V 
 
PRIMITIVE MAN. 
 

A Family o f the Stone Age (Frontispiece).. 
 
 fc 
 
PRIMITIVE MAN 
 
 BY 
 
 LOUIS FIGUIER. 
 
 Nero (EMtion, 
 
 ILLUSTRATED WITH THIRTY SCENES OF PRIMITIVE LIFE, AND 
 
 TWO HUNDRED AND THIRTY-THREE FIGURES OF OBJECTS 
 
 BELONGING TO r RE-HISTORIC AGES. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, 
 
 182 FIFTH AVKNUE. 
 1876. 
 
" Arma antiqua manus, imgues, dentesque fueriint, 
 Kt lapides, et item silvarum fragmina rami, 
 Et flamma atque ignes, postquam sunt cognita primum. 
 Posterius ferri vis est aerisque reperta ; 
 Kt prior aeris erat quam ferri cognitus usus." 
 
 Lucrefius, De Rertun Natura, lib. I 7 , v. 1281 5. 
 
 . .' .. . * 
 
PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION. 
 
 THE EDITOR of the English translation of " L'Homme Primitif " 
 has not deemed it necessary to reproduce the original Preface, 
 in which M. Figuier states his purpose in offering a new work on 
 pre-historic archaeology to the French public, already acquainted 
 in translation with the works on the subject by Sir Charles 
 Lyell and Sir John Lubbock. Now that the book has taken its 
 position in France, it is only needful to point out its claims to 
 the attention of English readers. 
 
 The important art of placing scientific knowledge, and espe- 
 cially new discoveries and topics of present controversy, within 
 easy reach of educated readers not versed in their strictly tech- 
 nical details, is one which has for years been carried to remarkable 
 perfection in France, in no small measure through the labours 
 and example of M. Figuier himself. The present volume takes 
 up the subject of Pre-historic Man, beginning with the remotely 
 ancient stages of human life belonging to the Drift-Beds, Bone- 
 Caves, and Shell-Heaps, passing on through the higher levels of 
 the Stone Age, through the succeeding Bronze Age, and into 
 those lower ranges of the Iron Age in which civilisation, raised 
 to a comparatively high development, passes from the hands 
 
 A 
 
 250837 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 KAGE 
 
 INTRODUCTION I 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 E. 1Ehc (Epoch of (Extinct <Spccics of Jtntntiib ; or, of the (Sreat 
 
 vuxb ttammoth. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The carlie>l Men The Type of Man in the Epoch of Animals of extinct Species 
 -Origin of Man Refutation of the Theory which derives the Human 
 Species from the Ape . . . ........ 25 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Man in the condition of Savage Life during the Quaternary Epoch The Glacial 
 Period, and its Ravages on the Primitive Inhabitants of the Globe Man in 
 Conflict with the Animals of the Quaternary Epoch The Discovery of Fire 
 The Weapons of Primitive Man Varieties of Flint-hatchets Manufacture 
 of the earliest Pottery Ornamental objects at the Epoch of the Great Bear 
 and the Mammoth 39 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Man of the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch lived in Caverns Bone 
 Caverns in the Quaternary Rock during the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch 
 Mode of Formation of these Caverns Their Division into several Classes 
 Implements of Flint, Bone, and Reindeer-horn found in these Caverns The 
 Burial-place at Aurignac Its probable Age Customs which it reveals 
 Funeral Banquets during the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch . . . 56 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PAGE: 
 
 Other Caves of the Epoch of the Great Bear and Mammoth Type^of^jhe 
 " Human Race during the Epochs of the Great Bear and the Reindeer The 
 
 culls from the Caves of Engis and Neanderthal 72 
 
 IE (Epxtth cf the Ifieinfcm; or, xjf J-ttgratcb Animals. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Mankind during the Epoch of the Reindeer Their Manners and Customs 
 Food Garments Weapons, Utensils, and Implements Pottery Ornaments 
 Primitive Arts The Principal Caverns Type of the Human Race during 
 the Epoch of the Reindeer^. (Mjj) 85: 
 
 HE %ht $0lihcb-stxrne (Syoth ; or, the Qrp.cr.clt xrf 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The European Deluge The Dwelling-place of Man during the Polished-stone 
 Epoch The Caves and Rock-shelters still used as Dwelling-places Prin- 
 cipal Caves belonging to the Polished-stone Epoch which have been explored 
 up to the present Time The Food of Man during this period . . .125 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Kjoekken-Moeddings or tl Kitchen-middens" of Denmark Mode of Life of 
 the Men living in Denmark during the Polished-stone Epoch The Domes- 
 tication of the Dog The Art of Fishing during the Polished-stone Epoch 
 Fishing Nets Weapons and Instruments of War Type of the Human 
 Race ; the Borreby Skull 129 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Tombs and Mode of Interment during the Polished-stone Epoch Tumuli and 
 other Sepulchral Monuments formerly called Celtic Labours of MM. Alexander 
 Bertrand and Bonstetten Funeral Customs 184 
 
