UC-NRLF 
 
 MMHMMMMMMMHMHMI 
 
 GASOLINE ENGINE 
 
 ILLIAMS 
 
GIFT OF 
 : H.. 
 
GASOLINE ENGINE 
 IGNITION 
 
 BY 
 E. J. WILLIAMS 
 
 CINCINNATI 
 
 The Gas Engine Publishing Co. 
 
 BLYMYER BUILDING 
 
 1906 
 
Copyright, 1906 
 
 by 
 
 The Gas Engine Publishing Co 
 Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 uw 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 From observations made in the marine 
 gasoline engine field, the purchaser of an 
 outfit is usually his own operator, and with 
 him alone rests the responsibility of un- 
 derstanding the different phases attendant 
 with its successful operation. Very few 
 books have been written which render as- 
 sistance to the marine gasoline engine op- 
 erator, and those few do not deal point- 
 edly with the ignition system. 
 
 Numerous little difficulties are mastered 
 in the general equipment, but occasionally 
 information is wanted regarding the elec- 
 trical outfit, its installation or principle of 
 operation. With this end in view, the au- 
 thor 'has endeavored to treat this work in 
 a simple and non-technical manner, basing 
 its contents on the assumption that the 
 reader is a novice in every sense to which 
 the word implies, and trusts its perusal will 
 meet with a favorable reception. 
 
 E. J. WILLIAMS. 
 
 4G4557 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 I. Magnetism 1 
 
 II. Make-and-Break Ignition 4 
 
 III. Jump Spark Ignition 16 
 
 IV. Batteries 36 
 
 V. Generators . . 47 
 
 VI. Testing for Trouble 56 
 
 VII. Kinks in Power Installation . . 68 
 
 VIII. Horsepower . . 74 
 
 IX. Wiring Diagrams 81 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 MAGNETISM. 
 
 The average person naturally understands 
 nothing regarding electricity, and the oni) 
 accessory about a gasoline engine in which 
 he has no confidence is this particular part. 
 
 A wire, when charged with an electrical 
 current, contains a property adverse to the 
 natural state of the wire when not electri- 
 fied. When a wire has an electrical current 
 flowing through it, magnetic lines of force 
 surround it to a distance consistent to the 
 strength of the current. If the wire is 
 wound in a circular form, in layers, forming 
 a coil, the magnetic lines of force are in- 
 creased in strength, and if wound around a 
 bar of soft iron an additional increase is 
 gained. 
 
 If a bar of soft iron is wound with several 
 turns of insulated (covered) copper wire, 
 and a current of electricity passed through 
 the wire, either from a dynamo or batter j, 
 
A?:4>IO"IL.i.- 
 
 the bar becomes saturated with a property 
 called magnetism, and is capable of attract- 
 ing particles of steel as long as the electricity 
 flows through the wire, and ceases immedi- 
 ately, when the wires are disengaged and 
 the current flow stopped. When the bar 
 of iron is magnetized, one end will attract 
 steel while the other end, will repel it. 
 
 Induction or jump spark coils and any 
 electrically operated mechanism such as dy- 
 namos, magnetos, etc., are based on the 
 principles or phenomena of electro magnet- 
 ism as above stated. 
 
 A permanent magnet is a piece of spe- 
 cial steel, stored or saturated with mag- 
 netism for an indefinite time. It will per- 
 from the duties of an electro magnet in many 
 instances. Permanent magnets are utilized 
 for the construction of magnetos, and the 
 magnetism contained in the metal lasts gen- 
 erally from 5 to 10 years, according to the 
 grade and work the magneto performs. 
 
 In order to first saturate the steel with 
 magnetism, it is necessary to lay it on a di- 
 rect current dynamo of motor, or rub it 
 on what was originally called a load stone 
 (another permanent magnet). When the 
 
magnetism becomes weak the same method 
 of charging is again repeated. 
 
 Electric current requires' some standard 
 of measurement, therefore it is expressed 
 in volts and amperes. A volt is the unit of 
 pressure or strain, and is similar to the 
 pressure of steam in a boiler, or air in a 
 tank expressed in pounds. 
 
 An ampere is the unit rate of flow or 
 amount backing up the volt, and compares 
 with the amount drained from the above 
 referred to boiler or air tank. If a tank or 
 boiler had 100 pounds pressure and dis- 
 charged the whole contents at once, the 
 rate of flow would correspond to the flow 
 from a battery on short circuit, and to dis- 
 charge at a low rate for a length of time, 
 would correspond to the drain from a bat- 
 tery through a coil or otherwise. 
 
 The drop in pressure during this opera- 
 tion corresponds to the drop in volts when 
 using a battery. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 MAKE-AND-BREAK IGNITION. 
 
 Electrical ignition for gasoline engines 
 is of two kinds, make-and-break and jump 
 spark. 
 
 In mechanical make-and-break ignition 
 a coil is utilized, through which a current 
 of electricity is passed, the coil intensifying 
 the current to such an extent that a very 
 hot spark follows the terminals of the wires 
 if they are separated or the two ends 
 touched together and drawn apart. This 
 action or spark is caused for a short period 
 by the self-inductance or reaction of the 
 current remaining in the circuit after it is 
 broken ; that is, when the terminals are sep- 
 arated. This spark occurs only as the 
 wires are separated, after the current or 
 circuit is completed through the coil, and 
 does not occur at the time connection is 
 made or completed. 
 
 In making use of this system of ignition 
 in gasoline engines, a means for sepa- 
 
rating these two ends or break in ths 
 circuit is necessary, to throw the spark in 
 the combustion chamber. To this end one 
 electrode is made stationary, the other mov- 
 able, to touch and complete the circuit and 
 move away from/ the stationary electrode or 
 terminal. The stationary member is there- 
 fore constructed in the form of a plug, in- 
 sulated from the engine by a mica, or porce- 
 lain, bushing, or any non-conducting ma- 
 terial. A sectional miake-and-break plug 
 or spark pin is shown in Figure i. 
 
 To the point within the cylinder or ex- 
 plosive chamber, A, is affixed a small piece 
 of platinum, iridium or other non-oxidizing 
 composition. Very often steel points are 
 used, but carbonation and oxidation are so 
 rapid that brightening the contact points 
 has to be resorted to very often. B shows 
 the insulation of mica, C the casing or 
 sleeve to screw into the firing chamber, and 
 D the wire terminal or binding post. 
 
 It will thus be readily seen that when the 
 plug is screwed into the 'cylinder, A has 
 no communication metallically, other than 
 with the wire and when the mlovable elec- 
 trode comes into action. The other end or 
 
D 
 
 Fig 
 
wire from the battery leads to the ground, 
 as shown in Figure 2. This movable part 
 is mechanically actuated by eccentric, cam, 
 gear, crank, by the movement of the piston 
 within the cylinder or any other means pos- 
 sible. 
 
 In a two-cycle engine the mechanical ap- 
 paratus is arranged to spark every revolu- 
 tion of the fly wheel, and in a four-cycle 
 every other revolution, considering a single- 
 cylinder engine in both instances. 
 
 The action of the system as represented 
 in Figure 2 is as follows : The electric cur- 
 rent from the batteries, A, is flowing 
 through the intensity or spark coil, B, to the 
 plug, C, in the cylinder head, through the 
 movable electrode, E, if it touches the insu- 
 lated plug, C, and returning through the 
 ground, D, to the batteries, A, again. As 
 the lever, F, is actuated upward by the rod, 
 the circuit is closed by the movable electrode, 
 E, touching the stationary electrode, C. Sep- 
 arating them again as the rod drops causes 
 a spark to follow the points for a fraction 
 of a second, which ignites the gas in the 
 cylinder, forcing the piston on its downward 
 stroke. 
 
The spark coil used for this system con- 
 sists of a single winding of wire, in sev- 
 eral layers ; in reality, an electro magnet. 
 A bunch of soft iron wires is tightly bound 
 together, and a piece of wood placed over 
 each end, thereby making a sort of spool. 
 On this spool, around the core of soft iron 
 wires, several layers of No. 14 or 16 wire 
 are wound. After finishing the winding 
 process each end of the wire is made fast 
 to a binding post, and the whole mast 
 dipped in molten paraffine wax and left to 
 dry, when it is ready for use. 
 
 Different length coils are used and man- 
 ufactured, varying in size from 10 inches 
 long and 1^2 inch in diameter to 4 inches 
 long and 5 inches in diameter. It has often 
 been claimed that the short coil and core 
 gives the better result, because the core be- 
 comes magnetized and reacts quicker, giv- 
 ing a quick response to the opening and 
 closing of the circuit, and that the long 
 core coil lags somewhat for high speed. 
 Whether this is ever noticeable is only a 
 matter of conjecture and theory, as no dif- 
 ference can be discovered in the speed of the 
 engine if the short coil is used, and suddenly 
 
switched over to a long coil, and when hav- 
 ing a tachometer or revolution counter at- 
 tached. 
 
