GRAMMAR OF THE MODERN SPANISH LANGUAGE AS NOW WRITTEN AND SPOKEN IN THE CAPITAL OF SPAIN. BY WILLIAM I. KNAPP, PH.D., LL.D., LATE STREET PROFESSOR OF MODERN LANGUAGES IN YALE UNIVERSITY. SECOND EDITION CAREFUL! Y;RVISEU BY BOSTON, U.S.A.: GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS. 1900 PRESERVATION COPY ADDED Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1882, by WILLIAM I. KNAPP, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. PRESSWORK BY GINN & Co., BOSTON, U.S.A. PREFACE. IT has seemed to the writer of this volume that a systematic presentation of the laws that govern the official Castilian lan- guage, at the present stage of its development, and fresh from its native atmosphere, would need no apology. Whether in public or private instruction, nothing can adequately substitute the thor- ough acquisition of the forms and inflections of a language, and these are best comprehended and retained by the tabular arrange- ment, which at the same time furnishes an accessible base of sup- plies for reviews or reference. Spanish is not usually the first foreign tongue the student meets, and therefore the experience he has gained in Greek and Latin, or in French and German, may be turned to profit in saving much irksome routine indispensable to his earlier studies. He does not need, for example, to be taught the rules of agree- ment, to which general grammar has already accustomed his mind, but what he wants above all to know is, the forms of the article, the pluralization of words, the variation of adjectives, and the conjugation of verbs. This done, he can proceed to read any ordinary prose, leaving the syntactical peculiarities to be noted by experience, until a second and more critical rehearsal puts him in possession of all the facts of the language. Therefore, a gram- mar that will facilitate this end, giving him, at a small outlay of time, the requisite preliminaries to reading and writing, while furnishing ample means for more thorougK subsequent studies, would seem to be the one most urgently called for. At least this is the case in our colleges, wherein the use of the so-called speaking-methods is impracticable by reason of the diffusion of grammatical material. vi Preface. The plan of teaching with the present book involves two peru- sals. The first will take the learner over essentials in a little more than eight weeks, at five recitations each. The lessons are arranged for the ordinary college class, by whom many of the rules and forms would require to be read over only, or would be self-evident by virtue of previous experience and discipline. With younger pupils, and such as are destitute of linguistic training, shorter lessons can be easily provided by a suitable parcelling out of the full ones. For a considerable distance in Section IV, only English themes are furnished for translation into Spanish, since this method best tests the student's diligence at the early stage of his work. Subsequently, however, after the essential elements have been reviewed, a Spanish dialogue has been inserted, made up out of a popular Madrid play, reduced and re-fashioned to adapt it to class purposes. The second perusal of the grammar is to be made in conjunc- tion with another volume, the Modern Spanish Readings. While thus entering into the spirit of the literary life of the Spaniard of to-day, the learner, by a carefully graded series of Spanish-English and English-Spanish themes, will be insensibly conducted along to a degree of familiarity with the spoken lan- guage that will call for and satisfy every principle recorded in the present text-book. At the same time, he will have learned the mode of life and the manners and customs of the people of the Peninsula; and the usages of society, polite address, corre- spondence, etc., as they exist, or are carried on in all circles at Madrid. To possess the technical terms popularly employed there in most of the relations of life, will be, it is hoped, appre- ciated ; at least they will be sought for in vain elsewhere in books. CONTENTS. SECTION FIRST. PAGE PHONOLOGY Alphabet i Vowels ........... 2 Diphthongs and triphthongs 5 Consonants .......... 7 Tonic accent 15 Graphic accent . . . . . . . . . 17 Division of syllables . . . . . . . . .18 Capital letters 19 Orthographic signs . 'V * . .20 Castilian vulgarisms . . /" 21 SECTION SECOND. FORM AND INFLECTION ....... 25 Article ........... 28 Noun Gender . . . . . . ... 3 2 Number .......... 44 Inflection ..... ..... 49 Adjective . . . . . . 5 1 Number .... ^. ..... 52 Gender ... ....... 53 Apocopation ......... 57 Position .......... 61 Comparison .......... 65 Comparative formulae ........ 67 Superlative relative ..... . . 70 Superlative absolute . . . . . . . 74 Numerals Cardinals ........ 80 Ordinals .......... 83 Fractionals ......... 85 Multiplicatives, etc. & H viii Contents. PAGE Personal pronoun . . . . . . . . .90 Inflection 94 Cases 96 Position of object 102 Disjunctive form . . . . . . . .104 Pleonastic construction ........ 105 Inflection and use of ustcd . . . . , . 106 Reflexive pronoun ........ 108 Two objective pronouns . . . . . . .no Afismo t propio . . . . . . . . .114 Possessive adjectives and pronouns . . . . . .116 Demonstratives . . . . . . . . . .124 Relative pronouns . . . . . . . . .129 Interrogative pronouns . . . ... . .138 Indefinite pronouns . . . . . . . . .140 Verb 161 Conjugation of the auxiliary verb haber . . . .162 Remarks on . . . . . . . . .163 Conjugation of .the impersonal verb haber . . . . 1 65 Remarks on ......... 167 Regular verb active conjugation . ... 168 Verb endings . . . . . . . . 169 First conjugation hablar . . . . . .171 Second conjugation comer . . . . . . . 1 74 Third conjugation vivir . . . . . .178 Remarks on the three conjugations 181 Regular euphonic changes . . . . . .184 Progressive form of the verb . . . . . . 1 88 Conjugation of estar . . . . . . . .190 Passive voice .. 192 Conjugation of ser . . . . . . . -193 Passive conjugation ser llamado . . . . .196 Remarks on 198 Use of ser and estar 200 Reflexive verb ......... 201 Conjugation of alabarse ....... 203 Conjugation of figurarse ....... 206 Remarks on the reflexive verb 208 Special uses of 212 Passive and reflexive . . . . . . . -213 Reciprocal verb 216 Contents. ix Verb continued. PAGE Impersonal verb . . . . . . . . .217 Irregular verb . . . . . . . . .221 Stems and changes 221 Present stem ......... 224 Tonic preterit stems ........ 227 Future stems . . . . . . . . . 229 First class first and second conjugations . . . 229 e stems first conjugation ...... 230 Euphonic changes 231 e stems second conjugation 232 o stems first conjugation ....... 233 Euphonic changes ....... 234 o stems second conjugation ...... 236 Euphonic changes 237 Second class third conjugation . . ..-'-. . . 238 e stems and o stems . . 241 Third class third conjugation ...... 242 Euphonic changes ....... 244 Fourth class verbs in -uir 245 Fifth class tonic preterit verbs 247 First conjugation 248 Second conjugation . 249 Third conjugation . . . . . . . -255 Sixth class miscellaneous 257 Defective verbs ......... 263 Irregular past participles . . . . . . . 265 Index to irregular verbs . . . . . . .271 Adverb 283 Use of certain adverbs 290 Negation in Spanish . . . ... . . . 296 Comparison of adverbs ........ 299 Preposition .......... 304 Use of 306 Conjunction . . . . . . . . . .318 Interjection ........... 320 Contents. SECTION THIRD. PAGE ESSENTIALS OF SYNTAX Article 323 Numerals .... ........ 335 Laws of agreement Adjective and noun . .- . . 339 Verb with its subject . . . . . . . .341 Use of the tenses . . . . . . .. , . . 344 Subjunctive mode . . . . . ... . 356 Correspondence of tenses ........ 362 Use of the infinitive mode 363 Gerund ........... 370 Use of the past participle . . . . . . . . 371 Regimen of verbs 374 APPENDIX TO SECTION SECOND. DIMINUTIVES AND AUGMENTATIVES . . . .382 SECTION FOURTH. DRILL-BOOK 393 El Barometro Comedia . . . . . . . .415 Spanish-English Vocabulary 440 English-Spanish Vocabulary . . . . . . . 465 SECTION FIRST. PHONOLOGY. The Spanish Alphabet. 1. The Spanish Alphabet has in use at the present day twenty-four simple letters, with which certain com- pound and ligatured forms have been associated as inde- pendent signs. The whole, therefore, stands thus : a a d in ah. n ene d'ney. b be- bd in bale. n ene am'yey. c cd thd in thane. 6 d. ch che chdin. chase. P Pe pa in pale. d dd da in dale. q cu coo in cool. e a in ale. r ere d'rey. f efe d'fey. rr erre air'-r-rey. g g 'ha in 'State. s ese d'cey. h ache d'tchey. t te* td in take. i i e in eve. u u oo in ooze. j jota 'ho'ta. V ve vd in vale. 1 ele a' ley. X equis d'keece. 11 die ail'yey. y ygriega e gred'gd. m erne d'mey. z zeta thd'td. a. The Gothic or Black Letter (called in Spain letra gotica, or de Tortis, from an early Venetian printer) was used forMss. (libros de mand) throughout the Middle Age. The same was employed almost exclusively in printed books (libros de molde} from the intro- duction of the art into Spain (1474) till about 1550, when it had 2 Phonology. well-nigh disappeared from new books, and was only occasionally seen in reprints of old Black Letter texts. b. 7 and v were constantly interchanging in the older language, and are still designated in the primary schools by the ancient names u and u de corazon (heart-shaped u, that is, v) since the new Aca- demic ve is not practically distinguishable from be* c. The letter k is at present authorized by government and by the Academy in a very few imported words, such as ki!6metro, kilo- metre; kilogramo, kilogram; k^pis or kpi, a fatigue cap. d. W, called doble u, is found only in foreign names or in learned transliterations. The Gothic and Arabic initials, v, w, usually be- came^ in Castilian. Thus wad-al-kebir, the great river, became Guadalquivir; al-wezir, the vizier, became alguacil, the con- stable. The Teutonic " 'war " appeared as guerra; "wassail" as tf ; and to "ward" guard, or keep, became guardar. 2. All letters of the alphabet are feminine in Span- ish, and commonly stand with one of the articles : ponga usted una h, put in an h. cuando vayas al correo no te when you go to the Post, don't olvides de mirar en la F, forget to look in F. halagiiefio se escribe con h, halagiieno is spelled with an h. Pronunciation. 3. The present section on the Castilian pronunciation is based on the reformed orthography initiated by the Royal Spanish Academy in their Dictionary of 1803, improved in that of 1822, and finally adopted in their Ortografia of Madrid, 1826. A view of the ancient pronunciations or reference to the obsolete orthography do not come within the design of this elementary work. The Vowels. 4. Important General Law. In Castilian the vowel sounds predominate over those of the consonants to a 1 Ve t as the name of the letter v t was first, I think, introduced into the Academy's Dictionary of 1837, the eighth edition. Before that it was often called u consonants, u consonant. Vowels. 3 degree without parallel in the other Romance tongues ; and whereas the vowel sounds are full and sonorous, those of the consonants are subordinate, smothered, and frequently suppressed. 5. The vowels have but one quality of sound each, and this they preserve uniformly in all situations. In ordinary passive discourse, however, e and o slightly lower their primitive key when they stand in an open syllable or before the letters n and r final. 6. The vowels are a, e y i (y), o, and u, pronounced as follows : a like a in ah, never as in add, made : malo, animo. e " a " ale, " me, met : mesa, lecho. i (y) " e " me, " hit, dish : tino, tinta. O " o " lone, " not: odio, tesoro. u " oo " ooze, " bud, use : gula, listed' . a. Before n and r final, o sounds as in g0ne, and e as in th^re : error, error, air-r-rorr 1 . nacioii, nation, nah-the'on 1 . comer, to eat, ko-mair 1 . placer, pleasure, plah-thair* . 6. E final has the a quality, but it is given short as y in merry. So trist^, sad, tree'-ste, not triss'-tay. 7. Y standing alone or final is a vowel, and is then a mere substitute for the Spanish i. At the beginning of a word or syllable (between vowels) it is a true conso- nant with the phonetic value of y in jj/ear, enunciated with emphasis : Y VOWEL. y, and. niuy, very. ley, law. voy, I go. Y CONSONANT. yo, /. leyes, laws. ya, now. reyes, kings. 4 Phonology. REMARK. In English one syllable is often accentuated at the expense of the vowel sounds in the other syllables ; but in Span- ish a vowel never suffers its original quality to be absorbed or shrunken because the syllable in which it lies does not receive the primary stress. Thus, do not pronounce, for example, cansado, tired; pi^lago, sea; animalito, a small animal; imposibilidad, impossibility ', as if written cdn-sah'-do or k?n-sah'-do, pyail'-e-go, dnna-mull-ee'-to, imm-possy-billy-dahd 1 ; but kan'-sak"-***), pyaiV- ah'-go, ah'-ne'-mah'-le"-to, eem 1 -po* -se' -be' -le 1 -dahty" . 8. The five vowels are divisible into strong (a, o, u) and weak (e, i), with reference to the phonetic influence they exert on the consonants c and g: 9. C before the strong vowels equals k : ca, co, cu. 10. C before the weak vowels equals th in //fcink : ce, ci. 11. G before the strong vowels equals gh {g hard) .' ga, go, gu. 12. G before the weak vowels equals guttural f h : ge, gi. 13. C with the k sound is written qu before weak vowels : Que, qui. 14. C with the th sound is written z before strong vowels : za, zo, zu. 15. G with the gh sound is written gu before weak vowels : gue, gui. 16. G with the guttural sound is written^' before strong vowels : ja, jo, ju. 17. U is silent between q or g and the weak vowels. When it should be vocal in those positions it assumes the diaeresis (u), and cu, gii diphthongal are pronounced kw y gw y as also elsewhere, when u is not mute. 18. Note well, therefore, the following combinations : Vowels. Like k: ca, que, qui, CO, cu. M th: za, ce, ci, zo, zu. * gh: g a > gue, gui, go, gu. " c h: ja, ge, gi, jo, ju. Diphthongs. Like kw: cua, cue, cui, cuo. a g\v: gua, gue. gui guo. w 'hw: jua, jue, jui, juo. Diphthongs. 5 19. The two stem vowels e and o amplify into ie and ue respectively when the accent falls on those vowels ; but they recover their primitive form as soon as the stress is transferred to another syllable : - sentir', to feel. sentimos, we feel. tendero, shopkeeper. sentimental', sentimental. rogar', to request. rogamoSj-m? request. bondad', goodness. agorero, diviner. Oscense, of Huesca (Lat. Osca). siento,, sienten, they feel. tienda, shop. sentimiento, feeling. ruego, / request. ruegan, they request. bueno, good. aguero, omen. Huesca, name of a town. a. Hence ie is the diphthong of *, and ue that of o. Diphthongs and Triphthongs. 20. These are vowels in juxtaposition which are pronounced in one wave of sound, forming, either alone or with a foregoing con- sonant, a single syllable; they are, therefore, divisible neither in prosody nor in printing. They always preserve the alphabetic sound of each of the vowels composing them, never passing over into new phonetic combinations as in English and French. Nevertheless the complex sounds they produce are reckoned as one, and the tonic accent, if it be on that syllable, is distributed over the vowels as if they constituted a single long vowel. Hence, if one of the vowels / or u is accentuated, these do not form diphthongs or triphthongs with the other vowels. Thus uo in contim/0, continuous, is a diph- thong, but not in contin^, / continue; so rcmo, a kingdom, diphthong ; k/do, read, not a diphthong ; venz'tf , indulgence ; ven/#, I came. 21. True diphthongs and triphthongs are : hay. grey. al (ay) : baile, donaire, hablais, au: causa, pauta, caudal'. ea: Knea, traquea, Boreas. ^ei (ey) : reina, peine, hableis, eo: idoneo, marmoreo, virgmeo. 6 Phonology. eu: deuda, rouma, Europa. ia: gracia, tenia, calumnia. ie: cielo, siento, tiene. io: precio, 6dlo, estudio. iu: ciudad, triunfar, enviudado. oi (oy) : heroico, doite, sois, ua: fragua, recua, igual. ue: duelo, bueno, pues. ul (uy) : cuidado, ruidoso, huiria, uo: mutuo, arduo, antiguo. iai: aviais, cambiais, variais. iei: avieis, cambieis, varieis. uai (uay) : averiguais, santiguais, fraguais, uei (uey) : averigueis, santigiieis, fragiieis, 22. Improper diphthongs are : hoy. muy. ae: trae, Paez. io: amorio, desvario. ai: raiz, traido. oa: canoa, proa. an : baul, ataud. oe: heroe, corroe. ea: pelea, lancea. oi: oido, oiste. ee: leer, lee. oo: ioor, Feijoo. ei: lei, sonrei. ua: ganzua, falua. eo: veo, beodo. ue: continue, cruento. ia: dia, alegria. ui: ruido, huida. ie: fie, confie. uo: continuo, duo. 23. Thus are pronounced, rapidly indeed, but not constituting true diphthongs, all concurrent vowels in different words ; as, \a alegria, the joy ; \a # Ita casa, the lofty house ; mi #lma, my soul; \a zda, the departure ; \.u ^sposa, thy wife ; su /poca, his times ; a z/sted, to you. Identical letters are more perfectly run together in the ordinary language ; \a , but not as in dream: , drama ; a^/rede,. on purpose (obsolete) ; Madrid. G HARD and On. 32. G y before the strong vowels or another conso- nant, and gu before the weak vowels, sound like g in go and guilt : gasto, expense. , fruition. gula, gluttony. guante, glove. greda, chalk. albergue, refuge. manguito, muff. guinda, cherry. malagueno, of Mdlaga. guisado, stew. a. If etymology or uniformity of the g value in in- flection require the u in gue, gui y to become vocal, as it is in the combinations gua, guo, then the diaeresis must always be employed : agua, water. lengua, tongue. fragua, he forges. desague, drainage. lingiiista, linguist. fragile, he may forge. So also agiiero, omen (augurium). \ agiielo, grandfather (for abuelo). G, J, GUTTURAL. 33. G y before the weak vowels, and/ in all positions, but chiefly before the strong vowels, have the guttural sound of the Arabic hhd. This sound is often repre- sented by the German ch after strong vowels (as in Back, L.OC&, Buck ; not as in Pecfr, "Lic&t, BuV^er), and the modern Greek ret^o?, />ta^atpa, etc., but it is like none of them sufficiently to be cited as equivalents, save the Arabic. It must be learned from a native of Castile: Consonants. 1 1 giro, money-order. algibe, cistern. aflige, he afflicts. diligencia, mail-coach. gime, he groans. pdgina, page. hijo, son. jarro, water-pitcher. atajo, short cut (path). trabajo, labor. mujer, woman. bandeja, waiter (for serving). a. In Andalusia (Southern Spain) this sound is reduced to the Arabic ha. H. 34. H is totally silent. In the sixteenth century it had a decided aspiration, of which it still retains a slight trace before the diphthong ue, not, however, appreciable to most foreigners : hablar, to speak. haber, to have. ahf, there. hacemos, we make. hermano, brother. huevo, egg. huerta, plantation. hueso, bone. Huelva, Huesca, names of places. M. 35. ^/sounds as in English. The Latin min, or, by loss of the short vowel, m'n, becomes Spanish by changing n into r and in- serting b, which in this situation is distinctly enunciated. Thus, hombre, man, from homme-m. nombre, name, " nomm[e-m] for nomen. cumbre, top, " culmine-m. lumbre, light, " lumm[e-m] " lumen. mimbre, rush, " vimme-m. hambre, hunger, " fam[ine-m] " famem. hembra, female, " foemina-m. a. Mn, not contracted from mtn, usually becomes n (nn) by assimilation of the m 1 ; so^^u-m makes sue^^o, sue;1o, dream. Even in words in which the mn are retained, the lower orders often pronounce them pn and gn ; as hipno or hi%o for himno, hymn. So the ancients (thirteenth century) occasionally wrote Dy/a and 1 See note on n. 12 Phonology. Dygna for Calila e Dimna (Fables of Bilpay) . Compare the Greek hu///os and Latin somnus. b. Latin and English mm stand in modern Spanish as nm : inmenso, boundless. inmortal, immortal. R SMOOTH. 36. Single r, between vowels, has the pure alphabetic sound, as in very : - ara, altar. \ bolero, a dance. \ toro, bull. 37. Before any consonant, and after b y d y t, v, r must always have a full, decided, and independent sound : arde, it burns. hombre, man. ladra, (the dog) barks. lastre, ballast. catre, cot-bed. Thus arr-^ey^ oin'-Urey, ka'frey. 38. When final, the single r is still more distinctly pronounced, and is emphasized almost into the charac- ter of the double rr : hablar, to speak. comer, to eat. vivir, to live. placer, pleasure. The vowel before r is to be given quick and emphatic, not drawling as in English. R ROUGH. 39. When the single r stands at the beginning of a word, or after the letters /, n, s, it is pronounced with a rolling sound. 1 The same is always the case and in all positions when the r is doubled : 1 This rough sound of r after /, , and s, has occasioned the intercalation of d, as well as the obsolete makeshift of transposition. Thus valafra for val'rd; ven^ra for ven'rd (ancient verna) ; ten^ra for terira (ancient terna) ; Esdfras, Ezra, for Es'ras. So also tierwo, tender, came from teriro (teneru-m) and yerno (French gent/re) fromgen'ro (generu-m), by metathesis of nr. Consonants. B SMOOTH. pera, pear. aro, hoop. par do, grey. puerto, port. tarde, evening. cordero, lamb. bruto, brute. ladron, thief. triste, sad. arar, to plough. acabar, to finish. ver, to see. K ROLLING. ruedo, (door)mat. rogar, to request. ramo, bough. roto, broken. ruido, noise. aired edor, around. enredo, snarl, plot. honra, honor. Israelita, Israelite. error, error. parr a, grapevine. torre, tower. s. 40. 5 is always and in every position pronounced like the English s in .raid, never as in pha^e, way^ : racimos, clusters. pasas, raisins. ese, esa, eso, that (is, ea, id). grueso, bulky. mesa, table. camisa, shirt. base, basis. los, las, the. desde,fr0m, since. lesna, awl. 41. X is now everywhere pronounced as in English, that is, ks : exacto, exact. \ sexo, sex. REMARK. The national prefix es, when it comes from the Latin ex, has now been graphically (at least) fixed by the Academy as ex. The people, however, very generally continue to pronounce, for ex- ample, estranjero,/^^, > whik th wrke < extranjero. estenor, external, ) ( exterior. This has produced among the illiterate great confusion, by reason of their interchanging the es from ex with es prothetic, as in ^splen- dido, tfscuela, from the Lat. splendidus, schola. So one hears zx- plendor, e^rcalera, e^rcandalo, and even e^rcoba, for ejplendor, 14 Phonology. splendor ; e^calera, staircase ; e^candalo, scandal', and ejcoba, a broom? Ligatured Consonants. 42. LI is pronounced like I'y in "wil/^ou," or Hi in Wi//zam : sello, stamp. silla, chair. polilla, moths. rastrillo, rake. Have, key. lloro, weeping. lleno, full. llueve, it rains. N. 43. N with tilde 2 (n) is pronounced n j, as in " jj/ew," or like ni in u/bn 3 : ano, year. peldano, round (of a ladder). lena, firewood. guinada, wink. otofio, autumn. barreno, dish-trough. engano, deception. rebano, flock. 44. Ligatured vowels are diphthongs and triphthongs. 1 A copy of the last Dictionary of the Academy (1869), printed on one side of a leaf only, leaving the other blank, and which belonged to the late Acade- mician Senor Segovia Izquierdo, fell into my possession at Madrid shortly after the owner's death in 1875. In it I find in his handwriting twenty-eight ex- amples of these false ex's under this characteristic epigraph : " Voces que, comenzando con la silaba es, han dado los ignorantes en escribir con ex" He omitted, however, explendor and explendido, which I have often heard from otherwise clever, though unlearned, persons. 2 From tit&le-m, a corrupt form of titulu-m, in its later signification of mark, sign contracted regularly tit'le-m t and by metathesis of the /7, tilte, tilde. 3 The origin of n is the mark of abbreviation over the original nn, nm (dawu-m, danno, dao, loss). In the earliest Spanish MSS. the bar (rasgo) appears as a mere sign of shortening, as ano for anno. Mr. Vollmoller, in his edition of the Poema del Cid, has mistaken this rasgo for a phonetic sign or tilde, which it certainly came to be later. Mr. Pidal was therefore correct in regarding it as a mere note of abbreviation, and in printing anno, although we opine it were preferable to have reproduced faithfully the original bar (ano). Accent. Tonic Accent. 45. Words ending in a consonant not inflectional, are regularly accentuated on the ultimate, unless otherwise graphically indicated : verdad, truth. comer, to eat. jardin, garden. amor, love. desleal, disloyal. despues, afterwards. Adam, Adam. Frances, Frenchman. Aleman, German. capaz, capable. desliz, (moral) slip. An inflectional termination is the plural sign (s, es) or the tense endings (s, es, mos, an, en). a. The words caracter, character, and regimen, gov- ernment, regimen, form the irregularly accented plurals caracteres, regimenes. b. Infinitives and Imperatives second person plural, follow the regular rule of consonant terminals : caliz, (sacramental} cup. hue'sped, guest. rbol, tree. marmol, marble. carcel, prison. alcazar, (fortified) palace. litil, useful. Cadiz, Cadiz. Tamesis, Thames. Este'ban, Stephen. Burgos, Burgos ( querer, to wish. comprar, to buy. quered, wish ye. comprad, buy ye. c. The second person plural of verbs has the accent- uation on the ultimate, or the diphthong, unless other- wise graphically marked : llamais, ye call. quereis, ye wish. decis, ye say. llamabais, ye were calling. queriais, ye were wishing. comprseis, ye should buy. i6 Phonology. d. Proper names in ez and a few in es accentuate the penult ; the rest follow the general rule of consonant terminals : Fernandez. Cervantes. Martinez. Mdntes. Sanchez. Sanchiz. Dlez. Ruiz. Fldres. Mufifz. Soils. Mad6z. Vaktes. Cortes. 1 46. Words ending primarily in a vowel or a diphthong (which is always considered as constituting a single syllable) are regularly accentuated on the penult, unless otherwise marked : odio, hatred. rostro, countenance. buitre, vulture. manteca, butter. audiencia, upper court. andamio, staging. lastima, pity. zangano, drone. maquina, machine. alegrfa, joy. aleli, gilly flower. comprd, he bought. a. This principle is not modified by inflectional end- ings. See, however, 45, b, c : odios, rancor. amas, thou lovest. maquinas, machines. quieren, they wish. 47. Compound words have the accentuation of their simple components, and adverbs in mente follow the natural stress of the adjective to which that ending is attached : un pisa-verde, an exquisite. un saca-corchos, a corkscrew. un corta-plumas, a penknife. facilmente, easily. sdbiamente, sagely. tenzmente, tenaciously. 1 The unaccented endings ez, es, are patronymics, formed on the basis of the Latin ablative is. Thus, Fernandez is from e Ferdinandis, of the Ferdi- nand family ; Cervantes, from fe Servandis, of the Scrvandos. The accented ending es, on the contrary, is geographical, from -ensis, formed like Cartha- Accent. Graphic Accent. 48. The acute accent (') is the only mark now in use in Spanish. It should be graphically applied only in the following cases : a. To indicate an irregularly accentuated syllable : melancdlico, melancholy. par^ntesis, parenthesis. venlamos, we were coming. mucho, much. espanol, Spanish. Frances, French. b. To distinguish homonyms : a, has (obsolete). al, to the. aun, yet, still. de, of, from. e, I have (obsolete). el, the. ha, has. luego, afterward. mi, my. mas, but. o, oh. se, one's self. si, if. te, thee. tu, thy. a, to, in, at. al, otherwise (alias). aun, even, also. de\ he may give. e, and (before i or hi). \, he, him. ha, ago. luego, therefore. mi, me (prepositional case). mas, more. 6, or (and u before o). se, I know ] be thou. si,yes; 0ne'ssetf(prepos. case). te, tea. tu, thou. c. To distinguish verbs identical in form with other parts of speech ; also verbs with pronouns attached to them : cdmo, I eat. suefio, I dream. sie'ntese, sit down. como, as. suefio, dream. dame, give me. tengase, let him have. ve'te, be off (go thyself). giniensis, Span. Cartagines ; Valdensis, Span. Valdes. See Godoy Alcantara : Apellidos Castellanos, Madrid, 1871, a very interesting, but not very scholarly, book, in view of the author's facilities. 1 8 Phonology. d. To distinguish demonstrative adjectives used sub- stantively : aquel, that (tile). aqudl, that one. ese, that (iste). e*se, that one. este, this (hie). e*ste, this one. e. To distinguish the interrogative and exclamatory use, direct and indirect, of certain pronouns and ad- verbs : como, as. cdmo, how? cual, as, which. cual, which ? cuan, as. cudn, howl cuando, when. cua'ndo, when ? cuanto, as much. cuanto, how much ? cuyo, whose. ciiyo, whose? donde, where. . ddnde, where? que, which, that. que, what? quien, who. quien, who? f. In certain correlatives : quien quien, one another, some others. cuales cuales, some others. REMARK. The Academy does not always strictly observe its own rules touching the graphic accent, but the great printers of Madrid (Aribau & Co., Fortanet, and Ginesta) are sufficient guides. Division of Syllables. 49. A single consonant between vowels begins a syllable : me-sa, table. \ la-bor, needle-work. a. The letters ch, rr, II, and n, are considered as simple consonants, and follow the same rule : mu-cha-cho, boy. pan-ta-lla, lamp-shade. ni-no, child. tie-rra, land. Capital Letters. 19 50. Two separable consonants standing between vow- els are divided : puer-ta, door. \ gus-to, pleasure. Exception. The letters b, c, ch, ) patrony- mics in s and z ; (c) most pure Latin technical or con- ventional terms : la crisis, the crisis. el parentesis, the parenthesis. eljueves, Thursday. las crisis, the crises. los parentesis, the parentheses. los jueves, on Thursdays. The Noun. Number. 47 el mdrtes, Tuesday. Floras (proper name) . Valdes (proper name). Fernandez (proper name). el deficit, the deficit. los martes, on Tuesdays. los Fldres, men like Flores. los Valdes, men like Valdes. los Ferndndez, the Fernandez. los deficit, the deficits. 105. Compound words, when not already plural in form, usually attach the plural sign to the last member only, unless the first is an adjective or apparently such : el padrenuestro, the pater noster. los padrenuestros, pater nosters. el tranvia, the tramway. el guardacanton, the gitard-post. el ferro-carril, the railway. el cortaplumas, the pen-knife. el mundadientes, the tooth-pick. los tranvias, tramways. los guardacantones, guard-posts. los ferro-carriles, railways. los cortaplumas, pen-knives, los mundadientes, tooth-picks. but gentilhombre, (court) gentleman. ricohombre, 1 crown counsellor. gentileshombres, gentlemen. ricoshombres, coimsellors. REMARK. Hidalgo, a nobleman of the lowest grade, a gentle- man, makes, properly, in the plural, los hidalgos, and, by a mista- ken tradition, hijodalgo, hijosdalgo ? Feligres, parishioner, from filius ecclesiae, makes, regularly, feligreses. 1 Originally ricome ; that is, ric'ome, man of the realm, not rich man, which is hombre rico. 'The term is in part adoption and in part a translation of the Gothic rik-man, realm-man, Reichsmann in modern German. - As if from fijo de algo, son of somebody, or, rather, son of something, con- tracted \vfidalgo. Hidalgo is the word Italicus (like galgo from gallicus, sirgo from sericus, etc.), one having the jus italicum or Roman citizenship, with an aspirate 'i, like huevo from ovum. This early aspiration of the initial seems to have suggested the popular make-shift fiio dalgo of the middle age, to ex- plain the forgotten italico or itaVco. This is proved by the derivatives : hidal- go, a, adjective, noble; as, una accion hidalga, a noble act; hidalguia, noun; as, la hidalguia castellana, Spanish heroism, or, rather, all that is most noble in the Castilian character. 4 8 Form and Inflection. 106. Certain masculine plurals, indicative of rank and kindred, aside from their natural and obvious meaning, include the husband and wife, and the two sexes of other relatives : los reyes, the kings, sovereigns ; los principes, the princes ; los infantes, the princes royal ; los duques, the dukes ; los presidentes, the presidents ; los padres, the fathers, parents; losesposos, ) losconyugesj ^e married couple; los hermanos, the brothers ; los tios, the uncles; los hijos, the sons, children ; los nifios, the children ; los abuelos, the grandfathers, grandparents ; los am os, the masters ; los senores, the gentlemen ; the king and queen, the prince and princess, the infante and infanta, the duke and duchess, the president and his lady. the father and mother, the husband and wife. the brother and sister. the uncle and aunt. the son and daughter (of any age) . the boy and girl. the grandfather and grandmother. the master and mistress, the gentleman and lady. Example. Ayer salieron los reyes d paseo, yesterday the king and queen drove out; los reyes catolicos, the Catholic king and queen, or, the Catholic sovereigns (Ferdinand and Isabella, reigned A. D. 1474-1504, 1516). REMARK. Most of these may also include several of both sexes : the princes and princesses royal, the sons and daughters, the boys and girls, the brothers and sisters ; like the German Gebruder, Geschwister, etc. On the other hand, el matrimonio means the husband and wife (das Ehepaar) , the man and his wife ; una cama de matrimonio, a double bed, a bed for two. So, la par ej a properly signifies two policemen (who usually go in pairs in Spain) . Vaya usted a" llamar una pareja, go and call the police (a brace of police- men). The Noun. Inflection. 49 INFLECTION. 107. Spanish nouns have no other inflectional ending than the plural sign. 1 They may, however, be declined by the aid- of the case-prepositions de and a, either with- out the article or with it : el amigo del rey, a la puerta del palacio, las calles de Madrid, Maria busca a Trie's, aficionado a los libros, abismado en lectura, un amigo del juez, the king's friend, at the palace door, the streets of Madrid. Mary seeks Agnes, fond of books, absorbed in reading. a friend of the judge. 108. Inflection without the Article. N. Carlos, Charles. Ines, Agnes. G. de Carlos, of Charles, Charles'. de Ines, of Agnes, Agnes' D. a Carlos, to Charles. a Ines, to Agnes. A. a Carlos (76), Charles. a Ines (76), Agnes. N. libro, book. libros, books. G. de libro, of book. de libros, of books. D. a libro, to book. a libros, to books. A. libro, book. libros, books. el libro de Carlos, la pluma de Ines, Juan ve a" Maria, Luis quiere mucho a Pedro, da un libro a Antonio, Charleses book, the book of Charles. Agnes's pen. John sees Mary. Lewis is very fond of Peter. give a book to Antonio. 1 Save in a few meagre cases, like Cdrlos, from Carolus ; Dios, from Deus ; querque in Alburquerque, from arbor querci (quercus); duende, wizard, elf % from Deus Endi, the Iberian god Endo ; Fernandez, from Fredinandis, etc. Form arid Inflection. este juguete es propio de nifios, una hoja de libro, no habla de libros, no quiero libro algtmo, la puerta tiene goznes, la ciudad esta circuida de muros, this toy is for children. a book-leaf, the leaf of a book. he is not speaking of books. I do not want any book at all. the door has hinges. the town is surrounded by walls. 109. Inflection with the Definite Article. Masculine. Feminine. N. el hombre, the man. la mujer, the woman. $ G. del hombre, the man's. de la mujer, the woman's. 5o D. al hombre, to the man. a la mujer, to the woman. 02 A. al hombre (76), the man. a la mujer (7 6), the woman. N. los hombres, the men. las mujeres, the women. 1 G. de los hombres, the men's. de las mujeres, the women's. P s D. a los hombres, to the men. a las mujeres, to the women. A. a los hombres, the men. a las mujeres, the women. N. el libro, the book. la pluma, the pen. G. del libro, of the book. de la pluma, of the pen. M | D. al libro, to the book. a la pluma, to the pen. OQ A. el libro, the book. la pluma, the pen. N. los libros, the books. las plumas, the pens. 2 G. de los libros, of the books. de las plumas, of the pens. S D. a los libros, to the books. a las plumas, to the pens. A. los libros. the books. las plumas, the pens. el palacio de los reyes, la prudencia de la mujer, las habitaciones de la casa, las calles de la ciudad, sale de la habitacion, da el regalo los ninos, the king's and queen's palace (106). the woman's prudence. the rooms of (in) the house. the streets of the town. he goes out of the room. he hands the present to the chil- dren. The Adjective. 110. Inflection with the Indefinite Article. Masculine. Feminine. N. un hombre, a man. una mujer, a woman. G. de un hombre, a man's. de una mujer, a woman's. D. a un hombre, to a man. a una mujer, to a woman. A. un hombre, a man. una mujer, a woman. N. un libro, a book. una pluma, a pen. G. de un libro, of a book. de una pluma, of a pen. D. a un libro, to a book. a una pluma, to a pen. A. un libro, a book. una pluma, a pen. 111. Inflection of Neuter L,o with Adjectives. Positive. Superlative. N. lo bueno, the good. lo mejor, the best. G. de lo bueno, of the good. de lo mejor, of the best. D. a lo bueno, to the good. a lo mejor, to the best. A. lo bueno, the good. lo mejor, the best. veo un hombre y una mujer, busco al criado de un amigo, el vestido de una senora, un panuelo de caballero, aqui tiene usted un servidor, lo peor es que no lo sabe, nos saca de lo bueno, para caer en lo malo, I see a man and a woman. I am seeking a friend's servant. a lady's dress. a gentleman's handkerchief. a servant at your disposal. the worst (of it) is he does not know it. he draws us away from good, to bring us into evil. The Adjective. 112. Adjectives have two numbers and two genders, besides the absolute form with lo: Form and Inflection. un libro nuevo, a new book. los hombres sabios, wise men. lo malo, what is evil, the evil. leche fresca, fres/i milk. frutas ricas, luscious fruit '. lo ancho, what is wide, the width. 113. Adjectives, whether attributive or predicate, agree in gender and number with the noun they qualify : un h ombre robusto, una linda casa, senoras caritativas, estas nifias son guapas, a stout, healthy man. a pretty house. benevolent ladies. these young girls are pretty. a. With lo, the adjective varies anomalously to suit the gender and number of the noun, when the adjec- tive is followed by que, that, with the verb to be, or its equivalents. The adjective must then be rendered by a substantive : lo sabios que son estos consejos, lo bonita que es la iglesia, the wisdom of these counsels (the wise that are these counsels), the beauty of the church. Formation of the Plural. 114. Adjectives form their plural in either gender by adding s to unaccented vowel-terminals, and es to con- sonant and accented vowel-endings, always changing z to c before es : SINGULAR. PLURAL. Masc. Fern. Masc. Fein. fresco, espafiol, fell fresca, espaflola, z, frescos, esparioles, felic frescas, espafiolas, es, fresh, cool. Spanish, happy. comun, comunes, common. baladi, baladies, of no account. The Adjective. 53 Formation of the Feminine. 115. The feminine of adjectives is, in general, formed by changing final o into a, or by adding a to certain consonant terminations. Many adjectives have but one ending for both genders. The variation of adjectives (72) may be reduced to two general classes. The first class embraces common and proper adjectives of two terminations in each num- ber, one for each gender ; the second embraces com- mon and proper adjectives of one termination for both genders. REMARK. Proper adjectives are those which are derived from the names of geographical divisions, countries, provinces, places, and persons. 116. First Class. Two Terminations. End- SINGULAR. PL.UKAL,. ings. Masc. Fern. Masc. Fern. O bianco, blanca, blancos, blancas, white. gaditano, gaditana, gaditanos, gaditanas, of Cadiz. an holgazan, holgazana, holgazanes, holgazanas, lazy. ale man, alemana, alemanes, alemanas, German. ol espafiol, espafiola, espafioles, espafiolas, Spanish. on burlon, burlona, burlones, burlonas, roguish. or traidor, traidora, traidores, traidoras, treacherous. uz andaluz, andaluza, andaluces, andaluzas, Andalusian. una rosa blanca, a white rose. cerveza alemana, German beer. ojos burlones, roguish eyes. la sal andaluza, Andalusian wit and humor. las sefioras gaditanas, ladies of Cadiz. una ley espafiola, a Spanish law. miradas traidoras, treacherous glances. 54 Form and Inflection. 117. To this class belong also : a. Diminutives in ete and augmentatives in ote, which change the final e into a : regordete, regordeta, grandote, grandota, regordetes , regordetas , grandotes, grandotas, chubby, biggish. All others in e belong to the second class ; that is, they are unchangeable for gender. b. Diminutives and proper adjectives in in: chiquitin, chiquitina, mallorquin, mallorquina, chiquitines, chiquitinas, mallorquines, mallorquinas, of Majorca All others in in belong to the second class. c. Proper adjectives in /s : francos, francesa, ingles, inglesa, leone's, leonesa, montane's,' montanesa, franceses, francesas, ingleses, inglesas, leoneses, leonesas, montaneses, montafiesas, French. English. of Leon (Spain) highland, Astu- Common adjectives in es belong to the second class. 118. A few adjectives in tor may also change that ending into triz-trices for the feminine : fuerza motora or motriz, causas motoras or motrices, motive power, impelling causes. REMARK. For comparatives in or and ior (yor), see 120, b. 1 Montan6s, of or belonging to the hill country about Santander, Spain, which district is called La Montana (not la wontana), the Mountain ; and hence the adjective has the variation of proper adjectives in es. The Adjective. 55 119. Second Class. One Termination. SINGULAR. PLURAL. End- ings. Masc. and Fein. Masc. and Fem. a agricola, belga, agricolas, belgas, agricultural, Belgian. e grande, ateniense, grandes, atenienses, great, Athenian. i baladi, marroqui, baladies, marroquies, vile, Morocco. al, el nacional, fiel, nacionales, fieles, national, faithful. 11, ul facil, azul, faciles, azules, easy, blue. en, in joven, ruin, 1 jovenes, ruines, young ; low, mean. un, ar comun, familiar, comunes, familiares, common, familiar. az, ez capaz, soez, capaces, soeces, capable, low. iz, oz feliz, atroz, felices, atroces, happy, shocking. un pueblo agricola, an agricultu- ral people. la cultura ateniense, Athenian culture. una cinta azul, a blue ribbon. la vida comun, common life. el gobierno persa, the Persian government. una casa grande, a large hotise. las fiestas nacionales, the nation- al holidays. las muchachas jovenes, young girls. una muerte feliz, a happy death. los pueblos belgas, the Belgian towns. 120. To this class belong also : a. All common adjectives in e's : corte's, pi. corteses, polite. \ montes, pi. monteses, mountain-. una advertencia cortes, palabras corteses, puercos monteses, 2 a courteous remark. polite language. wild (or mountain) boars. 1 Latin, Latin, is a noun ; latino, latina, an adjective : saber el Latin, to know Latin; un libro latino, a Latin book; la literatura latina, Latin literature. 2 Jab all also means wild boar. It is the Arabic adjective from djebal, mountain ; therefore puerco montes is the Castilian synonym of jabali. So, Arab, alfayate, Cast, sastre, tailor ; Arab, alarife, Cast, arquitecto, architect', Arab, albeitar, Cast. veterina.no, farrier, etc., etc. 56 Form and Inflection. b a All comparatives in or, ior {yor) : mejor, pi. mejores, better. I interior, pi. interiores, interior. peor, pi. peores, worse. \ superior, pi. superiores, superior c. All adjectives in ista y indicating social, political, moral, and scientific affiliations : un principio socialista, una idea oscurantista, el partido carlista, los prohombres progresistas, a socialistic principle, an old-fogy notion, the Carlist party, the advanced leaders (leaders of the late Progresista or advance party, 1836-1871). d. All adjectives in e (except 117, a): una almendra dulce, una herida grave, una tiple eminente, graves inconvenientes, a sweet almond. a serious wound. a distinguished soprano-singer. serious objections. e. The ending -ense is the learned or modern journal- istic and literary form of proper adjectives, against the popular ones in o and & (ensis); thus, matritense and madrileno, of Madrid ; tudense and tudes, of Tuy ; conquense and conques, of Cuenca ; abulense and aviles, ofAvila; escurialense and escorialeno, of the Escorial. A few, however, possess no other form than the learn- ed or classical one : as, ateniense, Athenian ; parisiense (popular, parisi^n), of Paris, Parisian. 121. All proper adjectives, then, are variable in gen- der, except those in a, e, and /: talan, a, Catalonian. , Castilian. Valladolid. asturiano, a, Asturian. valenciano, a, Valencian. extremeno, a, of Extremadura^ europe'o, a, European. aragone's, a, Aragonese The Adjective. 57 ingles, a, English. mahones, a, of Puerto Mahon. gallego, a, Galician. manchego, a, of La Mancha. griego, a, Greek, Grecian. alicantino, a, of Alicante. bilbamo, a, of Bilbao. fndio, a, Indian. judfo, a, Jewish. britanico, a, British. alcalamo, a, ^ #/" Alcald de He- complutense, \ ndres. celta, Celtic. arabe, Arabian. marroqui, of Morrocco. berberi, of Barbary. 122. Any adjective may be employed as a substan- tive in either gender or number, assuming in that case all the laws that govern the noun : el Espanol, the Spaniard. el sabio, the wise man. los Espanoles, Spaniards. los fieles, the faithful. a. On the other hand, nouns are occasionally associ- ated as adjectives with other nouns, thus forming com- pound expressions as in the Teutonic languages : la tierra virgen, virgin soil. la madre patria, mother country. la escuela-modelo, model school. el cura parroco, the parish priest. una carta-prdlogo, an epistolary preface. una carta-puebla, local privilege (law) . Apocopation. 123. Eight adjectives lose their final o when they stand as attributes immediately before a noun in the masculine singular : bueno, good. tercero, 1 third. malo, bad, poor (ofjhings). uno, one. postrero, latter, last. alguno, some, any (neg. no). primero,yfrj/. ninguno (necunus), 2 no, not any ', none. 1 Tercero remains unabridged in the formula of the Creed, " el tercero dia," and, in general, in the sacred style. 2 The n is inserted, as in ceme^terio, cemetery. Form and Inflection. buen tiempo, good weather. mal exito, ill-success. el postrer duelo, the last pang. el primer tomo, the first volume. el tercer dia, the third day. un soldado, one soldier. algun motive, some caiise. ningun libro, no book. but <; tiene usted un buen vecino ? tengo uno muy bueno, un hombre malo y perverse, el afio primero y ultimo, el libro tercero del tomo quinto, uno y otro dia, no hay remedio alguno, ninguno de los dos, el bueno de mi amigo, alguno que otro dia, have you a good neighbor ? I have a very good one. a bad, vicious man. the first and last year. book third of volume fifth. both days (one and the other day) , there is no help for it at all. neither of the two. my good friend (idiom). one day or another (idiom). a. In the language of common life this law is fre- quently extended to the feminine singular, especially before a and ha: buen alhaja, fine jewel, pretty fellow (in irony 1 ), algun ave, some bird. tin alma, one soul. en mal hora, inopportunely. de primer agua,yfr\$-/ water (rate). b. The numeral adjective uno, one, when associated or combined with other numbers, is contracted before nouns of either number or gender which it serves to multiply : treinta y un dias, thirty-one days. \ veintiun casas, twenty-one hoiises. 124. The adjective grande, great, in the sense of eminence, loses its final syllable de before a singular noun beginning with a consonant not h : 1 Of course, in this secondary sense, alhaja is masculine, according to 93. The Adjective. 59 una gran casa, a great family . un gran peligro, a great peril. un gran dia, 1 a great occasion. el Gran Capitan, 2 the Great Cap- tain. but un grande amigo, a great friend (intimate) . un grande hombre, a great man (distinguished) . una grande iglesia, a great {famous) church. a. The full form is, however, used, even before con- sonants, when grande has an intensive or emphatic sig- nification. In this sense it was formerly much more common than at present : tan grand , so great a saint. \ el grande dano, the great harm? b. When grande refers to dimensions, or order, it regularly stands after the noun it qualifies : una casa grande, a large house. el premio grande, the first prize. un hombre grande, a large man. un caballo grande, a large horse. REMARK. In the sense of tallness, grande is now rather re- placed by alto, alto de cuerpo, alto de estatura ; or by buen mozo (fern, buena moza), applied to any age, to mean a fine, tall person, and a fine-looking person, with reference to form and size. 125. Cualquiera, //. cualesquiera, whatever, any you please, usually, but not uniformly, loses the final a before a noun of either gender or number : 1 When Isla wrote " Dia grande de Navarra," he meant, it is true, a great civic occasion, but with the humorous idea of dimensions, a big day, a high day. 2 Gonzalo de Cordova, so called for his conquest of Naples and Sicily. 3 From Fray Luis de Granada : Sermon de las Caydas Publicas, Lisbon, 1588 ; Madrid, 1589 ; and Antwerp, 1590 ; 8vo. The modern editions all have in these passages gran santo, gran dano ; for no Spanish author has been so corrected and spoiled in text by the Inquisition as the Friar Lewis. 6o Form and Inflection. cualquier or cualquiera libro, cualquier or cualquiera cosa, cualesquier or cualesquiera moti- ves, any book (whatever), any thing (whatever) . any causes (whatever). but always cualquiera de los libros, un libro cualquiera, cualesquiera que sean los moti- vos, any of the books, any book you please, whatever be the causes or mo- tives. 126. Ciento, one hundred (never un ciento), loses its final syllable to when it stands before the word it multi- plies, whichever be the gender : cien soldados, cien almas, cien mil pesos, cien millones, one hundred soldiers, souls. 100,000 dollars, 100,000,000. but ciento veinte, ciento y diez, ciento contra uno, mil y ciento, one hundred (and) twenty, one hundred and ten. one hundred against one. one thousand (and) one hundred. 127. The word santo, saint, loses its final syllable to only before the names of the calendar saints, arch- angels, and Old-Testament worthies : San Pedro (S. Pedro), St. Peter. San Miguel (S. Miguel), St. Michael. San Daniel (S. Daniel), St. Daniel. San Juan (S. Juan), St. John. San Pablo, St. Paul. San Agustin, St. Augustine. San Gabriel, St. Gabriel. San Josue% St. Joshua. Except: Santo Toma's or Tomd (S. Toma's), St. Thomas-, Santo Domingo (S. Domingo), St. Dominic ; Santo Toribio, St. Toribius ; and Santo Job, St. Job. St. Thomas, as the name of one of the West-India islands, is now accented and written San Tdmas and San Thdmas, in conformity with foreign usage. The Adjective. 6 1 a. The fern, santa remains always unabridged : Santa Maria, St. Mary. Santa Isabel, St. Elizabeth. Santa Barbara, St. Barbara. Santa Ines, St. Agnes. Santa Agueda, St. Agatha. Santa Rita, 1 St. Margaret. b. The adjective santo, a, holy, is never contract- ed : el santo angel, the holy angel. \ el santo varon, that saintly man. una santa mujer, a saintly woman. REMARK. In giving a series of two or more saints' names, it is in better taste to prefix the title to each singly : San Juan y San Jose, St. John and St. Joseph, not los Santos Juan y Jose (los SS. Juan y Jose), Sts. John and Joseph. POSITION OF THE ADJECTIVE. 128. The attributive adjective, as a rule, stands after the noun qualified, in ordinary unemphatic language ; notwithstanding, all elegant writers, poets, and orators, place it according to their own views of taste, harmony, and effect : un cuento divertido, un asunto grave, una noticia desgarradora, la lengua castellana, el continente europeo, el gobierno espafiol, una accion desalmada, an entertaining story, a serious matter, heart-rending intelligence, the Castilian language, the European continent, the Spanish government, a heartless action. 1 This local saint is called in Spain, " la abogada de los imposibles," the patroness of impossibilities. St. Barbara is the advocate of Spanish gunpowder and coast defenses, while the chulo, the "b'hoy" (puerum, plulo, chulo), swears vengeance " por via 'e San Andre " (63, 66) , by the life of St. Andrew, as he rushes upon his adversary with the historic navaja (navalia) or "Jack's " knife. 62 Form and Inflection. 129. The following, therefore, are more especially found after the substantive limited by them, unless the language is poetic or expansive : a. Participles and participial adjectives in ado, ido, and those in ante, ente, iente (yente), derived from Latin present participles : un sacerdote consagrado, la oveja perdida, banderas desplegadas, aguas abundantes, un espiritu paciente, las Cortes constituyentes, los caballeros andantes, a consecrated priest. the lost sheep. banners unfurled (flying banners). abundant water. a patient spirit. [sembly. the Constituent (National) As- the knights-errant. but, poetically or expansively : por dilatadas regiones, las enganadas naciones, la naciente estrella, la andante caballeria, over extensive regions, the deceived nations, the rising star, knight-errantry. b. Proper adjectives, or those derived from geo- graphical, personal, political, and scientific names: las Escenas matritenses, los prados jerezanos, el idioma frances, un cabecilla carlista, la filosofia positivista, el partido unionista, los tartesios campos, pictures of Madrid life. the grassy plains of Sherry. the French language. a Carlist (guerilla) chieftain. positive philosophy. the union party. but, poetically : | the plains of Tartessus. The Adjective. c. Common adjectives in al y dor, tor: el despacho central, el puente internacional, un principio conservador, la sociedad protectora de ani- males, the Central office, the International Bridge, a conservative principle, the society for the protection of animals. la vencedora gente, but, in poetry : \ the victorious people. d. All augmentatives and diminutives * : el alcalde pregunton, un nino chiquitin, un hombre grandecito, un aldeano ricote, the impertinent busybody. a wee bit of a child. a tallish man. a well-to-do villager. e. In general, long adjectives, unless emphatic or in tensive : una cosa imposible, medidas preventivas, an impossible thing, preventive measures. but mi inolvidable amigo, con incansable afan, my never-to-be-forgotten friend, with untiring zeal. f. When a plural substantive is limited by two or more adjectives in the singular, the latter must stand after the noun : las lenguas griega y latina, the Greek and Latin languages, los tomos primero y cuarto, the first and fourth volumes, las filas tercera y vigesima, the third and twentieth rows, los siglos segundo, cuarto y the second, fourth, and fifth cen- quinto, turies. l Of this difficult subject we shall treat in a chapter apart, because the for- eigner cannot be taught out of Spain to use them correctly. They are a part of the national type. See p. 382. Form and Inflection. 