CONTENTS. xi 
 
 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 I. ^hc l&wnzc QZpoth. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Discovery of Metals Various Reasons suggested for explaining the origin of 
 Bronze in the West The Invention of Bronze A Foundry during the Bronze 
 Epoch Permanent and Itinerant Foundries existing during the Bronze Epoch 
 Did the knowledge of Metals take its rise in Europe owing to the Progress 
 of Civilisation, or was it a Foreign Importation ? 205 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Sources of Information at our disposal for reconstructing the History of the 
 Bronze Epoch The Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland Enumeration 
 and Classification of them Their Mode of Construction Workmanship and 
 Position of the Piles Shape and Size of the Huts Population Instruments 
 of Stone, Bone, and Stag's Horn Pottery Clothing Food Fauna 
 Domestic Animals 215 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Lacustrine Habitations of Upper Italy, Bavaria, Carinthia, and Carniola, Pome- 
 rania, France, and England The Crannoges of Ireland .... 227 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Palustrine Habitations or Marsh- Villages Surveys made by MM. Strobel and 
 Pigorini of the Terramares of Tuscany The Terramares of Brazil . . 232 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Weapons, Instruments, and Utensils contained in the various Lacustrine Settle- 
 ments in Europe, enabling us to become acquainted with the Manners and 
 Customs of Man during the Bronze Epoch 240 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Industrial Skill and Agriculture during the Bronze Epoch The Invention of 
 Glass Invention of Weaving ....... 258 
 
xii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Art of War during the Bronze Epoch Swords, Spears, and Daggers The 
 Bronze Epoch in Scandinavia, in the British Isles, France, Switzerland, and 
 Italy Did the Man of the Bronze Epoch entertain any religious or super- 
 stitious Belief? . 271 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Mode of Interment and Burial-places of the Bronze Epoch Characteristics of the 
 Human Race during the same Period . X^ .^\ 284 
 
 IE TO* Iron (Epoch. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Essential Characteristics of the Iron Epoch Preparation of Iron in Pre-historic 
 Times Discovery of Silver and Lead Earthenware made on the Potter's 
 Wheel Invention of Coined Money ........ 297 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Weapons Tools, Instruments, Utensils, and Pottery The Tombs of Hallstadt 
 and the Plateau of La Somma The Lake Settlements of Switzerland 
 Human Sacrifices Type of Man during the Iron Epoch Commencement of 
 the Historic Era . . 5* 3 > * 3 12 
 
 PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA 333 
 
 CONCLUSION 343 
 
LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 FIG. _ I'AGE 
 
 A Family of the Stone Age Frontispiece 
 
 1. Human Jaw-bone found at Moulin-Quignon, near Abbeville, in 1863 . . 18 
 
 2. Skull of a Man belonging to the Stone Age (The Borreby Skull} . . .27 
 
 3. Skull of the Gorilla 28 
 
 4. Skull of the Orang-Outang ib. 
 
 5. Skull of the Cynocephalus Ape 29 
 
 6. Skull of the Macacus Baboon ib. 
 
 7. The Production of Fire (whole-page engraving). 
 
 8. Dendrites or Crystallisations found on the Surface of wrought Flints . . 46 
 
 9. Section of a Gravel Quarry at Saint- Acheul, which contained the wrought 
 
 Flints found by Boucher de Perthes 47 
 
 10. Hatchet of the Almond-shaped type from the Valley of the Somme . . 48 
 
 11. Flint Hatchet from Saint- Acheul of the so-called Almond-shaped type . . 49 
 
 12. Wrought Flint (Monstier type) ib. 
 
 13. Flint Scraper 50 
 
 14. Flint Knife, found at Menchecourt, near Abbeville ib. 
 
 15. Flint Core or Nucleus 51 
 
 1 6. Man in the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch (whole-page engraving). 
 
 17. The First Potter (whole-page engraving). 
 
 1 8. Fossil Shells used as Ornaments, and found in the Gravel at Amiens . . 54 
 
 19. Theoretical Section of a Vein of Clay in the Carboniferous Limestone, before 
 
 the hollowing out of Valleys by Diluvial Waters 56 
 
 20. Theoretical Section of the same Vein of Clay converted into a Cavern, after 
 
 the hollowing out of Valleys by Diluvial Waters . . . 57 
 
 21. The Cave of Galeinreuth, in Bavaria 59 
 
 22. Section of the Sepulchral Cave of Aurignac .62 
 
 23. Flint Knife, found in the Sepulchral Cave of Aurignac. . . . -63 
 
 24. Implement made of Reindeer's or Stag's Horn, found in the Sepulchral Cave 
 
 of Aurignac . . . ib. 
 
 25. Series of Perforated Discs of the Cardium Shell, found in the Sepulchral 
 
 Cave of Aurignac . . .64 
 
xiv LIST OF PLA TES. 
 
 FIG. 1'AGE 
 
 26. Fragment of the Lower Jaw of a Cave-Bear found in the Sepulchral Cave of 
 
 Aurignac 64 
 
 27. Upper Molar of a Bison found in the Ashes of the Fire-Hearth of the Sepul- 
 
 chral Cave of Aurignac 65 
 
 28. Arrow-head made of Reindeer's Horn, found in the Sepulchral Cave of 
 
 Aurignac ' 66 
 
 29. Bodkin made of Roebuck's Horn, found in the Sepulchral Cave of Aurignac ib. 
 
 30. Truncated Blade in Reindeer's Horn, bearing two Series of transversal Lines 
 
 and Notches, probably used for numeration 67 
 
 31. Funeral Feast during the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch (whole-page 
 
 engraving). 
 
 32. Carved and Perforated Canine Tooth of a Young Cave-Bear . . .69 
 
 33. Head of a Cave-Bear found in the Cave of Aurignac .... .70 
 
 34. Head of the Rhinoceros tichorhinus, found in the Cave of Aurignac . . ib. 
 
 35. Head of a great Stag (Megaceros hibernicus), found in the Cave of Aurignac . 7 1 
 
 36. Sketch of the Great Bear on a Stone, found in the Cave of Massat . . 75 
 
 37. Portion of the Skull of an Individual belonging to the Epoch of the Great 
 
 Bear and the Mammoth, found in the Cave of Engis . . . .80 
 
 38. Portion of the so-called Neanderthal Skull ib. 
 
 39. Man of the Reindeer Epoch (whole-page engraving). 
 
 40. Rock- Shelter at Bruniquel, a supposed Habitation of Man during the 
 
 Reindeer Epoch (whole-page engraving). 
 
