . . . .44 
 
 129. Skeleton of the River Perch . . 44 
 
 130. Spinous Dorsal Fin . .45 
 
 131. Soft-rayed Dorsal Fin ... 45 
 
 132. Air-bag, or Swimming-bladder of 
 
 the Carp 45 
 
 133. The Cod Fish . . . .45 
 
 134. TheTurbot 45 
 
 135. The Sun Fish .... 46 
 
 136. The Common Sturgeon . . 46 
 
 137. The Common Shark . . .46 
 
 138. Coriaceous Running Beetle . .47 
 
 139. Part of the Surface of the Eye of 
 
 the Cockchafer . . . .47 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 140. Part of a Vertical Section of the 
 
 Eye of a Cockchafer . . .47 
 
 141. Antenna of a Butterfly . . 48 
 
 142. Antenna of a Butterfly . . 48 
 
 143. Antenna of an Insect of the Order 
 
 of Hymenoptera . . .48 
 
 144. Antenna of another Insect of the 
 
 Order of Hymenoptera . . 48 
 
 145. Antenna of a Cockchafer . . 48 
 
 146. Antenna of a Coleopterous Insect . 48 
 
 147. Component parts of the Mouth of 
 
 the Coriaceous Running Beetle . 48 
 
 148. Outer Skeleton of the Cockchafer . 48 
 
 149. Ideal Representation of the Circu- 
 
 lation in Insects . . .49 
 
 150. Nervous System of the Garden 
 
 Beetle 49 
 
 151. Nervous System of the Garden 
 
 Beetle 
 
 152. Larva of the Cockchafer 
 
 153. Chrysalis of the Cockchafer . 
 
 154. The Cockchafer in the perfect In- 
 
 sect State 50 
 
 1 55. Female of the Dytiscus Marginalis 50 
 
 156. Seed Beetle 50 
 
 157. Red-winged Staphylinus . . 50 
 
 158. Common Necrophorus, or Grave- 
 
 digger 50 
 
 159. 'Spanish Fly 51 
 
 160. Black Weevil, or Calander . .51 
 
 161. Typograph Leather-eater . .51 
 
 162. Rosalia Alpina . . . ,51 
 
 163. Oak-leaf Gall-fly .... 51 
 
 164. Queen Bee 51 
 
 165. Drone 51 
 
 166. Working Bee . . . .51 
 
 167. Head of the Wild Bee . . . 51 
 
 168. Sting and Poison Apparatus of the 
 
 Bee 52 
 
 169. Hind-foot of the Working Bee . 52 
 
 170. Caterpillar of Machaon . . 52 
 
 171. Chrysalis of the Machaon . . 52 
 
 172. Swallow-tailed Butterfly . . 52 
 
 173. Sphinx Elpenor . . . .52 
 
 174. Caterpillar of the Silk-worm Moth 52 
 
 175. Chrysalis of the Silk- worm Moth . 53 
 
 176. Silk-worm Moth .... 53 
 
 177. True Cochineal (male) . . .53 
 
 178. True Cochineal (female) . . 53 
 
 179. Tarantula 53 
 
 180. Hedgehog Tick . . . .53 
 
 181. Oyster 54 
 
 182. Striped Umbilical Snail , . 55 
 
 183. Wheel Animal . . . .56 
 
 184. Vorticella 56 
 
 II. BOTANY. 
 
 185. Oval-shaped, somewhat flattened, 
 
 Cell 57 
 
 186. Cellular Tissue, composed of Poly- 
 
 hedral Cells . . . .57 
 
 187. Spiral Vessel . . . .58 
 
 188. Annular Vessel . . . .58 
 
 189. Reticulated Vessel ... 58 
 
 190. Longitudinal Section of the Stalk 
 
 of the Balsamine . . .58 
 
 191. Tap Root 59 
 
 192. Fusiform, or Spindle-shaped Root 59 
 
 193. Branched Root . . . .59 
 
 194. Rhizome of the Iris . 59 
 
 195. Cross and Vertical Section of the 
 
 Stem of a Tree . 
 
 196. Oval Leaf . 
 
 197. Elliptic Leaf 
 
 198. Oblong Leaf 
 
 199. Lanceolate Leaf . 
 
 200. Spatulate Leaf . 
 
 201. Cordate Leaf 
 
 202. Reniform Leaf 
 
 203. Sagittate Leaf 
 
 204. Hastate Leaf 
 
 205. Scalloped Leaf . 
 
 206. CrenateLeaf 
 
 59 
 fiO 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 61 
 61
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Vll 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 207. Dentate Leaf . . . .61 
 
 208. Serrate Leaf 61 
 
 209. Sinuate Leaf . . . .61 
 
 210. Three-lobed Leaf . ... 61 
 
 211. Cleft Leaf . . . . .61 
 
 212. Runcinate Leaf . . . .61 
 
 213. Parted Leaf 61 
 
 214. TernateLeaf . . . .62 
 
 215. Digitate Leaf . . . .62 
 
 216. Pinnate Leaf .... 62 
 
 217. Impari-Pinnate Leaf . .. .62 
 
 218. The Complete Flower . .62 
 
 219. Five-toothed Uricolate Calyx . 63 
 
 220. Campanulate Calyx . . ,63 
 222. Campanulate Corolla . . 63 
 
 222. Funnel-shaped Corolla . . .63 
 
 223. Salver-shaped Corolla . . .63 
 
 224. Labiate Flower . . . .63 
 
 225. Cruciform Corolla . . .64 
 
 226. Caryophyllaceous Corolla . .64 
 
 227. Papilionaceous Corolla . . 64 
 
 228. Calcarate Nectary . . .64 
 
 229. Galeate Nectary . . . .64 
 
 230. Stamen 64 
 
 231. Stamen with Oblong Anther . 64 
 
 232. Stamen with Monadelphous Fila- 
 
 ments C4 
 
 233. Stamen with Diadelphous Fila- 
 
 ments 64 
 
 234. Stamen with Polyadelphous Fila- 
 
 ments 64 
 
 235. Pistil 65 
 
 236. Longitudinal Section of Ovary . 65 
 
 237. Fecundation of the Ovules . . 65 
 
 238. Ear of Barley . . . .65 
 
 239. Catkin, or Amentum . . .65 
 
 240. Spadix of Arum Maculatum . 65 
 
 241. Raceme , .... 66 
 
 242. Simple Umbel .... 66 
 
 243. Compound Umbel . . . 66 
 
 244. Corymb 66 
 
 245. Panicle 66 
 
 246. Calathium . 66 
 
 FIG. 
 247. 
 248. 
 249. 
 250. 
 251. 
 252. 
 253. 
 254. 
 255. 
 256. 
 
 257. 
 258. 
 259. 
 260. 
 261. 
 262. 
 263. 
 264. 
 265. 
 266. 
 267. 
 268. 
 269. 
 270. 
 271. 
 272. 
 273. 
 274. 
 275. 
 276. 
 277. 
 278. 
 279. 
 280. 
 281. 
 282. 
 283. 
 284. 
 285. 
 286. 
 287. 
 288. 
 
 Achsenium 67 
 
 Diachanium 
 
 Samara . 
 
 Follicle 
 
 Pod, or Legume 
 
 Siliqua . 
 
 Siliqna opened 
 
 Silicula 
 
 67 
 67 
 67 
 67 
 67 
 67 
 67 
 
 Pyxidium 67 
 
 GerminatedField-bean in Progress 
 
 of Development . 
 Sweet Vernal Grass 
 Saffron Crocus 
 Darnel . 
 
 Sweet Woodruff . 
 Deadly Nightshade 
 Henbane 
 Fool's Parsley 
 Hemlock 
 Water Hemlock . 
 
 67 
 69 
 70 
 70 
 71 
 71 
 72 
 72 
 72 
 72 
 
 Tiger Lily 73 
 
 Lily of the Valley . . 73 
 
 French Willow .... 74 
 Flowering Rush . . * .74 
 Carthusian Pink . . . .75 
 Purple Loosestrife, or Willowstrife 75 
 Common White Thorn . .76 
 Wood Anemone . . . .76 
 Red Dead Nettle .... 77 
 Broom Rape . , . .77 
 Pod-bearing Red Lotus . . 78 
 
 Coronilla 78 
 
 Sainfoin 79 
 
 Perforated St. John's Wort . . 79 
 Common Knapweed . . .80 
 
 Dandelion 80 
 
 Meadow Salsify . . . .81 
 Daisy . . " . . . .81 
 Plathantera Bifolia ... .82 
 
 Larch 82 
 
 Scotch Fir ..... 82 
 Beech Tree , . . 82 
 
 Hornbeam Tree . . . .83 
 
 HI. MINERALOGY. 
 
 289. Equilateral Triangle . 90 
 
 290. Isosceles . . 90 
 
 291. Scalene . . 90 
 
 292. Square. . . 90 
 
 293. Rectangle . . 90 
 
 294. Rhomb . . 90 
 
 295. Rhomboid . . 90 
 
 296. Trapezoid . . 90 
 
 297. Pentagon . . 90 
 
 298. Hexagon . . 90 
 
 299. Combination of Cube and Octahe- 
 
 dron 91 
 
 300. Combination of Cube and Octahe- 
 
 dron 91 
 
 301. Combination of Cube and Octahe- 
 
 dron ,92 
 
 302. Combination of Cube and Rhombic 
 
 Dodecahedron . . . .92 
 
 303. Cube 93 
 
 304. Octahedron 93 
 
 305. Rhombic Dodecahedron . . 93 
 
 306. Tetrahedron . . . .93 
 
 307. Trapezohedron . . . .93 
 
 308. Hexakis-octahedron . . .93 
 
 309. Square Pyramid with short Prin- 
 
 cipal Axis 94 
 
 310. Square Pyramid with long Prin- 
 
 cipal Axis .94 
 
 311. Right Square Prism . , . 94 
 
 312. Combination of Three Square Py- 
 
 ramids 94 
 
 313. Combination of Square Prism with 
 
 Square Pyramid . . 94 
 
 314. Hexagonal Pyramid . .95 
 
 315. Hexagonal Prism . . . 95 
 
 316. Rhombohedron . . . 95 
 
 317. Rhombohedron . . . 95 
 
 318. Scalenohedron . . . 95 
 
 319. Combination of Hexagonal Prism 
 
 and Hexagonal Pyramid . . 95 
 
 320. Combination of Three Different 
 
 Rhombohedra . . . 95 
 
 321. Rhombic Pyramid . . 96 
 
 322. Rhombic Prism . . . 96 
 823. Rectangular Prism . . 96 
 
 324. Rectangular Pyramid . . 96 
 
 325. Combination of Rhombic Prism 
 
 with Two Domes . .96
 
 Till 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 326. Clino-rhombic Prism . . .97 
 
 327. Clino-rhombie Prism with Clino- 
 
 dome . .... 97 
 
 fio. PAGE 
 
 328. Clino-rhomboidal Prism . . 98 
 
 329. Geminous, or Double Crystal (of 
 
 Gypsum) 98 
 
 GEOGNOSY. 
 
 330. 
 331. 
 332. 
 333. 
 334. 
 
 335. 
 336. 
 337. 
 338. 
 339. 
 340. 
 341. 
 342. 
 
 357. 
 358. 
 359. 
 360. 
 361. 
 
 362. 
 363. 
 364. 
 365. 
 366. 
 367. 
 368. 
 369. 
 370. 
 371. 
 372. 
 373. 
 
 Stratification of Rocks . . 99 
 
 Stratification of Rocks . . 99 
 
 Stratification of Rocks . . 99 
 
 Dislocation or Displacement . 100 
 Theoretic Section of the Earth's 
 
 Crust 100 
 
 Artesian Well . . . .101 
 
 Cerithium mutabile . . . 105 
 
 Belemnites mucronatus . .105 
 
 Plagiostoma spinosum . . .105 
 
 Ammonites varians . . .105 
 
 Exogyra virgula . . . .105 
 
 Cidaris coronata . . . .105 
 
 Terebratula biplicata . . .105 
 
 343. Ichthyosauras communis . 
 
 344. Ammonites Bucklandi . 
 
 345. Belemnites digitalis 
 
 346. Gryphaea arena ta . 
 
 347. Ceratites s. Ammonites nodosus 
 
 348. Terebratula vulgaris . 
 
 349. Lima striata .... 
 
 350. Encrinites liliiformis 
 
 351. Productus aculeatus 
 
 352. Sphenophyllum dentatum 
 
 353. Annularia fertilis . 
 
 354. Calymene macrophthalma . 
 
 355. Cypridina serrato- striata 
 
 356. Pentamerus Knighti , 
 
 105 
 105 
 105 
 105 
 107 
 107 
 107 
 107 
 107 
 107 
 107 
 107 
 107 
 107 
 
 SUPPLEMENT. TECHNOLOGY. 
 
 Loom 110 
 
 Gear 110 
 
 Shuttle 110 
 
 Jacquard Loom . . . .112 
 Stuff Engine for comminuting 
 
 Rags into Paper Pulp . .114 
 Stuff Engine . . . .114 
 
 Corn Mill 116 
 
 Pistorius' Distilling Apparatus . 117 
 
 Brilliant 118 
 
 Brilliant 118 
 
 Brilliant US 
 
 Rose Diamond . . . .119 
 Rose Diamond . . . .119 
 Square Table Diamond . .119 
 Plat Table Diamond . . .119 
 Scalar! form Diamond . . .119 
 Combination of Brilliant and Sca- 
 
 lariformCut . . . .119 
 
 374. Conchoidal Cut . . . .119 
 
 375. Furnace, with Retorts, for the Ma- 
 
 nufacture of Illuminating Gas . 120 
 
 376. Furnace, with Retorts, for the Ma- 
 
 nufacture of Illuminating Gas . 120 
 
 377. Gasometer 121 
 
 378. Glass-blower's Blow-pipe . .122 
 
 379. Manufacture of Spread Window 
 
 Glass 122 
 
 380. Manufacture of Spread Window 
 
 Glass 123 
 
 381. Manufacture of Spread Window 
 
 Glass 123 
 
 382. Porcelain Furnace, or Kiln . .124 
 
 383. Porcelain Kiln . . . .124 
 
 384. Blast Furnace . . . .126 
 
 385. Puddling Furnace . . .127 
 
 386. Puddling Furnace . . .127
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS 
 
 TO THE STUDY OF 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY, BOTANY, 
 
 EIO., ETC. 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY is a special branch of Natural Science, 
 which teaches the knowledge of the objects of the material 
 world in general, the distinctions and differences existing between 
 them, and the systematic arrangement of them in classes, or groups, 
 according to their characters and properties. 
 
 Natural bodies are divided, in the first place, into two principal 
 classes, or groups, viz., organic bodies, or such as are possessed of 
 life (organised, living bodies), and inorganic objects, or such as are 
 not possessed of life (inorganic, inanimate objects). 
 
 Animals and Plants form the first class, that of the organic 
 bodies of nature. The bodies of this class exhibit an incessant 
 inner activity; they are provided with certain instruments, or 
 organs, especially adapted for the performance of the various 
 functions of life. From the objects of the inanimate world they 
 differ in this, that they take nourishment, or food, which, by the 
 operation of certain organs of the animal or plant, is, for the 
 greater part, transformed into juices, or fluids, and so perfectly 
 assimilated to the nature of the animal or vegetable body, as to 
 become fit to form a component part of it, and to make it grow in 
 size and strength the increase depending, accordingly, in this class 
 of bodies, upon a principle operating from within ; that they, after 
 a certain period of time, terminate their existence in death, or, in 
 
 r>
 
 2 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 other terms, cease to be possessed of life, and then undergo a 
 total change, by the operation of the process of decomposition or 
 putrefaction ; and, lastly, that they possess the faculty of multi- 
 plying, or, in other terms, of producing beings like themselves. 
 
 Minerals constitute the second class, viz., that of the inorganic 
 objects of nature. They are constantly in a state of absolute 
 quiescence, and have no organs. They, therefore, require no food, 
 nor is their growth dependent upon a principle operating from 
 within ; but they simply increase in size, during the period of their 
 formation, by accretion from without, or superposition of new 
 particles on their outer surface. They continue to exist so long 
 as they are not destroyed by some external agency. Lastly, they 
 are not possessed of the faculty of producing objects like them- 
 selves. 
 
 Animals and Plants have, indeed, the above-stated properties 
 and faculties in common ; but the former differ again from the 
 latter in some essential points, and most notably in this, that 
 animals are endowed with sensation, and possess the power of 
 voluntary motion, whilst plants lack both these faculties. 
 
 According to these distinctions existing between the several 
 classes of objects of the material world, Natural History is divided 
 into three parts, viz. : 
 
 I. ZOOLOGY, or the Study and Knowledge of Animals ; 
 II. BOTANZ, or the Study and Knowledge of Plants ; and, 
 III. MINERALOGY, or the Study and Knowledge of Minerals.
 
 I. ZOOLOGY. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 bodies of animals are composed, most commonly, of three 
 principal parts ; viz., the head, the trunk, and the extremities. 
 
 Every one of these parts contains 
 certain organs, by the aid of which 
 all the functions of the animal are 
 performed. According to the nature 
 of the functions over which these 
 organs severally preside, they are 
 divided into organs of motion, sensa- 
 tion, nutrition, and generation. 
 
 A. The organs of motion consist 
 of bones and muscles. The former, 
 taken collectively, constitute the 
 bony apparatus, or skeleton (see fig. 1, 
 human skeleton), which is divided 
 into three parts ; viz., the head, the 
 trunk, and the extremities. 
 
 1. The head. This part consists of 
 the cranium, or skull, and the bones 
 of the face (see fig. 2, human skull). 
 
 The cranium (skull, or brain-case) 
 forms a large vaulted cavity, and is 
 composed of eight bones, joined to- 
 gether by sutures, or seams ; these 
 bones are, the frontal bone, the two 
 parietal bones, the occipital bone, the 
 two temporal bones, the sphenoid bone, 
 situate in the middle of the base of 
 the cranium, and the ethmoid or cri- 
 briform bone, placed in the fore part of 
 the base of the cranium, and of which 
 the greater part is hidden in the 
 cavity of the nose, or fossa nasalis. 
 The face is composed of thirteen 
 bones, greatly differing in form, of 
 which the most important are, the 
 nasal bone and the two jaw-bones, or 
 mandibles. The maxilla superior, or 
 B 2 
 
 Fio. I. Human Skeleton. 
 
 a. TarictiJ bone. 6. Frontal boue. e. Cer- 
 vical vertebne. d. Sternum, or breast-bono. 
 e. Lumbar vertebras. /. Ulna. g. Radius. 
 it. Girpus, or wrist, i. Metacarpus. Ic. Fingers. 
 I. Tibia, m. Fibula, n. Tarsus, or instep. 
 o. Jiet.iarsus. p. Toes. q. Patella s. liotula, 
 or kbee-pan. r. Femur, or tliiffh-bone. . 
 Ilauiieh-bouo. t HuiiKTU.-i, i>r bone of tlio 
 nnu. v.. Clavicle, or collar-bums.
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 bone of the upper jaw, is firmly attached to the bones of the skull, 
 whilst the lower jaw bone is moveable, being articulated, on both 
 sides, behind the ears, with the glenoid cavities of the temporal 
 bones. 
 
 Pia. 2. Slcull of Man. 
 
 a. Nasal bone. b. Upper jaw, or superior maxillary bone. c. Lower jaw. d. Occipital 
 bone. e. Left temporal boiie. /. Left parietal bone. g. Frontal bone. 
 
 In the alveoli, or sockets of the jaw, are placed the teeth (see 
 fig. 3). According to their different shape, and the place which 
 
 they severally occupy in 
 the mouth, the teeth 
 are divided into three 
 classes ; viz., a. Incisors, 
 or front teeth, placed in 
 the fore-part of the jaw, 
 
 Pio. 3. Teeth of Man. 
 
 a. Incisors, or cutting teeth, b. Canine or dog tooth, c, Molar 
 teeth, or grinders. 
 
 with single root and 
 
 crown ; b. Dog or canine 
 teeth, placed at the sides 
 of the incisors, also with single root and crown ; c. Molar teeth, or 
 grinders, placed in the side-parts of the jaws, mostly with com- 
 pound root and crown. The crown again differs in shape in 
 different classes of animals, the form of the teeth indicating the 
 nature of the food suited to the animal. Thus, for instance, dogs 
 and other animals feeding on flesh have sharp, cutting, and com-
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 Vertebra seen from the Surface of 
 the Articulation. 
 
 pressed grinders; whilst cattle, feeding on grain and herbage, 
 have broad grinders, with surfaces adapted for the mastication of 
 vegetable food, etc. 
 
 2. The trunk, which means the body of the animal, is separated 
 from the head and the extremities (see fig. 1). The most important 
 part of the trunk is the vertebral column, or spine ; this is composed 
 of a number of small irregular bones, called vertebra?, or vertebral 
 bones (see fig. 4) . Each vertebra is composed 
 of a lamelliform body in front, and processes 
 behind and on each side of it ; the lateral 
 processes are called the transverse processes ; 
 the posterior process is called the spinous 
 process. 
 
 In man, the vertebral column is composed 
 of seven cervical, twelve dorsal, and five lum- 
 bar vertebrae, and of the os sacrum and os 
 coccygis, or rump-bone. 
 
 The os sacrum and the rump-bone are com- 
 posed, the former of five, the latter of four, 
 false vertebra?, firmly grown together. 
 
 To the trunk belong also the bones of the chest; viz., the breast- 
 bone, or sternum, and the ribs. To the twelve dorsal vertebras 
 are affixed as many ribs on each side, which arch over forwards ; 
 
 the seven uppermost ribs on each 
 side, which are called true or tho- 
 racic ribs, extend to the sternum, 
 and are connected to it by means 
 of cartilage, or gristle ; the five 
 inferior ribs on each side, which 
 are called false or abdominal ribs, 
 do not reach the breast-bone. In 
 this way the ribs form, with the 
 sternum and the dorsal vertebra?, 
 the cavity of the thorax, or chest 
 (see fig. 5). 
 
 3. The extremities, or limbs, are 
 divided into the upper and lower 
 extremities. Each of the two upper 
 extremities is composed of the 
 bones of the shoulder, arm, fore- 
 arm, and hand (see fig. 1, and 
 figs. 6 and 7). 
 a. The shoulder consists of the scapula, or shoulder-blade, a flat, 
 
 FIG. 5. Thorax of Man. 
 
 a. Spine. 6. First rib. c. Collar-bone, d. Third rib. 
 e. Seventh rib. /. False ribs. g. Spine, h. Breast- 
 oulder-I " 
 
 bone. i. Shou 
 
 -blade, or Scapula.
 
 G 
 
 PEACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 triangular bone, which covers the back part of the thorax, from 
 the third to the seventh rib, and the collar-bone, or clavicle ; the 
 latter resembles in shape an italic/: it is situated between the top 
 of the scapula and the upper part of the 
 sternum, and is attached to the latter by 
 ligaments, b. The arm consists of a single 
 cylindrical bone, called the liumerus, or os 
 brachii. c. The fore-arm consists of two 
 bones, the ulna, or cubit, at the inner part, 
 and the radius, or wheel-spoke-like bone, at 
 the outer part. d. The hand is composed 
 of three divisions of bones ; viz., the wrist, 
 or carpus, the metacarpus, and the fingers. 
 The wrist, or carpus, consists of eight small 
 cube-shaped bones, disposed in two rows. 
 The metacarpus consists of four bones of 
 nearly equal length. The thumb has two pha- 
 langes ; each of the other fingers, three. 
 
 The lower extremities (see fig. 1 and fig. 8) 
 greatly resemble the upper in the shape, posi- 
 tion, and number of the bones composing 
 them. Their constituent parts are, the os 
 coxoe, or innominatum (consisting of the 
 haunch-bone, hip-bone, and share-bone), the 
 thigh, leg, and. foot. 
 
 a. The ossa innominata, or bones of the 
 haunch and hip, correspond to the shoulder- 
 blade in the upper extremities, and are 
 joined behind to the os sacrum, b. The thigh-bone is the longest 
 bone in the body. c. The leg consists of three bones ; viz., tbie tibia, 
 fibula, and the patella s. rotula, or knee-pan, d. The foot is composed 
 of the tarsus, instep, or ankle, the metatarsus, 
 and the toes. The tarsus, or instep, is com- 
 posed of seven bones, disposed in two rows ; 
 the largest of them is called the os calcis, or 
 heel-bone. The metatarsal bones and the toes 
 are the same in number and position as the 
 metacarpal bones and fingers of the hand ; 
 with this exception, however, that the great 
 toe, which corresponds to the thumb, runs 
 along in the same direction with the other 
 fingers, and not at an angle from them. 
 
 B. The organs of sensation are the brain and nerves. 
 
 FIG. 6. 
 
 Arm, Fore-arm, and Hand of Man. 
 a. Arm. b. Ulua, or cubit. 
 c. Radius, d. Carpus, or wrist, 
 e. Metacarpus. /. Fingers, g. 
 Thumb. 
 
 Fid. 7. Slioulder of Man. 
 a. Collar-bone, b. Shoulder- 
 blade, c. Arm.
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 1. The brain (see fig. 9) is a soft, pulpy, 
 white or grey mass, lodged in the cavity of 
 the cranium ; its surface is divided by deep 
 fissures into many turnings, or windings. 
 It consists of two principal portions, of 
 which, the anterior, the cerebrum, or brain 
 proper, fills the front and middle part of 
 the head; the other portion, which is 
 termed the cerebellum, occupies the poste- 
 rior and inferior part of the head. Each 
 of these two portions is again divided into 
 two halves, or hemispheres, a right and a 
 left. In the cerebrum, the two lobes, or 
 hemispheres, are separated from each other 
 by a strip of medullary substance, termed 
 the /a/a? (sickle). 
 
 Continued from the cerebellum, there is 
 the medulla oblongata (see fig. 10), which 
 passes through ike foramen magnum of the 
 occipital bone into the vertebral column, 
 and constitutes the beginning of the spinal 
 marrow. 
 
 The nerves (see fig. 10) are formed, like 
 the brain, of a soft, pulpy substance ; they 
 take their origin from the brain and spinal 
 marrow, and are, in the form of interlaced 
 filaments, distributed to every part of the 
 
 Lower Extremities of Man (without the 
 
 Bones of the Haunch and Hip), 
 a. Thigh. 6. Patella, or knee-pan. 
 c. Tibia, d. Fibula, e. Tarsus, or 
 instep. /. Metatarsus, g. Toea. h. 
 Heel-bone, or os calcis. 
 
 Fio. 9. Vertical Section of the Brain. 
 
 a. Falx. 6. Cerebellum, c. Spinal marrow, d. Cerebrum, 
 or brain proper.
 
 8 
 
 PEAOTICAL AIDS. 
 
 Fio. 10. 
 
 Brain and Spinal Marrow, (hewing 
 alto the Trunks of the principal 
 JXerves. 
 
 1 12. Cerebral nerves, a. Ce- 
 rebrum, or brain proper. 6. Me- 
 dulla oblongata. c. Spinal mar- 
 row, d. Cerebellum, e. Brachial 
 plexus. /. Crural plexus, or 
 lumbar plexus, jr. Sciatic nerve. 
 
 nates in the 
 which leads to an osseous cap- 
 sule under the head. At the 
 inner end of the duct, where it 
 enters this capsule, it is closed 
 by an elastic membrane stretch- 
 ed over it, which is called the 
 membrane of the tympanum. At 
 the inner side of this mem- 
 brane, within the osseous cap- 
 sule, is situated the tympanum, 
 a small cavity, connected with 
 the mouth by the so-called 
 
 body. The nerves are distinguished into 
 two classes ; viz., those which convey to 
 the parts to which they are distributed the 
 power of sensation, and those which convey 
 the power of motion. The former are usually 
 termed cerebral nerves ; they are generally 
 reckoned twelve pairs, which are marked in 
 the engraving (fig. 10) 1 12, and are repre- 
 sented cut near their origin. Most of them 
 are distributed to the organs of the senses. 
 The motory nerves are called also spinal 
 nerves. They consist of thirty pairs, which 
 pass out between the different vertebrae, and 
 are called respectively, cervical, dorsal, lumbar, 
 and sacral, according to the name of the divi- 
 sion of the spine to which the vertebras seve- 
 rally belong ; they are distributed, for the most 
 part, to the extremities. The fifth, sixth, 
 and seventh cervical, together with the first 
 dorsal nerve, form the brachial plexus ; the 
 five lumbar nerves form the lumbar or crural 
 plexus. 
 
 The organs of the senses are the skin, the 
 tongue, the nose, the eye, and the ear. Figs. 
 11 14 give illustrations of the component 
 parts of the ear, fig. 15 of the eye. 
 
 The Ear is divided into external and in- 
 ternal ear (see figs. 11 14). The external 
 ear, or concha, contracts inwards, and termi- 
 auditory duct, 
 
 EustacUan tube. 
 
 The cavity of oucdu 
 
 Fio. 12. 
 
 a. Incus, or anvil. 
 6. Malleus, or ham- 
 mer, c. Lenticular 
 bone. d. Stapes, or 
 stirrup. 
 
 erve . , 
 Auditory pa8sage> r
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 9 
 
 FIG. 14. rertical Section of the Ear. 
 
 a. Concha. 6. Auditory duct. c. Lobe of the car, or ear-lap. 
 d. Articulation of the lower jaw. e. Membrane of the tym- 
 panum, or drum of the ear. /. Eustachian tube. g. Cavity of 
 the tympanum, h. Cochlea, i. Auditory nerve, k. Vestibule. 
 I. Labyrinth and semicircular canals, m. Temporal bone. 
 
 the tympanum contains four small bones, called respectively, from 
 their shape, malleus, or hammer, incus, or anvil, orbicular or len- 
 ticular bone, and stapes, or stirrup (see fig. 12). These bones serve, 
 principally to increase the 
 tension of the membrane 
 of the tympanum. 
 