 Figure 3 gives a sectional view of a 
 make-and-break spark or intensity coil. A 
 
 Fie 3 
 
 is the core, B the winding and C the bind- 
 ing posts for attaching wires. This form 
 of coil was Originally made use of, and is 
 even utilized at the present time for elec- 
 tric gas lighting. 
 
 10 
 
Magnetic primary igniters are now nid.i- 
 ufactured to screw into the combustion 
 chamber, requiring no mechanical move- 
 ment or attachment to operate. This form 
 is a compact combination of both electrodes 
 and a spark coil, although by the addition 
 of a make-and-break spark coil into the cir- 
 cuit a larger and hotter spark is realized. 
 The principle of this type is more readily 
 understood by referring to Figure 4. 
 
 When the timer, C, such as is utilized 
 for jump spark ignition, closes the circuit 
 from the batteries, B, current flows through 
 the electro magnets, A, insulated plug, G, 
 points^, E, and to the ground in the engine 
 frame. As soon as the current magnetizes 
 the electro magnets, A, the lever, F, is at- 
 tracted by the core, D, separating the elec- 
 trodes or spark points, E, causing a spark 
 to follow their separation. Their separa- 
 tion breaks the circuit, causing the lever, 
 F, to return to G, by the action of the 
 spring, closing the circuit again at the elec- 
 trodes, E. As soon as connection is made 
 again at E, the same operation is repeated, 
 if the timer is still closing the circuit. This 
 operation is so rapid that a series of rapid 
 
 11 
 
<D 
 
 Fig--* 
 
 12 
 
sparks is made each time the engine timer 
 closes the circuit. 
 
 Figure 5 gives a drawing of a primary 
 spark plug in its compact form). 
 
 Ffc. 5 
 
 SPARK ADVANCE. 
 
 The advance or retarding of the spark 
 in the cylinder is a convenient method of 
 speeding up or slowing down the engine. 
 Means to advance and retard the spark 
 
 13 
 
while the engine is running is not found 
 on all make-and-break spark devices. The 
 meaning of spark advance is the occurring 
 of the spark at an earlier part of the revo- 
 lution or stroke of the piston. For exam- 
 ple, if the spark occurred after the piston 
 had reached its top dead center, and had 
 started on its downward stroke, it would 
 be called a late spark, or negative lead, or 
 that the spark was retarded. If after the 
 engine is running, outside means are avail- 
 able to cause the spark to fire the charge 
 nearer to the piston's top center, or before 
 it reaches its top center, on the compres- 
 sion stroke, it would be called advancing 
 the spark, or that the engine had an- early 
 spark, or positive lead, and would cause 
 the engine to speed up proportionately to 
 the distance in the revolution the spark 
 had advanced from its first position. 
 
 The spark advancing apparatus in mlake- 
 and-break ignition is generally operated by 
 a small lever, acting so as to trip the out- 
 side device earlier in the stroke after start- 
 ing. This form is typical of the two-cycle 
 engine with this system. On the four- 
 cycle engine a worm gear on a separate 
 
 14 
 
shaft with the ignition device causes trie, 
 cams, eccentrics or shaft containing this 
 device to twist ahead of the gears thereon. 
 
 In jump spark system of ignition the 
 spark is advanced or retarded by the move- 
 ment of the case, around the cam or arm, 
 which acts on the contacts. 
 
 The four-cycle engine behaves better 
 with a negative lead when throttling the 
 mixture to slow down, than the two-cycle 
 engine does. Under such conditions with 
 the latter, crank case or base explosions oc- 
 cur, which will not stop until the spark is 
 advanced. 
 
 15 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 JUMP SPARK IGNITION. 
 
 The jump spark system of ignition is 
 very seldom thoroughly understood, even 
 by persons in daily contact with gasoline 
 engines fitted with this equipment. 
 
 If a current of electricity from a battery 
 is passed through a wire, completing the 
 circuit, and another wire is placed near it, 
 without battery connection, forming anoth- 
 er circuit, an-d having no metallic contact 
 with the former, a current of induced na- 
 ture will occur in the circuit without battery 
 every timie the electrified circuit is opened 
 and closed. 
 
 C D 
 
 Fig. 6 
 
 Figure 6 explains the principle referred 
 to. 
 
 16 
 
To derive a strong current in the induc- 
 tion current, which is called the secondary, 
 the battery circuit or primary circuit is 
 wound in the form of a coil over a soft iron 
 core, thereby making an- electro magnet, 
 and over the primary is wound hundreds 
 of turns of very fine wire to make a very 
 strong current emanate from the secondary 
 winding. This form completed thus far is 
 called an induction coil or transformier, the 
 
 .1/1.1 
 
 fro - 
 
 principle of which is shown in Figure 7. 
 The heavy lin-es are the primary, the fine 
 lines the secondary and the straight lines 
 from left to right the core. 
 
 The jump spark coil is a combination of 
 an induction coil and a condenser, and with 
 or without a vibrator. The proper name 
 for this type of coil is Rhumkorf coil, and 
 before its advent into the gas engine field 
 
 17 
 
it was used for multiple gas-lighting appa- 
 ratus and experimental purposes. Present 
 uses for which it is utilized are for X-rays 
 and wireless telegraphy, but, of course, in 
 very large sizes, at an expenditure of sev- 
 eral thousand dollars each. 
 
 The only difference in the jump spark 
 ignition coil from the original Rhumkorf 
 coil is in its compact and water-proof ar- 
 rangement. 
 
 As before mentioned, the induced cur- 
 rent in the secondary circuit occurs only 
 for an instant as the primary circuit is 
 opened and closed, consequently, to produce 
 a pulsating current in the secondary of any 
 duration, some means must be had to au- 
 tomatically open and close the primary cir- 
 cuit. It is for this reason that a vibrator 
 is used and operated by the magnetism in 
 the iron core of the coil. 
 
 Figure 8 represents a vibrator, and shows 
 the contact points for making and opening 
 the circuit. 
 
 The principle of jump spark ignition is 
 the jumping of the induced or secondary 
 current across the terminals- or ends of the 
 secondary wires, called a spark gap, utilized 
 
 18 
 
in the form of a plug, with stationary termi- 
 nals set about 1-16 inch apart. The plug, 
 as is well known, screws into the combus- 
 tion chamber of the engine to fire the charge 
 of explosive mixture, by the spark jumping 
 
 Pig. 8 
 
 across the air space between the points. 
 
 An electrical condenser, previously re- 
 ferred to, is an apparatus that charges and 
 discharges itself from a galvanic or battery 
 
 19 
 
circuit. Without the aid of a condenser no 
 spark would be visible at the secondary ter- 
 minals. A condenser is constructed of al- 
 ternate sheets of tin foil and wax paper, 
 every odd number of sheets having a termi- 
 nal connecting to one side of the vibrator, 
 an-d every even numbered sheet to the other 
 side of the vibrator. The mass of sheets 
 
 Fig 9 
 
 is generally placed in the bottom of the 
 coil case under the coil. 
 
 Figure 9 is a diagrammatical explanation 
 of a condenser's construction. By this 
 method of connecting, as the primlary cir- 
 cuit is closed, the condenser is charged, and 
 as the vibrator breaks the circuit, the con- 
 
 20 
 
tents are discharged, forcing the high volt- 
 age to jump across the secondary terminals 
 at the spark plug in the form of a flame. 
 
 Without the aid of the condenser the cur- 
 rent would also intensify through the pri- 
 mary winding, in the .same manner as it 
 does through the primary or make-and- 
 break coil, causing a very large hot spark at 
 the vibrator contacts. 
 
 Calculations have been made by a num- 
 ber of electrical experts that from 8,000 to 
 10,000 volts are required to cause the sec- 
 ondary current to jump across an air space 
 of 1-16 inch. In an internal combustion 
 engine, with the gas compressed, thereby 
 further resisting the current, it can be read- 
 ily seen that a greater voltage will be re- 
 quired under these conditions. 
 
 The average voltage emitting from the 
 secondary terminals of the ordinary jump 
 spark coil varies fromi 20,000 to 30,000, ac- 
 cording to the method and care exercised in 
 its manufacture. 
 
 Extreme care must be exercised in wind- 
 ing the secondary, in the insulation be- 
 tween primary and secondary, and in cal- 
 culating the various parts. The iron- en- 
 
 21 
 
tering into the construction of the core must 
 contain great permeability and retentive 
 power, because the voltage of the secondary 
 winding i& proportional to the amount of 
 magnetism destroyed in the core by the 
 opening of the primary circuit. 
 
 The construction of a jump spark coil is 
 as follows : A soft iron core is first made 
 by cutting a lot of No. 1 6 or 18 gauge 
 iron wire into the desired length. Enough 
 of these wires are cut to fill an iron pipe, 
 the interior of which is the .size of the de- 
 sired core. After filling the pipe, both ends 
 are plugged with clay, and the whole mass 
 placed in a coal fire and allowed to remain 
 there until the fire dies out and the pipe is 
 cold. The wires are then removed from 
 the pipe and each one wiped off to remove 
 the oxide. They are then placed in hot 
 water, wiped dry and each one separately 
 coated with shellac. When thoroughly dry 
 they are again bunched ^ together, bound 
 with a light piece of brass wire and held 
 in place by a drop of solder. 
 