 41. A Feast during the Reindeer Epoch (whole-page engraving). 
 
 42. Flint Bodkin or Stiletto for Sewing Reindeer Skins, found in the Cave of 
 
 Les Eyzies (Perigord) 92 
 
 43. Bone-Needle for Sewing ib. 
 
 44. The Canine Tooth of a Wolf, bored so as to be used as an Ornament . . 93. 
 
 45. Ornament made of the bony part of a Horse's Ear . . . . ib. 
 
 46. Spear-head, found in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse (Perigord). . . -95 
 
 47. Worked Flint from Perigord (Knife) 96 
 
 48. Worked Flint from Perigord (Hatchet) ....... ib. 
 
 49. Chipped Flint from Perigord (Knife) ........ 97 
 
 50. Chipped Flint from Perigord (Scraper) ....... ib. 
 
 51. Small Flint Saw, found in the Rock-Shelter at Bruniquel . . . .98 
 
 52. The Chase during the Reindeer Epoch (whole-page engraving). 
 
 53. Barbed Arrow of Reindeer Horn ........ 99 
 
 54. Arrow of Reindeer Horn with Double Barbs ib. 
 
 55. Animal Bone, pierced by an Arrow of Reindeer Horn 100 
 
 56. Tool made of Reindeer Horn, found in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse 
 
 (Stiletto?) ib. 
 
 57. Tool made of Reindeer Horn, found in the Cave of Laugerie-Basse (Needle?) ib. 
 
 58. Spoon of Reindeer Horn 101 
 
 59. Knuckle-bone of a Reindeer's Foot, bored with a hole and used as a Whistle 102 
 
 60. Staff of Authority in Reindeer's Horn, found in the Cave of Perigord . . ib. 
 
 61. Another Staff of Authority in Reindeer's Horn . . . . . . ib. 
 
 62. A Geode, used as a Cooking Vessel (?), found in the Cave of La Madelaine 
 
 (Perigord) joj 
 
 63. Earthen Vase, found in the Cave of Furfooz (Belgium) 104 
 
 64. Sketch of a Mammoth graven on a Slab of Ivory 106 
 
 65. I lilt of a Dagger carved in the Shape of a Reindeer 107 
 
LIST OF PLATES. xv 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 66. Representation of a Stag drawn on a Stag's Horn 168 
 
 67. Representation of some large Herbivorous Animal on a Fragment of Rein- 
 
 deer's Horn ib. 
 
 68. Arts of Drawing and Sculpture during the Reindeer Epoch (whole-page 
 
 engraving). 
 
 69. Representation of an Animal sketched on a Fragment of Reindeer's Horn . 109 
 
 70. Fragment of a Slab of Schist, bearing the Representation of some Animal, 
 
 and found in the Cave of Les Eyzies . ib. 
 
 71. A kind of Harpoon of Reindeer's Horn carved in the Shape of an Animal's 
 
 Head 110 
 
 72. Staff of Authority, on which are graven Representations of a Man, two 
 
 Horses, and a Fish .in 
 
 73. Skull, found at Furfooz by M. Edouard Dupont 114 
 
 74. Skull of an Old Man, found in a Rock- Shelter at Bruniquel. . . -US 
 
 75. A Funeral Ceremony during the Reindeer Epoch (whole-page engraving). 
 
 76. Man of the Polished-stone Epoch (whole-page engraving). 
 
 77. Bone Skewers used as Fish-hooks 134 
 
 78. Fishing-net with wide Meshes . . .136 
 
 79. Stone weight used for sinking the Fishing-nets . . . . . . ib. 
 
 80. Fishing during the Polished-stone Epoch (whole-page engraving). 
 
 81. Flint Knife from one of the Danish Beds 138 
 
 82. Nucleus off which Knives are flaked ib. 
 
 83. Flint Hatchet from one of the Danish Beds ib. 
 
 84. Flint Scraper from one of the Danish Beds . . . . . . ib. 
 
 85. Refuse from the Manufacture of wrought Flints 139 
 
 86. Weight to sink Fishing-nets ib. 
 
 87. Danish Axe of the Polished-stone Epoch 140 
 
 88. Double-edged Axe ib. 
 
 89. Danish Axe-hammer drilled for handle 141 
 
 90. Ditto ib. 
 
 91. Spear-head from Denmark 142 
 
 92. Ditto ib. 
 
 93. Toothed Spear-head of Flint . . . ... . . . . 143 
 
 94. Flint Poniard from Denmark . ib. 
 
 95. Type of the Danish Arrow-head ........ ib. 
 
 96. Another Type of Arrow-head ib. 
 
 97. Arrow-head 144 
 
 98. Arrow-head from Denmark ib. 
 
 99. Flint Chisel from Denmark . ib. 
 
 100. Small Stone Saw from the Danish Deposits 145 
 
 101. Another Stone Saw from Denmark ib. 
 
 102. Bone Harpoon of the Stone Age from Denmark ib. 
 
 103. Bone Comb from Denmark . . . . , . . . . 146 
 
 104. Necklace and Various Ornaments of Amber ib. 
 
 105. Nucleus in the Museum of Saint-Germain, from the Workshop of Grand- 
 
 Pressigny 148 
 
 106. Polisher from Grand Pressigny, both faces being shown . . . .150 
 
 107. The earliest Manufacture and Polishing of Flints (whole-page engraving). 
 
 1 08. Polisher found by M. Leguay 154 
 
 109. Spear-head from Spiennes 158 
 
xvi LIST OF PLA TES. 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 no. Polished Jade Hatchet in the Museum of Saint-Germain . . . .159 
 in. Polished Flint Hatchet with a Sheath of Stag's Horn fitted for a Handle . 161 
 
 112. Flint Hatchet ficted into a Stag's-horn Sheath having an Oak Handle, from 
 
 Boucher de Perthes' Illustration 162 
 
 113. Hatchet Handle made of Oak 163 
 
 1 14. Stag's-horn Sheath open at each end, so as to receive two Hatchets . . ib. 
 