 Two holes, closed by 
 membranes, lead from the 
 tympanum to the inner- 
 most part of the ear, the 
 labyrinth (see figs. 13 and 
 14), which is formed of the 
 vestibule with the fenestra 
 ovalis, the cochlea, and the 
 semicircular canals. The 
 cochlea and vestibule are 
 filled with an aqueous fluid, 
 into which the ramifica- 
 tions of the auditory nerve 
 dip. 
 
 The ball, globe, or bulb of the eye, is of a spherical form ; it is 
 covered with a white, opaque membrane, called tunica sclerotica, or 
 sclerotic coat. The eyeball has a round convex opening in it, which 
 is closed by a transparent membrane, called cornea. Through this 
 opening, or windoiv of the eye, is seen, further 
 inward, another coat, called iris, which is of 
 a brown, grey, or blue colour ; the inner coat 
 is perforated in the middle by a hole, called 
 the pupil or sight of the eye. Immediately 
 behind the pupil is situated the crystalline 
 lens, a perfectly pellucid body, which derives 
 its name from its resemblance to a common 
 lens, or magnifying glass. The large space 
 in the ball of the eye, behind the crystalline 
 lens, is occupied by a very transparent humour, termed vitreous 
 humour, from its resemblance to glass. The back part of this 
 space is covered by the retina, a membrane formed by the expansion 
 of the optic nerve, which enters the orbit of the eye from the brain. 
 Between the retina and sclerotica is placed the choroid coat, the 
 inner side of which is coated over with a brownish black pigment, 
 termed pigmentum nigrum, which gives the eye the character of a 
 camera obscura, with the rays of light entering only through the 
 pupil, the latter itself appearing black. 
 
 FIG. 15. ' 
 
 Tlie Sail of ilix Sye laid open, 
 a. Crystalline lens. 6. Eye- 
 lid, c. Iris. d. Pupil, e. Cornea. 
 /. Vitreous humor, g. Retina. 
 h. Optic nerve, i. Choroid coat. 
 k. Sclerotic coat.
 
 10 
 
 PEACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 0. The organs of nutrition are contained in the cavities of the 
 chest and abdomen. The process of nutrition is effected, a, by the 
 introduction of alimentary substances into the body, and the diges- 
 tion of the same; b, the circulation throughout the body of .the 
 vital fluid supplied by the digestive organs ; c, the transformation 
 of the vital fluid after circulation. 
 
 These several functions are performed respectively by the organs 
 of digestion, circulation, and respiration. 
 
 1. The intestinal canal constitutes the chief part of the digestive 
 organs ; it is divided into four principal portions, viz., the oesophagus 
 or gullet, the stomach, the small intestines, and the great intestines. 
 The teeth, salivary glands, liver, spleen, pancreas, etc., co-operate 
 in the process as auxiliary organs. 
 
 The solid alimentary substances are, in the first place, taken 
 into the mouth (see fig. 16), where they are cut and ground into a 
 
 paste, by the action of the jaws and teeth, 
 being, at the same time, mixed also with 
 the saliva, a slightly viscid liquor secreted 
 by the salivary glands, situated under the 
 tongue. The alimentary paste passes now 
 from the mouth into a narrow canal, the 
 oesophagus, or gullet, which descends through 
 the thorax, behind the windpipe, into the 
 abdominal cavity, and leads into the stomach 
 (see fig. 17). This is a membranous bag, 
 situated obliquely across the upper and 
 back part of the abdomen, from the right 
 to the left, and covered on the right by 
 the left part of the liver, on the left by the 
 spleen. From the inner surface of the 
 stomach, a peculiar mucous acid fluid is 
 secreted, termed gastric juice, which serves 
 to reduce the alimentary substances introduced into the stomach 
 to one homogeneous mass, called chyme. This operation being 
 completed, the chyme passes out of the stomach by the pylorus, or 
 lower orifice, situated toward the right, into the intestinal tube or 
 canal, which is about thirty feet long, and winds in numerous 
 convolutions through the abdomen down to the anus. The intes- 
 tines are divided into small and large intestines ; the former 
 constitute the first and longer portion of the canal; the first 
 part of this is called duodenum, from the length of it being equal 
 to about the width of twelve fingers. The digestive process is 
 continued in the duodenum, the chyme being there subjected to the 
 
 Fio. 16. 
 
 Vertical Section of the Mouth and 
 
 Pharynx. 
 
 a. Nose. 6. Tongue, c. Arch of 
 the palate, d. Hyoid bone. e. La- 
 rynx. /. Thyroid gland, g. Trachea, 
 or wiud-pipo. h. (Esophagus, i. Sali- 
 vary glands, k. Pharynx.
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 11 
 
 action of the bile and pancreatic juice ; the latter is secreted from 
 the pancreas, a glandular organ, situated just below the stomach, 
 the former by the liver. The effect of 
 the mixture of these two fluids with the 
 chyme is to separate the latter into two 
 parts. One of these is a thin, milky *" 
 fluid, called chyle, which contains the 
 elements of the food required for the 
 nutrition of the body, and is, in its pas- 
 sage through the intestines, gradually 
 absorbed by capillary vessels, called lac- 
 teals, which are dispersed over the inner 
 coats of the intestines through nearly 
 their whole course, and convey the fluid 
 to be absorbed finally into the blood. The 
 other part, which is solid, consists of 
 those portions of the food which are not 
 fit for the nourishment of the body, and 
 are, accordingly, after passing through 
 the large intestine, thrown out of it as Flfl . , 7 . 
 
 useless. One part of the lar^e intestine Siffesiive Oryans of Man - 
 
 L a. (Esophagus. 6. Stomach, c. Pancreas. 
 
 forms a shut sac, or bag, called the d - T s .p leeu< - t *J5fi**% / ,f a J 1 "] > J^ der ' 
 
 g. Liver, h. Colon, i. Small intestines. 
 
 caecum; the terminal portion of the large n * e . ctum> l Ca)cum< m ' Large illte8 ' 
 
 intestine is called the rectum. 
 
 2. The organs of circulation, which collectively constitute the 
 
 vascular system are divided into three parts; viz., the heart, the 
 
 arteries, and the veins. 
 
 a. The heart (see fig. 18) is situated in the cavity of the chest, 
 
 between the two lungs (see fig. 19) ; it 
 
 forms the general centre of the vas- 
 cular system, and 
 the mainspring of 
 the circulation, the 
 blood-vessels run- 
 ning from it to all 
 parts of the body, 
 like the branches 
 and twigs of a tree. 
 It is of the size 
 of a small fist. 
 In Mammalia and 
 
 FIG. IS. 
 Vertical Sect ion of the He irt, shewing 
 
 the Trunks of the large Arteries 
 
 and Veins. 
 
 a. Aorta. 6. Pulmonary artery. 
 c. Vona cava superior, rf. Pul- 
 monary veins, f. Right auricle. 
 <j. Left auricle, h. Vena cava in- 
 ferior, t. Right ventricle, k. Left 
 ventricle. I. Septum. 
 
 Fio. 19. 
 
 The Lungs, the Heart, and the principal 
 Arterial Trunks. 
 
 .. 
 
 \4; iq Qprn 
 QG^o, 
 
 a. Trachea, or wind-pipe. 6. Carotid 
 
 I_ arteiies. c. Humeral or Brachial artery, d. 
 Brachial veins, e. Left lung, /. Left Ven- 
 -, tricle. g. Right ventricle, h. Right Au- 
 " ricle. i. Right lung, k: Aorta.
 
 12 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 or sides, a right and a left, by a longitudinal partition. Each of 
 these sides is again divided into two parts by a transverse par- 
 tition ; this gives, accordingly, four distinct cavities ; the two larger 
 ones, which occupy the lower part, are called the right and left 
 ventricles ; the two smaller ones, which occupy the upper part, and 
 into which the corresponding ventricles open, right and left auricle 
 (see fig. 18). Most animals have a heart, which, however, differs 
 in structure in the different classes. 
 
 b. The arteries are strong, thick-coated, elastic canals, which 
 convey the blood from the heart to the different parts of the body ; 
 they divide after the manner of the branching of a tree, forming 
 many divisions and subdivisions before they reach their termina- 
 tion ; their minutest branches, called capillaries, from their small- 
 ness, terminate in the veins. The 
 principal large trunk, which arises 
 from the left ventricle of the heart, 
 and sends forth its branches to 
 all parts of the body, is called the 
 aorta (see fig. 20). At its origin 
 it is about the thickness of a 
 thumb ; it ascends from the heart 
 for a short distance, arches over, 
 sends branches to the head (carotid 
 or cephalic arteries] and arms 
 (subclavian arteries, with their 
 continuations and branches, axil- 
 lary and 'humeral or brachial 
 arteries], then descends behind 
 the heart, and divides finally into 
 two great branches, for the sup- 
 plying of the lower extremities. 
 
 The artery arising from the 
 right ventricle of the heart, which 
 is dispersed throughout the sub- 
 stance of the lungs, is called the 
 pulmonary artery. 
 
 c. The veins are thin-coated, 
 elastic, flexible tubes, continued 
 directly from the extremities of 
 the arteries, which return the 
 blood from the different parts of 
 
 er- 
 
 Fio. 20. 
 
 General rUw of the Arterial Sy,tem. 
 a. Temporal artery. 6. Right carotid artery, c. Ver 
 
 , . 
 
 tebral artery, d. Subclavian artery, e. Left axillary flip Vinrlv t,O t.llP llPfirf, 
 artery. -/. Iliac artery. g. Humeral artery. A. Radial T JU 7 V* 
 
 artery, i. Aorta, severed above the heart, k. Femoral 
 artery. I. Tibia, in. Artery of the foot. 
 
 gradually collect together into
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 13 
 
 two large trunks at the right auricle of the heart. There are two 
 systems of veins in the body; viz., the system of the vence cavce, 
 and the system of the pulmonary veins. The veins of the former 
 system collect together into two thick trunks, of which the one, 
 called superior vena cava, unites all the venous branches coming 
 from the upper part of the body (the head, neck, arms, etc.) ; the 
 other, called inferior vena cava, all the venous branches coming 
 from the lower extremities, and from the pelvis and abdomen. 
 Both trunks return the blood from the body to the right auricle of 
 the heart. The veins constituting the pulmonary system collect 
 together into four principal trunks, which convey the blood from 
 the lungs into the left auricle. 
 
 We distinguish a double system of circulation, the general and 
 the pulmonary. Fig. 21 will serve to give a general 
 idea of both systems. 
 
 The general, or great circulation, conveys the 
 bright red arterial blood from the left ventricle of 
 the heart through the aorta and its branches and 
 ramifications to all parts of the body, and returns 
 afterwards the dark-coloured venous blood through 
 the vence cavce to the right auricle of the heart. 
 The blood having, in its course through the body, 
 undergone a change in its qualities which unfits it 
 for the nourishment of the different parts, requires 
 now to be restored to its original vital condition. 
 
 This restoration is effect- 
 ed by means of the pul- 
 monary circulation, which 
 conveys the dark venous 
 blood from the right ven- 
 tricle of the heart, through 
 the pulmonary arteries, to 
 the lungs, where it is purified by the action 
 of the air, and recovers the bright florid 
 colour of arterial blood. It is then brought 
 back by the pulmonary veins to the left 
 auricle of the heart, which sends it on to 
 the left ventricle, for renewed circulation 
 through the body. 
 
 3. The organs of respiration are, the 
 trachea, or windpipe, and the lungs. 
 
 a. The trachea (see figs. 16, 19, 22) is a 
 cylindrical canal, which begins in the neck, 
 
 ~-t~ 
 
 Fio. 21. 
 
 Ideal Representation of (lit 
 Two Systems of Circulation, 
 a. Pulmonary circula- 
 tion. 6. Pulmonary arte- 
 ries, c. Pulmonary veins. 
 d. Bight auricle, e. Left 
 auricle, f. Left ventri- 
 cle, g. 
 
 circulation - 
 
 Fio. 22. Trachea and Lungs. 
 
 an this engraving the right luug 
 
 shows the ramifications of the bron- 
 
 chiai branches) 
 
 a. Larynx. 6. Trachea, c. Left 
 
 *' "' Bigbt brou "
 
 14 PEACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 in front of the oesophagus, and descends into the cavity of the 
 chest, where it divides into two lateral branches, called bronchi, of 
 which one goes to the right, the other to the left lung, where they 
 both divide and subdivide in minute ramifications, after the manner 
 of the branching of a tree. At the upper end of the trachea is 
 situated the larynx, with the glottis, or mouth of the larynx, which 
 opens into the pharynx. A cartilaginous flap or valve, called 
 epiglottis, shuts the glottis completely in the act of swallowing, 
 thus preventing the introduction of any portion of the food into 
 the canal of the trachea. 
 
 b. The lungs are two voluminous, soft, spongy bodies, which 
 occupy the greater part of the cavity of the chest. They are 
 composed chiefly of the minute ramifications of the bronchial 
 branches, and the pulmonary arteries and veins. They are divided 
 into two portions or wings of nearly equal size, the right lung and 
 the left lung.
 
 ZOOLOGY. , 15 
 
 GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. 
 
 rPHE Animal Kingdom is arranged in three grand divisions : 
 
 I. Vertebral Animals, having a skeleton, with the brain and 
 spinal marrow enclosed within an osseous case, and red blood. 
 This group is subdivided into four classes, viz., Mammalia, Birds, 
 Reptiles, and Fishes. 
 
 II. Articulated Invertebral Animals, which are white-blooded and 
 have no skeleton. In the animals of this group, the body is gene- 
 rally composed of a number of moveable rings, placed one behind 
 another in succession; instead of a brain and spinal marrow, 
 they are furnished with nervous cords (ganglions) ; they mostly 
 have articulated limbs. This group is subdivided into four classes : 
 viz., Insects, Spiders (Arachnides), Crustacea, and Worms. 
 
 III. Non-articulated Invertebral Animals, having no skeleton, and 
 destitute even of external rings. The bodies of animals of this 
 group are generally of a soft, gelatinous texture, and of globular, 
 oblong, or discous form. Many of them are furnished with a 
 calcareous external covering, or shell ; but all of them are destitute 
 of actual articulated members. This group, also, is subdivided 
 into four classes, viz., Mollusca, Radiata, Polypes, and Infusoria, or 
 Animalcules. 
 
 FIEST CLASS. MAMMALIA. 
 
 The Mammalia have red, warm blood, breathe by means of lungs, 
 produce their young alive, and nourish them for a time by their 
 milk. The heart, in this class of animals, has two auricles and two 
 ventricles, and the upper-jaw-bone, or 'maxilla superior, is, in all 
 of them, firmly attached to the bones of the skull. 
 
 The animals of this class are divided into twelve orders, accord- 
 ing to the differences observed in the formation of their limbs and 
 the structure of their teeth. These twelve orders are as follows : 
 1. Bimana, or two-handed animals ; 2. Quadrumana, or four-handed 
 animals; 3. Cheiroptera, or bats; 4. Ferce, or beasts of prey; 
 5. Marsupial animals ; 6. Rodentia, or gnawers ; 7. Edentata, 
 or toothless animals ; 8. Solidungula, or single-hoofed animals ;
 
 16 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 9. Pachydermata, or thick- skinned animals, called also Multungula, 
 i.e., having several hoofs; 10. Ruminantia, or ruminating amimals 
 (animals chewing the cud) ; 11. Phocce, or seals; 12. Cetacece, or 
 animals of the whale kind. 
 
 Fia. 23. Skeleton f the Ourang Outang (Simia Satyrus). 
 
 a. Sternum. 6. Radius, c. Ulna. d. Tibia. . Metacarpus. /. Fingers. 
 g. Thumb, h. Fibula, i. Femur, k. Haunch-bone (oa ilium). I. Vertebral 
 column, m. Shoulder-blade. 
 
 Order 1. Two HANDED ANIMALS. (Bimana). 
 (Homo sapiens). 
 
 .-Man is the only species of this order. He has hands with 
 separate thumbs on his superior extremities alone; the ends 
 of his fingers and toes are covered with flat nails. The mouth
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 17 
 
 is furnished with two serried rows of teeth, sixteen in each 
 jaw; viz., four cutting teeth, or incisors, two corner teeth, or 
 canine teeth, and ten molar teeth, or grinders. 
 
 Order 2. Foufi HANDED ANIMALS. (Quadrumana) . 
 
 The four-handed animals, apes (monkeys), have hands with 
 separate thumbs upon all four of their extremities (see fig. 23). 
 
 The number of teeth is 
 generally the same as in 
 man, and there are, in- 
 
 Fio. 24. 
 Skvll of an Old Ourang Outanq. (Order 2. Quadrumana). 
 
 FIG. 25. 
 
 Skull of a Chimpanzee. 
 (Order 2. Quadrumana.) 
 
 deed, altogether, many 
 points of resemblance be- 
 tween the two orders ; on 
 the other hand, however, 
 the animals of the second 
 order, or ape tribe, differ 
 from man in the confor- 
 mation of the face and 
 
 Fio. 26. Skeleton of the Sat, theioing the outline of the Membrane constituting the Wings. 
 
 a. Collar-bone. 6. Membrane constituting the wings, c. Caudal vertebra;, d. Thigh. . Leg. /. Tarsus. 
 
 g. Metatarsus. A. Toes. i. Fingers, k. Metacarpus. I. Thumb, m. Carpus, n. Fore-arm, o. Arm. 
 

 
 18 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 other parts of the body, but more especially the skull (see figs. 
 24 and 25). 
 
 Order 3. BATS. (Cheiroptera) . 
 
 The animals of this order have the fingers, or claws of the fore- 
 feet, considerably elongated, for the expansion of membranes, 
 
 which extend between the 
 two limbs of the same side, 
 and act as wings (see fig. 
 26). The sense of touch is 
 very powerfully developed in 
 these animals, more espe- 
 cially in the membrane con- 
 stituting the wings, and in 
 that lining the ear ; and 
 many of them are distin- 
 guished also by a cutaneous 
 nasal appendage, presenting 
 in some, as in the vampyre 
 (see fig. 27), the form of a 
 leaf, whilst bearing in others 
 a fancied resemblance to a 
 FIG. 27. horse-shoe. "We distinguish 
 
 Head of the Vampire (PJiyllostoma spectrum), shewing the leaf- nnnr\vr\\-nre\-cr lonf wflQPf] hat<4 
 like Nasal Appendage. (Order S.-Sats, or Cheiroptera). aCCOmingiy leaj-nObeil UdL 
 
 and horse-shoe bats. 
 
 Order 4. BEASTS OP PEET. (Ferce.) 
 
 The animals of this order have free toes upon their four extre- 
 mities, but no separate thumbs ; the number of toes varies in the 
 different tribes. They are furnished with the three kinds of teeth. 
 
 They are divided into two classes ; viz., insectivorous and 
 carnivorous. 
 
 The Hedgehog (Erinaceus europceus) (see fig. 28) may serve here 
 as the type of the tribe of insectivorous 
 animals. In this tribe, the middle 
 front-teeth are larger than the other 
 teeth, and project. 
 
 The carnivorous animals, or carni- 
 vora proper, have in each jaw six 
 awl-shaped fore-teeth ; on each side 
 of these, a long projecting canine 
 tooth, and several molar teeth, which 
 latter are either very sharp and cutting, or are armed with a 
 
 FlO. 28. 
 
 Skull of the Hedgehog (Erinaceus europceus). 
 (Order 4. Ferce).\
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 number of points or cones. The animals of this tribe have no 
 collar-bones (see fig. 29). The skeleton is powerfully built, and 
 
 Fio. 29. Skeleton of the Fox. 
 
 a. First cervical vertebra, b. Shoulder-blade, c. Haunch-bone, or os ilium. 
 d. Heel. e. Metatarsus. /. Knee. g. Breast-bone, h. Elbow, i. Metacarpus. 
 k. Carpus. 
 
 resembles, in many points, that of man. The carnivora proper 
 are divided into five families, or tribes; viz., Bears, Dogs, Cats, 
 Martens, and Ferrets. 
 
 The Badger (Meles 
 vulgaris) (see fig. 30), 
 may serve here as a 
 representative of the 
 family of the Bears. 
 The badger, like the 
 other animals of the 
 Bear tribe, is fur- 
 nished with tolerably 
 broad grinders. 
 
 The Fox (Canis 
 vulpes) (see fig. 31) belongs to the dog tribe. The animals of this 
 family have long jaws, on account of the great number of grinders 
 
 Fio. 31. 
 Skull of the Fox (Canis vulpei). (Order 4. Ferct). 
 
 with which they are furnished ; the body is strongly and com- 
 pactly made. 
 
 c 2
 
 20 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 In the animals of the Cat kind, the number of grinders is limited 
 to four on each side of the upper, and three on each side of the 
 
 lower jaw; the head 
 presents, therefore, 
 rather a roundish 
 shape, instead of be- 
 ing elongated, as in 
 
 Fio. 32. 
 
 Skull of the Lion (Felis leo). 
 (Order 4. Ferce). 
 
 Fio. 33. 
 
 Skull of the Cat (Felis domestica). 
 (Order 4. Ferae.) 
 
 the Dog tribe. The Lion (see fig. 32) and the Domestic Cat (see 
 
 fig. 33) are well known species of this tribe. 
 
 The animals belonging to the family of the Martens, or Mustela?, 
 
 have a short, thick head, 
 and slender, sharp-pointed 
 canine teeth. Examples : 
 the Pole-cat (Mustelafoina) 
 
 Fio. 34. 
 
 Skull of the Pole-cat (Mustelafoina). 
 (Order i.Fera;). 
 
 FIG. 35. 
 
 Skull of the Otter (Lutra vulgarit). 
 (Order 4.Fera). 
 
 and the common Otter (Lutra vulgaris) (see fig. 35). The animals 
 of this tribe have a long, lean body, with very short legs. 
 
 Order 5. MARSUPIAL ANIMALS. (Marsupialia). 
 
 The Marsupial animals are furnished with a duplicature of the 
 skin of the abdomen, which forms a kind of bag. In this bag, or 
 pouch, the female places its young, which are brought into the 
 world in a most unformed and imperfect state, and keeps them 
 there during the entire period of their development. There are 
 two oblong bones near this pouch (see fig. 36, Skeleton of the 
 .Kangaroo), which are called pouch-bones, as it was formerly 
 believed that they served to support the pouch. The Marsupials
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 differ greatly in their teeth, 
 the formation of their hind- 
 legs and feet, and their habits 
 of life. 
 
 The Kangaroo (Halmaturus 
 giganteus)is the most remark- 
 able species of this order 
 (see fig. 36). This animal 
 is distinguished by the great 
 disproportion in length be- 
 tween its fore and hind-legs, 
 which makes it a task of 
 considerable difficulty for the 
 animal to walk on all fours, 
 but enables it, on the other 
 hand, to take leaps of asto- 
 nishing power. 
 
 Order 6. GNAWEES. 
 (Rodentia s. Glircs). 
 The Gnawers have only 
 two large chisel-shaped in- 
 cisor teeth in the centre of 
 each jaw, and no canine 
 teeth; they mostly have 
 grinders on both sides of 
 each jaw; between the in- 
 cisors and the molars there 
 is a vacant space (see figs. 
 3740, and 44). They differ 
 greatly in the conformation 
 of their tail and legs. The best known among the very numerous 
 families of this order are the Squirrel, the Mouse, the Beaver, the 
 Porcupine, the Hare, and the Guinea-pig. 
 
 Fio. 36. 
 Skeleton of the Kangaroo (Halmalurus Giganteus). 
 
 (Order 5. Marsupialia). 
 a. Pouch bones. 6. Metatarsus, c. Heel. 
 
 Fio. 37. 
 
 Skull of the Squirrel (Sciv.rvs Vulgaris). 
 (Order 6. Glires s. Rodentia). 
 
 Fio. 38. 
 
 Skvll of the Marmot (Arctomys Marmota.) 
 (Order 6. Glircs s. Rodentia).
 
 22 
 
 PEAOTICAL AIDS. 
 
 To the Squirrel tribe belong, among others, the Common Squirrel 
 (Sciurus vulgaris) (see fig. 37) and the Marmot 
 (Arctomys Marmota) (see fig. 38). 
 
 FIG. 39. 
 Skull of the Field Mouse 
 
 (Hypudocus Arvalis). 
 
 (Order 6. Glires . Roden- 
 
 tia). 
 
 To the Mouse tribe 
 belongs the Field-Mouse 
 (Hypudwus arvalis) (see 
 fig. 39). The animals 
 of this family have only 
 three molar teeth on 
 each side of the two jaws. 
 
 The Beaver (Castor fiber 
 
 Fia. 41. 
 
 Tail of the Heaver. 
 
 hind-paws are connected 
 fig. 43). 
 
 Fia. 40. 
 
 Skull of the Beaver (Castor Fiber). 
 (Order 6. Glires s. Rodmtia). 
 
 ) (figs. 40,41, 42,43) belongs to the family 
 of that name ; it has a 
 large, long, and broad 
 tail, almost oval in 
 shape, and covered with 
 scales (see fig. 41). The 
 toes of the fore-paws 
 are free (see fig. 42), 
 whilst those of the 
 
 together by a membrane or web (see 
 
 FIG. 42. 
 Fore-paw of the Beaver. 
 
 Fio. 43. 
 Hind-paw of the Beaver. 
 
 The members of the Hare family have in the upper jaw six 
 molar teeth on each 
 side ; in the lower jaw, 
 five on each side. Be- 
 hind the two incisors 
 of the upper jaw, are 
 placed, moreover, two 
 smaller peg-like teeth. 
 The Common Hare 
 (Lepus timidus) (fig. 
 44) is the best known FIG. u. 
 
 . f .-, f> M Skull of tJie Common Hare (Lepus Timidus). 
 
 species 01 the family. (Order &-.
 
 ZOOLOGY. 23 
 
 Order 7. TOOTHLESS ANIMALS. (Edentata). 
 
 Fio. 46. 
 
 Head, of the Ornithothynchw (Ornithorhynchus 
 faradoxus.) (Order 7. Edentata.) 
 
 FIG. 46. 
 
 Skull of the Pangolin (Mani Brachyura). (Order 7. Edentata). 
 
 The toothless animals are characterized by the absence 
 
 cisors, and often 
 also of the canine 
 and grinding 
 teeth. The spe- 
 cies best known 
 of this order 
 are the Pangolin 
 
 Manis brachyura (see fig. 45), and the Ornitho- 
 rhynchus (Ornithorhynchus paradoxus) (see fig. 
 46). 
 
 Order 8. SINGLE-HOOFED ANIMALS. 
 
 (Solidungula}. 
 
 The single-hoofed animals (Solidungula s. 
 Solipeda) have on each foot only a single 
 perfectly formed toe, surrounded by a broad 
 
 of the in- 
 
 Fig. 47. Skeleton of tlie Horse. 
 
 a. Shoulder-blade, b Hauncli-bone, or os ilium, e. Knee-pan. 
 d. Tibia, e. Metatarsus. /. Toe. g. Finger, h. Metacarpus. 
 i. Carpus, k. Radius. I. Uumerus. 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 Right Hind Leg of the Horts. 
 
 a. Tarsus, b. Metatarsus. 
 c. Pastern, d. Coronal bone. 
 e. Too. /. Nail phalanx. The 
 punctuated line is intended to 
 indicate the circumference of 
 the hoof.
 
 24 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 hoof; in other terms, the whole foot is enveloped in a single hoof 
 (figs. 47 and 48). They have no collar-bones. They have six 
 incisive teeth in each jaw, and twelve grinders, or double teeth, 
 
 FlO. 49. 
 
 Shall of the Hone (Eguus Cdballut). (Order 8. Solidungvld). 
 a. Parietal bone. 6. Frontal bone. c. Nasal bone. d. Fore-teeth, or incisors, e. Canine teeth. 
 
 six on each side ; the corner, or canine, teeth are mostly wanting 
 
 in the female (see fig. 49). The grinders are quadrilateral, with 
 the exception of the first and last, which are 
 trilateral ; they are laterally compressed, and their 
 grinding surfaces are marked by sinuous furrows 
 formed by plates of enamel, which extend into 
 the substance of the tooth, being mixed in a 
 tortuous manner with the osseous parts. 
 
 This order contains only one species, the Horse, 
 which, besides the animal of that name, embraces 
 the Ass, the Zebra, etc. 
 The age of the horse is generally known by 
 
 the teeth. Fig. 51 represents the changes of 
 
 the teeth in a young horse. At its birth, the 
 
 young foal has twelve grinders, consisting of 
 
 the three foremost in each side of both jaws. 
 
 At the end of the first or second week after 
 
 birth, the two middle incisors make their 
 
 appearance in the upper and lower jaw. At theTeetninaTourlgHortt , 
 
 the end of four or six weeks, another tooth Milk teet ^ et ^- Permanent 
 
 appears on each side of them, and at the end 
 
 FlO. 50. 
 
 Grinding Surface of Molar 
 Teeth of a Horse, thaw- 
 ing the Enamel-plated, 
 Sinuous Furrowt. 
 
 4-5 Months 
 
 CeWeks 
 
 ISliDays; 
 
 4^ Years 
 b 
 
 Fio. 51. 
 A 4- Representation of the Channel of
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 25 
 
 of four or five months the external incisors make their ap- 
 pearance; there are, accordingly, now six incisors in each jaw. 
 This set of teeth is called the milk teeth. In the thirtieth month, 
 the four middle milk incisors, termed the pincers, fall, two in the 
 upper and two in the lower jaw, and are replaced by four new 
 ones, which, by the end of the year, have attained their full growth. 
 The four following change in the forty-second, and the four 
 external incisors in the fifty-fourth month ; and at the same time 
 with the latter the canine teeth mostly make their appearance in 
 the male horse. The changes of the molar teeth take place 
 gradually at the same time as those of the incisors, the last 
 molar making its appearance in the fifth year. The second set of 
 teeth are called permanent teeth. 
 