130 A few adjectives regularly precede the noun in ordinary language : mucho dinero, much money. demasiado juicio, too much pru- dence. buenos consejos, good advice. poca gratia, little attractiveness. tantas virtudes, so many virtues. may ores fuerzas, greater strength. malas plumas, poor pens . 131. Some adjectives have distinct significations, ac- cording to their position with respect of the noun : un buen hombre, a good man. una buena noche, a good night. mal negocio, bad business (un- fortunate) . mala pluma, poor pen. gran vicio, great defect. nuevo libro, new book (different). negra action, dark deed. varios papeles, various papers^ or documents. pobre muchacho, 2 poor boy. pobre autor, sorry author. cierta epoca, a certain period. santa Biblia, sacred Bible. santa tierra, sacred soil. santo padre , father (of the church) santo campo, sacred field. un hombre bueno, 1 a "best" man. noche buena, Christmas Eve. un jdven malo, a bad youth (wicked) . toro malo, vicious bull. pera grande, large pear. libro nuevo, new book (recent). vestido negro, black coat. papeles varios, miscellaneous pa- pers. el muchacho pobre, the poor boy. autor pobre, indigent author. noticia cierta, reliable news. semana santa, holy week (Easter). tierra santa, Holy Land. el padre santo, the pope. campo santo, cemetery. a. Some adjectives precede or follow the noun with little or no difference of signification : 1 Aii early translation of the old Gothic " goodsman," property man, and hence responsible, a voucher. So the omes or hombres buenos of the mediaeval C6rtes were select men, from this property qualification. They represented the third estate in assembly with the prelates and nobles. 2 In commiseration ; more or less depreciative, and often resented by per- sons of spirit, from its side-meaning of infeliz, stupid; still, the natives say : " j Pobre Espana ! digna de mejor suerte," poor Spain! worthy of a better fate. The Adjective. un pequeno libro, una bonita casa, un hermoso regalo, un breve discurso, un triste dia, un libro pequeno, una casa bonita, un regalo hermoso, un discurso breve, un dia triste, a small book, a pretty house, a handsome present a short discourse, a sad day. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 132. Adjectives in Spanish have the three usual degrees of comparison ; namely, the Positive, Com parative, and Superlative, each of which is varied according to gender and number : Positive. Comparative. m. bianco, blancos, ^ f. blanca, blancas, J mas bianco, mas blancos, ) , . \whiier. mas blanca, mas blancas, J Superlative Relative. Superlative Absolute. el or lo mas bianco, \ la mas blanca, , , , J the whitest. los mas blancos, las mas blancas, j blanquisimo (13),] blanqufsima, . . , . \ very white. blanquisimos, blanquisimas, J So compare fresc-o, fresh, cool, trist-e, sad] prudent-e, pru- dent ; viej-o, old; aplicad-o, diligent. el libro es mas pesado que el periodico, la ventana es mas alta que la puerta, estos sombreros son mas caros que los mios, aquellos son los mas hermosos de la fabrica, los de mi amigo son hermosisimos, the book is duller than the news- paper. the window is higher than the door. these hats are dearer than mine. those yonder are the finest (ones) in the factory, those of my friend are very fine. 66 Form and Inflection. 133. Four adjectives have, besides their regular comparatives and superlatives, other preferred forms derived from the Latin, but popularly called irregular. They are : Positive. Comparative. bueno, a, malo, a, grande, 1 pequefio, a, good, bad, poor, great, large. small, little. mejor(i2O,^ peor, es, mayor, es, menor, es, rarely ', mas bueno), (seldom, mas malo), or, mas grande, or, mas pequefio, better. worse, poorer. greater, larg- er, older. smaller, less, younger. Superlative Relative. mejor; peor; mayor; menor; mejores, peores, mayoreS; menores, (rarely, el, etc., mas bueno, a), {seldom, el, etc., mas malo, a), or, el, la, lo mas grande, los, las mas grandes, or, el, lo, la mas pequefio, a, los, las mas pequefios, as, the best. the worst, poorest. the greatest, larg- est, oldest. the smallest, least, youngest. Superlative Absolute. bonisimo, a, malisimo, a, grandisimo, a, pequenisimo, a. or, muy bueno, a, muy malo, a, muy grande, muy pequefio, a, ( {rarely, optimo, a), " pesimo, a), (seldom, maximo, a), very good, very bad, poor, very large, great. minimo, a), very small, little. 2 1 The positive magno, a (Lat. magnus), hitherto obsolete, save as an epi- thet of kings (Carlomagno, Charlemagne; Alfonso III. el Magno, Alphonso III. the Great, f A.D. 910, etc.), is of late considerably used in an intensive sense : as, una concurrencia magna, a big turn-out ; una sensacion magna, a great sen- sation ; la cuestion magna, the decisive question^ the question ; una turba magna, a big crowd. 2 Maximo and minimo may be used as relative superlatives with a few words like cosa, parte : la maxima parte, the greatest part ; la minima cosa, the slightest thing. Optimo and pesimo answer a question, thus : white as snow, meek as a lamb. 136. The correlative formulae may be expressed neg atively by placing no, not ; sin, withoiit ; tampoco, nor either y etc., before the verb : no es menos bella que rica, no somos tan buenos como ellos, sin tener ellos tantos libros como yo, tampoco exige el ma's que tu, no soy menos cuerdo que el, she is not less beautiful than rich, we are not so good as they, without their having so many books as I. [thou. neither does he require more than I am not less prudent than he. 137. The comparative adverb que is replaced, a. By de lo que (than what) when the second part of the comparison contains a verb : The Adjective. mas discrete de lo que parece, parece mas docta de lo que es, es menos rico de lo que dice, more prudent than he seems, [is. she seems more learned than she he is not so wealthy as he says. REMARK. The original que may be resumed, however, if the comparative consists of one of the organic forms in or : peor esta que estaba, | it is worse than it was, or, Worse and Worse * the title of one of Calderon's dramas. b. By de, before numerals, provided the sentence be affirmative ; if it be negative, the resumption of que is quite general, but not universal : tiene mas de diez casas, tendra menos de veinte anos de edad, no ha ido alia ma's que dos veces, tampoco tengo yo mas que tres, sin tener menos que cuatro casas de campo, he has more than ten houses, he must be less than twenty years old. he has not been there more than twice. I haven't more than three either, without having fewer than four country-seats. 138. Mas and menos may be strengthened by the ad- verbs un poco, a little ; poco, scarcely ; mucho, imich; harto or bastante, considerably ; aim, even; todavia. yet, still; and by the superlative muchisimo (never muy mucho, in the modern language), very much: poco mas ancho, mucho mas bianco, harto menos doloroso, aun mas favorable, muchisimo menos grave, scarcely any wider, much whiter, considerably less painful, still (even) more favorable, very much less serious. 139. From the above tables (132, 134) it appears :- a. That the comparative degree of adjectives is formed by placing the adverbs mas, more ; menos, less, 70 Form and Inflection. before the positive, with que (de), than, to complete the comparison. b. That four adjectives have, in general use, organic comparative forms derived from the Latin melior, pejor, major, minor. c. That mayor and menor, applied to persons, signify also older and younger; and to things, greater, less. REMARK. In some phrases mayor signifies greater, with refer- ence to some other undefined object, and then should be rendered simply by great, grand, or chief: la iglesia mayor, la plaza mayor, la calle mayor, the principal church (cathedral). the grand square. grand street (main street). The Superlative Degree. 140. As already seen (132), the superlative of adjec- tives is of two kinds, relative and absolute. a. The relative superlative is translated by most or -est, and expresses not only superiority and inferiority to any other quality or object, but also to all other qualities or objects, declared or implied. b. The absolute superlative, translated by very, and occasionally by most, -est, expresses quality or quantity in a very high degree, but without comparison. The Relative Superlative. 141. The relative superlative is formed by associat- ing the definite article (el, la, lo ; los, las) or a posses- sive adjective (my, thy, his, our, etc.) with the com parative : The Adjective. el mas justo juicio, lo mas grave del asunto, los libros menos estimados, mi mas querido amigo, nuestro menor deseo, el mayor mdnstruo los zelos, the justest judgment. [matter. the most serious (thing) in the the least esteemed books. my dearest friend. our least (or smallest) desire. jealousy the greatest monster. 142. When the noun is accompanied by the definite article or a possessive adjective, the superlative may follow it without an article. This is especially the case when the adjective preferably stands after the noun in the positive : las casas ma's blancas, los nombres mas conocidos, los dias ma's aciagos, or los mas aciagos dias, la necesidad mas apremiante, or la mas apremiante necesidad, los hombres mas leidos, the whitest houses. the best known names (146). the most ill-starred days. the most urgent necessity, the best read men. Except when the noun with which the adjective agrees is in apposition with some other term, or when the article is found with the noun in an indefinite sense ; in the latter case it is customary to use a partitive genitive or the absolute superlative : los Ingleses, gente la ma's despre- ocupada, un jdven de los mas despejados, or, un jdven despejadisimo, the English, a most unprejudiced people, one of the brightest of young men ? or, a very bright young man. a. The relative superlative assumes the article when it stands in the predicate after the verb to be or its equivalents, and agrees with the subject of the verb : la antigua provincia de Galicia es la mas remota de Espafia, the ancient province of Galicia is the most retired (one) in Spain. Form and Inflection, 143. The relative superlative is, from its very struc- ture, a definite comparative as well. Thus, in the examples : es el individuo ma's instruido de la Academia, fue la senora mdnos amable de la tertulia, he is the most learned member in the Academy, she was the least amiable lady at the conversazione^ the logical interpretation would be : He is more learned than any other member of the Academy ; she was less amiable than any other lady at the conversa- zione. Hence, 144. The relative superlative is often expressed in Spanish by the formal comparative : esta es cosa que me da mayor this is a thing that gives me the pena, greatest concern, (i.e., greater concern than any other thing.) lo que es mas caro al hombre, | what is dearest to man. (what is dearer than anything else.) 145. When two objects, persons, or qualities are compared, the formal superlative is really a compara- tive, and must be so translated : de estos dos albafiiles, Pedro es el ma's ha"bil ; de las dos sefioras, la morena es la mdnos simpatica, of these two masons, Peter is the more skilful, of the two ladies, the brunette is the less congenial. 146. The comparative and the relative superlative, with mas, are translated by better and best, instead of more and most, when participial adjectives, to which well may be joined in the positive, are compared in their proper sense as such : The Adjective. 73 ma's conocido, better known. mas leido, better read. mas amados, better loved. el mas conocido, the best known. el mas leido, the best read. los mas amados, the best loved. a. If the past participle has also the signification of a mere adjective, its comparative and superlative are rendered as usual : querido, dear. \ mas querido, dearer. \ el mas querido, dearest. Instruido may be translated by instructed or by learn- ed, and its degrees of comparison would be rendered accordingly : mas instruido, better instructed, more learned. el ma's instruido, the best in- structed^ the most learned. 147. The prepositions in, at, of, after a relative super- lative, are generally expressed in Spanish by de : el hombre ma's ruin de la ciudad, el suelo ma's feraz de la comarca, la conferencia mas concurrida de la serie, the vilest man in town, the most fertile soil in the district, the best attended lecture of the course. REMARK. The use of en in this relation is very common, 1 but is, perhaps, to be classed with popular idioms or vulgarisms : es el nino mas despejado (de) en la escuela, he is the brightest lad in (the) school. 148. The neuter article lo may be employed with any superlative to which in English the word thing, or some other word, may be supplied : 1 This construction with en, when used of persons, may generally be ex- plained as an ellipse : de los que hay en la e., of those who are in the s. Wiggers, Grammatik, p. 67, gives wrongly : La casa mas hermosa en la cuidad; a sentence no Spaniard would write. 74 Form and Inflection. lo ma's fdcil no es siempre lo mejor, lo ma's acertado sera" el negar- selo, the easiest (way) is not always the best, the most appropriate (thing) will be to refuse him (it to him). The Absolute Superlative. 149. The absolute superlative is formed by affixing to the stem of the positive the variable ending -isimo : es claro, clarisimo, una cosa acertadisima, un hombre prudentisimo, esta sefiora es feisima, tengo muchisimos libros, una necesidad apremiantisima, it is clear, very clear. a very appropriate thing. a very prudent man. this lady is very plain (" homely"). I have a great many books. a most urgent necessity. a. The absolute superlative is also formed by asso ciating with the simple adjective adverbs like muy, bien, very ; harto, bastante, considerably, quite ; suma- mente, exceedingly ; excesivamente, extremely, etc. muy bianco, very white. harto sensible, very much to be regretted. sumamente rico, exceedingly rich. excesivamente raro, extremely rare. REMARK. The superlative in -isimo assumes the same position with respect of the noun that the simple adjective would have : poco fruto, poquisimo fruto, un orador elocuente, un orador elocuentisimo, un j6ven rico, un joven riquisimo, little fruit, very little fruit, an eloquent orator, a very elo- quent orator. [a wealthy young man, a very wealthy young man. 150. The affix -isimo is applied to the pure stem of the adjective agreeably to the following laws : The Adjective. 75 a. By rejecting a final vowel, or a true diphthong (21):- doct-o, doct-isimo, very learned. suav-e, suav-isimo, very mild. grand-e, grand-isimo, very large. hermos-o, hermos-isimo, very beautiful. ampl-io, ampl-fsimo, very full. but (according to 20, 22) : impi-o, impi-fsimo, very wicked. \ fri-o, fri-isimo, very cold. b. By changing the final stem-consonants c into qu, g into gu, and z into c ( 13 ; 15 ; 28, a) : blanc-o, blanqu-isimo, very white. I feliz, felic-isimo, very happy. larg-o, largu-isimo, very long. \ atroz, atroc-isimo, very shocking. c. By changing the termination -ble into -bil: noble, nobil-isimo, very noble. \ amable, amabil-isimo, very kind. d. By restoring the movable diphthongs ie and ue to their primitive simple vowels e and o ( 19) : diestro, destrisimo, very expert. valiente, valentisimo, very brave. ardiente, ardentisimo, very zeal- ous, very glowing. cierto, certisimo, very sure. tierno, ternisimo, very dear. lieto, letisimo, very beaming. bueno, bonisimo, very good. nuevo, novisimo, very recent. 1 fuerte, fortisimo, very strong. REMARK. This rule is fast yielding to the corrupting influences of the uneducated classes, and ciertisimo, tiernisimo, and fuerttsima are frequently heard and found in literature, although the Academy recognizes only the first. Viejo, old, always maintains the diph- thong in the superlative (viejisimd) ; while the derivative vejez, old age, rejects it. 1 Generally rendered and used as a relative superlative: La Novisima Recopilacion, the latest compilation ; i.e., the Revised Statutes (of 1806), those of Philip II. (1567) being la Nueva Recopilacion, the New Digest. Form and Inflection. e. By simply attaching -isimo to the unchanged adjective when it ends in any consonant except z: util, utih'simo, very useful. \ liberal, liberalisimo, very liberal. 151. A few superlatives in -isimo are constructed on Latin stems : amigo,* 1 amicisimo, very friendly, /hwzamic-us. antiguo, antiquisimo, very ancient, antiqu-us. bendfico, beneficentisimo, very beneficent, beneficent(is). benevolo, benevolentisimo, very benevolent, benevolent(is). cruel, crudelisimo, very cruel, crudel-is. fiel, fidelisimo, very faithful, fidel-is. frio,* 1 r , ' j f frigidisimo, irigiQO, j very cold, frigid-us. magnifico, magnificentisimo, very magnificent, magnificent(is). pio,* 1 . piadoso,*/P lentlslmo > 2 very devoted, pient(is). sabio, sapientisimo, very wise, sapient(is). sacro, 1 sagrado, J sacratislmo very sacred, sacra t-us. 152. Some few adjectives form their absolute super- latives by attaching -rimo to the Latin base in er : aspe'rrimo, very harsh, from asper. celebdrrimo, very famous, celeber. integeVrimo, very disinterested, integer, libdrrimo, very free, liber, miserrimo, very wretched, miser, paupdrrimo, very indigent, pauper, salubdrrimo, very healthful, saluber. dspero,* cdlebre, integro, libre, misero, pobre,* salubre, 1 Those distinguished by an asterisk have also the regular superlative ; as, amiguisimo, friisimo, piadosisimo, asperisimo, pobrisimo. 2 The form pientisimo, although unknown to the Academy's Dictionary and Grammars, is in common use. The earliest record of it that I remember is in the Diferencias de libros q ay en el vniuerso, by Alexo Vanegas de Busto, Toledo, 1540, f. 240, where the author says : " de la pietissima (pientisima) virge maria." Vanegas is an " authority " recognized by the Academy (Diet., ed. 1726, p. Ixxxvi, and Catdlogo de Autoridades, Madrid, 1874, p. 100). The Adjective. 77 a. The superlative uberrimo, very productive, wants the positive and comparative (Lat. uber, uberior), which, however, may be supplied byferdz. 153. The adjectives facil, easy, probable ; dificil, dif- ficult, not probable, have the superlatives facilisimo, facilimo ; dificilisimo and dificilimo. 154. The following comparatives and superlatives in form, derived from the Latin, have mostly lost their primitive force as such, and may be treated as adjec- tives, occasionally with special significations : anterior, previous, prior. citerior, hither. exterior, external, outside. inferior, inferior, lower. interior, internal, inside. posterior, posterior. (mas cercano, nearer.) superior, superior, upper. ulterior, ulterior, ultimate. (wanting.) (wanting. ) extreme, extreme. mfimo, lowest. intimo, intimate. postremo, hindermost. proximo, nearest, next. supremo, sumo, highest, supreme. ultimo, last* final. la carta anterior, the previous letter. los puntos extremes, the extreme points. un cuarto interior, an inside apartment. la infima plebe, the lowest rab- ble. un amigo intimo, an intimatt friend. un esfuerzo supremo, a supreme effort. a. These forms often serve as simple adjectives to build true comparatives and superlatives : a" precio tan mfimo, la casa mas prdxima, las mas superiores ciencias, 1 mi ma's intimo amigo, at so low a price, the nearest house, the highest sciences, my most intimate friend. 1 Diet* of the Acad. t ed. 1726-39, vol. i. p. xlii. 3. 78 Form and Inflection. b. The same may be said of the superlative minimo ( 133, note 2): la cosa ma's minima, | the smallest thing. 155. The superlative absolute is often merely inten- sive : este mismisimo asunto, un caso singularisimo, this identical subject, a signal case in point. 156. Of the two forms comprised under the denomi- nation of superlative absolute, that in -isimo is the stronger : es un hombre doctfsimo, ) es un hombre muy docto, he is a very learned man. 157. The adverbs mas, more ; menos, less; muy, very ; are often applied to nouns in the sense of "more of a," "less of a," and "very much of a," "a thorough " : es ma's nifio de lo que creia, he is more of a child than I sup- posed. es menos politico que esplotador, es muy hombre de mundo, es muy caballero, es muy Es- pafiol, es muy senorito, muy seftor mio, he is less of a politician than a " carpet-bagger. 1 ' he is a thorough man of the world, he is a thorough gentleman, a thorough Spaniard, he is quite a young gentleman. 1 my dear sir. 158. The formula muy para signifies too to, too much of a to, with nouns, adjectives, and past parti- ciples : 1 He who replies to these observations, says, not muy, but mucho, very, literally much ; si tal, true; or, justo, of course. The Adjective. 79 es muy grande para jugar tanto, es muy bobo para incomodarse de eso, estaba muy asustada para arries- gar preguntas, he is too large to play so much he is too much of a simpleton to resent that, she was too much frightened to venture inquiries. 159. The intensive prefix re (Lat. re and [/] rai) was formerly much used to express a kind of absolute super- lative, with or without muy, and was applied to adjec- tives, adverbs, and occasionally even to nouns. Its use is now popular or vulgar : Ancient (1537). En las Cortes de los Principes son pocos, y muy pocos, yaun muy poquitos, y muy repo- quitos, los que se tienenentera amistad {Guevara). In the Courts of Princes, those who cherish towards one an- other genuine friendship are few, very few, even exceeding- ly few, and scarcely any at all. Modern. rebueno, or muy rebueno (usual\ rebien, or muy rebien ( " ), no me da la re-real gana (low) , very good indeed. very well indeed. [(do it) ; it does not suit my majesty to (literally, it does not give me the very royal mind to. 1 ) 1 In the following tragic nursery rhyme, reproducing the legend of " Peter Peter, pumpkin eater," and which may be heard any bright morning among the nurses on the Recoletos of Madrid, occurs the prefix re with a proper name : Pepe, ?v-Pepe mato a la mujer con siete cuchillos y un alfiler; la metio en un cesto, la llevo a vender, le sac6 un doblon y lo metio en panchon. Josy, my Joe, killed his wife with seven knives and one pin ; put her in a panier, took her to be sold, got a doubloon for her, and laid it out in buns! 80 Form and Inflection. NUMERALS. 160. The cardinal numbers are those which answer the question, How many? Cardinal Numbers. I uno, a, (contract un) . 28 veinte y ocho, or veinti- 2 dos. ocho. 3 tres. 29 veinte y nueve, etc. 4 cuatro. 30 treinta,(treinta y uno, etc. ) 5 cinco. 40 cuarenta. 6 seis. 50 cincuenta. 7 i siete. 60 sesenta. 8 ocho. 70 setenta. 9 nueve. 80 ochenta. 10 diez. 90 noventa. 100 ciento, (contract cien). ii once. 12 doce. 101 ciento y uno, a. 13 trece. 1 02 ciento y dos. 14 catorce. 103 ciento y tres, etc. '5 quince. 2OO doscientos, as. 16 diez y seis, or dieciseis. 300 trescientos, as. 17 diez y siete, or diecisiete. 4OO cuatrocientos, as. 18 diez y ocho, or dieciocho. 500 quinientos, as. 19 diez y nueve, or diecinueve. 600 seiscientos, as. 20 veinte. 700 setecientos, as. 800 ochocientos, as. 21 veinte y uno, a, or veintiuno, 9OO novecientos, as. a, (contract veintiun). I,OOO mil, (mil y uno, etc.) 22 veinte y dos, or veintidos. 23 veinte y tres, or vemtitres. 10,000 diez mil. 24 veinte y cuatro, or veinticua- 100,000 cien mil. tro. 200,000 doscientos, as, mil. 25 veinte y cinco, or veinticinco. 500,000 quinientos, as, mil. 26 veinte y seis, or veintiseis. 1,000,000 un millon, or un cuento. 27 veinte y siete, or veintisiete. 2,000,000 dos millones. Numerals. 81 Remarks on the Cardinals. 161. Archaic forms are docientos and trecientos. They are heard, however, at the present day in current language, but are not met with in approved modern literature. Incorrect conversational forms are siete- cientos and nuevecientos. See 150, d, Remark. 162. The cardinal numbers, although adjectives, are all invariable except uno, a, and cientos, as, when multi- plied by two up to nine inclusive : dos libros, tres plumas, cuatro cuartos, cinco onzas, diez dias, cuarenta almas, un amigo, una conocida, ciento y un soldados, veintiun casas, cien anos, cien mil duros, doscientos hombres, doscientas mujeres, quinientos bonos, quinientas car- petas, cuatrocientas mil personas, two books, three pens, [ounces, four cuartos (coppers), five ten days, forty souls, one friend, one acquaintance, one hundred and one soldiers, twenty-one houses, one hundred years. one hundred thousand dollars, two hundred men, two hundred women, five hundred bonds, five hundred (government) securities, four hundred thousand persons. For the contractions of uno and ciento, see 123, a, b ; 126. 163. As numeral adjectives, ciento and mil cannot assume un like the substantives millon and cuento : un millon de gracias, a thousand thanks (literally, 'one million of thanks). cien vecinos, 1 one hundred citi- zens. mil duros, one thousand dollars. 1 Vecino means (i) a neighbor ; (2) the head of a family ; (3) a legal or offi- cially inscribed resident, a householder; (4) a citizen. Native estimates of population are made in rural districts by vecinos, heads of families ; in towns, by almas, souls; and by government, for foreign convenience, by habitantes, inhabitants. The traditional method is, however, by vecinos. 82 Form and Inflection. me did ma's de mil onzas, recibid hasta cien azotes, he gave me more than one thou- sand ounces. [dred lashes, he received as many as one hun- a. Ciento used as a substantive assumes the form centenar, unless employed to express rate. Mil, as a substantive, may retain that form, or appear as millar ; but to express rate, only the latter is usual : centenares de hombres, a" doce reales el ciento, millares or miles de vidas, veinticinco pesetas el millar, hundreds of men. at twelve reals per hundred, thousands of lives. [sand, at twenty-five francs per thou- REMARK. In mercantile language, it is usual to omit the article with the number. 1 a" doce reales ciento. a" veinticinco pesetas millar. 164. Tens of hundreds cannot be used in Spanish for counting from one thousand upwards, but mil must always introduce the denomination : mil y seis, mil y ciento, mil ciento y diez, mil cuatrocientos noventa y dos, dos mil trescientas personas, ten hundred and six. eleven hundred, eleven hundred and ten. fourteen hundred and ninety-two, twenty-three hundred persons. 165. The conjunction y, and (archaic /), is now only used to connect the last of a series with the foregoing number : Fifteenth Century: myll e quatrogientos e nouenta e nueue, 1499. Ninteenth Century: mil cuatrocientos noventa y nueve, 1499. 1 So the Madrid hawkers say, for example : a real, or & real uno, one real each. Numerals. 166. The ordinal numbers, as their name indicates, show the order of a series ; as, first, second, etc. : Ordinal Numbers. ist primero, a, (contract primer). 28th vigesimo octavo. 2d segundo, a. 29th vigesimo nono. 3d tercero, a, {contract tercer). 30th trigesimo, a. 4th cuarto, a. 3ist trigesimo primo, etc. 5th quinto, a. 40th cuadragesimo, a. 6th sexto, a, (#;**/ sesto). 50th quincuagesimo, a. 7th septimo, a, (rtWsetimo). 6oth sexagesimo, a. 8th octavo, a. 7oth septuage"simo, a. 9th nono, a, or noveno, a. 8oth octogesimo, a. loth decimo, a. 90th nonagesimo, a. nth undecimo, a. looth centesimo, a. 1 2th duodecimo, a. loist centesimo primo. 1 3th decimo tercio. 20Oth ducentesimo, a. 1 4th decimo cuarto. 3OOth trecentesimo, a. 1 5th decimo quinto. 40Oth cuadragentesimo, a.i 1 6th decimo sexto. 500th quingentesimo, a. 1 7th decimo septimo. 6ooth sexcentesimo, a. 1 1 8th decimo octavo. 700th septengentesimo, a. 1 1 9th decimo nono. Sooth octogentesimo, a. 20th vigesimo, a. 9OOth nonagentesimo, a. 2lSt vigesimo primo. i,oooth milesimo, a. 22d vigesimo segundo. 2,OOOth dos milesimo, a. 23d vigesimo tercio. i o,oooth diez milesimo, a. 24th vigesimo cuarto. 100,000th cien milesimo, a. 25th vigesimo quinto. 200,000th doscientos milesimo, a. 26th vigesimo sexto (sesto). 5oo,oooth quinientos milesimo, a. 2yth vigesimo septimo (setimo) . i, ooo,oooth millonesimo, a. 1 Some write cuadringentesimo, sescentesimo, septingenttsimo, but as the Academy does not give these numerals in the Dictionary or Grammar, the deci- sion of that body is not accessible. 84 Form and Inflection. 167. Archaic forms are - 8th ochavo. a. 30th treinteno, a. 9th noveno, a. 4Oth cuarenteno, a. loth deceno, a. 50th cincuenteno, a. nth onceno, a. 6oth sesenteno, a. 1 2th doceno, a. 7oth setenteno, a. 1 3th treceno, a. 8oth ochenteno, a. 1 4th catorceno, a. 90th noventeno, a. 1 5th quinceno, a. looth centeno, a. 20th veinteno, a. i,oooth mileno, a. el ochavo dia, Alfonso onceno, el doceno trabajo, the eighth day. Cronica General, A.D. 1260. AlphonsoXI. Fourteenth century, and still used, the twelfth labor. Villena, Labors of Hercules. But 2 ist, etc., would be vigesimo primo* not veinteno primo. 168. The ordinals, both simple and compound, vary regularly like all adjectives in o, agreeing in gender and number with their nouns : la primera estacion, leccion decima nona, la fila vigesima prima, the first station, lesson nineteenth, the twenty-first row. REMARK. The Academy writes the compound forms in one word: as, trigesimotercio (fern, trigesimatercia) , thirty-third '; but this innovation is not generally adopted by Spanish printers, nor should it be, since each member varies in ending like independent adjectives. For the contracts of primer o and tercero, see 123. 169. Fractional numbers used in mathematical calcu- lations, though substantives, belong here. They do not generally correspond with the ordinals, as in English ; Numerals. but from ten upwards a. "me the ending avo, pi. avos : Fractional Numbers. i la mitad (un medio). A un diez y seis avo (dieciseis avo). i| uno y medio, una y media. A un diez y siete avo. i un tercio. A un diez y ocho avo. I dos tercios. A un diez y nueve avo. i un cuarto. A un veintavo (veinte avo). i tres cuartos. A un veintiun avo, etc. i un quinto. A tres veintavos. 1 cuatro quintos. A un treintavo. i un sexto. A un cuarentavo. 1 cinco sextos. A un cincuentavo. un septimo. A un sesentavo. i un octavo and ochavo. A un setentavo. i un noveno. A un ochentavo. A un decimo. A un noventavo. A un onzavo (or, once avo). 5 3 tres noventavos. A un dozavo (doce avo). TOO un centavo and centesimo. A un trezavo (trece avo). ToVo un milesimo. A un catorzavo (catorce avo) . If! trescientos veinticinco, novecien- A un quinzavo (quince avo). tos setenta y dos avos. 170. Fractional numbers, from \ to T V inclusive, may also be expressed by the ordinals with the feminine noun parte, part, especially when a genitive follows or is understood. From -^ onward this construction is preferable, except in mathematical calculations : one-third, two-thirds, one-fourth, three-fourths, one-twentieth, one-hundredth, un tercio, or la tercera parte. dos tercios, or las dos terceras partes. un cuarto, or la cuarta parte. tres cuartos, or las tres cuartas partes. un vigesimo, or la vigesima parte. un centesimo, or la centesima parte. 86 Form and Inflection. a. As substantives, una tercia (formerly una tercia parte) signifies a third of a yard; una cuarta, a fourth or quarter of a yard ; un cuarteron, a quarter of a pound; una arroba (from the Arabic for one-quarter), twenty-five pounds or a quarter of a hundred, applied to liquid as well as dry measure in Spain. Un diezmo, meaning a civil or ecclesiastic ten per cent tax, is cor- rupted from dfcimo, as the English tithe is from tenth: as, las alcavalas del diezmo, in ancient law, the ten per cent peculium regis on all purchases and sales. Un quinto, is a fifth, and a fifth man, hence a conscript soldier; la quinta, the military conscription. b. Fractionals are also employed in Spanish to spec- ify the number of leaves in a signature or folded sheet (cuadtrnillo 1 ), that is, the size (tamano) of a volume : un tomo en folio (f), un tomo en cuarto (4), un tomo en octavo (8), un tomo en dozavo (12), un tomo en diezyseis avo(i6), un t. en veinte y cuatro avo (24) , a volume in folio, a volume in 4to. a volume in 8vo. a volume in I2mo. a volume in i6mo. a volume in 241110. REMARK. In this connection, "large" is expressed by mayor, and "small" by menor or pequeno: un tomo en f mayor, or de mar- ca mayor, - un tomo en cuarto menor, un libro de mano en octavo mar- quilla, a volume in large folio. a volume in small 4to. a manuscript in medium octavo. 1 So named (from quatro) because in the origins of typography most books were issued in " fours," whether the external form was quarto or folio. Numerals. un libro de molde en octavo pe- quefio, or '* espanol," a printed book in small octavo, "Spanish size." 1 171. The arithmetical signs +, x , , -5-, =, are read respectively mas, por, menos, dividido por, igual: 5 + 3 = 8, cinco ma's tres igual ocho ; or, cinco y tres, ocho. f x 8 5, cinco octavos por ocho igual cinco. 5 times 8 are 40, cinco por ocho, cuarenta. 172. Half (a half or one-half), as a noun, is expressed by la mitad (in calculations only, by un medio) ; as an adjective, by medio, a, without an or a: la mitad de mis bienes, le di la mitad, media hora, medio dia, una hora y media, un dia y medio, one-half of my goods. I gave him one-half, half an hour, half a day. an hour and a half, a day and a half. 173. Multiplicatives answer the question, How many fold? as, simple, simple. \ el duplo, el triplo, | triple, triple. Adjectives. doble, double. Substantives. twofold, twice as much, many, threefold, three times as much. el cuadruplo, fourfold, four times as much. el quintuple, fivefold, five times as many. el centuplo, an hundred fold, etc. 1 Technical book terms are : una foja, a folio (leaf numbered on the first side only, recto, verso or vueltd) ; una hoja, a leaf (without foliation or pagi- nation) ; una pagina, a numbered page. Un " juego" de libros, means a "set" of volumes, whether of two, or three hundred ; una biblioteca de tres mil tomos 6 de mil novecientos juegos de libros, a library consisting of three thousand volumes or of nineteen hundred sets. Biblioteca is a public or private library ; formerly, libreria signified private library, but its use is now limited to the poets and old-fashioned people, while libreria universally designates a book-shop or tke book trade. 88 Form and Inflection. a. With the number of a street are used duplicado, "bis," repeated; triplicado, triple number; cuadrupli- cado, quadruple number, when it is not convenient or feasible to increase the cardinal number : calle del Arenal, niimero veinte duplicado, Strand, No. 20 "bis" calle del Sauco, num. 6 trip ., Alder Street, No. 6 triple. REMARK. The Latin bis, twice, appears in Spanish in the words bizco (bisojo, double eye), cross-eyed; bizcocho (bis-coctus), biscuit? cracker, and teacake ; bisabuelo, a, great -grandfather, great-grandmother ; and biznieto, a, great-grandson, great-grand- daughter. The Spaniards use also the Greek rera/oro?, fourth, corrupted into tdtara, with a few words : as, tatarabuelo, a, great- great-grandfather or mother; tataranieto, a, great-great-grandson or daughter; tataradeudo, a, a remote kindred. 174. Collectives or numeral substantives are : un par, a couple. una docena, a dozen. una quincena,y/&^;z. una veintena, a score. un par de dias, de huevos, una quincena (de dias), una treintena de anos, una treintena, a score and a half. una cuarentena, two score. una centena,yw score. una gruesa, a gross. a couple of days, of eggs. a fortnight. a score and a half of years. a. The term " or so " after numerals is expressed by poco mas 6 menos, or by cosa de, a matter of: una veintena de libras poco ma's 6 me'nos, or cosa de una veintena de libras, twenty pounds or so, some twenty pounds. l That is, English biscuit, the American " cracker," also the teacake called " lady-fingers," and the like. Sea-biscuit in Spanish is galleta, " hard-tack," kneaded with rancid olive-oil, and used in the marine as well as the merchant service. Numerals. 175, Numeral Adverbs answer the questions, How many times ? How often f and are formed by the asso- ciation of a cardinal number or adjective with the femi- nine noun vez, a time (Lat. vice-m) : una vez, once. dos veces, twice. tres veces, three times. veinte veces, twenty times. cien veces, one hundred times. muchas veces, often. pocas veces, few times, seldom. rara vez, or raras veces, seldom. otras veces, other times. algunas veces, sometimes. alguna que otra vez, one time and another. a. Distributives which answer likewise the ques- tion, How often ? are expressed by todo or cada : todos los dias, meses, anos, todas las horas, veces, cada dia, mes y ano, cada hora, cada vez, cada dos siglos, cada tres meses, every day, month, year, every hour, each time, every day, month, and year, every hour, each time, every two centuries, every three months. REMARK. " Time " is expressed in Spanish in a variety of ways : by vez, as above, when it means an occasion, an instance ; by tiempo, as a limited portion of duration ; by hora, when it means " o'clock " ; by rato, as to the quality of an occasion ; by plazo, as a fixed pe- riod ; German, Frist : esta vez te lo perdono, el tiempo es corto, no tengo tiempo, I que hora es ? d estas horas estara en Paris, ha llevado mal rato, i que rato mas delicioso ! el plazo convenido, pagare en el plazo senalado, plazos cortos, Pll forgive you this time. time is short. I have no time. what time is it?. by this time he is at Paris. he had a poor time. what a delightful time ! the time agreed on. [the time. I shall pay at the expiration of in short instalments. Form and Inflection. The Pronoun. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 176. The personal pronouns in the nominative are: SINGULAR. Person. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. First. Second. Third. yo, /. tti, thou. vos, you. el, he (if). usted, you (your grace) . yo, /. td, thou. vos, you. ella, she (if). usted, you (your grace) . ello, it. PLURAL. First. Second. Third. nosotros, we. vosotros, you. ellos, they. ustedes, you (your graces) . nosotras, we. vosotras, you. ellas, they. ustedes, you (your graces). a. To these may be added se as the reflexive and reciprocal substitute of pronouns of the third person, in all cases except the nominative. As direct object, se means ones self, himself, herself, itself, yourself; pi., themselves, yourselves, each other, one another. REMARK. Names of things and abstract qualities (except those made so by the neuter article lo) are masculine or feminine in Span- ish, whatever be the English gender. Hence, el libro, the book 1, le, lo, it-, los libros, the books ellos, los, they, them; la pluma, the pen ella, la, //; las plumas, the pens ellas, las, they, them. Ello relates only to a thought, or a phrase to which gender cannot be attributed : ello, lo, it lo creo, / believe it, f think so. See 84. Personal Pronouns. g\ 177. Nosotros and vosotros are compounds of nos and vos with the plural indefinite pronoun otros, -as, others; and hence the variation of gender, unknown to the other European languages, in the first and second persons. The appendix otros served originally to ex- pand or amplify the force of we and you, but it added nothing to the signification, as the French autres in vous autres does. The compound first appeared in the latter half of the fifteenth century. 1 178. Nos is still used officially in a representative sense by sovereigns, prelates, and magistrates. It is also met with in certain quaint devotional formulae : nos los Inquisidores, nos el cabildo de tal, venga a nos el tu reino, ruega por nos, Senora, we the Inquisitors, we the Chapter of so and so. let thy kingdom come to us. intercede for us, Lady. Pronouns of Address. 179. The pronouns regularly employed in popular address are tu, vos, vosotros, -as, and us ted ; besides titles such as vuecelencia, senoria, tisia, etc. REMARK. At an early period of the vernacular Castilian, as fixed by King Alfonso X., called El Sabio, or the Wise (A.D. 1252- 84) , and till far down in the fifteenth century, the only pronouns of address, aside from titles, were tii and vos, the latter being then applicable to one or more persons. Tu was employed in sacred 1 The compound forms do not appear in the early Castilian Poem of the Cid, written prior to the thirteenth century; nor in the Chronicle of the Cid, first printed in 1512, but older by several centuries ; nor in the Chronicle of Spain (A.D. 1260), published in 1541; nor in the works of the Marquis of Santillana in the early part of the fifteenth century. They abound, however, in the Royal Edicts from 1476, and in the Chronicle of Spain, by Diego de Valera (Seville, 1482), though generally written throughout in two words, nos otros, vos otros. 92 Form and Inflection. invocation, in poetry, in the family, and to Moors (against the Arabic ant a, thou) ; while vos was the formal medium between man and man, like the English you. In the sixteenth century, under the expansive influences of the reigns of the Catholic sovereigns and the Emperor Charles V., vuestra merced, your grace, pi. vuestras mer- cedes,j0//rrtfy, came to be the courtly address between gentle- men ; and vos, with its new plural vosotros, was reserved for a lofty formula appropriate to persons of superior and inferior rank, to the Deity, and to court poetry, while tu maintained its position in the family and in informal rhyme. The relative situation of such words at the present day is as follows : 180. Tu, thou (nearly always translated you), is em- ployed : (a) in the sacred and hortative styles and in poetry ; (b) between husband and wife, parents and children, relatives, and betrothed persons ; (c) between intimate friends ; (d) by the native master and mistress to their domestics ; (e) by everybody in speaking to brutes, pet animals, or even to inanimate objects. 181. Vos, you, is now always limited to one person, male or female, although joined to the second person plural of verbs. It is at present employed ; (a) inter- changeably with tu for sacred invocation by Catholics, as more distant and formal than tu; (U) in modern literature, representing ancient manners ; (c) in the family, when the younger members wish to show great respect to the elders ; (d^) in anger and scorn, to infe- riors or to those whom we wish to address harshly; (/. D. le a ella, to her, to it. les a ellas, / is often met with. The 189. When, in English, the pronoun-subject has a substantive in apposition with it that limits or defines it, in Spanish the substantive, accompanied by the definite article, replaces the pronoun as the subject of the verb, and the latter is put in the person and number appropriate to the suppressed pronoun : los Espanoles estamos muy atra- sados, tenemos el gusto los liberates de ver el cambio, la mayor ofensa que los prin- cipes podeis hacer a Dios, es no osar nadie avisaros. (Guevara, 1537.) we Spaniards are very backward. we liberals have the satisfaction of seeing the change, the greatest offence that ye princes can commit against God, is that none dare warn you. a. If the pronoun and apposition are both expressed, the latter must always retain the definite article : nosotros los Espanoles, vosotras las senoras, we Spaniards, you ladies. Form and Inflection. 190. The position of the pronoun-subject is subser vient to the general laws of taste ; but emphasis, enthu- siasm, and often elegance, are exhibited by placing it after the verb, as in the interrogative state: no fue el en verdad el unico in- tolerante de su siglo, hombre del cual pienso yo que no le hay superior en la his- toria, indeed he was not the only in- tolerant man of his time. a man who I think has no su- perior in history. (Cdnovas del Castillo, 1877.) Genitive. 191. The genitive has all the meanings of the prepo- sition de, of, from, by, with, at, to, and often it is not translated at all : habla de tf, de nosotros, se rie de mi, de ellos, esta casa es de ella, se olvida de si, de ello, he speaks of thee, of us. he laughs at me, at them, this house belongs to her (is of), he forgets (of) himself (of) it. Dative. 192. The dative is not only translated by to, but also by for, from (with the idea of taking away), and very often it imparts to a following definite article the meaning of a possessive adjective: me habla, te da, nos procura, le cortd el brazo, se hirid la mano, les quita el sueno, he speaks to me, he gives thee. he gets for us. he cut his (another's) arm. he wounded his (own) hand, he takes away their sleep. a. In English, the signs of the dative (to, for, from) are often suppressed : me da, le dice, nos procura destinos, he gives me, he tells him. he gets us places (positions) . Personal Pronouns. 99 193. In Spanish, the dative, with another pronoun- object, is very frequently superfluous, and may be considered as an expletive : llevatelo (of a purchase) , se lo com id, quitatemelo (of removal) , echatemela (la pluma), take it (for thyself ). he ate it up (for himself), take it away from me, toss it to me (the pen) . 194. Since the datives le and les are common to both genders, some writers improperly employ the accusa- tives la and las for these feminines : le digo, la digo, les presto el libro, las presto la pluma, I say to him, I tell her. I lend them (men) the book. I lend them (women) the pen. Accusative. 195. The accusative case is governed directly by the verb : me ve, te llama, nos aman, os enganan, le conoce, la sigue, los odia, las recibe, el libro le or lo tomo, la pluma la veo, los libros los tomo, las plumas las veo, he sees me, he calls thee. they love us, they deceive you. he knows him, he follows her. he hates them, he receives them, the book I take it (him), the pen I see it (her), the books I take them, the pens I see them. REMARK. Many modern writers use lo of persons as well as of things, but the student should follow the dominant practice which makes le refer to persons and masculine words, while lo is limited to things to which gender cannot be assigned. 196. The use of les for los is frequently met with, but is discouraged by the Academy. In the pleonastic construction with ustedes, however, it is admissible: IOO Form and Inflection. les busque a* ustedes, los conoci en seguida, les mandd que no saliesen, I looked for you, I sought you. I knew them at once. he ordered them not to go out. REMARK. In the ancient language, from which the last example is taken, many verbs seem to have governed the dative which are now usually found with the accusative. 197. The pronouns le or lo, la, los, las, have an indefinite signification of one, some, any, such, negative none, when they stand in the predicate "with the impersonal verb hay, there is, there are, and relate to a substantive taken in an indeterminate sense: cree que no hay dia de juicio, y le (or lo) hay, trae una silla si la hay por ahi, comprare billetes si los hay, si hubiese alguna sociedad patri- otica como las hay politicas, he believes that there is no judg- ment day, and there is one. bring a chair if there is one thereabouts. [any. I shall buy tickets if there are if there were some patriotic so- ciety as there are political ones. 198. The same pronouns signify some, one, ones, when they are used with personal verbs relating to a substan- tive taken in a partitive sense : ^tiene V. pan? le or lo tengo, ^quien quiere agua? la quiero yo, ; felices pascuas tenga usted ! las tenga usted muy felices, I it plca$es me, said the curate. Personal Pronouns. 103 207. If an infinitive depend on a verb or on another infinitive, the pronoun may stand before the verb or be attached to either infinitive : no quiso decirme, or no me quiso decir, [buscar, voy a* buscarlos, or los voy a" sin volver a preguntarles, or sin volverles a preguntar, he did not care to tell me. I am going to look for them, without asking them again (re- turning to ask them). a. If the verb or infinitive do not admit an object, the pronoun attaches to the word that governs it ac- cording to the primary rule : los vid venir, vino a* verme, al oirnos discurrir asi, he saw them come, he came to see me. on hearing us discourse thus. 208. When the gerund is in the progressive form of the verb with estar, to be ; ir, to go ; venir, to come ; andar, to go, the object-pronoun may attach to it, or stand before the verb ; but the latter disposition is preferable : lo estamos viendo todos los dias, los voy buscando, os vamos comprendiendo, nos iba siguiendo, we are seeing it every day. I am looking for them, we are getting to understand you. he went on following us. 209. The first and second persons plural of the im- perative mode lose the s and the d of the respective endings when the reflexives nos and os are attached to them : ame'monos (for ame'mosnos) , vdmonos (for vayamosnos) , amaos (for amados) , detene'os (for detenedos), rendios (for rendidos), let us love one another, let us go. love (ye) one another, stop (yourselves), surrender (yourselves). IO4 Form and Inflection. REMARK. The above constitute the natural and regular laws for the position of the conjunctive pronouns. There are some devia- tions in practice from them which the student is advised not to imi- tate, since their application would be more or less quaint and inelegant, or dependent on a wide experience of the language at all epochs. Disjunctive Form. 210. The disjunctive or prepositional form of the dative and accusative cases is used when the verb, from its intransitive nature or signification, does not (in Spanish) admit an object without a preposition: acudid a" mi, a* ti, a* vos, viene a" nosotros y nos dice, nos acercamos a vosotros, se dirijio a ellos, a ellas, he applied to me, to thee, to you. he comes to us and says (to us), we draw near to you. he addressed (himself to) them. 211. It is likewise used with all kinds of verbs in emphatic, intensive, and antithetic utterances, in excla- mations, and in answer to a question without the verb : ;a ti llamo, Sefior! los lazos que a* mi le unen, <; el buscas ahora? nadie osa avisar a" vosotros y re- prender a" vuestros cortesanos, la candela alumbra a* los otros y quema a* si misma, el prmcipe nos puede avisar y nosotros d el, ,10. quien busca fulano? a" V.,a" mi, a" ellos, Lord, to Thee I call ! the bonds that unite him to me. are you looking for him now ? no one ventures to warn jw/ and rebuke your courtiers. the lamp gives light to others and consumes itself, the prince may warn us and we him. whom is such a one looking for? for you, for me, for them, (do you ^ay) that to him ! 212. When there are two verbs, the one of which is intransitive and the other transitive, directly or indi- rectly, each may have its appropriate regimen : llego a" ellos y les digo, I come up to them and say (to them) . Personal Pronouns. 105 213. Some verbs require the disjunctive with one signification and the conjunctive with another: no vuelvas mas a dl, do not return to him again, me vuelve la cara, he turns his face to me. cedo d ella, I give way to her. le cedo el paso, I allow her to pass. Pleonastic Construction. 214. The conjunctive and disjunctive pronouns may be associated to the same verb, not merely to give emphasis, but also to amplify the phrase. Either pronoun may come first, but greater intensity is often secured when precedence is given to the disjunctive: a* ti te conviene eso, a el le aprecian mucho, 3. mi que me importa? quiso enganarnos a* nosotros, ^ a vosotros os gusta eso ? that is for your interest, they regard him highly, what do / care ? he wanted to deceive us. do you like that? (does please you?) that 215. Any substantive or appositive may replace the disjunctive pronoun, preserving the redundant con- struction with the conjunctive: le aseguro al ministro, [bajar, a* los Indios les obligaron d tra- a" los caballeros les parecio bien, al hombre no le es permitido obrar con libertad, [ficio, a* todos nos reportara un bene- a" los Espanoles nos gusta char- lar (or parlar) , I assure the minister. [work, they compelled the Indians to it seemed good to the gentlemen, man is not allowed to act with freedom. it will bring us all a benefit, we Spaniards like to gossip (it pleases us S. to gossip). 216. A similar redundant construction obtains with the conjunctive pronoun and a substantive in the accusative : io6 Form and Inflection. eso no lo hago, es amigo de apuntarlo todo, todo me lo enviaba mi dama, casa no la tenian, cosa que no le me posible el cum- plirla, hombres como Cdrlos quinto nadie los volvera ya ma's d ver, I'll not do that. [thing, he is fond of jotting down every- my lady sent me everything, house they had none, a thing that it was not possible for him to fulfil, no one will ever again see men like Charles the Fifth. Inflection of TJsted. 217. Usted is inflected like any personal substantive ; as, hombre, mitjer. To avoid its unpleasant repetition, it has for pronominal substitutes the datives and accu- satives of // and ella, together with the common reflexive and reciprocal substitute of the third person : Singular. Plural. N. G. D. A. P. usted, you. de usted, ofyoti. a usted, subs, le, to you. a usted, subs, le, la, you. usted, you. ustedes, you. de ustedes, of you. a ustedes, les, to you. a ustedes, los, las (les), you. ustedes, you. G. D. A. P. de si, of yourself. se a si, to yourself. se a si, yourself. si, yourself. de si, of yourselves. se a si, to yourselves. se a si, yourselves. si, yourselves. 218. To avoid the disagreeable repetition of a formal address, usted as subject may be given once, and left understood afterward : usted no sabe lo que quiere, | you do not know what you want. 219. As object, usted may be represented by its pronominal substitutes: Personal Pronouns. 