 115. Polished Flint Hatchet, from Belgium, fitted into a Stag's-horn Sheath . ib, 
 
 116. Gardening Tool made of Stag's Horn (after Boucher de Perthes). . . 164 
 
 117. Ditto ib. 
 
 118. Ditto 165 
 
 119. Flint Tool in a Bone Handle 166 
 
 120. Flint Tool with Bone Handle ib. 
 
 121. Ornamented Bone Handle ....#. 
 
 122. Necklace made of Boars' Tusks longitudinally divided . . . .167 
 
 123. Flint Knife from the Peat Bogs near Antwerp . . . . . .168 
 
 124. Primitive Corn Mill . . 170 
 
 125. The Art of Bread Making in the Stone Age (whole-page engraving). 
 
 126. The Earliest Navigators (whole-page engraving). 
 
 127. The Earliest Regular Conflicts between Men of the Stone Age ; or, The 
 
 Entrenched Camp of Furfooz (whole-page engraving). 
 
 128. Flint Arrow-head from Civita-Nova (Italy) 180 
 
 129. The Borreby Skull 182 
 
 130. Danish Dolmen. 185 
 
 131. Dolmen at Assies (Department of Lot) . ib. 
 
 132. Dolmen at Connere (Marne) 186 
 
 J 33' Vertical Section of the Dolmen of Lockmariaker, in Brittany. In the 
 
 Museum of Saint-Germain ib. 
 
 134. Tumulus-Dolmen at Gavr'inis (Morbihan) . . . . . . .187 
 
 135. A portion of the Dolmen of Gavr'inis . . . . . . . ib. 
 
 136. General Form of a covered Passage-Tomb 188 
 
 137. Passage-Tomb at Bagneux, near Saumur ib. 
 
 138. Passage Tomb at Plauharmel (Morbihan) 189 
 
 139. Passage-Tomb, the so-called Table de Cesar, at Lockmariaker (Morbihan) . ib. 
 
 140. A Danish Tumulus or chambered Sepulchre . . . . . .190 
 
 141. Usual Shape of a Menhir 191 
 
 142. The Rows of Menhirs at Carnac ib. 
 
 143. Dolmen with a Circuit of Stones (Cromlech) in the Province of Con- 
 
 stantine 192 
 
 144. Group of Danish Cromlechs ......... ib. 
 
 145. Position of Skeletons in a Swedish Tomb of the Stone Age . . . 194 
 
 146. A Tumulus of the Polished-stone Epoch (whole -page engraving). 
 
 147. A Founder's Workshop during the Bronze Epoch (whole-page engraving). 
 
 148. Section of the Tenevtire of Hauterive 220 
 
 149. A Swiss Lake Village of the Bronze Epoch (whole-page engraving). 
 
 150. Vertical Section of a Crannoge in the Ardakillin Lake .... 230 
 
 151. Vertical Section of the Marniera of Castione 233 
 
 152. Floor of the Marniera of Castione 234 
 
 153. Plan of the Piles and Cross-beams in the Marniera of Castione . . . ib. 
 
 154. The Chase during the Bronze Epoch (whole-page engraving). 
 
 155. Stone Hatchet from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland . . . 241 
 
LIST OF PLATES. xvii 
 
 FIG. VAGE 
 
 156. Stone Chisel with Stag's-horn Handle, from the Lacustrine Habitations of 
 
 Switzerland 241 
 
 157. Flint Hammer fitted with a Stag's-horn Handle 242 
 
 158. Stone Hatchet with Double Handle of Wood and Stag's Horn . . . ib. 
 
 159. 1 60. Serpentine Hatchet-Hammers from the Lacustrine Habitations of 
 
 Switzerland 243 
 
 161. Another Hatchet-Hammer from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland ib. 
 
 162. Flint Saw fitted into a Piece of Stag's Horn 244 
 
 163. Flint Spear-head from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland . . ib. 
 
 164. Various Shapes of Flint Arrow-heads from the Lacustrine Settlements of 
 
 Switzerland . ib. 
 
 165. Arrow-head of Bone fixed on the Shaft by means of Bitumen . . . 245 
 
 1 66. Stone Arrow-head fixed on the Shaft by means of Bitumen . . . ib. 
 
 167. Arrow-head fixed on the Shaft by a Ligature of String .... ib. 
 
 1 68. Bone Bodkin, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland . . . 246 
 
 169. Ditto ib. 
 
 1 70. Carpenter's Chisel, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland . . ib. 
 
 171. Bone Needle ib. 
 
 172. Pick-axe of Stag's Horn 247 
 
 173. Harpoon made of Stag's Horn, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzer- 
 
 land ib. 
 
 174. Ditto ib. 
 
 175. Vessel made of Stag's Horn ib. 
 
 1 76. Bronze Winged Hatchet, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland . 249 
 
 177. Winged Hatchet (front and side view), from the Lacustrine Habitations of 
 
 Switzerland ............ ib. 
 