 Order 9. THICK-SKINNED ANIMALS. (Pachydermata s. 
 Multungula). 
 
 The animals of this order have more than two perfect toes on 
 each foot, each toe being enveloped in a distinct hoof (see fig. 52). 
 
 f. 
 
 Fio. 52. 
 
 Right Hind leg of the Hog. 
 a. Rotula. 6. Tibia, c. Fibula, d. Tarsus, e. Metatarsus. /. Toos. g. Heel. 
 
 The collar-bones are wanting. The grinders are large and broad, 
 and have plates of enamel extending into the substance of the 
 tooth, and mixed in a 
 tortuous manner with 
 the osseous part. 
 
 The best known spe- 
 cies of this order are 
 the Elephant, the Rhi- 
 noceros, the Hippopota- 
 mus, the Tapir, and the 
 Hog. 
 
 One of the distin- 
 guishing characteristics 
 of the Elephant (Elephas) 
 
 no. 53. 
 
 IS the peculiar Conform- SMloftrttlndianSltphcmt(Sl(plM*IndKui). (Order9.-.Pa<%<fema<a)
 
 26 
 
 PEAOTICAL AIDS. 
 
 ation of the teeth. The animal is destitute of incisive teeth in 
 either jaw; and in place of the canine teeth in the upper, is 
 furnished with two long tusks, which furnish the ivory of com- 
 merce (see fig. 53). 
 
 Order 10. RUMINATING ANIMALS. (Ruminantia). 
 
 The animals of this order have two perfectly hooved toes on each 
 foot, and mostly also two small imperfect ones behind them, which 
 do not touch the ground, and are called hind-claws (see fig. 54). 
 
 FIG. 54. 
 
 Right Fore-foot of the Roe. 
 
 a. Carpus. 6. Metacarpus, or cauon or shank-boue of the fore-leg, c. Hind claws. 
 d. Toes. . Leg. 
 
 Most of them are destitute of incisive teeth in the upper jaw ; 
 the grinders have plates of enamel extending into the substance of 
 the tooth, and mixed in a tortuous manner with the osseous part ; 
 the grinding surfaces are placed somewhat obliquely, the outer 
 margin of the upper, and the inner margin of the under teeth 
 being the most prominent (see fig. 55). 
 
 FlO. 55. 
 
 ShiU of tlie Roebuck (Ccrvu* capreolus). (Order 10. Ruminantia). 
 
 a. Nasal bone. 6. Frontal bone. c. Head of the antlers, d. Parietal bone. 
 
 . Occipital bone. /. Intermaxillary bone destitute of teeth. 
 
 The collar-bones are wanting, and the metacarpal and meta- 
 tarsal bones are united into one piece, called canon or shank-bone 
 (see figs. 54 and 58).
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 27 
 
 The stomach is composed of four distinct divisions or bags (see 
 figs. 56 and 57). The food, after being slightly chewed, is carried 
 
 FIG 56. 
 
 Stomach flfa Ruminating AnimaL 
 
 a, (Esophagus. 6. Manyplies. c. Bonnot. 
 
 d. Paunch, e. Kennet-bag. /. Intestine. 
 
 Fio. 57. 
 
 Stomach of a Ruminating Animal opened. 
 
 a. Manyplies. b. Rennet-bag, c. Bonnet. 
 
 d. Paunch. 
 
 into the first stomach, called the paunch ; from this division it is 
 gradually transferred to the second stomach, a small globular 
 cavity, called the bonnet, or king's hood; the inner membrane of 
 this stomach is arranged in honey-combed cells. In this part of 
 the digestive apparatus the food is formed into little rolls or 
 pellets, which are successively carried up into the mouth, where 
 they undergo a thorough mastication, and are then again swal- 
 lowed and deposited in the third stomach, the smallest of the four 
 bags, which is called manyplies, tripe, or feck, and is distinguished 
 by the numerous longitudinal folds of its internal membrane. 
 
 From this third 
 division the food 
 4s then gradually 
 transferred to the 
 fourth stomach,call- 
 ed rennet, or rennet' 
 bag, where the pro- 
 cess of digestion is 
 
 finally completed. 
 
 This order of ru- 
 minants may pro- 
 perly be divided 
 into three families ; 
 to wit, the Camel 
 tribe, the Deer tribe, 
 
 - , ,, ., 
 
 and the gTCat lamily 
 
 /. -i -i , -i 
 
 01 nOITieQ Cattle 
 .,-11 -n i 
 
 with hollow horns. 
 The animals belonging to the Camel tribe are destitute of horns ; 
 
 Skeleton of the Camel (Camelus Dromedariiu). 
 
 (Order 10. Xuminantia). 
 
 a. Shoulder-blade. &. Humerus. c. Radius, d. Carpus, t. Metacarpus. 
 f. Fingers (toes of the fore-feet), g. Toes (of the hind-feet), h. Metatarsus. 
 t. Tarsus, i: Tibia. I. Rotula.
 
 28 rnACTiCAL AIDS. 
 
 they have two incisors in the upper and six in the lower jaw, 
 and only two toes on each foot. Fig. 58 shows the skeleton of 
 the Camel (Camelus dromedarius). 
 
 The animals of the Deer kind are either destitute of horns, or 
 bear on the forehead solid shoots not surrounded by a horny 
 sheath. They have eight incisive teeth in the lower jaw, but none 
 in the upper ; they are destitute also of the canine teeth, or have 
 them only in the upper jaw. The most important species of this 
 family are the Giraffe or Camelopard, the Musk, and the Stag. 
 In the Stag, the horns, or antlers, are placed on a permanent 
 smooth protuberance of the forehead, covered with skin, which is 
 called head of the antlers (see fig. 55). These antlers are confined 
 to the male ; they are cast off and renewed every year in 
 February. 
 
 The horned cattle bear on the forehead two long shoots, sur- 
 rounded each by a hollow sheath, called horn. The horns are 
 permanent. The animals of this family have eight incisive teeth 
 in the lower jaw, but none in the upper, and no canine teeth in 
 either. To this family belong the Antelope, the Goat, the Sheep, 
 and the Ox. 
 
 Order 11. SEALS. (Phocce s. Pinnipedia). 
 
 The Seals have very short limbs ; the toes are connected together 
 by stout membranes, or webs, and furnished with claws. The 
 hind-legs are stretched out horizontally behind, and lie close 
 together. Animals of the Seal tribe possess the three kinds of 
 teeth. They have a long body, tapering towards the tail; the 
 body is covered with short hair, lying close to the skin. 
 
 The Common Seal (Phoca vitulina) (see fig. 59) is a species of 
 this order of animals. 
 
 Fio. 59. 
 
 Skeleton of the Seal (Phoca Vitulina). (Order 11. Phocce). 
 a, Shoulder-blado. 6. Brcixst-bone. c. Humerus. d. Radius, e. Carpus. 
 /. Metacarpus. g. Fingers, h. Tarsus. i. Femur, t. Tibia. {. Toes. 
 m. Haunch-bone, or os ilium.
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 fishes. 
 
 29 
 
 Order 12. WHALES. (Cetacea). 
 In external appearance the Whales resemble 
 Instead of fore-feet, they are furnished 
 
 Fio. 61. Whalebone. 
 
 with fins, or oars, which, however, are sup- 
 ported by bones similar to those of the fore-feet 
 of the quadrupeds. In lieu of hind-feet, the body 
 terminates in a thick tail, 
 which supports a hori- 
 zontal fin, or oar, for swim- 
 ming. The number of 
 cervical vertebras being 
 small, and the neck, ac- 
 cordingly, very short, there 
 is no narrowing between 
 the head and the trunk of 
 the animal (see fig. 60). 
 The order may be divided 
 into three families, Sea- 
 cows, Whales, and Dol- 
 phins. 
 
 In the Whales, the mouth is furnished 
 on each side, in lieu of teeth, with numerous 
 rows of ivhalebone, extended in the form 
 of thin horny plates, terminating at their 
 1'E edges in fibres, or a sort of fringe (see 
 fig. 61). The common Whale (Salcena 
 tnysticetus) has about three hundred such 
 plates depending from the upper jaw (see 
 fig. 62), of which the middle ones reach a 
 length of from ten to fifteen feet. One 
 single Whale furnishes sometimes more 
 than three thousand pounds of whalebone. 
 
 Fio. C2.-Shttt of tJie Wliale (Salcena Mysticetus). (Order 12. Cetacea). 
 . Whalebones. 6. Lower jaw.
 
 30 
 
 PEACTIOAL AIDS. 
 
 SECOND CLASS. BIRDS. (Aves). 
 
 Birds have red, warm blood, breathe through lungs, and produce 
 their young by means of eggs, which they hatch by the heat of 
 their bodies. The heart of birds is composed, like that of the 
 mammiferous animals, of four cavities, two auricles and two 
 ventricles. 
 
 The skeleton of Birds bears a pretty strong analogy to that of 
 the Mammalia ; however, birds being intended for flight, there 
 
 are many peculiarities in the 
 structure of their organs, more 
 particularly of those which are 
 designed to support them in 
 the air (see fig. 63). The num- 
 ber of cervical vertebrae varies 
 between nine and twenty- three. 
 The breast-bone is very large 
 and strong, and has a large 
 keel-shaped projection in front. 
 The wings are connected to the 
 sternum by three bones; viz., 
 two clavicles and the furcula, 
 or merry -thought, a bone bent 
 in the form of a V, which serves 
 to support the wings on the 
 sternum, and to keep them at 
 a proper distance in flying. 
 The wings correspond with the 
 anterior extremities of quad- 
 rupeds; they terminate in a 
 long hand, consisting of a 
 stunted thumb and two fingers. 
 The posterior or inferior extremities consist of the thigh, leg, 
 and foot. The thigh-bone is short, and contiguous to the body, 
 with the knee standing out. The leg consists of a long tibia and 
 and a short fibula anchylosed to it. The place of tarsus and 
 metatarsus is supplied by a single long bone, called the foot, 
 which is furnished generally with four claws, or toes, but some- 
 times with only three, or even as few as two. 
 
 The digestive organs of birds (see fig. 64) also differ somewhat 
 
 FlO. 63. 
 Skeleton of the Sea-Mew (Laws Marivms). 
 
 (One-eighth the natural size). 
 
 a. Cervical vertebras. 6. Furcula, or merry-thought, 
 c. Breast-bone, d. Fingers, e. Thigh. /. Leg. g. Toes. 
 h. Foot. i. Coccyx, k. Uumerus. I. Shoulder-blade.
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 31 
 
 from those of quadrupeds. The O3sophagus 3 or gullet, expands at 
 the bottom of the neck into a large sac, the crop, which is placed 
 at the fore-part of the chest, resting on 
 the furcula ; here the food is softened 
 by a liquor, poured out from the internal 
 surface of the cavity. The oesophagus, 
 proceeding again from the opposite end 
 of the crop, carries the food from the 
 latter into another narrower cavity, the 
 infundibulum s. Ventriculus succenturiatus, 
 which is abundantly supplied with glands. 
 From this second stomach the food is 
 then finally carried into the third, the 
 gizzard, which has extremely thick coats, 
 and is much stronger and more mus- 
 cular than in quadrupeds. The fore- 
 going description of the digestive organs 
 applies, to the fullest extent, only to the 
 granivorous birds. In the carnivorous 
 birds the crop is small, and the gizzard 
 is merely a musculo-membranous sac. 
 
 The class of birds is divided into seven 
 orders, according to the structure of the 
 bill, or beak, and feet. These seven 
 orders are : 1. Accipitres s. Rapaces, or 
 birds of prey ; 2. Scansores, or climbers ; 
 
 3. Passeres, or sparrows (singing-birds) ; 
 
 4. Gollinace(K > or gallinaceous birds ; 5. 
 Cursores, or runners (called, more com- 
 monly, Struthiones, or struthious birds) ; 
 
 6. Grallce, or waders (otherwise called shore-birds) ; 7. Natatores, 
 or swimming birds (called also Anseres, or web-footed birds). 
 
 Fio. 64. 
 
 Digestive Orgam of the Domestic Fowl. 
 
 a. (Esophagus, or gullet, b. Infundibu- 
 lum, seu Ventriculus succenturiatus, or 
 second stomach, c. Gizzard, or third 
 stomach. d. Duodenum. . Intestina 
 csec.i. / Large intestine. g. Cloaca. 
 A. Small intestine, t. Liver, i. Crop, or 
 ingluvies. 
 
 Order 1.- 
 
 FIG. 65. 
 
 Head of the Grey V-alture ( Vvltur cinertus). 
 (Order 1. Accipitrtt*). 
 
 BIRDS OF PKEY. (Accipitres s. Rapaces). 
 
 The Birds of the 
 first order have 
 strong, hard bills, 
 or beaks, hooked 
 at the end to adapt 
 them for seizing 
 and lacerating their 
 prey (see figs. 65 
 and 66) ; the base 
 
 Fio. 66. 
 Head of tlie Red-legged Falcon. 
 
 (Falco T-etpertinu*). 
 (Order 1. Accipitres).
 
 32 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 of the bill is covered by a soft skin, which 
 is called cere (wax). They have powerful 
 legs, of moderate length, provided with 
 four toes armed with powerful crooked 
 talons (see fig. 67). 
 
 They may be divided into three families ; 
 Vultures, Falcons, and Owls. 
 
 Order 2. CLIMBERS. (Scansores). 
 
 FIG. 67. 
 
 Foot of a Falcon. 
 (Order 1. Accipitres). 
 
 The beak, or bill, affects different shapes ; 
 in many of them it attains to a dispropor- 
 tionate size. The four toes are armed with curved and pointed 
 claws, or talons. Some of them have the external toe on each 
 side of the foot turned backwards (see fig. 68) ; 
 these are the climbers. Others have only one 
 toe turned backwards, the 
 other three being stretched 
 out in front, with the two 
 e-xternal ones grown together 
 up to beyond the middle 
 (see fig. 69) ; these are more 
 FIG. es. appropriately called walking 
 
 Climbing Foot of the Wryneck. 7-7 /n \ 
 
 birds, or steppers (Gressores). 
 To the former class belong the Cuckoo (fig. 70), the Parrot (fig. 71), 
 the Woodpecker (fig. 72) ; to the latter, the Kingfisher (fig. 69). 
 
 FIG. 69. 
 
 Stepping Foot of the 
 Kingfisher. 
 
 FIG. 70. 
 Head of the Cuckoo (Cuccvlus 
 
 canoruf). 
 (Order 2 Scansores). 
 
 FIG. 71. 
 Head of the Green Parrot 
 
 (Psittacus cestivus). 
 (Order 2 Scansores). 
 
 FIG. 72. 
 Head of Vie Woodpecker (Plcus 
 
 martius). 
 (Order 2 Scansora). 
 
 Order 3. SINGING BIRDS. (Passeres). 
 
 This order embraces a great variety of species, differing among 
 themselves chiefly in the form of the bill, or beak, which is gener- 
 ally more or less conical or subulate, straight or variously curved, 
 sometimes also slit rather wide. The legs are not strong, of 
 moderate length, and provided with four toes, one of them turned 
 backwards. The talons are weak, but pointed and slightly curved. 
 In most of the birds belonging to this order the inferior larynx is
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 33 
 
 furnished with muscles, called muscles of the vocal organs. Some 
 species of this order, however, do not sing ; for instance, the crows 
 and the swallows. - 
 
 The order is divided, according to the form of the bird, into six 
 families. 
 
 1. Dentirostres, with short hooked bills. Examples : the Shrike, 
 or Butcher-bird (Lanius minor) (fig. 73), and the Fly-catcher (Mu- 
 scicapa grisola) (fig. 74). 
 
 Fio. 73. 
 Iliad of the Shrike (Lanius minor). 
 
 Order 3 Passeres. 
 Family Dentirostres. 
 
 Fio. 74. 
 Head of the Fly-catcher (ifuscicapa 
 
 grisola). 
 
 Order 3 Passeres. 
 Family Dentirostret. 
 
 2. Subulirostres, with awl-shaped bills, which are not hooked, 
 but only slightly notched. Examples : the Fieldfare (Turdus 
 pilaris) (fig. 75), and the Wren (Troglodytes parvulus) (fig. 76). 
 
 Fio. 75. 
 Head of the Fieldfare (Turdus 
 
 pilaris). 
 
 Ovlur 3 I'atseres. 
 Family Subulirottrcs 
 
 FIG. 7C. 
 Head of the Wrm ( Troglodytes 
 
 ftansulvf). 
 
 Order 3 Passeres. 
 
 F;\'.r.i\ySubv.lirostres . 
 
 3. Conirostres, with short, strong, straight, conical bills. Ex- 
 amples : the Titmouse (Parus cairuleus) (fig. 77), the Bearded 
 Titmouse (Parus biarmicus) (fig. 78), and the Crested Lark (Alauda 
 calandrd) (fig. 79). The birds of the Lark species are distinguished, 
 
 FIG. 77. 
 Head of the Titmouse (Parus 
 
 cceruleus). 
 
 Order 3 Parseres. 
 
 Family Coniro^tra. 
 
 Fio. 78. 
 
 Head of the Bearded Titmouse 
 (Parus Biannicus). 
 Order 3 Passeres. 
 Family Conirostres. 
 
 Fio. 79. 
 
 Head of the Civ ted Lark 
 
 (Alauda Calandra). 
 
 Order 3 Passeres. 
 
 Family Conirottres. 
 
 moreover, by a spur-like nail on one of the four toes, which is 
 turned backwards ; this nail is almost straight, and considerably 
 
 D
 
 34 
 
 PEAOTICAL AIDS. 
 
 longer than the toe (see fig. 80). The Bullfinch (Loxia pyrrhula) 
 (fig. 81) belongs to the family of Conirostres. 
 
 Fia. 81. 
 Head of the Bullfinch (Loxia 
 
 pyn-kula). 
 
 Order 3 Passeres. 
 
 Family Conirostres. 
 
 4. Coraceous birds (Ravens and Crows), with almost straight, 
 
 strong beaks, equal in length to 
 the head of the animal ; the nos- 
 trils are more or less covered with 
 feathers. Example : the Hooded 
 Crow (Corvus comix) (fig. 82). 
 
 5. Tenuirostres, mostly with long 
 and slender beaks, more or less 
 curved, and sharply pointed ; the 
 beak is often larger than the head. 
 Examples : the Nuthatch (Sitta europcea) (fig. 83), and the Hum- 
 ming Bird (Trochilus colubris) (fig. 84). 
 
 FIG. 82. 
 
 Head of the Hooded Crow (Corvus comix). 
 Order 3 Passeres. Family Coraces. 
 
 Fio. 83. 
 Head of the Nuthatch (Sitta 
 
 europcea). 
 
 Order 3 Passeres. 
 
 Family Tenuirostres. 
 
 Fio. 84. 
 
 Head of the Humming Bird 
 
 (Trochilus colubris). 
 
 Order 3 Passeres. 
 
 Family Tenuirottret. 
 
 6. Fissirostres. The birds of this family have a short, triangular, 
 flat beak, and wide mouth, and long and 
 pointed wings. To this family belongs the 
 Goatsucker (Caprimulgus europceus) (fig. 85). 
 
 Order 4. G-ALLINAOEOUS BIRDS. 
 (Gallinacece). 
 
 FIG. 85. 
 
 In the birds of this order, the upper man- 
 
 (Caprimulgut europceus). 
 
 Order 3 Passeres. 
 Family fissirostres. 
 
 Fio. 86. 
 Head of the Wood-pigeon 
 
 (Columba anas). 
 Order 4Gallinacece. 
 
 dible, or bill, is arched, 
 
 expanded at the base, 
 
 and covered by a soft skin, in which the 
 
 nostrils are placed; the latter are mostly 
 
 covered by a cartilaginous scale, or lamina. 
 
 The gallinaceous birds may be divided into 
 three families; to wit, Pigeons, Partridges,
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 and Fowls. Examples : the Wood-pigeon (Columba oenas) (fig. 86), 
 and the Domestic Fowl (Gallus domesticus) (see fig. 87, skeleton). 
 
 FIO. sr. 
 
 Skeleton of the Domettic Fowl. 
 o. Furcula. 6. Breast-bone. c. Spur. 
 d. Metatarsus, e. Tarsus. /. Leg. g. Thigh. 
 A. Os ilium. 
 
 Order 5. EUNNEES. (Cursores). 
 
 The bill bears some resemblance to 
 that of the Gallinaceae ; the wings are 
 short and too small for flight. The legs, on the other hand, are 
 long and strong, and admirably adapted for 
 
 Fio. 88. 
 
 Left Foot of the African Ostrich. 
 Two toes. 
 
 FIG. 89. 
 
 Head of tin African Ostrich. 
 (Struthio camtlut). 
 Order 6 (*uroi\.. 
 
 Fio. 90. 
 
 Foot of the Indian 
 Cattoicury. 
 Three t"C.s. 
 
 Fio. 91. 
 
 Head of the Mian Cauovaft 
 (Ccuvariu* iitdioa). 
 Order 5 Cvrwra. 
 
 D 2
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 running. Examples: the African Ostrich (Struthio camelus), with 
 two toes on the feet, and bristly feathers on the head and neck (see 
 figs. 88 and 89); and the Indian Cassoivary (Casuarius indicus), 
 with three toes on the feet, and a bony crest on the head. The 
 plumage is black, and resembles horse-hair (see figs. 90 and 91). 
 
 Order 6. WADERS, OR SHORE-BIRDS. (Grallce). 
 
 The birds belonging to this order have bills of various forms, 
 generally of great length, and always covered at the base by a cere. 
 The legs are generally longer than the trunk, and articulated to 
 the body about the middle ; three of the four toes are in front, the 
 fourth is turned backward; they are rarely connected together 
 by a web, and the feet of the Waders are, accordingly, not 
 
 FIG. 92. 
 Head of the Crane (Grut 
 
 cinereus). 
 Order G Grallce 
 
 Fia. 94. 
 
 Head of tlie Water-rail 
 (KaUus aquaticus). 
 Older 6 Or alia;. 
 
 Tin. 93. 
 
 Right foot of the 
 Crane. 
 
 Fia. 96. 
 
 Head of the Lapwing (VaneUus cristatus). 
 Order C GriilUe. 
 
 Fio. 97. 
 
 Head of the Snipe (Scolopar r/allinitla'). 
 Order GralUc. 
 
 FIG. 95. 
 Foot of the Water-hen. 
 
 Fio. 98. 
 fftad of tlic Avocette (Recurvirottra 
 
 avocctta). 
 Order 6 Grallce. 
 
 Fio. 100. 
 
 Right foot of the 
 
 1 lamingo. 
 
 Fio. 99. 
 Head of the Flaminrio (Phvenicoptenu 
 
 ruber). 
 Order 6 Grallce.
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 adapted for swimming. Numerous species belong to this order. 
 Examples: the Crane (Grus cinereus) (figs. 92 and 93): the 
 Water-rail (Rallus aquaticus) (fig. 94) ; the Coot, or Y/ah-r-hcn 
 (Fulica atra), with web-bordered toes (fig. 95) ; the Lapwing (Va- 
 nellus cristatus) (fig. 96) ; the Snipe (Scolopax gallinula) (fig. 97} ; 
 the Avocette (Recur virostra avocetta) (fig. 98) ; the Flamingo (Phw- 
 nicoptems ruber) (fig. 99), with almost completely webbed toes 
 (fig. 100) ; the Ibis (Ibis religiosa) 
 (fig. 101) ; the Heron (Ardea 
 cinerea) (fig. 102). 
 
 Fio. 101. 
 
 Head of the Ibis (fliis rdigiosa). 
 Order dGrcMcs. 
 
 FIG. 102. 
 
 Head of the Heron (Ardea cintr(a). 
 Order dGraLlcc. 
 
 Order 
 
 7. SWIMMING, OB WEB-FOOTED BIRDS. 
 (Natatores s. Anseres). 
 
 The bills of birds of this order present a variety of shapes, and 
 are generally covered at the base with a cere. The legs are 
 
 shorter than the trunk, and are -placed 
 very much behind. The toes are con- 
 nected together by a web, or membrane, 
 
 FIG. 103. 
 Head of the Swan. 
 
 Fio. 104. 
 Head of tlie Goose. 
 
 FIG. 105. 
 Head of the Wlritt. (ionnavdcr (Mergits 
 
 Albtllwi). 
 Order ~Ntatort. 
 
 Fio. 106. 
 
 Foot of the Goosander 
 
 which fits them for being used as oars ; most of the birds belonging 
 to this order are, accordingly, excellent swimmers. 
 
 The principal families of this order are the Duck, the Pelican, the 
 Petrel, the Gull, the Diver, the Auk, and the Penguin.
 
 38 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 In the Ducks the bill is hardly longer than the head ; to this 
 family belong the Swan (Cygnus olor) (fig. 103), and the Goose 
 
 FIG. 107. 
 
 Head of the Pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalut). 
 Order 7 Natatores. 
 
 Fio. 108. 
 Foot of the Pelican, 
 
 (Anser cinereus) (fig. 104) ; the Merganser, 
 or Goosander, or Saw-beak (Mergus albellus) 
 (see figs. 105 and 106). In the Pelicans, the 
 bill is generally longer than the head, and 
 the hind toe is connected with the front toes 
 by one and the same web, and is, accordingly, 
 turned forward. Example : the Common 
 Pelican (Pelicanus onocrotalus) (figs. 107 and 
 108). The Laughing Gull (Larus ridibundus) (fig. 109) is a speci- 
 men of the family of the Gulls. 
 
 FIG. 109. 
 Head of the Laughing Gutt (Larut 
 
 ridibundus). 
 (Order 7 Natatores). 
 
 THIRD CLASS. REPTILES, OR AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS. 
 
 (Reptilia s. Amphibia'). 
 
 The class of Reptiles have red cold blood, breathe by means of 
 lungs, and lay eggs, which, however, they do not hatch themselves. 
 The greater part of them have two auricles to the heart, but only 
 one ventricle ; some of them have only one auricle and one ven- 
 tricle. Most of them have four feet ; but some are only possessed 
 of two, and in some the feet are altogether wanting. 
 
 The animals of one of the orders of this class, the Batrachia, 
 have to undergo a transformation in the early period of their 
 existence, after leaving the egg. When first hatched, they are 
 furnished with gills, like a fish, which, in most of them, after a 
 certain period, shrivel up; in some, however, they are retained 
 through life, leaving the animal thus in possession of an additional 
 organ of respiration, besides the lungs. In Reptiles, only a part 
 of the blood received from the body by the heart is sent to the
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 39 
 
 lungs, to be subjected to the influence of the air; whilst the 
 remainder is at once returned again into the general circulation, 
 without having previously been 
 purified by the respiratory pro- 
 cess (see fig. 110). Hence the ? 
 low temperature of the blood 3 
 of these animals, and the fa- J 
 culty possessed by them to ? 
 live, for a time, without breath- * 
 ing. 
 
 Reptiles are arranged in four , 
 
 orders, according to the cover- ? 
 
 ing of the body, and the pre- ^ ^ 
 
 sence or absence of feet : viz., g * 
 
 o ^ 
 
 Chelonia, or Tortoises ; Sauna, 2, f 
 
 or Lizards ; Ophidia, or Ser- f | 
 
 pents ; and Satrachia, or f * 
 
 Frogs. i> 
 
 FIG. 110. 
 
 Ideal Representation of 
 the Circulation in Reptiles, 
 a. Pulmonary circula- 
 tion, b. Left auricle, 
 c. Right auricle, d. Sole 
 ventricle, e. General cir- 
 culation. 
 
 
 Order 1. TORTOISES AND TURTLES (Chelonia). 
 
 The body, which is short and broad, is pro- 
 vided with a complete covering, consisting of 
 
 Fio. 111. 
 
 Skeleton of a Turtle. 
 
 a. ShouHer-b'.ade. 6. Collar-bone, c. Fore-arm, d. Humerus. 
 e. I>orsal vertebra.-. /. lUbs. g. Bones of the pelvis. A. Tibia. 
 i. Thigh-bone.
 
 40 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 an upper, or dorsal, and an under, or abdominal shell, joined toge- 
 ther at the sides, which permits only the head, tail, andfour feet to 
 appear outside. The upper shell consists of a great number of 
 horny plates, connected to each other by sutures, and is grown 
 into one with the ribs and part of the backbone (the dorsal, 
 lumbar, and sacral vertebra3, which are all united into one piece) ; 
 the under shell is also composed of many plates, joined together by 
 suture, and forming a kind of greatly enlarged breast-bone : thus a 
 part of the skeleton of the animal is placed actually outside the 
 body (see fig. 111). The plates of the dorsal shell are known in 
 commerce as tortoise-shell. The jaws of the turtle are destitute of 
 teeth. The animals of this order are divided into three families ; 
 viz., Land Tortoises, River Tortoises, and Sea Tortoises. 
 
 Order 2. LIZARDS. (Sauria). 
 
 The body is long, and covered with osseous plates, or shields, or 
 with membranous scales; the ribs are moveable. The bones of 
 the upper jaw are firmly joined together and to the skull ; and the 
 
 FIG. 113. 
 
 Skdelon of the Crocodile of Hit Nilt,witlMut the Tail, 
 a. Shoulder-blade, b. Humcrus. c. Fore-arm, d. Carpus, e. Thigh-bouo. /. Leg. 
 
 jaws are always armed with teeth. Most members of the Lizard 
 order have four feet, but a few are possessed of only two, or are 
 even altogether destitute of limbs ; however, even in the latter 
 case, the skeleton still contains the shoulder-blade, breast-bone, 
 and the pelvis. An example of this species of the Lizard order is 
 the Common Blind-worm, or Slow-worm, which is destitute of 
 limbs, and still possessed of the bones named (see fig. 112). 
 
 The order of Lizards is divided into three families ; viz., Croco- 
 diles (fig. 113), True Lizards (fig. 114), and Snake Lizards.
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 41 
 
 FIG. 114. 
 