 This method of construction is used in 
 the manufacture of the high price coils. 
 In other grades of coils, the wires are 
 
 22 
 
bunched together without washing or s pel- 
 lacing, arid dipped in molten paraffine wax. 
 
 Over the core is slipped a hard rubber 
 tube, or a waxed paper mailing tube, and 
 over the length of the tube is wound two 
 layers of No. 18 B. & S. gauge single cot- 
 ton covered magnet wire for a primary 
 winding. This primary winding is then 
 given a wax bath and another tube is 
 slipped over this winding. Over this tube 
 is slipped the secondary winding, consist- 
 ing of from y 2 to i pound of No. 36 or 38 
 silk covered magnet wire, in two or more 
 sections, previously wound on a form and 
 soaked in wax until the bubbles ceased to 
 rise to the surface, to hold it intact and 
 thoroughly insulate each layer. The con- 
 denser and coil are then placed in the case, 
 the necessary [cor-nections made? and the 
 box rilled with molten paraffine wax. 
 
 Cotton-covered magnet wire is often used 
 for the secondary coil, but its insulating 
 properties are inferior to the silk-covered 
 wire. 
 
 In making up the condenser, attention 
 must be given to the grade of tin foil and 
 paper or mica, whichever is used. The 
 
 23 
 
Jl 
 
 m- m m\ m ^ m m\ m 
 
 M 
 
 24 
 
latter must be free from pin holes, and 
 perfectly dry, and the number and size of 
 sheets of each accurately determined. 
 
 Figure 10 shows the general style of vi- 
 brating coil in use for ignition purposes, 
 and a sectional view of the interior. 
 
 Coils are made vibrating and non-vibrat- 
 ing, the former having a small vibrator at- 
 tached to the case, with the core of the 
 coil protruding slightly through the end 
 of the case, as shown in Figure 10, and 
 non-vibrating, as its name implies, has no 
 vibrator. Each break of .the timer on the 
 engine, when using the latter coil, produces 
 one spark across the spark plug terminals, 
 the same as one vibration of the vibrator 
 on a vibrating coil. 
 
 Vibrators are in circuit with the primary 
 winding and battery, and the vibrations per 
 minute can be adjusted by the thumb screw 
 contact. 
 
 In operation the action of a jump spark 
 coil is as follows ; see Figure 1 1 : 
 
 As the primary circuit is closed by the 
 timer, A, the condenser, B, is charged and 
 the core, C, is magnetized, attracting the 
 vibrator, D. When the vibrator, D, moves 
 
 25 
 
CQ 
 
 26 
 
toward the core, C, the circuit is broken 
 between the thumb screw point, E, and the 
 point, F, on the vibrator. The magnetism 
 in the core ceases when the circuit is brok- 
 en, the condenser, B, discharges, forcing 
 a high voltage through the secondary, H, 
 and across the points of the gap or plug, 
 J, in the form of a spark. As soon as the 
 circuit is broken at the vibrator, I}, demag- 
 netizing the core, C, the vibrator returns 
 to its original position, and closes the cir- 
 cuit again between the contact screw, E, 
 and the vibrator point, F, causing a repeti- 
 tion of the operation. This making and 
 breaking of the circuit is very rapid, caus- 
 ing a series of sparks at the plug terminals 
 as long as the timer keeps the circuit of the 
 primary closed. 
 
 Chapter IX gives the scheme for connect- 
 ing up the various coils. 
 
 SPARK PLUGS. 
 
 Generally speaking, spark plugs cause 
 the most annoyance of any apparatus in 
 the jump-spark system. The points be- 
 come clogged with carbon, or the insula- 
 tion breaks down or cracks. 
 
 27 
 
Figures 12, 13 and 14 show several forms 
 of spark plugs in use. A is a plug with 
 central insulation of porcelain-, held in po- 
 sition by a shoulder or enlargement in the 
 center, set up by the gland, G. The ter- 
 
 Fie 12 
 
 minal is screwed on the center rod and is 
 fitted with a wing nut to fasten the wire 
 terminal. One bent wire is fastened in the 
 threaded portion or ground side, while the 
 other bent wire is an extension of the cen- 
 ter insulated rod. 
 
B shows a mica insulated plug, with the 
 mica tapered the whole length^ held in 
 
 place by the thumb screw set nut, N. The 
 thumb screw binding post, P, is vibratior> 
 proof against movement by being split lon- 
 
 - T 
 
 Fig- 13 
 
 gitudinally, to be drawn together by the set 
 screw S, binding the threads of the screw 
 head. 
 
 Figure 13 shows a mica insulated reversi- 
 ble plug, both ends of which are alike, and 
 
 29 
 
either end can be screwed into the cylin- 
 der. The end not used in* the cylinder is 
 fitted with a metal-threaded cap, M,. The 
 spark may be made to jump across both ends 
 at once, the outside end acting as a spark 
 gap. A wire terminal, T, is furnished with 
 
 Fig. M 
 
 each plug, and makes the connection by 
 screwing the cap against the terminals. 
 
 Figure 14 is a two-terminal plug, and 
 does not utilize a ground. It has a flange 
 set up on the cylinder with bolts, and does 
 not screw into the cylinder in the same man- 
 
 30 
 
ner as an ordinary spark plug. With the 
 two-terminal plug both wires from the -sec- 
 ondary of the coil are connected to the 
 plug. With the ordinary plug one wire is 
 grounded on the engine frame. 
 
 AUXILIARY SPARK GAPS. 
 
 A spark gap, as before mentioned, is the 
 space between the ends or terminals of the 
 secondary circuit. The space between the 
 points of a spark plug is a spark gap. An 
 auxiliary spark gap is another break or gap 
 in the circuit leading to the plug. The aux- 
 iliary gap, unless integral with the plug, is 
 arranged with terminals or binding posts 
 for the wire connections. At the present 
 time the utility of the auxiliary spark gap 
 appears to be a matter of question. The 
 reason of its use- is the claim/ of its tendency 
 to break down or prevent a soot bridge be- 
 tween the plug terminals, and also to per- 
 mit an outside observation of each spark 
 on a secondary wire. 
 
 For use in a cabin power boat, the open 
 type would not be altogether exactly safe, 
 should a gasoline leak occur while the en- 
 gine was running. 
 
 31 
 
Figure 15 shows a spark gap enclosed 
 in a glass tube, which is utilized to a great 
 extent on automobiles. At each end the 
 
 Fig. 15 
 
 holes in the case are for screwing to the 
 woodwork at any point, and the thumb 
 screws are for fastening the secon-dar> 
 wires. 
 
 TIMERS. 
 
 A timer is an apparatus generally used 
 in connection with a jump spark coil, and 
 is connected in the primary circuit to close 
 the latter at the proper point in the cycle 
 to discharge the secondary in the form of 
 a spark across the spark plug terminals in 
 the cylinder. Timers are also called com- 
 mutators and distributers. 
 
 Figure 16 shows a timer used for clos- 
 ing the primary circuit of a four-cylinder 
 jump spark coil. If the engine is a two- 
 cycle, the timer is set on the crank shaft 
 
 32 
 
o 
 
 Fig. 16 
 
 33 
 
or a smaller lay shaft, revolving at the 
 same speed as the crank shaft. If the en- 
 gine is of the four-cycle type, the arm of 
 the timer is keyed on the cam shaft, which 
 is rotated by a 2-to-i gear; that is, the 
 timer rotates once to the crank shaft's two 
 revolutions. 
 
 The arm being fastened to the cam shatt, 
 it revolves with same, touching each con- 
 tact block during its course. Un-der each 
 contact block a spring is arranged to al- 
 low the block to be forced down in the 
 square socket in the center of the circle or 
 disk, giving a friction contact between the 
 block and rotating arm. The back of each 
 block is metallically connected to a binding 
 post for the primary wire connection to 
 its respective coil. When the arm touches 
 any contact block, a circuit is established 
 to the ground through the arm to the en- 
 gine frame, to the battery and through the 
 primary winding and vibrator, returning to 
 the contact block. 
 
 The arm extending upward from the 
 back of the timer case is attached to the 
 latter and is for attachment to a spark ad- 
 
 34 
 
vancing lever, to advance or retard the 
 spark while the engine is in operation. 
 
 Several commutators or distributers are 
 now on the market to distribute the second- 
 ary current to more than one cylinder at 
 the proper time, by the use of but one coil. 
 With this style the "buzzer" or vibrator is. 
 kept in operation all the time. The strain 
 in the coil is greater and the insulation 
 must be perfect for this system. 
 