 178. Socketed Hatchets, from the Lacustrine Habitations ib. 
 
 179. Knife Hatchet (front and side view), from the Lacustrine Habitations. . ib. 
 
 1 80. Carpenter's Chisel, in Bronze 250 
 
 181. Hexagonal Hammer . ib. 
 
 182. Knife with a Tang to fit into a Handle, from the Lacustrine Settlements of 
 
 Switzerland ib. 
 
 183. Socketed Knife, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland . . .251 
 
 184. Bronze Sickle, found by M. Desor at Chevroux ib. 
 
 185. Bronze Fish-hook, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland . . 252 
 
 186. Double Fish-hook, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland . . ib. 
 
 187. Hair-pin, found by M. Desor in one of the Swiss Lakes .... 253 
 
 188. Ditto . . ib. 
 
 189. Hair-pin with Cylindrical Head ib. 
 
 190. Hair-pin with Curled Head ib. 
 
 191. Bronze Bracelet, found in one of the Swiss Lakes 254 
 
 192. Another Bronze Bracelet 255 
 
 193. Bronze Ring ib. 
 
 194. Bronze Pendant, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland . . 256 
 
 195. Another Bronze Pendant, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland . ib. 
 
 196. Bronze Ring, from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland . . . ib. 
 
 197. Another Ornamental Ring ......... ib. 
 
 198. Earthenware Vessel with Conical Bottom, from the Lacustrine Habitations 
 
 of Switzerland 259 
 
 199. Earthen Vessel placed on its Support ib. 
 
xviii LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 FIG. 1'AGE 
 
 200. Fragment of an Earthen Vessel with a Handle . . . . . . 259 
 
 201. Vessel of Baked Clay, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland . 260 
 
 202. Ditto ib. 
 
 203. Cloth of the Bronze Age, found in the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzer- 
 
 land 262 
 
 204. The first Weaver (whole-page engraving). 
 
 205. Spindle-whorls, made of Baked Clay, found in the Lacustrine Settlements 
 
 of Switzerland 263 
 
 206. Principal Designs for the Ornamentation of Pottery during the Bronze 
 
 Epoch 264 
 
 207. The Cultivation of Gardens during the Bronze Epoch (whole-page en- 
 
 graving). 
 
 208. A Feast during the Bronze Epoch (whole-page engraving). 
 
 209. Bronze Sword in the Museum of Neuchatel 272 
 
 210. Bronze Dagger, found in one of the Swiss Lakes . . . . . ib. 
 
 211. Bronze Spear-head, found in one of the Swiss Lakes 273 
 
 212. Bronze Arrow-head, found in a Lacustrine Settlement of Switzerland . . ib. 
 
 213. Scandinavian Sword. .......... 274 
 
 214. Hilt of a Scandinavian Sword ib. 
 
 215. Mode of fixing the Handle to a Scandinavian Hatchet .... ib. 
 
 216. Another Mode of fixing the Handle to a Scandinavian Hatchet . . . ib. 
 
 217. Danish Bronze Knife of the Bronze Epoch 275 
 
 218. Ditto ib. 
 
 219. Blade of a Danish Razor of the Bronze Epoch 276 
 
 220. Woollen Cloak of the Bronze Epoch, found in 1861 in a Tomb in Den- 
 
 mark 277 
 
 221. Woollen Shawl, found in the same Tomb ib. 
 
 222. Woollen Shirt, taken from the same Tomb 278 
 
 223. First Woollen Cap, found in the same Tomb . . . . . . ib. 
 
 224. Second Woollen Cap, found in the same Tomb ib. 
 
 225. Bronze Comb, found in the same Tomb . . . . . . . ib. 
 
 226. Warriors during the Bronze Epoch (whole-page engraving). 
 
 227. Bronze Hatchet Mould, found in Ireland 279 
 
 228. Stone Crescent, found in one of the Swiss Lakes 280 
 
 229. Skull found at Meilen, Front View 289 
 
 230. Skull found at Meilen, Profile View ........ ib. 
 
 231. Primitive Furnace for Smelting Iron (whole-page engraving). 
 
 232. Bronze Coin, from the Lake of Neuchatel .310 
 
 233. Sword, from the Tombs of Hallstadt (with a Bronze Hilt and Iron Blade). 313 
 
 234. Ditto ib. 
 
 235. Dagger, from the Tombs of Hallstadt (Bronze Handle and Iron Blade) . 314 
 
 236. Ditto ib. 
 
 237. Funeral Ceremonies during the Iron Epoch (whole-page engraving). 
 
 238. A Skeleton, portions of which have been burnt, from the Tombs of 
 
 Hallstadt 315 
 
 239. A Necklace with Pendants, from the Tombs of Hallstadt . . , . 316 
 
 240. Bracelet, from the Tombs of Hallstadt 317 
 
 241. Ditto ib. 
 
 242. Bronze Vase, from the Tombs of Hallstadt ib. 
 
 243. Ditto ib. 
 
LIST OF PLATES. xix 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 244. Warriors of the Iron Epoch (whole-page engraving). 
 