 Skeleton of the Common Lizard, 
 
 a. Shoulder-blade. 6. Humerus. c. Fore-arm, d. Leg. . Tarsus. /. Metatarsal 
 bones, g. Thigh-bones, h. Bones of the pelvis, i. Toes. Tho vertebra of the spinal 
 column are merely indicated by points. 
 
 Order 3. SERPENTS. 
 
 (Ophidia s. Serpentes). 
 
 The body is long and cylindrical, and covered with scales and 
 plates. The limbs are wanting, as well as also the sternum, 
 shoulder-blades, and bones of the pelvis ; but there are a great 
 number of moveable ribs, extending from the neck to the tail. 
 The bones of the upper 
 jaw are simply bound to- 
 gether by tendinous liga- 
 ments, and joined to the 
 skull by moveable bones. 
 The upper jaw being thus 
 moveable on the cranium, 
 the animal is enabled to 
 open the mouth very wide. 
 
 The tongue is forked (see Staaoa of the Cmimon Adder, or Ringed Snal-e (Coluber natrin). 
 
 fig. 115). 
 
 Serpents are divided into three families ; viz., Serpents which 
 are not venomous ; Serpents which are suspected to be venomous ; 
 and venomous serpents. 
 
 In the non-venomous Serpents, the teeth in the upper jaw are ail 
 solid, and neither grooved nor perforated by a canal. The bite of 
 these animals is not poisonous. 
 
 The Sefpents suspected to be venomous have in the upper jaw, 
 besides the solid teeth, also teeth with a longitudinal groove 
 running down the front side; the roots of these grooved teeth 
 generally communicate with a poison gland. 
 
 FIG. 116. 
 
 Skull of the Rattle-Snake. 
 a. Cranium. 6. Uppcrjaw. c. Poi- 
 sonous fangs, d. Lower jaw. 
 
 FIG. 117. 
 
 Poison Apparatus of it* Rattle-Snake, 
 a. Nasal orifice. 6. Poison faugs. 
 c. Salivary glands, d. Temporal mua- 
 cles. . Poison-gland.
 
 42 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 Fio. 118. 
 Common Viper ( Vipera beru*). 
 
 In the venomous Serpents, the upper jaw is armed with long 
 hollow tusks, or fangs, and some smaller reserve teeth by the side 
 of them. The canal by which the fangs are perforated communi- 
 cates with a poison-gland, situated in the temporal region ; the 
 tusks lie concealed in the jaw, but can be darted out at the will of 
 the animal (see figs. 116 and 117). When the fang pierces the 
 flesh of any animal, a portion of the poisonous fluid flows from the 
 orifice of the gland, through the 
 canal, into the wound, which pre- 
 sents the appearance of two minute 
 holes, as made with a pin or needle. 
 The venomous Snake most com- 
 monly met with in Europe is the 
 Common Viper (Vipera herns') (fig. 
 118). It is grey or brownish, and 
 has a blackish-brown stripe running along the back in zigzag, and 
 spots of the same colour along the sides. 
 
 The most venomous of the poisonous 
 snakes is the Rattle Snalce of America, so 
 called from a peculiar instrument at the 
 end of the tail, which consists of a greater 
 or less number of horny pieces, and is 
 termed the rattle. By shaking this, the animal is enabled to 
 produce a slight rustling sound (see fig. 119). 
 
 Order 4. FEOGS. (Batrachia). 
 
 In the animals of this class the body is oval or long, always 
 naked, or simply covered with papillae. The number of feet is 
 generally four, rarely two or none ; 
 the ribs are altogether wanting 
 (see fig. 120). The reptiles of 
 this order are principally remark- 
 able for a complete transforma- 
 tion, which takes place in their 
 offspring after leaving the egg. 
 When first hatched, they are 
 strictly aquatic animals, of fish- 
 like shape, and breathe through branchiae, or gills, hanging loose 
 by the side of the neck ; they have no legs, but are provided with 
 a tail, by the aid of which they are enabled to swim and steer their 
 course through the water ; the mouth is horny (see figs. 121 and 
 122). In this state, they are known by the familiar name of 
 Tadpoles. After a certain period, the lungs begin to be developed. 
 
 Fio. 119. 
 Rattle of the Rattle-Snake. 
 
 Fio. 120. 
 
 Skeleton of the Frog. 
 a. Shoulder-blade. 6. Leg. c. Thigh. 
 
 tarsus, e. Carpus. /. Fore-arm. 
 
 d. Meta-
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 43 
 
 and the feet and legs grow, and project from beneath the skin, the 
 fore-feet somewhat later than the hind-feet (see figs. 123 and 124). 
 The gills are gradually taken into the thorax, and the young animal 
 
 FIG. 121. 
 
 Tadpole, when first hatched' 
 
 Four times the liatural 
 
 size. 
 
 Fid. 123. 
 Tadpole, after the Development of the Hind Feet. 
 
 FIG. 125. 
 
 TvApole, tcith the tail 
 in process of fall- 
 ing off . 
 
 FIG. 124. 
 Tadpole, with the four Feet complete. 
 
 Fio. 122. 
 Tadpole, when first hatched, with 
 
 the Gills. 
 Eight times the natural size. 
 
 Fio. 12C. 
 The young Frog, 
 completely trans- 
 formed. 
 
 begins to respire by means of its lungs. The skeleton grows 
 osseous, the tail gradually disappears (fig. 125), as well as the horny 
 mouth, and the transformation is completed (fig. 126). 
 
 FOURTH CLASS. FISHES. (Pisces). 
 
 Fishes have red, cold blood ; instead of lungs, they are furnished 
 with branchiae, or gills ; they produce their young by means of 
 
 eggs, or spawn, which, 
 however, they do not 
 hatch themselves. The 
 heart has only one auri- 
 cle and one ventricle. 
 Fishes are destitute of 
 limbs, being provided 
 instead with a tail and 
 fins. The body is co- 
 vered with scales, rarely 
 bare of all covering. 
 
 The outer and inner 
 structure of fishes is 
 adapted to the element 
 in which they exclusive- 
 ly reside. The body is, 
 accordingly, generally flattened on the sides, rarely cylindrical or 
 flattened from the top. There is no distinct neck, the head, neck, 
 and chest being united into one piece ; the head contains not only 
 
 FIG. 127. 
 Head and Respiratory Apparatus of Hit River Perth 
 
 (Perca fluviatilit). 
 
 a. Orbit of the eye. 6. Lower jaw. e. Hyoid bone. d. Laminae, 
 or rays of the gills, e. Arm-bone. /. Small bones of the hand. 
 g. Pectoral fin. h. Clavicle, i. Arches of the gills, k. Cranium.
 
 44 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 the brain, but also the gills and the arches of cartilaginous bone on 
 which they rest, and the heart (see fig. 127). 
 
 The gills usually consist of two ranges of cartilaginous lamina?, 
 issuing like rays, and having the branches of the branchial artery 
 minutely dispersed upon them; in some species of fishes they 
 consist simply of membranes, divided into little fibrils, or fringes. 
 They are placed behind the head, on each 
 side, and are attached to four arches of bone, 
 or cartilage, representing the pectoral ribs, 
 and called arches of the gills. Externally, the 
 gills are usually covered by a flap, called gill- 
 flap, which, in most fishes, is moveable. 
 
 The heart of fishes is situated in a cavity 
 between the posterior parts of the right and 
 left set of gills. It receives the whole of the 
 blood from the body, and transmits it by 
 means of the ventricle to the gills ; from the 
 latter it does not return to the heart, but is 
 sent by a set of arteries to all parts of the 
 body, whence it is returned again by a set of 
 veins to the auricle of the heart, for renewed 
 transmission to the gills (fig. 128). 
 
 The organs of motion in fishes are called 
 fins. According to the part of the body in which they are placed, 
 they are divided into pectoral, abdominal or ventral, anal, dorsal, 
 
 Ideal Representation of the Cir- 
 culation in Fishes, 
 a. Branchial circulation. 
 6. Ventricle of the heart. 
 c. Auricle, d. Veins. . Ar- 
 teries. /. General circulation. 
 
 FIG. 129. 
 
 Skeleton of the River Perch (Perca fluviatilit). 
 
 a. First dorsal fin. 6. Second dorsal fin. c. Caudal fin (or tail fin), d. Anal 
 fin. e. Ventral, or abdominal fin. /. Pectoral fin. 
 
 and caudal or tail fins (see fig. 129). According to their nature, 
 the fins, more especially the dorsal, are termed spinous, when 
 supported by hard, pointed, non-articulated rays ; or soft rayed, 
 when supported by soft branching rays (see figs. 130 and 131). 
 
 Many fishes are possessed of an air-bag, either single or double, 
 filled with air, and generally communicating by a special duct with
 
 ZOOLOGY. 45 
 
 the middle part of the oesophagus (see fig. 132). The air-bag may 
 
 FIG. 130. Fm. 131. 
 
 Spinous Dorsal Fin. Soft-rayed Dorsal Fin. 
 
 be considered as an accessory organ of motion : by contracting it, 
 
 the fish is enabled to 
 sink; by dilating or 
 distending it, to rise 
 again at pleasure. 
 
 Accoroling to the 
 nature of their skele- 
 ton, fishes are divided 
 into two principal 
 groups ; viz., Osseous Fishes and Cartilaginous Fishes. 
 
 The Osseous Fishes are again divided into two orders ; viz., 
 Acanthopterygians, or fishes with spinous fins, and Malacopterygians, 
 or fishes with soft-rayed fins ; each of these two subdivisions is 
 divided again into several genera, according to the position of the 
 abdominal fins. 
 
 FIG. 132. 
 
 Air-bag, or Sminming-lladdcr of the Carp. 
 
 a. Parts of the bag. &. Duct leading from the bag to the oesophagus, 
 c. (Esophagus. 
 
 Fio. 133. The Cod fish (Gadus Morrhua) 
 
 Fio.134. The Turbot (RJiombus maxima*).
 
 46 
 
 PEACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 FIG. 135. 
 
 The Hun Fish (Orthagoriscus mola). 
 
 Among the malacopterygious 
 osseous fishes may be mention- 
 ed the Cod (Gadus morrhua) 
 (fig. 133); and the Turbot 
 (Rhombus maximus) (fig. 134). 
 
 As representatives of the car- 
 tilaginous fishes may be named 
 the Sun-fish (Orthagoriscus mold) 
 (fig. 135) ; the Common Stur- 
 geon (Acipenser sturio) (fig. 136); 
 and the Common Shark (Squalus 
 car char ias) (fig. 137).
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 47 
 
 Fio. 138. 
 Coriaceous Running Beetle. 
 6. Head 
 
 a. Antennae 
 domen. e. Thigh. 
 
 c. Trunk, d. Ab- 
 /. Leg, or shank. 
 
 FIFTH CLASS. INSECTS. (Insecta). 
 
 Insects have white blood ; they breathe by means of tracheae, or 
 air-tubes; in the perfect state they have always six feet. The 
 body is divided into three principal 
 parts ; viz., head, trunk, and abdomen 
 (see fig. 138) ; and is mostly provided 
 with four or two wings. They have to 
 pass through certain metamorphoses, 
 or changes of structure and form, be- 
 fore they arrive at their perfect state. 
 In the head are observed 
 1. The eyes, which mostly are com- 
 pound and immoveable. They are 
 placed at the sides of the head, and 
 are divided into numerous regular hexa- 
 gonal convex surfaces, or facets (see 
 figs. 139 and 140). 
 
 In some of the butterflies, there have 
 been counted as many as sixty thou- 
 sand of such facets. Each of these 
 facets forms the surface of a distinct eye ; but they are collectively 
 covered by a cornea common to all of them. Each little eye has a 
 crystalline lens of its own, and the inner points 
 are covered with dark pigment. A distinct fine 
 branch of the optic nerve passes from the com- 
 mon ganglion of that nerve into each little eye. 
 Many of the little eyes are covered 
 with hair, as in the Cock-chafer. 
 
 Many insects have, besides the 
 compound, also two or three sim- 
 ple eyes, which are smaller, and 
 have no facets ; they are gene- 
 rally placed in front. 
 
 2. The antennae, or feelers ; they 
 Fia.i39. are the organs of the sense of 
 
 Part of the Surface of the Eye 
 
 of the cockchafer. touch ; they are articulated with 
 
 (400 times the natural size). . 
 
 a. Facets. 6. Hairs form- the head, by the side or in front 
 
 ing a kind of brow on the 
 
 eye-baiis. of the eyes, and are generally 
 
 freely moveable. According to their form, they are termed setiform 
 (bristle-shaped), moniliform (bead-shaped), pectinate, serrulate, etc. 
 see (figs. 141146). 
 
 FIG. 140. 
 
 (400 times the natural 
 
 size). 
 
 a. Cornea. 6. Crystal- 
 line lens. c. Pigment. 
 
 d. Branch of nerve. 
 
 e. Ganglion of the optic 
 nerve.
 
 48 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 3. The mouth is placed in the lower part of the 
 head, and contains the organs with which insects seize 
 their food, and which are constructed either for masti- 
 
 Fio. 141. 
 Antenna of a Butterfly. 
 
 Fio. 143. Fio. 144. FIG. 145. Fig. 146. 
 
 Antenna of an Antenna of another A ntenna of a Antenna of a. 
 
 Insect of the Order I-iisect of the Order Cockchafer. Coleopterous 
 
 of Hymenoptera. of Hymenoptera. Insect. 
 
 cation or for suction. In the former case (see fig. 147), they 
 
 consist of, a, the labial palpi ; b, the maxillary palpi ; the palpi 
 are organs somewhat resembling the antenna? 
 in structure and appearance, but serving to 
 convey the food to the mouth, c. lower jaw, 
 consisting of two arched hooks, moving hori- 
 zontally to each other ; d, the upper jaw, similar 
 to the above, 
 but larger; e. 
 the upper lip, 
 a horny plate 
 connected to 
 
 the head ; /, the under lip, which 
 
 shuts the aperture of the mouth 
 
 from beneath, and has attached 
 
 to its inner, surface the mem- 
 
 Fig. 147. 
 Component parts o/the moiith 
 
 of the Corlacivus Running 
 
 JieMe. 
 
 (Underside magnified). 
 
 a. Labial palpi, b. Max- 
 iMary palpi, c. Lower jaw. 
 i(. Upper jaw. . Upper 
 lip. /. Undor lip. 
 
 branous tongue. 
 
 The organs constructed for 
 suction consist essentially of the 
 same parts, but arranged in the 
 form of a tube or sucker, or in 
 the form of a trunk or proboscis. 
 
 The trunk is divided into three 
 segments, called, respectively, 
 the anterior, middle, and poste- 
 rior pectoral rings, which adhere 
 more or less strongly to each 
 other, and to each of which one 
 pair of legs is attached (see fig. 148). Each leg is composed of 
 
 Fio. 148. 
 
 Outer Skeleton of the Cockchafer (Mdolontha vulgarit). 
 a. Head. 6. Anterior pectoral ring. c. Middle pec- 
 rest, h.
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 49 
 
 the thigh, the shanlc, or leg, and the foot (fig. 138). Most winged 
 insects have four wings, two of them, the anterior or superior pair, 
 being attached to the middle pectoral ring, and the other two, the 
 posterior or inferior pair, to the posterior pectoral ring (fig. 148). 
 
 The abdomen is divided into a number of rings or segments, 
 varying from three to nine ; it either adheres in its entire breadth 
 to the truak, or is attached to the latter simply by a stalk or 
 pedicle. In some insects, it is furnished with a kind of perforator, 
 or auger, with which the animal bores holes in various substances, 
 to deposit its eggs in ; in many, it is terminated by a sting, or by 
 a forceps, a bristle, a kind of claw, etc. 
 
 The abdomen contains the organs of digestion, circulation, and 
 respiration. The digestive organs consist of the oesophagus and 
 the stomach, which generally form a long tube, or canal. The 
 organs of circulation are limited to a single membranous canal 
 (termed dorsal canal, or dorsal vessel), which runs along the back 
 from one end of the body to the other, and in which alternate 
 contractions and dilatations are discerned ; this organ performs the 
 part of the heart. No branches have been discovered going off 
 from it, and it is generally held that the conveyance of the blood 
 or nutritious fluid to the different parts of the body, is effected 
 by simple imbibition and absorption (see fig. 149). The respiratory 
 
 Pio. 149. 
 
 Ideal Representation of the Circulation in Insects. 
 a. Principal lateral cm-rent, 6. Dorsal vessel (heart). 
 
 function is performed by air-tubes, or trachea, thin 
 membranous tubes, ramified over every part of the Fio M 
 body, which open externally, on each side, by a certain * r <->* system # 
 
 ' <f* > J tlt& Oat den Settle. 
 
 number of apertures, termed stigmata, corresponding ^*" Ja " tm ' 
 to the number of abdominal segments. 
 
 Insects have no brain, nor spinal marrow; but they are fur- 
 nished instead with two knotted cords, running the length of their 
 
 E
 
 50 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 bodies, which perform the same functions, sending from the several 
 knots, or ganglia, numerous branches to all parts of the body 
 (see figs. 150 and 151). 
 
 All insects undergo certain changes of 
 structure and form, before arriving at their 
 perfect state, which are called their metamor- 
 phoses. The young animal issuing from the 
 egg, generally differs entirely from its parent. 
 In the first state of its existence, it is called 
 larva (see fig. 152) ; it has a long and cylin- 
 drical body, divided into a great many rings, 
 and is either destitute of feet, or provided 
 with six or more very short legs. 
 
 Larvae, destitute of head and feet are termed 
 maggots; those possessed of a head and six feet, 
 true larvae ; and those provided with a head and more than six feet, 
 caterpillars. In the state of larva, the animal lives a considerable 
 time, consuming a large amount of food; after having repeatedly cast 
 its skin, it changes into the chrysalis pupa nympha, or aurelia (see 
 fig. 153), from which the perfect insect issues (see 
 fig. 154), after a longer or shorter period of time. 
 
 FIG. 151. 
 
 Nervous System of the Garden 
 Beetle. 
 
 FIG. 152. 
 Larva of the Cock-chafer. 
 
 FIG. 153. 
 Chrysalis of the Cock-chafer. 
 
 FIG. 154. 
 
 The Cock-chafer in the perfect 
 Insect State. 
 
 According to the structure, texture, number, and arrangement 
 of the wings, insects are divided into seven orders, viz., 1, Coleop- 
 tera ; 2, Hymenoptera ; 3, Lepidoptera, or butterflies and moths ; 
 4, Diptera ; 5, Neuroptera ; 6, Orthoptera ; 7, Hemiptera. 
 
 Figs. 155 162 illustrate examples of the order Coleoptera. 
 
 Fio. 155. 
 female of the Dytitws Marylnnlit. 
 
 Fia. 157. 
 
 Red-winged Slaphy- 
 
 linut (Staphylimu 
 
 erytbropttntt). 
 
 FIG. 158. 
 Common Necrophorus, or Grave 
 
 digger 
 (Necrophorv* vttpillo).
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 51 
 
 FIG. 159. 
 
 Spanith Fly. 
 (Lytta vtticatoria). 
 
 FIG. 160. 
 
 Black Weevil, or Calandtr. 
 (Calandra ffranaria). 
 
 Fio. 101. 
 
 Typograph Leather-eater. 
 (Bostrichtu typographu*). 
 
 Fio. 162. 
 
 Fio. 163. 
 
 Oak-leaf GaU-fly. 
 
 (Cynips guercus folii). 
 
 Rosalia Alpina. 
 
 Examples of the order Hymenoptera, are tlie oak-leaf gall-fly 
 (Cynips quercus folii fig. 163J and the lee (figs. 164 166) Bees 
 
 are provided with a trunk, or proboscis (fig. 167) ; 
 they live in most artistically constructed habitations, 
 either solitary or in societies, greater or less in ex- 
 tent and number. The honey bees (apis mellifica) 
 form regularly organized republics (swarms or hives), 
 containing each only one female, called Queen (fig. 
 164), but from 800 to 1000 males or drones (fig. 165), 
 and from 10,000 to 30,000 working bees (unde- 
 veloped females, fig. 166). The queen has the 
 longest abdomen of all, and is provided with a sting, 
 enclosed in a curved sheath; in the drones, the 
 abdomen is thick and bulky; in the working bee, 
 which is the smallest of the three classes constituting 
 the hive, the shape of the abdomen is oblong, and 
 the sting with which the animal is provided is 
 
 E 2 
 
 Fio. 167. 
 Head of tlie Wild Bte 
 
 (front view), 
 a. Antennas. 6. Low- 
 er jaw. c. Tongue.
 
 52 
 
 PEACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 enclosed in a straight sheath (fig. 168). The sting communicates 
 
 with poison-glands, and is barbed at the 
 point. The shanks of the hind-legs in 
 the working bee are channelled outside 
 in their entire length, and covered with 
 long hair, which, jointly with the chan- 
 nelled cavity, form the bee's basket. The 
 first phalanges of the hind-feet are rather 
 long, and are covered on the inner side 
 with several transverse rows of hair, which 
 form what is 
 termed the bee's 
 brush. By means 
 of this brush, 
 the animal strips 
 the farina off 
 the flowers, and 
 then carries it 
 home in the bas- 
 ket (fig. 169). 
 
 As examples of the order Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths) may 
 be mentioned the Machaon, or Swallow -tailed Butterfly (Papilio 
 Machaon, see figs. 170 172) ; the Elpenor sphinx (Sphinx Elpenor, 
 fig. 173) ; and the Silk-worm Moth (Bombyx, mori, figs. 174- 176). 
 
 Fio. 1GS. 
 Sting and Poison Apparatus of 
 
 the See. 
 
 a. Poi.-on glands, b. Duct convey- 
 ing the poison from the glands to the 
 bag, or reservoir, c. Poison-bag, or 
 reservoir, d. Duct conveying the 
 poison to the base of the sting, e. The 
 sting, in the sheath. /. The point 
 of the sting, out of the sheath (very 
 considerably magnified). 
 
 Fid. 1C9. 
 
 Hind-foot of the Working B<.e. 
 
 FIG. 170. Caterpillar of Machaon. 
 
 Fid. 171. Chrysalis of tite Machaon. 
 
 FIG. 172. SaaUoie-lzilut Butterfly. (Papilio Machaon). 
 
 FIG. 173. Sphinx Elpcnor. 
 
 F:G. \.7-l.Clerj)i;ia.r of the Sill-worm Moth.
 
 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 53 
 
 As an example of the Hemiptera, may be mentioned the True 
 Cochineal (Coccus cacti, figs. 177 and 178). 
 
 FIO. 175. 
 
 Chrytalis of the Silk-worm. 
 Moth. 
 
 FIG. 176. 
 Silk-icorm Moth. (Bonibyx mori). 
 
 FIO. 177. FIG. 178. 
 
 True Cochineal. (Coccus cacti). 
 
 Male. Female. 
 
 (Both considerably magnified). 
 
 SIXTH CLASS. SPIDERS. (Arachnidce) . 
 
 Spiders are insects destitute of wings ; they have cold white 
 blood ; they breathe by means of pulmonary sacs, or by means of 
 simple tracheae ; and are furnished with eight feet. 
 
 The head and trunk, in spiders, are united in one piece. The eyes 
 are always simple ; their number varies between two and twelve. 
 Antennae are wanting. Spiders have, like insects, a simple dorsal 
 canal, or vessel, in lieu of a heart. They undergo no metamor- 
 phosis, but shed their skin several times. 
 
 FIO. 180. 
 
 Hedgtliog Tick 
 
 (Ixodcs erinacei). 
 
 FIG. 179. 
 
 Tarantula (Lycosc. tarantula*.
 
 54 PEACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 According to the nature of their respiratory organs, spiders may be 
 divided into two orders, viz., pulmonary spiders and trachean spiders. 
 
 To the former order belongs the Tarantula (Lycosa tarantula, 
 fig. 179); to the latter order, the Hedgehog Tick (Ixodes erinacei, 
 fig. 180). 
 
 SEVENTH CLASS. CTttJSTACEOUS ANIMALS. (Crustacea). 
 
 The animals of this class have white blood ; they breathe by 
 means of bronchise, or gills. They are covered by a calcareous, 
 horny, or coriaceous shell, rarely by a mere membranous envelope. 
 The feet vary in form and number in the different genera ; there 
 are never less than ten. Wings are wanting; the number of 
 antennae is from two to four. The eyes are either simple or com- 
 pound, pediculated or non-pediculated. The body is composed of 
 the head, the trunk, and the abdomen. Crustacea are divided 
 into two principal orders, viz., Entomostracea and Malacostracea. 
 
 EIGHTH CLASS. "WORMS. (Vermes). 
 
 Worms have long, cylindrical or flat, soft and compressible 
 bodies, and are destitute of limbs, or are furnished simply with 
 non-articulated small bristles, or spines, which answer, in some 
 sort, the purpose of feet. Most worms have red blood, but the 
 heart is wanting in all of them. 
 
 Some few of them have simple eyes, and some tentacula around 
 the mouth, which answer the purpose of feeling and touching; 
 but most worms are destitute of a head and organs of the senses. 
 
 NINTH CLASS. MOLLUSCA. 
 
 The animals of this clas s have soft, lu- 
 bricated bodies, enveloped by a mem- 
 brano-muscular covering, termed 
 cloalc, or mantle. Most of them are 
 covered, moreover, by a hard, calca- 
 reous external shell. Some species 
 of them (Acephala) are destitute of 
 a head, whilst others have a dis- 
 tinctly discernible head, provided 
 with organs of the senses. The 
 organs of circulation, digestion, and 
 respiration are always greatly de- 
 
 . **>. ^eloped in them (fig. 181). 
 
 - The Testaceous Mollusca carry 
 
 canal> "' Broncbiae - A> Hearfc ' their shells about with them. Shells
 
 ZOOLOGY. 50 
 
 consisting of one piece, are called univalvular; of two pieces, 
 bivalvular (mussels, oysters, etc.). 
 
 Univalvular shells are composed of several convolutions, which 
 are either all of them placed in the same plane, 
 presenting a discoid form, or ascend in gradually 
 tapering spiral windings, somewhat after the 
 fashion of a spire. We distinguish in unival- 
 vular spiral shells (fig. 182), 1, the top or crown; 
 2, the base, with the orifice, i. e., the lowest and 
 broadest part formed by the outer rim ; 3, the 
 vertical column, round which the convolutions 
 
 T * 1 1 7*7* j i 11 jji i j lutions wind. Umbilicus. 
 
 wind ; 4, the umbilicus, or the hole at the bot- /. T OP , or crown. 
 
 torn, of greater or less depth, which is formed where the spiral 
 
 convolutions do not quite join. 
 
 In bivalvular shells we distinguish principally, 1, the lower rim, 
 or the part where the valves open ; 2, the upper rim, opposite to 
 the lower; 3, the hinge, or the part where the two valves are 
 joined ; 4, the ligament of the hinge, consisting of cartilaginous 
 elastic ligament, placed behind the hinge, which, by contraction, 
 permits the shell to open. 
 
 TENTH CLASS. EADIATA. 
 
 The Radiata have soft diversely covered bodies, divided into 
 radii, or branches, like the spokes of a wheel, with the mouth in 
 the centre. 
 
 ELEVENTH CLASS. POLYPES. (Polypi). 
 
 The Polypes, or Corals, have a soft cylindrical, or club-shaped, 
 body, with the orifice of the mouth turned upwards, and mostly sur- 
 rounded by a number of acutely sensitive simple or fringed tentacula. 
 They live in societies ; they are solidly attached by their base to 
 rocks, etc., and produce, by secretion, either on the surface or in 
 the interior of their bodies, a calcareous or horny mass, familiarly 
 known by the name of coral. 
 
 TWELFTH CLASS. INFUSOBY ANIMALCULES. 
 (Infusoria). 
 
 Infusoria are most minute animals, mostly discernible only by 
 the assistance of the microscope ; they are found in all zones, in 
 fluids containing decaying organic matter.
 
 56 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 They may be divided into two orders, viz., Wheel Animals, or 
 Rotifera, and Monads (Proteus, etc.) 
 
 The Rotifera are chiefly remarkable for a 
 ciliary vibratile wheel apparatus, placed at 
 the anterior extremity of the body, which 
 serves principally to create an eddy in the 
 water, by means of which the prey of the 
 animal is drawn within reach (see fig. 183). 
 The body is cuneiform, or oval, or somewhat 
 elongated, acephalous, and often covered 
 by a gelatinous coat ; the eyes, in most 
 Rotifera, appear of a fine 
 red. 
 
 The Monads (Proteus, 
 etc.), present an infinite 
 variety of shapes ; mostly, 
 however, their bodies are 
 more or less spherical, 
 bell-shaped, discoid, stel- 
 late, etc. The body is 
 either naked or covered 
 by a silicious coat (fig. 
 
 apparatus, b. Stomach, c. Eyes. 1 QA\ 
 d. Wheel apparatus. - 1 - O^>J 
 
 Fio. 184. 
 
 Fortictlla. 
 
 (rorticdla convaUaria). 
 (Magnified 50 times).
 
 II. BOTANY. 
 
 'THE organs of plants are intended to perform two sets of 
 vital functions, viz., nutrition and reproduction. They are 
 developed in the plant progressively with its growth, in three 
 periods, or stages, termed respectively germination, flowering, and 
 ripening, or maturation. 
 
 A. In the stage of germination, the organs of nutrition (root, stem 
 and leaves) make their appearance ; during the time of flowering, 
 the organs of generation, or reproduction (flowers), are formed ; 
 and, in the third and last period, these latter organs undergo a 
 further most important change, which leads to their conversion 
 into fruit. 
 
 Minute vesicles, discernible only with the aid of the microscope, 
 constitute the basis of all vegetable tissues and organs ; these 
 vesicles are called cells, cellules, or utricles. 
 