107 devuelvo d V. el libro y le pido otro, vengo d. ver a VV. y a decirles, oigo a V., mas no le veo, busque a VV., mas no les en- contre, I return you the book and ask you for another. [you. I come to see you and to say to I hear you, but I do not see you. I looked for you, but I did not find you. 220. In short sentences, usted, as subject, may be suppressed ; and, as object, may be replaced by one of its substitutes, provided no ambiguity would arise : you do me a great favor, that is all I have to tell you. I tell you and I repeat it. me hace un gran favor, es cuanto le tengo que decir, les digo y lo repito, 221. The oblique cases of listed may replace the possessive adjective: at your feet, lady (at presenta- tion or exif). \_sahitation. I kiss your hand, sir (formal & los pies de V., sefiora, beso a V. la mano, cabal lero, 222. Usted, as subject, may stand before or after the verb to which it is nominative. In the compound tenses it can never separate the auxiliary and participle, but takes its place before or after both : you do not know. you will find it. I hope you will do us the favor of remaining with us. have you received the book? usted no sabe, or no sabe V., lo hallaran ustedes, espero que nos hara V. el favor de quedar con nosotros, ^ha recibido V. el libro? a. The substitutes of tested follow the general law of position laid down for conjunctive pronouns : le digo, les digo, I tell you (sing, and pi.) . diciendole, diciendoles, telling you. decirle, buscarles, to tell you, to look for you. retfrese V., no se retire V., retire, do not retire. io8 Form and Inflection. 223. Usted and its substitutes form the pleonastic construction when joined to the same verb: ledirdd V., le busco d V., ^que* le pasa a" V. (sing.) ? ,; quelespasa a VV. (//.)? I shall tell you. I look for you. what is the matter with you? what is the matter with you ? 224. All adjectives, past participles, and variable words agree in gender and number with tt?& me lo quieren quitar, \ entreguenseme las armas, habiendotelo dicho, se me figura, figuratelo, no te lo figures, he gives it to me. give it to me (imperative). do not give it to me. to give it to him (or to them) . giving it to him (or to them). they wish to take it from me. let the arms be delivered to me, having told thee so. I imagine, imagine or fancy it. do not imagine it. 238. The pleonastic construction is the same for two objectives as for one : se lo doy a usted, a ustedes, a ese caballero se lo he dicho, a* mi me lo han asegurado, nos hizo Dios merced a ti y a mi, I give it to you (sing, and phir. ) . I have told it to that gentleman, they assured me so. [me. God was gracious to you and to Mismo, Propio. 239. Every pronoun-subject may be intensified by adding to it, in the proper gender and number, the adjective mismo, a, self; mismos, as, selves: yo mismo, yo misma, tii mismo, tu misma, \ mismo, ella misma, [mas, nosotros mismos, nosotras mis- usted mismo, usted misma, ustedes mismos or mismas, I myself (man or woman) . thou thyself. he himself, she herself. we ourselves. you yourself. you yourselves. REMARK. Note the effect of the graphic accent on the signi- fication of tu and el: el mismo, he himself. tu mismo, thou thyself. el mismo, the same. tu mismo padre, thy very father Personal Pronouns. 240. In the oblique cases of the personal pronoun, mismo or propio may be used, but only with the disjunctive or prepositional forms: me retra"igo de mi mismo, te enganas a ti propio, se condena a si misma, os quereis a vosotros mismos, VV. se vuelven contra si propios, I withdraw from myself, thou deceivest thyself, she condemns herself, you are fond of yourselves, you turn against your own selves. a. Mismo may be added to nouns with the reflexive meanings of the third person : el hombre mismo, la mujer misma, el libro mismo, los derechos mismos, las casas mismas, the man himself, the woman herself, the book itself, the rights themselves, the houses themselves. REMARK. The English word self, joined to nouns or adjectives without a pronoun, may be generally rendered by propio^ a, by a circumlocution, or by a single word : el amor propio, self-love. la abnegacion propia, self-denial. el orgullo, self -consciousness . el egoismo, selfishness. automatico, a, self-acting. el gobierno popular, self-govern- ment. orgulloso, self-conscious. egoista, selfish. [press. prensa automatica, self-acting una maquina que se alimenta a si misma, a self-feeding machine. 241. After adverbs of time and place, mismo is inva- riable and signifies this or that very, or its force may be rendered by the tone of voice : mafiana mismo, hoy mismo, ahora mismo, ayer mismo, aqui (alii) mismo, to-morrow, this very day. this very moment, only yesterday. in this (that) very place. Ii6 Form and Inflection. 242. Mismo, with the definite article, has the signifi- cations of self, very, even : el mismo cielo, the sky itself, the very sky, even the sky. las mismas mujeres, the women themselves, the very women, even the women. a. Even, in this sense, may also be expressed by hasta, with or without mismo: hasta las mujeres, or hasta las mismas mujeres, even the women, or even the very women. , , b. Mismo, a, as a common adjective, with an article, signifies the same : el mismo dia, la misma noche, los mismos libros, the same day. the same night, the same books. Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns. 243, Possessive adjectives and pronouns are varied and inflected like any adjective in o. Unlike the English usage, they agree in gender and number with the object possessed, and not with the person or thing possessing. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES. 244. Possessive adjectives are conveniently classed as conjunctive and absolute, according as they stand before the noun or after it. The conjunctives lose their final syllable, and consequently their gender distinction, except in the first and second persons plural, in which both forms are identical. They are varied as fol- lows: Possessive Adjectives. 117 SINGULAR. PLURAL. Conjunctive. Absolute. Conjunctive. Absolute. Common. Masc. Fern. Common. Masc. Fern. mi, mio, mia, mis, mios, mias, my. tu, tuyo, tuya, tus, tuyos, tuyas, thy. f his, her, su, suyo, suya, sus, suyos, suyas, -j its, I your. nuestro-a, nuestro, nuestra, nuestros-as, nuestros, nuestras, our. vuestro-a, vuestro, vuestra, vuestros-as, vuestros, vuestras, your. f their, su, suyo, suya, sus, suyos, suyas, < (. your. 245. The conjunctive forms of the possessive adjec- tive regularly stand before the nouns they qualify when no particular emphasis is intended : my father, my parents. my house, my houses. thy money, thy days. 1 his uncle, his uncle and aunt. their labor, their trials. our book, our pen. our books, our pens. mi padre, mis padres, mi casa, mis casas, tu dinero, tus dias, su tio, sus tios ( 106), su trabajo, sus trabajos, nuestro libro, nuestra pluma, nuestros libros, nuestras plumas, 246. Since su, sus, signify one's, his, her, its, their, and are therefore often equivocal, the genitive f rhp annrnnriarp nprsnnal nrnnnnn whirfi thpv your, case of id are theretore otten equivocal, the genitive the appropriate personal pronoun which they 1 Tus dias also means " thy saint's day," the anniversary of one's christening or baptism ; birthday 13 not celebrated in Spain. So they say, hoy es su santo, or el dia de su santo, or - 'mply hoy son sus dias, to-day is his saint or saint's day or to-day are "his days " ^s birthday, in English. Form and Inflection. represent may be added to the noun, or the definite article may replace su, sus y when the context would be indecisive, or when emphasis requires : su libro de el, de ella, su libro de ellos, de ellas, los libros de el, de ellos, his, her book (his book of him, of her), their book (their book of them, m. and/.), [him, of them), his, their books (the books of 247. Your is also expressed by su, sus, when the address is carried on by usted ; otherwise vuestro, a, which corresponds to vos, vosotros, as. Instead of su, de usted (de V.) alone may be used, or both su and de V., constituting the favorite pleonastic construction : su libro, el libro de V., or su libro de V., su libro, el libro de VV., or su libro de VV., sus libros, los libros de V., or sus libros de V., sus libros, los libros de VV., or sus libros de VV., ,; teneis vuestros libros ? REMARK. The conjunctive strengthened by adding to it the mi propio padre, mi propia casa, sus propios asuntos, tu propia fe te ha salvado, your book (to one person) . your book (to several persons) . your books (to one person) . your books (to several persons) . have you your books ? possessive adjective may be word propio, a, own : my own father. my own home (house). his own affairs. thine own faith hath saved thee. 248. The absolute or uncontracted forms of the possessive adjective regularly stand after an impersonal noun, accompanied by the definite article, and are preferred when greater intensity is required, as in Possessive Adjectives. iig spirited language, in contrast, and for rhetorical ef- fect : la f6 tuya, el deseo mio, los achaques suyos, la edad nuestra, thy faith, my desire. his (physical) infirmities. 1 our age, or our times. REMARK. Except in the vocative case, the absolute forms are not used of persons in common prose with the definite article. See 250. 249. The absolute possessive adjectives of the first person are regularly employed in direct address (the vocative case), but without the definite article : amigo mio, amigos mios, padre nuestro, Dios mio, hijo mio, muy sefior mio, muy senores nuestros, my friend, my friends. Our Father, Heavens! (My God!) my son, my dear sir (in letters) . gentlemen (our dear sirs).' 2 a. But if an ordinary adjective, or past participle used as an adjective, accompany the direct address, either the conjunctive or the absolute forms may be used : mi querido hijo, or \ . , , .. . > my dear son. 3 querido hijo mio, ) mi inolvidable amigo, mis buenos senores, mi pobre muchacho, or pobre muchacho mio, my never-to-be-forgotten friend. my good sirs. my unfortunate boy, or my poor fellow. 250. The definite article, with all absolute forms, is suppressed in certain phrases : 1 Moral infirmities would be debilidades. 2 Used by one firm writing to another firm or razon social. We would say simply " gentlemen." 3 The father would usually write to his son : mi querido hijo ; the mother, querido hijo mio, which will serve as an example of the intensity of postposition. I2O Form and Inflection. de parte tuya, a" casa nuestra, a" fig mia, suya, d instancias vucstras, a" costa suya, on thy part, from thee. to our house. on my or his word. at your instance. at his or their expense. 251. The absolute forms of the possessive adjective regularly stand after a personal or impersonal noun taken in an indeterminate sense (with a, an, some, expressed or implied). The adjective then assumes the idiomatic pronominal signification of mine, of thine, of his, etc. : a friend of mine, of ours, a relative of thine, of yours, some acquaintances of yours, some servants of his (of theirs). I shall give you an old one of mine. I spoke to him of a matter of yours. un amigo mio, nuestro, un pariente tuyo, vuestro, unos conocidos de V., de VV., unos criados suyos, le dare a" V. uno viejo mio, hable con 61 de un asunto tuyo, REMARK. We may also say, uno de mis amigos, one of my friends, etc. ; but there is more definiteness in this style of phrase than in the other. a. The same rule obtains when the noun is in the predicate after the verb to be, or its equivalent : 6s discipulo mio, suyo, son paisanos nuestros, he is a pupil of mine, of his. they are from our province. b. A substantive grouped with one or more possessive adjectives, and denoting possession, is put in the genitive : *' es intimo amigo mio, tuyo, y de toda nuestra casa," he is an intimate friend of mine, of yours, and of all our family. 252. The conjunctive possessive adjectives have the same pronominal signification as the absolute ones do Possessive Adjectives. 121 with indeterminate expressions, when the former stand between a demonstrative and a noun : this friend of mine. 1 that house of thine. yon garden of his, of theirs. these friends of ours. este mi amigo, esa tu casa, aquel su jardin, estos nuestros amigos, 253. Instead of the possessive adjective, the dative of the personal pronoun, or of usted, must be used with the verb, and the definite article with the noun, when reference is made to parts of the body or articles of dress : le tomd la mano (a ella) , beso a usted la mano, 2 me conmueve el alma, se herfa el pecho, me duele la cabeza, te pisa el vestido, se quita los zapatos, les pone la ropa, me he cortado el dedo, he took her hand (the h. to her). I kiss your hand (the h. to you), it stirs my heart (to me the h.). he smote his (own) breast, my head aches (the h. a. to me), he steps on thy dress, he takes off his (own) shoes, he puts on their clothes (to them) . I have cut my finger. a. If there can be no possible doubt as to the person referred to, the article will suffice without the dative: recibio un golpe en el brazo, ella levantd los ojos, bajo la cabeza y calldse, he received a blow in his arm. she raised her eyes. [lent, he bowed his head and was si- 254. Possessive pronouns are regularly accompanied by the definite article, both agreeing in gender and number with the object possessed, and not with the person or thing possessing : 1 In Biblical language, este tu hermano, this thy brother ; aquellos tus acusadores, those thine accusers; but not in modern common English. 2 The lady says this to the gentleman (adding caballero, sir), on a formal presentation, or when she or he leaves the room ; his term is : a los pies de V M sefiora, at your feet, lady, on presentation or leave-taking. 122 Form and Inflection. su padre de V. y el mio, su casa y la tuya, mis amigos y los vuestros, nuestros hermanos y los de V., enjugdron nuestras Idgrimas, las de mi hija y mias, your father and mine, his house and thine, my friends and yours, our brothers and yours, they wiped away my daughter's tears and mine. 255. The possessive pronouns are varied as follows : SINGULAR. PLURAL. Masc. Fein. Neut. Masc. Fern. el mio, la mia, lo mio, los mios, las mias, mine. el tuyo, la tuya, lo tuyo, los tuyos, las tuyas, thine. rhis. el suyo, la suya, lo suyo, los suyos, las suyas, \ hers. I its. el de V. or la de V. or lo de V. or los de V. or las de V. or | el suyo, la suya, lo suyo, los suyos, las suyas, } yours. el nuestro, la nuestra, lo nuestro, los nuestros, las nuestras, ours. el vuestro, la vuestra, lo vuestro, los vuestros, las vuestras, yours. el suyo, la suya, lo suyo, los suyos, las suyas, theirs. eldeVV.or ladeW.or lodeW.or losdeVV.0r lasdeVV.0r 1 el suyo, la suya, lo suyo, los suyos, las suyas, > yours. 256. Each one of these forms is inflected like any adjective with the definite article: SINGULAR. PLURAL. Masc. Fern. Neut. Masc. Fern. N.A.P. G. D. el mio, del mio, al mio, la mia, de la mia, a la mia, lo mio, de lo mio, a lo mio, los mios, de los mios, a los mios, las mias, del as mias, a las mias, mine, of mine, to mine. Possessive Pronouns. 123 su libro es semejante al mio, tus costumbres son distintas de las nuestras, mi heredad linda con la de usted, his book is similar to mine, thy habits are different from ours, my property joins yours. 257. The possessive pronoun loses the article when it stands in the predicate with the verb to be, and is used in a general sense : el triunfo es nuestro, esta casa es mia, este libro es suyo, or de el, los premios son vuestros, tuya es la culpa, the triumph is ours, this house is mine, this book is his. the prizes are yours, thine is the fault. REMARK. But if the possessive in the predicate has a specific meaning, the article is regularly employed : este sombrero es el mio, esta casa es la mia, (this hat is mine (/.., the one t that belongs to me) . this house is mine. a. In the predicate suyo may be replaced by the genitive of the personal pronoun when ambiguity re- quires it : this book is his, hers. this pen is yours. the trees are theirs. these papers are mine and not este libro es de el, de ella, esta pluma es de usted, los arboles son de ellos, estos papeles son mios y no de ustedes, yours 258. The possessive may be employed substantively ; lo is always so used : los mios, los nuestros, lo mio y lo suyo, d lo suyo vino, y los suyos no le recibieron, my people, my party (mine) . our friends, our adherents (ours) . what is mine and his. he came to his own (estate), and his own (people) re- ceived him not. 124 Form and Inflection. DEMONSTRATIVES. 259. The demonstratives are determinative adjectives with substantive and pronominal functions. They agree in gender and number with the noun they limit, except the neuter forms which are substantives by nature. They are inflected by the aid of the case prepositions, and varied as follows : SINGULAR. PLURAL. Masc. Fern. Neut. Masc. Fern. este, esta, esto, this estos, estas, these (by me). (by me). ese, esa, eso, that esos, esas, those (by you). (by you). aquel, aquella, aquello, that aquellos, aquellas, those (yonder). (yonder) . el, la, lo, that los, las, those (of). (of). 260. To these may be added : estotro, a, estotros, as, this other, these other ; esotro, a, esotros, as, that other, those other ; aquel otro, aquella otra, etc., that other, those other. Likewise the archaic forms aqueste, aquese, for este, ese, this, that. 261. The demonstratives este, ese, and aquel naturally stand before the noun which they limit : este nifio, esta casa, ese precio, aquel dia, estos libros, esas calles, this child, this house. [day. that price (you mention), that these books, those streets. 262. In lively or intensive language, the demonstra- tives este, ese, aquel, may follow a noun accompanied by the definite article : el hombre este, la casa esta, I this man (here), this house, las mujeres esas, los dias aque- I those women, those days. llos, Demonstratives. 125 263. In general, este signifies that which is near the speaker, where he is, or of which he is speaking ; ese> that which is near the person addressed, where he is, or of which he is speaking ; aquel, that which is remote from both : este libro, esta pluma, ese libro, esa pluma, aquel libro, aquella pluma, este pais, esta ciudad, ese pais, esa ciudad, aquel pais, aquella ciudad, this book, this pen (near me) . that book, that pen (near you) . that book, that pen (yonder). this country, city (where I am). that country, city (where you are). [both). that country, city (distant from REMARK. Observe that ese means that, where our correspondent is, no matter how many thousand miles away ; if we are in New York, and he in Valparaiso, we write to him of his town, and he to us of ours, as esa ciudad; while Montevideo and Quebec would be aquella ciudad to both. To each, respectively, the United States and Chili would be ese pais, that country (where yoii are) ; while Canada or Buenos Ayres would be aquel pais to both. a. In correspondence, the words ciudad, city, and plaza, market, are usually suppressed with esta and esa after the preposition en, in; en esta is therefore ren- dered here, and en esa, there or with you : en esta no hay novedad, I como van los negocios en esa ? there is nothing new here, how is business with you? b. When speaking of the same place, city, etc., relative distances therein are expressed by este, ese, and aquel: esta calle, este barrio, esa calle, ese barrio, aquellas calles, aquellos barrios, this street, this district (where we are) . [which you speak) . that street (where you live, or of those (remote) streets. 126 Form and Inflection. 264. With reference to time historically considered, este denotes the present day, or the time of which we are speaking represented as present ; ese, a period or circumstance occurring within our personal memory; aquel, any period or circumstance occurring previous to our day : esta poca, these days (this epoch). ese suceso, that event (which I remember). aquellos sucesos, those events (before my time). This law is seldom violated by correct writers. a. Within the limit of personal experience, relative distances or events are expressed the same way : this week, this year. that event, that year (spoken of). that day, that year (long ago) . esta semana, este ano, ese suceso, ese ano, aquel dia, aquel ano, 265. Ese has often the contemptuous sense of the Latin iste: los pillos esos, esos esplotadores, esas tias, or las tias esas, those rascals. those (political) harpies. those women (in contempt) . REMARK. Ese is also found with many popular idioms asso- ciated with de Dios, of God, in the sense of "blessed"; as, por esos trigos, campos, barrios " de Dios," in those blessed fields, dis- tricts, etc., to indicate vaguely, wittily, or satirically indefinite loca- tion : 'vdngase un par de horas por esas calles de Dios, y vera" c<5mo todos piensan de ese modo" (Escenas Matritenses\ come along for an hour or two and take a stroll about the streets, and you'll see if everybody is of your way of thinking. 1 Literally, " aunts " ; popularly used of the supposed grasping nobility ; as well as of lewd women. Demonstratives. 127 El Carnaval es una licencia para que toda persona decente pue- da correr como un loco por esas calles de Dios, con un rabo mas largo que el de Luzbel, y un pedazo de carton en la cara, haciendo el oso delante de todo el mundo. Carnival is a general privilege permitted to any respectable person to run madly about the blessed streets with a tail long- er than Lucifer's, and a piece of pasteboard attached to his face, playing his pranks be- fore everybody. 266. The neuter forms esto, eso, aquello, mean this thing, that thing; thus: esto, what I say; eso, what you say ; aquello, that (remote thing), in narration: esto es cuanto tengo que decir, eso no es nada, eso es ya otra cosa, eso es ; eso si, aquello fue una lastima, this is all I have to say. that is nothing, that makes a difference, that's a fact ; that indeed, that was a pity (to see). 267. The definite article is used as a demonstrative pronoun, assuming the gender and number of the noun it replaces : mi libro y el de mi hermano, estos libros y los de mi hermano, su casa y la de su padre, sus casas y las de su padre, los relojes de oro y los de plata, my book and that of my brother, these books and my brother's, his house and that of his father, his houses and those of his father, the gold and silver watches. REMARK. The genitive after the demonstrative pronoun may often be embraced in the English possessive case : My book and my brother's, his house and his father's, etc. a. Lo, aquello, and la, las, are used elliptically in certain phrases : lo de Castro, lo de ayer, aquello del fildsofo griego, the (affair) of Castro. the affair of yesterday, [losopher. that (thought) of the Greek phi- 128 Form and Inflection. a la de Dios es Cristo, 1 tomar las de Villadiego, like a good fellow, to take French leave. 26a As substantives, tste refers to the last mentioned of two persons or things, and aqutl to the first : e^te, this, esta, this, dstos, these, estas, these, > the latter. divididos estaban caballeros y escuderos, stos contandose sus vidas, y aqu^llos sus amores, aqudl, that, aquella, that, aque'llos, those, aqu&las, those, the former. parted sat knights and esquires ; the latter reviewing their lives, and the former their gallan- tries. Observe that the order in Spanish is regularly the reverse of the English, although Mesonero Romanos writes : Sacrificando aquellas, y ponien- do estas sobre las nifias de mis ojos, reluctantly parting with the for- mer, and warmly cherishing the latter. 1 A la or d lo de Dios es Cristo, seems to derive from, after the (fashion) of [him whose] God is Christ, and to suggest a reference by the Moors and Jews to the dominant Christian Spaniard, by whom it was handed down in the lower signification of a "gay fellow," in Spanish, a valenton. In the Lazarillo de Tormes (1552) we find : puesto a lo de Dios es Cristo, dressed up like a dandy; and in the Guzman de Alfarache, gente de lo de Dios es Cristo, boon companions. Phrases like these and such as tomar las de Villadiego, averiguelo Vargas, etc., come from local circumstances soon forgotten, while the term remained. Tomar las calcas de Villadiego, to catch up Villadiego 's small clothes, redolent of some whilom scandal from which Villadiego escaped without stopping to arrange his toilet, is first given in the Celestina (1499-1500), then in Blasco de Garay (1545), in Perez del Castillo (1560), in Cipriano de Valera (1588), in Percivale's Spanish- English Dictionary (London, 1592), in that of Minsheu (1599), in Cervantes (1605), Covarrubias (1611), Quevedo (1627), and the Spanish Academy's Dic- tionary (1729), with the ellipse calzas supplied. After that date, the " breeches " disappear, and few Spaniards to-day understand the original reference. Averi- guelo Vargas means, literally, let Vargas ferret it out, or, more generally, find it out if you can, a. variation of Horace's credat ludaeus Apella. Relative Pronouns. 129 269. Este, ese, and aquel are also used as substantives, in the signification of this, this one, he ; that, that one, he, preserving their gender variation as adjectives, and assuming the graphic accent : este no es mi libro. <;es este el tuyo? aquel que estd. sobre el armario es mio, entdnces dijo este, ,; que es lo que hace aquel ? this is not my book, is this one thine? that one which is on the ward- robe is mine, then said he. what is that (fellow) doing? RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 270. The relative pronouns are : quien, quienes, who; que (invariable), who, which, that. el cual, la cual ; los cuales, las cuales, > ... . > who, which. el que, la que ; los que, las que, ) lo cual. which (thing) ; lo, que. that which, what. cuyo, cuya; cuyos, cuyas, whose, of which, which. aquel que, or el que, he who, ) the one who, the one which aquella que, or la que, she who, > or that. aquellos que, or los que, ) those who, or those which, the ones aquellas que, or las que, > who or which. quien, he who, the one who ; quienes, those who, the ones who, aquello que, that (thing, saying or matter) which. Quien. 271. Quien is now properly used of persons only. Its nominative is que, when the antecedent is a word of either gender or number, and quien, el cual, or que when it connects a compound sentence of which each member makes complete sense by itself : 130 Form and Inflection. el hombre que, la mujer que, ayer tope* con un amigo, quien (el cual or que) me conto todo lo sucedido, el duelo nos vino de los pueblos del Norte, quienes (los cua- les) decidian sus pleitos por las armas, the man who, the woman who. yesterday I fell in with a friend, who gave me an account of all that has happened, duelling came to us from tfie Northern peoples, who^yrere accustomed to decide ^their differences by arms. REMARK. Although we cannot use quien when the antecedent is a mere term without independence, yet we may say, for example, hombre es quien viene, it is a man who comes] mujeres son quienes salen, they are women who are going out ; when the ante- cedent is used indefinitely and stands in the predicate with the verb to be. 272. In the oblique cases, quien was formerly em- ployed for both numbers, and applied to things as well as persons, echoing its Latin origin (quern) ; but at present such use must be regarded as archaic : j siglos dichosos aquellos quien los antiguos pusieron nombre de dorados ! los Siete Sabios ci quien tanto veneraba la Grecia. happy ages those to which the ancients applied the epithet golden ! the Seven Wise Men whom Greece so much venerated. REMARK. Quien may, however, be used with proper names of cities, and applied to corporations and other collective terms denoting persons ; such as, pueblos, naciones, Academia, consejo, etc. 273. The accusative of quien is either a quien or que (not que), whom. 1 1 Hence the sentence, este es el hombre & que V. debe la vida, is incorrect. See Monsanto and Languellier's Spanish Grammar, p. 133. We could say: esta es la circunstancia a que V. debe la vida; not el hombre d que. Relative Pronouns. 131 274. The inflection of quien is as follows : ! Singular. Plural. v que (quien), que (quienes), who. fo. de quien, de quienes, of whom. D. a quien, a quienes, to whom. A. a quien, or que, a quienes, or que, whom. 1 P * con quien, 1 con quienes, 1 with whom. el hombre que escribe, las muchachas que cosen, el amigo de quien hablamos, las personas quienes acudo, el vecino que (or quien) busco, las senoras que (d quienes) visito, los oficiales con quienes comi, the man who writes. the girls who sew. the friend of whom we speak. the persons to whom I apply. the neighbor whom I seek. the ladies whom I visit. the officers with whom I dined. Que. 275. Que relates to persons or things in the nominative or accusative cases only; in the other cases its use is limited to things. Being invariable in number and gender, its inflection is indicated by prepositions, as follows : Singular. Plural. N. que, que, who, which, that. G. de que, de que, of which. D. a que, a que, to which. A. que, que, whom, which, that. P. con que, con que, with which. 1 Any preposition may, of course, supplant con in the prepositional case ; as, por quien, by whom ; para quien, for whom, etc. 132 Form and Inflection. el libro que esta encima de la mesa, las plumas que no hacen serial, la huelga de que se habla, el gobierno que estamos suje- tos, los estudios que me aplico, las manzanas que V. me did, la facilidad con que se hace, la casa en que vivo, the book which (that) is on the table. [mark, the pens which do not make a the strike of which they speak, g, the government to which we subject. [my the branches to which I app the apples which you gave me the ease with which it is done, the house in which I live. 1 REMARK. In Spanish, the preposition must always stand before the word it governs. Hence the vulgar English constructions, the strike they speak of, the government we are subject to, the house I live in, must first be restored to the literary form before rendering into Spanish. 276. The accusative case of the relatives quien and que must never be omitted in Spanish : la persona que vi, las casas que compre, the person (whom) I saw. the houses (which) I bought. REMARK. The conjunction que, that, must not be confounded with the relative pronoun. The former is frequently left out in Spanish after certain verbs, although the Academy very properly censures the omission : te ruego encarecidamente (que) no te marches hasta que yo vuelva, supliquemos al eterno Padre (que) quiera reconocer las palabras que le decimos (Gra- nada) , I earnestly request you not to go away until I come back. let us implore the Eternal Father to be pleased to acknowledge the words that we address to him. Literally: I request that you may not go, etc. ; let us implore that the Father may be pleased, etc. Relative Pronouns. 133 1 cual, el que. 277. El cual and el que are the substitutes of quien and qiie, and therefore relate to persons or things. They are, in general, preferred when an inflected relative is desirable to avoid ambiguity, or the unpleasant recur- rence of the word que, as connectives between compound sentences, and especially after short prepositions when the antecedent substantive is accompanied by the in- definite article, or is used partitively : los Moros se dejaron maniatar de los Cristianos, los cuales con mucha presteza lo hicieron, llamd a" un mozo de cordel, 1 al que le entregd una carta, seguimos al ama del candnigo, el cual vivia en un cuarto bajo, se dedicd al cuidado de su hija, en la cual veia el retrato de su mujer, una real drden en la cual se decia que, un incidente con el que no se habfa contado, hay injurias de las que no se debe hacer caso, the Moors suffered their hands to be tied by the Christians, who were not slow to do it. he summoned a messenger, to whom he delivered a letter, we followed the housekeeper of the canon, who lived on the ground floor, he devoted himself to the care of his daughter, in whom he beheld the image of his wife, a royal order in which it was said that, etc. an incident on which he had not counted, there are wrongs of which no notice should be taken. 278. The inflection of el cual is as follows (that of el que varies the article in the same manner, but que does not change) : 1 A mozo de cordel is a public " porter," who carries a coil of rope (cordel} on his shoulder, and serves to transport heavy burdens, or to run of errands. Lately " errand-boys " have been introduced into Madrid, called mandaderos. 134 Form and Inflection. SINGULAR. PL.URAL. Masc. Fein. Masc. Fern. N. el cual, la cual, los cuales, las cuales. who, which. G. del cual, de la cual, de los cuales, de las cuales, of whom, of which. D. al cual, a la cual, a los cuales, a las cuales. to whom, to which. P.A. al cual, a la cual, a los cuales, a las cuales, whom (persons). I. A. el cual, la cual, los cuales, las cuales, which (things). P. con el cual, con la cual, con los cuales, con las cuales, with whom, with which. 279. The substitutes must be used when the relative is governed by compound prepositions, or such as are not monosyllables : un medico ante el que huyen las dolencias, un velador eiicima del cual hay un juego de cafe, las noticias segun las cuales quiso obrar, latorre desde la cual se domina la vega entera, a physician before whom aches and pains disappear. a stand on which there is a coffee set. the information according to which he saw fit to act. the tower from which you can take in the whole plain. 280. The adverb donde, where, is frequently used as a relative : la calle por donde ha ido, the street by which he went. 281. Lo cual, which, refers always to an idea, a thought, or a preceding sentence : le aconsejd que tomase un cria- I advised him to engage a ser- do, lo cual no quiso hacer, vant, which he would not do. dicho lo cual, salio, saying which, he went out. Relative Pronotms. 135 282. Lo que, that which, what, todo lo que, all that, likewise relate to an idea, and not to a word : me dijo lo que habfa sucedido, V. me dara lo que le parece, a" lo que veo, no consta, todo lo que dice es verdad, he told me what had passed, you may give me what you like, by what I see, it is not proven, all that he says is the truth. a. Lo que occasionally signifies how, how miich, especially in exclamations: if he only knew how much I longed for them ! how much you must know ! j si el supiera lo que yo los de- seaba ! ( Cervantes . ) j lo que debe V. saber ! REMARK. In popular language one often hears lo que employed in the sense of as for, probably an ellipse for/ there ; ha-y, it has there, there is, there are (Fr. il y a). The old Spanish original ha, negative non ha (still preserved in Portuguese), has been handed down in the legal phrase for denying a petition : no ha lugar, there is no occasion ; or for dismissing a case equivalent to nolle prosequi. 357. A vulgar, but very common, form of the imperative and desiderative hay a among the illiterate classes, is haiga, as if from faciat (faica, faiga, haiga} : que haiga salud, que no haiga novedad, let there be health, let nothing befall you. Both these phrases are heard among the lowly in taking leave of one another. Likewise in the personal verb, in the respectful formula employed in an undertone when a deceased person is referred to. Thus, Ramon de la Cruz, in the " Sainete " entitled Las Castaneras Picadas, says humorously : Felices, senora Paca Javiera, con muchos gustos, Y los aumentos de gracia Que yo la deseo en vida Del difunto (que Dios haiga) . 1 68 Form and Inflection. Active Conjugation of the Regular Verb. 358. The inflection of all regular verbs in the Active Voice proceeds after three models which are charac- terized by the ending of the infinitive, thus: Infinitives in -ar characterize the First Conj. : hablar, to speak. Infinitives in -er characterize the Second Conj. : coiner, to eat. Infinitives in -ir characterize the Third Conj. : vivir, to live. a. All verbs, whether regular, irregular, impersonal, or defective, belong to the conjugation indicated by their infinitive-ending, however much their inflection may differ in other respects from the models of regular verbs. 359. In the regular verb the terminations are applied directly to the unchanged stem, found by suppressing the infinitive-endings : habl-ar ; com-er ; viv-ir ; habl-amos, com-emos, viv-imos, to speak ; to eat ; to live ; we speak. we eat. we live. a. The indicative future and conditional are originally compound forms, consisting of the infinitive joined to the endings of the indicative present and imperfect of the auxiliary verb haber : hablar-6 ; vivir-an ; hablar-ia, vivir-lan, I shall I should speak, they will they would live. REMARK. Hence the literal meaning of the Spanish future is "I have to speak," expressed likewise by he de hablar; and the literal meaning of the conditional is " I had to speak," or habia de hablar. Anciently, the object-pronoun could stand between the infinitive and the auxiliary; as, hablarozhe, hablarleMa, and hablar\Q*ia ; modern : os hablar e, les hablar la. Thus the proverb in its original form : dime con quien andas, decirteh quie'n eres (for te tell me with whom you associate, I will tell you what you are. The Verb. 169 360. In the irregular verb throughout, the gerund, past participle, present and imperfect indicative, present subjunctive, and imperative, are derived from the stem of the infinitive (present stem); the imperfect (both forms) and future subjunctive are derived from the stem of the past definite (preterit stem) ; the future and conditional of the indicative always follow the infinitive by adding to it the endings of haber ( 352, c) : I. Present Stem: Infinitive, Gerund (usually), Past participle, Present indicative, Present subjunctive, Imperative, Imperfect indicative. II. Preterit Stem: Past definite indicative, Imperfects subjunctive, Future subjunctive, Gerund (occasionally). III. From the Infinitive: Future indicative, Conditional of the indicative. 361. Table of verb-endings : INFINITIVE. GERUND. PAST PARTICIPLE. 1. -ar, -ando, -ado. 2. -er, -iendo, -ido. 3. -ir, -iendo, -ido. INDICATIVE MODE. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present. Present. 1. 2. 3. 1. 8. 3. -0, -O, -O. -e, -a, -a. -as, -es, -es. -es, -as, -as. -a, -e, -e. -e, -a, -a. -amos, -emos, -imos. -emos, -amos, -amos. -ais, -eis, -is. -eis, -ais, -ais. -an, -en, -en. -en, -an, -an. Form and Inflection. INDICATIVE MODE. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. I mperfect. Imperfect (first form). 1. 3. 3. 1. 8. 3. -aba, -ia, -ia. -ara, -iera, -iera. -abas, -ias, -ias. -aras, -ieras, -ieras. -aba, -ia, -ia. -ara, -iera, -iera. -Abamos, -iamos, -iamos. -Aramos, -ieramos, -ieramos. -Abais, -iais, -iais. -Arais, -ierais, -ierais. -aban, -ian, -ian. -aran, -ieran, -ieran. Past Definite. Imperfect (second for ni). 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. -e, -i, -i. -ase, -iese, -iese. -aste, -iste, -iste. -ases, -ieses, -ieses. -6, -io, -io. -ase, -iese, -iese. -amos, -imos, -imos. -Asemos, -iesemos, -iesemos. -Ssteis, -tsteis, -ISteis. -Aseis, -ieseis, -ieseis. -aron, -ieron, -ieron. -asen, -iesen, -iesen. Future. Future. 1. 2. 3. 1. 3. 3. -e, -e, -e. -are, -iere, -iere. -as, -as, -as. -ares, -ieres, -ieres. -a, -A, -A. -are, -iere, -iere. -ffeios, -^mos, -inos. -Aremos, -ieremos, -ieremos. -eis, -eis, -eis. -Areis, -iereis, -iereis. -an, -An, -An. -aren, -ieren, -ieren. IMPERATIVE MODE. Condition nl . 1. 8. 3. 1. 2. 3. -ia, -ia, -ia. _ __ _ -ias, -ias, -ias. -a, -e, -e. -ia, -ia, -ia. -e (V.), -a (V.), -a (V.). -iamos, -iamos, -iamos. -emos, -amos, -amos. -iais, -iais, -iais. -ad, -ed, -id. -fan, -ian, -ian. -en (W.), -an (W.), -an (W.). The Verb. FIRST CONJUGATION. 362. Model verb hablar, to speak. SIMPLE TENSES. Infinitive. Gerund. Past Participle. habl-ar, to speak. habl-ando, speaking. habl-ado, spoken. Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. PRESENT. PRESENT. habl-.o, / speak. habl-e, I may habl-as, thou speakest. habl-es, thou mayst habl-a, he speaks. habl-e, he may Vr habla, you speak. V. hable, ~ "you may 1 habl-amos, we speak. habl-emos, we may ^ fe habl-ais, * ye speak. habl-eis, ye may habl-an, they speak. habl-en, they may VV. hablan, you speak. VV. hablen you may IMPERFECT. IMPERFECT (first form}. habl-aba, / was habl-ara, I might habl-abas, thou wast habl-aras, thou mightest habl-aba, he was fc habl-ara, he might V. hablaba, you were I V. hablara, you might ^ i\ habl-abamos, we were ^ >' habl-aramos, we might ft 3* habl-abais, ye were $ habl-drais, ye might habl-aban, they were habl-aran, they might VV. hablaban, you were VV. hablaran, you might PAST DEFINITE. IMPERFECT (second form) . habl-e, / spoke. habl-ase, I might habl-aste, thou spokest. habl-ases, thou mightest habl-6, he spoke. habl-ase, he might V. hablo, you spoke. V. hablase, you might 1 habl-amos, we spoke. habl-asemos, we might ft to habl-dsteis, ye spoke. habl-dseis, ye might habl-aron, they spoke. habl-asen, they might VV. hablaron, you spoke. VV. hablasen, you might Form and Inflection. Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. FUTURE. FUTURE. hablar-e, / shall habl-are, I should hablar-as, thou wilt habl-ares, thou shouldst hablar-a, he will habl-are, he should V. hablara, you will 1 V. hablare, you should % hablar-emos, we shall \ , habl-aremos, we should ft jb hablar-eis, ye will habl-areis, ye should hablar-an, they will habl-aren, they should VV. hablaran, you will VV. hablaren, you should CONDITIONAL {apodasis). CONDITIONAL (protasis). hablar-ia, / should hablara or hablase, hablar-ias, thou wouldst hablaras or hablases, ^ hablar-ia, he would hablara or hablase, ^"*} V. hablaria, you would 1 V. hablara or hablase, s ^ hablar-iamos, we should - ft ^" hablaramos or hablasemos, '1 hablar-iais, ye would hablarais or hablaseis, J^ rt hablar-ian, they would hablaran or hablasen, p" VV. hablarian, you would VV. hablaran or hablasen, Imperative Mode. SINGULAR. PLURAL. habl-emos, let us speak. habl-a, speak (thou). habl-ad, speak {ye). habl-e, let him speak. habl-en, let them speak. hable V., speak. hablen VV., speak. no habl-emos, let us not speak. no habl-es, speak (thou) not. no habl-eis, speak {ye) not. no habl-e, let him not speak. no habl-en, let them not speak. no hable V., do not speak. no hablen VV., do not speak. COMPOUND TENSES. Infinitive Past. Gerund Past. haber hablado, to have spoken. * habiendo hablado, having spoken. The Verb. '73 Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. PAST INDEFINITE. PAST INDEFINITE. he hablado, / ] haya hablado, 7 ^ has hablado, thou ft hayas hablado, thou v| har hablado, he 1 haya hablado, he r V. ha hablado, you 1 V. haya hablado, you hemos hablado, we haydmos hablado, we i habeis hablado, ye haydis hablado, ye \ han hablado, they p" hayan hablado, they VV. han hablado, you VV. hayan hablado, you o" PLUPERFECT. PLUPERFECT (first form). habia hablado, / hubiera hablado, 7 ] habias hablado, thou fc. hubieras hablado, thou & habia hablado, he $X hubiera hablado, he s. V. habia hablado, you 1 V. hubiera hablado, you 1 habiamos hablado, we 1 hubieramos hablado, we i habiais hablado, ye n> hubierais hablado, ye i habian hablado, they p" hubieran hablado, they 3 s VV. habian hablado, you VV. hubieran hablado, you p" PAST ANTERIOR. PLUPERFECT (second form ) . hube hablado, (when) 7 hubiese hablado, 7 3 hubiste hablado, thou fe hubieses hablado, thou H hubo hablado, he *L hubiese hablado, he V. hubo hablado, you H V. hubiese hablado, you n, hubimos hablado, we JS hubiesemos hablado, we | hubisteis hablado, ye n hubieseis hablado, ye hubieron hablado, they p" hubiesen hablado, they o> VV. hubieron hablado, you VV. hubiesen hablado, you p" FUTURE PERFECT. FUTURE PERFECT. habre hablado, 7 & hubiere hablado, 7 1 habrds hablado, thou 1: hubieres hablado, thou ! habrd hablado, he ft* hubiere hablado, he s V. habra hablado, you S V. hubiere hablado, you 1 habremos hablado, we ^ hnbieremos hablado, we 'i habreis hablado, ye 1 hubiereis hablado, ye habrdn hablado, they n> hubieren hablado, they VV. habran hablado, you p" VV. hubieren hablado, you a. 174 Form and Inflection. Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. CONDITIONAL PAST (apodasis). CONDITIONAL PAST (protasis}. habria hablado, / &, <^ hubiera or hubiese } ^ habrias hablado, thou , hubieras or hubieses v^/ habria hablado, he H, j^ hubiera or hubiese S V. habria hablado, you 1 V. hubiera or hubiese ft p habriamos hablado, we 1 hubieramos or hubiesemos ^ T P- habriais hablado, ye 1 hubierais or hubieseis ^ habrian hablado, they a hubieran or hubiesen n VV. habrian hablado, you o VV.hubieran or hubiesen p SECOND CONJUGATION. 363. Model verb comer, to eat. SIMPLE TENSES. Infinitive. Gerund. Past Participle. com-er, to eat. com-iendo, eating. com-ido, eaten. Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. PRESENT. com-o, / eat. com-es, thou eatest. he eats. you eat. com-einos, we eat. ye eat. they eat. PRESENT. -e>^. V. come, com-a, com-as, com-a, V. coma, I may thou mayst he may you may com-eis, com-en, VV. comen, you eat. com-amos, we may com-ais, ye may com-an, they may VV. coman, you may The Verb. 175 Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. IMPERFECT. com-ia, / was com-ias, thou wast com-ia, he was V. comia, you were com-iamos, we were com-iais, ye were com-ian, they were VV. comian, you were PAST DEFINITE. com-i, / ate. com-iste, thou atest. com-io, he ate. V. comio, you ate. com-imos, we ate. com-isteis, ye ate. com-ieron, they ate. VV. comieron, you ate. FUTURE. comerje, I^hall comeif-as, thou wilt comeij-a, he will V. comerfa, you will comef-emos, we shall comer-eis, ye will comer-an, they will W. comeran, you will CONDITIONAL (apodasis). comer.-ia, / should comerrias, thou wouldst comer r ia, he would V. comena, you would comer-iamos, we should comer-iais, ye would comer-ian, they would VV. comerian, you would IMPERFECT {first form). com-iera, / might com-ieras, thou mightest com-iera, he might V. comiera, you might com-ieramos, we might com-ierais, ye might com-ieran, they might W. comieran, you might IMPERFECT (second form) . com-iese, I might com-ieses, thou mightest com-iese, he might V. comiese, you might com-iesemos, we might com-ieseis, ye might com-iesen, they might W. comiesen, you might FUTURE. com-iere, / should com-ieres, thou shouldst com-iere, he should V. comiere, you should com-ieremos, we should com-iereis, ye should com-ieren, they should W. comieren, you should CONDITIONAL (protasis} . comiera or comiese, comieras or comieses, comiera or comiese, V. comiera or comiese, comieramos or comiesemos, comierais or comieseis, comieran or comiesen, VV. comieran or comiesen, Form and Inflection. Imperative Mode. SINGULAR. PLURAL. com-amos, let us eat. com-e, eat (thou). com-ed, eat (ye). com- a, let him eat. com-an, let them eat. coma V., eat. coman VV., eat. no com-amos, let us not eat. no com-as, eat (thou) not. no com-ais, eat (ye) not. no com-a, let him not eat. no com-an, let them not eat. no coma V., do not eat. no coman VV., do not eat. COMPOUND TENSES. Infinitive Past. Gerund Past. haber comido, to have eaten. habiendo comido, having eaten. Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. PAST INDEFINITE. PAST INDEFINITE. he comido, / haya comido, / has comido, thott iSf" hayas comido, thou \ ha comido, he 1 haya comido, he ^ V. ha comido, you f\> ^ V. haya comido, you 1 hemos comido, we ^ ^ hayamos comido, we habeis comido, ye. o> hayais comido, ye ^ han comido, they o" hayan comido, they o> VV. han comido, you VV. hayan comido, you o PLUPERFECT. PLUPERFECT (first form}. habia comido, / hubiera comido, / habias comido, thou frl hubieras comido, thou t habia comido, he & *, hubiera comido, he ^ V. habia comido, you r*> V. hubiera comido, you r^ habiamos comido, we * r * hubieramos comido, we 4 habiais comido, ye O> hubierais comido, ye a habian comido, they p" hubieran comido, they n> VV. habian comido, you VV. hubieran comido, you p The Verb. 177 Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. PAST ANTERIOR. PLUPERFECT (second form). hube comido, (when) / ] hubiese comido, / S hubiste comido, thou * hubieses comido, thou t hubo comido, he ft hubiese comido, he V. hubo comido, you ft V. hubiese comido, you 1 hubimos comido, we I hubiesemos comido, we * hubisteis comido, ye 2- hubieseis comido, ye & hubieron comido, they o hubiesen comido, they * VV. hubieron comido, you VV. hubiesen comido, you o FUTURE PERFECT. FUTURE PERFECT. habre comido, / ] ., hubiere comido, / & habras comido, thou r hubieres comido, thou 1 habra comido, he ^ hubiere comido, he !* V. habra comido, you 1 V. hubiere comido, you habremos comido, we * ^ hubieremos comido, we <* habreis comido, ye 1 hubiereis comido, ye s habran comido, they g hubieren comido, they M n VV. habran comido, you o VV. hubieren comido, you p" CONDITIONAL PAST (apodasis}. CONDITIONAL PAST (protasis). habria comido, / 1 hubiera or hubiese ^ habrias comido, thou . hubieras or hubieses 5 habria comido, he &i hubiera or hubiesfc S V. habria comido, you 1 V. hubiera or hubiese .li habriamos comido, we % hubieramos or hubiesemos ft P* habriais comido, ye S" hubierais or hubieseis 8 habrian comido, they VV. habrian comido, you p" VV. hubieran or hubiesen o" REMARK. The first person singular present indicative is written cdmo, / eat, to distinguish it from como, as. The graphic accent then here is merely distinctive. Form and Inflection. . THIRD CONJUGATION. 364. Model verb vivir, to live. SIMPLE TENSES. Infinitive. Gerund. Past Participle. viv-ir, to live. viv-iendo, living. viv-ido, lived. Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. PRESENT. PRESENT. viv-o, / live. viv-a, / may live. viv-es, thou livest. viv-as, thou mayst live. viv-e, he lives. viv-a, he may live. V. vive, you live. V. viva, you may live. viv-imos, we live. viv-amos, we may live. viv-is, ye live. . viv-ais, ye may live. viv-en, they live. viv-an, they may live. W. viven, you live. VV. vivan, you may live. IMPERFECT. IMPERFECT (first form). viv-ia, / was living. viv-iera, I might live. viv-ias, thou wast living. viv-ieras, thou mightest live. viv-ia, he was living. viv-iera, he might live. V. vivia, you were living. V. viviera, you might live. viv-iamos, we were living. viv-ieramos, we might live. viv-iais, ye were living. viv-ierais, ye might live. viv-ian, they were living. viv-ieran, they might live. VV. vivian, you were living. VV. vivieran, you might live. PAST DEFINITE. IMPERFECT (second form). viv-i, I lived. viv-iese, / might live. viv-is te, thou livedst. viv-ieses, thou mightest live. viv-io, he lived. viv-iese, he might live. V. vivio, you lived. V. viviese, you might Jive. viv-imos, we lived. viv-iesemos, we might live. viv-isteis, ye lived. viv-ieseis, ye might live. viv-ieron, they lived. viv-iesen, they might live. VV. vivieron, you lived. VV. viviesen, you might live. The Verb. 179 Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. FUTURE. FUTURE. vivir-e, / shall live. viv-iere, / should live. vivir-ds, thou wilt live. viv-ieres, thou shouldst live. vivir-d, he will live. viv-iere, he should live. V. vivira, you will live. V. viviere, you should live. vivir-emos, we shall live. viv-ieremos, we should live. vivir-eis, ye will live. viv-iereis, ye should live vivir-dn, they will live. viv-ieren, they should live. VV. viviran, you will live. VV. vivieren, you should live. CONDITIONAL (apodasis}. CONDITIONAL {protasis}. vivir-ia, / should live. viviera or viviese, vivir-ias, thou wouldst live. vivieras or vivieses, Ci vivir-ia, he would live. viviera or viviese, O V. viviria, you would live. V. viviera or viviese, S vivir-iamos, we should live. vivieramos or viviesemos, ' ^ vivir-iais, ye would live. vivierais or vivieseis, <* vivir-ian, they woztld live. vivieran or viviesen, ? VV. vivirian, you would live. VV. vivieran or viviesen, Imperative Mode. SINGULAR. PLURAL. viv-amoS;, let us live. viv-e, live (thou}. viv-id, live (ye). viv-a, let him live. viv-an, let them live. viva V., live. vivan VV., live. no viv-amos, let us not live. no viv-as, live (thou} not. no viv-ais, live (ye) not. no viv-a, let him not live. no viv-an, let them not live. no viva V. do not live. no vivan VV., do not live. COMPOUND TENSES. Infinitive Past. Gerund Past. haber vivido, to have lived. habiendo vivido, having lived. i8o Form and Inflection. Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. PAST INDEFINITE. PAST INDEFINITE. he vivido, / haya vivido, / ^ has vivido, thou fe* hay as vivido, thou 1 ha vivido, he 1 haya vivido, he j- ^ V. ha vivido, you ^, "3* V. haya vivido, you :* hemos vivido, we i hayamos vivido, we ^ 58* habeis vivido, ye a hayais vivido, ye I han vivido, they o hayan vivido, they n> VV. han vivido, " you VV. hayan vivido, you 0* PLUPERFECT. PLUPERFECT (first form} . habia vivido, / hubiera vivido, / g habias vivido, thou fe* hubieras vivido, thou 1 habia vivido, he ^M hubiera vivido, he V. habia vivido, you ^4 . <3' V. hubiera vivido, you ft ^> habiamos vivido, we H hubieramos vivido, we *v habiais vivido, ye n> fj hubierais vivido, ye 8' j^ habian vivido, they hubieran vivido, they VV. habian vivido, you VV. hubieran vivido, you o" PAST ANTERIOR. PLUPERFECT (second form}. hube vivido, (when) / hubiese vivido, / ] | hubiste vivido, thou ^ hubieses vivido, thou 1 hubo vivido, he ft ft. hubiese vivido, he ^ V. hubo vivido, you ?> . <2' V. hubiese vivido, you .1 hubimos vivido, we * JX, hubiesemos vivido, we fc hubisteis vivido, ye a> hubieseis vivido, ye I hubieron vivido, they o hubiesen vivido, they T" n VV. hubieron vivido, you VV. hubiesen vivido, you rT FUTURE PERFECT. FUTURE PERFECT. habre vivido, . / ^, hubiere vivido, / S, ^ habras vivido, thou ft ^. hubieres vivido, thou C habra vivido, he ^ hubiere vivido, he ^M &N V. habra vivido, you 1 V. hubiere vivido, you ft i habremos vivido, we S> Q' hnbieremos vivido, we - ^ 'x, habreis vivido, ye & hubiereis vivido, ye ? habrdn vivido, they hubieren vivido, they ^ n VV. habran vivido, you VV. hubieren vivido, you p^ The Verb. 181 Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. CONDITIONAL PAST (apodasis). CONDITIONAL PAST (protasis'). habria vivido, / & hubiera or hubiese Ci habrias vivido, thou 1 hubieras or hubieses ^ habria vivido, he hubiera or hubiese S V. habria vivido, you 1 V. hubiera 0?' hubiese 1. 2." habriamos vivido, we - f\> hubieramos or hubiesemos ' s- o habriais vivido, ye 1" hubierais or hubieseis 1 habrian vivido, they CD hubieran or hubiesen o> VV. habrian vivido, you FT VV. hubieran or hubiesen p Remarks on the Three Conjugations. 