 245, 246. Fore-arm encircled with Bracelets, found in the Tombs of Belleville 
 
 (Savoy) 319 
 
 247. Iron Sword, found in one of the Swiss Lakes 321 
 
 248. Sword with Damascened Blade, found in one of the Swiss Lakes . . ib. 
 
 249. Sheath of a Sword, found in one of the Swiss Lakes ..... 322 
 
 250. Lance-head, found in one of the Swiss Lakes ...... 323 
 
 251. Head of a Javelin, found in the Lacustrine Settlement of La Tene 
 
 (Neuchatel) 324 
 
 252. The Chase during the Iron Epoch (whole-page engraving). 
 
 253. Square-socketed Iron Hatchet, found in one of the Lakes of Switzerland . 325 
 
 254. Sickle . . ib. 
 
 255. Scythe, from the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland .... 326 
 
 256. Iron Point of Boat-hook, used by the Swiss Boatmen during the Iron 
 
 Epoch ib, 
 
 257. Horse's Bit, found in the Lake of Neuchatel ib. 
 
 258. Fibula, or Iron Brooch, found in the Lake of Neuchatel .... 327 
 
 259. Iron Buckle for a Sword-belt, found in the Lake of Neuchatel . . . 328 
 
 260. Iron Pincers, found in the Lake of Neuchatel . ib. 
 
 261. Iron Spring-scissors, found in the Lake of Neuchatel ib. 
 
 262. Razor 329 
 
 263. Agriculture during the Iron Epoch (whole-page engraving). 
 
PRIMITIVE MAN. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 FORTY years have scarcely elapsed since scientific men first began 
 to attribute to the human race an antiquity more remote than that 
 which is assigned to them by history and tradition. Down to a 
 comparatively recent time the appearance of primitive man was 
 not dated back beyond a period of 6000 to 7000 years. This his- 
 torical chronology was a little unsettled by the researches made 
 among various eastern nations the Chinese, the Egyptians, and 
 the Indians. The savants who studied these ancient systems of 
 civilisation found themselves unable to limit them to the 6000 
 years of the standard chronology, and extended back for some 
 thousands of years the antiquity of the eastern races. 
 
 This idea, however, never made its way beyond the narrow 
 circle of oriental scholars, and did nothing towards any alteration 
 in the general opinion, which allowed only 6000 years since the 
 creation of the human species. 
 
 This opinion was confirmed, and, to some extent, rendered 
 sacred by an erroneous interpretation of Holy Writ. It was thought 
 that the Old Testament stated that man was created 6000 years 
 ago. Now the fact is, nothing of the kind can be found in the Book 
 of Genesis. It is only the commentators and the compilers of chro- 
 nological systems who have put forward this date as that of the first 
 appearance of the human race. M. Edouard Lartet, who was called 
 in 1869 to the chair of palaeontology in the Museum of Natural 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 History of Paris, reminds us, in the following passage taken from 
 one of his elegant dissertations, that it is the chronologists alone 
 who have propounded this idea, and that they have, in this re- 
 spect, very wrongly interpreted the statements of the Bible : 
 
 " In Genesis" says M. Lartet, " no date can be found which sets 
 a limit to the time at which primitive mankind may have made its 
 first appearance. Chronologists, however, for fifteen centuries have 
 been endeavouring to make Biblical facts fall in with the precon- 
 certed arrangements of their systems. Thus we find that more than 
 140 opinions have been brought forward as to the date of the crea- 
 tion alone, and that between the varying extremes there is a dif- 
 ference of 3 194 years a difference which only applies to the period 
 between the commencement of the world and the birth of Jesus 
 Christ. This disagreement turns chiefly on those portions of the 
 interval which are in closest proximity to the creation. 
 
 " From the moment when it becomes a recognised fact that the 
 origin of mankind is a question independent of all subordination to 
 dogma, this question will assume its proper position as a scientific 
 thesis, and will be accessible to any kind of discussion, and capable, 
 in every point of view, of receiving the solution which best har- 
 monises with the known facts and experimental demonstrations."* 
 
 Thus we must not assume that the authority of Holy Writ is 
 in any way questioned by those labours which aim at seeking the 
 real epoch of man's first appearance on the earth. 
 
 In corroboration of M. Lartet's statement, we must call to mind 
 that the Catholic church, which has raised to the rank of dogma 
 so many unimportant facts, has never desired to treat in this way 
 the idea that man was created only 6000 years ago. 
 
 There is, therefore, no need for surprise when we learn that cer- 
 tain members of the Catholic clergy have devoted themselves with 
 energy to the study of pre-historic man. Mgr. Meignan, Bishop of 
 Chalons-sur-Marne, is one of the best-informed men in France as 
 respects this new science ; he cultivates it with the utmost zeal, and 
 his personal researches have added much to the sum of our know- 
 ledge of this question. Under the title of " Le Monde et 1'Homme 
 
 * " Nouvelles Recherches sur la Coexistence de 1'Homme et des grands Mammi- 
 feres Fossiles reputes caracteristiques de la derniere periode geologique," by Ed. 
 Lartet, " Annales des Sciences Naturelles," 4th ser. vol. XY. p. 256. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 Primitif selon la Bible/'* the learned Bishop of Chalons-sur- 
 Marne published, in 1869, a voluminous work, in which, taking 
 up the subjects discussed by Marcel de Serres in his " Cosmogonie 
 de Moi'se, comparee aux Faits Geologiques," ( and enlarging 
 upon the facts which science has recently acquired as to the sub- 
 ject of primitive man, he seeks to establish the coincidence of all 
 these data with the records of Revelation. 
 
 M. 1'Abbe Lambert has recently published a work on 
 "L'Homme Primitif et la Bible,"J in which he proves that the 
 discoveries of modern science concerning the antiquity of man 
 are in no way opposed to the records of Revelation in the Book 
 of Moses. 
 