 They are of various forms, usually, however, more or less rounded. 
 They are enclosed by a delicate, transparent, colourless mem- 
 brane, through which fluid matters are absorbed by a process of 
 transudation. The cells constitute the elementary organs of 
 plants ; they derive their sustenance by absorbing, from the 
 matters around them, the liquid elements of their food, and con- 
 verting these elements into material adapted for their further 
 growth and development, and for the generation of new cells. 
 The contents of the cells are partly fluid, partly solid. Fig. 185 
 shews an oval-shaped, somewhat flattened cell, with its contents, 
 highly magnified. 
 
 The aggregation, or union, of a number of cells into a coherent 
 
 FlO. 1S5. FIG. 186. 
 
 Oval thtrptd, someuhat Cdlular Tifiue, composed of Polyhedral Cdlt, 
 
 fattened, Ctll. 
 
 mass, which presents, on its cut surface, the appearance of a net- 
 work, constitutes the cellular tissue (fig. 186). Different names
 
 PKACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 have been applied to the cellular tissue, made up of variously 
 formed cells, e. g., muriform, tabular, etc. 
 
 The vessels of a plant consist of cells joined together, end to 
 end, in rows, like pearls on a string, and forming cylindrical 
 canals, having no transverse partitions inside. According to the 
 configuration of these vessels, they are called spiral vessels, or 
 trachea?, (fig. 187), annular vessels (fig. 188), reticulated vessels 
 (fig. 189), etc. 
 
 Fro. 188. 
 Annular Veisd. 
 
 Fio. 1ST. 
 Spiral Vettel. 
 
 FIG. 189.- 
 Reticulated Vetel. 
 
 Fig. 190 shows a longitudinal section of the stalk of the bal- 
 samine, magnified 130 times, -which will serve to give the student 
 some notion of the way in which variously formed cells are combined, 
 in the vegetable tissues, with vessels of divers configurations. 
 
 The organs which serve to provide 
 for the nourishment and growth of 
 plants (organs of nutrition}, are the 
 root, the stem, and the leaves. 
 
 I. The root is the descending part, 
 or axis, of the plant, which fixes it to 
 the place it grows on ; its office is to 
 attract from the soil the liquid and 
 gaseous matters which constitute the 
 food of plants. According to the 
 direction, shape, etc., of the root, dif- 
 
 c. e. Divers 
 
 Thus, 
 
 FIG. 290. 
 Longitudinal Section of the Stalk of tfa 
 
 Saliamine. 
 a. a. and b. 6. Divers cells, 
 vessels. 
 
 ferent names are given to it. 
 
 a root descending perpendicularly into the earth, without divid- 
 ing, is called a tap-root (see fig. 191). Roots of the form repre- 
 sented in fig. 192, are called fusiform, or spindle-shaped ; roots 
 branching in the manner shewn in fig. 193, are called ramous, or 
 branched. 
 
 II. The stem is the ascending part, which, growing upward from 
 the root, rises above ground, and bears leaves, flowers, and fruit ;
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 59 
 
 its office is to convey into the leaves the food drawn up from 
 the ground by the roots. Some plants produce their stems 
 
 Fig. 191. 
 Tap Root. 
 
 FIG. 192. 
 
 Fusiform, or Spindle- 
 shaped Root. 
 
 Fia. 193. 
 Branched Root. 
 
 underground, or, at least, partially so. Such underground stems 
 are called rhizomes, or root -stocks (see fig. 194) ; the rhizome differs 
 from the root in this, that it sends out leaf-buds from its upper 
 side, and bears sheaths, scales, scars, etc., upon it. 
 
 The stem proper presents two principal modifications : when soft 
 and herbaceous, it is called stalk, or caulis ; when thick, woody, 
 and perennial, it is named trurilc. 
 
 FIG. 194. 
 Rhizome of the Iris. 
 
 FIG. 195. 
 
 Cross and Vertical Section of the Stan of a Tree, 
 a. Medullary rays. b. Annual rings, c. Mo- 
 dullary sheath, d. Heart wood. e. Albur- 
 uum. /. Bark with liber. 
 
 The internal structure of the stem differs in the several primary 
 classes into which the vegetable kingdom is divided. If we 
 examine a cross and vertical section of the stem of any of our 
 exogenous plants (i. e. t plants growing by successive external addi- 
 tions of vascular tissue, and going on increasing indefinitely in an 
 outward direction, as our trees and shrubs), we find, proceeding from 
 the circumference to the centre, the following parts (see fig. 195) :
 
 60 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 1. The bark, or rind, the innermost layer of which is called liber; 
 
 2. the wood, in which again a distinction is made between the 
 outer portion, the alburnum, or sap-iuood, and the central Jieart- 
 ivood, or duramen', 3. the medullary sheath, which contains the 
 pith : fine lines are seen to proceed from this to the bark; these 
 lines are called medullary rays ; 4. the annual rings, which are new 
 layers deposited annually between the alburnum of the preceding 
 year and the liber, forming the alburnum of the next year. 
 
 Different names are given to stems, according to the direction 
 in which they grow, and their regular or irregular shape ; thus, 
 they are called upright, straight, ascending, prostrate, knotty, 
 articulated, etc. 
 
 The first divisions of the stem are called branches ; the last, 
 twigs. 
 
 III. The leaf is a more or less flat expansion of the bark of the 
 stem, or one of its divisions, which springs from the leaf-bud : it 
 is generally green. 
 
 Leaves present a very great variety of form. "We distinguish, in 
 this respect 
 
 a. The form of the outline of the leaf, according to which leaves 
 are called oval (fig. 1.96) ; elliptic (fig. 197) ; oblong (fig. 198) ; 
 
 Fid. 106. 
 Oval Leaf. 
 
 Fio. 199. 
 Lanceolate Leaf. 
 
 Fio. 200. 
 
 Spatulateleaf. 
 
 Fio. 202. 
 Reniform Leaf. 
 
 lanceolate (fig. 199) ; spatulate (fig. 200) ; cordate (fig. 201) ; 
 reniform (fig. 202) ; sagittate (fig. 203) ; hastate (fig. 204) ; etc. 
 b. The margin of the leaf, which may be scalloped (fig. 205) ;
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 61 
 
 crenate (fig. 206) ; dentate (fig. 207) ; serrate (fig. 208) ; sinuate 
 (fig. 209) ; etc. 
 
 FIG. 205. 
 
 Scalloped Leaf. 
 
 (Half.) 
 
 FIG. 206. 
 
 Crenate Leaf. 
 
 (Half.) 
 
 Fio. 207. 
 
 Dentate Leaf. 
 
 (Half.) 
 
 Fia. 209. 
 
 Sinuate Leaf. 
 
 (Half.) 
 
 c. The division of the blade, according to which leaves are called 
 three-lobed (fig. 210) ; cleft (bifid, trifid, fig. 211) ; runcinate 
 (fig. 212) ; parted (fig. 213) ; etc. 
 
 Fio. 210. 
 Three-lobed Leaf. 
 
 FIG. 213. 
 Parted Leaf (Septtmfid, or Seven-dtft Ltaf.) 
 
 d. The composition of the leaf. Leaves are simple (as in figs. 
 196 209) or compound. The latter again are distinguished by
 
 62 
 
 PEACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 different names, as binate, ternate (fig. 214) ; digitate (fig. 215) ; 
 pinnate (fig. 216); impari-pinnate, or, alternately pinnate (fig. 217) ; 
 etc. 
 
 ^ \\X\\\\\V\ \-IIZ-Wl !' I ( 
 
 wm^f^ 
 
 Fio. 214. 
 Ternate leaf. 
 
 FIG. 217. 
 Jmpari- Pinnate Leaf. 
 
 B. The organs of generation, or reproduction, of the plant are 
 the flower and the fruit. 
 
 1. The flower is the part, or organ, which serves to produce the 
 seed, and, accordingly, to ensure the preservation of the species. 
 It consists usually of four parts arranged in rings, or whorls, one 
 within the other. The first whorl, which is always on the outside 
 of the flower, and is generally green, is called the calyx', the 
 second whorl, next to this, is called the corolla ; this is 
 generally beautifully coloured, but never green; the 
 third ivhorl, standing next the corolla, consists of the 
 stamens ; and the fourth and innermost ivhorl is called 
 the pistil (see fig. 218). All these parts arise from a 
 common basis, called the receptacle. 
 
 The calyx and corolla together are called perianth, 
 or floral envelope, or non-essential parts of the 
 flower ; the stamens and pistils are called the repro- 
 ductive organs, or essential parts of the flower. Flowers 
 possessing all the essential and non-essential parts, are called 
 
 
 ' 
 
 roii on j;
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 63 
 
 cc mplete flowers ; those which lack one or both of the non-essential 
 parts (calyx or corolla), are called incomplete floivers. Flowers 
 having both essential parts, are called perfect ; those with only one 
 of the essential parts, are named imperfect. Imperfect flowers 
 with stamens only, are called male ; with pistils only, female. 
 
 a. The calyx resembles the leaves in solidity of structure; it 
 
 consists almost invariably of a whorl of leaves, called 
 sepals, which are either separated from each other, 
 forming what is called a polysepalous cup, or united 
 to a greater or less extent, forming a 
 monosepalous cup. The part grown to- 
 gether in the latter, is called tube, or 
 sheath (see figs. 218 and 219) ; the free 
 portion, border, or seam ; if the parts con- 
 stituting the border, or seam, be short, 
 they are called teeth of the calyx. 
 Certain names are employed to express differences in the form 
 
 of the calyx, as urceolate, or urn-shaped (fig. 219) ; campanulate, 
 
 or bell-shape (fig. 220), etc. 
 
 b. The corolla (or blossom) resembles, in many respects, the 
 calyx, and the terms used in speaking of it are much the same as 
 those applied to the latter. The corolla is, however, more delicate 
 than the calyx, and more gaily coloured. We distinguish a mono- 
 petalous (or gamopetalous), and a polypetalous corolla. 
 
 Different names are used to express differences in the form of 
 the corolla ; thus, the monopetalous corolla is called campanulate, or 
 bell-shaped (fig. 221) ; funnel-shaped, or infundibuliform (fig. 222) ; 
 salver-shaped (fig. 223) ; labiate, or lipped (fig. 224), with an upper 
 and under-lip, which unite in a tube, etc. 
 
 Fia. 219. 
 
 Five-toothed Urceolate 
 
 Calyx. 
 
 a. Tube, or sheath. 
 6. Teeth. 
 
 PIG. 221. 
 Campanviate Corolla. 
 
 FIG. 222. 
 Ftmnd-thaped Corolla. 
 
 FIG. 228. FIG. 224. 
 
 Salver-shaped Labiate Flower. 
 
 Corolla. ". Calyx, b. Tube, or sheath, c. Lips. 
 
 The polypetalous corolla is called, according to its shape, cruci- 
 form (fig. 225) ; rosaceous, caryophyllaceous (fig. 226) ; papiliona- 
 ceous (fig. 227), with five petals, one superior, called the vexillum,
 
 PEACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 or standard ; two lateral, the alee, or wings ; and two inferior, 
 united slightly by their lower margins, so as to form a single keel- 
 like piece, called carma, or keel. 
 
 FIG. 225. 
 Cruciform Corolla. 
 
 Fio. 226. 
 
 Caryophyllaccous 
 
 Corolla. 
 
 Fio. 227. 
 
 Papilionaceous Corolla, 
 a. Standard, b. Wings, c. Carina, 
 or keel. 
 
 Among the accessory parts of the corolla, we remark the honcy- 
 cups, or nectaries, which are calcarate (fig. 228) ; or cncullate, or 
 galeate (fig. 229). 
 
 Fio. 22S. 
 Calcarate Nectary. 
 
 Fia. 220. 
 Galeate Nectary. 
 
 c.T^lie stamen consists of a stalk, or filament, and a head, or anther, 
 of various forms, which contains a powder, named pollen (figs. 230 
 and 231). 
 
 In the examination of the filaments, we have to consider their 
 number, length and position, and also whether they stand distinct 
 from each other, or are collected in bundles, or united with other 
 
 Fio. 231. Fio. 232. FIG. 233. 
 
 Stamen with Stamen with S'amen with 
 
 Obloiig Anther. Monadelphous Diaddphous 
 
 a. Anther. I. Filament. Filaments. Filaments. 
 
 Fio. 234. 
 
 Stamen with 
 
 Polyadelphous Filamenlt. 
 
 parts of the flower. If the filaments are united, so as to form a 
 tube or bundle, the stamens are called monadelphous ; when the 
 filaments are united., so as to form two bundles, the stamens are 
 called dladelphous ; when the filaments form three or more bundles, 
 the stamens are said to be triadelphous, or polyadelphous (see 
 figs. 232234).
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 65 
 
 d. The pistil occupies the centre, or axis, of the flower. Like the 
 other organs, it consists of one or more modified leaves, which, 
 in this instance, are called carpels, from the Greek word for fruit. 
 
 A perfect pistil (fig. 235) consists of three parts, viz., 1. the 
 ovary, or germen (fig. 236), which forms the lowest part, and con- 
 tains the ovules, which, after fecundation, become 
 seeds ; 2. the style, a tubular extension of the ovary 
 upwards ; 3. the stigma (fig. 237), which forms the 
 
 FIG. 236. 
 Longitudinal Section 
 
 of Ovary, 
 a. Style. 6. Ovules. 
 
 FIG. 237. 
 
 Fecundation of tlie OvuUt. 
 a. Stigma. 6. Pollen- 
 tube, c. Style, d. Ovu- 
 les, e. Ovary. 
 
 
 upper part of the pistil, and, like the style, has a variety of forms ; 
 it opens into the style at the period of fertilization, and secretes 
 or exudes a viscous fluid. 
 
 Fecundation in plants, takes place in the following manner: 
 the anthers, when ripe, open and scatter the pollen 
 over the stigma. Each pollen-grain, by the extension 
 of its intime, or inner covering or membrane, forms a 
 tube (pollen-tube), which, passing through the style 
 into the ovary, penetrates into one of the ovules, 
 effecting thereby the conversion of the latter into 
 seed, and of the ovary, or germen, into 
 fruit. 
 
 The term inflorescence, 
 or anthotaxis, is used to 
 designate the general dis- 
 position and arrangement 
 of the flowers on the 
 axis. The following are 
 the principal forms of in- 
 florescence : the spike, the 
 FIG. 240. raceme, or cluster, the pani- 
 
 Spadix of Arum 
 
 Macuiatum. fU an( j the capitulum. or 
 
 a. Male flower. ' * 
 
 6. Female flower,
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 Bach of these again presents several varieties, thus 
 
 a. The spicate inflorescence is called : Spike (fig. 238) ; Gatldn, 
 or Amentum (fig. 239) ; Spadix (fig. 240). 
 
 b. .The racemose inflorescence is called: Raceme (fig. 241); 
 
 PIG. 241. 
 Raceme. 
 
 Fio. 242. 
 Simple Umbel. 
 
 FIG. 243. 
 Compound Umbel. 
 
 Simple Umbel (fig. 242) ; Compound Umbel (fig. 243) ; Corymb 
 (fig. 244). 
 
 c. The panicular inflorescence is called Panicle (fig. 245) ; thyrsus, 
 (e. g., in lilac, the vine). 
 
 d. The capitular inflorescence is called: Flower-head, or Ca- 
 pitulum (e. g., in trefoil) ; vertical (e. g., in peppermint) ; Cala- 
 thium (fig. 246), etc. In the Oalathium, the flowers situated on 
 the border often differ in form from those in the centre ; in which 
 
 Fio. 244. 
 Corymb. 
 
 Fio. 246. 
 
 Calathium. 
 
 (Compound Flower). 
 
 a. Disc. 6. Ray. 
 
 case, the flowers on the border, which are usually ribbon-shaped, 
 are collectively called ray ; those in the centre, which mostly are 
 tubular, disc (e. g., sun-flower). 
 
 2. The fruit is the ripe pistil; we distinguish two principal 
 parts in it, viz., the pericarp, or shell, and the seed. 
 
 The pericarp is the shell which encloses the seed ; it consists of 
 an outer membrane (the epicarp), a fleshy part (the mesocarp), and 
 an inner membrane (the endocarp). 
 
 The principal kinds or forms of fruit are: the Achcenium
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 67 
 
 (fig. 247); the Diachcenium (fig. 248); tlae'Safoara (fig. 249); the 
 Follicle (fig. 250) ; the Pod, or Legume (fig. 251) ; the Siliqua 
 (figs. 252 and 253) ; the Silicula (fig. 254) ; the Pyxis, or Pyxidium 
 (fig. 255, a and b). 
 
 FIG. 252. 
 
 Siliqua. 
 
 Fio.253. 
 Siliqua. 
 opened. 
 
 Fio. 254. 
 
 Silicula. 
 
 Fio. 255. 
 
 Pyxidium (of Henbane) 
 a. Pyxis, with the cap 
 
 thrown off. b. Pyxis m 
 
 the calyx. 
 
 Fio. 256. 
 
 Germinated Field-bean 
 in Proffress of De- 
 velopment, 
 a. First, b. second, 
 c. third leaflet, d. 
 Seed-lobo, or cotyle- 
 don. . Radicle. /. 
 Plumule. 
 
 b. The seed is the full-grown ovule; it is com- 
 posed of two parts, viz., the seed-coat, or testa, and 
 the embryo, or germ. In most plants, there is inter- 
 posed between the embryo and the testa a substance 
 called albumen, which consists chiefly of starchy 
 matter, and serves to afford the first nutriment to 
 the young plant. However, in many plants, this 
 substance is altogether wanting. Three parts may be distinguished 
 in the growing embryo : the radicle, 6r young root, which grows 
 downward; the cotyledons, or seed-lobes; and the plumule, or 
 gemmule, or young stem, with the first leaflets (see fig. 256). 
 
 According to the absence or presence, and the number, of the 
 seed-lobes, or cotyledons, in the embryo, the entire vegetable 
 kingdom is divided into three principal classes, viz., 1. Dicotyle- 
 dons, or plants with seeds having two or more opposite lobes, or 
 cotyledons, as in the leguminous plants, the large-leaved trees, etc. 
 
 F 2
 
 68 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 PlaDts with seeds having more than two lobes, are called also 
 Poly cotyledons. 2. Monocotyledons, or plants with seeds having 
 only one lobe (if in any instance there are more lobes than one, 
 they are alternate instead of opposite), e. g., the grasses, the tulip, 
 etc. 3. Acotyledons, or plants with seeds, without lobes, e.g., the 
 mosses, etc. 
 
 Dicotyledonous plants have a tap-root. The stem exhibits wood 
 and true bark ; the wood is exogenous, and arranged in concentric 
 circles. The venation, or nervation, of the leaves is reticulated. 
 The number of parts in the flower and fruit of a dicotyledonous 
 plant is generally some power of five. 
 
 In Monocotyledonous plants the root 1.3 fascicular ; the stem shows 
 no concentric circles of wood, but simply filamentous woody bun- 
 dles, scattered through the cellular tissue, and there is no dis- 
 tinction of pith, wood, bark, and medullary rays. The leaves 
 are parallel- veined. The number of parts in the flower and fruit 
 is generally a power of three.
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 HPHERE are upwards of 100,000 known species of plants. In 
 -^ order to facilitate their description and the comparison of 
 their affinities and differences, they are arranged in classes. The 
 two principal systems of classification are the artificial and the 
 natural. The artificial system is founded on the diversity of form 
 and structure presented by certain parts of plants only, without 
 reference to others ; while the natural system takes into account 
 all the parts of plants, and bases the arrangement in classes upon 
 certain affinities in the essential organs. 
 
 A. Artificial System. Of the many artificial systems proposed, 
 the classification of Linnmus is the easiest and most useful for 
 beginners. The Linnaean System 
 arranges all plants in twenty-four 
 classes or divisions ; the distinc- 
 tive marks of the several classes 
 are derived from characters taken 
 from the stamens, viz. : a, the 
 number and position of the sta- 
 mens ; l t their relative lengths ; 
 c, the perfection or imperfection 
 of the flowers; d, the connec- 
 tion of the stamens. 
 
 The classes are subdivided 
 into orders, which, in the first 
 thirteen classes, are arranged 
 and denominated according to 
 the number of pistils. In the 
 remaining eleven classes, the 
 subdivision into orders is found- 
 ed either upon the form of the 
 fruit, or upon the connection Fio.ar. 
 
 ,, , . _ Sweet Vernal Grots (Anlhoxaiithwn odoratum). 
 
 01 tne stamens in one or several mandna D; ffyn ia. araminea. 
 
 bundles. * lfagnUtod flower>
 
 70 
 
 PEACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 FIBST CLASS. MONANDRIA. 
 
 Flowers, perfect; one free stamen. 
 Example: the Horsetail (Hippuris vulgaris). 
 
 SECOND CLASS. DIANDRIA. 
 
 t Flowers, perfect; two free stamens. 
 
 . To this class belong, among others, the Olive (Olea Europced); the 
 Lilac .(Syringa vulgaris) ; the Ash tree (Fraxinus) ; the Sage 
 (Salvia officinalis) ; the Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) ; the 
 Sweet Yernal Grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum, see fig. 257).. 
 
 Fio. 258. 
 
 Saffron Crocus (Crocus autumnalis). 
 Triandria Afonogynia. Iridece. 
 
 Fia. 259. 
 
 Darnel (lolium temulentum). 
 
 Triandria Digynia. Graminece. 
 
 a. Flower. 
 
 THIED CLASS. TRIANDRIA. 
 Flowers, perfect; three free stamens. 
 
 To this class belong the several species of Iris ; the Saffron 
 (Crocus autumnalis, fig. 258) ; the Grasses (Graminecz, fig. 259) ; 
 and, also, the Sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum).
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 71 
 
 FOUETH CLASS. TETRANDRIA. 
 
 Flowers, perfect; four free stamens of equal length. 
 
 To this class belong principally the Madder-worts (Galiacece, or 
 Stellatce), which are distinguished by their verticillate leaves and 
 double fruit. 
 
 Examples : The Madder (Bubia Tinctorum) ; the Sweet Wood- 
 ruff (Asperula odorata, fig. 260). 
 
 Fio. 260. 
 
 Sweet Woodruff (Aperula odorata). 
 
 Tetrandria Monogynia. Galiacece. 
 
 a. Single flower. 6. Flower open. c. Stamen, 
 
 Fio. 261. 
 Deadly NigJitshade (Atropa Belladonna). 
 
 Pentandria Monogynia. Solanece. 
 
 a. Flower magnified. 6. Fruit, e. Cross section 
 
 of fruit. 
 
 , FIFTH CLASS. PENTANDRIA. 
 Floivers, perfect; five free stamens. 
 
 This class is composed of a large number of families, genera 
 and species ; it contains a great many ornamental and useful 
 plants, but, also, the most dangerous of the poisonous plants. 
 
 To the first order of this class belong the Primroses (Primula?) ; 
 the Deadly Nightshade (Atropa belladonna, fig. 261) ; the common 
 Potato (Solanum tuberosum) ; the Chili, or Cayenne Pepper
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 (Capsicum annuum) ; the Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger, fig. 262) ; 
 the Thorn Apple (Datura stramonium) ; the Tobacco Plant (Nico- 
 
 a. 262. 
 
 Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger). 
 
 Pentandria Monogynia. Solan&e. 
 
 a. Corolla magnified. 6. Fruit. 
 
 FIG. 263. 
 Fool's Parsley (JEthusa cynapiuni). 
 Pentandria Digynia. Umbellifcrce. 
 a. Single floret. 6. Fruit, c. Root. 
 
 Fio. 264. 
 
 HemlocTc (Corium macvtatum). 
 
 Pentandria Digynia. Umbdliferoi. 
 
 a. Lower part of the stalk. 6. Root. 
 
 Fio. -205. 
 
 Water Hemlock (Cicuta viroia). 
 
 Pentandria Digynia. Umbdliferae. 
 
 a. Root. b. Longitudinal section of root. 
 
 tiana)-, the Cinchona Tree ( Cinchonce) ; the Coffee Tree (Coffea
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 73 
 
 Arabica) ; the Currant and the Gooseberry (Ribes) ; the Vine 
 (Vitis vinifera). 
 
 To the second order of the fifth class belong, among others, 
 the Gentian Plants (Gentianoe) ; the Beet Root (Beta maritima) ; 
 the Elm (Ulmus) ; and the family of the Umbellifers (Umbelli- 
 ferae), which abounds in species, as, e.g., Common Anise, Parsley, 
 Coriander, Carrot (Daucus carota) ; Fool's Parsley (^Btkusa cyna- 
 pium, fig. 263) ; Hemlock (Conium maculatum, fig. 264); Water 
 Hemlock, or Cowbane (Cicuta virosa, fig. 265). 
 
 To the third order belong the common Elder Tree (Sambucus 
 nigra) ; the Guelder Rose (Viburnum opulus), etc. 
 
 To the fifth order, the common Flax (Linum usitatissimum). 
 
 FIG. 266. 
 
 Tiger Lily (Lilium Martagon). 
 
 Hexandria Monogynia. Liliaceai. 
 
 a. Flower. 6. Pistil, c, c. Stamens. 
 
 Fio. 267. 
 
 Lily of the Valley (Convallaria najaKt). 
 Hexandria Monogynia. Atparaginea. 
 a. Floret laid open. 6. Stamen. 
 
 SIXTH CLASS. EEXANDRIA. 
 
 Flower, perfect; six free stamens of equal length. 
 
 This class is formed principally by the bulbous plants, and 
 contains, also, some of the palms and grasses. 
 
 Examples : The Tiger Lily, or Turk's Turban (Lilium Martagon, 
 fig. 266) ; the Tulip ( Tulipa Gesneriana) ; the Hyacinth (Hyacin- 
 thus orientalis} ; the Crown Imperial (Fritillaria imperialis) ; the 
 numerous species of Aloes ; the Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis ; 
 the Lily of the Valley (Convallaria majalis, fig. 267) ; the Date 
 Palm (Plicenix dactylifera) ; the Cocoa-nut Palm (Cocos nucifera).
 
 PEACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 SEVENTH CLASS. HEPTANDRIA. 
 
 Flower, perfect; seven free stamens. 
 
 This class contains only a limited number of plants 3 among the 
 best known of which may be mentioned the Horse-Chesnut 
 
 (jffisculus hippocastanum). 
 
 EIGHTS CLASS. OCTANDRIA. 
 Flowers, perfect; eight free stamens. 
 
 Examples : The Maples (Aceracece) ; the Mezereon (Daphne 
 mezereum) ; the several varieties of Heath (Erica) ; the Bilberry 
 (Vaccinium myrtillus) ; the French "Willow (Epilobium angusti- 
 folium, fig. 268) ; the Fuchsia, 
 
 FIG. 268. 
 French Willow (Spilobium cmgutti folium). 
 
 Octandria Monogynia. Onagracece. 
 a. Magnified flower, b. Side view of flower. 
 
 Fro. 269. 
 
 Flowering Rush (Bviomus unibdlaiiis). 
 
 Enneandria Hexagynia. Butomaceoi. 
 
 a. Magnified flower. 
 
 NINTH CLASS. ENNEANDRIA. 
 
 Flowers, perfect; nine free stamens. 
 
 The Flowering Eush (Butomus umbellatus, fig. 269), is the only 
 British plant in this class, which, however, .contains several im-
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 75 
 
 portant aromatic and medicinal exotics, e.g., the Sweet Bay, or 
 Victor's Laurel (Laurus nobilis); the Cinnamon Tree (Cinna- 
 momum ceylanicum Laurus cinnamomum) ; the Camphor Tree 
 (Camphor a officinarum Laurus camphor a). 
 
 TENTH CLASS. DECANDRIA. 
 Flowers, perfect; ten free stamens. 
 
 Examples : the Rhododendrons ; the Rue Plant (Ruta ) ; the 
 Pink (Dianthus, fig. 270); also several tropical plants, as the 
 Pernambuco Tree ( Ccesalpinia echinata) ; the Campeachy or Log- 
 wood Tree (Hcsmatoxylon Campeachianum} ; the Mahogany Tree 
 (Swietenia mahogani), etc. 
 
 Fio. 270. 
 Carthiitian Pink (DiantUui Carthwtianorttm). 
 
 Silenta. 
 a. Magnified flower. 
 
 Fio. 271. 
 Purple Lootestrife, or Willonttrife (Lythrum talicaria). 
 
 Dodeeandria Uonogynia. Lythraeeoe. 
 a. Magnified flower, b. Flower laid open. 
 
 ELEVENTH CLASS. DODECANDRIA. 
 Flowers, perfect; twelve free stamens. 
 
 Examples : The Loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria, fig. 271), and 
 the fragrant Mignonette (Eeseda odorata).
 
 76 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 TWELFTH CLASS. ICOSANDRIA. 
 
 Flowers, perfect ; fifteen, twenty and more free stamens, 
 inserted on calyx or corolla. 
 
 This class contains our Apple and Pear Trees and Rose Plants, 
 also the divers species of Cactus, the Myrtles, etc. Among the 
 Poinacese may be mentioned here, the White Thorn (Cratcegus 
 oxyacantha, fig. 272). 
 
 Fio. 272. 
 Common White Thorn (Cratagut oxyacantha). 
 
 Icosandria Digynia. Pomacece. 
 a. Bud. b. Magnified flower, c. Fruit. 
 
 Fio. 273. 
 
 Wood Anemone (Anemone nemorosa). 
 
 Polyandria Polygynia. Ranunculacca. 
 
 a. Magnified flower. 6. Flower seen from below. 
 
 THIRTEENTH CLASS. POLYANDRIA. 
 
 Flowers, perfect; fifteen, twenty and more free stamens, 
 inserted on receptacle. 
 