 Another form distributes the secondary 
 and makes a primary contact at the same 
 time, both forms involved in one casing. 
 
 35 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 BATTERIES. 
 
 There are two sources of electricity for 
 ignition of gas en-gines, viz., battery and 
 generator. 
 
 Batteries are divided into two classes, 
 primary, which generates current by its 
 own chemical action, and secondary, which 
 requires a current of electricity to be 
 turned into it for a given time, and dis- 
 charges a current for a slightly less time 
 than was occupied in charging. 
 
 PRIMARY BATTERIES. 
 
 Primary batteries are used to a greater 
 extent than secondary batteries for ignition 
 purposes. The dry battery, sal ammoniac 
 and soda types are all primary, while stor- 
 age or secondary are mostly made up of 
 lead plates and diluted acid. 
 
 Dry batteries are used extensively, be- 
 cause of their convenience, and are prac- 
 tically the sal ammoniac wet battery in paste 
 
 36 
 
iK. 17 
 
 37 
 
form. The outside shell is the zinc element 
 and the center connection the carbon. 
 Chemicals are introduced in a paste or by 
 saturating some absorbing material such as 
 blotting paper, etc., and sealed at the top 
 with pitch. The average size, 2^/2 inches 
 by 7 inches, gives 1.30 to 1.50 volts and 
 from 12 to 15 amperes, and larger sizes 
 give the same voltage, but greater am- 
 perage. When a dry battery becomes ex- 
 hausted it is more economical to discard 
 it than to try some miethod of reviving o r 
 recharging. 
 
 SAL AMMONIAC BATTERY. 
 
 Sal ammoniac (wet) batteries, consist- 
 ing of zinc, carbon and a solution of sal 
 ammoniac can be recharged by renewing 
 the liquid, and if zincs are extremely thin 
 or badly eaten away, new ones can be put 
 in. The carbon element should last in- 
 definitely, but should a battery of this type 
 fail to give a satisfactory current after re- 
 charging, and connections have been looked 
 over and found to be all right, the carbon 
 element has in all probability become 
 clogged in- the pores and requires cleaning. 
 To do this it should be removed from the 
 
 38 
 
Fig. 18 
 Sal Ammoniac Battery. 
 
 39 
 
jar, and, if it is a hollow cylinder with a 
 small plug in the top, the contents of granu- 
 lated carbon should be thrown away. The 
 carbon cylinders should then be placed in 
 a pot or pan, filled with water to cover 
 them, and placed over a fire, keeping the 
 water boiling for an hour or two. After 
 this boiling-out process new granulated 
 carbon should be placed in the cylinder. 
 This will in all probability remedy the 
 trouble, but in case it fails new carbons will 
 have to be purchased. 
 
 When purchasing zincs for this type, 
 have the local druggist amalgamate them, 
 and they will be found to last a great deal 
 longer. If salts from the liquid creep over 
 the tops of jars, immerse the tops for about 
 an inch in tnblten paraffins wax until a de- 
 posit is left. 
 
 Dry batteries and sal ammoniac wet bat- 
 teries are called "open circuit" batteries be- 
 cause the work which they are called upon 
 to do is of an intermittent nature, and the 
 voltage is not constant until exhausted. 
 After using for a short period it gradually 
 loses its power, but if left to rest a short 
 time it recuperates again. After running 
 
 40 
 
down a number of times it begins to lose 
 its life, and the full power is not derived 
 after recuperation. 
 
 Soda batteries are now also 'extensively 
 used, and appear to give universal satisfac- 
 tion for marine engine ignition, generally 
 requiring but one charge in a season. The 
 mlake-up of this type consists of a porcelain 
 or enamel steel jar, a zinc element, a cop- 
 per oxide element, a solution of soda and 
 a heavy oil. The oil, although playing no 
 part in the chemical action of the elements, 
 is a very essential part. It prevents creep- 
 ing of salts to the outside of the jar, and 
 prevents evaporation. 
 
 This type of battery gives between .07 
 and .095 volts for ignition purposes. One 
 valuable point of superiority is that it has 
 no local action ; that is, the elements are 
 not consumed while not in use. The am- 
 perage of this type varies according to size 
 from 50 to 300. 
 
 In mixing the soda solution care should 
 be exercised not to get any of the liquid on 
 the skin or clothes, as it is a form of acid 
 and will burn. Very little attention is 
 necessary after setting up, and when run 
 
down or exhausted the state of the elements 
 can be easily determined as to whether they 
 are in condition for another charge. Usually 
 they will permit charging a second time, 
 buit if the zincs are thin they should be dis- 
 
 FiB 19 
 
 carded, as it is poor economy to use an in- 
 efficient article. 
 
 To determine the condition of the cop- 
 per oxide, pick into the plate with a knife 
 or sharp instrument, and if there is a layer 
 
 42 
 
of black in the interior of at least half the 
 thickness of the plate, it will give good 
 service for another charge. If the plate is 
 red throughout, it is entirely exhausted and 
 is useless. Oxide plates should never be 
 allowed to dry outside of the solution, as 
 the result expected after replacing will not 
 be realized on account of artificial oxida- 
 tion in the air. 
 
 When connecting up a set of primary bat- 
 teries, the zinc of one battery is connected 
 to the carbon of the next until the desired 
 number is in circuit. If batteries are to be 
 used the n-umjber of batteries multiplied by 
 the voltage of one battery, or cell, should 
 equal the voltage the coil is intended to 
 work on, or a fraction of a volt more, gen- 
 erally 4 volts for jump spark coils and from 
 6 to 8 volts for a make-and-break primary 
 coil. Either 7 or 8 soda batteries are al- 
 ways enough for the latter system, 
 
 More dry batteries are generally used 
 than figuring the same, voltage of the coil, 
 on account of the batteries getting weaker 
 during use; 5 or 6 are generally used for 
 jump spark coils and 8 for make-and- 
 break system. 
 
 43 
 
Two sets are often used, connected to a 
 two-point switch, so that either set can be 
 used. In case one set gets weak the other 
 set can be switched on, and permit the used 
 set to recuperate. 
 
 Although the two sets as above de- 
 scribed may be used, if the batteries were 
 
 Fig. 21 
 
 connected as shown in Fig. 20, more service 
 could be derived than if each set is used 
 separately, as shown in- Fig. 21. As pe- 
 
 44 
 
culiar as it may seem, by actual test 12 
 batteries of 15 amperes, connected as shown 
 in Figure 20, will give longer service than 
 a set of 6 batteries of 30 amperes', or than 
 the 12 connected in two sets as shown in 
 Figure 21. This result is slightly adverse 
 to electrical mathematics, but can be proved 
 with the proper apparatus. 
 
 SECONDARY BATTERIES. 
 
 Secondary batteries are commonly called 
 storage batteries, or accumulators. The 
 make-up of this 1 type consists of a hard 
 rubber or non-breakable jar, lead plates and 
 a solution of diluted sulphuric acid. The 
 plates of the positive side are connected to 
 one binding post or lug, and the negative 
 plates to another lug, the plates being sepa- 
 rated in the solution by a very thin piece 
 of corrugated hard rubber. 
 
 After charging, the positive plates are of 
 a brown color, and the negative plates of a 
 gray color. The reason of this is. because 
 in their construction the positive plate only 
 is covered with peroxide of lead, and dur- 
 ing discharge causes the pure lead (nega- 
 tive) plate to partially oxidize through the 
 
 45 
 
chemical action from the positive plate. 
 
 In connecting up two or more accumu- 
 lators one lug of each battery will be found 
 to be marked with a + for positive and a 
 for negative. The positive of one bat- 
 tery is therefore connected to the negative 
 of the next, until the number required is 
 in circuit. From 2 to 4 are generally re- 
 quired for ignition purposes^ dependent 
 upon the system used. A storage battery 
 of course has to be charged from some 
 source of electricity, consequently a dyna- 
 mo is utilized for this purpose, which gives 
 a voltage in excess of the voltage of the set 
 when charged. Each storage battery gives 
 from 2 to 2.y 2 volts and amperage consist- 
 ent with size and weight of plates. 
 
 Storage batteries should be kept clean, 
 and to reach this end the portable enclosed 
 type is mostly in use. If any acid acci- 
 dentally spills or evaporates, a solution of 
 very weak sulphuric acid should be added 
 to bring the liquid to a proper level and 
 test. 
 
 46 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 DYNAMOS GENERATORS. 
 
 A dynamo is a generator of electric cur- 
 rent, and requires a power to rotate its 
 armature. The essentials of a dynamo are 
 a rotating member called an armature, elec- 
 tro magnets called fields, an armature wind- 
 ing of insulated copper wire, a field winding 
 of the same material, a commutator and 
 brushes. The principle involved in produc- 
 ing an electric current from a generator is 
 the rapid revolving of a number of turns of 
 copper wire, called an armature, between 
 the magnetic fields or poles of a magnet. 
 The poles of a magnet, as before referred 
 to, are the ends of a magnet, either electro 
 or permanent. 
 