 Lastly, it is a member of the clerical body, M. 1'Abbe Bourgeois, 
 who, more a royalist than the king that is, more advanced in his 
 views than most contemporary geologists is in favour of tracing 
 back to the tertiary epoch the earliest date of the existence of 
 man. We shall have to impugn this somewhat exaggerated 
 opinion, which, indeed, we only quote here for the sake of proving 
 that the theological scruples which so long arrested the progress 
 of inquiry with regard to primitive man, have now disappeared, in 
 consequence of the perfect independence of this question in 
 relation to Catholic dogma being evidently shown. 
 
 Thanks to the mutual support which has been afforded by the 
 three sister-sciences geology, palaeontology, and archaeology; 
 thanks to the happy combinations which these sciences have pre- 
 sented to the efforts of men animated with an ardent zeal for the 
 investigation of the truth ; and thanks, lastly, to the unbounded 
 interest which attaches to this subject, the result has been that 
 the limits which had been so long attributed to the existence of 
 the human species have been extraordinarily extended, and the 
 date of the first appearance of man has been carried back to the 
 night of the darkest ages. The mind, it may well be said, recoils 
 dismayed when it undertakes the computation of the thousands 
 of years which have elapsed since the creation of man. 
 
 * i vol. Svo, Paris, 1869 ; V. Palme. 
 
 f 2 vols. 121110, 3rd edit, Paris, 1859 ; Lagny freres. 
 
 J Pamphlet, Svo, Paris, 1869 ; Savy. 
 
4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 But, it will naturally be asked, on what grounds do you base 
 this assertion ? What evidence do you bring forward, and what 
 are the elements of your proof ? 
 
 In the following paragraphs we give some of the principal 
 means of examination and study which have directed the efforts 
 of savants in this class of investigation, and have enabled them to 
 create a science of the antiquity of the human species. 
 
 If man existed at any very remote epoch, he must have left 
 traces of his presence in the spots which he inhabited and on the 
 soil which he trod under his feet. However savage his state may 
 be assumed to have been, primitive man must have possessed 
 some implements of fishing and hunting some weapons where- 
 with to strike down any prey which was stronger or more agile 
 than himself. All human beings have been in possession of some 
 scrap of clothing ; and they have had at their command certain 
 implements more or less rough in their character, be they only a 
 shell in which to draw water or a tool for cleaving wood and con- 
 structing some place of shelter, a knife to cut their food, and a 
 lump of stone to break the bones of the animals which served for 
 their nutriment. Never has man existed who was not in 
 possession of some kind of defensive weapon. These implements 
 and these weapons have been patiently sought for, and they have 
 also been found. They have been found in certain strata of the 
 earth, the age of which is known by geologists ; some of these 
 strata precede and others are subsequent to the cataclysm of the 
 European deluge of the quaternary epoch. 
 
 The fact has thus been proved that a race of men lived upon 
 the earth at the epoch settled by the geological age of these strata 
 that is, during the quaternary epoch. 
 
 When this class of evidence of man's presence that is, the 
 vestiges of his primitive industry fails us, a state of things, how- 
 ever, which comparatively seldom occurs, his existence is sometimes 
 revealed by the presence of human bones buried in the earth and 
 preserved through long ages by means of the deposits of cal- 
 careous salts which have petrified or rather fossilised them. 
 Sometimes, in fact, the remains of human bones have been 
 found in quaternary rocks, which are, consequently, considerably 
 anterior to those of the present geological epoch. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 This means of proof is, however, more difficult to bring forward 
 than the preceding class of evidence ; because human bones are 
 very liable to decay when they are buried at shallow depths, and 
 require for any length of preservation a concurrence of cir- 
 cumstances which is but rarely met with ; because also the tribes 
 of primitive men often burnt their dead bodies ; and, lastly, 
 because the human race then formed but a very scanty popu- 
 lation. 
 
 Another excellent proof, which demonstrates the existence of 
 man at a geological epoch anterior to the present era, is to be 
 deduced from the intermixture of human bones with those of 
 antediluvian animals. It is evident that if we meet with the 
 bones of the mammoth, the cave-bear, the cave-tiger, &c. 
 animals which lived only in the quaternary epoch and are now 
 extinct in conjunction with the bones of man or the relics of 
 his industry, such as weapons, implements, utensils, &c., we can 
 assert with some degree of certainty that our species was con- 
 temporaneous with the above-named animals. Now this inter- 
 mixture has often been met with under the ground in caves or 
 deeply buried in the earth. 
 
 These form the various kinds of proof which have been made 
 use of to establish the fact of man's presence upon the earth 
 during the quaternary epoch. We will now give a brief recital of 
 the principal investigations which have contributed to the know- 
 ledge on which is based the newly-formed science which treats 
 of the practical starting-point of mankind. 
 
 Palaeontology, as a science, does not count more than half a 
 century of existence. We scarcely seem, indeed, to have raised 
 more than one corner of the veil which covers the relics of an 
 extinct world ; as yet, for instance, we know absolutely nothing 
 of all that sleeps buried in the depths of the earth lying under 
 the basin of the sea. It need not, therefore, afford any great 
 ground for surprise that so long a time elapsed before human 
 bones or the vestiges of the primitive industry of man were 
 discovered in the quaternary rocks. This negative result, how- 
 ever, always constituted the chief objection against the very 
 early origin of our species. 
 