 Examples : The Poppy (Papaver) ; the Lime, or Linden Trees 
 ); the "Water Lilies; the Tea Plant (Thea chinensis) the 
 Camellia ( Camellia japonica) ; the Lotus ; the Victoria Regia ; 
 the Larkspur (Delphinium) ; the Monkshood (Aconitum napellus) ; 
 the plants of the Crowfoot family (Ranunculi) ; the "Wood Anem- 
 one (Anemone nemorosa, fig. 273).
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 77 
 
 FOUETEENTH CLASS. DIDYNAMIA. 
 Flowers, perfect ; two long and two short free stamens. 
 
 This class is divided into two orders, viz., 1, Gymnospermia, 
 with labiate flowers (see fig. 224), and fruit formed by four 
 achsenia. 2,' Angiospermia ; fruit, a two-celled capsule with many 
 seeds. 
 
 Examples of the first order, which is formed by the labiate 
 family : The Sweet Marjoram (Origanum majorana) ; the Common 
 Balm (Melissa officinalis) ; the Peppermint (Mentha piperita, etc., 
 see fig. 224) ; the Red Dead Nettle (Lamium purpureum, fig. 274). 
 
 FIG. 274. 
 
 Red Dead Nettle (Lamium purpureum). 
 
 Didynamia gymiwspermia. Labiate. 
 
 a. Magnified flower. 
 
 FIG. 275. 
 
 Broom Rape (Orobanehe major). 
 
 Didynamia angiotpennia. Orobanehea. 
 
 a. Magnified flower. 6. Flower laid open. e. Pistil. 
 
 Examples of the second order, of which the plants, for the 
 greater part, belong to the extensive family of plants with per- 
 sonate or masked corolla : The Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) ; 
 the Broom Rape (Orobanehe major, fig. 275). 
 
 FIFTEENTH CLASS. TETR ADYNAMIA. 
 
 Flowers, perfect; four long and two short free stamens. 
 
 Linnaeus divides this class, which contains our most important 
 culinary vegetables and oleaginous plants, into two orders, viz. : 
 1, Siliculosa?, in which the fruit (Silicitla, fig. 254) is broad and
 
 78 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 thin; and, 2, Siliquosce, in which the fruit (Siliqua, figs. 252 
 and 253) is long and narrow. 
 
 This class is formed by a natural family, the Cruciferce, or Cress- 
 warts; the plants of this family are distinguished, as just now 
 stated, by the form of their fruit, and, besides,' by having cruci- 
 form corollas, i.e., four petals placed opposite in the form of a cross. 
 
 Examples of the first order (Siliculosw) : The "Woad (Isatis 
 tinctorid) ; the Horse-radish (Armoraciarusticana). 
 
 Examples of the second order (Siliquosce) : The divers kinds 
 of Cabbage (Brassica), as the garden cabbages, turnips, etc. ; the 
 Radish (Raphanus sativus) ; the Wall-flower (Gheiranthus clieiri). 
 
 SIXTEENTH CLASS. MONADELPHIA. 
 
 Flowers, perfect; stamens united by filaments in one bundle, or tube 
 
 (see fig. 232). 
 
 The subdivision of this and the two following classes (seventeen 
 and eighteen) is based upon the number of stamens united. 
 
 Examples : The Mallow family (Malvacece), of which may be 
 mentioned here, the Marsh Mallow (Althcea officinalis), and the 
 divers species of the Cotton Plant (Gossypium) ; the Geraniums 
 and Pelargoniums of the Cranesbill family (Geraniacece) ; the 
 Arabian Gum Tree (Acacia Arabica). 
 
 Fio. 276. 
 
 Pod-bearing Red Lotus (Tetragonolobus silixjuosus). 
 
 Diadelphia Decandria. Papilionacece. 
 
 a. Magnified flower. 
 
 Fio. 27Y. 
 
 Coronilla (Coronilla varia). 
 
 Diadelpkia Decandria. fapilionacea. 
 
 a. Magnified flower, b. Organs of fructification. 
 
 r. Fruit.
 
 BOTANY". 
 
 79 
 
 SEVENTEENTH CLASS. "DT A DELPHI A. 
 
 Flowers, perfect; stamens united by filaments in two bundles 
 
 (see fig. 233). 
 
 This class is formed principally by the extensive natural order 
 of the Papilionacece (see fig. 227), or Leguminosce. 
 
 Examples : The many species of Bean (Phaseolus) ; the Pea 
 (Pisum sativum) ; the Pod-bearing Eed Lotus (Tetragonolobus 
 siliquosus, fig. 276) ; the Lentil (Ervum lens) ; the Vetch (Vicia) ; 
 the Coronilla (Coronilla varia, fig. 277) ; the Clover (Trifolium); 
 the Sainfoin (Onobrychis sativa, fig. 278); the various species of 
 the Indigo Plant (Indigofera) ; the Locust Tree, or False Acacia 
 (Robinia pseudo-acacia), etc. 
 
 Fio. 278. 
 
 Sainfoin (Onobrydtis tatiwf). 
 
 Diadelphia Decandria. Papilionacece. 
 
 a. Magnified flower. 
 
 FIG. 279. 
 
 Perforated St. John's Wort (ffypericum perforation). 
 
 Polyaddphia Polyandria. Bypericaceos. 
 
 a. Magnified flower. 
 
 EIGHTEENTH CLASS. POLYADELPHIA. 
 Flowers, perfect ; stamens united by filaments inmore than two bundles. 
 
 The Cacao Tree ( Theobroma Cacao) ; the divers members of 
 the Orange family (Aurantiacece), as the Orange, Lime, Lemon, 
 Citron, etc. ; the perforated St. John's Wort (Hypericum perfora- 
 tum, fig. 279).
 
 80 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 NINETEENTH CLASS. SYNGENESIA. 
 Flowers, perfect ; stamens united by Anthers into a tube. 
 
 This class is formed exclusively by the Composite Plants (Com- 
 posites, see fig. 246), one of the largest, and, at the same time, one 
 of the most natural families in the vegetable kingdom, which 
 numbers, altogether, upwards of 900 species. Fruit, an achse- 
 nium (or cypsela), one-seeded (see fig. 247), usually crowned with 
 the limb of the calyx, divided into hairs, and called pappus 
 (see fig. 281). 
 
 This class was divided by Linnseus into five orders. In the 
 natural system it is usually divided into three large natural groups 
 or sections, viz., Tubuliflorce or Cynarocephalce, Liguliflorce or 
 Cichoracece, and Radiatce or Corymbiferce. 
 
 FlO. 280. 
 
 Common Knapweed (Centawea Jaced). Dandelion (Taraxacum officinal*). 
 
 Syngenetia Polygamia superflua. Compotita. Syngenesia Polygamia aqualit. CompoiUa. 
 
 a. Floret of the ray magnified. . Fruit, b. Naked receptacle, with only one achsenium 
 
 crowned with the pappus, c. Receptacle with one floret 
 left. <L Magnified floret, e. Single fruit with pappus. 
 
 1. The plants of the order Cynarocephalce have the florets, both 
 of the disc and ray tubular (flosculous), and the style, at the base 
 of the stigma, surrounded by a ring of hair. Examples : The 
 various species of Thistle ( Carduus) ; the Cirsium ; the various 
 species of Knapweed (Centaurea), or the Common Knapweed 
 (Centaurea Jacea, fig. 280).
 
 EOT ANY. 
 
 81 
 
 2. In the plants of the order Cichoraceos all the florets are 
 ligulate. Examples : The dandelion ( Taraxacum dens leonis s. 
 officinalis, fig. 281) ; the Common Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) ; the 
 Salsify, or Goat's Beard (Tragopogon pratensis, fig. 282); the 
 Scorzonera. 
 
 3. The GorymbifercB have tubular florets in the disc, and ligulate 
 florets in the ray ; the florets in the disc have only pistils, no 
 stamens; those in the ray have both pistils and stamens. Exam- 
 ples : The Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) ; the Chaffweed 
 (Gnaphalium) ; the Daisy (Bellis perennis, fig. 283) ; the Common 
 Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) ; the Yarrow (Achillea Mille- 
 folium) ; the Aster ; the Sunflower. 
 
 FIG. 282. 
 
 Meadow Salsify (Tragopogon pratensis'). 
 
 Syngenesia polygamia aequalis. Composites. 
 
 a. Floret of the ray, magnified. b. Floret of the disc, 
 
 magnified. 
 
 FIG. 2S3. 
 
 Daisy (Bellis perennis). 
 Syngenesis, polygamia'superflua. Composite. 
 a. Magnified flower. 6. Side view of flower. 
 
 TWENTIETH CLASS. GTYNANDRIA. 
 Flowers, perfect ; stamens united with pistils on a column. 
 
 The subdivision of this class into orders is based upon the 
 number of stamens. 
 
 The first and second orders of this class are formed by the 
 natural family of the Orchids (Orchidacece), whose flowers are 
 distinguished by a coloured perianth, with a six-partite limb. The 
 lowest of the parts or segments, which is called the labellum or lip,
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 is of a different form from the others, larger, and often spurred 
 at the base (see fig. 284). 
 
 Fio. 284. 
 
 Flatanthera Bifolia.. 
 Gynarulria monandria. Orchidacece. 
 A. Magnified flower, a. Lip, or honey- 
 lip. 6. Spur. 
 
 Fio. 285. 
 
 Larch (Abies larix). 
 
 Moncecia Diandria. Coniferce. 
 
 a. Flowering branch. 6. Fruit-bearing branch. 
 
 Fio. 286. 
 
 Scotch Fir (Pinus Sylvestrii). 
 
 Monteciadiandria. Coniferce. 
 
 a. Cone, not quite ripe. 6. Ripe cone, cut open. 
 
 Fio. 287. 
 
 Seech Tree (Fagus sUvatica). 
 
 Moncecia polyandria. Cupulifera. 
 
 a. Staminiferoua flower. l>. Pistiliferous flower. 
 
 C. Fruit.
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 83 
 
 Examples : Tlie common Orchis ; the Vanilla ( Vanilla plenifolia 
 s. aromatica) ; the Lady's Slipper ( Gypripedium calceolus] ; the 
 Birth- wort (Aristolochia). 
 
 TWENTY-FIEST CLASS. MONCECIA. 
 
 Flowers, imperfect; staminiferous and pistilliferous flowers on 
 
 the same plant. 
 
 LinnaBus divides this class into eleven orders, according to 
 the number, etc., of the stamens. 
 
 Examples (arranged after the 
 natural families to which the 
 plants severally belong) : The 
 Maize, or Indian Corn (Zea 
 mays] ; the common Cuckoo- 
 pint, or Wake-Robin (Arum ma- 
 culatum, see fig. 240, which 
 shows the spadix or succulent 
 spike of this plant) ; the Coni- 
 fers, as the Norway Spruce Fir 
 (Abies excelsa) ; the Silver Fir 
 (Abies pectinatd) ; the Larch 
 (Abies larix, fig. 285) ; the 
 Scotch Fir (Pinus silvestris, fig. 
 286) ; the Cupuliferce, or Mast- 
 worts., as the Oak (Quercus) ; the 
 Beech Tree (Fagus silvalica, fig. 
 287); the Hazel Nut (Corylus 
 avellana) ; the Hornbeam Tree 
 (Carpinus betulus fig. 288); 
 the Birchworts, as the Common 
 Birch (Betula alba) ; the Alder (Alnus)--i\\Q Walnut Tribe, as the 
 Common Walnut (Juglans regia); the Plane tribe (Platanece) ; 
 -the Nettle Family (Urticacece), as the Common Nettle (Urtica 
 urens); the Common Fig (Ficus carica); the Mulberry Tribe 
 (Morece) ; and several exotic plants;the Gourds, etc., etc. 
 
 TWEXTY-SECOND CLASS. DICECIA. 
 
 Flowers, imperfect; staminiferous and pistilliferous /lowers 
 on two different plants. 
 
 Examples : Of the family of the Conifers, the Juniper (Juni- 
 perus) ; the Yew ( Taxus baccata) ; of the Willow- worts, the 
 
 G2 
 
 FIG. 288. 
 
 Hornbeam Tree (Carpinus Bettdut). 
 
 Monacia Polyandria. Cupulifera. 
 
 a. Staminiferous flower. 6. Pistilliferous flower. 
 
 c. Fruit.
 
 84 PEACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 Willows (Salices); and the Poplars (Populi); of the Nettle-worts, the 
 Hop (Hunndus lapulus) ; and the Heinp (Cannabis sativa). 
 
 TWENTY-THIRD CLASS. POLYGAMIA. 
 
 Flowers perfect and imperfect; stamens and pistils in the same or in 
 different flowers on the same or on different plants. 
 
 This class is now no longer admitted, and the plants formerly 
 belonging to it are distributed among the other classes, according 
 to the number of stamens in their perfect flowers. 
 
 TWENTY-FOUETH CLASS. CRYPTOGAMIA (OE FLOWEELESS PLANTS). 
 
 Flowers, absent; and no distinct stamens nor pistils. 
 
 The principal families of this class are the Ferns ; the Horse- 
 tails (Equisetacece) ; the Lycopodiums, or Club-moss family ; the 
 mosses ; the Lichens ; the Algce, or Sea-weed family ; and the 
 Fungi, or Mushroom family. 
 
 The plants of the first twenty-three classes are also termed 
 Phanerogamous plants (i.e., plants in which the flowers, or at least 
 the essential organs, are conspicuous), to distinguish *them from 
 the twenty-fourth class, Cryptogamous plants. 
 
 B. Natural System. The most important natural systems are 
 those of Bernard de Jussieu, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, 
 Reichenbach, Oken, von Martius, Endlicher, De Candolle, and 
 Lindley. De Candolle's system has been the most generally 
 adopted. This system proceeds from the most perfectly organised 
 plants to those which are least so, and is based principally upon 
 the structure of the stem, the number and position of the coty- 
 ledons, the presence of all or absence of certain parts of the 
 flower, the union of the petals, etc. Perleb has arranged the 
 families belonging respectively to the several classes of De Can- 
 dolle's system into large sections or orders. 
 
 The following is a general view of De Candolle's system, with 
 the principal families, as arranged by Perleb.
 
 85 
 
 FIEST DIVISION. 
 
 VASCULAR OK COTYLEDONOUS PLANTS (Plantce vasculares 
 s. cotyledonece). 
 
 The plants included under this division have a cellular and 
 vascular system ; the embryo has invariably one or two or more 
 cotyledons, or seed lobes. 
 
 CLASS I. DICOTYLEDONS OR EXOGENS (Dicotylcdones s. Exogencc). 
 Plants with seeds having two or more opposite cotyledons. 
 
 This class is divided into two sections, viz., A. Diclilamydece, 
 or plants having both calyx and corolla; B. Monochlamydece, or 
 plants having a calyx only. These two sections together are sub- 
 divided into thirty-four orders, and the latter again into a number 
 of families. 
 
 A. DlCHLAMYDE^, OR PLANTS HAVING BOTH CALYX AND COROLLA. 
 
 SUBCLASS I. THALAMIFLORJS. Petals distinct, inserted into the 
 Thalamus, or receptacle. 
 
 Order 1. Multisiliquce. To this order belong the Crowfoot 
 family (Ranunculacece, see fig. 270) ; the Berberry family (Berberi- 
 dacece) ; the Water Lily family (Nympliceacece), etc. 
 
 Order 2. Cruciferce. To this order belong the Poppy family 
 (Papaveracece) ; the Fumewort family (Fumariacece), etc. 
 
 Order 3. Climbing Plants. To this order belong the Balsam 
 family (Balsaminacece) ; the Cranesbill family (Geraniacecc) ; the 
 Vine family (Ampelidece s. vitacece, s. viniferce), etc. 
 
 Order 4. Hesperidece. To this class belong the Tutsan, or 
 St. John's Wort family (Hypericacece, see fig. 279) the Orange 
 family (AwranliaceaJ) ; the Camellias (Camelliacece}, etc. 
 
 Order 5. Columniferce. To this order belong the Mallow 
 family (Malvaceae) ; the Lime Tree family (Tiliacece), etc. 
 
 Order 6. Umbilicatce. To this order belong the Indian Cress 
 family (Tropceolacece) ; the Horse-Chestnut family (Eippocastaneae) ; 
 the Maple family (Aceracece, see fig. 249), etc. 
 
 Order 7. Eueworts. To this order belong the Rue family 
 (Eutacece) ; the Milkwort family (Polygalacea), etc.
 
 86 PEACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 Order 8. Violetworts. To tMs order belong the Mignonette 
 family (Resedacece) ; the Violet family (Violacece) ; the Rock 
 Rose family (Cistacece'), etc. 
 
 Order 9. Cloveworts, or Chickweeds (Oa/ryopliyUacece). To 
 this order belong the Silenece (see fig. 270) ; and Alsinece. 
 
 SUBCLASS II. CALYCIFLOE^I. The Petals are attached at the base 
 .to the calyx, and appear, accordingly, inserted on the calyx. 
 
 Order 10. Succulent Plants. To this order belong the House 
 Leek family ( Crassulacece) ; e.g., the Stonecrop (Sedum acre), 
 the Saxifrages (Saxifragacece\ etc. 
 
 Order 11. Plants with Ribbed Seeds. To this order belong 
 the Cactus, or Indian Fig family ( Cactacece) ; the Gooseberry and 
 Currant family (Grossulariacece s. Ribesiacece), etc. 
 
 Order 12. Roseworts (Rosacece). To this order belong the 
 Fuchswort, or Evening Primrose family (Onagracece, see fig. 268) ; 
 the Loosestrife family (Lythracece, see fig. 271) ; the Myrtle family 
 (Myrtacece) ; the Pomacece (Apple Trees, Pear Trees, White 
 Thorn, see fig. 272) ; the Amygdalece (Almonds, Peaches, Cherries, 
 Plums, Apricots, etc.) ; the Potentillece, etc. 
 
 Order 13. Leguminoscs, s.Fabacece. To this order belong the 
 Mimosce, the Papilionacece (see figs. 227, 276, 277, and 278). 
 Examples : the Pea, the Lentil, the Yetch, etc. 
 
 Order 14. Resinous Plants. To this order belong the Buck- 
 thorns (Rhamnacece) ; the Terebinthacece ; the Walnut family 
 (Juglandacece), etc. 
 
 Order 15. Umbelliferce. Examples : Parsley, Caraway or Cu- 
 min, Hemlock, etc. (see figs. 263, 264 and 265). 
 
 Order 16. Peponifercs. To this order belong the Passion- 
 flower family (Passifloracece), and the Cucumber family (Cucur- 
 bitacece). 
 
 Order 17. Rapunculacece. To which order belongs, among 
 others, the Hare-bell family (Campanulacece). 
 
 Order 18. Composites. (See Class nineteen of Linnsean sys- 
 tem). Families : GynarocepJialce s. Tubuliflorce (see fig. 282) ; IA- 
 guliflorce s. Gichoracece (see figs. 280 and 281) ; and Radiatce s. 
 Corymbiferce (see fig. 283). 
 
 Order 19. Glomendiferce. To this order belong the Valerian 
 family (Valerianacece), and the Teazel family (Dipsacacece). 
 
 Order 20. Orthophyfa. To this order belong the Elder family 
 (Sambucece) ; the Bark family (Cinchonce) ; the Coffee Tree family 
 (Coffeacece) ; and the Galiece s. Stellatce (see fig. 260).
 
 BOTANY. 87 
 
 SUBCLASS III. COROLLIFLOILE s. THALAMAOTEGE. Petals united; 
 corolla hypogynous, not attached to the calyx. 
 
 Order 21. Atasees. To this order belong the Cranberry family 
 ( VacciniacecB ; the Heath family (Ericaceae), etc. 
 
 Order 22. Bitter Plants. As the Gentian family (Gentianacece}, 
 and others. 
 
 Order 23. Solanece. To this order belong the Bindweed 
 family (Convolvulacece) ; the Nightshade family (Solanacece) ; the 
 Mullein family (Verbascece), etc. 
 
 Order 24. Tetrachceniece. (See Class fourteen of Linnsean sys- 
 tem). To this order belong the Borage family (Boraginaceoe) , and 
 the Labiate family (Labiatce, see fig. 274). 
 
 Order 25. Drupacece. To this order belong the Olive and 
 Ash families (Oleacece and Fraxinece), as the common Lilac, the 
 common Ash, etc. ; the Jessamine family (Jasminacece) . 
 
 Order 26. Personates (see Class fourteen of Linnasan system. 
 To this order belong the Broom-rape family (Orobanchacece, see 
 fig. 275), and others. 
 
 Order 27. Hypocrateriformce. To this order belong the Prim- 
 rose family (Primulacece) ; the Ribwort family (Plantaginacece) , etc. 
 
 B. MONOOHLAMYDEJI, OE PLANTS WITH A SlMPLE PERIANTH (THE 
 
 CALYX). 
 
 SUBCLASS IY. MONOOHLAMYDEJI. Corolla wanting ; floral envelope 
 consisting of calyx alone. 
 
 Order 28. Gynandria (Exogenous). To this order belong the 
 Birthwort family (Aristolochiacece) ; the Pitcher-plant family (Ne- 
 penthaceoe)) etc. 
 
 Order 29. Lauracece. To this order belong the Nutmeg family 
 (Myristicacece) ; the Laurel family (Laurinece) ; the Daphne family 
 (Thymelceacece), etc. 
 
 Order 30. Pot Herbs. To this order belong the Goose-foot 
 family (Ghenopodiacece) ; the Amaranth family (Amaranthacece) ; 
 the Buckwheat family (Polygonacece), etc. 
 
 Order 31. Pepper Plants. To this order belong the Pepper 
 family (Piper acece], and others. 
 
 Order 32. Nettle Plants. To this order belong the Spurge 
 family (Euphorbiacefe) ; the Plane tribe (Platanece) ; the Nettle 
 family (Urticacece) ; the Elm tribe (Ulmacece), etc.
 
 88 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 Order 33. Amentacece, or Catkin-bearing plants. To this order 
 belong the "Willow tribe (Salicinece), as "Willows, Poplars, etc ; 
 the Nut tribe (Cupuliferce), as Oaks, Beeches, etc. (figs. 287 and 
 288) ; the Birch tribe (Betulinece], etc. 
 
 Order 34. Coniferce, or Cone-bearing plants. To this order 
 belong the Fir and Spruce tribe (Abietincce, see figs. 285 and 286) ; 
 the Cypress tribe (Cupressinece), etc. 
 
 CLASS II. MONOCOTYLEDONES s. ENDOGEN.E. 
 
 In the plants of this class the embryo has only one cotyledon ; 
 or, if in any instance there are more, the second is always alternate 
 with the first formed. This class is divided into nine orders. 
 
 SUBCLASS I. PHANEROGAME.E, OR FLOWERING PLANTS. 
 Plants in which the essential organs are conspicuous. 
 
 Order 35. Gynandria (Endogenous). To this order belong the 
 Orchis family (Orchidacece, see fig. 284) ; the Ginger family (Sci- 
 taminece s. Zingiberacece] ; the Banana family (Musacece), etc. 
 
 Order 34. Liliacece. To this order belong the Iris family 
 (Tridacece, see fig. 258) ; the Lily and Tulip family (see fig. 266) ; 
 the Colchicum family (Melanthacece) ; the Narcissus tribe (Nar- 
 cisseoB) ; the Asparagus tribe (Asparagece, see fig. 267), etc. 
 
 Order 37 Palms (Palmes). To this order belong the Betel- 
 nut Tribe (Arecineos) ; the Cocoa-nut tribe (Cocoince , etc. 
 
 Order 38. Plants with tripetalous corolla. To this order be- 
 long the Pine-Apple family (Bromeliacece) ; the Flowering Rush 
 family (Butomacea, see fig. 269), etc. 
 
 Order 39. Glumacece. To this order belong the Sedge family 
 (Cyperace-ce) ; the Grass family (Graminece, see figs. 257 and 259), 
 etc. 
 
 Order 40. Spadicece. To this order belong the Sweet-flag 
 tribe ( Acorece) ; the Arum family (Aracece, see fig. 240), etc. 
 
 SUBCLASS II. CRYPTOGAME^E, OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS. 
 Plants in which the essential organs are concealed. 
 
 Order 41. Sac Ferns (with thecce, or spore-cases). To this 
 order belong the Horsetail family (Equisetacece), etc. 
 
 Order 42. Fan Ferns. To which order belongs the Fern 
 family (Filices}. 
 
 Order 43. Flap Ferns. To which order belongs, among others, 
 the Club-moss family (Lycopodiacecs).
 
 BOTANY. 89 
 
 SECOND DIVISION. 
 
 CELLULAR, OR ACOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS (Plantce cellular es 
 s. Acotyledonece) . 
 
 These plants are composed entirely of cellular tissue, and have 
 no vessels ; the spore (embryo) has no cotyledons. 
 
 SUBCLASS I. FOLIAGES s. FOLIOSJE. Distinct leaves. 
 
 Order 44. Foliaceous mosses (Musci frondosi}. 
 Order 45. Liverworts Eepaticece). 
 
 SUBCLASS II. LEAFLESS CELLULAR PLANTS (Aphyllce). 
 No leaves. 
 
 Order 46. Sea-weeds (Algce). 
 Order 47. Lichens (Liclienes). 
 Order 48. Mushrooms (Fungi).
 
 III. MINERALOGY. 
 
 IMTINERALS are either crystallized or amorphous. 
 1TJL rpj^ erm Crystal is used to designate any mineral substance 
 of a distinct geometrical form or figure, bounded by plane surfaces, 
 having angles of fixed and constant value, and presenting a cor- 
 responding regularity of internal structure. The forms of crystals 
 are of the same importance in Mineralogy as those of animals and 
 plants in Zoology and Botany. 
 
 Minerals having no definite geometrical form are said to be 
 amorphous. 
 
 The Systematic Arrangement of Crystals is based upon the 
 nature of the faces or planes, edges, points or angles, and axes. 
 
 1. The planes bounding a crystal are called its faces. Their 
 form is determined by the sides bounding them ; we have, accord- 
 ingly, three-sided, four-sided, five-sided, and six-sided planes. 
 
 The most remarkable forms of the three- sided planes, are, the 
 equilateral triangle (fig. 289) ; the equicrural or isosceles triangle 
 (fig. 290) ; the scalene, or triangle having three sides unequal to each 
 
 FIG. 2Sa. 
 Equilateral Triangle. 
 
 FIG. 290. 
 Isosceles. 
 
 Fio. 291. 
 Scalene. 
 
 Fio. 293. 
 Rectangle. 
 
 FIG. 296. 
 Trapezoid. 
 
 Fio. 29T. 
 Pentagon. 
 
 Fio. 298. 
 
 Hexagon. 
 
 other (fig. 291) : of the four-sided planes, the square (fig. 292) ; the 
 rectangle (fig. 293) ; the rhomb (fig. 294) ; the rhomboid (fig. 
 295) ; the trapezoid (fig. 296). A five-sided plane is called a 
 pentagon (fig. 297). A six-sided one, a hexagon (fig. 298). 

 
 MINEEALOGY. 
 
 91 
 
 2. The lines of contact of two planes are called edges. 
 
 3. Points or angles are formed by the meeting of three or more 
 planes. The angles formed by the meeting of two, three, or more 
 planes, are termed, according to their nature and size, right, 
 obtuse, or acute angles. 
 
 4. Axes are imaginary straight lines, drawn from one angle to 
 an opposite one, passing from side to side, or from end to end, 
 through the centre of a crystal. In examining a crystal as to its 
 form, three or four such lines or axes are taken into consideration ; 
 that one of the axes which is situated vertically in front of the 
 observer's eye, is called the principal axis, while the others are 
 called secondary axes. In crystals having three axes of equal 
 length, crossing each other at right angles, any one of the three 
 may be chosen for the principal or vertical axis ; but if the axes 
 vary in length, the longest of them is chosen. 
 
 The planes, edges, angles, and axes, are either similar or 
 dissimilar in a crystal. In the former case they must, considered 
 under the same conditions and circumstances, respectively cor- 
 respond with each other ; the faces, accordingly, must present the 
 same form, position and inclination to each other; the edges the 
 same length, and the same planes and angles ; and the points, 
 also the same planes, edges and angles. The axes of crystals are 
 called similar, or equal, if they are of equal length. 
 
 Modifications of Crystalline Forms. A Crystal' is said to be 
 simple if it presents no more faces than are required to bound a 
 certain definite form ; but if there are more faces in a crystal than 
 are required for this purpose, a combination is produced. The 
 difference of the faces shows the different forms united in a 
 combination (see figs. 299, 300, 301, and 302). To understand 
 
 Fio. 299. 
 Combination of Cube and 
 
 Octahedron. 
 o, o. Octahedral pianos. 
 
 Fm. 300. 
 Combination of Cube and 
 
 Octahedron, 
 o, o. Octahedral planes. 
 
 the development of a combination, we have simply 'to suppose a 
 crystal to grow in such a manner, that, instead of increasing by 
 equal additions on every part, it increases only in some parts, 
 but still in obedience to certain definite laws ; the increase of these
 
 92 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 parts being, of course, attended with a corresponding decrement 
 upon other parts. Figs. 299, 800, and 301, show a combination 
 of cube and octahedron, in which the planes of the latter ulti- 
 mately appear larger than those of the former. The next forms 
 
 V 
 
 FIG. 301. 
 Combination of Cube mid 
 
 Octahedron. 
 
 Ji, h. Cube pianos, o, o. Octahedron 
 planes. 
 
 Fio. 302. 
 
 Combination of Cube and 
 
 Rhombic Dodecahedron. 
 
 h, h. Cube planes rh, rh. Rhombic 
 
 Dodecahedron planes. 
 
 produced by this process of irregular increase, are called secondary 
 forms ; they belong, of course, to the same system as their original 
 or primary forms. The terms truncation (decrement), basilling 
 or bevelling, and pointing, are employed to denote the nature of 
 the modification of form observed. 
 
 a. The term truncation is used to denote the formation of a 
 plane in the place of an edge or angle, b. Basilling denotes the 
 formation of two planes in the place of an edge or angle, c. Point- 
 ing denotes the formation of three or more faces or planes on an 
 
 r 
 
 Systematic Classification of Crystals. The extreme variety of 
 form which crystals present, has led to their arrangement in 
 certain general groups, or classes, which are called Crystallo- 
 graphical Systems. This term denotes a general collection of 
 crystalline forms, capable of combining with, and passing into, each 
 other, in conformity with the law of symmetry. The original 
 form from which the others are derived is termed the primary 
 form. Crystals belonging to different systems cannot combine 
 with, nor be derived from, one another, according to the law of 
 symmetry. 
 