 A dynamo has a positive and negative 
 wire ; that is, the current from this type has 
 a direction of flow the same as an electric 
 battery. By having a direction of flow it is 
 called direct current, and this current can 
 be used to store accumulators, furnish cur- 
 
 47 
 
rent for jump spark coils, either vibrating 
 or non-vibrating, or make-and-break spark 
 coils. 
 
 Figure 22 gives an outline of the 
 
 Fiff. 22 
 
 pie of the type of generator used for gas 
 engine purposes. 
 
 A A, field cores, constructed of iron, over 
 which field wire is wound ; B B, brushes 
 resting on commutator; C, the armature; 
 D D, the line wires. 
 
 48 
 
As shown in Figure 23, the commutator 
 is made up of a number of segments of 
 brass or copper, forming a circle, each seg- 
 ment separated from its neighbor by either 
 mica or hard rubber insulation, and is set 
 on the end of the armature shaft. Each 
 end of each winding of wire on the arma- 
 
 Fig. 23 
 
 ture is soldered to its respective segment 
 on the commutator, and the current gen- 
 erated is taken from the commutator 
 through the brushes as the armature re- 
 volves. 
 
 A, commutator; B, armature winding; C, 
 armature shaft. 
 
 By both wires leading from the fields be- 
 ing connected to each brush, part of the 
 current generated by the armature goes 
 
 49 
 
Improved Speed Regulating: Dynamo. 
 
 50 
 
through the fields to magnetize the field 
 cores and make magnetic poles for the arm- 
 ature to revolve upon. 
 
 MAGNETOS. 
 
 A magneto is also a generator of elec- 
 tricity, but instead of having wire wound 
 on the field cores, utilizes what is known 
 as permanent magnets of the horseshoe 
 type. This gives a permanent magnetic 
 field for the armature to revolve in. 
 
 There are several different types of this 
 machine, and they vary in construction to 
 produce practically the same result, al- 
 though the principle is the same. For ig- 
 nition purposes one type produces alter- 
 nating current of from 8 to 10 volts, an- 
 other direct current of the same voltage and 
 another furnishes a high voltage in connec- 
 tion, with a coil made and placed within the 
 magneto case. 
 
 The direct current magneto, although 
 having an output of about 10 volts, has a 
 very low capacity of less than one ampere. 
 Its principle of operation is similar to that 
 of the ignition dynamo. It can be utilized 
 
 51 
 
to furnish current to a make-and-break 
 spark coil or the magnetic primary plug, 
 but is not adapted for furnishing current 
 to a jump spark coil direct, owing to its 
 low output of amperage. The only means 
 of utilizing it for this kind of ignition is 
 through the medium of a storage battery 
 set, for the following reason : While a stor- 
 age battery or accumulator set furnishes the 
 proper amount of amperes to operate a 
 jump spark coil, the drain therefrom is 
 only intermittent; that is, there is more 
 actual space or time between connection 
 through the timer on the engine than there 
 is in contact. As the direct current mag- 
 neto furnishes a smaller amount of amperes 
 than is used from the accumulators, the 
 supply is constant, and enables the batteries 
 to be kept fully stored. 
 
 By using the accumulators in connection 
 with a direct current magneto, either vi- 
 brating or non-vibrating coils can be used. 
 
 The alternating current magneto is very 
 much like the direct current magneto in 
 appearance, and is used more extensively 
 for mechanical make-and-break ignition 
 spark coils. The difference between the 
 
 52 
 
two types of magneto, is only in the man- 
 ner in which the armature winding is ar- 
 ranged. In the alternating current mag- 
 neto there is no direction of flow of the 
 
 current produced. It alternates from one 
 binding post or brush to the other many 
 thousand times in a minute. 
 
 53 
 
Alternating current is therefore unlike a 
 direct or battery current, because it has no 
 positive or negative wire. It will not ring 
 an ordinary electric bell or magnetize an 
 electro magnet. For make-and-break ig- 
 nition, magnetism is not utilized for the 
 operation of this system, other than for the 
 type of magnetic primary igniters before 
 mentioned. When used in conjunction with 
 a make-and-break spark coil, very good re- 
 sults have been given. 
 
 This form of magneto has also been util- 
 ized to some extent with jump spark coils 
 without a vibrator, the alternations pro- 
 ducing a series of sparks as the circuit is 
 closed by the engine timer, corresponding 
 to the action of a jump spark coil with 
 vibrator, when used with battery or dy- 
 namo. An alternating current magneto will 
 not operate a vibrating jump spark coil be- 
 cause the core requires to be magnetized 
 on the same principle as an electro magnet, 
 to attract the vibrator of the coil. Mag- 
 netic primary igniters will not operate with 
 alternating current for the same reason. 
 
 High tension or voltage magnetos, are 
 now manufactured which require no out- 
 
 54 
 
side coil, and are operated through the ordi- 
 nary jump spark plug. 
 
 The magn-eto is so well known in appear- 
 ance that a further description is not neces- 
 sary. 
 
 Magnetos are now made without what 
 appear to be brushes. One side of the cur- 
 rent from the armature coil is grounded in 
 the armature, and the magneto frame me- 
 tallically connected to the engine frame. 
 The other wire is connected to a sleeve 
 around the shaft or to the shaft itself, which 
 is insulated from the armature, the shaft or 
 sleeve pressing against a spring, the end of 
 which is made fast to a binding post insu- 
 lated from the magneto frame. This meth- 
 od gives the appearance of no brushes to 
 the magneto, but one is theoretically there. 
 
 The one wire leading from the insulated 
 binding post is connected to the spark coil 
 binding post, and another wire from the 
 coil to a switch, thence to the insulated plug 
 of the engin-e, where, upon contact, the cur- 
 rent flows through the engine frame, re- 
 turning to the magneto and armature wind- 
 ing. 
 
 55 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 TESTING FOR TROUBLE. 
 
 One of the principal causes of trouble 
 in the electrical equipment of a marine gaso- 
 line engine, especially when, used on salt 
 water, is the corrosion of copper wires, 
 caused by being in close proximity to met- 
 als of opposite polarity, both of which -may 
 be situated in a damp place, either in the 
 bilge of the boat or where continual spray 
 is thrown when under way. 
 
 A broken wire is a very perplexing prob- 
 lem to locate to the novice. If a broken 
 wire is suspected between one battery and 
 another, it can be easily proved or located 
 by connecting a piece of wire to the zinc 
 binding post at the end of the set and rub- 
 bing the other end of the wire on the car- 
 bon plate on the battery at the other end 
 of the set, but not on the binding post. If 
 the connections between each battery are all 
 right, a small arc or flame will occur be- 
 tween the wire and the carbon each time 
 
 56 
 
they come in contact, but if an open circuit 
 prevails, or the batteries have become ex- 
 hausted, no spark will appear. 
 
 Before placing the wire on the zinc bind- 
 ing post, remove the permanent wire there- 
 from and open the switch, so that there 
 can be no ground at any point in the outside 
 wires, and through the battery box in any 
 unforseen manner. By going over each 
 binding post very often a loose connection 
 with the wires and binding posts will be 
 found as the cause. If the binding posts 
 are making a good connection, with the piece 
 of wire still fastened at the zinc binding 
 post, making a perfect metallic connection, 
 touch the carbon of the battery next near- 
 est the end where the zinc and wire are 
 connected and continue thus with each bat- 
 tery toward the zinc connection until a 
 spark is seen on the carbon. As soon a'b 
 it sparks, the trouble is between that bat- 
 tery and the one next to it which would not 
 spark. 
 
 Should the batteries appear to be in per- 
 fect condition, and in case the engine should 
 fail to start, if the equipment is make-and- 
 break system of ignition, remove the wire 
 
 57 
 
from the insulated electrode or plug and 
 wipe it across any bright or polished part 
 of the engine, after closing the switch. 
 
 If a spark occurs, following the wire 
 each time, turn over the fly wheel until 
 contact is iniade by the movable and station- 
 ary electrode inside of the cylinder. This 
 point occurs just before the device on the 
 outside of the cylinder trips or snaps, which 
 separates the electrodes. Now, wipe the 
 wire across the insulated plug electrode, 
 and if a spark occurs, turn the fly wheel 
 still further until the device snaps to sepa- 
 rate the electrodes, and try the same thing 
 again. If no flame is perceptible, the spark 
 is occurring inside of the cylinder. The 
 trip separating the electrodes should occur 
 barely before the piston reaches its top cen- 
 ter, generally marked by a cut in the fly- 
 wheel rim to alleviate matters. 
 
 A puzzling stage to many is when, after 
 all these tests, no spark has shown itself, 
 and the batteries are all right. The trouble 
 may be a broken wire, bad connection at 
 switch connections or contacts, switch bind- 
 ing posts, coil binding posts or ground bind- 
 ing posts on the engine frame. Referring 
 
 58 
 
to Figure 26, a make-and-break system of 
 connection is shown. 
 