365. The subject-pronouns are to be expressed with the verb, only when they are intensive, emphatic, or adversative, and when (by the identical endings of the first and third persons of certain tenses) obscurity would result from the omission (see 187-190) : REMARK. Identical endings of the first and third persons are found in the present subjunctive, imperfect indicative and subjunc- tive, future subjunctive, and the conditionals : hable ; coma ; viva ; hablaba; comia; vivia; hablara; comiera; viviera; hablase ; comiese ; viviese ; hablare ; comiere ; viviere ; hablaria; comeria; viviria; (-may speak; eat; live, was speaking; eating; living, might speak; eat; live, might speak ; eat ; live, should speak ; eat ; live. should ) ., [speak; eat; live. I would ) r 366. The graphic accent (in the present century always acute, ' ) distinguishes otherwise homonymous or identical forms in verbs of the first conjugation : h V. ha sido, you have been. V. haya sido, you 5 5 ^ hemos sido, we have been. hayamos sido, we * habeis sido, ye have been. hayais sido, ye 1 han sido, they have been. hayan sido, they VV. han sido, you have been. VV. hayan sido, you PLUPERFECT. PLUPERFECT (first form}. habia sido, / had been. hubiera sido, 7 ~ habias sido, thou hadst been. hubieras sido, thou l habia sido, he had been. hubiera sido, he < V. habia sido, you had been. V. hubiera sido, you a <2 habiamos sido, we had been. hubieramos sido, we f ^ ^ habiais sido, ye had been. hubierais sido, ye $ ^S habian sido, they had b een. hubieran sido, . they * VV habian sido, you had been. VV. hubieran sido, you p PAST ANTERIOR. PLUPERFECT (second form). hube sido, (when) I had been. hubiese sido, 7 5j hubiste sido, thou hadst been. hubieses sido, thou f hubo sido, ' he had been. hubiese sido, he 'H. ^ V. hubo sido, you had been. V. hubiese sido, you Q hubimos sido, we had been. hubiesemos sido, we t^ ^ hubisteis sido, ye had been. hubieseis sido, ye jS hubieron sido, they had been. hubiesen sido, they r) VV. hubieron sido, you had been. VV. hubiesen sido, you o FUTURE PERFECT. FUTURE PERFECT. habre sido, I shall hubiere sido, 7 & habras sido, thou wilt hubieres sido, thou o> 1 habra sido, he will ?> a hubiere sido, he 5 ^, V. habra sido, you will 8 V. hubiere sido, you s v ^ habremos sido, we shall ' $ r*> hubieremos sido, we f*> 5* habreis sido, ye will s hubiereis sido, ye 1 habran sido, they will hubieren sido, they n W. habran sido, you will W. hubieren sido, you p" 196 Form and Inflection. Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. CONDITIONAL PAST (apodasis). habria sido, / should habrias sido, thou wouldst habria sido, he would V. habria sido, you would habriamos sido, we should habriais sido, ye would habrian sido, they would VV. habrian sido, yoti would CONDITIONAL PAST (protasis] hubiera or hubiese hubieras or hubieses hubiera or hubiese V. hubiera or hubiese hubieramos or hubiesemos hubierais or hubieseis hubieran or hubiesen VV. hubieran or hubiesen CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VERB, 386. Ser llamado, to be called. SIMPLE TENSES. Infinitive Mode. Gerund. ( llamado, a, ) ser < > to be called. ( llamados, as, ) ( llamado, a, ) siendo? ^ \betngcallcd. ( llamados, as, ) Absolute Past Participle. llamado, a; llamados, as, having been called. Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. PRESENT. PRESENT. "lam called," etc., "I may be called" etc., soy llamado, a. sea llamado, a. eres llamado, a. seas llamado, a. es llamado, a. sea llamado, a. somos llamados, as. seamos llamados, as. sois llamados, as. seais llamados, as. son llamados, as. scan llamados, as. The Verb. 197 Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. IMPERFECT. "I was called" etc., era llamado, a. eramos llamados, as. IMPERFECT (first form). "I might be called" etc., fuera llamado, a. fueramos llamados, as. PAST DEFINITE. "I was called" etc., firi llamado, a. fuimos llamados, as. IMPERFECT (second form) . "I might be called" etc., fuese llamado, a. fuesemos llamados, as. FUTURE. FUTURE. "I shall be called," sere llamado, a. sere"mos llamados, as. "I should be called," etc., fuere llamado, a. fueremos llamados, as. CONDITIONAL (a^odasis). CONDITIONAL (protasis). "I should be called," seria llamado, a. seriamos llamados, as. (It} "I were called," fuera or fuese llamado, a. fueramos or fuesemos llamados, as. Imperative Mode. se llamado, a, be called. sea llamado, a, let him be called. seamos llamados, as, let us be 1 ^ sed llamados, as, be j- gs scan llamados, as, let them be } ^ COMPOUND TENSES. ( llamado, a, ) Infinitive Past : haber sido \ , \ to have been called. ( llamados, as, ) ( llamado, a, ) . Gerund Past : habiendo sido { , [ having been called. \ llamados, as, ) Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. PAST INDEFINITE. PAST INDEFINITE. "I have been called" he sido llamado, a. hemos sido llamados, as. "I may have been called" haya sido llamado, a. hayamos sido llamados, as. 198 Form and Inflection. Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. PLUPERFECT. "/ had been called" habia sido llamado, a. habiamos sido llamados, as. PAST ANTERIOR. (When) "I had been called," hube sido llamado, a. hubimos sido llamados, as. FUTURE PERFECT. "I shall have been called" habre sido llamado, a. habremos sido llamados, as. CONDITIONAL PAST (apodasis). "I should have been called" habria sido llamado, a. habnamos sido llamados, as. PLUPERFECT (first form). "I might have been called" hubiera sido llamado, a. hubieramos sido llamados, as. PLUPERFECT (second form).' "I might have been called" hubiese sido llamado, a. hubiesemos sido llamados, as. FUTURE PERFECT. "7 should have been called" hubiere sido llamado, a. hubieremos sido llamados, as. CONDITIONAL PAST (protasis). (If) "I. had been called," hubiera or hubiese sido llama- do, a. [llamados, as. hubieramos or hubiesemos sido, Remarks on the Passive. 387. The passive participle is varied like any adjective in o, and agrees in gender and number with the subject of the verb : el nino es amado de todos, la nina es mimada del ama, estos hombres ban sj^p siempre muy estimados, las senoras habrian sido ma's consideradas, si no hubiesen tenido tanto orgullo y vanidad, the boy is loved by all. the babe is petted by the nurse, these men have always been very much esteemed. the ladies would have been more highly respected, if they had not had such pride and vanity. REMARK. The past participle with haber is not variable ; hence sido and estado which are never conjugated with ser are incapable of any change for gender and number. The same is the case with The Verb. 199 hob do as an auxiliary ; but when it has the meaning of an independent verb and may be inflected in the passive with ser, or when it is used absolutely, it assumes the regular variations of gender and number : no pudieron ser habidos, habi- das, habido consejo, habida consulta, habidas las mujeres, they (men or women) could not be apprehended, counsel having been taken, a consultation having been held, the women having been taken. 388. By y after passive verbs and participles, is ren- dered by por when agency is denoted, and by de when the verb expresses feeling or emotion : este drbol ha mi padre, fulano como es< de muchos, comence a pasear? conde, honrado de gos, temido de mis enemigos, y acariciado de todos, this tree was set out by my fa- ther. so and so, as a writer, is esteemed by many. began to parade about like an earl, honored by my friends, dreaded by my foes, and fawned upon by all. 389. When the verb to be, with a past participle, expresses accidental state or situation, it must be translated by estar or one of its substitutes. The past participle is then considered to be employed as an adj ective : divididos estaban caballeros y escuderos, la obra est ya concluida, knights and esquires w< grouped apart, the work is already finished. a. Substitutes of estar are, ir and andar, to go; quedar and quedarse, to remain; encontrarse and hallarse, to find one s self; verse, to see ones self; etc., all of which, thus employed, have the signification of to be, taken in a transitory or accidental sense : - 200 Form and Inflection. las calles andaban revueltas, qued6 satisfecho de mi con- ducta, me vi aislado de todos, the streets were in an uproar, he was satisfied with my beha- vior. I was isolated from everybody. 390. In general, ser is the only verb that serves to form the true passive voice in Spanish, and estar the only one of the two that unites with the gerund to make up the progressive form of the active voice. Aside from these constructions, the use of ser and estar is to be carefully distinguished : esta obra ha sido traducida del Ingles, dicha obra esta mal traducida, este libro ha sido impreso en el siglo pasado, me parece que anda impres| una traduccion de dicho libro? this work has been translated from the the said workH BJy translated. liii^l^^H Brcd in the last is that a version of in print. REMARK. Estar is, however, frequently found employed in the absolute sense of "to be," reflecting the force of its Latin origin stare, to stand: esta visto, it is (stands) evident. \ esta claro, it is clear. 391. With other words than participles, the radical distinction in the use of ser and estar may be summed up as follows : a. Ser expresses what is essential and inherent, hence permanent and absolute : 1 es Ingles, Espanol, la casa es de piedra, somos amigos suyos, yo soy cojo, tu eres ciego, V. es rico, yo soy pobre, no son felices, si bien estan contentos por ahora, he is an Englishman, a Spaniard, the house is of stone, we are friends of his. I am lame, thou art blind, you are rich, I am poor, they are not happy, although pleased for the moment. The Verb. 201 b. Estar, on the contrary, denotes an accidental, a transitory, situation or state : el Ingles esta en Espafia, la puerta estaba cerrada, el rio estaba helado, la copa esta llena, estaran aqui manana, estuvo de buen humor, son buenos ; estan buenos, es malo ; esta malo, es alto ; est alto, es triste ; esta triste, es cansado ; esta cansado, es callado ; esta callado, el cuarto es cdmodo esta limpio, la mujer es loca esta loca, el mar es inmenso ; la mar esta picada (94), [caliente, el yelo es frio ; el agua estd the Englishman is in Spain. the door was shut. the river was frozen. the goblet is full. they will be here to-morrow. he was in good spirits. they are good ; they are well. he is bad ; he is ill. he is tall ; he is high. he is dull; he is sad. he is wearisome ; he is tired. he is close-mouthed silent. the room is convenient is clean. the woman is crazy is frantic, the sea is immense ; the sea is rough, ice is cold ; the water is hot. REMARK. Estar in its accidental sejnse may often be translated by its original meaning of to stand. " To stand" or " stand up," referring to posture, is expressed by ponerse de or en pie (action) , and estar de or en pie (state) : estuvo & la puerta, he stood at the door. al entrar la dama, se puso de as the lady came in, he stood up pi<, (arose) . estuvo en pid largo rato pensando, he stood up a long time thinking. The Reflexive Conjugation. 392. A reflexive verb is one that is conjugated with a pronoun-object relating to the same person or thing as the subject : [self. yo me lisoiijeo; el se engana, | I flatter myself ; he deceives him- 2O2 Form and Inflection. 393. Any transitive verb may assume the reflexive form : a. With the pronominal object in the accusative, provided the verb naturally takes an accusative of the person : le alabo ; se alaba, me engana ; me engaiio, I praise him ; he praises himself, he deceives me ; I deceive myself. b. With the pronominal object in the dative, provided the verb naturally takes the dative of the person and accusative of the thing: r wer te atribuyes el poder, | thou assumest (to thyself) the REMARK. Under this rule belongs also a kind of ethical dative, which adds energy to the phrase, and may be omitted : me tomo la libertad de . . . , se compra una prenda, I take (for myself) the liberty to .... he buys (for himself) a garment. 394. Many transitive verbs are made intransitive by assuming the reflexive form : he opened the door; the door opened. [broke. he broke the glass ; the glass he sells the books ; good books sell dear. he drowned his grief ; I suffocate. he makes something; he does not know what he does. abrid la puerta ; la puerta se abrid, [rompi6, rompid el vaso ; el vaso se vende los libros; los buenos libros se venden caro, ahogd su dolor ; me ahogo, hace alguna cosa ; no sabe lo que se hace, 395. Intransitive verbs often become reflexive with modified significations, the pronominal object frequently assuming an adverbial force : dormir; dormirse, sale ; el cubo se sale, muere ; se muere, voy, or marcho, to sleep ; to go to sleep, he goes out ; the pail leaks, he dies ; he is dying. I go, I march. The Verb. 203 me voy or me marcho, ven; ve'nte, cae ; se cae, I go off or away, come ; come along, he falls ; it falls down. 396. Many verbs have in Spanish the reflexive form only : alegrarse ; arrepentirse. burlarse; dignarse, figurarse; quejarse, to rejoice ; to repent, to laugh at ; to deign, to imagine ; to complain. 397. Many verbs that are reflexive in Spanish are expressed in English by the formal passive, and some by both the reflexive and the passive : disgustarse ; equivocarse, llamarse, enganarse, to be displeased ; to be mistaken, to call one's self or to be called, to deceive one's self, to be de- ceived. 398. Model verb alabarse, to praise ones self. SIMPLE TENSES. Infinitive. Gerund. alabarse, to praise one's self. alabandose, praising one^s self. Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. PRESENT. PRESENT. "I praise myself" etc., me alabo. "I may praise myself" etc., me alabe. te alabas. te alabes. se alaba. se alabe. V. se alaba. V. se alabe. nos alabamos. nos alabemos. os alabais. os alabeis. se alaban. se alaben. W. se alaban. W. se alaben. 204 Form and Inflection. Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. IMPERFECT. "/ was praising myself" etc., me alababa. te alababas. se alababa. V. se alababa, etc. PAST DEFINITE. " I praised myself" etc., me alabe. te alabaste. se alabo. V. se alabo, etc. FUTURE. "I shall praise myself" etc., me alabare. te alabaras. se alabara. V. se alabara, etc. CONDITIONAL (apodasis). "I should praise myself" etc., me alabaria. te alabarias. se alabaria. , V. se alabaria, etc. IMPERFECT {first form) . "I might praise myself" etc., me alabara. te alabaras. se alabara. V. se alabara, etc. IMPERFECT (second form) . "I might praise myself" etc., me alabase. te alabases. se alabase. V. se alabase, etc. FUTURE. "/ should praise myself" etc., me alabare. te alabares. se alabare. V. se alabare, etc. CONDITIONAL (protasis). (If) "I praised myself" etc., me alab-ara, -ase. te alab-aras, -ases. se alab-ara, -ase. V. se alab-ara, -ase, etc. Imperative Mode. SINGULAR. alabate, praise thyself. alabese, let him praise himself. alabese V., praise yourself. no te alabes, do not praise thyself. no se alabe, let him not p. himself. no se alabe V., do not p. yourself. PLURAL. alabemonos, let us praise ourselves. alabaos, praise yourselves. alabense, let them praise themselvel. alabense W., praise yourselves. no nos alabemos, let us not p. o. s. no os alabeis, do not praise y. s. no se alaben, let them not p. th. s. no se alaben VV., do not p. y. s. The Verb. 205 COMPOUND TENSES. Infinitive Past. Gerund Past. haberse alabado, to have praised one's self. habiendose alabado, having praised one's self. Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. PAST INDEFINITE. "/ have praised myself" etc., me he alabado. te has alabado. se ha alabado. V. se ha alabado. nos hemos alabado. os habeis alabado. se han alabado. VV. se han alabado. PLUPERFECT. "I had praised myself" etc., me habia alabado. te habias alabado, etc. PAST ANTERIOR. (When) "I had praised my self" etc., me hube alabado. te hubiste alabado, etc. FUTURE PERFECT. "I shall have praised myself" etc., me habre alabado. te habras alabado, etc. CONDITIONAL PAST (protasis). "I should have praised my self" etc., me habria alabado. te habrias alabado, etc. PAST INDEFINITE. "I may have praised myself " etc., me haya alabado. te hayas alabado. se haya alabado. V. se haya alabado. nos hayamos alabado. os hayais alabado. se hayan alabado. W. se hayan alabado, etc. PLUPERFECT (first form) . "I might have praised myself" etc., me hubiera alabado. te hubieras alabado, etc. PLUPERFECT (second form) . "I might have praised myself" etc. me hubiese alabado. te hubieses alabado, etc. FUTURE PERFECT. "1 should have praised my self" etc., me hubiere alabado. te hubieres alabado, etc. CONDITIONAL PAST (apodasis). (If) "7 had praised myself" etc., me hubiera or hubieses alabado. te hubieras or hubieses alabado, etc. 2O6 Form and Inflection. 399. Model verb figurarse, to fancy (to ones self}, to imagine. SIMPLE TENSES. Infinitive Mode. Gerund. figurarse, to imagine. figurandose, imagining. Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. PRESENT. PRESENT. me figure, / imagine. te figuras, thou imaginest. se figura, he imagines. V. se figura, you imagine. nos figuramos, we imagine. os figurais, ye imagine. se figuran, they imagine. VV. se figuran, you imagine. me figure, / may imagine. te figures, thou mayst imagine. se figure, he may imagine. V. se figure, you may imagine. nos figuremos, we may imagine. os figureis, ye may imagine. se figuren, they may imagine. VV. se figuren,^^ may imagine. IMPERFECT. IMPERFECT {first form) . me figuraba, I was imagining. me figurara, I might imagine. PAST DEFINITE. IMPERFECT (second form) . me figure, / imagined. me figurase, / might imagine. FUTURE. FUTURE. me figurare, I shall imagine. me figurare, / should imagine. CONDITIONAL (apodasis). CONDITIONAL (protasis}. me figuraria, / should imagine. me figur-ara, -ase, (if) / imagined. Imperative Mode. SINGULAR. PLURAL. figdrate, imagine (thou). figdrese, let him imagine. figdrese V., imagine. figuremonos, let us imagine. figuraos, imagine {ye). figdrense, let them imagine. figdrense VV., imagine. The Verb. 207 Imperative Mode. SINGULAR. no te figures, imagine (thou} not. no se figure, let him not imagine. no se figure V., do not imagine. PLURAL. no nos figuremos, let us not imagine. no os figureis, imagine (ye) not. no se figuren, let them not imagine. no se figuren VV., do not imagine. COMPOUND TENSES. Infinitive Past. Gerund Past. haberse figurado, to have imagined. habiendose figurado, having imag- ined. Indicative Mode. Subjunctive Mode. PAST INDEFINITE. me he figurado, / te has figurado, thou se ha figurado, he V. se ha figurado, you nos hemos figurado, we os habeis figurado, ye se han figurado, they VV. se han figurado, you PLUPERFECT. me habia figurado, I had imagined. PAST ANTERIOR. me hube figurado, (when) / had imagined. FUTURE PERFECT. me habre figurado, / shall have imagined. CONDITIONAL PAST (apodasis). me habria figurado, / should have imagined. PAST INDEFINITE. me haya figurado, / te hayas figurado, thou se haya figurado, he V. se haya figurado, you nos hayamos figurado, we os hayais figurado, ye se hayan figurado, they VV. se hayan figurado, you PLUPERFECT (first form) . me hubiera figurado, I might have imagined. PLUPERFECT (second form}. me hubiese figurado, / might have imagined. FUTURE PERFECT. me hubiere figurado, I should have imagined. CONDITIONAL PAST (protasis). me hub-iera, -iese figurado, (if) / had imagined. 208 Form and Inflection. Remarks on the Reflexive Verb. 400. The pronoun-subject of the reflexive verb should be expressed when emphasis or contrast require it ; but in the interrogative conjugation it must never intervene between the compound forms of the verb. Its ordinary position may be best gathered from a few examples : WITHOUT A NEGATION. Affirmative. Interrogative. PRESENT. "/ imagine" etc., yo me figure. tfi te figuras. vos os figurais ( 181). el se figura. ella se figura. uno se figura, or se figura uno. V. se figura, or se figura V. nosotros ) \ nos figuramos. nosotras ) vosotros ) \ os figurais. vosotras J ellos i \ se figuran. el las I VV. se figuran, or se figuran ' W. "Do I imagine ? " etc., i me figuro yo ? i te figuras tfi ? i os figurais vos ? se figura el? se figura ella? I se figura uno ? se figura V.? or V. se figura? r nosotros ? ; nos figuramos < ' ( nosotras ? . f vosotros ? ; os figurais 1 ~ I vosotras ? r ellos ? i thou imaginest. se figura, c tt> or se le figura, 1 he imagines. V. se figura, or se le figura d V., sK you imagine. nos figuramos, 1 C/l or se nos figura, *> 5 we imagine. os figurais, L or se os figura, ye imagine. se figuran, <^> cf or se les figura, ^ they imagine. W. se figuran, v - x or se les figura d VV., r!" you imagine. me he figurado, or se me ha figurado, / have imagined. te has figurado, or se te ha figurado, thou hast imagined. se ha figurado, or se le ha figurado, he has imagined. V. se ha figurado, or se le ha figurado d V., you have imagined. nos hemos figurado, or se nos ha figurado, we have imagined. os habeis figurado, or se os ha figurado, ye have imagined. se han figurado, or se les ha figurado, they have imagined. VV. se han figurado, or se les ha figurado d VV., you have imagined. The Verb. 213 me olvide, te olvidaste, se olvido, etc., or se me olvido, or se te olvid6, or se le olvido, etc., I forgot, thou didst forget, he forgot, etc. me habia olvidado, te habias olvidado, se habia olvidado, etc., or se me habia olvidado, or se te habia olvidado, or se le habia olvidado, etc., / had forgotten, thou hadst forgotten, he had forgotten, etc. 407. In Spanish, the formal passive is comparatively little used at the present day, other less cumbersome constructions being better adapted to the genius of that language. Hence : 408. The passive voice may be replaced by the re- flexive verb used personally : el libro se publicd, la voz se repitid, su gloria se ver, el dinero se gan6, se perdid, ellos se enganan mucho, las casas se ban vendido, eso no se puede decir, or ) eso no puede decirse, the book was issued, the voice was repeated, his glory will be seen, the money was won, was lost, they are greatly deceived, the houses have been sold, that cannot be said, or you cannot say that. a. In public announcements, the verb to be of the passive is usually omitted in English, while, in Spanish, the reflexive, which always replaces it in such cases, is given in full : aqui se habia Espafiol, se cambia todaclase de moneda, se compran valores de la deuda publica, se hacen cobros y pagos, se confeccionan tarjetas y fac- turas en el acto, Spanish (is) spoken here. all kinds of coin (are) exchanged. government securities (are) bought. collections and payments made, cards and billheads made up without delay. 2I 4 Form and Inflection. se garantiza el trabajo, se cierra los Domingos, se prohibe fijar carteles, no se admiten imposiciones despues de las cuatro, work warranted, closed on Sundays. 1 'post no bills." no deposits received after five o'clock. 409. The passive voice may also be replaced by the reflexive verb used impersonally : se dice ; se ha dicho, se me engana, se me ha enganado, se le permite ; se le permitid, se nos habia enganado, se les habra permitido, it is said ; it has been said. I am deceived. I have been deceived. he is allowed ; he was allowed. we had been deceived. they will have been allowed. Literally : it says itself, it has said itself, it deceives itself to me, it has deceived itself to me, etc. 410. The reflexive used impersonally is a substitute of the third person plural active, and is preferred when a vague or indirect reference to persons is desirable. This favorite construction has grown out of the national propensity to equivocation : I am not understood (Fr. on ne me comprendpas) . he was ordered to go out no se me entiende (or no me entienderi), se le niaiido salir (or le mandaron salir), se me dice (or me diceri) , se me ha dicho (or me han dichd) , (Fr . on lui or donna desortir) . I am told (Fr. on me dif) . I have been told (Fr. on ni*a dif) . REMARK. It is customary to regard this se as an indefinite subject they, you, one like the French on (Jiomme) and Ger- manic man ; but an accusative cannot be a nominative, and the only true explanation is to regard the verb, as it is, impersonal, representing such Latin constructions as itur, ventum est, invidetur mihi, etc. The Verb. 21$ 411. So also in the redundant construction : a" 1 se le matd a" pedradas, (le mataron & pedradas) , a tales hombres se les engana fdcilmente, [fdcilmente), (a tales hombres enganan a los buenos principes no se les ha de perder la vergiienza, a nadie se le puede imputar esta fealdad, he was stoned to death, (they stoned him to death), such men are easily deceived, [easily). (they deceive such men we are not to lose our respect for good princes. such a vile action can be imputed to no man. 412. The following examples of passive constructions will serve to illustrate and fix the foregoing rules : {soy engafiado, The sido enganado, me engafio, 1. -{ me he engafiado, se me engafia, [ se me ha engafiado, f eres engafiado, {has sido enganado, 2. I te engafias, te has engafiado, [ se te engafia, se te ha engafiado, {es enganado, f ha sido engafiado, se engafia, 3. j se ha engafiado, S se le engafia, [se le ha engafiado, f V. es engafiado, S {V. ha sido engafiado, 1 3. -j V. se engafia, ^ V. se ha engafiado, sr [ se le engafia a V., 1* se le ha engafiado a V., a {somos engafiados, > i* fhemos sido engafiados, ^ nos engafiamos, JL 1. 1 nos hemos engafiado, i' se nos engafia, n [ se nos ha engafiado, s. f sois engafiados, fhabeis sido engafiados, o o 2. \ os engafiais, 2. 1 os habeis engafiado, [ se os engafia, [ se os ha engafiado, f son engafiados, f han sido engafiados, 3. -j se engafian, 3. \ se han engafiado, [ se les engafia, [ se les ha engafiado, {VV. son engafiados, f VV. han sido engafiados, W. se engafian, 3. \ W. se han engafiado, se les engafia a VV., J [se les ha engafiado a VV. 9> 216 Form and Inflection. Reciprocal Verbs. 413. When reflexive verbs in the plural refer to two or more persons distributively, they are called reciprocal verbs, and the object-pronoun is rendered each other when two are indicated, and one another if reference is made to several : nos alabamos, os alabais, se aman, alabemonos, amaos el uno al otro, amaos los unos d, los otros, mense, or que se amen, estos dos hermanos se abra- zan carinosamente, todos los individuos de esta familia se quieren entrana- blemente. we praise each other, or one another. ye praise each other, or one another. they love each other, or one another. let us praise one another. love each other. love one another. let them love each other, etc. these two brothers (or this brother and sister [ 106]) embrace each other affectionately, all the members of this family are passionately fond of one another. 414. The reciprocal use of the reflexive verb may be strengthened by the term el uno el otro, fern, la una la otra ; los unos los otros, fern, las unas las otras ; or uno otro, etc. : consolaos los unos a los otros en estas palabras, no os burleis los unos de los otros, [con la otra, hijas, no os impacienteis la una veo que las dos hemos nacido la una para la otra, sente'monos uno junto a otro, nos felicitaremos unos a otros con ese motivo, comfort ye one another with these words. do not laugh at (make fun of) one another. children, don't tease each other. I perceive that we two were born for each other. let us sit near each other. we shall congratulate one an- other on account of it. The Verb. 217 The Impersonal Verb. 415. Impersonal verbs are properly such as are employed in the third person singular only. Their subject, which in English is it, cannot be expressed in Spanish when an operation of nature is described ; but otherwise, the neuter ello, it, that, is occasionally admissible if intensity or emphasis require : nieva; truena; graniza, Hueve; amanece; anochece, consta ; ello consta, importa ; ello importa, ello es que . . . , it snows ; it thunders ; it hails, it rains ; it dawns ; it grows dark. it is proven, or it is known, it is important, or it matters, the fact is that ... (it is that . . .). 416. Impersonal verbs are inflected according to the conjugation indicated by their infinitive, to wit : 417. Nevar, nevando, nevado, to snow. Indicative Mode. nieva, it snows. nevaba, it was snowing. nevo, it snowed. nevara, it will snow. nevaria, it would snow. Subjunctive Mode. nieve, it may snow. nevara, it might snow. nevase, it might snow. nevare, it should snow. nevara, etc., (if) it snowed. Imperative Mode : nieve, or que nieve, let it snow. Indicative Mode. ha nevado, it has habia nevado, it had hubo nevado, (when) it had habra nevado, it vvill have habria nevado, it would have snowed. Subjunctive Mode. haya nevado, it may ~\ hubiera nevado, it might \\^ hubiese nevado, it might [ hubiere nevado, // should) hubiera nevado, (if) it had s. 218 Form and Inflection. 418. Llover, lloviendo, llovido, to rain. Indicative Mode. llueve, it rains. llovia, it was raining. llovio, it rained. llovera, it will rain. lloveria, it would rain. Subjunctive Mode. llueva, it may rain. Uoviera, it might rain. lloviese, it might rain. lloviere, it should rain. lloviera, (if) it rained. Imperative Mode : Hue va, or que llueva, let it rain. Indicative Mode. ha llovido, it has ha hia llovido, it had -% hubo llovido, (when) #<# g " " " " gu. << " o-n " " " " 440. The expansion of a vowel into a diphthong may be called diphthongization. In verbs, the diphthong of the vowel a is ai ; that of ^, ie ; and of 0, ue. 441. The diphthongs zV and id are said to be con- sonantized when the first vowel composing them is changed into y consonant, pronounced as in year. 442. The diphthong ie is consonantized : a. When it is initial in a tonic stem : err-ar terro, written yerro, but vrt-amos because atonic, ergu-ir iergp, written yergo, but ergu-fmos because atonic. ir (iendo) , yendo, going. 224 Form and Inflection. b. When it is initial in a verbal ending after a stem- vowel ; likewise id when final in the same case : cre-er (cre-iendo} , creyendo. (cre-i6), creyd. tra-er (tra-iendo) , trayendo. inclu-ir (inclu-iendo) , inclu- yendo. ca-er (ca-iendo) , cayendo. (ca-io), cay6. le-er (le-iendo), leyendo. argii-ir (argii-iendo) , argu- yendo. 443. The i of the diphthongs ie and id is absorbed by foregoing double consonants //, n, (ck usually), and j when it represents the archaic x y formerly pro- nounced sh : cen-ir cinendo, cifid. dijera, anciently dixera. taner tanendo, tand. trajese, anciently traxese. 444. The diphthong ue is said to be aspirated when it assumes an //, which regularly occurs if the diphthong is initial and has the tonic accent : ol-er ueloy written huelo ; but o\-emos, because atonic. Remarks on the Present Stem. 445. Tonic stems, whether weak or strong, are often strengthened in the present indicative and subjunctive, and in the imperative : a. By the expansion of the radical vowel e into ie, and of o into ue : pens-ar pienso, I think. ten-er tiene, he has. volv-er vuelvo, I return. mov-er mueve, he moves. b. By the mutation of the original stem-vowel etoi: serv-ir sirvo, / serve. sirve, he serves. but jtfrz/imos, we serve. seg-uir sigo, I follow. sigue, he follows. but segulmos, we follow. The Verb. 225 446. Strong stems, whether tonic or atonic, are like- wise frequently strengthened in the present indicative and subjunctive, and in the imperative: a. By changing the original stem-vowel e to i : serv sirva, / or he may serve. sirvamos, we may serve. seg siga, /or he may follow. sigamos, let us follow. b. By adding a g to the original stem ending in a consonant, in the following verbs : as-ir asg-o, asg-a, t seize. pon-er pong-o, pong-a, / place. sal-ir salg-o, salg-a, I go out. ten-er teng-o, teng-a, I have. val-er valg-o, valg-a, / am worth. ven-ir veng-o, veng-a, I come. REMARK. This g is the expression of the Latin e and i enounced with a consonant power. Thus : valeo valyo. Span, valgo. valeam valya\m\ % Span, valga. venio venyo, Span, vengo. veniam venya\m\> Span, venga. So asgo, Lat. adscio ; pongo, Lat. ponio for pono ; salgo, Lat. salio ; tengo, Lat. teneo. The Portuguese still preserves the Latin y sound, graphically represented by Ih and nh : valho, valha ; venho, venha; etc. c. By adding a g to the diphthongized stem ending in a vowel, in the following verbs : ca-er caig-o, caig-a, I fall. \ tra-er traig-o, traig-a, I bring. o-ir 6ig-o, 6ig-a, / hear. d. By diphthongizing the medial stem-vowel a into ai y and reducing it graphically to its corresponding simple vowel (ai = e), in the following verbs : - cab-er (coif) quep-o ( 13), quep-a (Lat. capio, capiam), I hold. sab-er (saip) se[p-o], sep-a (Lat. sapio, sapiam), / know. hab-er (haiti) he[b-o], but hay -a (Lat. habeo, habeam), / have. The Portuguese preserves the diphthong in caib-Q, caib-z. ; 226 Form and Inflection. e. By changing the final stem-consonant c into g y in hac-er hag-o, hag-a (Latin, facto, faciam) . dec-ir dig-o, dig-a (Latin, dico, dicam). For the letter z, as a mode of euphonizing certain strong stems, see 374. 447- The verbs ver, to see, and ser, to be, find their strong stem in the archaic infinitives veer and seer: ve-er ve-o, ve-a, I see. \ se-er se-a, I may be. 448. Atonic sterns usually contain the original radical before weak vowels, and the strengthened radical or modified vowel before strong vowels : sab-eis, ye know. ten-emos, we have. mor-imos, we live. sep-ais, ye may know. teng-amos, let us have. mur-amos, we may die. 449. Four verbs are expanded in the first person sing- ular of the present indicative by assuming a final y : ser, to be, ancient estar, to be, dar, to give, ir, to go. so ; modern esto; do; vo ; soy, I am. estoy, I am. doy, I give. voy, I go. 450. Eight verbs make their imperative second per- son singular in abbreviated forms : valer, to be worth ; salir, to go out ; venir, to come ; tener, to have ; poner, to put, place ; hacer, to make, to do ; decir, to say, to tell', ir, to go; val and vale, be worth ; no valgas. sal {for sale) , go out ; no saigas. veil (for viene) , come ; no vengas. ten (for tiene), have ; no tengas. pon (for pone) , place ; no pongas. haz (for hace) , make, do ; no hagas. dl (for dice) , say, tell; no digas. ve (for va) , go; no vayas. The Verb. 227 451. The imperfect indicative is always regularly formed from the original stem, except in the following verbs : ir iba, I was going (first conj . ) . | ver veia (anc. via) , / was see- ser era, / was (being) . \ing. Tonic Preterit Sterne. 452. Fifteen verbs have preterit stems, which are tonic in the past definite first and third persons singu- lar, with the respective endings e and o instead of / , ue, when the accent falls on the radical, or, in other words, when it is tonic ( 19 ; 19, a). This 230 Form and Inflection. can only occur throughout the singular, and in the third person plural, of the present indicative, subjunctive, and imperative ; for, in all other persons and tenses, the accent lies on the verbal ending. . E STEMS. FIRST CONJUGATION. 457. Pensar, pensando, pensado, to think. PRESENT STEMS. piens (tonic), pens (atonic). PRES. IND. piens-o piens-as piens-a pens-amos pens-ais piens-an. PRES. SUBJ. piens-e piens-es piens-e pens-emos pens-eis piens-en. IMPERAT. piens-a piens-e pens-emos pens-ad piens-en. IMPERF. pens-aba -abas -aba -abamos -abais -aban. PRETERIT STEM. REGULAR. PAST DEF. pens-e -aste -6 -amos -asteis -aron. 1 IMP. SUBJ. pens-ara -aras -ara -aramos -arais -aran. 2 IMP. SUBJ. pens-ase -ases -ase -asemos -aseis -asen. FUT. SUBJ. pens-are -ares -are -aremos -areis -aren. FUTURE STEM. REGULAR. FUTURE. pensar-e -as -a -6mos -eis -an. CONDIT. pensar-ia -las -fa -famos -fais -fan. 458. Acertar, acertando, acertado, to hit the mark. PRES. IND. acierto aciertas acierta acer tamos acertais aciertan. PRES. SUBJ. acierte aciertes acierte acertemos acerteis acierten. IMPERAT. acierta acierte acertemos acertad acierten. acertaba ; acerte, acertara, acertase, acertare ; acertar-e, -fa. 459. Alentar, alentando, alentado, to encourage. PRES. IND. aliento alientas alienta alentamos alentais alientan. PRES. SUBJ. aliente alientes aliente alentemos alenteis alienten. IMPERAT. alienta aliente alentemos alentad alienten. alentaba; alente, alentara, alentase, alentare ; alentar-e", -la. The Verb. 231 460. Cerraj, cerrando, cerrado, to shut. PRES. IND. cierro cierras cierra cerramos cerrais cierran. PRES. SUBJ. cierre cierres cierre cerremos cerreis cierren. IMPERAT. cierra cierre cerremos cerrad cierren. cerraba ; cerre, cerrara, cerrase, cerrare ; cerrar-e, -fa. 461. Apretar, apretando, apretado, to grasp tightly. PRES. IND. aprieto aprietas aprieta apretamos apretais aprietan. PRES. SUBJ. apriete aprietes apriete apretemos apreteis aprieten. IMPERAT. aprieta apriete apretemos apretad aprieten. apretaba; aprete, apretara, apretase, apretare ; apretar-e, -fa. 462. Atestar, atestando, atestado, to cram. PRES. IND. atiesto atiestas atiesta atestamos atestais atiestan. PRES. SUBJ. atieste atiestes atieste atestemos atesteis atiesten. IMPERAT. atiesta atieste atestemos atestad atiesten. atestaba; ateste, atestara, atestase, atestare; atestar-e, -fa. 463. Sembrar, sembrando, sembrado, to sow. PRES. IND. siembro siembras siembra sembramos sembrais siembran . PRES. SUBJ. siembre siembres siembre sembremos sembreissiembren. IMPERAT. siembra siembre sembremos sembrad siembren. sembraba; sembre\sembrara,sembrase,sembrare; sembrar-6,-ia. 464. Helar, helando, helado, to freeze. PRES. IND. hielo hiclas hiela hclamos helais hielan. PRES. SUBJ. hiele hieles hieles helemos heleis hielen. IMPERAT. hiela hiele helemos helad hielen. helaba; hele*, helara, helase, helare; helare, helaria. Euphonic Changes. 465. In the verb errar, the stem-vowel being initial, the vowel i of the diphthong is consonantized, that is, written and pronounced y consonant ( 442, a) : 232 Form and Inflection. 466. Errar, errando, errado, to miss. PRES. IND. yerro PRES. SUBJ. yerre IMPERAT. yerras yerra erramos errais yerran. yerres yerre erremos erreis yerren. yerra yerre erremos errad yerren. erraba ; erre, errara, errase, errare; errare, errarfa. 467. Verbs of this class in -gar and -zar, besides diphthongizing the stem-vowel e, observe the regular orthographic changes explained in 371 : 468. Negar, negando, negado, to deny. PRES. IND. niego niegas niega negamos negais niegan. PRES. SUBJ. niegue niegues niegue neguemos negueis nieguen. IMPERAT. niega niegue neguemos negad nieguen. negaba; negue, negaste, etc.; negara, negase, negare; etc. 469. Enipezar, empezando, empezado, to begin. PR. IN. empiezo empiezas empieza empezamos empezais empiezan. PR. Sj. empiece empieces empiece empecemos empeceis empiecen. IMPER. empieza empiece empecemos empezad empiecen. empezaba; empece, empezaste, etc.; empezara, empezase; etc. E STEMS. SECOND CONJUGATION. 470. Perder, perdiendo, perdido, to lose. PRESENT STEMS. pierd (tonic), perd (atonic). PRES. IND. pierd-o pierd-es pierd-e perd-emos perd-eis pierd-en. PRES. SUBJ. pierd-a pierr-as pierd-a perd-amos perd-ais pierd-an. IMPERAT. pier<-i-e pierd-a perd-amos perd-ed pierd-an. IMPERF. PAST DEF. perd-i 1 IMP. SUBJ. perd-iera 2 IMP. SUBJ. perd-iese FUT. SUBJ. perd-iere FUTURE. CONDIT. perd-ia -las -fa -iamos -iais IT PRETERIT STEM. REGULAR. -iste -io -imos -isteis -ieras -iera -ieramos -ierais -ieses -iese -iesemos -ieseis -ieres -iere -ieremos -iereis FUTURE STEM. REGULAR. -as -a -6mos -is -fas -fa -iamos -iais -fan. -ieron. -ieran. -iesen. -ieren. perder-e* perder-fa The Verb. 233 471. Entender, entendiendo, entendido, to understand. PR. IN. entiendo entiendes entiende entendemos entendeis entienden. PR. Sj. entienda entiendas entienda entendamos entendais entiendan. IMPER. entiende entienda entendamos entended entiendan. entendia; entendi,entendiera,entendiese, entendiere; entender-e, -fa. O STEMS. FIRST CONJUGATION. 472. Sonar, sonando, sonado, to sound. X PRESENT STEMS. suen (tonic), son (atonic). PRES. IND. suen-o suen-as suen-a son-amos son-ais suen-an. PRES. SUBJ. suen-e suen-es ,^uen-e son-emos son-eis suen-en. IMPERAT. / suen^r suen-e son-emos son-ad suen-en, IMPERF. son-abV "abas -aba -abamos -abais -aban. PRETERIT STEM. REGULAR. PAST DEF. son-e -aste -6 -amos -asteis -aron. i IMP. SUBJ. son-ara -aras -ara -aramos -arais -aran. 2 IMP. SUBJ. son-ase -ases -ase -asemos -aseis -asen. FUT. SUBJ. son-are -ares -are -aremos -areis -aren. FUTURE. CONDIT. sonar-e sonar-ia FUTURE STEM. REGULAR. -as -a -emos -fas -fa -lamos 473. Costar, costando, costado, to cost. PRES. IND. cuesto cuestas cuesta costamos costais cuestan. PRES. SUBJ. cueste cuestes cueste costemos costeis cuesten. IMPERAT. cuesta cueste costemos costad cuesten. costaba; coste, costara, costase, costare; costar-e, -fa. 474. Acordar, acordando, acordado, to agree. PRES. IND. acuerdo acuerdas acuerda acordamos acordais acuerdan. PRES. SUBJ. acuerde acuerdes acuerde acordemos acordeis acuerden. IMPERAT. acuerda acuerde acordemos acordad acuerden. acordaba; acorde, acordara, acordase, acordare; acordar-e, -fa. 234 Form and Inflection. 475. Hollar, hollando, hollado, to trample. PRES. IND. huello huellas huella hollamos hollais huellan, PRES. SUBJ. huelle huelles huelle hollemos holleis huellen. IMPERAT. huella . huelle hollemos hollad huellen. hollaba ; nolle, hollara, hollase, hollare ; hollare, hollaria. 476. Volar, volando, volado, to fly. PRES. IND. vuelo vuelas vuela volamos volais vuelan. PRES. SUBJ. vuele vueles vuele volemos voleis vuelen. IMPERAT. vuela vuele volemos volad vuelen. volaba ; vole*, volara, volase, volare ; volare, volaria. 477. Contar, contando, contado, to count. PRES. IND. cuento cuentas cuenta contamos centals cuentan. PRES. SUBJ. cuente cuentes cuente contemos conteis cuenten. IMPERAT. cuenta cuente contemos contad cuenten. contaba ; conte, contara, contase, contare ; contare, contaria. 478. Probar, probando, probado, to prove. PRES. IND. pruebo pruebas prueba probamos probais prueban. PRES. SUBJ. pruebe pruebes pruebe probemos^ probeis prueben. IMPERAT. prueba pruebe probemos probad prueben. probaba; probe, probara, probase, probate; probare, probaria. Orthographic and Euphonic Changes. 479. The verbs desosar, to separate the bones from the meat, and desovar, to spawn (from hueso, bone, and huevo, egg}, introduce an h before the diphthong of the present stem : 480. Desosar, desosando, desosado. PR. IN. deshueso deshuesas deshuesa desosamos desosais deshuesan. PR.SJ. deshuese deshueses deshuese desosemos desoseis deshuesen. IMPER. deshuesa deshuese desosemos desosad deshuesen* desosaba ; desose, desosara, desosase, desosare ; desosar-e, -fa. The Verb. 235 481. Verbs of this class in -car, -gar, and -zar, besides diphthongizing the stem-vowel o, observe the regular orthographic changes laid down in 371. 482. Trocar, trocando, trocado, to barter. PR. IN. trueco truecas trueca trocamos trocais truecan. PR. Sj. trueque trueques trueque troquemos troqueis truequen. IMPER. - trueca trueque troquemos trocad truequen. trocaba ; troque, trocaste, etc. ; trocara, trocase, trocare ; etc. 483. Rogar, rogando, rogado, to request. PRES. IND. ruego ruegas ruega rogamos rogais ruegan. PRES. SUBJ. ruegue ruegues ruegue roguemos rogueis rueguen. IMPERAT. - ruega ruegue roguemos rogad rueguen. rogaba; rogue, rogaste, etc. / rogara, rogase, rogare ; 484. Here belongs the verb jugar QLsLt.j0eari), which follows the analogy of this class, with the stem-vowel u, anciently o : 485. Jugar,- jugando, jugado, to play, to gamble. PRES. IND. juego juegas juega jugamos jugais juegan. PRES. SUBJ. juegue juegues juegue juguemos jugueis jueguen. IMPERAT. - juega juegue juguemos jugad jueguen. jugaba ; jugue, jugaste, etc. ; jugara, jugase, jugare ; jugare, etc. 486. Forzar, forzando, forzado, to force. PRES. IND. fuerzo fuerzas fuerza forzamos forzais fuerzan. PRES. SUBJ. fuerce fuerces fuerce forcemos forceis fuercen. IMPERAT. - fuerza fuerce forcemos forzad fuercen. forzaba; force, forzaste, etc.; forzara, forzase, forzare; etc. 487. In verbs of this class whose stem-vowel o stands after a g, the diphthong assumes the diaeresis (tie), ac- cording to 17 and 32, a : 236 Form and Inflection. 488. Agorar, agorando, agorado, to divine (augurare), PRES. IND. agiiero agiieras agticra agoramos agorais agiieran. PRES. SUBJ. aguere agueres aguere agoremos agoreis agueren. IMPERAT. agiiera aguere agoremos agorad agueren. agoraba ; agore, agorara, agorase, agorare ; agorar-e, -fa. O STEMS. SECOND CONJUGATION. 489. Mover, moviendo, movido, to move. PRESENT STEMS. inuev (tonic), mov (atonic). PRES. IND. muev-o muev-es muev-e mov-emos mov-eis muev-en. PRES. SUBJ. muev-a muev-as muev-a mov-amos mov-ais muev-an. IMPERAT. muev-e muev-a mov-amos mov-ed muev-an. IMPERF. mov-ia -fas Aa. -famos -fais -fan. PAST DEF. mov-i 1 IMP. SUBJ. mov-iera 2 IMP. SUBJ. mov-iese PRETERIT STEM. REGULAR. -iste -io -icras -ieses -imos -ieramos -iesemos -isteis -ieron. -ierais -ieran. -ieseis -iesen. FUT. SUBJ. mov-iere -ieres -iere -ieremos -i6reis -ieren. FUTURE STEM. REGULAR. FUTURE. CONDIT. mover-6 mover-ia -as -fas -fa -Imos -famos -fais -an. -fan. 490. Morder, mordiendo, mordido, ~to bite. PRES. IND. muerdo muerdes muerde mordemos mordeis muerden. PRES. SUBJ. muerda muerdas muerda mordamos mordais muerdan. IMPERAT. muerde muerda mordamos morded muerdan. mordia; mordi, mordiera, mordiese, mordiere; morder-6, -fa. 491. Volver, volviendo, vuelto, to return. PRES. IND. vuelvo vuelves vuelve volvemos volveis vuelven. PRES. SUBJ. vuelva vuelvas vuelva volvamos volvais vuelvan. IMPERAT. vuelve vuelva volvamos volved vuelvan. volvfa; volvi, volviera, volviese, volviere; volvere", volverfa. The Verb. 237 492. Moler, moliendo, molido, to grind. PRES. IND. muelo mueles muele molemos moleis muelen. PRES. SUBJ. muela muelas muela molamos molais muelaii. IMPERAT. muele muela molamos moled muelan. molia ; moli, moliera, moliese, moliere ; molere, moleria. Orthographic and Euphonic Changes. 493. The verb oler assumes an h before the diph- thong of the tonic stem : 494. Oler, oliendo, olido, to scent, to smell. PRES. IND. huelo hueles huele olemos oleis huelen. PRES. SUBJ. huela huelas huela olamos olais huelan. IMPERAT. huele huela olamos oled huelan. olia ; oli, oliera, oliese, olier^y olere, oleria. 495. Verbs of this class in -cer preceded by a conso- nant, and a few in -ocer, besides diphthongizing the stem-vowel o y observe the regular orthographical changes indicated in 373. See 374, exception: 496. Torcer, torciendo, torcido, to twist. PRES. IND. tuerzo tuerces tuerce torcemos torceis tuercen. PRES. SUBJ. tuerza tuerzas tuerza torzamos torzais tuerzan. IMPERAT. tuerce tuerza torzamos torced tuerzan. torcia; torci, torciera, torciese, torciere; torcere, torceria. 497. Cocer, cociendo, cocido, to boil, to bake. 1 PRES. IND. cuezo cueces cuece cocemos coceis cuecen. PRES. SUBJ. cueza cuezas cueza cozamos cozais cuezan. IMPERAT. cuece cueza cozamos coced cuezan. cocia ; coci, cociera, cociese, cociere ; cocere, coceria. 1 Cocer means to boil, to cook, meats, vegetables, tea, etc., and to bake bread, pottery, brick. Of water, it is preferable to use hervir (fervere). The mistress, for example, would say, el agua hierve ; and the servant, el agua estd cociendo. "Boiled meat" is came cocida; "boiling water," or "very hot water," agua hirviente. " To boil an egg " is pasar un huevo por agua ; " boiled eggs," huevos pasados por agua; " baked clay," barro cocido; etc. 238 Form and Inflection. Second Class. 498. This class embraces verbs of the third conjuga- tion only, with the radical vowels e and o. The gerund uniformly belongs to the preterit system. In the present stem, besides the usual diphthongiza- tion of the vowels e and o when tonic, these vowels subside into i and u respectively before a strong termi- nation, whenever the stem is atonic ; that is, in the first and second persons plural of the subjunctive, and in the first person plural of the imperative. Again, in the preterit stem, including the gerund, the radical vowels e and o become respectively i and u, as often as the ending that follows contains the diphthong ie or id. E STEMS. 499. Sentir, (sintiendo), sentido, to feel, to perceive. PRESENT STEM. sieiit (tonic), sent (atonic, weak), sint (atonic, strong). PRES. IND. sient-o sient-es sient-e sent-Imos sent-fs sient-en. PRES. SUBJ. sient-a sient-as sient-a sint-amos sint-ais sient-an. IMPERAT. sient-e sient-a sint-amos sent-id sient-an. IMPERF. sent-fa -ias -fa -famos -famos -fan. PRETERIT STEM. sint (before a diphthong) . GERUND. sintiendo. PAST DEF. sent-f 1 IMP. SUBJ. sint-iera 2 IMP. SUBJ. sint-iese FUT. SUBJ. sint-iere FUTURE. CONDIT. sentir-e" sentir-fa -iste -ieras sintio -iera sent-imos -ieramos -fsteis -ierais sintieron. -ieran. -ieses -ieres -iese -lire -iesemos -ieremos -ieseis -iereis -iesen. ieren. FUTURE STEM. REGULAR. -as -fas -a -fa -emos -famos -6is -fais -an. fan. The Verb. 239 500. Herir, (hiriendo), herido, to strike (with a weapon). PRES. IND. hiero hieres hiere herimos hens hieren. PRES. SUBJ. hiera hieras hiera hiranios hirais hieran. IMPERAT. hiere hiera hiramos he rid hieran. IMPERF. her-ia -ias -fa -famos -fais -fan. GERUND. hiriendo. PAST DEF. her-i -iste hirio her-imos -isteis hirieron i IMP. SUBJ. hir-iera -ieras -iera -ieramos -ilrais -ieran. 2 IMP. SUBJ. hir-iese -ieses -iese -iesemos -ieseis -iesen. FUT. SUBJ. hir-iere -ieres -iere -ieremos -iereis -ieren. FUTURE. herir-e -as -a -emos -eis -an. CONDIT. herir-ia -fas -fa -iamos -fais -fan. a. So the compounds of herir (from Lat. haerere), or of ferir (from Lai. fertre) , and of -gerir, -jerir (Lat. -gerere, -serifre). 501. Herir means to strike with a weapon, with intent to wound or to put to death. Otherwise, to strike is expressed by dar un golpe dar golpes a alguien, to inflict a blow blows on any one : Ruben. Conserve yo mi vida, y Raquel muera (hi^rela). Raquel. \ Ay de mi ! Reuben. Let me preserve my life, and let Rachel &\t(he strikes). Rachel. Alas for me ! Tragedy si Rachel, by D. Vicente Garcia de la Huerta, 1778. 502. Advertir, (advirtiendo), advertido, to observe. PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. IMPERAT. IMPERF. GERUND. PAST DEF. i IMP. SUBJ. 2 IMP. SUBJ. FUT. SUBJ. FUTURE. CONDIT. ad- vierto viertes vierte vierta viertas vierta vierte vierta vert-fa -ias -ia advirtiendo. vert-i -iste virtio virt-iera -ieras -iera virt-iese -ieses -iese virt-iere -ieres -iere vertir-e" -as -a vertir-ia -fas -fa ad- vertimos vertis vierten. virtamos virtais viertan. virtamos vertid viertan. -iamos -fais -fan. vert-imos -fsteis virtieron. -ieramos -ierais -ieran. -iesemos -ieseis -ieremos -emos -iesen. -iereis -ieren. -eis -an. -famos -fais -fan. 240 Form and Inflection. 503. Hervir (hirviendo), hervido, to boil. PRES. IND. hiervo hierves hierve hervimos hervis hierven. PRES. SUBJ. hierva hiervas hierva hirvainos hirvais hiervan. IMPERAT. hierve hierva hirvamos hervid hiervan. IMPERF. herv-ia -ias -fa GERUND. hirviendo. PAST DEF. herv-f -iste hirv i IMP. SUBJ. hirv-iera -ieras -iera 2 IMP. SUBJ. hirv-iese -ieses -iese FUT. SUBJ. hirv-iere -ieres -iere FUTURE. hervir-e -as -a CONDIT. hervir-fa -fas -fa -famos -lais herv-imos -isteis -ieramos -ierais -iesemos -ieremos -emos -famos -ieseis -iereis -eis -fais -lan. hirvieron, -ieran. -iesen. -ieren. -an. -fan. 504. In the verb erguir, to- throw back (the head) haughtily, the stem being initial, the vowel i may be either consonantized, or it may replace the diphthong altogether, in the present tenses. The other changes are the same as in the model verb sentir: 505. Erguir (irguiendo), erguido. PR. IND. yergo yergues yergue l irgo irgues irgue J eiguimos PR. Sj. yerga irga yergas irgas yerga j irga J irgamos IMPERAT. yergue yerga ) irgue irga J irgamos IMPERF. ergufa -fas -fa -famos GERUND. irguiendo. PAST D. erguf erguiste irguio erguimos i IMP. Sj. irguiera -ieras -iera -ieramos 2 IMP. Sj. irguiese -ieses -iese -iesemos FUT. Sj. irguiere -ieres -iere -ieremos FUTURE. erguir-e -as -a -e"mos CONDIT. erguir-fa -fas -fa -famos ergms f yerguen. ( irguen. f yergan. irgais ] I ( irgan. f yergan. 1 irgan. -fais -fan. ergufsteis irguieron. -ierais -ieran. -ieseis -iesen. -iereis -ieren. -e"is -an. -fais -fan. 506. Verbs in -quirir which are derived from a primi- tive radical quer (Lat. quaerere), have the usual diph- thong ie in the present stem when tonic ; but otherwise they preserve the characteristic i throughout. The Verb. 241 507. Adquirir (adquiriendo), adquirido, to get, to obtain. PR. IN. adquiero adquieres adquiere adquiiimos adquirfs adquieren. PR. Sj. adquiera adquieras adquiera adquiramos adquirais adquieran. IMPER. adquiere adquiera adquiramos adquirid adquieraii, adquin'a; adquiriendo, adquiri, adquiriera, adquiriese; etc. O STEMS. 508. Dormir (durmiendo), dormido, to sleep. PRESENT STEMS. duerrn. (tonic), dorm (atonic weak), clurm (atonic strong). PR. IN. duerm-o duerm-es duerm-e dorm-imos dorm-is duerm-en. PR. Sj. duerm-a duerm-as duerm-a durm-amos durm-ais duerm-an. IMPER. duerm-e duerm-a durm-amos dorm-id 4 duerm-an. IMPF. dorm-fa -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. PRETERIT STEM. durm (before a diphthong). GER. durmiendo. PA. D. dorm-f -iste durmio i I. Sj. durm-iera -ieras -iera 2 1. Sj. durm-iese -ieses -iese Fu. Sj. durm-iere -ieres -iere dorm-imos -isteis durmieron, -ieramos -ierais -ieran. -iesemos -ieseis -iesen. -ieremos -iereis -ieren. FUT. dormir-e COND. dormir-ia FUTURE STEM. REGULAR. -as -a -emos -fas -fa -famos -an, -fan. 509. Morir (muriendo) , muerto, to die. PRES. IND. muero PRES. SUBJ. muera IMPERAT. IMPERF. mor-ia -fas GERUND. muriendo. mueres muere morimos morfs mueren. mueras muera muramos murals mueran. muere muera muramos morid mueran. -fa -famos -fais PAST DEF. mor-f -iste murio mor-imos -isteis i IMP. SUBJ. mur-iera -ieras -iera -ieramos -ierais 2 IMP. SUBJ. mur-iese -ieses -iese -iesemos -ieseis FUT. SUBJ. mur-iere -ieres -iere -ieremos -iereis FUTURE. morir-e -as -a -emos -eis CONDIT. morir-fa -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. murieron. -ieran. -iesen. -ieren. -an. -fan. 242 Form and Inflection. 