 The following are the six Crystallographical Systems, in which 
 crystalline forms are arranged. 1, The regular system; 2, the 
 square prismatic system ; 3, the rhombohedral system ; 4, the 
 right prismatic system ; 5, the clino-rhombic, or oblique rhombic 
 system ; 6, the clino-rhornboidal, or double oblique rhombic 
 system. 
 
 I. The Regular System. The crystals of this system have three
 
 MINEEALOGY. 
 
 93 
 
 equal axes, all placed at right angles to each other. The primary 
 form is the cube. 
 
 The most important forms of this system are, 1, the Cube, or 
 Hexahedron (fig. 303) ; 2, the Octahedron (fig. 304) ; 3, the 
 Rhombic Dodecahedron (fig. 305) ; 4, the Tetrahedron (fig. 306) ; 
 5, the Trapezohedron (fig. 307) ; 6, the Hexakis-octahedron 
 (fig. 308). 
 
 FIG. 306. 
 Tetrahedron. 
 
 FIG. 308. 
 Ilexakis-octaliedron. 
 
 The cube passes to the octahedron by the truncation of its 
 eight angles, and the octahedron, vice versa, to the cube by the 
 truncation of its six angles (see figs. 299, 300 and 301). By the 
 truncation of its twelve edges, the cube passes to the rhombic 
 dodecahedron (fig. 302), and the latter again to the cube by the 
 truncation of its six quadrangular angles. The rhombic dodeca- 
 hedron may also be formed from the octahedron, by the truncation 
 of the twelve edges of the latter, and the octahedron, vice versa, 
 from the dodecahedron, by the truncation of the eight triangular 
 angles of the latter. 
 
 To this system belong, also, the pentagon-dodecahedron, which 
 is bounded by twelve pentagons ; the pyramidal cube, which is 
 bounded by twenty-four equal equicrural triangles, etc. 
 
 II. The Square Prismatic System. The crystals of this system 
 also have three axes, at right angles to each other; of these,
 
 94 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 however, two only are of equal length, the third being longer or 
 shorter. The most important forms are 
 
 1. The square pyramid, or right square-based octahedron, the 
 principal axis of which may be short, with the secondary axes 
 terminating in the centres of the lateral planes (fig. 309) ; or 
 long, with the secondary axes terminating at the edges of the 
 lateral planes (fig. 310). 
 
 FIG. 309. 
 
 Stjuare Pyramid irith short 
 Principal Axis. 
 
 FIG. 310. 
 
 are Pyramid with long 
 Principal Axis. 
 
 FIG. 311. 
 
 Right Square 
 
 Prism. 
 b. Basic planes. 
 
 2. The right square prism, of which the lateral axes terminate 
 at the edges of the lateral planes. The square terminal planes 
 of this form are called basic planes (see fig. 311). 
 
 The square pyramids are capable of combining with each other 
 (see fig. 312), as well as with the right square prism (see fig. 313). 
 
 FIG. 312. 
 Combination of Thru Square 
 
 Pyramids. 
 a, b, e. Planes of the three pyramids. 
 
 Fio. 313. 
 Combination of Square Prism with 
 
 Square Pyramid, 
 m. Prism, p. Pyramid. 
 
 III. The Rhombohedral, or Hexagonal System. This system is 
 characterised by the presence of four axes, three of which are 
 equal, in the same plane, and inclined to each other at angles of 
 60 degrees, while the fourth, or principal axis, is perpendicular 
 to all. The most important forms of this system are
 
 MINERALOGY. 
 
 95 
 
 1. The hexagonal pyramid (fig. 314), which is bounded by 
 twelve equal equicrural triangles, and has its six edges lying in 
 the same plane. 
 
 2. The hexagonal prism, or regular six-sided prism (fig. 315), 
 with hexagonal basic planes. 
 
 3. The rhombohedron, pointed and obtuse (figs. 316 and 317). 
 
 FIG. 3H. 
 
 Hexagonal Pyramid, 
 a. Vertical edges. 
 6. Border edges. 
 
 Fro. 315. . 
 Hexagonal Prism, 
 b, b. Basic planes. 
 
 4. The scalenohedron (fig. 318), which is bounded by twelve 
 scalene triangles, and characterised by its zigzag edges. Among 
 the combinations derived from the forms of this system may be 
 mentioned the combination of the hexagonal prism with the 
 pyramid (fig. 319), and of three different rhombohedra (fig. 320). 
 
 Fig. 319. 
 
 Combination of Hexagonal Prism. 
 
 and Hexagonal Pyramid. 
 
 p. Pyramid planes. 
 
 m. Prism planes. 
 
 Fio. 320. 
 
 Combination of Three 
 
 Different RKombohedra. 
 
 a, b, c. Planes of the three 
 
 Rhombohedra. 
 
 IV._77 ie Rhombic,' OT Right Prismatic System. This system is 
 characterised by three axes of unequal lengths, placed at right 
 angles to each other, and each of which may be selected as 
 principal axis. The most important forms of this system are,
 
 96 
 
 FBACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 1. The rhombic pyramid, or rhombic-based octahedron (fig. 321). 
 The long diagonal at the basis of crystals of this form is termed 
 macro-diagonal, the short brachy-diagonal. 
 
 2. The right rhombic prism (fig. 322), the terminal faces of 
 which are called basic planes. If the rhombic prism (or else the 
 
 FlO. 321. 
 
 JUiombic Pyramid, 
 m, TO. Macro-diagonal. 
 6, 6. Brachy-diagonal. 
 
 FIG. 322. 
 
 RJiombic Prism. 
 
 b, b. Bauic planes. 
 
 Fio. 323. 
 Rectangular Prim. 
 
 rhombic pyramid) is held in a manner to place either the macro- 
 or the brachy-diagonal in a vertical position, the crystal forms a 
 horizontal prism, termed a dome, which is called a macro- or 
 a brachy-diagonal dome, according to which of the two diagonals 
 occupies a vertical position. 
 
 3. The right rectangular prism (323), which is bounded by six 
 rectangular planes. 
 
 4. The rectangular pyramid (fig. 324). This pyramidal figure 
 
 m 
 
 Fio. 324. 
 
 Rectangular Pyramid. 
 
 Fio. 325. 
 Combination of Rhombic Prism 
 
 with Two Homes, 
 m, m. Prism planes. 6, 6. Dome planes. 
 
 is produced by the planes of two domes meeting in a manner to 
 constitute two opposite quadrangular angles. The basis of this 
 double pyramid is a rectangle. 
 
 Fig. 325 shows a combination of a rhombic prism with two 
 domes.
 
 MJNEBALOGY. 
 
 97 
 
 V. TJie Clino-rhombic, or Oblique Rhombic System. Crystals 
 belonging to this group have three unequal axes, two of which 
 intersect each other obliquely, while the third forms with them 
 right angles. The clino-rhombic, or oblique rhombic prism, or 
 hendyo-hedron (fig. 326), is selected as the primary form of this 
 system. It consists of two equal oblique rhombs, constituting 
 
 Flo. 326. 
 Clino-rhombic Priam, 
 h, h. Ortho-diagonal. 
 k, k. Cliuo-diagoual. 
 
 Fio. 327. 
 
 Clino-rhombic Prism with Clino-dome. 
 
 I, k. Clino-dome. 'in, m. Prism. 
 
 I. Clico-diagonal plane. 
 
 the terminal planes, and four equal rhomboids, constituting the 
 lateral planes. The axis terminating in the two rhombs is taken 
 to be the principal axis ; in crystals of this system we distinguish 
 an oblique or clino- diagonal, and a horizontal or ortho -diagonal. 
 The terminal planes are also called hemi-domes. The junction of 
 two hemi-domes, obliquely inclined to each other, constitutes what 
 is termed a clino-dome. 
 
 Fig. 327 represents a clino-rhombic prism, with a clino-dome and 
 the two clino-diagonal planes (so called because they are situated 
 at the ends of the ortho-diagonal). 
 
 VI. The Clino-rhomboidal, or Doubly Oblique Prismatic System. 
 The crystals of this system have three unequal axes, all oblique to 
 each other. Any one of the three axes may be selected for the 
 principal axis. The planes, edges and angles are only two and 
 two, equal and parallel. 
 
 The simplest form of this system is the clino-rhomboidal, or 
 doubly oblique prism, or heno-hedron (fig. 328), which consists of 
 a unilateral prism with two terminal faces. All the faces or planes 
 are rhomboids. 
 
 It occasionally happens that two, three, or four crystals, 
 belonging to the same crystallographical system, are united 
 together in a certain definite manner. Aggregations of this kind 
 
 H
 
 98 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 are called geminous, or double crystals (fig. 329) ; tri-geminous, 
 or triple ; quadrigeminous, or quadruple crystals ; they are met 
 with in all the six systems. 
 
 Fio. 328. 
 Clino-rhomboidal Prim. 
 
 Fie. 829. 
 
 Geminous, or Double Crystal 
 (of Gypsum).
 
 GEOGNOSY. 
 
 FIG. 330. 
 
 Stratification of Rock*. 
 
 a. Vertical strata. b. Inclined strata, c. Horizontal 
 strata. 
 
 GEOGNOSY (knowledge of the earth) is that branch of the 
 physical sciences which treats of the structure of the earth's 
 crust, and of the rocks or mineral masses composing it. 
 
 Among the phenomena of rocks, stratification claims our par- 
 ticular attention. By this term, we understand the deposition 
 of mineral matter in lamellae or layers (strata) of greater or less 
 
 thickness, which run pretty pa- 
 rallel, often extending many miles 
 in length, and have evidently 
 been gradually superposed one 
 upon another. Stratification is 
 found only in rocks deposited 
 from the water. The order of 
 superposition affords a safe guide 
 to the relative ages of the seve- 
 ral strata, as, of course, the underlying stratum must always be 
 older than the overlying one; 
 
 Terms used in connection with Strata. Strata are called, accord- 
 ing to circumstances, vertical, inclined, or horizontal (fig. 330). 
 The bed immediately overlying a stratified deposit is called roof, 
 the one immediately underlying it, level-bed (fig. 331). The direc- 
 tion in which a stratum runs lengthways to one of the points of 
 the compass, is called 
 the strike of the stra- 
 tum ; this is deter- 
 mined by a horizontal 
 line drawn, or supposed 
 to be drawn, along the 
 lateral face of the stratum. The inclination of a stratified 
 deposit to the horizon, is termed " dip ; " this is determined by a 
 line intersecting the strike line at a right angle. The measure 
 
 of the diameter of a stra- 
 tum from the roof to the 
 level-bed is called its 
 thickness. Strata are 
 frequently undulating on 
 a large scale, i.e., the po- 
 sition of the beds alternates between the vertical, inclined and 
 horizontal (fig. 332); the terms "bend" or "saddle," and 
 
 n2 
 
 Fio. 331. 
 
 Stratification of Rock*. 
 d, d. Roof, t, t. Level-bed, u. Break. 
 
 Fio. 332. 
 
 Stratification of Rocks. 
 t, i. Bends, m, m. Hollows.
 
 100 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 "hollow" or "basin," are employed to mark the elevations and 
 
 depressions of such undulating strata. 
 
 Crevices or fissures in the crust of the earth that have been 
 
 filled up by some other kind of 
 rock than that which constitutes 
 the beds or stratified deposits 
 into which they project, are 
 called "dykes" (fig. 333, d) 
 they are, for the most part, 
 straight. The strata traversed 
 
 n i^ ^cation or DisplacM fa ^^ ^QQ often exhibit 
 
 c. Coal-bed, displaced and forced up on the right J J 
 
 by the dyke, d. The horizontal strata, z aud r, have r]i1npc>i irm rT rlienlnnarnnnf a 
 
 been formed at a later period. UlblOCdUOUb, OI UlfepiaCementS, 
 
 which are the result of the action of the disturbing or disruptive
 
 GEOGNOSY. 
 
 101 
 
 force that has thrown up the foreign mineral matter of the dyke 
 amongst them (fig. 333). 
 
 Mineral veins (fig. 334, M) are filled with non-metallic minerals ; 
 metallic veins or lodes (fig. 334, E), with ores of metals. 
 
 Fig. 335 shows a bed of sand and gravel (s, ), which is saturated 
 with water, and receives also a constant supply of that fluid from 
 more elevated parts. Now, as the water is pent up in the sand 
 and gravel bed, being prevented from descending by a layer of 
 clay below, and from ascending, by a layer of clay above (t, t), it 
 will easy be understood that an issue may be afforded to the 
 pent-up water by boring a hole through the upper layer of clay. 
 The water rises with considerable force through the bore-hole 
 made, and forms what is called an artesian well. 
 
 FIG. 335. 
 
 Artesian WM. 
 
 t, f. Sand and gravel, t, t. Clay. b. Bore-hole. 
 
 In certain mineral beds, there are found, in greater or less 
 quantity, remains of plants and animals, which are called petri- 
 factions, and occasionally also fossils. 
 
 These are either organic bodies, actually changed to stone, or, 
 simply, organic parts enveloped and partially penetrated by mineral 
 matter deposited upon them; or, simply, impressions of plants, etc. 
 
 The number of petrifactions (i. e., the number of species, genera 
 and families of them) is found to increase in proportion as we 
 proceed from the ancient to the more recent geological formations. 
 The greater the distance between two geological beds, as regards 
 the respective periods of their formation, the more dissimilar are 
 the petrifactions respectively found in either, and vice versa, for 
 the organic bodies of more recent creation differ more and more 
 from those belonging to the more ancient epochs ; each geological 
 formation being, in fact, characterised by its own animals and 
 plants. Certain petrifactions are found exclusively in certain 
 formations, being never met with in any other formation, above 
 or below ; these serve as guides to the recognition and identifica- 
 tion of the formation in which they occur. 
 
 Geognostic System. In the classification of geological formations, 
 we consult either their origin or their formation.
 
 102 PEACTIOAL AIDS. 
 
 a. Origin. Certain rocks present a crystalline structure ; these 
 are assumed to be the product of a spontaneous process of crys- 
 tallization of mineral matter in a state of semi-fluidity, the result 
 of direct igneous action. Others owe their origin, in a measure, 
 to the agency of water; these are usually called "rocks of 
 deposition," also "neptunic or pelagic rocks" Others, finally, 
 owe their origin to the agency of fire ; these are called igneous, 
 plutonic, volcanic or eruptive rocks. 
 
 b. Formation. Here we distinguish, 1, Normal, or stratified rocks 
 or deposits, which overlie each other in a certain definite order, 
 and contain petrifactions ; they are all of them beds of deposition, 
 owing their origin to the agency of water. 2, Abnormal, or non- 
 stratified rocks, which, for the most part, present no trace of 
 stratification, exhibit less regularity in the position which they 
 occupy relatively to each other in the earth's crust, and contain 
 no petrifactions. They mostly serve as a base for the stratified 
 deposits to rest on, but are also frequently found traversing the 
 latter, having been forced up through them by eruptive agency. 
 They are subdivided again into primitive or primary rocks, and 
 volcanic rocks. The primary rocks have been formed by crys- 
 tallization from a state of semi-fluidity ; the volcanic rocks are the 
 result of igneous action. 
 
 Fig. 334 shows a theoretic section of the earth's crust, in which 
 the several geological formations are indicated. The formations 
 from I. to VIII. are stratified deposits, from IX. to XIV. non- 
 stratified deposits.
 
 A TABULAR VIEW 
 
 GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS.
 
 104 
 
 CLASSES OF BOCKS. 
 
 TABULAR VIEW OF THE 
 
 FORMATIONS AND 
 
 GEOUPS. 
 
 MEMBEES. 
 
 > 
 
 * 
 1 
 
 I. ALLUVIUM . . 1. Alluvial group . Recent Alluvial deposits 
 
 II. TERTIARY CLASS< 
 
 2. Diluvial group , ,01d Alluvial deposits. v 
 Upper Tertiary (Plio- 
 
 3. Tertiary group / 
 
 (4s. Cretaceous, or 
 Chalk forma- 
 tion 
 
 III. FLCETZ-GEBIEGE 
 (Stratified de- 
 posits) . 
 
 (Continued on p. 106). 
 
 cene) 
 
 Middle Tertiary (Mio- 
 cene) 
 
 Lower Tertiary (Eocene) 
 
 White Chalk (white 
 Limestone) 
 
 
 Planerkalk (consist- 
 ing of a deposit of 
 Marl, Marly Sand- 
 stone, and Lime-, 
 stone) 
 
 Quadersandstein, or 
 Green-sandforma- 
 tion. 
 
 Middle Chalk, or Gault 
 Lower Chalk, or Neo- 
 comien. 
 
 Wealden. 
 
 Upper or white Jura 
 (Portland stone) 
 
 5. Jura, or Oolitic 
 
 group . . Lower or black Jura . 
 
 Lias
 
 GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 
 
 IMPORTANT PETRIFACTIONS. 
 
 Cerithium mutabile 
 (Fig. 336). 
 
 Belemnites mucronatus 
 
 FIG. 338. 
 
 Plagiostoma spinosum. 
 ( White limestone'). 
 
 FIG. 336. Fio. 337. 
 
 SpinOSUm CerUMummutaUle. Belemniles mucro- 
 
 /tN. QQCA (Tertiary). natus. 
 
 ^Xlg. OOOj. (White limestone). 
 
 Ammonites varians 
 
 FIG. 340. 
 
 Exogyra virgvla. 
 
 ( White Jura.) 
 
 (Fig. 339). 
 
 ! Exogyra virgula (Fig. 
 340). 
 Cidaris coronata (Fig. 
 341). 
 
 Terebratula biplicata 
 (Fig. 342). 
 
 Ichthyosaurus communis 
 
 (Fig. 343). 
 Ammonites Bucklandi 
 
 (Fig. 344). 
 Belemnites digitalis 
 
 (Fig. 345.) 
 Gryphsea armata (Fig. 
 
 346). 
 
 FIG. 341. 
 
 Cidaris coronala. 
 
 (White Jura). 
 
 FIG. 339. 
 
 Ammonites variant. 
 (Planerl-alk) 
 
 FIG. 342. 
 
 Tftbratula biplicata. 
 (Jura). 
 
 FIG. 343. 
 
 Ichthyosaurus communis. 
 (Lias). 
 
 Fio. 346. 
 
 Gryphcea armata 
 
 (Lower lias). 
 
 FIG. 345. 
 
 Sdemnites digitalis. 
 
 (Lias). 
 b. Cross section.
 
 106 TABULAR VIEW OF THE 
 
 FORMATIONS AND 
 MEMBERS. 
 
 I 
 
 S 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 CLASSES OP BOOKS. 
 
 GROUPS. 
 
 III. FLCETZ-GEBIRGE 
 continued 
 
 6. Trias, or Keuper 
 Group . 
 
 Keuper. 
 Muschelkalk 
 
 Bunter Sandstein, or 
 variegated Sandstone 
 
 TV. TRANSITION 
 EOCKS 
 
 7. Zechstein(Mag-jZechstein . 
 nesian Lime- 1 
 stone) or Per-\ 
 mian group . Kupferschiefer. 
 
 8. Carboniferous : 
 or Coal-bear-, 
 ing group 
 
 9. Grauwacke, or 
 Transition 
 Rocks 
 
 Red-dead-Iyer. 
 Coal formation 
 Mountain Limestone. 
 
 V 
 
 Devonian . 
 Silurian . 
 
 - 
 
 f} 
 
 o 
 e 
 
 i-O 
 
 Y. PRIMARY ROCKS 
 (crystalline) .< 
 
 YI. YOLCANIO 
 ROOKS 
 
 -, n o i , Clay Slate. 
 
 10. bcmstose crys- k/r. J a -, , 
 
 -n / Mica Schist, 
 tallme Kocks .i n 
 
 I Gneiss. 
 
 \ 
 
 11. Massive crvs- |^ ram ' te - 
 
 talline Rocks. ^ lor f ' or f reen stone ' 
 LPorphyry, &c. 
 
 .12. Trapp Rocks . Trachytes, Phonolite, 
 
 Basalt, Dolerite, Lava, 
 
 &c.
 
 GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS (continued). 
 IMPORTANT PETRIFACTIONS. 
 
 Ceratites nodosus (Fig. 
 
 347). 
 Terebratulavulgaris (Fig. 
 
 348). 
 Lima striata (Fig. 349). 
 
 In all three divisions of 
 the Trias formation : 
 Encrinites liliiformis 
 (Fig. 350). 
 
 Productus aculeatus 
 (Fig. 351). 
 
 107 
 
 FIG. 34T. 
 CeratUes s. Ammonites 
 
 nodosus. 
 (Musehelkalk). 
 
 Sphenophyllum dentatum 
 J (Fig. 352). 
 lAnnularia fertilis 
 
 [ 353). 
 
 (Kg- 
 
 Calymene macrophthal- 
 \ ma (Fig. 354). 
 Cypridina serrato-striata 
 (Fig. 355). 
 
 Pentamems Knighti 
 (Fig. 356). 
 
 PIG. 351. 
 
 Productus acideatM. 
 (Zfchstein). 
 
 FIG. 353. 
 
 Annularia fertilit. 
 (Coal formation). 
 
 FIG. 354. 
 Calymene macroph- 
 
 thalma. 
 (Devonian). 
 
 FIG. 348. 
 
 Terebratula vulgaris. 
 (MuKhelkalk). 
 
 FIG. 350. 
 
 Encrinites W.iifirmit 
 (Trial). 
 
 Fio. 352. 
 
 SpJtenophyllum dentatum. 
 (Coal formation). 
 
 Fio. 355. 
 Cypridina serrato striata. 
 
 (Devonian). 
 a. Natural size. b. ilasnified. 
 
 Fio. 356. 
 
 Pentamena Knighti. 
 (Silurian').
 
 SUPPLEMENT. 
 
 TECHNOLOGICAL PART. 
 
 TVEE term Technology is properly applied to that science which 
 treats of the industrial arts and pursuits, and gives a sys- 
 tematic and detailed account and description of the various 
 processes and operations by which the raw materials supplied by 
 nature are fashioned into articles of food, clothing, etc., for the 
 use of man. 
 
 The division of Technology into two principal branches, the 
 Mechanical and the Chemical, is of old date. The Mechanical 
 branch of Technology embraces the various mechanical operations 
 and processes by which the raw materials are made to undergo 
 simply certain changes of form (spinning, weaving, wire-drawing, 
 etc.) ; whilst the Chemical branch treats of those operations and 
 processes which alter the inner structure and composition of the 
 raw materials (manufacture of glass, distillation of brandy, manu- 
 facture of leather from hides, etc.). However, as most manufac- 
 turing processes embrace changes both of form and composition, 
 it is extremely difficult to assign exact limits to either of the two 
 great branches of Technology. "We will, therefore, confine our- 
 selves here to a brief description of some of the more important 
 manufacturing processes, and the machines and other apparatus 
 employed therein. 
 
 I. WEAVING. 
 
 Loom (see figs. 357, 358 and 359) is the ancient and well- 
 known machine for weaving cloth, by the decussation of a 
 series of parallel threads, running lengthways, called the warp 
 or chain, with other threads, thrown transversely with the shuttle, 
 called the weft or woof. There are looms of different construc- 
 tions for the different textile fabrics ; but they consist all of them 
 essentially of the following parts :
 
 110 
 
 PEACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 In the back part of the frame (fig. 357, A), is placed tlie yarn- 
 beam, or warp-beam, with, the chain wound round it (fig. 357, /j). 
 The heddles, or healds (figs. 357, I, d, and 358, I, d, and e, e), 
 consisting of twines looped in the middle, and stretched between 
 two wooden shafts, are suspended by cords drawn over two 
 rollers (figs. 357 and 358, a, a), which are attached to the upper 
 
 A 
 
 PIG. 357. 
 
 Loom. 
 
 A, A. Frame, fc. Warp-beam. 6. Breast-beam, or cloth-beam. 
 t. Treddle. I. Lathe, lay or batten, r. Cross-bar to which the 
 lay is freely suspended. 6, d. Healds or heddles. a, a. Rollers. 
 
 Fid. 358. 
 
 Gear. 
 
 a, a. Rollers, b, d, aud 
 c, e. Heddles. o. Loops. 
 t, t. Treddles. 
 
 FlQ. 359. 
 Shuttle. 
 
 part of the frame. All the heddles connected by the same shafts 
 are collectively called a leaf. The lower shaft of each leaf is 
 connected with a treddle (figs. 357 and 328, t, ), The heddles, 
 with the rollers and cords and the treddles, constitute the gear. 
 Through the loops, or eyes, of the heddles, the warp-yarns are 
 drawn, one half through the heddles of the 
 front leaf, the other through those of the back 
 leaf. The yarns then pass through the dents, 
 of the reed, which is set in a moveable swing 
 frame, called the lay, lathe, or batten; the latter is freely suspended to 
 a cross-bar (fig. 357, r), attached by rulers to the lateral standards 
 of the loom. 
 
 The weaver, sitting on the bench before the frame (see fig. 357), 
 presses down one of the treddles at t, with one of his feet, 
 whereby he raises the corresponding heddle leaf, and sinks the 
 alternate one. The yarns of the one leaf are thus inclined at an 
 acute angle to those of the other. The upper yarns are called 
 the top or high warp ; the lower, the bottom or low warp. As a 
 matter of course, the position of the yarns changing with every 
 alternate raising and depression of the heddles, what is at one
 
 TECHNOLOGY. Ill 
 
 instant the top becomes the next the bottom, and vice versa. The 
 weaver thus sheds the warp, by lifting and depressing each 
 alternate thread, through a little space, and opens a pathway for 
 the shuttle (fig. 359) to traverse the middle of the warp. The 
 shuttle which is mostly made of wood, contains a bobbin, with the 
 thread or yarn of the weft wound round it. The weaver, with 
 his left hand, lays hold of the so-called picking-peg, and, with a 
 smart jerk of his wrist, drives the shuttle swiftly from one side 
 of 'the loom to the other, between the shed warp-yarns. The 
 weaver, with his left hand, then drives home the shoot of weft 
 thus introduced between the warp-yarns, by pulling the lay 
 towards him, with a greater or less degree of force, in proportion 
 to the closeness of texture required. The web, thus woven, is 
 wound up by turning round the cloth-beam (fig. 357, b). 
 
 The Weaving of Figured Fabrics, i.e., such as exhibit a design 
 or pattern, plain or coloured, requires an increased number of 
 heddle leaves. Small patterns, consisting only of a limited number 
 of warp and weft threads, may be woven on the common loom. 
 But large patterns and fanciful designs would require a very 
 considerable number of heddle leaves and treddles, with a corre- 
 sponding lengthening of the loom, which would render them 
 unmanageable. This has led to the introduction of the operations 
 of drawing, or reading in and cording, combined with a total 
 alteration of the heald-gear (see fig. 360, H, harness), by which 
 the heddles are disposed in several parallel rows, passing across 
 the chain, and are not connected by shafts ; to the lower end of 
 each heddle is attached a piece of iron wire or lead, from eight to 
 twelve inches long (not shown in the drawing), which, by its 
 weight, serves to give tension to the heddle, and to draw it down 
 again each time after lifting. The harness healds consist of an 
 upper and a lower part, with either a loop or a glass eye in the 
 middle, through which the warp-yarns are drawn. Each heald is 
 tied by the upper end to a string, and the whole of these strings 
 (lifters or arcades) pass perpendicularly, one by one, through a 
 horizontal board, called harness-board. These lifters, or raising- 
 strings, are tied, above the plank, to somewhat stouter strings 
 (cords) in a definite order ; these cords answer the same purpose 
 in the draught loom as the shafts in the common loom. 
 
 The cords are worked either by draw-boys, as in the common 
 draw-loom, or by a mechanical contrivance, which derives its 
 motion from a single pedal put in action by the weaver's feet. 
 
 Of the several kinds of apparatus devised for this purpose, the 
 one invented by Jacquard is now almost universally used in all
 
 112 
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 large establishments for weaving figured goods. This most 
 ingenious apparatus (fig. 360), which bears the name of its 
 inventor, may readily be adapted to any common harness loom. 
 
 w 
 
 FlC. 300. 
 
 Jacquard Loom. . 
 
 11. Harness. &. Harness-board. W. Frame of loom. B. Cloth-beam. 
 V. Fore gear. V. Fore gear treddle. r. Reed. L. Lathe. M. Frame of 
 Jacquard apparatus. K. Warp-beam, t. Pedal. ^.Vertical skewers, h. Lever. 
 n. Case holding tho horizontal needles or spindles, a. Square axis, or 
 drum, i: Card shafts. /. Case holding the spiral springs which serve 
 to bring back the needles' to their primitive position. P. Press. 
 