 Proceed to locate the trouble by turning 
 the engine fly wheel so as to make connec- 
 tion between the electrodes. See that the 
 
 Fig. 26 
 
 switch is closed, and with a piece of wire, 
 place one end at G on the batteries and 
 wipe the other end across the top of the 
 insulated electrode or plug, A. If a spark 
 shows, the trouble is either in the ground 
 wire, where it is connected to the battery, 
 
 59 
 
or the engine frame, or between the two 
 electrodes possibly by a bad connection, of 
 sparking points. 
 
 If no spark appears, with one end still 
 at G, repeat the same operation at the coil 
 binding post, E. If a spark appears, the 
 trouble is either at binding post E, or in 
 the wire, or at A, on the insulated electrode. 
 If no spark shows itself, trouble is either 
 at D of coil, C or B of the switch or battery 
 connection, F, or 'poor connection in the 
 knife switch or contact. 
 
 The next mode of procedure will be to 
 fasten the temporary wire at battery con- 
 nection F, and touch other end of wire to 
 binding post B, on the switch, first of all 
 trying switch points by sand-papering and 
 noting if spark follows points when open- 
 ing switch. With the supposition that an 
 open circuit still prevails', by no spark show- 
 ing when touching temporary wire to B, 
 touch next to C of switch, and then to D. 
 When a spark is noticed the trouble lies 
 between where spark occurred and the last 
 point it failed to show. 
 
 There may be such a thing that after a 
 period unused the whole installation may 
 
be defective. If no spark can be deter- 
 mined at all, this can be ascertained 
 by fastening temporary wire at F and D, 
 and with another piece of wire, fastened to 
 G, touch the binding post E, of the coil. A 
 spark should now show itself, as this cuts 
 out the engine and switch and all the wir- 
 ing, and should be convincing enough to 
 show the necessity for new wires. 
 
 Although appearing to be a rather in- 
 tricate mtethod, any person can soon learn 
 the why and wherefore. 
 
 For jump spark ignition remove the plug 
 from the cylinder and lay it on a bright 
 metallic part of the engine, with the wire 
 attached to it, being sure that only the por- 
 tion of the side metal containing the screw 
 threads make the connection, the sarnie as 
 if screwed into the cylinder. Turn over 
 the engine until contact is made at the timer 
 or commutator. If the trembler or vibrator 
 of the coil does not operate, adjust by turn- 
 ing the thumb screw in either direction until 
 it does. If it fails, pass a fine piece of sand 
 paper between the point on the trembler 
 and the thumb screw adjuster. If it op- 
 erates now, observe the size of spark at the 
 spark plug. 
 
 61 
 
Jump spark coils are invariably situated 
 near the engine and batteries, and are very 
 convenient for locating trouble. If a good- 
 sized wire is used when installing, a failure 
 of the vibrator to work can be located by 
 seeing that" good contact is made at timer, 
 switch points are clean, binding posts tight ; 
 in the event of which all are in good con- 
 dition, the same test for trouble in the bat- 
 teries as before mentioned can be used. 
 When batteries are suspected of causing the 
 trouble, new batteries are not always at 
 hand to put in their place to save testing 
 out. 
 
 With jumip spark ignition, very often 
 after putting in new batteries, a very hot 
 spark occurs at the vibrator and a weak 
 spark at the plug. This is caused by a 
 poor connection between the condenser and 
 the wires leading to the vibrator inside of 
 the coil case. The best thing to do in this 
 case is to send the coil to the manufac- 
 turer or discard it, unless the operator has 
 the ingenuity to repair it and understands 
 its principle and theory. 
 
 62 
 
INSTALLATION OF IGNITION SYSTEM. 
 
 Do not use small gauge wires, as they 
 are too readily subjected to injury. No. 14, 
 and, better yet, No. 12, safety wire will 
 carry the current better and stand harder 
 usage. Always wind several turns on a 
 pencil before fastening an end to a binding 
 post, so that, should a break occur at the 
 fastening, enough will be left for another 
 connection. 
 
 If imperative to run wires along the bilge 
 in a damp place, use lead-covered wire. 
 Run all wires in the lockers if possible, or 
 under the edge of the 'coaming. Never 
 fasten two wires under one staple, or a 
 short circuit may be caused by cutting 
 through the insulation of the wires and each 
 point touching the metal. Do not drive sta- 
 ples home, as they are liable to cut the in- 
 sulation and break the wire. 
 
 Single or double pole, double throw, knife 
 switches for two sets of batteries or mag- 
 neto and battery, or single-throw knife 
 switches, or electric light snap switches, 
 give better results than the ordinary elec- 
 tric bell or automobile switch, for the rea- 
 
 63 
 
son that the former have a rub pressure 
 contact attendant with closing. 
 
 When installing a double-throw knife 
 switch, set it up horizontally, so that it will 
 not close by its own gravity. Single-throw 
 switches should be set up vertically, so that 
 in opening, the lever is pulled, down, for 
 the same reason. 
 
 Place all dry batteries in a dry place. If 
 the whole set is not sealed up in pitch, and 
 if inconvenient to 'procure any, connect the 
 set together, soldering all connections, and 
 place them in a box to just nicely contain 
 them. Put binding posts on the end of the 
 box or extend the wires: through the holes 
 in the box, and fill the case with pitch or as- 
 phalt. This will keep the set water-proof 
 under all circumstarces. Those who desire 
 to keep dry batteries from absorbing mois- 
 ture, and do not care to use pitch, can place 
 the set in a box, filling same to the top with 
 sawdust. When this absorbing material be- 
 comes damp, renew. 
 
 All dry batteries should be set right side 
 up, unless water-proofed with pitch, else 
 the pitch in the top of the cans will run on 
 
warm days and permit the contents to evap- 
 orate. 
 
 When, putting screws or nails in a battery 
 box to hold it in position, be sure to see 
 that a nail or screw has not misdirected and 
 touches one of the batteries and a wire. 
 
 Brighten all contacts and ends of wires 
 when fastening to binding posts, screws, 
 etc., and solder and tape over any splice 
 made in the wire. 
 
 When the novice installs his own jump- 
 spark electrical equipment, it is a common 
 occurrence to find ordinary electric light 
 wire leading from the coil to the spark plug 
 on the engine. Very few explosions are 
 gotten from the engine before trouble oc- 
 curs. Notwithstanding the use of ordinary 
 wire when there is more than one cylinder 
 to the engine, these wires are bunched to- 
 gether and taped. 
 
 Rerr;ember that it is most imperative that 
 wire with a heavy insulation of rubber is 
 necessary for this secondary current to 
 carry to the plug, on account of the high 
 voltage and liability to jump through the 
 insulation of ordinary wire. If unable to 
 procure the heavy insulated wire, use the 
 
 65 
 
66 
 
ordinary wire, but procure a piece of pure 
 rubber tube or circular loom, such as elec- 
 tric light wires are run through, and slide 
 this over the wires. 
 
 Wire terminals are now manufactured 
 which facilitate a good metallic connection, 
 and also prevent the wire from breaking 
 at the point of connection. Figure 27 shows 
 two forms of spark plug wire connectors, 
 A and B, and a form of battery terminals, C. 
 
 Water-proof plug protectors are being 
 utilized to great advantage in protecting 
 the plug and wire terminal from corrosion 
 and short circuits caused by spray. These 
 are a boon to the open power boat. 
 
 67 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 KINKS IN THE POWER INSTALLATION. 
 
 Difficulties are encountered other than in 
 the ignition system of a marine engine. 
 Poor water circulation or chronic trouble in 
 starting the water flow through a gear or 
 rotary pump, foreign substances in the 
 gasoline, affecting carburation, trim or mo- 
 tion of the boat acting on the gasoline level 
 in the fuel tank, leaks in the gasoline pipe 
 or connections, sticking of the check valves 
 in the water supply, etc., are troubles very 
 often traced directly to the manner in which 
 installation was put in. 
 
 Unless a rotary or gear pump is placed 
 at a point below the water line in a boat, 
 there is no suction to start the water to 
 flow, and priming with water has to be re- 
 sorted to, and, even though they work sat- 
 isfactorily when new, they soon require the 
 primting process, as all the water escapes 
 from the cylinder jacket through the pump 
 when not in operation. The best remedy 
 
for this is to place a check valve between 
 pump and entrance of pipe through the 
 hull. This will insure the pump remaining 
 rilled with water, by the check closing when 
 the pump stops and remaining wide open 
 while running. 
 
 SUPPLY PIPE 
 
 TO 
 VAPORIZER 
 
 FASTEN PET COCK 
 
 Fie 28 
 
 Any foreign matter in- the fuel can be 
 readily drained from the pipe by the use of 
 a T connection with a sight glass fitted with 
 a pet cock at its lowest point, as shown in 
 Figure 28. 
 