5io Fodrir and pudrir (pudriendo), podrido, to decay. This verb, which usually made the stem-vowels inter- changeable in certain tenses and persons, has now become nearly regular with u, by the authority of the Spanish Academy. The latest recommendation of that body 1 fixes the inflection as follows (we insert the old variations between parentheses) : PR. IN. pudro pudres pudre j pudrimos pudns | ) (podHs) \ pudren. PR.SJ. pudra pudras pudra pudramos pudrais pud ran. IMPER. pudre pudra pudramos f pudrid 1 (podrid} \ pudran. IMPF. pudr-fa -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. (podr-ia) (-fas) (-fa) (-iamos) (jiais) O). GER. pudriendo. PA.D. pudrf (podri) pudriste (podriste) \ pudrio f pudrimos pudrfsteis 1 (podrimos) (podrisfeis) | pudrieron. 1 1. Sj. pudri-era -ieras iera -ieramos -ierais -ieran. 2I.SJ. pudri-ese -ieses -iese -iesemos -ieseis -iesen. Fu.Sj. pudri-ere -ieres iere -ieremos -iereis -ieren. FUT. pudrir-e -as -a -emos -eis -art. (podrir-e) (-*) (-d) {-emos} d-ezs) (-*); COND. pudrir-fa -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. (J>odrir-ia) {-ias) (*) (jlamos) (4*U) (-*). Third Class. 511. This class embraces only verbs of the third conjugation, with the radical vowel e. The gerund uniformly belongs to the preterit system. In the present stem, the vowel e becomes i when the radical syllable is tonic, or atonic strong ; that is, throughout the present indicative, subjunctive, and the imperative, save only the first and second persons plural 1 Gramdtica de la Lengua Castellana, por la Real Academia Espanola. Madrid, 1880 (published January, 1881), p. 132. The Verb. 243 of the indicative, and the second person plural impera- tive. In the preterit system, the vowel e, as in e stems of the preceding class, uniformly becomes /, when the personal ending contains a diphthong ; that is, in the gerund, in the third persons singular and plural of the past, definite, and throughout the derivative tenses. 512. Pedir, (pidiendo), pedido, to ask. PRESENT STEMS. pid (tonic, atonic strong), pid (atonic weak). PRES. IND. pld-o pld-es pld-e ped-imos ped-fs pld-en. PRES. SUBJ. pid-a pld-as pid-a pid-amos pid-ais pld-an. IMPERAT. pid-e pld-a pid-amos ped-Id pld-an. IMPERF. ped-ia -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. GERUND. PAST DEF. 1 IMP. SUBJ. pid-iera 2 IMP. SUBJ. pid-iese FUT. SUBJ. pid-iere PRETERIT STEM. pid (before a diphthong), pidiendo. ped-i -iste -ieras pidio -iera ped-imos -ieramos -isteis -ierais pidieron, -ieran. -ieses -iese -iesemos -ieseis -iesen. -ieres -iere -ieremos -iereis -ieren. FUTURE STEM. REGULAR. FUTURE. CONDIT. pedir-e pedir-ia -as -fas -emos -famos -an. -fan. 513. Servir, (sirviendo), servido, to serve. PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. IMPERAT. IMPERF. GERUND. PAST DEF. 1 IMP. SUBJ. 2 IMP. SUBJ. FUT. SUBJ. FUTURE. CONDIT. slrvo slrva serv-fa sirviendo. serv-f sirv-iera sirv-iese sirv-iere servir-e servir-fa sirves sirvas sirve -fas -iste -ieras -ieses -ieres -as -fas sirve slrva slrva -fa sirvio -iera -iese -iere -a -fa servimos sirvamos sirvainos -famos servimos -ieramos -iesemos -ieremos -emos -famos servfs sirvais servid -fais -isteis -ierais -ieseis -iereis -&s -fais sirven. slrvan. sirvan. -fan. sirvieron. -ieran. -iesen. -ieren. -an. -fan. 244 . Form and Inflection. Orthographic and Euphonic Changes. 514. Verbs of this class in -gir, besides modifying the radical vowel ^, observe the euphonic changes indicated in 375: 515. Regir, (rigiendo), regido, to rule. PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. IMPERAT. IMPERF. GERUND. PAST DEF. i IMP. SUBJ. 2 IMP. SUBJ. FUT. SUBJ. FUTURE. CONDIT. rljo rlja reg-ia rigiendo.. reg-f rig-iera rig-iese rig-iere regir-e regir-ia rlges rljas rlge -fas -iste -ieras -ieses -ieres -as -fas rlge rlja rlja -fa rigio -iera -iese -iere -a -fa regimes rijamos rijamos -famos re-gimos -ieramos -iesemos -ieremos -emos -famos regfs rijais regid -fais -fsteis -ierais -ieseis -iereis -eis -fais rlgen. rijan. rljan. -fan. rigieron -ieran. -iesen. -ieren. an. -fan. 516. Verbs of this class in -guir (gheer) modify the stem-vowel, and conform to the euphonic changes laid down in 376: Seguir, (siguiendo), seguido, to follow. PRES. IND. sigo sigues sigue seguimos segufs siguen. PRES. SUBJ. siga siga siga sigamos sigais sigan. IMPERAT. sigue siga sigamos seguid sigan. IMPERF. seguia -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. GERUND. siguiendo. PAST DEF. seguf -iste siguio seguimos -fsteis siguieron. i IMP. SUBJ. siguiera -ieras -iera -ieramos -ie*rais -ieran. 2 IMP. SUBJ. siguiese -ieses -iese -iesemos -ie*seis -iesen. FUT. SUBJ. siguiere -ieres -iere -ieremos -iereis -ieren. FUTURE. seguire -as -a -emos -^is -an. CONDIT. seguiria -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. 517. Verbs of this class in the double consonant -Hir, and optionally those in -chir, modify the stem-vowel e } The Verb. 245 and absorb the i of the diphthongs zV, id, contained in the gerund, the past definite third persons singular and plural, and the derivative tenses, according to 378 : 518. Cenir, (cinendo), PRES. IND. cino cines PRES. SUBJ. cina ' cinas IMPERAT. cine IMPERF. ceii-fa -fas GERUND. cinendo. PAST DEF. cefi-f -iste i IMP. SUBJ. cin-era -eras 2 IMP. SUBJ. ciii-ese -eses Fux. SUBJ. cin-ere -eres FUTURE. cefiir-e -as CONDIT. cefiir-fa -fas cenido, to gird. cine cefiimos cina cinamos cina cinamos -fa -famos cino cefi-imos -era -eramos -ese -esemos -ere -eremos -a -emos -fa -famos cefiis cinais cefiid -iais -isteis -erais eseis -ereis -eis -iais cinen. cinan. ciiia n. -fan. cineron. -eran. -esen. -eren. -an. -fan. 519. Verbs in -eir modify the stem-vowel e into /, according to this class, but they lose the i of the diph- thongs ie and id throughout the preterit stem : 520. Re-ir, (ri-endo), PRES. IND. rio rles PRES. SUBJ. rla rlas IMPERAT. rie IMPERF. re-fa -fas GERUND. ri-endo. PAST DEF. re-f -iste 1 IMP. SUBJ. ri-era -eras 2 IMP. SUBJ. ri-ese -eses FUT. SUBJ. ri-ere -eres FUTURE. reir-e, etc. Fourth Class. 521. This class embraces all verbs in -uir, including those in -guir (not those in -guir, 376 and remark). The gerund uniformly belongs to the preterit system, as in the second and third classes. re-ido, to laugh. rle reimos refs rien. rla riamos rials rian. rla riamos reid rian. -fa -famos -fais -fan. rio re-imos -isteis rieron, -era -eramos -erais -eran. -ese -esemos -eseis -esen. -ere -eremos -ereis -eren. CONDIT. reir-fa, etc. 246 Form and Inflection. In the present stem a y consonant is inserted before the ending when the radical is tonic (weak or strong), and also when atonic strong ; that is, in the same positions of the present indicative, subjunctive, and of the impera- tive, in which the third class modifies the stem-vowel. In the preterit system, including the gerund, the diphthongs ie and id are consonantized throughout ( 441 ; 442, 6). 522. Huir, (huyendo), huido, to flee. PRESENT STEMS. hu-y (tonic; atonic strong), hu (atonic weak) PR. IN. PR. Sj. huyo huyes huye huya huyas huya huimos huyamos hufs huyais huyen. hiiyau. IMPER. huye huya huyamos huid huya 11. IMPERF. hu-fa -fas fa -famos -fais -fan. PRETERIT STEM. hu (with diphthongs consonantized) . GERUND. huyendo. P. DEF. hu-f -iste -y6 -imos -fsteis -yeron. i IMP. Sj. hu-yera -yeras -yera -yeranios -yerais -yeran. 2 IMP. Sj. hu-yese -yeses -yese -yesenios -yeseis -ye sen. FUT. Sj. hu-yere -yeres -yere -yeremos -yereis -yeren. FUTURE STEM. REGULAR. FUTURE. huir-e -as -a -emos -eis -an. CONDIT. huir-fa -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. 523. Atribuir, (atribuyendo), atribuldo, to ascribe. PR. IN. atribu-yo -yes -ye atribu-imos -fs atribu-yen. PR. Sj. atribu-ya -yas -ya atribu-yamos -yais atribu-yan. IMPER. -ye ya atribu-yamos -Id atribu-yan. IMPERF. atribu-fa -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. GERUND. atribuyendo. P. DEF. atribu-i -Iste -y6 -irnos -fsteis -yeron. i IMP. Sj. atribu-yera -yeras -yera -yeramos -yerais -yeran. 2 IMP. Sj. atribu-yese -yeses -yese -yesenios -yeseis -yesen. FUT. Sj. atribu-yere -yeres -yere -yeremos -yereis -yeren. FUTURE. atribuir-e -as -a -emos -eis -an. CONDIT. atribuir-ia -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. The Verb. 247 524. Instituir, (instituyendo), instituldo, to establish. PRES. IND. institu-yo -yes -ye institu-imos -is institu-yen. PRES. SUBJ. institu-ya -yas -ya institu-yamos -yais institu-yan. IMPERAT. -ye -ya institu-yamos -Id institu-yan. IMPERF. institu-fa -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. GERUND, instituyendo. PAST DEF. institu-f -iste -yo -imos -fsteis -yeron. 1 IMP. SUBJ. institu-yera -yeras -yera -yeramos -yerais -yeran. 2 IMP. SUBJ. institu-yese -yeses -yese -yesemos -yeseis -yesen. FUT. SUBJ. institu-yere -yeres -yere -yeremos -yereis -yeren. FUTURE. instituir-6 -as -a -emos -eis -an. CONDIT. instituir-fa -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. 525. Verbs in -gtiir lose the diaeresis as often as they admit the y consonant : 526. Argiiir, (arguyendo), argiildo, to discuss. PR. IN. argu-yo -yes -ye argii-imos -fs argu-yen. PR. Sj. argu-ya -yas -ya argu-yamos -yais argu-yan. IMPER. -ye -ya argu-yamos argii-id argu-yan. IMPRF. argil-fa -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. GER. arguyendo. P. DEF. argii-f -iste argu-yo argii-imos -fsteis argu-yeron. 1 I. Sj. argu-yera -yeras -yera -yeramos -yerais -yeran. 2 I. Sj. argu-yese -yeses -yese -yesemos -yeseis -yesen. Fu. Sj. argu-yere -yeres -yere -yeremos -yereis -yeren. FUT. argiiir-e -as -a -emos ^-eis -an. COND. argiiir-fa -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. Fifth Class. 527. This class embraces those verbs that have irregular preterit systems derived from the Latin by attraction, with the tonic accent on the radical in the first and third persons singular of the past definite. The present and future stems are generally irregular. 248 Form and Inflection. FIRST CONJUGATION. 528. Andar, andando, andado, to go (indefinitely). PRES. IND. ando PRES. SUBJ. ande IMPERAT. IMPERF. and-aba PRESENT STEM. REGULAR. andas anda andamos andais andes ande andemos andeis anda ande andemos andad -abas -aba -abamos -abais andan. anden. anden. -aban. PRETERIT STEM. anduv (452). PAST DEF. anduve anduviste anduvo anduv-imos -isteis -ieron. 1 IMP. SUBJ. anduv-iera -ieras -iera -ieramos -ierais -ieran. 2 IMP. SUBJ. anduv-iese -ieses -iese -iesemos -ieseis -iesen. FUT. SUBJ. anduv-iere -ieres -iere -ieremos -iereis -ieren. FUTURE STEM. REGULAR. FUTURE. andar-e, etc. CONDIT. andar-ia, etc. a. Andar is a general undefined going, expressing manner or state ; tr, a going in a specific direction, or for a definite purpose. Of inanimate objects and animals, andar is used ; of persons, ir. Ir , followed by an infinitive, means to be going to, to be about to: andar de Ceca en Meca, 1 to go from Dan to Beersheba. andar vagando por todas partes, to go roaming all over. andar de prisa despacio, to go fast slow. andar a" gatas, to go on all fours. el reldj no anda ; esta parado, the watch don't go ; it has stopped. el caballo anda bien, the horse travels well. la tierra anda, the earth moves. ir de Madrid a Sevilla, to go from Madrid to Seville. ir al teatro a" la compra, to go to the play to market. ir de un recado, to go of an er- rand. e'l va de ministro tal parte, he goes as a minister to such a place, [to take a short walk. voy a dar un paseito, I am going < ique' me va V. a dar? what are you going to give me ? i The Ceca of C6rdova, originally a Mint (Arab, d&r as-sikka), was the central oratory for pilgrims in the western caliphat, corresponding to the ca'aba of Mecca in that of Bagdad. The Verb. 249 SECOND CONJUGATION. 529. Caber, cabiendo, cabido, to be contained in, (en), to hold. PRESENT STEMS. quep (strong, 446, rf), cab (weak). PRES. IND. quepo cabes cabe cabemos cabeis caben. PRES. SUBJ. quepa quepas quepa quepamos quepais quepan. IMPERAT. cabe quepa quepamos cabed quepan. IMPERF. cab-ia -ias -ia -famos -fais -fan. PRETERIT STEM. cup ( 452). PAST DEF. cupe cupiste cupo cup-imos -isteis 1 IMP. SUBJ. cup-iera -ieras -iera -ieramos -ierais 2 IMP. SUBJ. cup-iese -ieses -iese -iesemos -ieseis FUT. SUBJ. cup-iere -ieres -iere -ieremos -iereis FUTURE STEM. cabr ( 454). FUTURE. cabr-e -as -a -emos -&s CONDIT. cabr-ia -ias -ia -famos -fais -icron. -ieran. -iesen. -ieren. a. The use of caber (from the Latin capgre, to take} is anomalous, in that it reverses the English order of subject and object, and is construed with 'the preposition en. Thus: En esta sala caben quinientas personas, this hall holds five hundred persons, liter- ally, "five hundred persons hold in this hall "; no cabe mas en esta vasija, this vessel will not hold any more, literally, " no more holds in this vessel." In this sense of material capacity, eager, with the English construction, may be substituted ; as, esta sala coge quinientas personas ; esta vasija no coge mds. b. Caber signifies also moral capacity in the sense of to be capable of; as, no cabe en \ tal infamia, he is not capable of such baseness ; todo cabe en fulano, so and so is capable of anything \ no cabe ma's, there is no room for more, or ** that caps the climax," the latter meaning also expressed in Spanish by no faltaba mas. c. Cabe is used impersonally in the sense of "it is possible"; negative, " there is no possible" : si cabe, if it is possible, if it may be-, no cabe duda, there is no possible doubt. 2 S Form and Inflection. 530. Hacer, haciendo, hecho, to make, to do (Lat. J ' PRESENT STEMS. hag (strong, 446, *), hac (weak). PRES. IND. hago PRES. SUBJ. haga IMPERAT. IMPERF. hacfa PAST DEF. hlce 1 IMP. SUBJ. hiciera hicieras hiciera 2 IMP. SUBJ. hiciese hicieses hiciese FUT. SUBJ. hiciere FUTURE. CONDIT. har-e har-fa haces hace hagas haga haz( 450) haga hacfas hacia -famos PRETERIT STEM. hie ( 452). hiciste hlzo (14) hiclmos -ieramos -iesemos hicieres hiciere -ieremos FUTURE STEM. har ( 455). -as -a -emos -fas -ia -famos hacemos haceis hacen. hagamos haga is hagan. hagamos haced hagan. iais -isteis -ierais -ieseis -iereis -eis -iais -leron. -ieran. -iesen. -ieren. satis- faces face facemos faceis facen. fagas faga fagamos fagais fagan. face or faz faga fu games faced fagan. -fas -fa -famos -iais -fan. ficiste fizo ficlmos -fsteis -ieron. -ieras -iera -ieramos -ierais -ieran. -ieses -iese -iesemos -ieseis -iesen. -ieres -iere -ieremos -iereis -ieren. CONDIT. faria, etc. 531. Satisfacer, satisfaciendo, satisfecho, to satisfy. satis- PRES. IND. fago PRES. SUBJ. faga IMPERAT. IMPERF. facia PAST DEF. fice 1 IMP. SUBJ. ficiera 2 IMP. SUBJ. ficiese FUT. SUBJ. ficiere FUTURE. fare, etc. 532. Foder, (pudiendo), podido, to be able. PRESENT STEMS. pued (tonic, 445, a}, pod (atonic, 435). PRES. IND. puedo puedes puede podemos podeis pueden. PRES. SUBJ. pueda puedas pueda podamos podais puedanc IMPERAT. IMPERF. pod-ia -fas -fa -iamos -iais -fan. PRETERIT STEM. pud ( 452). GERUND. pudiendo. PAST DEF. pnde pudlste pudo pud-imos -isteis -ieron. 1 IMP. SUBJ. pud-iera -ieras -iera -ieramos -ierais -ieran. 2 IMP. SUBJ. pud-iese -ieses -iese -iesemos -ie*seis -iesen. FUT. SUBJ. pud-iere -ieres -iere -ieremos -ie*reis -ieren. FUTURE STEM. podr ( 454). FUTURE. podr-6 -as, etc. CONDIT. podr-fa -fas, etc. The Verb. 251 a. Poder is one of the so-called modal verbs, and signifies may (might}, can (could) * denoting physical or moral possibility, per- mission, and a possible contingency: no puedo hacerlo, no hemos podido efectuarlo, " ,;se puede pasar? no se puede seguir adelante, podra ser ; pudo ser, I cannot do it. we could not bring it about. may one (I) come in? you can't go on. it may be ; it might have been. 533. Poner, poniendo, puesto, to put, to place. PRESENT STEMS. pong (strong, 446, 6), pon (weak). PRES. IND. pongo pones pone ponemos poneis ponen. PRES. SUBJ. ponga pongas ponga pongamos pongais pongan. IMPERAT. pon ( 450) ponga pongamos poned pongan. IMPERF. pon-ia -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. PRETERIT STEM. pus ( 452). PAST DEF. puse pusiste puso pus-imos -fsteis -ieron. 1 IMP. SUBJ. pus-iera -ieras -iera -ieramos -ierais -ieran. 2 IMP. SUBJ. pus-iese -ieses -iese -iesemos -ieseis -iesen. FUT. SUBJ. pus-iere -ieres -iere -ieremos -iereis -ieren. FUTURE STEM. pondr ( 454). FUTURE. pondr-e -as -a -emos -eis -an. CONDIT. pondr-fa -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. a. Poner may be accompanied by the prepositions en, sobre, or encima de, to signify " to put " or " set on " a surface or the outside of anything. "To place" or "put in" the inside of anything is expressed by meter en. The synonym of both verbs is colocar : poner (or colocar) el sombrero en la mesa, meter la costura en el cajon, colocarla en su sitio, to put the hat on the table. to put the sewing in the drawer, to put it in its place. b. Ponerse, to set one's self about, to begin, followed by d and an infinitive ; to put on a garment, gloves, etc. Meterse en, to get one^s self into, to meddle with : 252 Form and Inflection. se puso a* cantar y a* bailar, me pongo la levita, se ha metido en Honduras, no se ineta V. en los negocios ajenos, he began to sing and to dance. I put on the frock-coat. he has got into straits ' ' gone beyond his depth." do not meddle with other peo- ple's business. 534. Querer, queriendo, querido, to will, to wish. PRESENT STEMS. quier (tonic), quer (atonic). PRES. IND. quiero quieres quiere queremos quereis quieren. PRES. SUBJ. quiera quieras quiera queramos querais quieran. IMPERAT. quiere quiera queramos quered quieran. IMPERF. quer-ia -las -fa -lamos -lais -fan. PRETERIT STEM. quis (452). PAST DEF. qulse quislste quiso quis-imos -isteis -ieron. 1 IMP. SUBJ. quis-iera -ieras -iera -ieramos -ierais -ieran. 2 IMP. SUBJ. quis-iese -ieses -iese -iesemos -ieseis -iesen. FUT. SUBJ. quis-iere -ieres -iere -ieremos -iereis -ieren. FUTURE STEM. querr ( 454). FUTURE. querr-e -as -a -emos -eis -an. CONDIT. querr-ia -fas -fa -iamos -lais -Ian. a. Querer, as a verb of mode, denotes will, inclination, in the meanings to will, to be willing, to wish : ^ quiere V. leer esta carta? no quiso hacer lo que yo le pro- puse, el muchacho querla jugar, mas su compafiero no quiso, will you read this letter? he would not do what I suggest- ed. the boy wanted to play, but his s- mate was not willing to. b. When will, would, signify future time, or a condition, the appropriate tense must be used: when will you come to see me ? I would come soon, if I had time. vendra V. a verme? vendria pronto, si tuviese tiempo, c. Querer signifies also to like, to love, to be fond of: el padre quiere sus hijos, | the father is fond of his children. The Verb. 253 535. Saber, sabiendo, sabido, to know (things). PRESENT STEMS. sep (strong), sab (weak). PRES. IND. se ( 446, d) sabes PRES. SUBJ. sepa sepas IMPERAT. - sabe IMPERF. sab-ia -las sabe sabemos sabeis saben. sepa sepamos sepals sepan. sepa sepamos sabed sepan. -ia -famos -fais -fan. PRETERIT STEM. sup ( 452). PAST DEF. siipe supiste supo sup-imos -fsteis 1 IMP. SUBJ. sup-iera -ieras -iera -ieramos -ierais 2 IMP. SUBJ. sup-iese -ieses -iese -iesemos -ieseis FUT. SUBJ. sup-iere -ieres -iere -ieremos -iereis FUTURE STEM. sabr ( 454). FUTURE. sabr-e -as -a -emos -eis CONDIT. sabr-ia -fas -fa -famos -fais -ieron. -ieran. -iesen. -ieren. a. Saber is to know things, objects of thought; conocer ( 374, ), to know persons, and to be acquainted with things, objects of thought : lo s6 ; no quiero saberlo, / know it] f do not want to know it. ^sabe V. su leccion? la s6 de memoria, do you know your lesson f I know it by heart. yo ya sabfa lo que quiso averi- guar, I knew what he wanted to find out. le conozco; no quiero cono- cerle, / know him ; I do not wish to know him. ^conoceV. este libro? lo co- nozco, are you acquainted with this book ? I am. conozco mi deber, y sabrd des- empenarlo, / know my duty, and shall find means to dis- charge it. b. Can (could") is always rendered by saber instead of poder, when it means to know how: sabe hablar Castellano, yo s6 ) , \ hacer eso, yo puedo ) he can speak Spanish. I can (intellectual possibility) i . . I can (physical possibility) \ 254 Form and Inflection. 536. Tener, teniendo, tenido, to have, to possess. PRESENT STEMS. teng (strong), tien (tonic weak), ten (atonic weak). PRES. IND. tengo tienes tiene tenemos teneis tienen. PRES. SUBJ. tenga tengas tenga tengamos tengais tengan. IMPERAT. ten (450) tenga tengamos tened tengan. IMPERF. ten-fa -fas -fa -famos -fais -fas -ia -iamos PRETERIT STEM. tuv ( 452). tirviste tuvo tuv-imos -ieras -iera -ieramos -ieses -iese -iesemos -ieres -iere -ieremos -isteis -ierais -ieseis -iereis -fan. -ieron. -ieran. -iesen. -ieren. PAST DEF. tnve 1 IMP. SUBJ. tuv-iera 2 IMP. SUBJ. tuv-iese FUT. SUBJ. tuv-iere FUTURE STEM. tendr ( 454). FUTURE. tendr-e -as -a -emos CONDIT. tendr-ia -fas -fa -iamos a. Tener was formerly much used as an auxiliary verb, but at present it is limited to certain verbs in certain locutions not easy to define. The student will do well to confine himself to haber, till experience and observation serve to guide him surely : tengo entendido que . . . lo tiene averiguado ya, un proyecto, I have learned that .... he has ferretted it out already, they have a plan in mind. 537. Traer, trayendo ( 442, b), traido, to bring. PRESENT STEMS. traig (strong), tra (weak). PR. IN. traigo traes trae traemos traeis traen. PR. Sj. traiga traigas traiga traigamos traigais traigan. IMPER. trae traiga traigamos traed traigan. IMPF. tra-ia -fas -fa -iamos -fais -fan. PRETERIT STEM. traj ( 452). P. DEF. traje trajiste trajo traj-imos -isteis -eron(443). i I. Sj. traj-era -eras -era -eramos -erais -eran. 2 1. Sj. traj-ese -eses -ese -esemos -eseis -esen. Fu. Sj. traj-ere -eres -ere -eremos -ereis -eren. FUTURE STEM. REGULAR. FUT. traer-e -as -a -emos -eis -an. COND. traer-fa -fas -fa -fames -fais -fan. The Verb. 255 a. The preterit stem truj is now obsolete as a literary form, although it is still heard, like most Castilian archaisms, among rustic people. Its inflection is precisely like the prevailing form : PAST DEF. truje trujiste trujo truj-imos -isteis -eron. 1 IMP. SUBJ. truj -era -eras -era -eramos -e*rais -eran. 2 IMP. SUBJ. truj-ese -eses -ese -esemos -eseis -esen. FUT. SUBJ. truj-ere -eres -ere -eremos -ereis -eren. THIRD CONJUGATION. 538. Conducir, conduciendo, conducido, to conduct. PRESENT STEMS. conduzc (strong, 374, ^), conduc (weak). con- PRES. IND. duzco PRES. SUBJ. duzca IMPERAT. IMPERF. ducfa con- duces duce ducimos duel's ducen. duzcas duzca duzcamos duzcais dnzcan. duce . duzca duzcamos ducid dnzcan. -fas -fa -famos -lais -fan. PRETERIT STEM. conduj (452). PAST DEF. duje dujiste dujo duj-imos -isteis -eron(443). 1 IMP. SUBJ. duj-era -eras -era -eramos -erais -eran. 2 IMP. SUBJ. duj-ese -eses -iese -esemos -eseis -esen. FUT. SUBJ. duj-ere -eres -ere -eremos -ereis -eren. FUTURE STEM. REGULAR. FUTURE. ducir-e -as -a -emos -eis -an. CONDIT. ducir-ia -fas -ia -famos -iais -fan. a. Ducir (Lat. duc2re), to lead, is not in use, as a simple verb, since the close of the fifteenth century. 539. Decir, diciendo, dicho, to say, to tell. PRESENT STEMS. dig (strong), die (tonic weak), dec (atonic weak). PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. IMPERAT. IMPERF. PAST DEF. i IMP. SUBJ. 2 IMP. SUBJ. FUT, SUBJ. digo diga decfa dije dij-era dij-ese dij-ere dices dice digas diga di({ 450) diga -fas -fa PRETERIT STEM, dijiste dljo -eras -era -eses -ese -eres -ere decimos digamos digamos -famos ,-dij (452). dij-imos -eramos -esemos -eremos dec is digais decid -fais -isteis -erais -eseis -ereis dicen. digan. digan. -fan. -eron(443) -eran. -esen. -eren* 256 Form and Inflection. FUTURE. CONDIT. dlr-e dir-fa FUTURE STEM. dir ( 455). -as -a -emos -eis -las -a -fa -lamos -lais -an. -fan. a. The special form diz, they say, seems to be a contraction of the Latin dicitur (dictt-w, dist, like moz-Q from must-us). It is a quaint sort of a synonym for se dice or dicen : diz que ese labrador es rico, | they say that farmer is rich. b. Like decir, are inflected all the compounds, such as antedecir, contradecir ) desdecir, entredecir, interdecir, predecir, save only in the imperative second singular, which, in these, is generally dice, instead of di. In bendecir and maldecir, the variations are more numerous, as will appear by the inflection of the first. The latest edition of the Academy's grammar makes all compounds of decir follow the inflection of bendecir in the imperative and in the future stem ; but this use is not constant either in literature or in conversa- tion. 540. Bendecir, bendiciendo, bendecido, (bendito), to bless. This verb and its contrary, maldecir, to curse, differ from the simple decir, in the past participle, the imperative second singular, and in the future stem only. Thus : ben- ben- PRES. IND. digo dices dice decimos decfs dicen. PRES. SUBJ. diga digas diga digamos digais digan. IMPERAT. dice diga digamos decid digan. IMPERF. decfa -ias -fa -famos -fais -fan. PAST DEF. dije dijiste dijo dij-imos -fsteis -eron. i IMP. SUBJ. dij-era -eras -era -eramos -erais -eran. 2 IMP. SUBJ. dij-ese -eses -ese -esemos -eseis -esen. FUT. SUBJ. dij-ere -eres -ere -eremos -e*reis -eren. FUTURE. decir-& -as -a -emos -els -an. CONDIT. decirAz. -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. a. The irregular past participles bendito and maldito are used little as such, save in a few expressions, as : bendito seas, blessings on thee ; maldito sea, confound him literally, mayest thou be blessed, may he be accursed. The Verb. 541. Venir, (viniendo), venido, to come. 257 PRESENT STEMS. veng (strong), vien (tonic weak), ven (atonic weak). PRES. IND. vengo vienes viene venimos venis vienen. PRES. SUBJ. venga vengas venga vengamos vengais vengan. IMPERAT. ven (450) venga vengamos venid vengan. IMPERF. ven-fa -ias -fa -lamos -fais -fan. GERUND. viniendo PRETERIT STEM. vin (453). PAST DEF. vine vinlste vino ' vin-imos -fsteis -ieron. i IMP. SUBJ. vin-iera -ieras -iera -ieramos -ierais -ieran. 2 IMP. SUBJ. vin-iese -ieses iese -iesemos -ieseis -iesen. FUT. SUBJ. vin-iere -ieres -iere -ieremos -iereis -ieren. FUTURE STEM. vendr ( 454). FUTURE. vendr-e -as -a -emos -eis -an. CONDIT. vendr-fa -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. Sixth Class. 542. This class embraces a few verbs not easily redu- cible to any of the foregoing. FIRST CONJUGATION. 543. Dar, dando, dado, to give. PRESENT STEM. d REGULAR. PRES. IND. doy(449)das da damos dais dan. PRES. SUBJ. de des de demos deis den. IMPERAT. da de demos dad den. IMPERF. daba dabas daba dabamos dabais daban. PRETERIT STEM. d (second conjugation). PAST DEF. di diste dio dimos disteis dieron. i IMP. SUBJ, diera dieras diera dieramos dierais dieran. 2 IMP. SUBJ. diese dieses diese diesemos dieseis diesen. FUT. SUB. diere dieres diere dieremos diereis dieren. FUTURI i STEM. REGULAR. FUTURE. dar-6 -as -a -6mos -6is -an. CONDIT. dar-ia -{as -fa -lamos -{ais -fan. 258 Form arid Inflection. SECOND CONJUGATION. 544. Caer, cayendo ( 442, b) y caldo, to fall. PRESENT STEMS. caig (strong, 446, c), ca (weak). PRES. IND. caigo caes cae caemos caeis caen. PRES. SUBJ. caiga caigas caiga caigamos caigais caigan, IMPERAT. cae caiga caigamos caed caigan. IMPERF. ca-fa -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. PRETERIT STEM.- - REGULAR (but see 442, *>. PAST DEF. caf caiste cayo ca-imos -fsteis -yeron. i IMP. SUBJ. ca-yera -yeras -yera -yeramos -yerais -ye ran. 2 IMP. SUBJ. ca-yese -yeses -yese -yesemos -yeseis -yesen. FUT. SUBJ. ca-yere -yeres -yere -yeremos -yereis -yeren. FUTURE STEM. REGULAR. FUTURE. caer-e -as -a -emos -eis -an. CONDIT. caer-fa -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. 545. Placer, placiendo, placido, to please. PRES. IND. place. PRES. SUBJ. plazca (plegue). IMPERAT. plegue (plega). IMPERF. placfa. PAST DEF. plugo (placio). 1 IMP. SUBJ. pluguiera (placiera) . 2 IMP. SUBJ. pluguiese (placiese). FUT. SUBJ. pluguiere (placiere). FUTURE. placera. CONDIT. placerfa. a. The impersonal verb placer is now mostly archaic, except in ejaculations. Otherwise, it is replaced by querer, to wish, to please ; gustarle a uno, and parecerle a uno, to please, to suit, any one : \ plegue A Dios que se salve ! i pluguiera a Dios que jama's le hubieses visto ! vendrds cuando te pluguiere, si d V. le place, si le gusta a" V., si d V. le parece, si V. quiere, God grant he may be saved ! would God you had never seen him ! you will come when you please. if you please, or if you like. The Verb. 259 546. The compounds of placer are conjugated like nacer ( 374, b) ; that is, they are regular throughout, except in the present stem, when they are euphonized by the intercalation of a z with strong vowel-endings : Complacer, complaciendo, complacido, to oblige. com- com- plazco places place placemos placeis placen. plazcas plazca plazcamos plazcais plazcan. plazca plazcamos placed plazcan. PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. plazca IMPERAT. place IMPERF. placia -fas -fa PAST DEF. placi -iste -io 1 IMP. SUBJ. placi era -ieras -ier; 2 IMP. SUBJ. placiese -ieses -ies< FUT. SUBJ. placiere -ieres -ier< FUTURE. placer-e -as -a CONDIT. placer-fa -fas -fa -lamos -lais -lan. -imos -isteis -ieron. -ieramos -ierais -ieran. -iesemos -ieseis -iesen. -ieremos -iereis -ieren. -emos -eis -an. -famos -fais -fan. 547. Valer, valiendo, valido, to be worth. PRESENT STEMS. valg (strong, 446, b} , val (weak) . PRES. IND. valgo vales vale valemos valeis valen. PRES. SUBJ. valga valgas valga valgamos valgais valgan. IMPERAT. val^^^/vale valga valgamos valed valgan. IMPERF. val-ia -fas -ia -famos -fais -lan. -ieron. -ieran. -iesen. -ieren. PRETERIT STEM. REGULAR. PAST DEF. val-i -iste -io -imos -isteis 1 IMP. SUBJ. val-iera -ieras -iera -ieramos -ierais 2 IMP. SUBJ. val-iese -ieses -iese -iesemos -ieseis FUT. SUBJ. val-iere -ieres -iere -ieremos -iereis FUTURE STEM. valdr ( 454). FUTURE. valdr-e -as -a -emos -is CONDIT. valdr-ia -fas -ia -famos -fais a. So also the reflexive verb valerse, to avail one's self of (de), to take advantage : me valgo, te vales, se vale, se vale de este recurso para enganar y estafar a la gente sencilla, nos valemos, os valeis, etc. he takes advantage of this expe- dient to deceive and defraud simple people. 260 Form and Inflection. 548. Ver, viendo, visto, to see. PRESENT STEMS. ve (strong), v (weak). PRES. IND. veo ves ve vemos veis ven. PRES. SUBJ. vea veas vea veamos veais vean. IMPERAT. ve vea veamos ved vean. IMPERF. (451) ve-fa -fas -fa -famos -fais -fan. PRETERIT STEM. v REGULAR. PAST DEF. vi viste vio vimos visteis vieron. 1 IMP. SUBJ. viera vieras viera vieramos vierais vieran. 2 IMP. SUBJ. viese vieses viese viesemos vieseis viesen. FUT. SUBJ. - viere vieres viere vieremos viereis vieren. FUTURE STEM. REGULAR. FUTURE. ver-e, etc. CONDIT. ver-fa, etc. a. Ver was formerly written and pronounced veer (from the Latin videre) , and was regular in the present indicative and sub- junctive, but still irregular in the imperfect. Thus: veo vees vee (veemos) (veeis) veen. vea veas vea veamos veais vean. vee veed. via vias via vfamos viais vian. In the past definite first and third persons singular, the forms vide, vido, from the Latin vidi, vidit, were used. 549. Like ver are inflected all its own compounds ; those in veer, as well as all simple verbs in -eer, like creer, leer, poseer, etc., are regular throughout, save that the diphthongs ie and id must always be consonantized, according to 442, b : a. Pro veer, proveyendo, proveido, or pro visto, to provide. PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. IMPERAT. . IMPERF. PAST DEF. i IMP. SUBJ. 2 IMP. SUBJ. FUT. SUBJ. FUTURE. CONDIT. proveo provea prove-ia prove-i prove-yera prove-yese prove-yere proveer-e proveer-ia provees proveas provee -fas -iste -yeras -yeses -yeres -as -fas provee provea provea -fa -y6 -yera -yese -yere -a -fa proveemos proveamos proveamos -famos -imos -yeramos -yesemos -yeremos -emos -fames proveeis proveais proveed -fais -isteis -yerais -yeseis -yereis -eis fais proveen. provean. provean. -fan. -yeron. -ye ran. -yesen. -yeren. -an. {an. The Verb. 261 b. Creer PRES. IND. PRES. SUBJ. IMPERAT. IMPERF. PAST DEF. i IMP. SUBJ. 2 IMP. SUBJ. FUT. SUBJ. FUTURE. , creyendo creo crea cre-fa cre-yera cre-yese cre-yere creer-e, etc. (442, crees creas cree -fas -iste -yeras -yeses -yeres b), creido, to believe. cree creemos creeis crea creamos creais crea creamos creed -fa -famos -fais -yo -imos -fsteis -yera -yeramos -yerais -yese -yesemos -yeseis -yere -yeremos -yereis CONDIT. creer-fa, etc. creen. crean. crean. -fan. -yeron -yeran -yesen -yeren c. Poseer, poseyendo, poseldo, to PRES. IND. poseo posees PRES. SUBJ. posea poseas IMPERAT. posee IMPERF. pose-fa -fas PAST DEF. pose-f -Iste 1 IMP. SUBJ. pose-yera -yeras 2 IMP. SUBJ. pose-yese -yeses FUT. SUBJ. pose-yere -yeres FUTURE. poseer-e, etc. ildo, to possess. posee poseemos posea poseamos posea poseamos -fa . -famos -y6 -Imos -yera -yeramos -yese -yesemos -yere -yeremos CONDIT. poseer-fa, poseeis poseais poseed -fais -fsteis -yerais -yeseis -yereis etc. poseen. posean. posean. -fan. -yeron. -yeran. -yesen. -yeren. 550. Yacer, yaciendo, yacido, to lie (Latjacere). fyazcol PRES. IND. ] yazgo \ yaces yace yacemos yaceis yacen. [yago J fyazca yazcas yazca yazcamos yazcais yazcan. PRES. SUBJ. cn-*CLY> " r cienegrGCor . denostar . . " costar, 473. 1 Regular when it meanij " to redeem a dentar . . . " alentar, 459. heritage." 274 Form and Inflection. descomponer, VAaeponer, 533. desgobernai Vk&acertar, 458. pp. desoompuesto. desguarnecer," carecer, 374, a. desconcertar, " acertar, $ 458. deshacer . . " hacer, 530. desconocer . " conocer, \ 374, c. pp. deshecho. desconsentir . " sentir, 499. deshelar . . " kelar, $464. desconsolar . " volar, 476. desherbar . " acertar, 458. descontar . . " contar, 477. desherrar . . " cerrar, \ 460. desconvenir . " venlr, 541. deslaombrecerse, carecer, 374, a. descordar . . " acordar, \ 474. deshumedecer, carecer, 374, a. descornar . , " acordar, 474. desimponer . " poner, 533. descrecer . . " carecer, 374, a. pp. desimpuesto. desdar ..." dar, \ 543. desinvernar . " acertar, 458. desdecir. . . " decir, 539. desleir ..." reir, 520. pp. desdicho. deslendrar . " sembrar, 463. desdentar . . ,. " alentar, 459. deslucir . . " lucir, 374, d. desembebecerse, carecer, 374, a. desmajolar . " volar, 476. desembellecer," carecer, 374, a. desmedirse . " pedir, ^ 512. desembravecer, carecer, 374, a. desmelar . . " helar, $464. desempedrar . " acertar, 458. desmembrar, " sembrar, 463. desempobrecer, carecer, $ 374, a. desmentir . . " sentir, 499. desencarecer, " carecer, 374, a. desmerecer . " carecer, 374, a. desencerrar . " cerrar, 460. desmullir . . " dullir, 378, a. desencordar . " acordar, 474. desneg-ar . . " negar, {468. desencrudecer, carecer, 374, a. desnevar . . " nevar, 417. desencruelecer, carecer, 374, a. desobedecer, " carecer, 374, a. desenfurecerse, carecer, 374, a. desoir ..." oir, ^553- desengrosar . " costar, $ 473. de solar ..." volar, 476. desenmohecer," carecer, 374, a. desoldar . . " acordar, 474. desenmudecer," carecer, \ 374, a. desollar . . " hollar, 475. desensoberbecer,^r^^, \ 374, a. desobstruir . " huir, ^522. desentenderse," entender> 471. desosari . . 480. desenterrar . " cerrar, 460. desovar . . " desosar, 480. desentorpecer, " carecer, \ 374, a. desparecer . " carecer, 374, a. desentristecer," carecer, 374, a. despedir . . " pedir, 512. desenturaecer, " carecer, 374, a. despedrar . " acertar, 458. desenvolver . " volver, 491. desperecer . " carecer, 374, a. pp. desenvuelto. despernar. . " acertar, 458. deservir ..." servir, 513. despertar . . " acertar, 458. desf allecer . . " carecer, 374, a. despezar 2 . . " empezar, 469. desfavorecer . " carecer, 374, a. desplacer . . " complacer, 546. desferrar . . " cerrar, 460. desplegar . . " negar, \ 468. desflaquecerse, carecer, 374, a. desflocar . . " trocar, 482. 1 Signifying " not to dare," it is regular. desflorecer . " carecer, 374, a. 2 Regular when it means to reduce the end desfortalecer, " carecer, 374, a. of a pipe or tube, so as to fit it to another. The Verb. 275 despoblar . \\teprobar, 478. E. desproveer . " proveer, 549,0- educir . . . like conducir, $ 538. pps. desproveido and desprovisto. elegir. ..." regir, 515. destentar . like alentar, 459- embarbecer . " carecer, 374, a. destenir . . " cenir, 518. embastecer . " carecer, $ 374, a. desterrar . " cerrar, 460. embebecer . " carecer, 374, a. destituir . . " instltuir, 524- embellecer . " carecer, 374, a. destorcer . " torcer, 496. embermejecer," carecer, 374, a. destrocar . " trocar, 482. embestir . . " servir, 513. destruir . . " huir, 522. emblandecer, " carecer, 374, a. desvanecer . " carecer, 374,0- emblanquecer, " carecer, 374, a. desventar . " alentar, 459- embobecer . " carecer, 374, a. desverdecer, " carecer, 374, 0- embosquecer, " carecer, 374, a. desvergonzarse, embravecer . " carecer, \ 374, a. like forzar, 486 ; and agorar, 488. embrutecer . " carecer, 374, a. desvolver . like volver, 49L emparentar . " alentar, 459. pp. desvuelto. empedernir . 555- detener . . " tener, 536. empedrar . . " cerrar, 460. detraer . . " traer, 537- empellar . . " helar, 464. devolver . . " volver, 49L empequefiecer, carecer, 374, a. pp. devuelto. empezar . . 469. dezmar . . " ate star, } 462. emplastecer, " carecer, 374, a. diferir ..." herir, 500. emplumecer, " carecer, 374, a. difluir ..." huir, 522. empobrecer, carecer, 374, a. digerir ..." herir, 500. empodrecer, carecer, \ 374, a. diluir ..." huir, 522. empoltronecerse , carecer, 374, a. discerner . " perder, 470. emporcar . . w trocar, 482. discernir . . " hervlr, 503. enaltecer . . " 'carecer, 374, a. disconvenir, " venir, 54L enardecer . . " carecer, 374, a. discordar . " acordar, 474- encabellecerse, carecer, 374, a. disentir . . " sentir, 499- encalvecer . " carecer, $ 374, a. disminuir . " huir, 522. encallecer . . " carecer, 374, a. disolver . . " volver, 49 1 - encandecer . " carecer, 374, a. pp. dlsuelto. encanecer . . " carecer, 374, a. disonar . . " sonar, 472. encarecer . . " carecer, 374, a. dispertar . . " acertar, 458. encarnecer . " carecer, 374, a. displacer. . " complacer, 546. encender . . " entender, 471. disponer . . " poner, 533- encentar . . " alentar, 459. pp. dlspuesto. encerrar \ . " cerrar, 460. distender . " entender, 47L enclocar . . " trocar, \ 482. distraer . . " traer, 537- encloquecer . " carecer, 374, a. distribuir . " atribuir, 523- encomendar . " alentar, 459. divertir . . " advertir, 502. encontrar . . " contar, 477. doler ..." moler, 492- encorar ..." sonar, 472. dormir . . . 508. encordar . . " acordar, 474. 276 Form and Inflection. encorecer . . like carecer, 374, a. enruinecerse, like carecer, 374,^. encornar . . " acordar, 474. ensalmorar . " volar, 476. encovar . . . " sonar, 472. ensandecer . " carecer, 374, a. encrudecer . " carecer, 374, a. ensangrentar, " alentar, 459. encruelecer . " carecer, 374,0. ensoberbecer, " carecer, 374, a. encubertar . " acertar, 458. ensonar ..." sonar, 472. endentar . . " alentar, 459. ensordecer . " carecer, 374,0. endentecer . " carecer, 374, a. entallecer . . " carecer, 374,0. endurecer . . " carecer, 374, a. entender . . 47L enflerecerse . " carecer, 374, a. entenebrecer, " carecer, 374,0. enflaquecer . " carecer, 374, a. enternecer, . " carecer, 374, a. enfranquecer, " carecer, 374, a. enterrar ..." cerrar, 460. enfurecer . . " carecer, 374, a. entigrecerse . " carecer, 374, a. engorar . . . " agorar, 488. entontecer . " carecer, 374, a. engrandecer . " carecer, 374, a. entorpecer . " carecer, 374, a. engreirse . . " reir, 520. entortar ..." acordar, 474. engrosar . . " sonar, 472. entredecir . . " decir, 539. engrumecerse , " carecer, 374, a. pp. entredicho. engullir . . . " bullir, 378, a. entregerir . . " herir, 500. enhambrecer, " carecer, 374, a. entrelucir . . " lucir, 374,0'. enhambrentar , " alentar, 459. entrenaorir . . " morir, 509. enhestar . . ' atestar, 462. pp. muerto. enlenzar . . " empezar, 469. entreoir ..." *r* 553- enloquecer . " carecer, 374, a. entreparecerse," carecer, 374, a. enlucir . . . " lucir, 374, d. entrepernar . " a cer far, 458. enllentecer . " carecer, 374, a. entreponer . " poner, 533. enmagrecer . " carecer, 374, a. pp. entrepuesto. enmalecer . . ' " carecer, 374, a. entretener . . " tener, 536. enmarillecerse," carecer, 374,0. entrever . . " ver, 548. enmelar . . . " helar, 464. pp. entrevisto. enmendar . . " alentar, 459. entristecer . " carecer, 374, a. enmohecer . " carecer, \ 374, a. entullecer . . " carecer, 374, a. enmollecer . " carecer, 374, a. entumecer. . " carecer, 374, a. enmudecer . " carecer, 374, a. envanecer . . " carecer, 374, a. ennegrecer . " carecer, 374, a. envejecer . . " carecer, 374, a. ennoble cer . " carecer, 374, a. enverdecer . " carecer, 374, a. emmdecer . . " carecer, 374, a. envestir ..." servir, 513. enorgullecer . " carecer, 374, a. envilecer . . " carecer, 374, 0. enrarecer . . " carecer, 374, a. envolver . . " volver, 491. enriquecer " carecer, 374, a. pp. envuelto. enrobustecer, " carecer, 374, #. enzurdecer . " carecer, 374, 0. enrodar . . . " probar, 478. equivaler . ;. valer, 547. enrojecer . . " carecer, 374, #. erguir. . . . 505. enronquecer . " carecer, \ 374, #. errar .... 466. enronecer . . " carecer, 374. #. escabullirse . " bullir, 378, a. The Verb. 277 escandecer . like carecer, 374,0- H. escarmentar, " alentar, 459- haber. . . . 35L escarnecer . " carecer, 374,0. hacendar . . like alentar, 459- esclarecer. . " carecer, 374,0- hacer .... 530. escocer . . . " cocer 497- pp. hecho. escolar . . . " volar, 476. heder. . . . " perder, 470. esforzar . . . " forzar, 486. helar .... 464. establecer . " carecer, 374,0. henchir . . . 378, d ; 513. estar ..... 382. hender . . . " entender, 471. estatuir . . . " instituir, 524- henir .... " cenir, 518. estregar . . " negar, 468. herbar . . . " acertar, 458. estremecer . " carecer, 374,0. herbecer . . " carecer, 374,0- estrenir . . . " cenir, 5i8. herir .... 500. excluir . . . " huir, 522. herrar . . . " cerrar, 460. expedir . . . " pedir, 512. hervir . . . 503. exponer . . . " poner, 533. holgar . . . " rogar, 483. pp. expuesto. hollar. . . . 475- extender . . " entender, 471- huir . . . . 522. extraer . . . " traer, 537- humedecer . " carecer, 374,0. extrenir . . . " cenir, 518. I. F. imbuir . . . like atribuir, 523- fallecer . . . like carecer, 374,0- impedir . . . " pedir, 512. favorecer . . " carecer, 374,0. imponer . . . " poner, 533- fenecer . . . " carecer, 374, 0- pp. imptiesto. ferrar .... " cerrar, 460- improbar . . " probar, 478. florecer . . . " carecer, 374, 0. incensar . . " pensar, 457- fluir .... " huir, 522. incluir . . . " huir, 522. foliar .... 11 hollar, 475- indisponer . " poner, 533- fortalecer . . " carecer, 374,0- pp. indispuesto forzar. . . . 486. inducir . . . " conducir, 538. fregar . . . " negar, 468. inferir . . . " herir, 500- freir .... " reir, 520. inf ernar . . . " acertar, 458. pps./r -eido and frito. influir . . . " huir, 522. ing-erir . . . " herir, 500- G. pp. ingerto. ganir .... like planir, 378, c. inhestar . . " atestar, 462. gemecer . . " carecer, 374,0- injerir . . . " herir, Soo. gemir. . . . " pedir, 512. pp. injerto. gobernar . . " acertar, 458. inquirir . . . " adquirir, 507. gruir .... " huir, 522. inseguir . . . " seguir, 5i6. grunir . . . " planir, 378, c. instituir . . 524. guanir . . . " planir, 378, c. instruir . . . " atribuir, 523- guarecer . . " carecer, 374,0. interdecir . . " decir t 539- guarnecer . . " carecer, 374,0- pp. interdicho. 278 Form and Inflection. interponer . like poner, 533- mover . . . 489. pp. interpuestc B muir .... like huir t 522. intervenir . " venir, 541- mullir. . . . " bullir, 378, a. introducir . 11 conducir, 538. munir. . . . " planir, 378,^. invernar . . " acertar, 458. invertir . . " advertir, 502. N. in ve stir . . " servir, $513- nacer .... 374, A ir 6 cr^2. negar .... 468. T I OO ' negrecer . . like carecer, 374, a. j nevar .... 6 417 jimenzar . . like empezar, 469. I **/* jugar ' . . . 485. 0. L. obedecer . . like carecer, 374, a* languidecer, leer .... like carecer, " creer, $374,0- 549, b. obscurecer . obstruir . . . " carecer, " kuir, \ 374, a. 522. liquefacer . lobreguecer, " sat is facer, " carecer, 531- 374, a > obtener . . . ofrecer . . . " tener, " carecer, 536. 374, ^ lucir .... 374, d. oir 553- luir .... " huir, 522. oler .... 494- oponer . . . " porter, 533- LI. pp. opuesto. Hover . . . 418. oscurecer . . " carecer, 374, a. M. maldecir . . like bendecir, 540. P. malherir . . " herir, 500. pacer .... like nacer, { 374, b. malquerer . " querer, 534- padecer . . . " carecer, 374, a. malsonar . . " sonar, 472. palidecer . . " carecer, \ 374, a - maltraer . . " traer, 537- parecer . . . " carecer, 374, a. mancornar . " acordar, 474- pedir .... 512. manifestar . " ate star, 462. pensar . . . 457- mantener . . " tener, 536. perder . . . 470. mecer . . . 373- perecer . . . " carecer, { 374,0- medir . . . " pedir, 512. permanecer . " carecer, 374, 0- melar . . . " helar, 464. perniquebrar, " sembrar, $463- mentar . . . " alentar, 459- perse guir . . " segulr, 5i6. mentir . . . " sentir, 499- pertenecer . " carecer, 374,0- merecer . . " carecer, 374, a. pervertir . . " advertir, 502. merendar . . " alentar, 459- pimpollecer . " carecer, 374,0. moblar . . . " contar, 477- placer . . . 545- mohecer . . " carecer, $374,0- planir. . . . $378,. moler . . . $492. plastecer . . " carecer, 374,0> morder . . . 490. pleg-ar . . . " negar, 468. morir . . . $509. poblar . . . " sdnar, 472. pp. muerto. poder .... 532. mostrar . . " costar, $473- podrecer . . 41 carecer, 374,0- The Verb. 279 podrir . . . 510. reaparecer . like carecer, 374, a. poner . . . 533- reapretar . . " apretar, 461. pp.puesto. reaventar . . " alentar, 459. poseer . . . 549,^. rebendecir . " bendecir, 540. posponer . . like poner, 533- reblandecer . carecer, 374, a. pp. pospuesto. rebullirse . . " bullir, 378, a. preconocer . " cbnocer, 374,^- recaer . . . " caer, 544. predecir . . " decir, 539- recalentar. . alentar, 459. pp. predicho. recentar . . " alentar, 459. predisponer. " poner, pp. predispuesto. preferir. . . " herir, prelucir . . " lucir, premorir . . " morir, pp. premuerto. 533- 500. 374, d. 509. recenir . . . recluir . . . recocer . . . recolar . . . recolegir . . " cenir, \ 518. " huir, 522. " cocer, 497. " volar, 476. " regir, 515. preponer . . pp. prepuesto. " poner, 533- recomendar . recomponer . " alentar, 459. " poner, 533. presentir . . " sentir, presuponer . " poner, pp. presupuesto. prevalecer . " carecer, 499. 533- $ 374, a - pp. recompuesto. reconducir . reconocer . . reconstruir . " conducir, 538. 11 conocer, $ 374, c. " huir, $ 522. prevaler . . prevenir . . " valer, " venir, 547- recontar . . reconvalecer, " contar, 477. " carecer, 374, a. prever . . . pp. previsto. " ver, 548. reconvenir . recordar . . " venir, \ 541. " acordar, 474. probar . . . 478. recostar . . " costar, 473. producir . . " conducir, 538. recrecer . . 11 carecer, 374, a. proferir . . " herir, 500. recrudecer . " carecer, ^ 374, a. promo ver . . " mover, 489. redarguir . . " arguir, 526. proponer . . " poner, 533. redoler . . . " moler, 492. pp. propuesto. reducir . " conducir, \ 538. prose guir . . " seguir, 516. reelegir . .'- . r " regir, 515. prostituir . . " instituir, 524. reencomendar, 11 alentar, 459. proveer . . 549, a > referir . . . " herir, 500. pps. proveido and provisto. reflorecer . . " carecer, 374, a. provenir . . like venir, 54!- refluir . . . " huir, 522. pudrir . . . 510. ref orzar . . . " forzar, 486. ref regar . . . " negar, 468. Q- refreir . . . 41 reir, \ 520. quebrar . . like sembrar, 463- pp. refreido and refrito. querer . . . 534- reganir . . . \\teplahir, 378, . R. regar .... " negar, 468. raer .... 54 6 - regimentar . " alentar, 459. rarefacer . . like satisfacer, 531. regir .... 5 J 5- pp. rarefecho. regoldar . * " agorar, 488. reagradecer. " carecer, 374,0- regrunir . . " planir, 378, c. 280 Form and Inflection. rehacer . . . like hacer, 530. resentirse . . like sentir, 499. pp. rehecho. resolver . . . 11 volver, 491. rehenchir . . " henchir, }378,A pp. resuelto. reherir . . . " herir, 500. resollar . . . " hollar, Y47S- reherrar . . " cerrar, 460. re sonar . . . " sonar, 472. rehervir . . " hervir, 503. resplandecer, " carecer, \ 374, a. rehollar . . . " hollar, 475- resquebrar " sembrar, 463. rehuir . . . " huir, 522. restablecer . " carecer, 374, a. rehumedecer, " carecer, y 374, a. restituir . . . " instituir, Y524- reir 5 ^20. restregar . . " negar, 6468. rejuvenecer . " carecer, Y O ' y 374, a. restrinir . . . " planir, j ^^^< 378,^. relentecer " carecer, 374, a. retallecer . . " carecer, y 374, * relucir . . . " lucir, 374, d. retemblar . . " sembrar, y463- remendar . . " alentar, 459- retener . . . " tener, y536. rementir . . " sentir, 499- retentar. . . " alentar, y459- re molar . . . " volar, 476. retenir . . . " cenir, 5i8. reraoler . . . 11 moler, 492. retinir . . . " planir, 378,. remorder . . " morder, 490. retonecer . . " carecer, y 374, a. remover . . " mover, ^489. retorcer . . . " forcer, 496. remullir . . . 11 bullir, 378,^. retostar . . . " co star, y473- renacer . . . " nacer, y374,<*. retraer . . . " traer, y537- rendir . . . " servir, 513- retribuir . . " atribuir, yS23- renegar . . . " negar, 468. retronar . . . " sonar, 472. renovar . . . " sonar, y472. retrotraer . . " traer, 537. renir .... " cenir, 518. revejecer . . 11 carecer, y 374, a. repacer . . . " nacer, y374,<*. revenirse . . " venir, y54i. repadecer. . " carecer, y 374, a. reventar . . " alentar, 459- repedir . . . " pedir, 512. rever . . . . " ver, 548. repensar . . " pensar, 'y457- pp. revisto. repetir . . . " pedir, 512. reverdecer . " carecer, 374, a. replegar . . " negar 468. reverter . . . " perder, y470. repoblar . . " sonar, 472. revestir . . . " servir, y5i3- repodrir . . " podrir, 510. re volar . . . " volar, 476. reponer . . . " poner, $533- revolcarse . . " trocar, 482. pp. repuesto. revolver . . " volver, Y49 1 - reprobar . . " probar, y478. pp. revuelto. reproducir . " conducir, yS38. robustecer . " carecer, y 374, a. repudrir . . " podrir, 510. rodar .... " sonar, 472. requebrar . . " cerrar, 460. roer . . . . y557- requerer . . " querer, 534- rogar .... 483- requerir . . " herir, ^500. re saber . . . " saber, YS35- S. resalir . . . " salir, vSS4. saber .... $535- resegar . . . " negar, Y 468. salir .... y554- resembrar. . " sembrar, y463- salpimentar . like alentar, y459- The Verb. 281 salpullir . . like bullir, 378, a. subarrendar . like alentar, 459. sarmentar . . " alentar, 459. subentender . " entender, 471. sarpullir . . " bullir, 378, a. subseguir . . " seguir, 516. satisfacer . . 53i. substituir . . " ' instituir, \ 524. pp. satis/echo. substraer . . " traer, 537. segar . . . . " negar, 468. subtender . . " entender, 471. seguir . . . 516. subvenir . . " venir, \ 541. sembrar . . $4 6 3- subvertir . . " advertir, 502. sementar . . " alentar, 459. sugerir ..." herir, \ 500. sentar ..." alentar, 459. superponer . " poner, \ 533. sentir. . . . $499- pp. superpuesto. ser 385. supervenir . " venir 6 CAI. serrar ..." cerrar, 460. suponer. . . " y o i t j ' poner, 533. servir. . . . 513. pp. supuesto. simenzar . . " empezar, 469. sustituir . ,"'" instituir, 524. sobrecrecer . " carecer, \ 374, a. sustraer . . " traer, \ 537. sobreentender, " entender, 471. sobrentender, " entender, 471. T. sobreponer . " poner, 533. tallecer . . . like carecer, 374,0. pp. sobrepuesto. taner .... y 378, b. sobresalir . . " salir, 554. temblar ..." sembrar, 463. sobresembrar, " sembrar, 463. tender ..." entender, \ 471. sobresolar. . " volar, 476. tener .... v536. sobrevenir . " venir, \ 541. tentar ..." alentar, 459. sobreventar . " alentar, $ 459. tenir . r . . " cenir, \ 518. sobreverterse, " perder, \ 470. torcer . . . 496. sobrevestir . " sentir, 499. tostar ..." costar, 473. sofreir ..." reir, 520. traducir . . " conducir, 538. pps. sofreido and sofrito. traer .... y537- solar .... like volar, 476. transcender . " entender, 471. soldar ..." acordar, 474. transfreg-ar . " negar, 468. soler .... 559- translucirse . " lucir, 374, d. soltar . . . . " acordar, 474. transponer . " poner, 533. [solver] ..." volver, 491. pp. transpuesto. pp. suelto. trascender . " entender, 471. sollar . . . . " hollar, 475. trascolar . . " volar, 476. somover . . " mover, 489. trascordarse, " acordar, $474. sonar .... } 472. trasegar . . " negar, 468. sonreir ..." reir, \ 520. trasferir . . " herir, \ 500. sonrodarse . " volar, 476. trasfregar . . " negar, 468. sonar . . . . " sonar, __j^72. traslucir . . " lucir, 374, d. sorregar . . " negar, 468. trasoir . . . *^ oir, 553- sosegar ..." negar, 468. trasonar . . " sonar, 472. sostener . . " tener, 536. trasponer . . " poner, 533. soterrar. . . " cerrar, 460. pp. traspuesto. 282 Form and Inflection. trastrocar . like trocar, 482. verdecer . . . like carecer, \ 374, a. trasverter . " perder t 470. verter . . . . " perder, 470. trasvolar . . " vo 7 ~* 476. vestir . . . . " servir, 513. travesar . . " acertar, 458. volar . . . . 476. trocar . . . 482. volcar .... " trocar, 482. tronar . . . " sonar, $472. volver .... $49L tropezar . . " empezar, $469- pp. vuelto. tullir. . . . " bullir, $ 378, a. tumefacerse, 11 satisfacer, 531- Y. pp. tumefecho. yacer . . . . $550. yuxtaponer . \\ktponer t 533. V. pp. yuxtapuesto. valer. . . . 547- venir. . . . }S4i. Z. ventar . . . like alentar, $459- zabullir . . . like bullir, 378, a. ver .... $548. zaherir . . . 11 herir, 500. pp . visto. zambullirse . " bullir, 378, a. The Adverb. 283 The Adverb* 575. Adverbs may be classed according to their form and signification. 576. With reference to their form, adverbs are simple or compound. 577. Simple adverbs are further divisible into primi- tive and derivative. 578. A primitive adverb is one that is expressed by an originally single word, without affixes or etymological adhesions, as : si; no; bien; mal; luego, | yes; no; well; badly; presently. a. Some adverbs, though simple in form, are etymologically compound : acaso (from a caso) , perchance. amenudo (a menudo), often. despacio (de espacio) , slowly. ap^nas (a penas) , scarcely. b. Many simple adverbs are properly neuter adjectives tempo- rarily used as adverbs : alto, aloud. bajo, low. falso, out of tune. mucho, much. poco, little. pronto, soon. s61o, only. siibito, suddenly. temprano, early. 