 The stand is made of wood or cast iron, and bears a frame in 
 which a number of upright skewers of iron wire, with tops and 
 bottoms hooked in the same direction, are disposed in several 
 rows. The bottom hooks embrace small wooden bars, whose 
 office it is to keep them in their respective places. To these 
 hooks are attached strings from below, which, after crossing a 
 fixed horizontal board, pierced with corresponding holes for this 
 purpose, are next attached to the loops destined to lift the warp 
 threads. Each row of skewers is connected together at the top 
 by means of a small bar, over which the looped upper ends of 
 the skewers naturally place themselves ; accordingly, when this 
 bar is raised, it draws with it all the skewera of the row. The
 
 TECHXOLOGY. 113 
 
 bars of all the rows are fixed in a frame, called claw, susceptible 
 of being raised by means of a lever. When this claw comes to be 
 raised, therefore, it would draw up with it all the skewers, and, 
 accordingly, also all the warp-threads attached to them, were it 
 not for an ingenious contrivance which withdraws part of them 
 from the action of the bar. This is effected as follows : Each 
 one of the vertical skewers is connected with a horizontal needle 
 or spindle, which serves to push it out of the perpendicular when 
 required. Both ends of these horizontal needles project to some 
 extent beyond the outer rows of the skewers. A square wooden 
 axis, called drum, moveable upon itself round two iron pivots, 
 fixed into its two ends, occupies the bottom of the moveable 
 frame of the apparatus. An endless chain, formed with cards, 
 perforated in a certain definite order, according to the figure or 
 design to be woven, and connected together by strings, passes 
 over this axis ; each card corresponds in form and size with the 
 four faces of the axis. Now, when the axis strikes against the 
 fore-ends of the horizontal needles, the card applied against the 
 striking face of the axis, leaves untouched the horizontal needles 
 whose ends correspond to the holes in it ; but it pushes back those 
 which are opposite to the unpierced part of the card, and, the 
 corresponding upright skewers, being thereby pushed out of the 
 perpendicular, unhook themselves from above the bars of the 
 claw, and remain, accordingly, in their place when the latter comes 
 to be raised ; whilst those skewers which, being connected with 
 the untouched horizontal needles, have remained on their hooks, 
 are raised along with the warp-threads attached to them. 
 
 The whole play of this most ingenious apparatus is dependent 
 upon the movement of the lever, which the weaver causes to rise 
 and fall by means of the pedal. By pressing the latter down with 
 his foot, the upright skeAvers are raised ; an instant after the 
 square axis is, by the continued rising of the lever, lifted off the 
 horizontal needles, making at the same time a quarter revolution, 
 and the needles, freed from the pressure of the axis upon them, 
 are immediately forced back to their primitive position by the 
 spiral springs placed behind them in the spring case. When the 
 claw has been fully raised along with the skewers remaining hooked 
 on, and the warp-threads attached to them, the weft is shot in. 
 By now suddenly removing the pressure of his foot from the 
 pedal, the weaver causes the claw with the skewers to fall back 
 to its original position with considerable force, and, by means of 
 the press, compels the square axis to strike again against the 
 points of the horizontal needles.
 
 114 
 
 PKACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 FIG. 361. 
 Stuff Engine for Comminuting Rags into Paper Pulp. Manufacture 
 
 of Paper. 
 
 (Longitudinal Section). 
 
 a, a. Vat, or cistern, c. Cylinder. /. Adjusting screw. 
 i. Breasting. K. Wooden block, mounted with cutters, m, m. 
 Wire sieves, o, o. Grooves for boards to cover the sieves. 
 
 II. MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 
 
 PATER is made, with few exceptions, of vegetable fibres, linen rags 
 being best adapted for the purpose. The rags must, in the first 
 place, be cut and reduced to pulp, which is now usually effected 
 in the so-called stuff-engine, an apparatus originally invented in 
 Germany, but afterwards considerably improved in Holland (see 
 figs. 361 and 362). 
 
 The apparatus consists of an oblong vat, or cistern, two feet 
 
 deep ; it is made of strong 
 planks, and lined inside 
 with lead. It is divided by 
 a partition, with ample 
 space left between the ends 
 of the latter and the sides 
 of the vat to permit the 
 free circulation of the fluid 
 in the engine. The cylin- 
 der (see figs. 361 and 362, c), is made of wood, and furnished all 
 round with a number of blades, or cutters, made of hard tempered 
 wrought iron, or of brass ; these blades are fixed into grooves cut 
 in the wood of the cylinder, at equal distances asunder, around its 
 periphery, and are set parallel to the axis of the cylinder. The 
 cylinder is made fast to the spindle (see fig. 362, d), which 
 extends across the engine, 
 and is put in motion by a 
 pinion, fixed to the end of it 
 (fig. 362, _p). Immediately 
 beneath the cylinder is placed 
 a block of wood (fig. 361, Ic), 
 mounted with cutters like 
 those of the cylinder, but set 
 somewhat obliquely to the . > 
 
 Tl I Stuff Engine. (Plan). 
 
 axis Of the latter. When the o. a. Vat. b, b. Partition, c. Cylinder. A Spindle. /,/. . Ad- 
 
 justing screws, g, g. Levers, h, h. Bolts. *. Bi easting, 
 
 cylinder revolves, its teeth p- < 
 
 pass very near to the teeth of the block, meeting them at a small 
 angle, so that the rags, coming between them, are torn as if 
 between the blades of a pair of forceps. The distance between 
 the cutters of the cylinder and those of the block may be increased 
 or lessened, by raising or lowering, by means of adjusting screws 
 (figs. 361 and'362,/), the bearings upon which the necks of the
 
 TECHNOLOGY. 115 
 
 shaft are supported. These bearings rest on brasses let into the 
 middle of two levers (fig. 362, g, g) ; one end of these levers is 
 moveable, while the other end is adapted to rise and fall upon 
 bolts placed in short beams (fig. 362, li, li). 
 
 To the right hand of the cylinder is a circular breasting, made 
 of boards (see fig. 361, i), and covered with sheet lead ; on the 
 side turned to the cylinder, it is curved to fit the latter, so as to 
 leave but little space between the cutter and the breasting. On 
 the other side it forms a steep inclined plane. It is at the 
 bottom of this breasting, that the block is fixed. 
 
 The rags, being put into the engine together with a sufficient 
 quantity of water, are drawn by the rapid rotation of the cylinder 
 between the teeth of the latter and the cutters of the block (/;), 
 which tear them into the finest shreds. By the impulsion of the 
 cylinder, they are floated over the top of the breasting down the 
 inclined plane, whilst the dirty water is sent off through the wire 
 sieves (m, m, see fig. 361), the rag filaments, which the water car- 
 ries along with it, being retained by the close network of the 
 sieves. To keep the mass in the engine always at the same level, 
 a constant supply of fresh water comes in through a pipe. The 
 operation serves, accordingly, the double purpose of cutting and 
 washing the rags. The cylinder is gradually let down, so as to 
 lessen the distance between the two sets of cutters. When the 
 operation is quite completed, the pulp is run off into the so-called 
 stuff-chest, from which it is again taken to go through the other 
 processes required to make it into the different sorts of paper. 
 
 III. GRINDING. 
 
 CORN is usually ground in a mill (see fig. 363), between two 
 cylindric stones, called mill-stones, placed horizontally one above 
 the other ; the upper stone which is called the runner (see fig. 
 363, Z), moves round its axis upon the nether stone (bed-stone, 
 fig. 363, b). This motion is effected by a water-wheel, connected 
 by its shaft (A) with a cog-wheel (K). To the wooden spindle of 
 the runner is attached a lantern (t), which bites into the cog-wheel. 
 A large circular hole, called the eye (a), passes right through the 
 middle of the runner, from top to bottom. Into this is firmly 
 fixed, from below, running right across it, a strong iron bar, 
 called the hoe (h). Over the eye of the runner is placed a funnel- 
 shaped box, called the hopper (R), with a board loosely suspended 
 by strings, in lieu of a bottom, this is called the spout of the
 
 110 
 
 PEACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 hopper (s). The open side of the spout is so placed that the corn 
 drops from the hopper into the eye of the runner, and, accord- 
 ingly, between the two mill-stones. Both stones are surrounded 
 by a wooden frame, with an opening in the lower border, through 
 which the ground corn (meal or flower) drops into the bolter (B). 
 
 Fid. 303. 
 Corn Mill. 
 
 A. Shaft of water-wheel. K. Cog-wheel, t. Lantern, or pinion. 6. Nether, 
 or bed-stone, a. Eye of runner. 1. Runner, ft. Hoe. R. Hopper, s. Spout. 
 B. Bolter. M. Bolting- hutch. N. Bran box. 
 
 This is a long bag stretched obliquely across a box or case, called 
 the bolting-hutch (M) ; by means of a mechanical contrivance, 
 this bag is kept in an incessant shake, which causes the flour to 
 pass through its pores into the box beneath, whilst the bran, 
 together with the coarser portion of the flour passes through an 
 aperture projecting beyond the hutch, and falls into the bran- 
 box (N). 
 
 IY. DISTILLATION. 
 
 VERY great improvements have, of late, been made in the con- 
 struction of distilling apparatus. The one devised by Pistorius 
 (see fig. 364), may, indeed, be said to have attained to a high 
 degree of perfection. 
 
 The following are the principal parts of the apparatus : 1. The 
 alembic, or first cucurbit (A), which is placed over the fire (a).
 
 TECHNOLOGY. 
 
 117 
 
 The capital (6) is furnished with an upright tube (c), with a safety 
 valve ; from this tube proceeds another, which is lodged in a 
 small refrigerator (e). The still is provided with a rotatory chain 
 apparatus (g, g), for preventing the lees from adhering to the 
 
 bottom. 2. The second cucurbit, or wash-charger (B). The 
 vapours distilling over from A, pass through the arched neck (h) 
 into B, which occupies a higher position than A. A bent tube
 
 118 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 (p) conducts the vapour from B into 3, the wash-heater (C), 
 which is divided by a double bottom into two parts ; the wash to 
 be heated occupies the upper part, the vapours pass into the lower, 
 whence they proceed through two tubes (q, 5), uniting at the top 
 into one (to) to 4, the rectifier, or dephlegmator (D) a disk-shaped 
 hollow apparatus, having inside a thin horizontal partition of 
 somewhat smaller diameter, so as to leave an open space all 
 round. The vapours ascending through w, after spreading over the 
 lower surface of the partition, rise above it, and are thus forced 
 to find their way, under the cold top of D, to the mouth of the 
 tube Y, which conducts them finally into 5, the refrigerator, or 
 worm- tub (E). 6, The pump, F, supplies the wash to the heater. 
 
 V. CUTTING OF DIAMONDS. 
 
 THE diamond to be cut is fixed on the end of a stick, in a small 
 ball of cement, the part to be reduced being left to project. 
 Another diamond being fixed in a similar manner, the projecting 
 parts of the two are rubbed against each other with considerable 
 force, by means of a mechanical contrivance ; this causes mutual 
 abrasion of the parts in contact, whereby flat surfaces, or facets, 
 are produced. By shifting the diamonds into fresh positions in 
 the cement, and repeating the same operation, other facets are 
 produced. After being thus cut in the desired fashion, the stones 
 are polished. For this purpose the cut stone is imbedded in soft 
 solder, contained in a small copper cup, the facet to be polished 
 being left to protrude. A flat circular plate of soft steel is then 
 charged with the diamond powder produced during the process 
 of abrasion, soaked with a little olive oil ; the plate is made to 
 revolve by machinery, and the protruding facet held against it. 
 Softer stones are cut at a lead- wheel with emery and water ; and 
 polished on a tin wheel with tripoli and water, or on a zinc wheel 
 with putty of tin and water. Diamonds are cut at the present 
 day almost exclusively in two forms, the brilliant and the rose. 
 1. The brilliant (see figs. 365, 366 and 367). We distinguish in 
 
 Fio. 365. Fio.366. Fio. 3C7. 
 
 Brilliant. (Side vino). Brilliant. Brilliant. 
 
 1. Table. 2. Table-side. (Seen from the table tide). (Seen from the collet fide). 
 
 3. Girdle. 4. Collet side. 
 5. Collet.
 
 TECHNOLOGY 
 
 119 
 
 the brjlliant two parts or portions, the upper, or table side, and 
 the lower, or collet side ; the superior and larger plane at the top is 
 called the table, the inferior and smaller one the collet. The 
 common base of the two sides is called the girdle. The table side 
 presents thirty-two facets, viz., eight lozenges and twenty-four 
 triangles ; the collet side presents twenty-four facets, viz., four 
 irregular pentagons, alternating with as many irregular lozenges 
 radiating from the collet as a centre, and bordered by sixteen 
 triangles adjoining the girdle. The brilliant form is the most 
 suitable for diamonds of the first water. 2. The rose (see figs. 
 368 and 369). The rose diamond is usually flat beneath, while 
 the upper face rises into a dome, and is cut into facets. Diamonds 
 
 FIG. 368. 
 
 Rote. 
 (Seen from the table side). 
 
 FIG. 371. 
 
 Flat Table Diamond. 
 (Seen from the top). 
 
 FIG. 372. 
 
 Scalariform Diamond, 
 (Side view). 
 
 FIG. 370. 
 Square Table Diamond. 
 
 FIG. 373. 
 Combination of Brilliant and 
 
 Scalariform Cut. 
 
 Table side, brilliant. Collet 
 
 side, Scalariform cut. 
 
 FIG. 374. 
 Conehoidal Cut. 
 
 are also occasionally cut in other forms, as the square table 
 diamond (fig. 370), the flat table diamond (fig. 371), the Scalariform 
 diamond (fig. 372), a combination of the brilliant and the sca- 
 lariform (fig. 373), the conchoidal form (fig. 374). 
 
 VI. MANUFACTURE OF ILLUMINATING GAS. 
 
 GOAF, or Illuminating Gas is usually produced from coal or wood. 
 It is evolved from coal, etc., by dry distillation in closed retorts. 
 The retorts used are of cast iron, or baked clay, or stone ware ; 
 they are of an elliptical or cylindrical form, and generally five in 
 number, arranged in form of a pyramid (see figs. 375 and 376). 
 These retorts are partly filled with coal ; they are closed by lids 
 (d, d), fastened down on them by means of screws (s, s). Under 
 the retorts are the fire-places (a, a, a) ; coke is the fuel used in 
 the process. From each of the retorts, a tube (h) proceeds per-
 
 120 
 
 TKACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 pendicularly upwards, behind a long and wide horizontal tube, 
 shut at both ends with screw caps, and called the receiver, or the 
 
 FIG. 375. 
 
 Furnace, with Retorts, for tlie Manufacture of Illuminating Oat, 
 
 (Vertical Section). 
 
 r, r. Retorts, a. Fire-place, h. Conducting tube. i. Hydraulic 
 main. I. Discharge pipe, d, d. Retort lida. , *. Screws to fasten 
 down the lids on the retorts. 
 
 hydraulic main (i) ; it then turns downwards, right above the 
 latter, by a curve, or saddle-tube, enters it, and descends nearly 
 to the bottom, so as to dip about an inch into the water contained 
 in it. As soon as the process of distillation begins in the retorts, 
 
 FIG. 376. 
 Furnace, with Retorts, for the Manufacture af Illuminating Gat. 
 
 (Elevation). 
 
 r, r. Retorts, the two upper ones open, a, a. Fire-places, h, h. Con- 
 ducting pipes, i. Hydraulic main. Discharge pipe for the products of 
 the distillation.
 
 TECHNOLOGY. 
 
 121 
 
 tar and ammoniacal liquor are deposited in the hydraulic main; 
 the tarry liquid closes the orifice of the several conducting pipes 
 (h, h), thus cutting off" the communication between the several 
 retorts. The larger portion of the tar having been deposited in 
 the hydraulic main, the gas is conducted from the latter, by a 
 discharge pipe (I), into a condenser, formed of a series of iron 
 tubes, placed in an iron chest filled with cold water. The refri- 
 gerated gas, which has now lost the chief part of the easily 
 condensible impurities, is then subjected to further processes of 
 purification. First in the scrubber, then in the milk of lime 
 purifier. The scrubber is an ingenious contrivance, consisting of 
 a tall cylindrical case, containing perforated shelves charged with 
 fragments of coke, over which water is made to trickle; the 
 gas being allowed to enter at the bottom of the case, loses another 
 portion of its impurities in passing over the moist coke. The 
 milk of lime purifiers are large iron vessels, partly filled with a mix- 
 ture of hydrate of lime and water, in which a churning machine 
 (agitator or rouser) is kept in constant motion to prevent the 
 subsidence of the lime. The gas is admitted at the bottom of 
 the vessel by a great number of minute apertures, and is thus 
 made to present a large sur- 
 
 face of contact to the puri- 
 fying liquid. The depurated 
 gas is then finally conducted 
 into the gasometer (see fig. 
 377), which consists of two 
 essential parts, viz., an un- 
 der cistern, open at top, 
 and filled with water ; this 
 water cistern ( W) is usually 
 constructed with cast iron 
 plates bolted together, and 
 
 tight Wltll rUSt CC- T. Gas-holder. W. Water ; cistern. o. Conducting pipe, bringing 
 
 ment; and, 2, an upper 
 
 floating cylinder, or chest, of somewhat smaller dimensions ; this 
 inverted cistern, which is called a gas-holder (T), is made of sheet 
 iron, strongly rivetted together; it is made tight by being 
 repeatedly rubbed over inside and outside with hot tar, at a few 
 days interval between each application. On the periphery of the 
 top of the gas-holder several rings are made fast, by which the 
 cylinder is suspended, by means of a common chain running over 
 two pulleys, fastened to a cross-beam ; to the other end of the 
 chain is appended a counter- weight. a and b (fig. 377) are the
 
 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 pipes leading the gas in and out. Fig. 377 shows the position of 
 the gas-holder when filled with gas; it sinks in proportion as 
 the gas is drawn off by the pipe I, and rises again in proportion 
 as fresh gas flows in from the purifiers through the pipe a. 
 
 VII. MANUFACTURE OF GLASS. 
 
 THE materials which enter into the composition of the several 
 varieties of glass are ground fine, thoroughly dried by calcination, 
 and mixed together in proper proportions, according to the sort 
 of glass required. The mixture is put into red-hot melting-pots, 
 or crucibles, of refractory fire-clay. About twelve hours' exposure 
 to a powerful heat suffices to melt the mixture to a uniform plastic 
 mass, ready for working. 
 
 The most important instrument of the glass-maker is the 
 blowing-pipe (fig. 378), an iron tube, four or five feet in length, 
 terminated at one end by a mouth-piece of wood (m), at the other 
 end, which is to be dipped into the melted glass, by a button (g), 
 
 ,. % v , rao======3!== ^^ f r the l a tter to adhere to. 
 
 ^;,^;y,,;;nimfv::r^7^Mr"-^^v^'^^_ -V ^^^^^P^&J^ _A^ wooden handle (a), pro- 
 
 * 11' 
 
 FIG. 378. tects the workman against 
 
 Glats-Uower's Blow-pipe. ,-i -i f 4-1 ' 
 
 a. Wooden handle, m. Mouth-piece, g. Button for tho melted tn 
 
 tube. The workman be- 
 gins by collecting a proper quantity of soft pasty glass at the but- 
 ton-end of his pipe ; he then commences blowing, by which the 
 lump at the other end of the pipe is expanded into a kind of bulb 
 or flask, which, by the aid of the puntil and a few other simple 
 tools, is made to assume any desired shape, the glass being at the 
 time in that plastic and workable condition that it can be readily 
 cut with a pair of scissors. 
 
 To make broad or spread window glass, the soft glass-paste at 
 the end of the pipe is first 
 blown into the shape of an 
 oblong pear, which is after- 
 wards elongated into a cylinder 
 (fig. 379). The cylinder is 
 then cut open at the lower end 
 (fig. 380), and finally cracked r '- 379 - 
 
 5 ' . f Manufacture of Spread W-mdow (, ' . 
 
 up along one side, parallel to The uoiiow cylinder. 
 
 the axis, by touching it with a cold iron dipped in water, or slit 
 
 open with a pair of scissors (fig. 381). The cylinder is now
 
 TECHNOLOGY. 123 
 
 ready for spreading, which operation is effected in the spreading 
 furnace, or oven, the cylinder being laid horizontally on its side 
 
 g- 380. FIG. 381. 
 
 Manufacture of Spread Window Glass. Manufacture of Spread Window Glass. 
 
 The hollow cylinder cut open, at one end. The Mlow cylinder cracked or tlit up 
 
 along one tide. 
 
 upon the slab on the sole of the furnace, with the cracked line 
 uppermost; it gradually opens out with the heat, and flattens 
 into a plate. 
 
 Plate glass for mirrors, etc., is cast on perfectly level and 
 polished tables of copper, bronze, or cast iron. The cast plates 
 are then cooled in the annealing oven, or carquaise, from which 
 they are carefully withdrawn when perfectly cold ; they are then 
 ground with moistened sand, smoothed with moistened emery, 
 and, finally, polished with colcothar (red oxide of iron) with rubbers 
 of hat-felt. 
 
 VIII. MANUFACTURE OF PORCELAIN. 
 
 THE principal ingredient in the manufacture of porcelain is 
 china clay, or kaolin. This is ground very fine, and mixed with 
 a quantity of finely divided silica, and a proper proportion of 
 felspar, or some other fusible material, also reduced to impalpable 
 powder ; the utmost pains being taken to secure perfect uniformity 
 of mixture, and to guard against the introduction of particles of 
 grit or other foreign bodies. The pulverulent mass is moistened 
 with water, and trampled into a paste or dough, by a workman 
 marching over it with bare feet in every direction. It is then 
 fashioned into the various shapes required, either on the potter's 
 wheel, or lathe, or in moulds of plaster of Paris. The fashioned 
 articles are allowed to dry very slowly, as the least hurry in this 
 operation is apt to spoil them. When quite dry, they are taken 
 to the kiln. The porcelain furnace, or kiln (figs. 382 and 383), 
 is a kind of tower in three, occasionally only two, flats, con- 
 structed of very refractory fire-bricks. Each floor is closed in 
 above by a dome pierced with holes, and the whole covered in by 
 a roof, or hood, terminating in a chimney. The kiln has five fire- 
 places, which discharge their flames into the inside through tunnels 
 or flues (see fig. 382, o, o, o). The best fuel is young aspen wood,
 
 PEACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 very dry, and cleft very small. The air-dried articles are put into 
 the upper floor of the kiln, and a moderate fire is made in fire-place 
 h ; this being gradually increased in intensity, li becomes filled 
 with incandescent coals, and a powerful draught is established 
 
 FIG. 3S2. 
 
 Porcelain Furnace, or Kiln, 
 ( Vertical Section}. 
 
 Fio. 383. 
 
 Porcelain Kiln. 
 
 (Horizontal Section). 
 
 6. Projecting stones for fuel. 
 
 C. Upper floor. 
 
 throughout the kiln. The commencement of baking, which the 
 articles receive by this preliminary firing, dries them completely, 
 and gives them sufficient solidity to bear handling. They are now 
 ready and fit for receiving the glazing coat, after which operation 
 they are replaced in the kiln, but in the lower floor, packed in 
 earthen cases (saggers or seggars), made of very refractory 
 fire-clay. Some pretty large pieces of dry wood are now thrown 
 into the furnace-mouths, and the firing is kept up for about 
 fifteen hours with a gradual increase of fuel. At the end of this 
 time commences the operation termed covering the fire, which 
 consists in this, that instead of throwing the wood vertically into 
 the furnaces, billets of very dry aspen wood, cleft small, are placed 
 horizontally, in a sloping position, on the projecting stones at the 
 furnace-mouths. The flame produced penetrates through the 
 flues into the kiln, and circulates round the seggar piles, heating 
 the interior of the kiln to whiteness. At the end of eighteen or 
 twenty hours of this intense firing, the porcelain is thoroughly 
 baked.
 
 TECHNOLOGY. 125 
 
 IX. EXTRACTION OF IRON FROM ITS ORES. 
 
 THE several species of iron ore from which iron is usually 
 extracted consist chiefly of iron and oxygen ; to obtain the metal, 
 it is, accordingly, necessary to abstract the oxygen from the ore. 
 This is effected by exposing the ore to a very high temperature 
 in contact with carbon. To this end, the ore having first been 
 crushed to pieces, is roasted, by which the volatile matters 
 present, such as carbonic acid, water, sulphur, are expelled. 
 The roasted ore still retains numerous impurities, as silica, 
 clay, etc. Now, as in order to obtain the carbide of iron 
 in a fused state it is necessary that a fusible slag should be 
 formed containing all these impurities of the ore, and as the 
 latter are very infusible bodies, the addition of some substance is 
 required capable of forming a liquid combination with them at 
 the temperature of the furnace. The substances employed to 
 promote the fusion of the slag are termed fluxes ; they are selected 
 according to the nature of the ore. Thus, limestone is the flux 
 used for smelting clay iron ores, clay for calcareous carbonate of 
 iron, and a mixture of both fluxes for siliceous ores, such as the 
 black oxide for instance. 
 
 The reduction of the iron ore is effected in a blast furnace of 
 very large dimensions, forty-five or fifty feet in height, constructed 
 of solid brick- work, and lined with very refractory bricks or stones 
 (see fig. 384). The inner space of the furnace is divided into 
 portions, termed respectively the mouth, the shaft or cavity, the cone 
 or body, the boshes, and the hearth or crucible. The operation is 
 commenced by charging the furnace to a certain height with fuel, 
 and forcing air into it through the tuyeres, or air-pipes, at the 
 lower part. As soon as the furnace is in a regular heat, a quantity 
 of ore, mixed with the proper flux (mostly limestone) is charged 
 through the openings at the mouth of the furnace ; the blast is 
 increased gradually, and alternate layers of fuel and ore are intro- 
 duced from time to time. In the higher part of the furnace, the 
 materials introduced lose their moisture and carbonic acid. The 
 burning fuel (coal or coke, is chiefly used in this country), deprives 
 the air entering through the blast-pipes of its oxygen, forming 
 carbonic acid, which, coming in contact with other portions of 
 the heated fuel, is reduced to carbonic oxide. The ore, sinking to 
 a lower stage of the furnace, where the temperature is higher, the 
 oxide of iron is reduced by the carbonic oxide, and the earthy
 
 126 
 
 PEACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 matters separate in the form of a fusible slag. At a still lower 
 level of the furnace, just over the boshes, where the heat is 
 greatest, the reduction of the ore is completed by the carbon, 
 which, moreover, converts the difficultly fusible iron into a fusible 
 carbide, while the silica and alumina unite with the lime added as 
 flux (in the case of clay iron ores) to a kind of glass, or slag, 
 which is nearly free from oxide of iron. The melted carbide and 
 
 llllHllllllllfflllllillilllBIM MIDI MHMII1H 
 
 Fm. 384. 
 Blast Furnace. 
 
 a. Throat, or mouth, b. Cone. c.'Shaft, or internal cavity of the furnace, d. Boshes. 
 e. Tuyere, or air-pipe. /. Hearth. 
 
 slag are finally drawn into the crucible, where they arrange them- 
 selves in the order of their densities, viz., the slag above the 
 metal; the former is allowed to run off over the side of the 
 crucible, so that after a time the latter remains entirely filled with 
 metal. Or the slag is made to run off through apertures con- 
 trived for the purpose in the sides of the hearth or crucible. 
 
 Cold air was formerly used to feed the blast-furnace ; at present 
 the hot blast process is used instead, which consists simply iii
 
 TECHNOLOGY. 
 
 127 
 
 forcing into the furnace, through the tuyeres, air heated to 600 
 degrees F., by the waste heat of the furnace. A considerable 
 saving of fuel is thereby effected. 
 
 The gas issuing from the chimney consists chiefly of carbonic 
 oxide, carbonic acid, hydrogen, and nitrogen, and is inflammable ; 
 it is the burning of this gas which causes the great flame rising 
 above the top of the furnace. 
 
 FJO. 385. 
 
 Puddling Furnace. 
 (Vertical Section). 
 
 a. Grate. 6. Ashpit, p. Chimney, 
 or flue, d, d. Hearth-plate, i. Door 
 for introducing the cast iron. q. Door 
 for working the iron with the paddles 
 or rakes. 
 
 Fig. 386. 
 
 Puddling Furnace. 
 (Horizontal Section). 
 
 a. Grate, d. Hearth-plate, g, g. Door 
 for working the iron with the paddles or 
 rakes, i. Door for introducing the iron. 
 
 The metal obtained by this process of reduction is called crude, 
 or cast iron ; it contains 3 or 4 per cent, of carbon and silicon, 
 with traces of sulphur, phosphorus and manganese. There are two 
 varieties of it, differing in color, hardness and composition, and 
 known by the names of gray and white iron ; the former is best 
 suited for cast iron ware, the latter for steel and wrought iron 
 ware. 
 
 Crude, or pig iron, is converted into bar iron, by removing the 
 carbon from it. This is effected by two operations, refining and 
 puddling. 
 
 The refining furnace is constructed of iron, lined with refractory 
 clay, and is furnished with air-pipes. In this furnace the pig iron 
 is kept in fusion for about two hours, under a strong blast of air, 
 which serves to oxidise the surface of the melted metal. A work- 
 man diligently stirs the melted mass, so as to bring all parts of it 
 in contact with the oxide. This serves to convert the carbon into 
 carbonic acid, which escapes, and the silicon into silicic acid, which, 
 combining with a portion of oxide of iron, forms a fusible silicate 
 composing the slag. When the operation is completed, the fused 
 iron is run out into a mould and quenched with water, which 
 serves to cool it suddenly, and makes it brittle. 
 
 The so-called fine metal is then subjected to the process of 
 puddling, which is conducted in a reverberatory furnace, called a 
 puddling furnace (see figs. 385 and 386). The charge of iron 
 metal is introduced through the door, i, and laid on the sides of
 
 128 PRACTICAL AIDS. 
 
 the hearth, d, d ; a is the grate ; the fuel used is coal or wood. 
 p is the flue ; g, a door through which the rake or paddle is intro- 
 duced to work the metallic mass. The supply of air to the furnace 
 is limited, in order to guard against excessive oxidation of the 
 metal. The workman keeps stirring the mass with his paddle or 
 rake. As the operation proceeds, the metal loses its fluidity, and 
 becomes pasty. When the workman judges the process completed, 
 he collects all the particles of the metal with his stirrer, and forms 
 them into lumps, termed puddler's balls or blooms. These are 
 then hammered, and subsequently rolled to free them from slag. 
 
 THE END.

 
 A 000120223 3