Water is the most annoying substance in 
 the fuel, but with this form of filter or sepa- 
 rator, its presence can be detected, as well 
 as any sediment, etc., as it will settle to 
 the bottom of the gasoline by its own grav- 
 ity. The gasoline enters the tip, going out 
 the side of the T to the vaporizer. Sedi- 
 ment in the gasoline pipe is often traced to 
 the use of a galvanized iron tank. An- 
 nealed copper tanks, tinned inside, are the 
 most satisfactory and only safe tank to in- 
 stall in a boat. No matter what the tank 
 is constructed of, it should rest in a pan, 
 fitted with outboard scuppers and separated 
 from the boat proper by a bulk-head, mate- 
 ing an air-tight comtpartment. 
 
 In case of leaks developing in the tank, 
 the contents will run into the pan and be 
 directed outboard, and not enter the hull, to 
 cause fire. 
 
 Leaks in the gasoline tank are very dan- 
 gerous, and should be repaired at once. The 
 pipe should be in one piece, either lead 01 
 annealed copper, and all connections made 
 fast with soft solder. When setting up 
 threaded ends of gasoline pipe, they should 
 be sweated in or set up with brown shellac, 
 
 70 
 
and nothing else. Gasoline often escapes 
 from the vaporizer or carbureter and 
 lodges in the bilge of the boat, endangering 
 a fire. The only safe method in such in- 
 stances is to arrange a pan, or length ot 
 pipe like a U, under the vaporizer. 
 
 The motion or roll of the boat may cause 
 the mouth of the gasoline pipe in the tank 
 to occasionally be uncovered. Cylindrical 
 and V-shaped tanks overcome this difficul- 
 ty. When equipped with a square tank, 
 and trouble of this sort prevails, arrange 
 the piping as shown in Figure 29, with an 
 outlet from both sides. 
 
 Check valves in the water inlet pipe often 
 placed near the cylinder jacket, cause an- 
 noyance by rust backing up to the check, 
 forming a deposit on the valve seat, affect- 
 ing the water circulation. Checks should 
 always be kept clean, and occasionally 
 smeared with vaseline or oil on the seat. 
 
 When a new engine has been installed 
 by a novice, very often the engine will stop 
 after a few minutes' run>, with apparently 
 no reason for doing so, and after a thorough 
 examination of every part shows nothing 
 amiss. The cause of this is often due to 
 
 71 
 
the absence of a vent in the gasoline tank, 
 which can be remedied in a small equip- 
 ment by drilling or punching a very small 
 hole in the rilling cap of the tank. In larger 
 equipments it is better to solder a ^-inch 
 copper pipe to the top of the tank, leading 
 
 same to a point well toward or at the stern, 
 over deck. 
 
 One of the safest methods of installing 
 a gasoline tank in a power boat is to insert 
 a brass pipe in 'the top of the tank, of suffi 
 cient size to be convenient for filling, set 
 up on the inside and outside of the tank 
 
 72 
 
with lock nuts, soldered fast. The top of 
 the brass pipe should be long enough to ex- 
 tend through the deck far enough for a col- 
 lar to screw on and fasten to the deck, and a 
 cap to cover the open end and set up against 
 the collar. In the event of any gasoline 
 spilling during the fitting of the tank, it can 
 not enter the boat, and must go overboard. 
 
 Never place any rubber gaskets, hose, 
 etc., in connection with any pipe, part of 
 the tank, carbureter, etc., where either 
 gasoline or its vapor is liable to come in 
 contact with same. Rubber is soluble in 
 gasoline, and may cause a disastrous leak 
 at any time if used. 
 
 Never place a stop cock in the water 
 overflow pipe leading from engine outboard 
 or into exhaust pipe. It will sooner or later 
 be found closed, after the pump has broken 
 or the water jacket cracked. 
 
 73 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 HORSEPOWER. 
 
 One of the most peculiar phases con- 
 fronting the intending purchaser of a ma- 
 rine engine is how to estimate the horse- 
 power of any engine under consideration. 
 The suspicion of overrating invariably pre- 
 sents itself, especially when two styles of 
 different speed, weight and size claim the 
 same power. 
 
 Irrespective of manufacturer's rating, the 
 feeling exists to know the exact rating and 
 what a horsepower constitutes. 
 
 An American or English horsepower 
 represents the equivalent of 33,000 pounds 
 raised to a height of I foot during a period 
 of i minute, or 1,000 pounds 33 feet in i 
 minute, or 550 pounds per second, or any 
 proportional combination of these figures. 
 This represents the value of an American 
 or English horsepower, and not a French 
 horsepower. 
 
 The French people utilize two kinds of 
 horsepower, cheval vapeur and poncelet. 
 
The former is the value of 32,550 pounds 
 raised I foot in I minute, or 542.5 pounds 
 per second, which is .9863 that of the Eng- 
 lish horsepower. Poncelet equals the value 
 of 43,400 pounds raised I foot in I minute, 
 or 1-3 more than cheval vapeur. Poncelet 
 is used for laboratory tests, while internal 
 combustion engines are rated by the cheval 
 vapeur. 
 
 In French measurements the English 
 horsepower represents 76.04 kilogram 
 meters per second; cheval vapeur, 75 kilo- 
 gram meters per second, and poncelet, 100 
 kilogram meters per second. It will thus 
 be seen that there is a difference of about 
 2 per cent between the horsepower of a 
 French engine and one of Amrican manu- 
 facture. An American engine would, there- 
 fore, figure less power, dimensions for di- 
 mensions, than one of French manufac- 
 ture. 
 
 It must be taken, into consideration that 
 different compression space dimensions, de- 
 sign, workmanship and material, may be 
 the cause of different power ratings for the 
 same dimensions and speed. There are sev- 
 eral rules for approximately figuring the 
 
 75 
 
horsepower of an internal combustion en- 
 gine. 
 
 AMERICAN POWER BOAT ASSOCIATION RULE. 
 
 Area of piston, multiplied by the num- 
 ber of cylinders, times the revolutions per 
 minute, divided by 1,000 for a 4-cycle and 
 750 for a 2-cycle engine. 
 
 Designated by : 
 
 D 2 X .7854 X N X R 
 
 - =H P. 4-cycle. 
 
 IOOO 
 
 D 2 x .7854 x N x R 
 ---- . = H. P. 2-ccle. 
 
 D equals diameter, N equals number of 
 cylinder, R equals revolutions per minute. 
 
 A rule used by several manufacturers is 
 to square the diameter of the cylinder, mul- 
 tiply by the stroke, then by the revolutions 
 per minute, and number of cylinders, divid- 
 ing this result by 17,000 for a 4-cycle and 
 by 13,000 for a 2-cycle engine. 
 
 76 
 
D 2 x LX R XN' 
 
 - =H P. 4-cycle. 
 
 17,000 
 
 = H. P. 2-cycle. 
 
 13,000 
 
 D equals diameter piston, L equals length 
 stroke, R equals revolutions per minute, N 
 equals number of cylinders. 
 
 Another rule is to figure 10 cubic inches 
 piston displacement per horsepower for 
 high-speed 4-cycle engines, and 8 cubic 
 inches for a high-speed 2-cycle. 
 
 Which is : 
 
 D 2 X .7854 X L X N 
 
 = H. P. 4-cycle. 
 
 10 
 
 D 2 x .7854 XL 
 
 = H. P. 2-cycle. 
 
 8 
 
 The rule for high-speed engines refers 
 to those rated at from 950 to 1,500 revolu- 
 tions per minute. 
 
 77. 
 
This high speed is not utilized to any ad- 
 vantage over 1,000 revolutions per minute 
 in a power boat, and if a speed of 800 to 
 900 is realized it can be more practically 
 utilized. 
 
 If the engine is rated at 1, 600 revolu- 
 tions, the power development will be about 
 one-half at 800, and if rated at 1,200 revo- 
 lutions, two-thirds the power derivation 
 will be realized at 800. 
 
 By noting the American Power Boat As- 
 sociation's rating of various engines in 
 comparison, to the manufacturers' rating, 
 and especially those of foreign rating, a dif- 
 ference will be noticeable. 
 
 On account of the demand created by the 
 high speed development of the a'utomobile, 
 high-speed marine engines are in demand, 
 notwithstanding their short length of life. 
 Unless the craft is strictly a speed boat, a 
 lightly constructed engine is wholly out of 
 place. 
 
 The following tables of dimensions are 
 the engine ratings of prominent manufac- 
 turers. Various sizes of engines are pro- 
 duced by multi-cylinder of 2, 3, 4, 6 and 8 
 
 78 
 
combinations. The horsepower is for a 
 single cylinder engine in the following : 
 
 2-cycle, 2-ported type. 
 
 H.P. 
 
 R.P.M. 
 
 Bore. 
 
 Stroke. 
 
 1/2 
 
 500 
 
 3/2 . 
 