579. Derivative adverbs are formed principally from common adjectives by applying to them the affix -mente (corresponding to the English ending -#>), agreeably to the following laws : a. Common adjectives in o (fern, a) attach the affix to the feminine form : 284 Form and Inflection. franco ; francamente, orgulloso ; orgullosajnente, gracioso ; graciosamente, acertado ; acertadamente, cierto ; ciertamente, frank; proud ; graceful ; appropriate ; frankly. proudly. gracefully. appropriately. surely. REMARK. Common adjectives of two terminations that do not end in -o, form their adverbs by a circumlocution with manera, manner, never in -mente: burlon, a, roguish de una manera burlona, roguishly. b. If the adjective be of one termination for both genders, the affix is applied to the common form : prudente ; cortes ; facil ; feliz ; ficl; prudentemente, cortesmente, facilmente, felizmente, fielmente, prudent; prudently, polite ; politely, easy ; easily, happy ; happily, faithful ; faithfully. REMARK. The affix -mente is originally the ablative singular of the Latin feminine noun mens, the mind, which finally passed over into the popular signification of manner, replacing the classic endings -ter, -e, etc. Thus : certa mente, ciertamente, facili mente, facilmente. felici mente, felizmente. fideli mente, fielmente. At different periods of the Spanish language, the affix was vari- ously written mientre, miente, and mente, and was generally separated from the adjective till about the beginning of the fifteenth century. 580. The affix -mente is atonic, and does not, there- fore, modify, in any way, the accent or structure of the adjective: asperamente ; facilmente, titilmente ; cortSsmente, ciertamente ; certisimamente, fuSrtemente ; fortlsimamente, harshly ; easily, usefully ; politely, surely ; very surely, strongly ; most strongly. The Adverb* 285 581. When two or more adverbs in -mente follow one another connected by a conjunction, the affix is applied to the last adjective only: clara y distintamente, justa 6 injustamente, prudente pero terminantemente, clearly and distinctly, justly or unjustly, prudently, but decidedly. 582. Adverbs in -mente usually express manner, and in this sense may be equally turned into adverbial phrases by employing the adjective with the noun manera or modo, way, manner: seguramente, de una manera segura, or de un modo seguro. terminantemente, de una manera (or de un modo) terminante. justa y verdaderamente, or de un modo justo y verdadero. 583. Adjectives derived from the names of countries, provinces, and cities, are made adverbs of manner by assuming the dative singular feminine with the definite article, agreeing with some noun understood like usanza, usage, style, fashion : a la espanola, a la francesa, a la valenciana, a la andaluza, in the Spanish fashion, in the French style, after the mode of Valencia, in the Andalusian style. These forms correspond to the Latin more hispanico, gallico, Valentino, bcetico. REMARK. The same idea may be rendered by the phrase al estilo followed by the adjective, or al estilo de followed by the proper noun : al estilo andaluz, al estilo de Castilla, in the Andalusian style, after the manner of Castile. 286 Form and Inflection. 584. Many common adjectives assume the feminine formula with a la, when they express manner, and adopt the adverbial affix when they indicate time : la antigua, la moderna, antiguamente ; modernamente, in ancient modern style, anciently ; in recent times. 585. A few adjectives derived from proper nouns also admit the adverbial formula d la : andar la jineta, 1 vestido a la maja, 2 to ride with short stirrups, dressed picturesquely. 586. A very few derivative adverbs have the inorganic affix s y which belongs to a comparatively late period in the development of the language : OLD. ante; dempues (de-in-post); dende (de-inde); estonge (ex tune) ; mientre ([du]w interim)'/ quic,ab (quis sapit); MODERN. antes, despues, desde, entdnces, mientras, quizes and quiza", formerly; rather. afterwards; since. since. then. while. perhaps. REMARK. In the adverb ljos,/#r, far off, the s is organic, the word being from laxius, by attraction, laixus and lexos^ the form in which it was written prior to the appearance of the Acade- my's Dictionary in 1726-39. 1 The jinete or ginete is a name derived from that of a Barbary clan, the Zfewz-Zeneta, once the famous Moorish cavalry of Spain, characterized, aside from their armor, by their peculiar mode of riding, so that andar a la jineta now means to ride with short stirrups, after the manner of the " Zeneta " family. 2 The " Maja " and " Manola" are Spanish types of women now only to be met with, as such, in the plays of Ramon de la Cruz, or on the boards of the Madrid theatres. In their fatigue uniforms of plain percalina, their descendants are soberly employed in the government tobacco factories. 8 Compare Mingo % old Spanish for Domingo, Dominic. The Adverb. 587. Compound adverbs consist of two or more words variously associated, as substantives, adjectives, and adverbs with prepositions, adverbs with adverbs, etc. a. With the article: a" la clara, ) ... . , . , \mamfestly. las claras, ) d la larga, in the long run. la ligera, superficially. la moda, in fashion. d la verdad, truly. al contado, in cash, cash. al momento, instantly. al paso, at a walk, slowly. al punto, immediately. al rev^s, on the other side. al vivo, to the life. a" lo divino, in the sacred style. en el acto, instantly. en lo sucesivo, henceforward, por lo ma's, at most. por lo mdnos, at least. por lo pronto, for the present. b. Without the article, singular : a caballo, on horseback. conciencia, conscientiously. d escape, in haste, quick. a" menudo, often. a pid, on foot. a porfia, persistently. A una, together, con ligereza, superficially. con todo, notwithstanding. de antemano, beforehand. de buena gana, willingly. de continue, continually. de dia, by day. de etiquela, in full dress. de frente,/Jw to face. de golpe, suddenly. de hecho, de facto, truly. de improviso, off one^s guard. de lance, #/ # bargain. de molde, perfectly. de noche, Ay night. de nuevo, de paso, posible, lo mas cerca or cuanto mas cerca, acerquese V. lo mas que pueda, se acercd lo mas que pudo, lo me'nos posible, the nearest possible, or as near as possible, come as near as you can. he came as near as he could, the least possible. obra lo mis cuerdamente fque pueda, \he acts as prudently que - he can. REMARK. We may also say, hizo lo posible para . . . , or cuanto estuvo de su parte para . . . , he did all that he could to . . . 622. When "most" means the greater part, it is expressed by la mayor parte in the singular, and by los or las mas in the plural : me dejd en herencia la mayor parte de todo cuanto poseia, los mds de los hombres, los ms no consintieron en ello, de las senoras las ms se que- daron en casa, fabulosos son los mas de los asuntos por los trdgicos de todo tiempo inmortalizados, he bequeathed to me the most of all that he possessed. most men. [it. the greater part did not agree to of the ladies, the greater part stayed at home. the greater part of the subjects immortalized by tragic writers in every age are pure fable. 304 Form and Inflection. 623. The absolute superlative indicates a very high degree, but without comparison : he lives a great way off. vive lejisimo, or muy lejos, escribe elegantfsimamente, or con suma elegancia, se ha portado muy mal, or malisimamente, el actor represento p^sima- meiite, or malisimamente, he writes most beautifully, he has acted despicably. the actor played very badly indeed. 624. Adverbs formed by the association of the prepo- sition con with a substantive, insert between them the first term of the comparative : Con frecuencia, con tanta frecuencia como antes, con mas frecuencia que antes, con suma frecuencia, or con la mayor frecuencia, But, aside from con : A gusto, tan a gusto como siempre, mas a gusto que nunca, mas d. gusto ; muy a gusto, Frequently. as frequently as before, more frequently than before. very frequently. Satisfactorily . as satisfactorily as ever, more satisfactorily than ever, most satisfactorily ; very satis- factorily. The Preposition* 625. Prepositions are simple or complex, according as they govern their object directly, or in combination with other words. 626. The simple prepositions are : cabe, near, by (archaism), con, with. contra, against. ante, before, in presence of. bajo, under. The Preposition. 305 de, of, from. {since. desde (vulg. dende), from, durante, during. en, /;/, at, on. entre, between, among. excepto, except. hcia, towards. hast a, till, until, up to, to. mediante, through, by means of. meiios, except, but. no obstante, notwithstanding. para, for, in order to, to. por, by, through. sacado, a (part.), deducting. salvo, excepting, save. segun, according to. sin, without. so (sub}, under, on. sobre, on, upon, about. tras, after. 627. The complex prepositions are : a. Those composed of simple adverbs followed by de, that is, governing the genitive: acerca de, about, concerning. ademas de, beside. alrededor de, around. antes de, before (time, order). cerca de, near, about. debajo de, under (place) . delante de, before (place). dentro de, within, in, into. despues de, after (time, order) . detras de, behind (place) . encima de, on, over. fuera de, outside, beyond. 16jos de, far from. b. Those composed of simple adverbs followed by that is, governing the dative: conforme , according to. contrario , contrary to. f rente , opposite, in front of. junto , near, close by. respecto , with respect to. tocante , touching. c. One composed of a single adverb followed by con : juntamente con, | together with. d. Those composed of compound adverbial expres- sions followed by de : a casa de, to the house of. causa de, on account of. a excepcion de, with the excep- a f uerza de, by dint of. \tion of. 306 Form and Inflection. & la vista de, within sight of. al cabo de, at the expiration of. al lado de, by the side of. al trave's de, across, through. a pesar de, in spite of. a razon de, at the rate of. de casa de, from the house of. de parte de, on the part of. en casa de, at the house of. en frente de, opposite. en lugar de, instead of. en medio de, in the midst of. en vez de, instead of. en virtud de, by virtue of. en vista de, in mew of. mas alia de, beyond. por causa de, on account of. por el lado de, on the side of. por razon de, by reason of. [ing. sin embargo de, notwithstand- e. Those composed of compound adverbial expres- sions followed by a : en cuanto a, with respect to. | en 6rden a, with regard to. f. Those composed of two successive prepositions : de a, of, at, each. \ para con, towards, to. USE OF CERTAIN PREPOSITIONS. A, En, De. 628. The leading signification of a is to, with verbs of motion toward a given point ; that of en, in, at, on, with verbs of rest in -a place : Voy a Espafia, a Lisboa, al correo, al rio, a palacio, a casa, a la tienda, a la plaza, Estoy en Espana, en Madrid, en palacio, en casa, Vengo de Espana, de Madrid, de palacio, de casa, de la tienda, del Museo, I am going to Spain, to Lisbon, to the post ; to the river, to the palace, home ; to the shop, to market. I am in Spain, at Madrid ; at the palace, at home. I come from Spain, from Madrid ; from the palace, from home ; from the shop, from the Museum. The Preposition. 307 REMARK. It will be observed that the Spanish use of d and en differs materially from the French : je vais en Espagne, a Lisbonne; j^ai demeure en Espagne^ d Madrid. 629. A is further used : a. In general, in the dative relation to : al hombre ; al muchacho, a la mujer ; a los ninos, to the man ; to the boy. to the woman; to the children. b. To mark a personal object when specific ( 76) : busco al criado ; busco un criado, veo a la mujer ; veo una mujer, temen a Dios ; al juez, I look for the servant ; a ser- vant. I see the woman ; a woman, they fear God ; the judge. c. As a connective between certain verbs and a dependent infinitive to: voy a verle, empieza a hablar, echo a correr, se puso a llorar, I am going to see him. he begins to speak, he set out to run. he commenced to cry. d. Temporary situation at : a la puerta ; a la esquina, a la mesa ; al mostrador, al Ateneo ; a la Academia, at the door ; at the corner. at table ; at the counter. at the Atheneum ; Academy. e. Time, price, rate, at : a la noche ; al amanecer, a las doce ; a media noche, a dos reales el metro, a veinte duros mensuales, a ocho reales diarios, however little. para que, in order that. por que, however. porque, because, in order that. por mas que, however much. por menos que,] por poco que, pues que, puesto que, sea que, whether, while. siempre que, whenever. sin que, without. supuesto que, since. tanto que, so that. ya que, since. \ since. [ue,J 657. The principal correlatives are : apnas cuando, scarcely when. asl como, both and. ni ni, neither nor. [when. no bien cuando, scarcely no solo sino, | not only no solamente sino, j but. 6 6, either or. sea sea, whether or. The Interjection. 658. The interjections proper are : * a. Exclamations denoting any strong emotion, such as surprise, pain, disgust, encouragement, remonstrance, desire, etc. : puf (aversion) , ugh ! uf (weariness) , oh ! ca and quia (expressive of in- dignant negation or doubt). caspita, zounds ! chiton, hist ! hush ! ojala, would that ! O that ! oh, ah, oh ! ah ! ay, oh ! alas ! ah ! ha (exultation), ha! eh! he* (shock, start), eh! ea (encouragement), cornel ea ea (impatience), come now I huy (pain, shock), oh ! dear me I ola, or hola (recognition or discovery) , ah ! oh ! The Interjection. 321 REMARK. Of these ay, ea, huy, uf, and ojald, 1 are of Arabic origin, and consequently #/z-European and characteristic, especially ay, which indicates delight, as well as pain or surprise ; and, popu- larly, is as common as the trans-Pyrenean oh I Chiton imposes silence about something forbidden, with the ringer on the lips, well illustrated by the national proverb, Inquisicion . . . chiton! when the Inquisition is mentioned, hold your breath ! b. Cries addressed to domestic animals, birds, etc. : so, jo, or cho, whoa ! anda alza (to urge forward horses, mules, etc.). ox (to frighten away birds). zape (to frighten cats) . c. Words that serve to imitate sounds : cataphim, crash ! tras and zas, thump, thump I REMARK. These are very numerous, and differ with the indi- vidual character or province. Tras and zas may be repeated to represent rapping at the door, the sound of feet tripping along the hall, and many other movements and sounds. d. Idle or profane terms, common to all classes, with their euphemisms or evasions of the original word : and others in \ ca- (expressing \egadl surprise), J cielos, Dios, por Dios, heavens ! Dios mio, dear me ! ay Dios mio, Oh, dear me I Jesiis, O heavens ! valgame Dios, bless me ! virgen santa, marry ! caramba carai caracdles canasto canario diantre (to avoid diablo, demo- nio) , the deuce ! by Jove ! REMARKS. "\Jesus!" "jAve Maria I" ";Ave Maria purisi- mal" are heard when anything heretical, exaggerated, or surprising, is told or seen ; and the exclamation j Jesus ! alone, when any one sneezes or gapes, is considered as a polite formula of exorcism, at which name evil spirits will forbear pursuing their advantage to possess the individual. 1 From in sh& 'Hah, " if Allah please," written formerly oxala, and pro- nounced anciently oshald. 322 Form and Inflection. 659. Other words used as exclamations are : a. Verbs in the imperative mode : anda (importunity, incredulity) , cornel pshaw I calla or calle (command, incre- dulity), keep still! nonsense! diga, say! oy e and oiga, say ! hallo ! quit a, or 1 let me alone I quitese V.,J go aw ay I toma, indeed! really \ vamos, cornel why I well! vaya (surprise, to take leave, as- sent), indeed I well I of course! b. Nouns, adjectives, and adverbs : al asesino, murder I al ladron, stop thief I bravo, bravo I good I caballero (indignation), sir I como, how I why I cuidado, take care ! f uego, fire I socorro, help I murder ! REMARK. Conversation is frequently rendered emphatic by introducing the words hombre, man; mujer, woman-, as, si, hombre, yes, of course; no, mujer, not at all, sure. 660. Adjectives employed as interjections are accom- panied by the preposition de when a personal pronoun follows : j necio de mi ! j pobre de mi ! j desgraciados de nosotros ! silly me that I am (I was)! alas for me ! unfortunate ones that we are ! a. The interjection /ay! is also accompanied by de when a noun or pronoun follows : j ay de mi ! j ay de mi Alhama ! j ay de ti ! de nosotros ! i ay del malhechor ! alas for me ! woe is me ! alas for my (city) Alhama ! alas for you ! for us ! woe to the transgressor ! REMARK. With adjectives, exclamations maybe introduced by que: as, jqud desgraciada soy! how unfortunate I ami jque* bueno es ! how kind he is ! SECTION THIRD. THE ESSENTIALS OP SYNTAX The Article. Use of the Definite Article. 661. The expression or omission of the definite article el, la, los, las, depends, in general, on the degree of limitation we wish to assign to the accompanying sub- stantive. The laws that govern this article may be reduced to three, two of which correspond also with the English usage. 662. First. The definite article is expressed both in Spanish and in English, when it designates a particular individual or a specific object, thought, or class, in the singular, and several particular individuals, or objects of a class, in the plural : el hombre es soberbio, la casa es hermosa, el pafio es carisimo, el trigo esta vendido, los hombres son soberbios, los caballos son fogosos, [nas, el estudio de las lenguas moder- la ensenanza de los jdvenes, the man is haughty. the house is beautiful. the cloth is very dear. the wheat is sold. the men are haughty. the horses are fiery. [guages. the study of the modern lan- the instruction of the young. a. Consequently, the article is used in both languages before the epithets of sovereigns, poets, artists, and with facetious nicknames (apodos) : 324 Syntax. Alfonso el Sabio, Fernando el Catolico, Pedro el Cruel, Carlos tercero el Grande, Boabdil el Chico, Herrera el Mozo, Pepito el Ciego, Alfonso the Wise. Ferdinand the Catholic. Peter the Cruel. Charles III. the Great. Boabdelf the Less. Herrera the younger. 1 little Joe, the blind boy. REMARK. Under this law of particulars, the article often has the force of a demonstrative adjective, and may be translated by that. 663. Second. The definite article is omitted in both languages, when the noun is taken in an indeterminate sense, involving a portion of a substance or a class : deme V. pan ; queso, traigame V. dinero ; vino, me did oro y valores, ganoso de paz y tranquilidad, tiene casas y heredades, veo praderas y huertas, cargado con grandes paquetes, give me bread ; cheese, bring me money ; wine, he gave me gold and securities, desirous of peace and quiet, he possesses houses and lands. I see green fields and plantations, laden with large bundles, covered with rich stuffs. cubierto de riquisimos panos, REMARK i . This law of the partitive sense of substantives is expressed regularly in French by a special use of the definite article ; donnez-moi du pain, apportez-moi de 1'argent, [leurs, il m'a donne de Tor et des va- give me some bread. bring me some money. he gave me gold and securities. 2. An echo of this construction is occasionally met with in Spanish : '* te he dicho Que me des de lo anejo Cuando te pida vino," " I ordered you To give me some of the old When I call for wine. 1 " Cadalso, Obras, Madrid, 1818, vol. iii., p. 37. es or son de los f amosos, [hay, son de los mas c^lebres que it is or they are famous ones, they are some of the best known. 1 To distinguish him from Herrera el viejo, the elder Herrera. The Article. 325 3. In Spanish, as in English, the partitive substantive may be qualified by some term like alguno, un poco de, some, a little, for the singular ; and algunos, unos, unos cuaiitos, unos pocos, some, a few, for the plural : deme V. un poco de pan, trae unos cuaiitos paquetes, give me a little bread, he brings a few parcels. a. Also in a great many adverbial expressions : a pie ; a caballo ; en coche, con alegria ; con dolor, a casa ; en casa, llevado en triunfo, on foot ; on horseback ; by coach, with joy ; with sorrow, home {motion) ; at home (rest). borne in triumph. 664. Third. The definite article is expressed in Span- ish and omitted in English, when it designates an object, a substance, or a thought, in an universal, very general, or in an absolute sense, for the singular, and all the individuals of a class, for the plural : la vida es breve, la juventud es pasajera, el oro es preciosfsimo, el trigo es abundante, la caridad es benigna, la muerte se acerca, [jenable, la libertad es un derecho ina- la buena administracion conduce a la prosperidad, el hombre piensa ; habla, los caballos son utiles, los gobiernos son necesarios, los hombres piensan ; hablan, life is short. youth is transitory. gold is very precious. wheat is plentiful. charity is kind. death draws near. liberty is an inalienable right. good administration leads to prosperity. man thinks ; talks, horses are useful, governments are necessary, men think ; talk. REMARK. Nearly all these and similar comprehensive sentences may be turned into particular ones, when the sense requires it, or by some slight modification, such as the insertion of an adjective, an adjunct, or a relative : 326 Syntax. la vida del hombre es breve, el mejor trigo no es siempre abundante, el hombre que piensa, los caballos que posee, the life of man is short. the best wheat is not always plentiful. the man who thinks. the horses which he owns. a. The same law applies to the English also, in a few words, when we speak of them in general terms : the mind cannot grasp it. the horse is an exceedingly strong and useful animal. la mente no lo alcanza, el caballo es un animal suma- mente fuerte y util, b. Likewise, in general, the article is expressed with words that are originally adjectives, when they are used as nouns, and are taken in an universal or very compre- hensive range of meaning : misers (the avaricious) are never . satisfied. Spaniards (the Spanish) are very jealous of their honor, both Protestants and Catholics worship God. los avaros nunca estdn satis- fechos, los Espanoles son bastante pun- donorosos, tanto los Protestantes como los Catdlicos adoran a Dios, 665. The definite article is furthermore expressed diversely from the English usage : a. With the names of the days of the week, except in dates : vendra" el sabado, los mie'rcoles y jue'ves, todos los mrtes y viernes, domingo, tres de abril, he will come on Saturday. Wednesdays and Thursdays, every Tuesday and Friday. Sunday, April 3. b. With the names of the seasons : en la primavera parece que la naturaleza se despierta como de un sueno, in spring, nature appears to rouse up as from The Article. 327 mi amigo pasa el verano d los ban os de mar ; el otono en Madrid, y el invierno en Se- villa 6 Malaga, my friend spends summer at the seaside, autumn at Madrid, and winter in Seville or Ma- laga. c. Before all titles of respect, dignity, or office, when the individual is spoken of, not when he is addressed: el sefior y la senora (or los se- fiores) de Moreno, las senoritas de Garcia, el rey don Alfonso doce, el general Concha, el secretario Zurita, el cardenal Quiroga, el maestro Luis de Leon, el padre Inigo (een'-ye-go), la madre Serafina, Mr. and Mrs. Moreno. the Misses (young ladies) Garcia. King Alfonso the Twelfth. General Concha. Secretary Zurita. Cardinal Quiroga. Master Louis de Leon. Father Ignatius. Mother Seraphina (prioress). Exceptions are : the title of don (before the Christian name) ; fray (of an ecclesiastical order) and frey (of a military order) , brother*, sail or santo, saint ; sor (of nuns) , sister, but the more common word hermana takes the article ; as, sor Angelica, or la hermaiia Angelica, sister Angelica. d. Before the names of Italian classic writers and artists : el Dante, el Bocacio, el Petrarca, el Ticiano, etc. So also with the names of Spanish authors when they represent their works : bring me Garcilaso's works. I do not find that word in Covar- rubias (Dictionary, 1611). trigame V. el Garcilaso, no encuentro esa voz en el Co- varrubias, The same with titles of well-known books : la Raquel de Vicente Garcia de la Huerta 6 la de Ulloa, estoy leyendo el Quijote, Huerta's or Ulloa's Rachel (tra- gedy). I am reading Don Quixote. 328 Syntax. e. With a few names of countries, provinces, and cities. Such are at present chiefly : el Japon ; el Brasil, el Canada ; el Peru, el Paraguay ; la Florida, La Mancha ; La Rioja, Castilla la Nueva ; la Vieja, la Coruna ; la Habana, el Ferrol ; el Cairo ; el Havre, Japan ; Brazil. Canada; Peru. Paraguay ; Florida. {provinces of Spain). New Old Castile . [vana. Corunna (the "Groyne") ; Ha- Ferrol ; Cairo ; Havre. REMARK. With other names of countries and provinces it is not now common to use the article, save in the poetical or oratorical style, or when an adjective qualifies them. la Europa catdlica, I Catholic Europe. la Espafia liberal, | liberal Spain. /. With the Christian names of women in familiar style : Mary; Jane. Mercy ; Dolores. Josie gave it to me. Molly was not unacquainted with la Maria ; la Juana, la Mercedes ; la Dolores, me lo regalo la Pepa, la Mariquita no ignoraba el con- tenido de la carta, the contents of the letter. Also with surnames, but generally vulgar : me lo conto la Alvarez, | (the woman) Alvarez told it to me. g. With numerals to indicate the hour : it is one ten o'clock. at one ; at ten (o'clock). at twelve o'clock, noon. before sunrise, at an early hour. es la una ; son las diez, a* la una ; a* las diez, a" las doce (del dia) , a* la madrugada, k. With many adverbial and other phrases : a" la noche ; a" la ciudad, a" la escuela ; a" la iglesia, en la ciudad ; en la escuela, etc., al cuidado de ; las mafianas, at night ; to town. to school ; to church. in town ; at school ; church. in care of; mornings. The Article. 329 666. The definite article is sometimes employed for the indefinite, in general, indeterminate, expressions and phrases : la fragancia de la rosa, me parece que la monarquia tiene sus ventajas, me did las buenas noches y salid, the fragrance of a rose, it appears to me that a monarchy has its advantages, [went out. he bade me (a) good night and a. Also to denote rate, with words signifying weight, measure, and distance : dos duros la libra, cuatro reales la botella, a tanto la vara ; la legua, two dollars a pound. four reals a bottle. at so much a yard ; a league. 667. The definite article is omitted in Spanish and expressed in English : a. Before a number indicating the order of succes- sion of pontiffs and sovereigns : Pablo cuarto, or Pablo IV,, Carlos quinto de Alemania y primero de Espana, Felipe segundo ; tercero ; etc. Fernando septimo, Alfonso doce, rey de Espana, Paul the Fourth, or Paul IV. Charles the Fifth of Germany and the First of Spain, [etc. Philip the.Second ; the Third ; Ferdinand the Seventh. Alfonso XII., king of Spain. Except when speaking of the ancient sovereigns in whose times the article was employed, but even with these the use is not uniform : Don Alfonso decimo, Don Alfonso el onceno, Don Enrique el cuarto, Don Juan segundo, or el s., Alfonso the Tenth. Alfonso the Eleventh. Henry the Fourth (of Spain). John the Second (of Spain). REMARK. The ordinal numbers are used in such cases up to eleven ; thence onward the cardinals. See 674. 330 Syntax. b. With nouns in the predicate modified by an ad- junct : es hija de un conde, es comandante de la plaza, la necesidad es madre de la in- vention, ha sido nombrado representante de Espaiia cerca de la Santa Sede, she is the daughter of an earl. he is the commander of the fort necessity is the mother of inven- tion. he has been appointed the repre- sentative of Spain near the Holy See. c. With a word in apposition : Don Quijote, obra del inmortal Cervantes, Madrid, corte de Espafia, Boabdil, ultimo rey moro de Granada, Don Quixote, the work of the . immortal Cervantes. Madrid, the capital of Spain. Boabdelf, the last Moorish king of Granada. d. At the head of titles of books and articles : Vida del arzobispo de Toledo, primado de las Espanas, Historia del sitio de Gibraltar, Revista Hispano-Americana, The Life of the Archbishop of Toledo, the Primate of Spain. The History of the Siege of Gib- raltar. The Spanish-American Review. e. In certain conventional phrases : d esquina de tal calle, d orillas de un rio, a* razon de cuatro millas la legua, ir A casa de ; palacio, estar en casa de ; en palacio, tener intencion de, dormir siesta (= hora sexto) , de parte de su padre, en nombre de la religion, con objeto de, on the corner of such a street. on the banks of a river. at the rate of four miles per league. [palace, to go to the house of; to the to be at the house of; at the palace. to have the intention of. to take the noon nap. on the part of his father, in the name of religion, with the object of. The Article. 331 Use of the Indefinite Article. 668. The indefinite article un, una, is in general used much the same in both languages. Special divergences, however, are the following : 669. The indefinite article is omitted in Spanish : a. Before substantives standing in the predicate when they denote rank, class, occupation, and characteristic, in very general terms : mi amigo es capitan, fulano es artista ingles, es caballero ; es titulo, es sastre ; es albanil, es cobarde ; es holgazan, se ha hecho soldado, la fe es don de Dios, dar la limosna es obra de caridad, es catolico ; es protestante, es judio ; es libre pensador, my friend is a captain, such a one is an English artist, he is a gentleman ; a noble, he is a tailor ; a mason, he is a coward ; an idler, he has become a soldier, faith is a gift of God. [charity. to distribute alms is a work of he is a Catholic ; a Protestant, he is a Jew ; a free-thinker. REMARK. But if the separate existence of the predicate sub- stantive is to be emphasized and particularized, the article may be expressed : es un cobarde ; un holgazan, esta nina es una pobre huerfana, es un oficial de grande merito, su madre es una catdlica de las ma's fervorosas, he is a coward ; an idler, this girl is a poor orphan, he is an officer of great merit, her mother is a most fervid Catholic. b. With nouns designating title, office, or attribute, preceded by the preposition de : el empleo de secretario, va de embajador a tal parte, the office of (a) secretary, he goes as an ambassador to such a place. 332 Syntax. el tftulo de grande de Espana, el nombre de libertador de la patria, the title of (a) grandee of Spain, the name of liberator of his country. c. With substantives that express an idea in a general, indefinite way : tengo motivo para afirmarlo, tiene derecho de manifestarlo, poner precio ; tasa or coto, poner escuela ; tienda, buscar vida desahogada, llegd a" pasar por jdven de espe- ranzas, los palaciegos lo tenfan por incomparable desgracia el ser desterrado de la corte, manifesto ddio encarnizado con- tra la herejfa, [festar, dia vendra en que lo he de mani- I have a reason for affirming it. he has a right to declare it. to fix a price ; a limit. to set up a school ; a shop. to seek an easy life. he came to be considered as a young man of expectations. palace people considered it an unequalled calamity to be ex- iled from the court. he exhibited a furious hatred towards heresy, [declare it. a day will come in which I shall d. After the verb tener with a substantive denoting some quality of the mind or heart, when combined with an adjective : tiene buen corazon, tiene feliz memoria, [cerlo, tiene grande inclinacion de ha- he has a good heart. he possesses a fine memory. he has a great mind to do it. REMARK. So also in general after tener and tener por, as under rule c, in indefinite statements : tener gana de, tiempo de, tener apetito ; motives, to have a mind, time, to. to have an appetite ; reasons. e. With words in apposition : Cddiz, ciudad de Andalucia, Calderon, poeta insigne, la Carta de Paracuellos, sdtira de Francisco Sanchez, entrd su hijo, muchacho vivo, Cadiz, a city of Andalusia. Calderon, a celebrated poet, the Paracuellos Epistle, a satire by Francisco Sanchez, his son, a bright lad, came in. The Article. 333 f. With certain indefinite expressions, like otro, otra vez, cierto, seme j ante, tal, como, gran numero de, tan : vino el dia siguiente otro aviso, otra vez no sere tan torpe, Jlego a mis oidos cierta noticia, no me gusta seme j ante engafio, tal dia ; tal noche, obro como maestro, la pintura como arte, hubo gran numero de gente, a tan concluyente explicacion nadie puede replicar, the following day another notice came. [stupid. another time I shall not be so a certain item came to my ears. I do not like such deception. such a day ; such a night. he proceeded like a master. painting as an art. [people. there was a large number of to such a conclusive explanation no one can reply. g. With nouns in negative sentences : sin obtener respuesta, se me sin decir palabra, sin que recibiese contestacion, no me ha de quedar consuelo, no tengo genio para eso, without obtaining an answer, he went off without saying a word, without his getting a reply, no consolation will remain to me. I have no talent for that. h. At the head of book titles : Diccionario de la Lengua Cas- tellana, [Espanola, Ensayo sobre la Legislacion A Dictionary of the Castilian Language. [tion. An Essay on Spanish Legisla- i. With nouns denoting weight or measure, accom- panied by the fractions thereof : compre libra y media, anduve legua y cuarta, me midio dos varas y tercia, I purchased a pound and a half. I travelled a league and a quarter, he measured me off two yards and a third. j. In exclamations after que : i quo* ruido ! ; qu dia ! i qu^ hermoso paisaje ! i que bobo eres ! what a noise ! what a day ! what a fine landscape ! what a dunce you are ! 334 Syntax. Use of the Neuter Article I^o. 670. The neuter article lo is only used in the singular, and turns an adjective into a substantive, for which a pure substantive may likewise be often employed (see 83; 113,*):- dominaba en ella el sentimiento de lo maravilloso, no dejes de mandarles algo de lo mucho que vas a ganar, en lo sucesivo ; lo pasado, en lo ma's escondido de un valle, contra lo dispuesto por las leyes, the sense of the marvellous was dominant in her. do not fail to send them some- thing of the much you will earn. for the future ; the past. in the most retired (part) of a valley. laws. against what is provided by the 671. The substantive nature of the adjective with lo is especially manifest when they are accompanied by que with the verb to be, or one of its substitutes. In this case, as we have seen ( 113, a), the adjective is varied anomalously, agreeing in gender and number with the noun subject to the verb. The formula then will be: Lo variable adjective que verb to be noun-subject; or, without que : noun-subject verb to be lo variable adjective. lo amentf que es esta pradera, lo caprichostf que es la imagina- cion, [ballero, lo pundonoroso que es este ca- lo fresco que son estas aceitunas, lo desatendid#.y que habian sido sus suplicas, lo honradw que se considerarian, si, etc. lo conveniently que fueron en otros tiempos, y lo util&r que pueden ser todavia, the amenity of this green field. the capriciousness of the imagi- nation, [tleman. the punctiliousness of this gen- the freshness of these olives. the deaf ear that had been turned to his prayers. the honor they would consider done to them, if, etc. the suitableness of them in other days, and their possible utility still. The Numeral. 335 una prueba de lo satisfactory que le son vuestros trabajos, el ministro se propone que la discusion de los presupuestos sea todo lo amplitf posible, es una de esas reformas que por lo necesarirtj estan fuera de toda discusion, a proof of his satisfaction with your labors. the minister proposes to give all possible latitude to the discussion of the budget. it is one of those reformatory measures, the necessity of which is too evident for dis- cussion. The literal version of a few of these examples, which are all taken from modern writers, will explain this extraordinary idiom : The agreeable that this green field is; the fresh that these olives are ; the honored that they would consider themselves, if, etc. ; the suitable that they were in other tijties, and the useful that they may still be ; a proof of the satisfactory that your labors are to him ; the minister proposes that the debate on the estimates be all the broad possible ; it is one of those reforms that by the necessary (on account of their necessity) are beyond all discussion. The Use of the Numerals. 672. Order in a series is properly expressed as in English by the ordinal numbers : el primer dia ; el segundo afio, el tercer aniversario, la cuarta fila, el quinto articulo, [cima, las lecciones de*cima y undd- los siglos de'cimo sexto y de'ci- mo septimo, el libro trige'simo tercio, the first day ; the second year. the third anniversary. the fourth row or file. the fifth article. the tenth and eleventh lessons. the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the thirty-third book. 673. Popularly, the cardinals are more generally used than the ordinals to specify the number of a volume, book, chapter, lesson, century, or other word which, from its signification, naturally involves a series : 336 Syntax. capftulo veinte y uno, leccion quince, pagina ciento y una, el siglo diez y nueve, chapter twenty-first, lesson fifteenth, page one hundred and first, the nineteenth century. 674. The ordinals are used up to eleven, to indicate the order of succession of sovereigns ; but from that number, the cardinals are regularly substituted : Carlos primero de Espana y quinto de Alemania, Henrique cuarto, Fernando se'ptimo, Leon trece ; Alfonso doce, Luis catorce, rey de Francia, Charles the First of Spain and the Fifth of Germany. Henry the Fourth. Ferdinand the Seventh. Leo XIII; Alfonso XII. Louis XIV, king of France. 675. The cardinal numbers are used instead of the ordinals, in dates, with the sole exception of primero, first. In this case, the month and year, when ex- pressed, are always to be preceded by the preposition de: Madrid, January first, eighteen hundred and eighty. the second of May, 1808. April I7th. February nth. Madrid, primero de Enero, de mil ochocientos y ochenta, el dos de Mayo, de 1808, el diez y siete de Abril, el dia once de Febrero, viernes, cuatro de Julio, de mil setecientos sesenta, vendra el dia diez, Friday, July fourth, seventeen hundred and sixty, he will come on the loth. REMARK. The word dia, day, may be or not employed when the month is expressed ; but when the number stands alone, it is more common to give it: el dia quince Junio, or 1 el quince de Junio, J el dia cuatro, tenemos cita para el dia doce, fallecid el dia dieciseis, the fifteenth of June. the fourth. [twelfth, we have an appointment for the he died on the sixteenth. The Numeral. 337 676. The question, What day of the month is it ? may be expressed in Spanish by que dia del mes tenemos? or by a cuantos estamos del mes ? and is answered in the first case by the cardinal number (except \hefirsi) with the definite article ; and in the second case, by the same preceded by the preposition a, with or without the corresponding verb : tenemos [seis, el primero ; el dos ; el dieci- estamos a primero ; a dos ; a diez y seis it is the first ; the second ; the sixteenth. REMARK. Indefinite or approximate expressions are : a primeros de (Enero), a principios del (siglo actual) , a mediados del (ano pasado), a fines del (siglo pasado), a ultimos del (mes que viene), More definite are : a or en primero de (mes) , a or en fin de (ano), in the early part of (January) . at the beginning of (the present century) . about the middle of (last year) . toward the close of (the last century) . about the end of (next month). on the first of (the month) . at the end of (the year) . 677. A week is more often expressed by ocho dias, and a fortnight by quince dias, than by the general terms una semana, dos semanas : he will come within a week. a week from to-morrow. I have not seen him in more than vendra dentro de ocho dias, mafiana en ocho dias, hace ma's de quince dias que no le veo ; quince dias ha", de hoy en ocho (quince) dias, a fortnight ; a fortnight ago. a week (fortnight) from to-day. 678. The hour or time of day is expressed by the car- dinals with the feminine article plural las (except la una, one), agreeing with hora, horns, understood : 338 Syntax. I qu6 hora es ? es la una ; la una y media, es la una y tres cuartos, or 1 son las dos menos cuarto, J son las once ; las doce, son las diez y cuarto, a la una ; a las siete, a las dos de la madrugada, d las ocho de la mafiana, a las cuatro de la tarde, a las nueve de la noche, REMARK. To strike the tively : las tres van a dar, ya van a dar las cinco, ban dado las doce ya, dada la una ; dadas las once, al dar las doce, what time is it? [o'clock, it is one half-past one it is quarter to two. it is eleven twelve o'clock. it is a quarter past ten. at one o'clock ; at seven. at two o'clock in the morning. at eight, A.M. at four o'clock, P.M. at nine o'clock at night. hour is dar la hora, used intransi- it is going to strike three, it is just going to strike five, it has already struck twelve, when it had struck one eleven, as it struck twelve. 679. In stating age, the Spanish employs the verb tener, to have, with anos, years, preceded by the cardi- nal number : I cuantos anos tiene V. ? <;que edad tiene V. ? tengo veinticinco anos, este jdven tendra unos diez y ocho anos, su padre tiene cincuenta afios, y su madre cuarenta, no es muy viejo, es todavia jdven, 6 ma's bien de edad mediana, es un viejo (indelicate), \ es un anciano (courteous) , J me mi antfguo preceptor, how old are you? what is your age ? I am twenty-five years old. this young man must be about eighteen, his father is fifty years old, and his mother forty, he is not very old (in life), he is still young, or rather in middle life. he is an old man. he was my old teacher. REMARK. Viejo always signifies literally old in years ; old, meaning " former," is autiguo ; he is an old friend, es un antiguo Agreement. 339 amigo. To be "older" than another is, tener mas edad, mas anos, que otro, although aged people might say of each other, mas vie jo que, older than. 680. "To be just so many years old," "to have com- pleted so many years " is tener aiios cumplidos, cumplir anos: tiene veintiseis anos cumplidos, al cumplir los trece anos, he is just twenty-six years old. when he had completed his thir- teenth year. REMARK. Idioms with expressions of age and time are : a los dos dias, A la edad de cinco anos, a los cinco anos de su edad, a los veinte anos de su reinado, a los cinco meses de su estancia, fallecid joven de veinte anos, in two days, on the second day. at five years of age. at the age of five years. in the twentieth year of his reign. f after a stay of five months, or [when he had stayed five months. he died at the age of twenty years. The Laws of Agreement. The Adjective and Noun. 681. Adjectives agree in gender and number with the substantive they limit or describe : un hombre activo, una senora anciana, personas emprendedoras, ciertas sociedades son fomen- tadoras de la riqueza piiblica, an active man. an old lady, enterprising persons, certain societies are promoters of the public wealth. 682. A plural substantive may be limited by two or three adjectives in the singular, agreeing in gender only, when they relate to distinct members of the same series : 340 Syntax. las lenguas castellana y fran- cesa, los tomos primero y cuarto, los siglos segundo y tercero, the Spanish and French lan- guages. the first and fourth volumes, the second and third centuries. 683. When an adjective relates to two or more sub- stantives of the same gender (whichever be the num- ber), it stands in the plural, and the gender will be determined by that of the substantives : el padre y el hijo estan malos, la madre y su hija son muy pare- cidas, la madre y sus hijas son bellas, la aplicacion y constancia en el estudio son necesarias al que quiere adelantar, the father and son are ill. the mother and her daughter look very much alike. [fair. the mother and her daughters are diligence and perseverance in study are necessary to one who desires to advance. 684. When an adjective relates to two or more substantives in the singular number and of different genders, it stands in the masculine plural, provided the substantives have distinct meanings : el padre y la madre son ambos caritativos, [admiracion, el cielo y la tierra son dignos de la plaza y el cuartel mas limpios de la ciudad, the father and mother are both benevolent. [of admiration, the sky and the earth are worthy the neatest square and neighbor- hood in town. REMARK. If, however, the two nouns are synonymous, or nearly so, in meaning, whichever be their gender, the adjective agrees in the singular with the nearest noun : muestra una capacidad, un ta- lento singular, con un alborozo, una satisfac- cion indescriptible, para solaz y desahogo comun, he displays singular ability and talent. with indescribable joy and sat- isfaction, [lief. for common consolation and re- Agreement. 341 685. When an adjective relates to two or more sub- stantives in the plural number and of different genders, it agrees with the nearest noun in gender and number : observaban ademanes y conver- saciones agitadas, [vanos, sus esperanzas y temores eran they noticed excited gestures and conversation. [vain. their hopes and their fears were 686. Adjectives of all kinds that stand before the noun they limit agree in gender and number with the nearest one : nuestro atraso y decadencia, poca unidad y trabazon, con singular vigor y presteza, con mucha furia y denuedo, our low state and decline, little unity and connection, [ness, with marked energy and prompt- with great fury and boldness. 687. With titles, the adjective agrees with the natural, not the grammatical, gender, when it stands in the predicate or as a participle past : su majestad esta* enfermo, su majestad esta enferma, sus majestades, prevenidos, se levantaron, his majesty is ill. her majesty is ill. their majesties (the king and queen) being notified, arose. a. But adjectives that form part of the title agree regularly : su sagrada majestad, his sacred majesty (Rom. Emp.). sus majestades catdlicas, their Catholic majesties. vuestra sefioria, your lordship. The Verb with its Subject. 688. The verb agrees with its subject, expressed or understood, in number and person : yo leo ; nosotros leemos, la hoja cae ; las hojas caen, I read ; we read. the leaf falls ; the leaves fall. 342 Syntax. 689. Collective terms in the singular number require a verb in that number whether they involve the idea of unity or plurality : el pueblo le escucha, el piiblico se divierte, la gente lo dice, el ejeVcito avanza, la tropa acudid, el congreso se reunid, la Academia lo aprueba, la junta se disolvid, la multitud se impresiond, la poblacion queda tranquila, el rebano huye ante el lobo, the people listen to him. the public amuse themselves. people say so. the army moves forward. the troops came up. the congress met. the Academy approves it. the committee was dissolved. the throng was moved. the town remains quiet. the flock flees from the wolf. 690. Collective terms followed by an adjunct in the phiral, expressed or understood, require a plural verb : multitud de personas le felici- taron, [tieron en ello, gran parte de ellos no consin- la mayor parte lo saben, parte venian sin armas, la mitad perecieron, la mayor parte de la gente lo cree, gran parte de la poblacion ha quedado reducida a cenizas, but crowds of people congratulated him. [agree to it. a large number of them did not the greater part know it. a part came without arms, one-half perished. L the greater part of the people believe it. a large part of the town was re- duced to ashes. 691. Nouns in the singular, connected by the correla- tive ni ni, neither nor, are now generally accom- panied by a plural verb : ni el miedo ni el interes torcie- ron su fe, ni un solo grito, ni un solo gesto empafiaron aquella escena, neither fear nor interest swerved his faith. neither a single shout nor a sin- gle gesture marred that scene* Agreement. 343 REMARK. With 6 6, either or, the use of the language does not seem to be fixed, both numbers being met with : either ambition or anger im- pelled him. 6 la ambicion 6 la ira le movid and le movieron, 692. When there are two or more subjects in either number, the verb is regularly put in the plural ; but in vehement discourse, the verb is often found to agree in the singular with the first noun of a series, before which the verb stands, as if the enumeration of char- acteristics were mere expansions of one thought : la novela y las poesias me han gustado mucho, las cartas y el prologo me pare- cieron muy bien escritos, nunca fu6 tan expuesto su valor y constancia, ^ decia mi amigo, con la autoridad que le da su palabra, su talen- to, su integro caracter, I was much pleased with the novel and the poetry. the letters and the preface ap- peared to me to be very well written. his courage and firmness were never so tested. my friend said, with all the weight that his words,talent,and integ- rity of character give him .... a. A singular verb may accompany a double subject when these are used synonymously, whichever be the position of the verb : el contento y el aplauso fu6 grande, el disgusto y murmuracion no dejd de hacerse sentir, the satisfaction and applause were great, dissatisfaction and murmurs did not fail to make themselves felt. 693. When a verb has two or more subjects of differ- ent persons, it is put in the plural and agrees with the first person rather than the second or third, and with the second person rather than the third : ni yo ni mi amo la habemos visto jamas, [buenos, yo espero que tu y ella est^is iieinos usted y yo, neither I nor my master have ever seen her. I hope that you and she are well, you and I will go. 344 Syntax. 694. When the subject is a relative pronoun, the verb properly agrees in person and number with the person to whom the relative refers, that is, with the antecedent : yo soy.quien lo digo, nosotros somos los que lo hemos visto, [mejor que yo, vosotros sois los que lo sabeis VV. son los que hablaron con el, I am the one who say it. we are the ones who saw it, or we saw it. [better than we. you are the ones who know it you are the ones who spoke to him. a. In ordinary language, however, and even in literature, it is not uncommon to find the verb in the third person : yo soy quien lo dice, [favor, ahora soy yo el que pide a" V. el I am the one who say (says) it. it is I who ask you the favor now. 695. The third person plural is often used in reference to a vague subject equivalent to the passive voice, or to the French on with a singular verb : vuelva V. mafiana, nos decian en todas partes, [casino, cuando cierran el cafe voy al come again to-morrow, said they everywhere. [to the club. when they close the cafe, I go (that ,is, / was told everywhere to call the next day. French : me disait-on par t out ; lorsqtfon ferme le cafe,je m*en vais au cercle.) The Use of the Tenses. Indicative Mode. 696. PRESENT TENSE. hablo ; estoy hablando, cdmo ; estoy comiendo, vivo ; estoy viviendo, I speak ; I am speaking. I eat; .1 am eating. I live ; I am living. a. Expresses what occurs at the time in which it is asserted : escribo una carta, I am writing a letter. Juan lee el diario, John is reading the paper. The Use of the Tenses. 345 REMARK. In this sense, the Spanish may employ equally well the simple verb or the progressive form ( 379) : escribo, or \ estoy escribiendo J una carta. Juan lee, or \ Juan estd leyendo J el diario. b. Expresses habit, custom, and absolute fact, with- out regard to a determinate period : my uncle is a journalist. I give Spanish lessons. we get up early. my sister draws well. [away. God gives wealth and takes it mi tio es periodista, doy lecciones de Castellano, nos levantamos temprano, mi hermana dibuja bien, Dios da los bienes y los quita, el hombre propone, y Dios dis- pone, man proposes, and God dis- poses. c. Replaces the future in familiar language : I'll go at once. he'll be back directly. in that case I'll not go out. what shall I do ? consent ? I will not sign it. will you do me the favor? voy al instante, vuelve en seguida, en ese caso no salgo, I que hago ? ^ consiento ? no lo firmo, hace V. el favor? d. Replaces the past definite in lively narration : coge su sombrero y sale, llega, saluda, y me dice, he caught up his hat and went out. he came up, greeted me, and said . e. Used idiomatically after a clause with the imper- sonal verb hace, it is, with expressions of time : hace mucho tiempo que no le veo, [en esta casa, hace cuatro afios que vivimos hace ocho dias que rondan la calle donde vivo, ^cuanto tiempo hace que esta V. en Madrid? [raiido? ^hace mucho que esta V. espe- it is a long time since I have seen him. [house. we have lived four years in this for a week they have been prowl- ing about the street I live in. how long have you been in Madrid? have you been waiting long? 346 Syntax. 697. IMPERFECT TENSE. hablaba ; estaba hablando, comia ; estaba comiendo, vivia ; estaba viviendo, I spoke ; I was speaking. I ate ; I was eating. I lived ; I was living. a. Denotes progressive continuity in the past : como decia ; como andaba, me hacia senales, as I was saying ; walking, he made signs to me. b. Describes an action or situation that was going on or existing, when some incident, expressed by the past definite, was introduced or intervened. In this case, the progressive form must be employed in Eng- lish and may be also in Spanish : escribia (or estaba escribien- do) cuando entr<5 Juan, estaba (or me encontraba) en mi despacho cuando oi elgrito, mientras que nos paseabamos, empezd a" Hover, I was writing when John came in. I was in my office (or study) when I heard the cry. while we were taking a walk, it began to rain. c. Denotes customary action or state - during some previous period. In this case, it may be translated by the absolute imperfect (/ spoke) or by the term " used to": cuando vivia en Sevilla, visita- ba amenudo los jardines del duque, me gustaba andar por el rio entre la Torre del Oro y el Puente de Barcas, le veia todos los dias, los Griegos cultivaban las letras y los Romanos la guerra, when I lived in Seville, I often visited the duke's gardens. I used to like strolling along the river, between the Gold-Tower and the Bridge of Boats. I used to see him daily. the Greeks cultivated letters, and the Romans war. The Use of the Tenses. 347 REMARK. Custom may also be expressed by the imperfect tense of the verb soler, to be wont to: en aquella epoca solfamos ir cada ano d los bafios, solian acompafiarnos muchos amigos y amigas, at that period, we used to go to the baths every year, many friends of both sexes were wont to accompany us. d. It is translated by the absolute past when it in- volves the idea of more or less duration over a series of moments or of years. In this sense, it is found in vivid descriptions and narrations, or to declare what a person or object was during a certain period in the past : mirabale el muchacho con asombro, me decla muchas cosas que me causaban extraneza, [casa, estaba de hue'sped en dicha Ciceron era grande orador, Alejandro era rey de Grecia, the lad gazed at him with aston- ishment. he told me many things which surprised me. [mentioned. I was a boarder in the house Cicero was a great orator. Alexander was king of Greece. e. In the old language, especially in the ballad poetry, the imperfect occasionally takes the place of the present when the verse requires it : Si hallo el agua clara, Turbia la bebia yo, If I find the water clear, When I drink it it is roiled. Ballad beginning "Fontefrida* Que un Cristiano dejo muerto, Tras mi venla el alcalde, I have slain a Christian, The sheriff is pursuing me. Ballad "Yo m*era mora Moray ma" f. In familiar language, the imperfect often replaces the condi- tional : si le hubiera dicho la verdad, me exponia a" un regano, era tan amigo del padre Quieto, que no le movia un terre- moto, if I had told him the truth, I should have risked a scolding. he was so partial to father Ease, that an earthquake would not disturb him. 348 Syntax. REMARK. The simple form of the English past tense (f spoke, I wrote) is expressed then, in Spanish, by two distinct tenses the imperfect, denoting prolonged past action or custom ; and by the past definite, denoting past action without continuity, a past inci- dent : hablaba, / spoke > that is, / was speaking. liable, I spoke, - occasion past. that is, on one 698. PAST DEFINITE TENSE. / spoke. \ comi, / ate. \ vivl, / lived. a. Indicates what occurred on one occasion in the past, whether a short time or ages before, of which no part is continued to the present, and without involv- ing duration or extension of time. It is, therefore, the tense of absolute past time, corresponding to the Greek aorist : le vi hace un momento, lo dijo ayer, pero lo niega hoy, Juan sali6 temprano, [corial, el mes pasado estuve en el Es- Alejandro muri6 jdven, Cain mat6 a su hermano, I saw him a moment ago. he said so yesterday, but he de- nies it to-day. John went out early, last month I was at the Escorial. Alexander died young. Cain slew his brother. b. Hence the past definite is the favorite tense for historical narration, in every case in which the action or state is devoid of the idea of repetition, custom, and prolonged duration, which distinguishes it radically from the imperfect : until the morning of the eighth, the confessor was not able to inform the king -of the edict, hasta la manana del ochp no pudo el confesor enterar del edicto a Carlos III, quien sin demora mandd a" su ministro despachar un correo al Inqui- sidor general, who immediately directed his minister to despatch a courier to 'the Inquisitor-general. Ferrer del Rio, Cdrlos ///, Madrid, 1856; I. 388. The Use of the Tenses. 349 la ciudad de Granada fu po- blacion de los de Damasco, que vinieron con Tarif su capi- tan ; i diez anos despues que los Alarabes echaron a" los Godos del senorio de Espana, la escogieron por habitacion, the city of Granada was set- tled by people from Damascus, who came with Tarif their leader, and ten years after the Arabs drove the Goths from power in Spain, they selected it for their residence. Mendoza, Guerra de Granada, Lisbon, 1627; f. 2, . c. In the ancient language, the past definite was often replaced by the old pluperfect in ra (hablara, comiera, from the Latin /5z#- laram, comederairi), now limited mostly to the subjunctive mood : El dixera otra razon, | He gave a different message. Ballad "Rosa fresca." Por ahi fuera a" pasar, | He passed that way. "Fonte frida" Into the fire he threw the notes, And slew the messenger. Las cartas echo en el fuego, Y al mensagero matara, Ballad "Pasedbase el rey moro." 699. PAST INDEFINITE TENSE. he hablado, he comido, he vivido, he he estado comieiido, be estado viviendo, I have spoken. I have eaten. I have lived. I have been speaking. I have been eating. I have been living. a. Denotes what is absolutely past, but wholly unde- termined as to the specific period : Ixe escrito una carta, no digas nada a nadie de lo que nemos tratado, [cion, nan cumplido con su obliga- ^habeis quedado en no ir? VV. no han dicho nada, Espana ha producido grandes hombres, I have written a letter. do not tell anybody anything about what we have talked, they have discharged their duty, have you decided not to go ? you have said nothing. Spain has produced great men 350 Syntax. b. Indicates a determinate epoch in the past which has not entirely elapsed : hoy hemos escrito algunas car- tas, mi hermano se marchd la semana pasada y ha vuelto hoy, este afio ha habido mucha lluvia, [tal ? <; cuando ha vis to V. a fulano de le he visto este mes, 1 no le vl el mes pasado,*j we have written some letters to- day. my brother went away last week, and has returned to-day. there has been a good deal of rain this year. [So? when have you seen Mr. So and have seen him this month, did not see him last month. c. This tense is often used incorrectly at the present day in imitation of the French : POPULAR. he ido anoche al teatro. ha venido ayer y se ha alojado en la fonda del Cisne. CORRECT. anoche fui al teatro. vino ayer y se alojo en la fonda del Cisne. d. The progressive form is used the same as the common one, except that it can only stand when the time during which an action or state lasted is men- tioned or easily implied : ^que' ha hecho V. hoy? [hoy? <;que ha estado V. haciendo he estado escribiendo cartas, what have you done to-day? what have you been doing to-day ? I have been writing letters. 700. PLUPERFECT TENSE. habia hablado, habia comido, habia vivido, habia estado hablando, habia estado comiendo, habia estado viviendo, I had spoken. I had eaten. I had lived. I had been speaking. I had been eating. I had been living. a. Expresses an action or event that is absolutely completed, with reference to another which was simul- taneous with or subsequent to it, expressed or implied : The Use of the Tenses. 351 yo habia leido ya un traslado del libro, antes que saliese impreso, 61 habia estado durmiendo durante la conversacion, le pregunte si habia oido alguna cosa nueva, I had already read a transcript of the book, before it came out in print. he had been sleeping during the conversation . I asked him if he had heard any- thing new. 701. PAST ANTERIOR. (cuando) hube hablado, (cuando) hube comido, (cuando) hube vivido, (when) I had spoken, (when) I had eaten, (when) I had lived. a. Expresses the same as the pluperfect, but is al- ways preceded by some conjunction of time, such as, cuando, when; despues que, after; luego que, asi que, tan pronto como, as soon as; no bien, no sooner; apenas, scarcely, hardly ; etc. : cuando hube leido el oficio, se lo devolvi, luego que hubo escrito la con- testacion, la entregd al mozo, tan pronto como hubimos pe- netrado en el anden, se puso en marcha el tren, when I had read the (official) pa- per, I handed it back to him. after he had written the answer, he delivered it to the waiter. as soon as we had reached* the platform of the station, the train began to move off. 702. A simple form of the pluperfect indicative is often met with in the exalted prose, or poetical, style, a form derived from the Latin original in -aram, -eram, etc., and which is now chiefly con- fined to the imperfect subjunctive in -ra : el pendon de Castilla onde6 luego en una de las torres (de la Alhambra) donde tantos siglos tremolara el estandarte del Profeta, soon the pennon of Castile float- ed out over one of the towers (of the Alhambra) where, for so many centuries, the Proph- et's standard had waved. Lafuente, Hist, de Espana, 1850. 352 Syntax. divorciado del partido en cuyas aras lo sacrificara todo, Emilio Castelar, Ferdinand VII, 1864. abominado de la teocracia a" quien sirviera, Trayendo a" nuestros pechos la dulzura Que perdieran un tiempo aun no olvidado, divorced from the party on whose altars he had sacrificed all. detested by the fanatics whom he had served. Ibid. Restoring to our hearts the joys of peace That they had lost in days not yet forgotten. Sonnet to King Alfonso, 1877. . 703. FUTURE TENSE. hablar, / shall speak. \ corner^, / shall eat. \ vivir, / shall live. a. Denotes future time : escribir^ la carta mafiana por la manana, I que hara V. en ese caso ? la guerra acabara pronto, habra una cosecha abundante este afio, ^cuando vendra? sabes? sera V. elegido diputado, I shall write the letter to-morrow morning. ^ what will you do in that case?,) the war will close soon. there will be an abundant har- vest this year. when will he come, do you know ? you will be elected to Congress. b. It is employed in a potential sense in interrogative sentences that are undeniable in the estimation of the interrogator ; also in queries : ^ habra desgracia mayor que la mia? [mas ruin? I podra manifestarse infamia can there be a greater misfortune than mine? [light? can baser villainy be brought to c. Replaces the present tense, when something is affirmed of which there is a doubt. In such case, some adverb or phrase must be inserted like perhaps, I sus- pect, I wonder; and when speaking of time or age, about : The Use of the Tenses. 353 vendr para abonarme la can- tidad que me debe, no se a* que vendra, ^cuantos anos tendril? tendra unos veinte anos, but he prevented us from it. they asked the lad if it was true, but they asked him about it. I forbid you to. REMARK. "To give any one anything," in the sense of & pres- ent, is expressed by regalar alguna cosa a alguien; otherwise dar is used : me rega!6 un reloj nuevo, me di6 un reloj nuevo, he presented me with a new watch. [watch. he gave (handed) me a new 755. In English, a verb often governs its object by means of a preposition, when, in Spanish, it is direct : to look for anything, to listen to advice, to wait/^r the arrival of a train. buscar alguna cosa, or algo. escuchar los consejos. esperar la llegada de un tren. 756. Verbs which express the notion of perceiving, often take with the accusative of the thing a dative of the personal pronoun rendered into English by means of the preposition in or from : trae V. una cara que no le he you wear a countenance that I visto jama's, never saw in you. The Regimen of Verbs. 381 confieso que no le hallo ni chispa ni sentido, cuando me oyo la respuesta se puso furioso, I confess that I do not find any wit or sense in it. when he heard the reply from me, he became very angry. 757. Many verbs signifying to rejoice, to boast, to be sorry, to pity, to remember, to forget, to trust, to dis- trust, to be ashamed, to laugh at, to want, to need, to deprive, to use, govern their object by means of the preposition de, of, for, at. Such verbs are : abusar de, to abuse. acordarse de, to remember. admirarse de, to wonder at. alegrarse de, to rejoice at. aprovecharse de, to avail one's self of , to use. [of. avergonzarse de, to be ashamed burlarse de, to laugh at. carecer de, to want, to be without. compadecerse de, to pity. condolerse de, to pity. desconfiar de, to distrust dudar de, to doubt. fiarse de, to trust. gozar de, to enjoy. jactarse de, to boast. se acuerda de su juventud, gozamos de buena salud, se olvidan de sus amigos, usa de medios ilicitos, se sirve de los talentos ajenos, no dudo de ello, prescindiendo de eso, carecen de pan, lamentarse de, to lament. mofarse de, to scoff at. necesitar de, to need. olvidarse de, to forget. preciarse de, to boast. prescindir de, to do without, to leave out of the account. privarse de, to deprive of. reirse de, to laugh at. renegar de, to abominate. servirse de, to use. tener lastima de, to pity. [of. tener vergiienza de, to be ashamed usar de, to use. valerse de, to avail one^s self of . zafarse de, to get rid of. he remembers his youth. we enjoy good health. they forget their friends. he uses unlawful means, [others. he avails himself of the talents of I do not doubt it. leaving that out of the account they are without bread. APPENDIX TO PART SECOND. Diminutives and Augmentatives. 758. These consist of various endings applied chiefly to substantives to express different modes of characteriz- ing persons, things, and qualities, as being small or large, together with certain other subordinate circum- stances, involving attractiveness, burlesque, irony, and aversion. In view of the nice distinctions and shades of feeling they often suggest, it is scarcely possible for the learner to employ them appropriately ; and they are, in fact, for the most part, a silent element in the northern tongues, unless rendered by some circumlocu- tion adapted to the context. They abound in domestic and popular language, and in humorous, poetical, and satirical writings, but seldom suit the grave style of history or serious compositions of any kind. Among the uneducated classes, they very commonly appear as a makeshift for a limited vocabulary, or to emphasize passionate utterances. DIMINUTIVES. 759. The leading diminutives end in : a. Ito, cito, ecito ; fern, ita, cita, ecita, applied to substantives, adjectives, and a few adverbs, to express smallness of size, quality, or degree, in connection with fondness, caresses, admiration, good humor, true sym- pathy, modest demand, respect (by servants), and irony stated without vituperation. Therefore this ending Diminutives and Augmentatives. 383 cannot be used with words having in themselves an unlovely, repulsive signification, save in satire or ridi- cule. The translation may be expressed with substan- tives, by little, pretty little, dear little ; with adjectives and adverbs, by quite, very, or all may be given by circumlocutions suited to the context : papaito; madrecita, mi hermanito ; mi hermanita, son amiguitos, mis primitos y primitas, la cotorrita tiene dos patitas, ; que casita tan guapita ! agradezco a" V. su regalito, \ pobre hijita mia ! I me hace V. el favor de un vasito de agua fresca? voy, sefiorito ; sefiorita, con que \ cuidadito ! es jovencito y buen mozo, agua fresquita <; quien pide ? i bunuelos calentitos ! a este caballero no le gustan las bromitas, [titos, yo aseguro que no faltarfan azo- i angelitos ! que pronto os aveza- ban a" los sacrificios de la carne humana ! Alfonsito; Manolito, Carlitos; Merceditas, Dolor citas; Juanita, Paquito; Pepito; Periquito, vive por ahi cerquita, se quedd algo lejitos, arrfmate junto, juntito, tome V. un poquito, andaba pasito a paso, papa, do ; come, mother. my little brother ; sister. they are dear friends (of children). my little cousins. the little parrot has two little feet. what a pretty little house ! I thank you for your nice gift. my poor child ! will you give me a glass of cool water? yes, sir; ma'am (of service), so then, take care now ! he is young and good-looking, nice, cool water, who will buy? fritters, nice and hot ! this gentleman is not fond of jokes. [forgotten. I'll warrant the stripes were not angelic spirits ! how quickly they habituated you to sacrifices of human flesh ! little Alfonso ; Manuel. Charley ; little Mercy, little Dolores ; Jennie. Frank; Josy; Peter. he lives near here. he kept some distance off. move up, close up. take a little, pray. he was going very slowly. 3^4 Appendix to Part Second. b. Illo, cillo, ecillo ; fern, ilia, cilia, ecilla, applied likewise to substantives and adjectives, to express smallness of size, quantity, or degree, either stated indifferently without reference to fondness, etc., or in a tone of depreciation, roguishness, ridicule, with or without good humor, and pity for an unfortunate person. It may be translated by little, somewhat, that (in contempt), or as the context suggests : un chiquillo me guid, un ladroncillo es, vaya V. a" comprar un panecillo, estoy algo malillo, deme V. un poquillo, echeme V. un traguillo, tiene un gustillo desagradable, hubo un olorcillo de ajos, habla con el tonillo de un Cata- lan, es un pobre vie j ecillo, una mujercilla que no tiene vergiienza, Julianillo el jorobado, Francesillo el gracioso, Sebastianillo el enano, el libro trae no pocos cuente- cillos, la Juliana es una loquilla, como me quiere tanto el ama, teme que mi madre le robe ese carino jpobrecilla! | a youngster directed me. he is a little thief. go and buy a loaf of bread. I am somewhat ailing. give me a very little (a trifle) . pour me out a little (swallow) . it has a somewhat unpleasant taste. there was a slight odor of garlic. he speaks with the (dialectic) ac- cent of a Catalonian. he is a poor old man. a woman who has no sense of shame. Julian, the hunchback. Frank, the (court) jester. Sebastian, the (court) dwarf. the book contains quite a number of short stories. Julia is a giddy girl. as nurse loves me so much, she is afraid my mother will rob her of that affection, poor thing ! c. Uelo, zuelo, ezuelo ; fern, uela, zuela, ezuela, applied to substantives and less frequently to adjectives, to express smallness in a depreciative sense, involving inferiority, lownes$, ridicule, and disdain ; and also in Diminutives and Augmentatives. 385 a humorous, roguish, bantering style. Occasionally it replaces illo in its natural meaning of smallness with- out regard to other qualities : chicuelo ; rapazuelo, mozuelo; pequeiiuelo, cojuelo; tontuelo, cazuela; tinajuela, plazuela; callejuela, pajuelas; pedazuelo, arroyuelo; riachuelo, hombrezuelo ; mujerzuela, autorzuelo; pilluelo, jovenzuelo; salonzuelo, urchin; youngster, lad ; little one. limping ; silly person, skillet ; jar. little square ; poor street, matches ; a petty morsel, brooklet; streamlet, little man ; low woman, poor author ; little thief, vile youth ; little parlor. REMARK. If a polysyllabic stem ends in a vowel, the letter h or g is inserted with this ending : aldea, ] aldehuela, or aldegiiela, J judio, judihuelo, or judigiielcx a wretched hamlet, a despised Jew. d. Ete, cete ; fern, eta, ceta, applied to substantives in a diminutive and depreciative sense : un mocete ; un pobrete, un librete ; un galancete, una aleta ; una lengtieta, a small boy ; a poor fellow, a small book ; a ladies' man. a little wing ; tongue. e. Ejo, fern, eja, is applied most commonly to words ending in / or n, and denotes decided contempt ; occa- sionally, however, it merely indicates smallness of size, quality, degree : animal ejo, el alguacilejo, un librejo, no cobro mas que doce realejos diarios, [papelejo, como dijo el autor de cierto any troublesome insect, that constable (in disdain) . a worthless book. I only get a pittance of twelve reals a day. [once said, as the author of a certain scrawl 386 Appendix to Part Second. dona Juana la Beltraneja, 1 lady Jane, she of Beltran. un arbolejo; una canaleja, a small tree ; a drinking-trough. amarillejo, yellowish. REMARK. This ending is occasionally found with Arabic words hispanicized, to denote simple smallness or to distinguish the less from the greater : The little square by the Roman aqueduct at Segovia in Spain is called El Azoguejo from the Arabic as-soq, "the market," "square," and the Spanish diminutive ending. Almadenejo means "the lesser mine," to distinguish it from Almaden, Arab, al-ma'din, "the mine." 760. Other diminutives are formed by means of the endings ico, in, ino, and ino, all of which are local or dialectic, to wit : a. Ico, cico, ecico ; fern, ica, cica, ecica, usually given as the synonym of ito, was originally a local varia- tion proceeding from Aragon, and domesticated in the Castiles, to add a vein of sprightly humor impossible to characterize. It should not, therefore, be used indis- criminately for ito y but be held in reserve to season a choice diminutive wittily and warily : mocico; jovencico, * avecico; perrico, Juanico; Alfonsico; 2 Perico, el Emperador y Felipico, 3 little lad ; little youngster, little bird ; little dog. Johnny ; Alfonso ; Peter, the Emperor and little Philip. 1 The princess dona Juana, daughter of the queen dona Juana, wife of Henry IV (1462), by the courtier don Beltran de la Cueva, was popularly called par mepris la Beltraneja, and because of her notorious illegitimacy, was set aside from the succession, at Henry's death, for the famous Isabella of Castile (1474). 2 For example, when the present king of Spain succeeded to the throne in 1875, the Madrid people often spoke of him as Alfonsico, with a distinct mix- ture of irony and resignation ; "Alfonsito " would have been a grave political error, because of the adhesion it implies. 3 Actually said of Charles V and Philip, his son, about 1535, by the court- jester, Francesillo de Zufiiga, in his Burlesque Chronicle. Diminutives and Augment atives. 387 REMARK. The Aragonese still use ico in the natural sense. Even in the old local ballad which first appeared in print in the Cancionero General of Valencia, 1511, we find the proper use: Fountain cool, fountain cool, Fountain cool and winsome, too, Where the little birdlings all Gather Vound their mates to woo, Save the little turtle-dove That is widowed of its love. Fonte frida, 1 fonte frida, Fonte frida y con amor, Do todas las avecicas Van tomar 2 consolacion, Sino es la tortolica Qu' estd viuda y con dolor, b. In, fern, ina, peculiar to the Bable or Asturian dia- lect ; ino, fern, ina, common in the province of Estre- madura ; and ino y fem. ina, in the dialect of Galicia, are all more or less used in Castilian to denote smallness merely : un nifio chiquitin, 1 una nina chiquitinaj calcetin; calcetines, peluca; peluquin, baldosa ; baldosin, bolsa; bolsin, padrino; madrina, paloma ; palomino, recuerdome que era muy aficio- nado d los langostinos, 3 cuerpo, corpino, a wee little child. sock; socks. wig ; little wig. flooring-tile ; fine flooring-tile. exchange ; evening exchange. godfather; godmother. dove ; pigeon. I remember that he was very fond of shrimps. body of a dress. Form. 761. All these endings are attached to the stem of a word found by rejecting the terminal vowel, unless accented, even in diphthongs : abeja, abejita, little bee. pajaro. paj arete, mean bird. mozo, mozuelo, young lad. cuchara, cucharita, teaspoon. libro, librillo, little book. jovenzuelo, a youngster. rubio, a, rubito, a, of light complexion. 1 In Castilian, Fuente fria. 2 A Gallicism for van a tomar. 3 A sense not found in the Spanish-English dictionaries ; Fr. ecrevisses. 388 Appendix to Part Second. 762. The final radicals c, g (git), z y become respec- tively qu, gu (gu), c, when the ending is introduced by one of the vowels e or i : frac, fraqu-ecito, dress-coat. fresco, fresquito, quite cool. amigo, amiguillo, little friend. ciego, cieguezuelo, blind boy. lengua, lengii-ecita, little tongue. pez, pececillo, little fish. cruz, crucecita, little cross. pedazo, pedacillo, little piece. a. With regard to radical diphthongs that are mova- ble (ie, ue) y usage generally requires them to be retained at the present day, except in primitives of more than two syllables : huevo, huev-ecito, little egg. caliente, calentito, nice and hot. nieto, niet-ecillo, little grandson. valiente, valenton, a swaggerer. Still we say : puerta, portezuela, door (of a carriage). 763. The second forms of the diminutives, namely, cito (cico), cillo, zuelo, cete, are required with words of more than one syllable ending in n or r : salon-cillo, a small parlor. gratifLCSicioiicita,smatt gratuity. ladroncillo, little pilferer. jovencete, a youth (contempt). Jardin makes jardinito and jardincito, small garden. amor-cillo, slight affection. autorcico, boy -author. mujerzuela, silly woman. Dolor citas, little Dolores. 764. The third forms of the diminutives, namely, ecito (ecico), ecillo, ezuelo, are to be used: a. With monosyllables : sol-ecillo, little sun. flor-ecita, little flower. pan-ecillo, loaf of bread. fraqu-ezuelo, dress-coat. red-ecilla, net {for the hair} . nuez, nuececica, little walnut. cruz, crucecita, little cross. pez, pececillo, little fish. Pie* makes piececito, a charming little foot ; and mano, hand, xnanita or manecita. Diminutives and Augmentatives. 389 b. With words ending in e or y : fraile, frail-ecico, little friar. ave, avecilla, little bird. alegre, alegrecito, jolly. amable, amablecillo, kind. viaje, viaj-ecito, short trip. rey, reyezuelo, petty sovereign. grande, grandecito, rather tall. pobre, pobrezuelo, sadly poor. But proper names in e are excepteu : Pepe, Pepito, Joseph. \ Felipe, Felipico, Philip. c. With words ending in a or 0, only when they have a diphthong in the stem : piedra, piedrecilla, little stone. cuerpo, cuerpezuelo, little body. ciego, cieguecillo, blind. nuevo, nuevecico, new. pleito, pleitecillo, law-suit. viento, vientecito, slight breeze. quieto, quietecillo, still. viejo, viejezuelo, old. Except abuelo, a, abuelito, a, grandfather, -mother, and perhaps others. AUGMENTATIVES. 765. The leading augmentatives are : a. On, fern, ona, denoting large size, grotesqueness, and in general an extraordinary degree of what is con- tained in the primitive. Feminine nouns usually be- come masculine in assuming this ending, unless natural gender is indicated : calavera, calaveron, rascal. \ cigarro, cigarron, big cigar. ala, zilon, wing (of a fowl, served), j encuentro, encontron, shock. picaro, picaron, great rogue. senor, senoron, great gentleman. tunante, tunanton, scoundrel. autor, autoron, big author. valiente, valenton, a brave. cuchara, cucharon, ladle. jarra, jarron, large vase. barba, barb on, thick beard. migaja, migajon, large crumb. mujer-ona, big woman. tan de sopeton, so suddenly,, unexpectedly. b. Azo, fern, aza, has a similar meaning applied according to the gender of the primitive : boca, bocaza, big mouth. \ hereje, herejazo, great heretic. 390 Appendix to Part Second. REMARK i. The ending azo invariable, is oftenest used to represent a blow or discharge of something indicated in the primi- tive : abanico, abanicazo, baston, bastonazo, bombo, bombazo, porra, porrazo, navaja, navajazo, canon, canonazo, fusil, fusilazo, a blow with a fan. a blow with a cane. a beating of drums. a cudgelling. a thrust with the clasp-knife. report of a cannon, cannon-shot. a rifle-shot. REMARK 2. The ending ada has a similar meaning; often a thrust with a sharp weapon : una lanzada (lanza), una punalada (punal), una estocada (estoque), una andanada, dar manotadas, una bufonada, una campanada, thrust with a lance. a stab with the short dirk. thrust with a long, thin sword. a broadside. to throw up the hands as in falling. a piece of buffoonery. stroke of a bell. c. Ote.fem. ota, has a depreciative sense sometimes, and others only the augmentative: amigo, amigote, old friend. un librote de a folio, rico, ricote, ricota, grandote, feote, feota, hereje, herejote, great heretic. an old folio volume, rich and pretentious, pompous, ugly old person. d. Acho and ucho have the more definite sense of disdain, contempt : el populacho, the masses. \ animalucho, an insect. una casucha, a poor house. 766. Combinations of diminutives and augmentatives are very frequent to lend an accumulative force to words. Such are : Diminutives and Augmentatives. 391 a. Ito with ito and in : chico, small ' ; chiquito, chiquitito, chiquitin. los pie's chiquirrititos, little mites of feet. b. Hlo with on : grande, large ; grandillon, rather biggish. c. Etc with on : mozo, lad; mocete, moceton, quite a tall lad. pobre, poor; pobrete, pobreton, a poor old fellow. d. Ejo with on : calle, street; calleja, callejon, a lane, alley. e. Acho with uelo : rio, river; riacho, riachuelo, rivulet. f. Acho with on : bueno, good; bonacho, bonachon, easy-going, "clever" g. On with azo : picaro, rogue; picaron, picaronazo, piece of knavery. encuentro, meeting; encontron, encontronazo, crash. 767. Occasional forms are : nube ; nubarron, cloud ; threatening cloud. bobo; bobarron, bobalias; bobalicon, Idmpara; lampion, nariz; narigon, raiz; raigon, vivo ; vivaracho, mamarracho, ave ; avechucho, pillo ; pillastro, gente ; gentuza, migaja (pop. miejd), latin, latinajo, i o stupid ; great dunce. dolt ; great blockhead. lamp ; large lantern. nose ; big nose ; big-nosed. root; snag. lively; sprightly. grotesque ornament, botch. bird ; bird of ill-omen. rogue; great rogue. people; rabble. crumb, grain. [ous). Latin ; Latin quotation (humor- 392 Appendix to Part Second. 768. Diminutive and augmentative endings often express independent ideas : senora, (married) lady; pano, doth ; pan, bread; manta, blanket, wrap; azucar, sugar; calzas, knee-breeches ; calle, street; senorita, young lady. panuelo, handkerchief. panecillo, loaf of bread. mantilla, Spanish veil. azucarillo (a confection). calzoncillos, drawers. callejon, lane. 769. Many words have endings that are only appar ently diminutive and augmentative: varon, a man, male. tornillo, screw. sencillo, simple, plain. pantorrilla, calf of the leg. vajilla (vasilia), plate (collect.). ladrillo, brick. bosquejo, sketch. cotejo, collation of a book. azulejo, Dutch tile. conejo, rabbit. guedeja, lock of hair. madeja, skein. oveja, sheep. 2cm\&\, fish-hook. cazuela, skillet (earthen). billete, ticket. bigotes, mustachios. escondrijo, lurking-place. escondite, hiding-place. SECTION FOURTH. DRILL-BOOK. Pronunciation. [The accentuated syllable that should not bear the graphic accent is here noted by a long mark placed over the vowel that has the principal stress ; thus, papel, but dnimo.] Simple Vowels. Ama, ala, ama*ra, amlgo, amistad (31), almenara, drama, anden, abalorios, amapola. Era, dpoca, epistola, escala, escalera, mandadero, embarcadero, sombrero, sombrerero, es, esta, escuela, eslabon, alfiler, elemento, elefante, bano, ingles, cordobe's. Libro, fila, tira, timbre, tinta, cortina, triste, visita (40), baladi, papelito, tilin, bailarin, motin. Olor, opaco, reld, autor, mediador, corredor, con (never koii)i conmlgo, contento, confiado, consonante, narigon, pasion. Pluma, uso, usted, gusto, busto, susto, busca, bulto, duda, burla, gula, nulo, unico, ambigu, abuso, adulation (28). Diphthongs. Aire, airoso (40), baile, caigo, traigo, fraile, vaiven, maitmes. Auto, aula, bautismo, aun (even), caudal, caudaloso, raudal (39), autor, fautor, auditorio. Aureo, aurea, empireo, Imea. Peine, veinte, treinta, afeite, deleite, aceite (28), reino, reinado, ley, rey. Feudo, neutro, deudo, leudo, Euro, Europa. Feria, amplio, amplia, Hmpio, llmpia, nimio, nimia, indio, india, vicio, ciencia, servicio, paciencia, codicia, albrlcias. Hielo, grieta, nieto, viene, consiente, doliente, teniente, bien, tambien, sienes, bienes, siempre, tientan, sienten, vientos, CTudadano, viudo ; coima, oigo, estdico, herdico. Cuando, cuanto, guardia, agua, estdtua, contmua. Fuego, duelo, vuelo, suelo, fuero, agiiero, nuevo, muero, trueno, grueso. CuTdadoso, ruidoso, arruinado, huireis ; ambiguo, tortuoso, virtuoso. 394 Drill-Book. Improper Diphthongs. Cae, trae, caida, traido, cai; haul, ataud or atahud, aun -(yet, still) ; galantea, alancea, hebrea, marea ; cree, lee, alancee, galantee ; ref, creimos, creido, leldo ; toreo, hebreo, liceo, galanteo ; galena, alegria, tropelia, tonteria, heria, comiamos, vivfan ; rie, avie ; rio, vario ; oido, old ; huida, imbuldo ; continua, falua. Consonants. Bienes, vienes, bota, voto, bebe, vive, bata, vate, tubo, tuvo, bacia, vacfa, balido, valido, baron, varon, hombre, nombre, bribon. Casa, caldo, caridad ; queso, quema, querella, palenque, alcornoque, albaricoque ; quien, quiso, quieto, quimica, alquila, tranquilo ; cosita, coro, corona ; curioso, cubo, alcuza ; escualido, cuantioso, cuasi ; cuestion, cuela, cuero, Cuenca; cuita, cuidado ; cuota, inicuo. Muchacho, leche, Elche, noche ; cuchillo, chico, marchito ; ocho, ducho, chorro, dicho, ricachon, cachorro; chucho, higo-chumbo, chulo, chusma. Gato, galgo, ganga ; guerra, sigue, albergue, drogueria, guedeja, Agueda; guia, guion, guitarra, erguido, aguila, guisantes, seguia, borcegui ; hidalgo, gozo, hago, sirgo, higo, conslgo ; gula, gusto, arguyo, regular. Guapo, guarida, agua, fragua, averlgua; fragile, desagiie, averigiie, antigiiedad ; argtiir ; antiguo, averiguo, santlguo. Hallazgo, ahora, habeis, halagiiefio, tahur, desahucio, haba, hdroe, hilo, horadaclo, hule, huso. Jaula, alhaja, baraja, jaleo ; mujer, general, ajeno, rige, aflige, gesto, genio, ingenio ; giro, gitano, dijlste, registro ; tasajo, atajo, trabajo, influjo, trujo ; juzgo, enjuto, jura; Juan, enjuague : juego, majuelo, tejuelo, juez ; juicio. Halla, batalla, llama, llanto ; calle, valle, Ballecas, calleja ; alii, cepillito ; huello, murmullo, grulla, orgullo ; lluvia, velludo. Nina, rifia, sena, vina, engana ; ensene, engane ; renir, cenir, tenido ; sefior, engano, afio, bano, dano ; sanudo, nudo. Vara, toro, moro ; hablar, comer, decir, llegar, placer, dolor ; arte, tarde, hurto, guardia ; rota, rueda, ruego, rasgo, rindo; chorro, torre, Jburra, ahorrar; enredo, es regular, irregular, corro. Santo, eso, pasa, pasado, lloroso, odioso, Toboso, cosa, musa. Yema, yedra, yeso, yugo, tuyo, suyo, arguyo. Raza, taza, caza, haz, feliz, desllz ; hice, cena, dice, alancear ; cita, civil, ciudad, licito ; mozo, gozo, zozobra ; panzudo, zumbar, azul, azucena. Pronunciation. 395 Faccioso, coleccion, diccionario, accionista. Desdicha, dardo, humilde, muerdo, ardiendo ; dedo, hablado, arboleda, comida, soldado, embudo, greda; maldad, caridad, verdad, hablad, corned, usted, merced, red, ved, acudid, Madrid, sacudid, ardid, virtud, ataud, almud; odre, pudrir, vendra, tendra, albedrio. Inmenso, inmortal, inmarcesible. Sexo, exacto, mdxime, proximo, exhortar, exultar. Naranja, lisonja, gengibre. Geographical Names. Alava, Albacete, AlcaM, Alcantara, Alcdzar, Almeria, Alora, Alsdsua, Aranjuez, Ardvalo, Avila. Badajoz, Barcelona, Baztan, Beasoain, Burgos. Castillejos, Ceuta, Ciudadreal, Cuenca. Darincharinea. Elizondo, Escorial. Fuenterrabia. Gijon, Granada, Granja, Guadalajara, Guadalaviar, Guadalhorce, Guadalquivir, Guipuzcoa. Hellin. Irun, Jabalquinto, Jaen, Jativa, Jerez. Medellm, Menjibar, Mdrida, Montilla, Murcia. Pamplona. Quintanapalla. Santander, Santiponce, Sevilla, Socuellamos. Tanjer, Teruel, Trujillo. Valencia, Valladolid, Villalba, Vitoria, Vizcaya. Zaragoza. Proper Adjectives. Asturiano, Valencia.no, Murciano, Guipuzcoano, Toledano, Sevillano, Jerezano, Gaditano, Vallisoletano, Zaragozano, Castellano; Alicantmo, Granadino, Vizcaino, Alcalamo, Bilbamo ; Madrileno, Estremeno, Malagueno ; Matritense, Conquense, Tudense,Vascuence ; Catalan, Aleman ; Gallego, Manchego ; Alavds, Aragones, Leon^s, Cartagin^s, Cordobes, Tudes, Frances, Ingles, Irlandes, Escocds ; Navarro ; Espanol, Andaluz, Flamenco, Maragato. Family Names. Alvaro, Alvarez, Arderius, Benitez, Bermiidez, Carvajal, Cervantes, Diaz, Diez, Dommguez, Eguflaz, Est^banez, Fernandez, Garcia, Garcds, Gomez, Gonzalez, Gutierrez, Herv^.s, Ibanez, Ifiigo, Iniguez, Jimenez, Lodisa, Nunez, Pdrez, Ramirez, Rodriguez, Sanchez, Sanchiz, Tellez, Velasquez. 396 Drill-Book. FIRST SERIES. Essentials of Form and Inflection. [The words will be found in the vocabulary at the end of the book. Words in parentheses are to be expressed in Spanish. Hyphens connect English terms which are to be given in Spanish by one word. The small figures at the top of the line indicate the order of the words in Spanish. Words to be left untranslated are placed between brackets.] Exercise First. Learn and Recite 79, 81, 82, 84, 85, 101-104, 107-110. I. The friend of the king, or the king's friend. 2. The queen's room. 3. The captain's ships. 4. The boy's pens. 5. The estates of the gentlemen, or the gentlemen's estates. 6. The ladies' pres- ents. 7. The leaves of the trees. 8. The palaces of the king-and- queen (106). 9. The houses of the prince-and-princess. 10. The master-and-mistress of the servants. ii. A tree of the garden. 12. A door of the house. 13. The verdict of a judge. 14. The counsels of a mother. 15. The water of the sea. 16. The child's hunger. 17. The stir of a town. 18. The girl's needle. 19. The birds of the air (Span. sky). 20. The flight of the eagle. 21. The joy of the house. 22. The judge speaks to the prisoner. 23. The captain gives (to) the sailor the command of a vessel. 24. The lady lends a book to the girl. 25. A gentleman gave money to the errand-boys. 26. The queen gave the jewels to the ladies. 27. The souls of (the) men. 28. The laws of the commonwealth. 29. The crosses of the generals. 30. The servants of the judges. 31. (The) trees have leaves. 32. (The) vessels have sails. 33. Charles has money. 34. Agnes has sisters. 35. Lewis' father has houses and lands. 36. A town has streets. 37. A house has doors and windows. 38. A man has friends and enemies. 39. (The) nations have government and laws. 40. (The) wild boars live in the mountains. 41. The ministers wear crosses. 42. (The) part- ridges and quails live in the woods. Essentials of Form and Inflection. 397 Exercise Second. Learn and Recite 112-118. i. The rose is a beautiful flower. 2. (The) roses are beautiful flowers. 3. The garden has high 2 walls. 1 4. (The) benevolent 2 ladies 1 are always beautiful. 5. The water is (esta) cool; it-comes from a living 2 spring. 1 6. My friend lives in a white 2 house. 1 7. The Spanish language is rich and harmonious. 8. The [ladies] of-Cadiz are beautiful. 9. The boys and girls have roguish 2 eyes. 1 10. The streets of the city are broad. ii. The German 2 literature 1 is modern, the Castilian is ancient. 12. (The) wise 2 men 1 are good companions. 13. The French 2 rail-ways 1 are (estdri) well made. 14. (The) Spanish 2 laws 1 are very ancient. 15. (The) Andalusian 2 customs 1 are very graceful and picturesque. 16. The houses in Spain are generally low, but spacious. 17. Madrid has the characteristics of a French 2 town. 1 1 8. The men wear tall 2 hats, 1 and the young-men caps of curious 2 shape. 1 19. You will-find English 2 and French 3 goods 1 in the Spanish 2 shops. 1 20. A good memory is necessary in-order-to learn a lan- guage. 21. The Andalusian 2 wit-and-humor 1 is known everywhere. 22. The young-man directed treacherous 2 glances 1 toward his opponent. 23. The highland-women of Spain serve as (de) nurses in the capital. 24. They wear tall 2 head-dresses 1 and picturesque 2 costumes 1 with much jewelry and bright 2 colors. 1 25. Charles gave (to) his sister a new 2 book 1 illustrated with many engravings. Exercise Third. Learn and Recite 119-122. i. An easy 2 lesson. 1 2. Spain has many religious 2 festivals, 1 and few national [ones]. 3. (The) parents are faithful 2 friends. 1 4. We spent many happy 2 hours 1 at (en) his house. 5. (The) rainy days are dull, but useful. 6. There-are noble 2 men 1 and vile 2 men. 1 7. A common 2 interest 1 unites 2 them. 1 8. Agnes gave (to) her sister a blue 2 ribbon. 1 9. (The) young-men are capable of doing (to do) many things which are impossible to the old. 10. The customs of-Morocco are very different from those (las) 398 Drill-Book. of-Europe. n. All his remarks were courteous. 12. Spain is a wine-growing 2 country. 1 13. (The) Spanish 2 villages 1 generally 2 have 1 one broad 2 street. 1 14. A large 2 house 1 has many rooms of different sizes. 15. A palace has public 2 and private 3 apartments. 1 16. The sweet 2 orange 1 is for Mary, and the sour 2 lemon 1 is for John. 17. The gentlemen understand many different languages. 18. The official' 2 buildings 1 of a capital where 1 the government 3 resides 2 are usually large and magnificent. 19. The Catalonian 2 manufacturers 1 furnish all Spain with (de) common 2 fabrics. 1 20. All (the) wars are serious, and are contrary to the spirit of (the) Christianity. Exercise Fourth. Learn and Recite 123-127. i. A good man always has good friends. 2. Lewis wants a good pen, the-one that (la qite) he has is poor. 3. (The) good books are good companions, and much more convenient than (the) living [ones]. 4. One bad 2 boy 1 can do much harm. 5. This b has J been 4 [a] bad 1 year 2 for the farmers. 6. One bad thought may engender a bad habit. 7. A poor book is [a] poor companion. 8. The bad 2 boys 1 cherish bad designs. 9. The last moment of (the) life. 10. The last day of the fair. n. The first month of-the year. 12. My friend lives in the first white 2 house 1 on the right. 13. In the three first centuries the Latin 2 language 1 was spoken (fern.) over all Spain. 14. The campaign began in the third month of-the third year of the emperor's reign. 15. The third man. 16. The third week. 17. The first and third row. 18. One book read with care is-worth more than many read (in. pi.) carelessly. 19. One day a friend 2 came 1 to our house. 20. One week has seven days. 21. Some day we-shall-go to Spain. 22. Some time after he-read the newspaper. 23. I-saw the ( 76) man some weeks before. 24. Some oranges are sour. 25. No occasion is better than the present (fern.). 26. No day is free from cares. 27. No friends are so faithful as those (the) of our own household. 28. A great danger threatened 2 him. 1 29. In a great house there-are many servants. 30. A great man has many friends. 31. A great general is often [a] guarantee of (the) peace. Essentials of Form and Inflection. 399 32. The blow may fall any day. 33. Better is no book than any book. 34. The father gave (to) his son [one] hundred dollars. 35. I-saw [one] hundred soldiers drawn-up in the public-square. 36. [One] hundred and one is [an] odd 2 number. 1 Exercise Fifth. Learn and Recite 128-131. . i. He-brings an important piece-of-news. 2. He-is an influential man. 3. The parable of-the prodigal son. 4. The poem of (the) Paradise Lost. 5. The young-man's threatening looks. 6. The measures of (the) foreign governments. 7. The iron-clad ships of the French and English ( 655). 8. Madrid society (the society of-Madrid) is gay in (the) winter. 9. He-speaks the Spanish language. 10. Cabrera was [a] Carlist chieftain, n. Espartero was the principal general of the Constitutional party. 12. The definite decision of-the government. 13. The innocent lambs. 14. (The) entangling alliances. 15. The producing classes. 1 6. The active and passive service, that is, the employed and pen- sioned officers. 17. The second and third chapters. 18. (The) books first and fifth. 19. He-gives good advice (pi.)- 20. He-undergoes a just 2 punishment. 1 21. He-writes with a bad pen. 22. He-leads (lleva) a bad life. 23. In (the) ancient times the selectmen repre- sented (representaban) the (al) third' estate, that is to say (it-is to say), the (al) people. 24. He-has a great defect, which (que) is almost a vice. 25. My father has a large house. 26. The doctor lives in the new street. 27. The poor man has the sympathies of all (the) charitable persons. 28. He-placed several volumes on the table. 29. I-found that poem in a volume of miscellaneous papers. 30. The messenger brought reliable news (pl>). Exercise Sixth. Learn and Recite 132-139. i. The building is as large as a palace. 2. The window is as high as the ceiling. 3. The toys are as amusing as the books. 4. The pens are as poor as the paper and the ink. 5. The women are as tall as the men. 6. The house is as white as (the) snow. 7. John is as small as his brother. 8. Agnes is as gentle as a lamb. 400 Drill-Book. 9. The merchant is as rich as the banker. 10. The paper is 2 not 1 so fine as the envelopes, n. The house is not so large as the palace. 12. The streets of Toledo are not so broad as those (the) of Madrid. 13. Paul has as-much courage as Peter. 14. Mary has as-much diligence as her sister. 15. The boys have as-many projects as the men. 16. The tables have as-many legs as the chairs. 17. Julia has as-many pens as her friend Louisa. 18. The merchant has 2 not 1 so-much money as the banker. 19. The horse has not so-much patience as the ox. 20. John has not so-many friends as Peter. 21. The farmer has not so-many houses as the judge. 22. The cat is not so useful as the dog. 23. The horse is more useful than the ox. 24. (The) gold and (the) silver are more precious (684) than (the) iron or (the) lead. 25. The houses of-the king are more spacious than those (the) of (the) citizens. 26. The merchants are richer than the scholars. 27. The wise are happier than the ignorant. 28. The tables are taller than the chairs. 29. John is less amiable than his sister. 30. The laborer has fewer books than the mechanic. 31. The farmer has less money than the shop-keeper, but he-is more contented than the-latter (este). 32. We-have more than ( 137, b) [one] hundred acquaintances in this town. 33. The royal palace is larger than any (125) of the houses in (of) the capital. 34. It-is difficult to say which is {sea} better, (the) riches or (the) wisdom ; both are-im- portant to the state and to (the) society. Exercise Seventh. Learn and Recite 140-148. i. The count's palace is the largest 2 building 1 in (147) the city. 2. This is the widest 2 street 1 in the capital. 3. He-gave the wisest 2 counsel 1 of all. 4. He-is the best friend (that) I have. 5. A dulled conscience is our worst enemy. 6. He-took the smallest' 2 coin 1 that / had (tenia). 7. The wisest [men] err sometimes. 8. The love- liest 2 women 1 are 2 not 1 always the most beautiful. 9. The best schools in (the) town are the public [ones]. 10. The most enter- taining 2 books 1 for (the) children are those (the) which have pictures. ii. He-gave 2 me 1 [some] of his poorest (peores) pens. 12. The fleece of the lamb was of the whitest 2 color. 1 Essentials of Form and Inflection. 401 13. The justest judgments are always the wisest. 14. The shortest 2 road 1 is 2 not 1 always the best. 15. (The) Spanish pro- verbs are full of the profoundest 2 truths. 1 16. The earliest collection is of-the marquis of Santillana. 17. The Broad 2 Street 1 of St. Bernard is one of the longest in the Spanish capital. 18. The street of Alcala is the most beautiful in Madrid. 19. The Gate of the Sun is the most spacious 2 square 1 in that town. 20. The 1 shortest 6 street, 2 or 3 rather 4 -lane, 5 is that (the) of Seville. 21. The city of Cadiz is the most ancient in Europe. 22. Seen (fern.) from the sea, it-appears [to be] a mass of [the] whitest clouds (superl. abs.}. Exercise Eighth. Learn and Recite 149,- 159. I. The day is very fine. 2. The night was (estuvo) very dark. 3. He-is a most 2 congenial 3 person 1 (with muy). 4. His arrival was most-timely (\K.-isim6). 5. The benches are very-low (or very low). 6. The review was most-brilliant. 7. We-have very-many friends in this town. 8. There-is very-much fruit this year. 9. The houses of Cadiz are very-white. 10. The Phrenicians were a very-ancient people (151). n. This is a most-beautiful bird. 12. The boy is exceedingly diligent. 13. The ring is of [the] finest 2 gold 1 (absoL). 14. The lecture was (estuvd) very-well-attended. 15. He-is a very-learned 2 man. 1 16. His manners were very-mild. 17. Some of the streets of London are very-long. 18. His conduct was (fue) most-shocking. 19. The occasion was most-happy. 20. Last-night occurred a most-shocking 2 attempt 1 against the king's life. 21. This afternoon the attendance at the Cortes was very-slim. 22. The way is very-long and the night very dark. 23. The countess is a very-amiable lady. 24. Our neighbor's father-and-mother are very-old. 25. The envelopes are very-poor. 26. The question is [a] very-difficult [one], 27. The news is quite certain. 28. The dog is a very-faithful 2 friend. 1 29. It- was a very-devout action (reg. of piadosd). 30. The inside room is more quiet than the front [one]. 31. This gentleman is my most intimate friend. 32. He-is quite young, but he-has considerable experience. 33. He 402 Drill-Book. has a very 2 pretty 3 hotel 1 on the " Castellana." * 34. He-is very [much of a] gentleman. Exercise Ninth. Learn and Recite 160-165. i. Two men and three boys. 2. Four books and five pencils. 3. Seven churches and six schools. 4. Nine windows and eight doors. 5. Ten oranges and twelve pears. 6. Eighteen ships and three-hundred men. 7. Fifteen trees and thirteen statues. 8. Twenty horses and fifty sheep. 9. Five-hundred houses and twelve thousand residents. 10. Ninety-nine cents and nine mills. ii. Eight and six are fourteen. 12. A year has twelve months. 13. A month has thirty or thirty-one days. 14. A year has three-hundred [and] sixty-five days. 15. A Spanish real is-worth about five cents, and a Cuban [one] ten cents. 16. There-are nineteen ships and twenty-six steamers in the port. 17. A set of twelve chairs, two sofas, and three or four easy-chairs form a siller la. 1 8. The permanent 2 army 1 of Spain in time of peace consists of more than seventy-five thousand men. 19. They-have fifty thou- sand men in the Basque provinces since the peace of 1876. 20. The year (of) 1492 was [a] very notable [one]. 21. The capture of Constantinople in the year (of) 1453 was coetaneous with the inven- tion of (the) printing in Europe. Exercise Tenth. Learn and Recite 166, 168-170. I. The first day of the week. 2. The second month of the year. 3. The third Saturday of the month. 4. Three is the fourth part of twelve. 5. The seventh exercise is easier than the eighth. 6. The first lessons of a new language are more difficult than the last. 7. The second half of the nineteenth 2 century. 1 8. The twenty- third 2 chapter 1 of the book. 9. The thirtieth 2 volume ] of the history of Spain. 10. The Arabs entered (into) Spain in the eighth century. ii. Alfonso the Tenth was a wise and enlightened king. 12. A * The name of a fashionable drive in Madrid, the extension of the Prado and Recoletos. Essentials of Form and Inflection. 403 Spanish real is the twentieth part of a dollar. 13. He-spends one (the) half of his time in the streets. 14. He-lost three fourths (the three quarter parts) of his income. 15. Nine tenths of them were favorable to the project. 16. He-gave (to) his son one fifteenth (the fifteenth part) of his receipts. 17. (The) four fifths of the soldiers were raw-recruits. 1 8. The servant bought a quarter of flour, a quarter of wine, a little beef, and [some] lettuce for the salad. 19. The farmer gave (to) the parish-priest his tithe of wheat. 20. Last-night the con- scripts disturbed the neighborhood with their shouts and songs. 21. At the introduction of printing into Spain at the close (a ultimas) of the fifteenth 2 century, 1 all (the) books were printed in folio or in quarto. 22. (The) ancient 2 Spanish 3 books 1 in 8vo are usually of the size of our books in i6mo, or smaller still. Exercise Eleventh. Learn and Recite 171-175. i. Five and three are* eight and ten are eighteen, and seven are twenty-five. 2. Three times nine are twenty-seven. 3. Four times eight are thirty-two. 4. Twelve times twelve [are a] hundred and forty-four. 5. Twice thirteen are twenty-six and nine are thirty- five. 6. A day and [a] half. 7. An hour and [a] quarter. 8. He-gave one (the) half of his goods to the poor. 9. He-worked half [a] day. 10. He-will-wait half [an] hour. n. I-spent a couple of days in the country. 12. He-bought half [a] dozen (of) oranges. 13. He sold a dozen and [a] half (of) boxes of raisins. 14. He-has a score of acquaintances. 15. He-lived there a score-and-a-half of years. 16. He spoke once or twice (two). 17. He-plays sometimes. 18. (The) children cry many times or often. 19. (The) thoughtful 2 men 1 jest seldom. 20. Some (unas) times he-wrote, other [times] he-read. 21. He-plays every day. 22. He-goes to the country twice a (al) year. 23. He-writes every month. 24. He-visits (to) his parents every two months. 25. He attends (to) the church every week. 26. He studies (at) every moment ; he-is very diligent. 27. Every three months I-go to (the) town. * Are is usually omitted in ordinary calculations. 404 Drill-Book. 28. 6 + 3 -f 9 8 = 10. 29. | and T % are how-many? 30. In a couple of hours he-will-be here. 31. I have visited the palace of the Alhambra a score of times. 32. Sometimes he-comes in (por) the morning, and others in (for) the afternoon. 33. Every day I write three or four letters. 34. Every time that I-see 2 him 1 he-pleases 2 me 1 less. Exercise Twelfth. Learn and Recite p. 90; Read pp. 91-93 ; and Learn Pres. Ind. of 536, p. 254. tengo, or yo tengo V. tiene, or tiene V. / have. > you ha comalo V. (pol.) / eat it. no lo comas (fam.) no lo coma V. (pol do not eat it. PLURAL. comamoslo, tet us eat it. comedlo (fam.) no lo comamos, let us not eat it. no lo comais (fam.) comedlo (fam.) ^ no lo comais Qtam.; -| comanlo W. (pol.) } eat lt ' no lo coman VV. (pol.) } do noteatlt ' The third conjugation take -Id instead of -ed, otherwise the same as the second, vivid, vivan W. , etc. Essentials of Form and Inflection. 409 I. Speak to this man (fam. and pol.). 2. Speak to him. 3. Per- mit (to) this lady. 4. Permit 'to) her. 5. Praise these boys ( 76). 6. Praise them. 7. Read this letter ; read it. 8. Read these letters ; read them. 9. Fear this punishment ; fear it. 10. Fear these pen- alties ; fear them. ii. Do not speak to that man ; do not speak to him. 12. Do not praise that girl ; do not praise her. 13. Do not deceive ( 76) these gentlemen ; do not deceive them. 14. Do not learn those lessons ; do not learn them. 15. Do not write that letter so badly. 16. Do not write it so badly. 17. Do not look-for (371) those books; do not look-for them. 18. Let us speak to these gentlemen. 19. Let us not deceive these children. 20. Let us not fear them. 21. Let us praise them. 22. Let us not live in this house. 23. Let us fear God ( 76), and keep his commandments. 24. Let us not deceive our ( 76) parents, because they are (son) our best friends. 25. Let us live in peace with all (the) men. 26. Let us not live (in-order-) to eat, but (sino) let us eat (in-order-) to live. Exercise Nineteenth. Learn and Recite 271-276, and the present indicative of ser and estar (pp. 190, 193). ser is absolute being; estar, accidental being or state. i. This is the boy who lives in my house. 2. These are the persons who deceive ( 76) their friends. 3. The book which I have read is on the table. 4. The inkstands which I have bought are not good. 5. The papers of which I spoke are in the table- drawer. 