 3/2 
 
 2 
 
 500 
 
 3tt 
 
 4 
 
 3/2 
 
 550 
 
 4/2 
 
 5 
 
 7/2 
 
 425 
 
 5/2 
 
 6y 2 
 
 10 
 
 350 
 
 7 
 
 7/2 
 
 2-cycle, 3-ported type. 
 H.P. R.P.M. Bore. Stoke. Weight. 
 
 I 
 
 700 
 
 3 
 
 2/2 
 
 38 
 
 2 
 
 950 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 75 
 
 3 
 
 500 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 150 
 
 4 
 
 900 
 
 3/ 
 
 3 5 A 
 
 125 
 
 5 
 
 600 
 
 4/2 
 
 5 
 
 180 
 
 79 
 
4-cycle. 
 
 H.P. 
 
 R.P.M. 
 
 1 Bore. 
 
 Stoke. 
 
 i 
 
 750 
 
 2/2 
 
 4 
 
 2^ 
 
 600 
 
 3/2 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 950 
 
 3/4 
 
 3/2 
 
 3/2 
 
 600 
 
 4 l /2 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 900 
 
 4 
 
 4/4 
 
 5 
 
 500 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 800 
 
 4tt 
 
 5 
 
 7/ 
 
 450 
 
 &A 
 
 7 
 
 7/2 
 
 450 
 
 6/4 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 800 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 750 
 
 5/2 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 800 
 
 6/ 
 
 6^2 
 
 80 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 WIRING DIAGRAMS. 
 
 In making use of the various wiring 
 diagrams on the following pages, it will 
 be well to remember that the order of firing 
 the cylinders in a multi-cylinder engine has 
 not been set forth. This order of firing, 
 for jump spark ignition, in a four-cycle 
 engine can be located by the positions of 
 the cams on the cam shaft for the exhaust 
 valve lifts. Before wiring to the com- 
 mutator or timer, the fly wheel can be 
 turned over until the exhaust valve cam 
 of the cylinder nearest the front of the 
 engine starts to open the valve. This indi- 
 cates that this same cylinder was the last 
 to ignite, consequently the last to close the 
 primary circuit at the timer. 
 
 By locating the binding post on the 
 timer which is then the one just passed 
 contract, with the timer retarded for a late 
 spark, in other words, the timter cover or 
 case carrying the binding posts or connec- 
 
 81 
 
tions, moved as far as practical in -the 
 same direction as that which the timer 
 shaft rotates. When this binding post is 
 located, the primary wire of coil number 
 one is fastened to same, and the secondary 
 wire of coil number one made fast to the 
 plug on cylinder number one. The flywheel 
 can then be turned over until the next cam 
 comes into action for locating the next con- 
 nection, or can be found by looking along 
 the cam shaft until the next cam to come 
 into action is located or figured out. 
 
 Although a four-cylinder engine may 
 fire, i, 2, 4, 3, the secondary wires should 
 be led to the plug direct without crossing, 
 as, coil i to cylinder, i, 2 to 2, 3 to 3, 4 to 4, 
 and the changes for order of firing arranged 
 at the timer by the primary connections 
 thereto. Each primary wire from the coil 
 to the timer, is for the secondary or plug 
 wire directly over the formler on the coil. 
 Multi-cylinder coils are made up of single 
 cylinder coils. 
 
 When wiring a two-cycle multi-cylinder 
 engine, the order of firing can be located 
 by noting which crank revolves next in 
 order from number one cvlinder. 
 
 S2 
 
For make-and-break ignition, the spark- 
 ing mechanism on the outside of each 
 cylinder generally takes care of the firing 
 of each cylinder correctly. 
 
 Each of the following diagrams is ar- 
 ranged for two sets of batteries, to use 
 each set at will, through the medium of a 
 two-point or double-throw switch. If a 
 generator is to be used, with one set of 
 batteries for starting, the arrangement is 
 made in the same manner in the circuit as 
 if one set of the two represented in the 
 diagrams was removed, and the generator 
 inserted in its place. 
 
 The diagram key is : P. plug, S. switch, 
 T. timer, == ground. 
 
 83 
 
Single Cylinder. 2 Sets Batteries. Make-and 
 Break. 
 
 84 
 
n 
 
 Two-Cylinder. Make-and-Break. 2 Sets Batteries. 
 
 85 
 
Single-Cylinder. 3 Terminal Coil. 2 Sets Bat- 
 teries. Jump Spark. 
 
Single Cylinder, 4 Terminal Coil. 2 Sets Bat- 
 teries. Jump Spark. 
 
 87 
 
Single Cylinder. 6 Terminal Coil. 2 Sets Bat- 
 teries. Jump Spark. 
 
 88 
 
Two-Cylinder. 5 Terminal Coil. 2 Sets Batteries. 
 Jump Spark. 
 
Three-Cylinder. 7 Terminal Coil. 2 Sets Batteries. 
 Jump Spark. 
 
 ,90 
 
Four-Cylinder. 9 Terminal Coil. 2 Sets Batteries, 
 Jump Spark. 
 
 91 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Accumulators 45 
 
 Advancing S'park 13 
 
 Alternating Current 54 
 
 Ampere 3 
 
 Auxiliary Spark Gap 3 
 
 Batteries 86 
 
 Batteries, Primary 36 
 
 " Storage 45 
 
 Broken Wire Trouble 56 
 
 Coil, Jump SparK 17 
 
 Coil, Jump S'park. Action of 25 
 
 Coil, Jump S'park, Construction of 22 
 
 Coil, Make-and-Break 9 
 
 Coil, Vibrating 25 
 
 Commutators 32 
 
 Condenser, Electrical 19, 23 
 
 ( :onnecting Primary Batteries 43 
 
 Connecting Storage Batteries 40 
 
 Construction of Jump Spark Coil 22 
 
 Diagrams for Wiring 81 
 
 Distributers 32 
 
 Dry Batteries 36 
 
 Dry Battery Installation .- 64 
 
 Dynamos . . . 47 
 
 Gap, S'park 31 
 
 Generators 47 
 
 High Tension Magnetos 54 
 
 Horsepower 74 
 
 Horsepower Ratings 75 
 
 Ignition, Jump Spark 16 
 
 Ignition. Make-and-Break 4 
 
 Ignition System, Installation 63 
 
 Installation of Ignition System '. . 63 
 
 Jump S'park Coil. . . , 17 
 
 Jump Spark Coil Action 25 
 
 Jump Spark Coil Construction 22 
 
Page. 
 
 Jump Spark Ignition 16 
 
 Magnetism 1 
 
 Magnetos 51 
 
 Magnetic Primary Igniters. 11 
 
 Make-and-Break Igniters 4 
 
 Open Circuit Batteries 40 
 
 Permanent Magnets 2 
 
 Plugs, Spark 27 
 
 Primary Batteries 36 
 
 Retarding S'park 13 
 
 Ilhumkorf Coil -. 17 
 
 Sal Ammoniac Batteries . . .36, 38 
 
 Secondary Batteries 45 
 
 Soda Batteries 36, 41 
 
 S'park Advance 13 
 
 Spark Coil Action 25 
 
 Spark Coil Construction 22 
 
 Spark Coil, Tump 17 
 
 Spark Coil, Make-and-Break , *> 
 
 Spark Gap 31 
 
 Spark Plugs 27 
 
 Storage Batteries 45 
 
 Switches 63 
 
 Timers 32 
 
 Troubles, other than Ignition 68 
 
 Troubles, Testing for 56 
 
 Vibrating Coil 5 
 
 Vibrator 18 
 
 Volt 3 
 
 Voltage, Battery 43 
 
 Voltage, Magneto 51 
 
 Voltage of Secondary Current 21 
 
 Water in Fuel 70 
 
 Wet Batteries 38 
 
 Wiring Diagrams SI 
 
 Wiring Installation 03, 65 
 
SUCTION GAS 
 
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 Gas Producers have begun to in- 
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 Suction Gas Producers and Pro- 
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 The work is for the manufacturer, 
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 CLOTH. 9O PAGES. 
 
 Price. Postpaid. $1.00 
 
 The Gas Engine Pub. Co. 
 
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The Automobile 
 Pocketbook 
 
 By E. W. ROBERTS, M. E. 
 
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 Price, $1.5O Postpaid 
 
 The Gas Engine Pub. Co. 
 
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 GAS-ENGINE 
 
 HANDBOOK 
 
 A Manual of \7seful Inform- 
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 By E. W. ROBERTS, M. E. 
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 How to Buiid a Th ee-llorsepOwer Ijiiunch Engine; 
 The Automobile Pocketbook. 
 
 Sixth .Thousand, Eighth Editipn. 
 
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 Over 6,000 Gas-Engine Handbooks have been sold 
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 The Gas Engine contains the latest news 
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 SPECIAL FEATURES. 
 
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 Automobile News. This column * ives 8e 
 
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 Inquiries *^ e ^ n( 5 u * r y column is at the ser- 
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 /-pHE GAS ENGINE is, without a shadow of doubt, 
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 OFFER No. 10. Pnce ' S P ^ 1C r O 
 
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 BERKELEY 
 
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