6. The ladies whom I seek are not here. 7. The friends with whom I live wrote me a long 2 letter. 1 8. The boys to whom I read the exercise are diligent. 9. The days on (in) which he writes are (the) Tuesdays and Fridays. 10. The books of which he speaks are' 2 unknown to-me. : 1 1 . The rule with which he makes the lines belongs to (is of) my brother. 12. The exercises that we write are more difficult to-day than those (the) of yesterday. 13. You are my friend. 14. Are you tired? 15. Where is the inkstand? 16. Do you know (sabe V.) 4 1 o Drill- Bo ok. where 1 my pens are*? 17. I have not seen them. 18. I am the person (whom) you deceived. 19. We are the artists whom they praised. 20. Thou art the boy to whom I spoke yesterday. Exercise Twentieth. Learn and Recite 277-282, and the past def. of estar and ser. i . The table near which he was. 2. The balcony from which he spoke to-me. 3. The charge with which he honored me. 4. The judge before whom he stood. 5. The books about which they deceived us. 6. The conditions on (bajo) which they wrote. 7. The limits beyond which he did not wish (quiso) to go. 8. The measures against which we spoke. 9. The individuals among whom we were. 10. The city toward which he-was-going (iba). n. The roofs upon which the birds 2 alighted. 1 12. He says what he thinks. 13. He writes what he wishes. 14. I praise what pleases me. 15. They find what they seek. 16. They fulfil what they promise. 17. They read what they find. 18. We eat what we like (pleases us). 19. We praise what we read. 20. We know what we write. 21. He finds all that he looks-for. 22. He praises all that / do (hago). 23. He does not fulfil all that he promises. 24. He does not praise all that you do (hace). 25. He allows me to do all that I like (quiero). Exercise Twenty-First. Learn and Recite 284-287, and the imperfect indicative of estar, ser, hablar, coiner, and vivir. i. That is the gentleman in whose house / was-living. 2. The young-man whose father is ill was-looking-for a physician. 3. This is the teacher (d) whose scholars we-were-praising so-much. 4. He is the-one-who was-writing when we-came-in. 5. She is the-one who found what we-were-looking-for. 6. You are the one who deceived us about what we-were-asking. 7. They are the ones who were-reading while we were-speaking to them. 8. He who seeks finds, and he who asks receives. 9. Those who study, learn. 10. They do not praise him who deceives (At que engana no le alaban). n. They do not always believe him who Essentials of Form and Inflection. 411 praises. 12. Him who fears they do not honor (him). 13. Him who discharges his duties they honor. 14. He who wrote the letter which we have received lives in London. 15. They who deserve rewards are those who have written 1 their exercises well: 2 16. She who deceived her sister is worthy of blame. Exercise Twenty-Second. Learn and Recite 288-292, and the future indicative of hablar, comer, vivir, estar, and ser. i. Who is-looking-for a book? 2. Whose pen is this? 3. Whose toys are these that are [lying] on the floor? 4. Whom will-you- deceive? 5. What will he fear? 6. Whom will-they-praise ? 7. What shall I learn? 8. What wilt-thou- write? 9. What shall-we- find? 10. To what [purpose] will-they- write ? n. To whom shall I speak? 12. What will-it-be? 13. What house is that? 14. What is the number of this house? 15. What day of the week is-it? 16. What is the object of the visit? 17. What measures have you taken? 18. What are the lessons that he-is-learning ? 19. Which of these houses is yours? 20. With which of these pens will you write the letter? 21. What day will you dine with us? 22. How proud they are! 23. What a misfortune [it is] ! 24. Where will you live in Paris ? 25. They will praise what pleases (to) them. 26. Thou wilt arrive to-morrow night (m. por la n.). 27. When shall we dine? 28. I do not know when it will be. Exercise Twenty-Third. Learn and Recite 293-308, and conjugate all the simple forms of the verb hablar i. The true master praises another's work, but not his-own. 2. The thief seeks the treasures of others. 3. The unjust [man] speaks freely of others' lives, and does not consider his own. 4. Somebody is calling us; do you not hear a voice? 5. I hear 412 Drill-Book. (siento) steps ; some-one is-coming (viene) . 6. Somebody will praise the master ( 76) whose works deserve it (merezcari). 7. Has 1 anybody 3 found 2 what I lost? 8. Somebody wrote him a letter which gave him (a) great offense. 9. Some-one of our acquaintances spoke ill of him. 10. Some of these trees do not grow. u. Are you looking for anything? 12. Is-there (hay) anything more troublesome than to listen-to the twaddle of the vain? 13. Every day has its duties. 14. Every coun- try has its language and its customs. 15. Every year we go to the baths. 1 6. The Spaniards go to the drive every day. 17. I -met 2 so-and-so 3 yesterday, 1 and he-tol$ (dijo) me that you were-looking- for [a] house. 18. When he had (tmbo) spoken he sat down. 19. He would not speak to me if I were not (estuviese) with influ- ential friends. 20. They spoke of the grand dinner at (en) [the] palace. Exercise Twenty-Fourth. Recite 309-321, and Learn the compound forms of the verb hablar. I. He told me nothing. 2. I had not eaten anything. 3. He would not learn anything. 4. He-who knows 2 nothing 1 fears 2 nothing. 1 5. He has found nothing. 6. Nobody has written more than the great dramatic author, Lope de Vega. 7. He praises no one. 8. No one will deceive him. 9. He was-looking-for no one. 10. [Let] no one deceive you (subj.). n. No one would find it (cond.) even if he-should-search (subj.) all the year. 12. In no house do-they-do (hacen) this. 13. None of these things moves me. 14. None of these things move me. 15. None of the trees grows more than this [one]. 16. He has deceived none of them. 17. They have looked-for [a] house, but have found none. 18. We have not received any news from our friends. 19. No house in (of) the city is as large and beautiful as the royal 2 palace. 1 20. None of these ladies is as amiable as the marchioness. 21. I cannot (no puedd) write with any (neg.) of these pens. 22, No paper is so good as (the) hand-laid paper. Essentials of Form and Inflection. 413 Exercise Twenty-Fifth. Recite 323-335, and conjugate all the simple forms of the verb coiner. i. Have 2 you no 1 time? 2. The poor people have (has) no home. 3. We eat no meat [on] (the) Fridays. 4. They have no friends. 5. Others toil in-order-that I may-eat (subj.). 6. I shall write the letter another day. 7. That (eso) is another thing. 8. The other day I dined with a friend. 9. In Spain some dine at (d las) two in (of) the afternoon, and others at (d las) six. 10. Do you want these books or the others ? 1 1 . I will take these and you may (puede) have the rest. 12. Some went (fueron) to the country, others to the baths, and the rest staid home (reft.). 13. I shall dine with any one who invites (subj.) me. 14. Give me (deme V.) any book. 15. I cannot (no puedo) write with any pen. 16. I-am-looking-for any house that is (sea) comfortable and convenient. 17. Such-a thing might (podria) happen to any [one]. 18. Such men are-not-accustomed (no suelen) to be idle. 19. The history of such-a period is full of interest. 20. Such books are very useful to (para) the young (youth). Exercise Twenty-Sixth. Recite 336-349, and Learn the compound forms of v the verb comer. I. I have been-reading all (the) day. 2. We had been-watching all night. 3, He has been (estado) in the National 2 Library 1 all the morning. 4. Have you' 2 ever j travelled 1 over all Andalusia? 5. I had been-waiting-for him all that afternoon. 6. All (the) days are alike (iguales) to (para) him (or dat. pron.). 7. All classes praise him. 8. The whole battalion entered into the fight. 9. This is that Light that lightens every man who comes into (d) this world. 10. We see the same [thing] everywhere, u. They arrested them all ( 76). 12 He had eaten it all. 13. They had read it all before. 14. Every one who learns Spanish must (ha de) begin with (por) the grammar. 15. All those who do (hacen) such things receive their reward. 16. All that we learned was profitable to us (during) 414 Drill-Book. all [our] (the) life. 17. All that the best men approve is good. 1 8. In the school the teacher gave (some 1 ) very 3 severe 4 lessons.' 2 19. Having dined he went to the gardens with some friends. 20. We have two houses, one (of) stone, and the other (of) wood. 21. He was looking-for a number of good paintings with which he wished to adorn the walls of his drawing-room. Exercise Twenty-Seventh. Recite the conjugation of the entire verbs vivir, haber (p. 162), and 354-355- i. Living in (de) this way we spent little money. 2. Having written a 1 very 3 long 4 letter, 2 he went-out to take (d dar) a walk in the gardens. 3. (In-order) to have friends, it-is necessary to be friendly. 5. (The) to have lived soberly in our youth is a pleasant reflection for our old-age. 6. We-used-to-live (p. 346, c) in the country, but now we reside in (the) town. 7. In-order that we may discharge (with) all our obligations, it-is necessary to have principles of honor. 8. He was-fearing that I should write to his parents. 9. He does not wish me to live (that f may live) in the capital, sur- rounded by (del) pageant and luxury, until my moral forces and my judgment are (subj.) more 2 developed. 1 10. I-feared (imperf.) that he would not find what he-was-looking-for. n. I wrote him in- order that he might permit me to-do what I-wished. 12. There-are days in which one cares (not) neither to read nor to write. 13. There-were more than three hundred persons at the dinner. 14. There-will-be no 'school to-morrow. 15. There is no one who does not know (sepa) what is just. 16. There-has been much rain this year. 17. There have been occasions of great in- terest and profit during this season. 18. In the Castiles there are no trees, and therefore there are no birds. 19. There would have been much less danger, if every one had remained (hubiese per- manecidd) in his place (sitio). 20. Will there be [a] war, or will there be none ( 197) ? 21. There were (sing.) people whom I did not know (imperf.). 22. There was nobody in the sitting-room. 23. There would be no remedy if a fire 2 should-break-out. 1 24. There was a moment of the deepest silence, and then 1 the conver- sation 3 went-on. 2 Essentials of Form and Inflection. 415 Exercise Twenty-Eighth. El Bar 6 metro. COMEDIA EN UN ACTO La Condesa^ \ Dios mio 2 ! ; Dios mio ! esto 3 es insoportable. Hace 4 tres meses y medio 5 que llegue 6 a esta quinta, y ni un solo dia ha dejado 7 de Hover. Yo 8 no tengo 9 resignacion para 10 sufrir este tiempo, que me aburre, me desespera y me mata. Vamos d 11 ver si el bardmetro me da alguna esperanza. \ Nada 12 ! Ayer mar- caba 13 lluvia, y hoy indica tempestad. \ Esto 3 es horroroso ! Pues bien, voy 11 a acabar de una vez 14 con 15 el complice de esta lluvia eterna. (Descuelga 16 el bardmetro y le arroja al suelo, 17 hacie'ndole pedazos 18 con estrdpito.) Ya 19 no me mortificara' ma's con sus presagios. ( Vdse.) In this passage the following verbs are regular: ist conj., acabar, arrojar, dejar, desesperar, matar; 2d conj., none; 3d conj., sufrir, aburrir (used in the 3d pers. sing, and plur. only; otherwise in the re- flexive form, aburrir se} . The following make orthographic changes: indicar, marcar, mortificar, llegar ( 371). The following are irreg- ular : ist conj., dar (543), descolgar (like rogar, 483, 371); 2d conj., hacer ( 530), Hover ( 418, impers.), ser ( 385), tener ( 536), ver ( 548); 3d conj., ir ( 552), irse ( 552, ). All these verbs must be learned or reviewed before the lesson is passed. i. The countess is in her summer-house in the south of Spain, in that ancient province that is called (calls itself) Andalusia. 2. It has rained incessantly during all the time that she has been there, and she has become-im patient at (de) so much bad weather. 3. In the capital of Spain, where she lives, it scarcely ever rains (no II. cast nuncd). 4. Seeking some victim of her anger, she hits on the i 97, d. 2 249 and a. 3 266. 4 426, b. 5 172. 6 371 and b. ~ 415 and 726, b. 8 187, a. 9 322. 10 729. 11 552 and 725, a : vamos a ver is much more energetic than veamos, which a calm person would use, let us see. 12 313. 13 697, a. 14 De una vez, adverbial phrase, " of one time," at once, once for all. 15 Con, with, is the regimen of acabar, to finish with (con), we say, " to put an end to." 16 From descolgar : descuelgo, gas, ga, like rogar, 483. 17 On the floor, lit. to the floor. 18 Hacer pedazos, with the direct obj., lit. to make a thing pieces, i.e. to break it in pieces. 19 607. 20 552, a ; 206. 416 Drill-Book. barometer, which does not cease to point to [a] storm. 5. She takes it down from the nail on (de) which it-was-hanging (pendia), and she throws it violently on- the floor. 6. Thus 2 triumphant 1 over (de) her foe, and leaving the field strewn with the evidences of the fray, she retires from the scene. Exercise Twenty-Ninth. ESCENA SEGUNDA. Anselmo, criado ; Victorina, criada. Viet. iQu6 ruido es este? j Jesus 1 ! El bardmetro hecho afiicos 2 ! Ans. \ Que Mstima 3 ! Despues que le 5 costd mil quinientos reales 4 al 5 sefior 6 conde, ha tenido el pobre chisme un fin muy desgraciado. Todavia me acuerdo 7 de la tarde que fuf con el amo 8 a" la tienda del dptico 9 de la calle de la Montera, y . . . Viet. Vamos, 10 no empiece 11 usted ya con los discursos de siempre, 12 y recoja 13 usted esos pedazos a"ntes que vuelva 14 la sefiora. (Lee un periddico.) Ans. Mejor seria que usted me ayudara, 15 para 16 acabar mas pronto. colocar ( 371, a); desaparecer ( 374, a), permanecer (id.)', saber ( 535), poder (532); distinguir ( 376, a)\ divertir (502), venir (541). IDIOMS. I. Acabar de (infin.), to finish (pres. part.), or to have just (past part). acaba de escribir la carta, I he has just written the letter, acababamos de salir, ] acabamos de salir, ) acabo de recibir una carta, ' he finishes writing the letter. we had just gone out. I have just received a letter. 2. Volver a (infin.), to (second verb) again. he goes out again. vuelve a salir, no le he vuelto a ver, cuando vuelven VV. a escribirles, den- ies muchas memorias de mi parte, acababa V. de escribir la carta, y ahora la vuelve a escribir de nuevo, I have not seen him again. when you (//.) write them again, give them my kindest regards, you had just written the letter, and now you are writing it over again. I. The train has just arrived, and it will not go-out again to-day. 2. I-shall-learn this lesson so well that 1 it-will 4 not 2 be necessary 5 16 608; 725, a. 17 607. 18 341, a. 19 291, Rem. 20 408. 21 From saber. 22 710. 28 Tirar means to throw away ; tirar de, to pull at. Essentials of Form and Inflection. 423 for-me 3 (to-me) to learn it again (volverla d ap.). 3. The lady persists in returning (in/in.) to the city. 4. The carriage cannot go (andar) over the country on account of the inundation. 5. A gentleman has just come-in who says that the roads are impassable. 6. It-is necessary to resign one's self to one's (the) fate, and to have patience. 7. A Spanish-woman out-of-patience goes and comes, jumps-up and sits-down, skips-about again, and runs (corre que corre) over (por) the 2 whole 1 house. 8. An English [woman] or an American [woman] in like circumstances sits-down calmly and busies herself with (en) something useful (of profit). Exercise Thirty-Third. ESCENA SEPTIMA. . La Condesa. (al criado.) <; Ves d un viajero debajo de aquel a>bol tan corpulento? Anselmo. Si, senora. La Cond. Corre a dl l y dfle 2 que venga. 3 Ans. La senora Condesa le conoce sin duda. La Cond. Corre, te digo. (Vase.) \ Ah ! es atrevido^ es teme- rario lo que acabo de hacer, pero lo primero es vivir, y yo no puedo wir de esta manera. Sin embargo, abrir las puertas de mi casa d un hombre que no conozco, es mas que rareza, es una verdadera locura es . . . \ Victorina-a-a ! \ Victorina-a-a ! ESCENA OCTAVA. La Cond. (a la doncella.) Llama en seguida a Anselmo, que 4 venga al momento. Victorina. Es imposible, senora, ya va 5 muy lejos. La Cond. No importa, v d buscarle. 6 Viet. Pero, senora f ji'), andar ( 528), dar ( 543), encontrar (477), pensar ( 457); comprender, creer ( 549, ), deber, haber ( 354) ; hacer ( 530), querer ( 534), romper ( 571), saber ( 535) ; tener ( 536), traer ( 537), ver ( 548) ; decir ( 539), ir and irse ( 552), sentir (499), servir ( 513). (Imperative polite form.) I. Excuse me, madam. 2. Excuse me, ladies. 3. Come in (sing. and//.). 4. Go-out (sing. and//.). 5. Come-up. 6. Go-down. 7. Come-out. 8. Go-in. 9. Don't come-in. 10. Don't go-out. n. Don't come-up. 12. Don't go-down. 13. Don't come-out 14. Don't go-in. 15. Do it (hdgalo V.). 16. Don't do it (no lo h. V.). 17. Try it; don't try it. 18. Ask-for it; don't ask-for it. 19. Give it to-me ; don't give it to-him. 20. Look-for it ; don't look-for it. 21. Forgive him ; don't forgive him. 22. Hang it up ; 21 706, / 22 2I4 . 23 706, e . 24 709, c - 7^. 25 389, a. 26 409. 27 675, date of the battle of Tetuan. 28 267. 29 That's it. 30 710. 3 ^ 415. Essentials of Form and Inflection. 427 don't hang it up. 23. Come-near; don't come-near. 24. Go-away; don't go (away). 25. Do him the favor; don't do him the favor. 26. Have the goodness to . . . ; don't refuse to ... 27. Turn-around ; don't turn-around. Tema Trigesimo-Quinto. ESCENA NONA CONTINUACION. La Condesa. (llamando al criado.) \ Anselmo ! jAnselmo! (aparece.) Ya que este caballero quiere absolutamente ponerse en camino, ve' a" buscar un pardguas, y traelo al instante. (Que no haya 1 ni un solo paraguas en la casa <: entiendes ?) (Vase el criado.) Pero sientese V., caballero. Descon. Sefiora, tengo prisa por marcharme, y agradezco 2 la invitacion de V. Me esperan algunos amigos en la estacion, y ademas, prolongando 8 mi presencia en esta casa, temo 4 ser indis- creto, cuando 5 no me es posible ni dun componer los cristales que se han roto. La Cond. Puede V. estar tranquilo, porque el tren no sale hasta dentro de 6 tres horas. Conque decia V. que en Africa ... Y < ;me' V. herido 7 en campana? Descon. Si, senora, dos veces, y muy gravemente por cierto, mie'ntras tratdbamos de establecer una paralela. La Cond. Conque ,1V. ha tratado de establecer una paralela? No sabe V. lo que 8 yo he deseado siempre saber lo que es una paralela. Descon. Voy a" satisfacer entdnces la curiosidad de V. mie'ntras traen el pardguas. La Cond. Pero sie'ntese V., yo se lo 9 ruego. Descon. Gracias. La paralela, senora, consiste en una linea de ataque y de defensa trazada sobre el terreno que ocupan los sitia- dores, con objeto de avanzar por zanjas 6 caminos cubiertos hdcia la plaza 6 el punto sitiado. La Cond. Comprendo perfectamente. Descon. Esas zanjas se construyen en tres lineas unidas entre si 1 708, b, Rent. 2 agradecer ({ 374, a). 3 735. * 723( that I shall be." 5 since. 6 hasta dentro de = before, in, with a negative verb. 7 390. 8 282, a. 9 754. 428 Drill-Book. por otras en forma de zig-zags. La profundidad de cada zanja es la de un metro, y su longitud varia desde uno hasta tres metres prdximamente. Hay seis modos de construirlas : de zapa sencilla, de zapa volante, llena, medio-llena, doble y semi-doble. ^Com- prende V.? La Cond. \ Vaya 10 si comprendo ! Es muy interesante todo eso. Decia V. que hay cincuenta y seis maneras de construir las zanjas . . . Descon. \ Cincuenta y seis ! \ Ave Maria Purisima 11 ! seis, senora, seis. La Cond. Es verdad, perdone V., me he equivocado. Como nosotras no tenemos obligacion de saber esos trabajos de zapa . . . Descon. \ Pues ya lo creo ! Como que los hacemos nosotros. 12 Vamos ahora a 13 definir claramente lo que es zapa sencilla. La Cond. Vamos a" ver. Descon. Se llama zapa sencilla . . . (Sale 14 el criado.) Conjugate desear, variar; avanzar ( 371, 539- Dedo, M., finger, toe. Defensa, F., defense. Definir, to define, to explain; vamos d d., let us explain. Degollado, a, beheaded; ser d., to be beheaded, to have one's throat cut \_gola\. Dejar, to leave; d. de, to leave off, to cease. Deleite, M., joy, pleasure. Delicioso, a, delightful. Delirio, M., delirium; con d., wildly, madly, passionately. Demonic, heavens ! Dentro de, within; por d., on the inside. Derecha, F., right (hand) ; d la d., to the right, on the right. Desagiie, M., drainage. Desahucio, M., ejectment. Desaparecer, to disappear. Desbordamiento, overflowing, in- undation. Descanso, M., rest; sin d. t without cessation, incessantly. Spanish-English Vocabulary. 447 Descargar, to fall with fury (sobre, upon), 371. Descolgar, to take down (anything suspended), 483. Desconocido, a, unknown ; a stranger. Description, F., description. Descuelga descolgar. Desde, from, since ; d. hasta or d, from to ; d. alii, from there ; d. aqui, from here, hence. Desdicha, F., misfortune. Desear (deseo, as, a), to desire, to wish. Desempenar, to discharge; to act, to play. Desengano, M., disillusion, disen- chantment; proporcionarle d uno un d., to undeceive one. Desesperacion, F., despair, des- peration; amorosa d., desperation on account of love. Desesperado, a, in despair. Desesperar, to put in despair, dis- courage. Desgraciado, a, unfortunate, la- mentable. Desliz, M., delinquency, slip. Despedir, to dismiss, 512. Despejado, a, clear, free from clouds or obstacles. ^ Despide despedir. Despojar, to despoil, to strip, to rob. Despues, afterward, subsequently; despues de, prep., after; despues que, conj., after. Destacamento, M., detachment. Destreza, F., dexterity, cunning, shrewdness. Destrozar, to break up ; to carry away, 371. Detendra detener. Detener, to detain, 536. Detenerse, to stop, 536. Detras, behind; d. de, behind, be- yond. Deudo, M., relative. Di decir and dar. Dia, M., day. Dibujar, to sketch, to draw. Dibujo, M., drawing, sketching. Diccionario, M., dictionary. Dice decir. Dicen decir. Dicho, a, said, told {decir). Dichoso, a, happy, fortunate, blessed. Dificil, difficult; not likely. Diga decir. Digo decir. Dijiste decir. Diliivio, M., flood, deluge. Dinero, M., money. Dios, God ; D. mio, dear me ! Diria decir. Dirigirse, to direct one's self, to proceed (^, toward), 375. Discurso, M., speech ; d. de siempre, old story. Disfrutar, to enjoy. Disimulo,M., simulation; cond.,s\y\y. Dispensar, to excuse; V. dispense, pardon, beg pardon. Disponible, to dispose of, to spare. Distancia, F., distance ; d cierta d., at a certain distance off. Distinguido, a, distinguished, high born (distingue, guee) . Distinguir, to descry; se distingue, is visible, 376. Distraction, F., something to oc- cupy one's mind. 448 Spanish-English Vocabulary. Diver tir, to amuse, 502. Divierte divertir. Doble, double. Doce, twelve ; las d., twelve o'clock, noon, midnight. Doliente, grieving, pitiful. Dolor, M., pain, grief. Doncella, F., lady's maid. Donde, where ; jddnde? where ? Droguerla, herb-shop ; (Spanish America, drug-store). Ducho, a, clever, skilful. Duda, F., doubt; sin d., doubtless, of course; no hay d., there is no doubt of it, it is certain. Duelo, M., pain; mourning [Fr. deuil~]. Dulziira, F., sweetness; con d., affably. Durar, to last. E. Ebano, M., ebony. Echar, to throw, to toss; echar d and echarse d, to begin to (foil, by an infinitive). Edad, F., age, number of years. Educacidn, F., education ; buena e., good manners, courtesy. Educado, a, educated; bien e., well bred. Efecto, M., effect; en e., indeed you have; in fact. Ejecutarse, to be effected, executed. El que, he who, the one who. Elefante, M., elephant. Elemento, M., element. Embarcadero, M., station, landing. Embargo sin e., notwithstand- ing, still. Embudo, M., funnel. Emocion, F., emotion. Empenarse, to persist (en, in), to insist (en, on). Empezar, to begin (by, con}, foil. by d with an infinitive, 469. Empiece empezar. Enipiecen empezar. Empiezo empezar. Empireo, a, celestial. Emplear, to employ, tcr use, to make use of; se emptea, is used. En, in, into, at, on. Encontrar, to meet with, to find, to come upon casually; refl., to find one's self, to be. Enganchar, to harness up, to put the horses to the carriage; haz que enganchen en segmda, have the carriage made ready at once. Engana enganar. Enganar, to deceive. Engane enganar. Engano, M., deception. Enjuague, M., finger-bowl. Enjuto, a, dry, thin. Enmendar, to amend, to correct, 459- Enredo, M., plot, snarl. Ensenar, to teach; to show. Ensene ensenar. Extender, to understand, to hear, 471- Entiendes entender. Ent6nces, then. Entrar, to go in, to come in, to enter. Entre, between (two), among (sev- eral) ; entre si, together. Epistola, F., letter, epistle. Epoca, F., period, epoch. Equivocarse, to be mistaken; me he equivocado, I made a mistake. Spanish-English Vocabulary. 449 Era ser. Erguido, a, erect, with head set back. Error, M., error, mistake. Es ser. Escala, F., steps, ladder. Escalera, F., staircase, ladder. Escampar, to stop raining. Escaparse, to get away, to escape. Escape d escape, quick; irse d e., to be off. Escena, F., scene; stage. Escoces, a, Scotch, Scotsman (or woman) . Escopeta, F., musket. Escribir, to write, 561. Escualido, a, squalid. Escuela, F., school. Ese, esa, eso, that (where you are, which you have, or which you say). Eslabon, M., link of a chain; flint. Eso, that (thing) ; eso es, that's it. Espacio, M., space, period; por e. de, during, for. Espantar, to scare, to terrify. Espanol, a, Spanish, a Spaniard. Especial, peculiar, extraordinary. Especialmente, especially. Espectaculo, M., sight, view, display. Esperanza, F., hope, encourage- ment. Esperar, to expect; to wait, to wait for, to await. Espiocha, F., pickaxe. Esta estar. E stab a estar. Establecer, to establish, to con- struct (as a parallel), 374. Estacion, F., station, " depot," (Fr. gare). Estado, M., state, condition. Estar, to be (incidentally or tem- porarily) ; to be in, at home, 382. Estatua, F., statue; effigy. Estatura, F., stature, height. Este, esta, esto, this. Est6ico, stoic; stoical. Estorbar, to disturb, to be in one's way. Estoy estar. Estremeno. See Extremeno. Estr6pito, M., loud noise, crash; con e. t with a crash, noisily. Eterno, a, unceasing, eternal. Euro (6-u-ro), M., Eurus. Europa^ F., Europe. Exacto, a, exact. Exagerar, to exaggerate ; se ex- agera, they exaggerate, it is ex- aggerated. Excelente, excellent, first rate. Exhortar, to exhort. i Expedite, a, cleared, put in running order (of trains) . Experimentado, a, experienced. Extrano, a, strange. Extremeno, a, of Extremadura or Estremadura. Exultar (seldom), for exultarse, to exult. F. Faccioso, M., rebel (Carlist). Fagina, F., fascine (long fagot for military defense). Faltar, to lack, to be wanting; falta el tiempo, there is no time (para, to, for). Falua, F., marine launch, felucca. Familia, F., family. Famoso, a, famous, notorious. 450 Spanish-English Vocabulary. Farsa, F., farce. Fastidiarse (fastidio, as, a), to be weary (de, of). Fastidio, M., ennui. Fautor, M., abettor. Fealdad, F., ugliness, plainness; monstruo de f., prodigiously ugly looking. Febrero, M., February. Feliz, happy. Feo, a, ugly, plain, " homely." Feria, F., fair. Feudo, M., fief. Figurarse, to fancy, to imagine, to picture to one's self. Fijamente, without fail. Fila, F., row. Fin, M., end; al fin, at last, at length. Fingir, to pretend, to feign, 375. Fino, a, polite, elegant. Flamenco, a, Fleming. Forma, F., form ; en f. de, in the form of. Fortuna, F., good fortune. Fragua, F., forge. Fraguar, to forge, 372. Fragile fraguar. Fraile, M., friar. Frances, a, French, Frenchman or woman. Franco, a, frank. Franqueza, F., frankness; con /, frankly, openly. Frenesi, M., frenzy; con /, wildly, passionately. Frente, F., forehead; / d, in front of, before. Fresco, a, fresh, cool; recent. Fuego, M., fire. Fuera ser and ir. Fuera, outside; desde /, from with- out; por f., outside, from the out- side. Fuero, M., privilege. Fuerte, strong, powerful; fuertes golpes, hard blows. Fuerza, F., strength; por f. or d la f., by force. Fuese ser and ir. Fui ser and ir. Funcion, F., office; PL., id. Funda, F., cover for furniture, etc. (Fr. housse, etui?) Furia, F., fury; con f., furiously. FuriSso, a, furious, in a fury. Furor, fury; con f., furiously. Fusil, M., gun. G. Gaditano, a, of Cadiz. Galante, polite, courteous, pleasing to ladies. Galantea galantear. Galantear, to court ladies' society, to play the beau. Galantee galantear. Galanteo galantear. Galeria, F., gallery. Galgo, M., grey-hound. Gallego, a, Galician. Ganga, F., bargain. Gastar, to spend; to waste; to wear (a garment). Gato, M., cat. Gavion, M., gabion (a cylindrical wicker basket, open at both ends, used, filled with earth, for de- fense) . General, M., general. Gengibre, M., ginger. (Some spell jengibre.) Spanish-English Vocabulary. 451 Genio, M., disposition, genius. Gente, F., people ; PL., id. ; lasgentes del pais, the people of the local- ity; the country people. Gesto, M., gesture, movement. Giro, M., whirl, turn; draft. Gitano, M., gypsy. Gloria, F., glory, honor ; dngel de la g. t an angel in paradise. Golpe, M.,blow; dar ung., to strike; fuertes g s, hard blows (en, on). G6tico, a, Gothic. Gozo, M., joy. Gracias, F. PL., thanks, thank you. Gran grande. Granadino, a, of Granada. Grande, great, large (before a noun sing., gran) . Gravemente, seriously. Greda, F., chalk. Grieta, F., crevice. Grito, M., cry, shout ; dar un g. t to utter a cry. Grueso, a, thick, heavy, big. Grulla, F., crane. Guapo, a, pretty. Guardarse, to put away, to put (in one's pocket). Guardia, F., guard; M., guard. Guarida, F., den, lair. Guedeja, F., lock of hair. Guerra, F., war. Guia, F., guide. Guidn, M., hyphen. Guipuzcoano, a, a Basque from Guipdzcoa. Guisantes, M. PL., peas. Guitarra, F., guitar. Gula, F., gluttony. Gustarle a uno, to please any one, to like, p. 420; me gusta, I like; cuando V. guste, when you like. Gusto, M., taste, pleasure. H. Haba, F., bean. Habeis haber. Haber, to have (only as an aux- iliary} ,351. Habia, there was, there were, 354. Habia haber. l&abl&dL hablar. Hablado, a, spoken, talked. Hablar, to speak, to talk (d, to; con, with; de, of). Hace hacer. Hace, it is; ago; h. que, it is since; h. un momenta, a moment ago; h. poco, a short time ago, a while ago. Hacer, to make, to do, to cause, to be; hacer pedazos, to break in pieces ; h. caso, to take notice, to pay attention, 530. Hacerse, to be made, to become; to pretend to be, to dissemble; se hace la sorda, pretends not to hear. Hacia, toward, in the direction of. Hago hacer. Halagiieno, a, flattering, charming. Halla hallar. Hallar, to find. Hallazgo, M., discovery. Han haber. Hara hacer. Hasta, until, up to, to; desde hasta or d, from to. Hay haber, 354. Haya haber, 354. Haz hacer. 452 Spanish-English Vocabulary. Haz, F., bundle. He haber, 351. Hebreo, a, Hebrew. Hecho, a, made, done, caused, had hacer. Heria herir. Herido, a, wounded; ser //., to be wounded. Herir, to wound, 500. Hermoso, a, beautiful, fine. H6roe, M., hero. Her6ico, a, heroic. Hice hacer. Hidalgo, M., gentleman. Hielo, M., ice. Hierro, M., iron; camino de h. t railway; PL., hierros, fetters, handcuffs. Higo, M., fig. Higo-chumbo, M., prickly-pear. Hija, F., daughter. Hijo, M., son, child; descendant. Hilo, M., thread, linen. Historia, F., history, story. Hizo hacer. Hollar, to trample, 475. Hombre, M., man. Honra, F., honor. Hora, F., hour, o'clock. Horadado, a, pierced. Horizante, M.^ horizon. Horrorizar, to terrify, 371. Horroroso, a, horrible. Hospitalidad, F., hospitality. Hoy, to-day ; at the present day. Hubiese haber. Hubo haber, 354. Huello hollar. Huida, F., flight. Huir, to flee, 522. Huireis huir. Hule, M., oil-cloth. Humedo, a, damp, wet. Humilde, lowly, humble. Humor, M., spirits, humor ; de malh., ill naturedly, in ill humor. Hurto, M., theft. Huso, M., spindle. I. Idea, F., idea; que i., what a happy thought ! Ido, a, gone ir or irse. Iglesia, F., church. Igual, like, the same as, foil, by d. Imbuido, a, permeated. Implacable, inexorable. Importar, to be important, to be of consequence; importa, it matters; no i., never mind. Imposible, impossible, it cannot be. Imprudencia, F., indiscretion; es una i., it is imprudent. Inclinado, a, inclined, bent over. Inconveniencia, F., impropriety; es una i. t it is inexpedient. Increible, incredible. Indicar, to point out, to indicate, 37'- Indio, a, Indian. Indiscrete, a, indiscreet, impru- dent. Indudable, undoubted, sure. Infame, infamous. Infanteria, F., infantry. Infeliz, unfortunate; poor man. Infierno, M., torture. Infinite, exceedingly. Influjo, M., influence. Ingeniero, M., engineer ; PL., corps of engineers. Ingenio, M., genius; talent. Spanish-English Vocabulary. 453 Ingles, a, English, Englishman or woman. Inicuo, a, heinous. Inmarcesible, unfading. Inmediato, a, next. Inmenso, a, boundless. Inmortal, immortal, undying. Inquieto, a, uneasy, anxious. Insomnio, M., sleeplessness; noches de i., sleepless nights. Insoportable, intolerable. Instante, instant, moment; aLj., immediately, at once. Instinto, M., instinct. Inteligencia, F., intelligence. Interesante, interesting, of interest. Iniitil, useless. Invitacion, F., invitation. Ir, to go, 552; ir d, to be going to (with infinitive) ; ir d buscar, to go after, for. Irse, to go away, to go off, to be going; vdse, exit (in plays). Irlandes, a, Irish, Irishman or woman. Ir6nico, a, sarcastic. Irregular, irregular. J. Jaleo, M., outcry, uproar. Jamas, never, ever. Jaula, F., cage. Jerezano, a, of Jerez or Sherry. Jesus, heavens ! J6ven, young man or woman, youth. Juan, John. Juego, M., play, game. Juez, M., judge. Juicio, M., judgment. Julio, M., July. Junio, M., June. Junto, a, joined; together; pagar- las todas juntas, to pay off old scores, to make a final settlement. Junto a, near. Jura, F., oath taking ; act of admin- istering an oath. Juzgar, to judge, 371. Juzgo juzgar. L. Labrador, M., farmer. Lado, M., side; d su /., by him, by her. Lago, M., lake. Lance, M., occasion; el L no ha sido para menos, the o. demanded it. Largo, a, long. Lastima, F., pity; que /., what a pity! Leccion, F., lesson. Leche, F., milk. Lee leer. Leer, to read, 549, b. Legua, F., league. Leido, a, read leer. Lejos, far, far off; muy /., a good way off. Leones, a, Leonese, of Leon. Leudo, a, leavened. Levantarse, to get up, to rise. Levita, F., frock-coat; gente de /., middle and upper classes; gastar /., to be a gentleman. Ley, F., (PL., leyes}, law. Leyendo leer. Libertad, F., liberty; tomarse la /., to take the liberty (de, to). Librar, to deliver, to set at liberty. Libre, free, rid. Libro, M., book; l.demolde, (print- ed) book ; /. de mano, manuscript. 454 Spanish-English Vocabulary. Liceo, M., Lyceum. Licito, a, allowed, lawful. Limpio, a, clean, neat. Linea, F., line. Lisonja, F., flattery. Locura, F., folly, piece of folly. Lograr, to succeed in. Longitud, F., length. Luego, then, next; presently. Lugar, M., place, stead. LI. Llama, F., flame. Llamar, to call; to knock (d, at). Llamarse, to be called, to be named; se llama, is called; jcdmose llama V. ? what is your name ? Llanto, M., weeping \_planctui\. Llave, F., key. Llegado, a, arrived llegar. Llegar, to arrive, to come, 371. Lleno, a, full, filled (de, with). Llevar, to carry, to take. Lloroso, a, tearful. Llover, to rain; volver d //., to rain again, 418. Llueve Hover. Liu via, F., rain; grandes lluvias, heavy rains, much rainy weather. M. Madrileno, a, Madrilenian, of Madrid. Magnifico, a, magnificent. Mairena, name of a town about sixteen miles from Seville, prop- erly, M. del Alcor. Maitines, M. PL., matins. Majuelo, M., vine-patch newly planted or set out. Malagueno, a, of Malaga. Maldad, F., evil, wickedness. Malo, a, bad, evil; poor; ill (before a sing, noun masc., mal). Manchego, a, of La Mancha. Mandadero, messenger,errand-boy. Mandar, to order; to cause, have (anything done). Manera, F., manner, way; de esta m., in this way. Mano, F., hand; besar la mano d, to salute (a person) . Manana,F.,morning; M.,to-morrow. Maragato, a, a man or woman of Astorga. Marcar, to mark, to indicate, 371. Mar char, to walk, to go. Marcharse, to go away, to depart, to go. Marchito, a, withered. Marea, F., tide. Marque mar car. Marques, M., marquis. Marquesa, F., marchioness. Mas, more, longer; no m. 9 no longer ; no mds que, only, nothing but. Matar, to kill; to wear out. Matrimonio, M., marriage; man and wife. Matritense, of Madrid. Maxime, especially. Mayo, M., May. Mediador, M., mediator. Medio, M., means; de que m., in what way? Medio, a, half. Mej or, better; serlam.que, it would be better if, you had better. M6nos, less; lo m., the least thing; at least. Merced, F., grace, favor. Spanish-English Vocabulary. 455 Merecer, to deserve, 374. Mes, M., month. Mesa, F., table, writing desk, desk (in schools). Meterse, to get (en, into). Metro, M., metre. Miedo, M., fear; tener m., to be afraid (de, to). Mientras, while. Mil, a thousand. Milagro, M., miracle, wonder. Militar, soldier, military officer. Millon, M., million. . Minuto, M., minute. Mirada, F., look, glance. Mirar, to look, to see, to behold; m. d, to look at; mire V., see, look. Mismo, a, same, self; lo m., the same (thing). Modales, M. PL., manners, style. Modelo, M., model, beau-ideal. Modo, M., way, manner; de m. que, so that, so. Memento, M., moment; al m. y this instant, instantly; en estos m s, Sit present. Moneda, F., coin, piece of money, small change, change. Monstruo, M., monster; m. de feal- dad, prodigiously ugly. Montera, p., hunting-cap; name of a central street in Madrid, leading from the Puerta del Sol to those of Fuencarral (pop. Funcarral) and Hortaleza. Morder, to bite, 490. Morir, to die, 509. Morirse, to die, to give up. Moro, M., Moor. Mortal, mortal. Mortificar, to provoke, 371. Motin, M., riot, disturbance. Mozo, M., boy, waiter; buen m., fine looking. Muchacho, a, M. F., boy, girl. Mucho, a, much, a good deal of; PL., many, a good many. Mucho, adv., much, greatly. Muerdo morder. Muero morir or morirse. Mujer, F., woman, wife. Murciano, a, of Murcia. Murmullo, M., murmur. Musa, F., muse. Muy, very. N. Nada, nothing, not anything, no ! Nadar, to swim. Nadie, no one, not anyone. Nado d nado, swimming, by water. Naranja, F., orange. Narigon, M., long-nosed. Nariz, F., nose. Narracion, F., story, recital. Navarro, a, Navarrese. Necesidad, F., need, necessity. Necesitar, to need, to be in need of (generally foil, by de) . Negarse, to decline, to refuse (foil. by d with pron. or infin.), 371. Negro, a, black, dark. Neutro, M., neuter. Ni, neither, nor, not ; no ni ni, neither nor, not either or; not even, not so much as. Nieta, F., granddaughter. Nieto, M., grandson. Nimio, a, excessive. Ningu.no, a, no, not any, not at all; no one, not anyone. 456 Spanish-English Vocabulary. Nina, F., child, girl. Nino, M., boy, child. No, not, no. Noble, noble, high-born. Noche, F., night; de n., by night, at night. Nombrar, to mention by name, to speak a name; sdlo con nom- brarle, at the bare mention of his name. Nombre, M., name. Nosotros, as, we (men), we (wom- en), us (after prep.). Notar, to observe. Noticia, F., news, item, piece of news; PL., news. Nubarron, M., great cloud, black cloud. Nuevo, a, new. Nulo, a, null, void. Numeroso, a, numerous. Nunca, never (with neg. verb if it follows verb). N. Nudo, M., knot. O. Objeto, M., object; con o. de, for the purpose of. Obligacion, F., duty, obligation ; no tener o. de, not to be supposed to. Obligado, a, compelled, forced (4 to). Obra, F., work; estar en o., to be in repairs, or repairing. Ocupar, to occupy, to hold. Ocuparse, to employ one's self (en, in, about). Ocurrencia, F., occurrence, inci- dent, coincidence. Ocurrir, to happen, to be the mat- ter; tque ocurre? what is the matter ? Ocho, eight. Odidso, a, hateful. Odre, M., wine-skin. Ofrecer, to offer, 374. Ofrezco ofrecer. Old oir. Oido, a, heard; o. decir, heard say oir. Oido, M., hearing; ear. Oiga oir. Oigo oir. Oir, to hear, to listen, 553. Olor, M., odor, smell. Olvidar, to forget; refl. with de. Opaco, a, opaque, dark. Optico, M., optician. Orden, F., order (command); M., order (sequence). Orgiillo, M., pride. Original, M., extraordinary, pecu- liar. Otro, a, other, another, other one. Oye oir. P. Paciencia, F., patience. Pagar, to pay; pagdrlas, to pay for it, to "catch" it; pagarlas todas juntas, to settle for old scores, 37^ 753- Pais, M., country; district, region. Pala, F., shovel. Palabra, F., word (in discourse; a single word is voz, F.) . Palenque, M., wrestling place, arena. Palmada, F., clap of the hands. applause. Panzudo, a, corpulent. Spanish-English Vocabulary. 457 Panuelo, M., handkerchief; shawl (anything put over the head or shoulders) . Papel, M., paper; newspaper; part, character (in a play); hacer un p., to act a part, to cut a figure. Papelito, M., little paper; pop., paper segar. Para, for; to, in order to, so as to ; p. que, in order that, that, so that (subj.). Paraguas, M., SING, and PL., um- brella. Paralela, F., parallel (a trench with a parapet constructed opposite the enemy's works). Parece,itappears,itseems parecer. Parecer, to appear, to seem, 374. Parezco parecer. Parte, F., part; por mi p., on my part, in me. Pasa, F., raisin. Pasado, a, passed, spent; past, late. Pasado, M., past. Pasar, to pass, to spend, to expe- rience; to pass over; to pass any- thing (J)or, through). Pasatiempo, M., pastime, passing amusement. Pasion, F., passion. Paso, M., step; dar un p., to take a step. Pedazo, M., piece; hacer pedazos, to break in pieces. Pedir, to ask, to ask for, 512, 753. Peine, M., comb. Peligro, M., danger. Penoso, a, painful, severe. Pensar, to think, to reflect, to ima- gine ; to intend ; /. en, to think of, 457- Pena, F., cliff, rock. Proper name, Fr. de la Roche. Pedr, worse; lo peor, the worst. Perder, to lose; to ruin, 470. Perdido, a, lost, ruined, undone. Perdonar, to forgive. Perfectamente, perfectly. Perfecto, a, perfect, complete. Peri6dico, M., newspaper. Permanecer, to remain, 374. Permiso, M., permission; pedir d uno p. para, to ask leave to. Permitir, to allow, to permit (que with subj., to). Pero, but; why. Persona, F., person; appearance. Pertenecer, to belong, 374. Pertenezco pertenecer. Pescar, to fish, to fish up, to catch fa fish), 371. Pesque" pescar. Pida pedir. Pide pedir. Pido pedir. Pie", M., foot; dp., on foot. Piensa pensar. Pintor, M., painter. Placer, M., pleasure. Placer, to please ; place, it pleases, 545- Plaza, F., square, market; fortress. Plazca placer. Pluma, F., pen. Pobre, poor, sorry, wretched. Poco, a, small, little; PL., few; imp.* a little, slightly. Podemos poder. Poder, to be able, can, may, _532- Podido, been able poder. Podra, will be able, can poder. 458 Spanish-English Vocabulary. Poner, to put, to place, to -lay; to put in ; /. la mano, to lay one's hand (en, on), 533. Ponerse, to become, to get; /. bien con, to get on good terms with; /. bueno or ma to, to be well or ill; p. en caniino, to start off, to set out, to go. Poquito, very little, rather, some- what. Por, by, for, through, along, over. Pormenores, M. PL., particulars, details. Porque, because, for (consequence). Porque and Por qu6, why? Posible, possible. Posta, F., post; ir por la p., to go by express. Practicarse, to be constructed, 37 J - Precioso, a, precious, valuable; magnificent, superb. Precise es p., it is necessary. Preferir, to prefer, 500. Prefiero preferir. Prender (pp. preso), to arrest, to seize, to take. Preparar, to prepare, to arrange; prepararlo todo, to get everything in readiness. Presagio, M., prophecy. Presencia, F., presence. Presentar, to present. Preso, a, arrested, taken pren- der; darse p., to surrender. Prestar, to lend. Primero, a, first ; lop., the first thing. Principle, M., beginning; al p., at first. Prisa, F., haste; tener p., to be in a hurry (por or para, to) . Prisionero, M., prisoner. Procurar, to try, to seek (de, to). Profundidad, F., depth. Prolongar, tp prolong, to lengthen out, 371. Pronto, quick, soon ; mdsp., quicker. Propio, a, self, own. Proporcionar, to bestow, to afford, to give. Pr6ximamente, approximately. Pr6ximo, a, near, next. Proyecto, M., plan, purpose; tener el p. de,\.o> purpose. Prueba, F., proof, trial; essay. Piiblico, M., public. Pudrir, to decay, 510. Pueblo, M., village; town; people. Puede, may, can, is able poder. Puedo, no p., I cannot poder. Puerta, F., door, gate. Pues, then, well, why; /. bien, well. Puesto, a poner and ponerse. Puesto que, since. Punto, M., point; moment. Pureza, F., purity, virtue. Que, who, which, whom; that, since; until; let (with subj.). Qu6, what? what! how! Quedar, to remain, to be left; q. d., to keep; quedarse con., to keep. Quema, F., burn, scorching. Querella, F., feud. Querer, to wish, to want, to like; will, 534- Querido, a, dear. Queso, M., cheese. Quien, who; after a prep., whom. Quien, who? whom? Quiere querer. Spanish-English Vocabulary. 459 Quiero querer. Quieto, a, quiet, still. Quimica, F., chemistry. Quinientos, as, five hundred. Quinta, F., summer-house. Quise querer. Quisiera querer. Quiso querer. Quizas, or quiza, perhaps (subj.). R. Rapto, M., burst. Rareza, F., eccentricity. Raro, a, odd, curious, strange. Rasgo, M., dash, stroke. Rato, M., while. Ratito, M., little while, moment. Randal, M., torrent, rapid. Raza, F., race, stock. Razdn, F., reason; tener r., to be right. Real, M., a rial or royal (5 cts. in Spain, and locts. in Cuba). Recibir, to receive. Recoger, to gather up, to pick up, 375- Recoja recoger. Recordar, to remember, 474. Recuerdo recordar. Recuerdo, M., recollection, memory, thought; su r., the thought of him. Recurso, M., resource, recourse, convenience. Red, F., net. Refugiarse, to take refuge (en, in) . Regir, to rule, 515. Registro, M., record. Regular, usual. Rei reir. Reinado, M., reign. Reino, M., kingdom. Reir and reirse, to laugh (de, at), 520. Reloj (more often now, rel6), M., watch, clock. Remedio, M., remedy; no hay mds r. que, the only way is to. Rendija, F., opening, rent, crevice. Rendirse, to surrender, 513. Renunciar, to give up, to abandon (foil, by /, home bueno). Self-respect, amor propio, M. Selfish, egoista; s. vanity, vano egoismo. Sell {to), vender; he sold, vendio. Senate, senado, M. Send for {to), enviar a buscar. Sense, sentido, M. Serious, grave. 482 English-Spanish Vocabulary. Servant, criado, M., criada, F.; coll. los criados or la servidumbre. Serve (to), servir (sirvo, sirves, sirve) . Service, servicio, M. Set (to), ponerse (of the sun). Set, juego, M. ; s. of chairs, sille- ria, F. Several, varies, as. Severe, severe, a. Seville (pron. Sev'il), Sevilla; S. train, tren de Sevilla. Shape, forma, F. Sheep, oveja, F. Shelter onfs self (to), ampararse, refugiarse. Shine forth (to), brillar. Ship, buque, M. (merchant) ; buque de guerra, or fragata, F. (war) . Shocking, atroz. Shoe, zapato, M. Shoemaker, zapatero, M. Shop, tienda, F. Shop-keeper, tendero, M. Short, corto, a. Shout, grito, M. Shut (to), cerrar (cierro, as, a); he shuts, cierra. Sign, sefial, F. ; it is a s., es sefial. Sign (to) , firmar ; signed, firmado, a; it was s., fue firmado, a. Silence, silencio, M. Silver, plata, F. Since, desde (time). Sister, hermana, F. Sit down (to), sentarse, (me siento, te sientas) ; he sits down, se sien- ta; sit down, sientese V. Sitting-room, gabinete, M. Situation, situation, F. Sixteen mo (i6mo), dieciseisavo. Size, tamafio, M. Skip about (to), brincar; to s. a. again, volver a brincar ; she skips a. again, vuelve a b. Sky, cielo, M. Slate, pizarra, F. Slim, flojo, a, (of attendance). Small, pequefio, a. Snow, nieve, F. So, tan; s. bad, tan malo; s. (thus), asi; s. it is, asf es; s. (it), lo; s. much, tanto, a; s. many, tan- tos, as. Soberly, sobriamente. Society, sociedad, F. Sofa, sofa, M. Soldier, soldado, M.; militar, M. Some, algunos, as; unos, as; imos cuantos, unas cuantas. Something, alguna cosa; algo. Sometimes, algunas veces. Son, hijo, M. Song, cancion, F., canto, M. Soon, pronto, luego. Soul, alma, F. ; anima, F. (disem- bodied spirits) . Sour, agrio, a. South, mediodia, M. ; in the s. of Spain, en el m. de Espafla; in the extreme j. t en el extremo sur. Spacious, espacioso, a. Spain, Espafia, F. Spaniard, Espafiol, a, M. and F. Spanish, espaflol, a ; S. woman, Espafiola, F. Spanish- America, la America es- pan51a. Speak (to), hablar; spoken, hab- lado; is s., se habla. Speech, habla, F. (el habla, un habla). English- Spanish Vocabulary. 483 Spend (to), pasar (of time) ; gastar (of outlay). Spirit, espiritu, M. Spring, fuente, F. ; manantial, M. (source) . Square, plaza, F. St. (saint), santo and son. ( 127). Stand (to), estar en pie or de pie (the act), estar; stood, estuvo. Start for (to), salir para, marcharse para. State, estado, M.; the United States, los Estados Unidos. Statesman, hombre de estado, or estadista, M. Station, estacion, F. Statue, estatua, F. Stay (to), quedarse ; to s. home, quedarse en casa. Steamer, buque de vapor, M., or sim- ply vapor, M. [paso. Step, paso, M.; to take a s., dar un Still, todavia, atin (yet) ; sin em- bargo (notwithstanding). Stir, animacion, F. Stone, piedra, F. Storm, tempestad, F. Stormy, malo, a ; lluvioso, a; tem- pestuoso, a. Story, cuento, M. Stranger, desconocldo, M. (un- known) ; forastero, M. (from another place) . Straw, paja, F.; s. hat, sombrero de paja, M. Street, calle, F. Strength, fuerza, F. (physical)-, fuerzas (moral). Strewn, cubierto, a ; sembrado, a, (with, de). [estudia. Study (to), estudiar ; he studies, Suggest (to), sugerir; recordar; he suggested, sugiri6, recordo. Summer, verano, M. Sun, sol, M. Surround (to), rodear; that seemed to s. her, que al parecer la amen- azaba (of danger). Surrounded, rodeado, a, (by, de) . Survive (to), sobrevivir. Sweet, dulce. Sympathy, simpatia, F.; better, PL. las s s. T. Table, mesa, F. Table-drawer, el cajon de la mesa. Take (to), tomar; he took, tomo; to t. a step, dar un paso; to t. a walk, dar un paseo. Take down (to), descolgar (des- cuelgo, as, a, of anything sus- pended) . Take place (to), suceder; verifi- carse; tener lugar. Talk (to), hablar; to talk to, h. con. Tall, alto, a; grande. Teacher, maestro, a, M. and F. Tell (to), decir (digo, dices). Terror, terror, M.; azote, M. Text, texto, M. Than, que ; (before a numeral) de ; (with a verb) de lo que. Thank (to), agradecer (agradezco, agradeces) . That, ese, esa, eso ; aquel, aquella, aquello ; /. is, es decir ; /. is so, eso es. That, conj., que. Theatre, teatro, M. ; summer or cafe t s, teatros de verano 6 de cafe. 4 8 4 English- Spanish Vocabulary. Them, los, M. ; las, F. ; les, COM. (gov. by a verb) ; ellos, as (gov. by a prep.). Then, entonces (at that time); luego (afterwards). There, alii; en el, en ella, en ellos, as ; t. is, hay ; t. are, hay. Therefore, por consiguiente. Thief, ladron, M. Thing, cosa, F. Think (to), pensar (pienso, as, a); creer (creo, crees). This, este, esta, esto. Thomas, Tom as. Those (of), los or las de. Thought, pensamiento, M. Thoughtful, sensato, a; cuerdo, a; grave. Threaten (to), amenazar. Threatening, amenazador, a. Throw (to), arrojar; to t. on the floor, a. al suelo. Thus, asi, de este modo. Ticket, billete, M. Time, tiempo, M.; a t., vez, F.; the second t., por segunda vez; times, veces, F. PL. (occasions) . Timely, oportuno, a; acertado, a. Timothy, Timoteo. Tired, cansado, a (estar). Tithe, diezmo, M. Title, titulo, M. To, a ; up to, hasta. To-day, hoy; (at the present d.), hoy dia, or en el dia. Toil (to), trabajar. To-morrow, mafiana ; to-m. night, m. por la noche ; the day after to-m., pasado mafiana. Top, peon, M. Toward, hacia (material and moral direction) ; para con (moral di- rection) . Town, ciudad; poblacion, F., villa. See City. Toy, juguete, M. Train, tren, M. ; Seville t., tren de Sevilla. Tramway, tranvia, and tramvia, M. Travel (to), viajar. Traveller, viajero, M. Treacherous, traidor, a. Treasure, tesoro, M. Treaty, tratado, M. Tree, arbol, M. Triumphant, triunfante; ufano, a. Troublesome, molesto, a; fastidio- so, a. Tremble (to), temblar (tiemblo, as, a). True, verdadero, a. Truth, verdad, F. Try (to) , probar (pruebo, as) ; to t. to, tratar de, procurar de. Tuesday, martes, M. Turn around (to), volverse (me vuelvo, ves, ve). Twaddle, charladuria, conversa- cion, F. Twice, dos veces. Type, tipo, M. U. Uncle, tio, M. Under, debajo de; bajo; u. the cir- cumstances, bajo las circunstan- cias. Undergo (to), sufrir. Understand (to), comprender, en- tender (entiendo). Unfortunate, desgraciado, a. Unite (to), unir. English-Spanish Vocabulary. 485 United, unido, a; United States, Estados Unidos. Unjust, injusto, a. Unknown, desconocido, a. Until, conj., hasta que. Up to, hasta. Useful, titil; provechoso, a; de pro- vecho. Usually, ordinariamente. V. Vain {puffed up}, vanidoso, a. Valencia, Valencia, F. Vanity, vanidad, F. ; selfish v., vano egoismo, M. Various, diverse, a. Verdict, fallo, M. Very, muy, bien ; / am v. glad, me alegro mucho; v. much, muchi- simo, a ; v. many, muchisimos, as. Vessel, buque, M. Vice, vicio, M. Victim, victima, F. Vile, ruin. Village, pueblo, M.; aldea, F. Violently, con violencia, F.; arre- batadamente. Visit, vislta, F. Visit (to}, visitar; pasar a ver. Vivid, vivo, a. Voice, voz, F. (PL. voces). Volume, tomo, M. ; voldmen, M.; in a small 4to vol., en un tomo en cuarto pequefio. W. Wait (to), and to w. for, esperar, aguardar. Walk, paseo, M. Wall, tapia, F. (of an enclosure) ; pared, F. (of a room) ; muralla, F., or muro, M. (of a town). Want (to), meaning to wish, querer (quiero, quieres, quiere) ; he wants or wants to, quiere; he does notw. to, no quiere. Want (to), meaning to need, faltarj___ / w., me falta ; what do you w. ? ique le falta a V.? Spaniards only w. good government, a los Espafioles solo les falta buen gobierno. War, guerra, F. Was see ser, estar. Watch (to), velar. Water, agua, F. (el agua). Way, camino, M. ; via, F. ; in this w., de este modo. Wear (to), llevar, gastar. Weather, tiempo, M. ; what kind ofw.? Jque tal t.? Week, semana, F. Well, bien ; as w. as, tan b. como ; so w. that, tan b. que. Were see ser, estar. Western, occidental ; W. Europe, la Europa o., or el Oeste de Europa. What ? i que ? w. kind of? <; que tal ? What (that which), lo que ; w. if, si (in interrog. and exclam.). Wheat, trigo, M. When, cuando ; cuando ? Where, donde, donde ? (rest) ; adonde, adonde (motion) ; en donde (in what place). Which, que; (of two), cual. While, mientras. White, bianco, a; superl. blanqui- 4 86 English-Spanish Vocabulary. Who, que ; whom, que, a quien. Whole (the), todo el, toda la; en- tero, a, (after the noun). Whose, cuyo, ^ctiyo? w. name is, que se llama. Why? por que? Wild-boar, jabali, M. Will (to), meaning to wish, querer (quiero, es, e) ; w.you?