 The errors and deceptions which were at first encountered 
 
6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 tended perhaps to cool down the zeal of the earlier naturalists, 
 and thus retarded the solution of the problem. It is a well- 
 known story about the fossil salamander of the GEningen quarries, 
 which, on the testimony of Scheuchzer, was styled, in 1726, the 
 "human witness of the deluge" (homo diluvii testis}. In 1787, 
 Peter Camper recognised the fact that this pretended pre-Adamite 
 was nothing but a reptile ; this discomfiture, which was a source 
 of amusement to the whole of scientific Europe, was a real 
 injury to the cause of antediluvian man. By the sovereign 
 ascendancy of ridicule, his existence was henceforth relegated to 
 the domain of fable. 
 
 The first step in advance was, however, taken in 1774. Some 
 human bones, mingled with remains of the great bear and other 
 species then unknown, were discovered by J. F. Esper, in the 
 celebrated cavern of Gailenreuth, in Bavaria. 
 
 Even before this date, in the early part of the eighteenth, 
 century, Kemp, an Englishman, had found in London, by the 
 side of elephants' teeth, a stone hatchet, similar to those which 
 have been subsequently found in great numbers in various parts 
 of the world. This hatchet was roughly sketched, and the 
 design published in 1715. The original still exists in the 
 collection at the British Museum; 
 
 In 1797, John Frere, an English archaeologist, discovered at 
 Hoxne, in Suffolk, under strata of quaternary rocks, some flint 
 weapons intermingled with bones of animals belonging to extinct 
 species. Esper concluded that these weapons and the men who 
 made them were anterior to the formation of the beds in which 
 they were found. 
 
 According to M. Lartet, the honour of having been the first 
 to proclaim the high antiquity of the human species must be 
 attributed to Aime" Boue, a French geologist residing in Ger- 
 many. In 1823, he found in the quaternary loam (loess) of the 
 Valley of the Rhine some human bones which he presented to 
 Cuvier and Brongniart as those of men who lived in the 
 quaternary epoch. 
 
 In 1823, Dr. Buckland, the English geologist, published his 
 " Reliquiae Diluvianae," a work which was principally devoted to- 
 a description of the Kirkdale Cave, in which the author com- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 bined all the facts then known which tended in favour of the 
 coexistence of man and the antediluvian animals. 
 
 Cuvier, too, was not so indisposed as he is generally said to 
 have been, to admit the existence of man in the quaternary 
 epoch. In his work on " Ossements Fossiles," and his "Discours 
 sur les Revolutions du Globe," the immortal naturalist discusses 
 the pros and cons with regaid to this question, and, notwith- 
 standing the insufficiency of the data which were then forthcoming, 
 he felt warranted in saying : 
 
 " I am not inclined to conclude that man had no existence at 
 all before the epoch of the great revolutions of the earth. . . . 
 He might have inhabited certain districts of no great extent, 
 whence, after these terrible events, he repeopled the world ; per- 
 haps also, the spots where he abode were swallowed up, and his 
 bones lie buried under the beds of the present seas." 
 
 The confident appeals which have been made to Cuvier's 
 authority against the high antiquity of man are, therefore, not 
 justified by the facts. 
 
 A second and more decisive step in advance was taken by the 
 discovery of shaped flints and other implements belonging to 
 primitive man, existing in diluvial beds. 
 
 In 1826, M. Tournal, of Narbonne, a French archaeologist and 
 geologist, published an account of the discoveries which he had 
 made in a cave in the department of Aude, in which he found 
 bones of the bison and reindeer fashioned by the hand of man, 
 accompanied by the remains of edible shell-fish, which must have 
 been brought there by men who had made their residence in 
 this cave. 
 
 Three years afterwards, M. de Christol, of Montpellier, subse- 
 quently Professor in the University of Science of Grenoble, found 
 human bones intimately mixed up with remains of the great bear, 
 hyaena, rhinoceros, &c., in the caverns of Pondres and Souvignar- 
 gues (Herault). In the last of these caverns fragments of pottery 
 formed a part of the relics. 
 
 All these striking facts were put together and discussed by 
 Marcel de Serres, Professor in the University of Science at 
 Montpellier, in his " Essai sur les Cavernes." 
 
 The two bone-caverns of Engis and Enghihoul (Belgium) have 
 
8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 furnished proofs of the same kind. In 1833, Schmerling, a learned 
 Belgian geologist, discovered in these caverns two human skulls, 
 mixed with the teeth of the rhinoceros, elephant, bear, hyaena, 
 &c. The human bones were rubbed and worn away like those 
 of the animals. The bones of the latter presented, besides, traces 
 of human workmanship. Lastly, as if no evidence should be 
 wanting, flints, chipped to form knives . and arrow-heads, were 
 found in the same spot. 
 
 In connection with his laborious investigations, Schmerling 
 published a work which is now much esteemed, and proves that 
 the Belgian geologist well merited the title of being the founder 
 of the science of the antiquity of man. In this work Schmerling 
 describes and represents a vast quantity of objects which had 
 been discovered in the caverns of Belgium, and introduced to 
 notice the human skull which has since become so famous under 
 the name of the Engis skull. But at that time scientific men of 
 all countries were opposed to this class of ideas, and thus the 
 discoveries of the Belgian geologist attracted no more attention 
 than those of his French brethren who had brought forward facts 
 of a similar nature. 
 
 In 1835, M. Joly, at that time Professor at the Lyceum of 
 Montpellier where I (the author) attended on his course of 
 Natural History now Professor in the Faculty of Sciences at 
 Toulouse, found in the cave of Nabrigas (Lozere) the skull of a 
 cave-bear, on which an arrow had left its evident traces. Close 
 by was a fragment of pottery bearing the imprints of the fingers 
 of the man who moulded it. 
 
 We may well be surprised that in the face of all these previous 
 discoveries, Boucher de Perthes, the ardent apostle in proclaim- 
 ing the high antiquity of our species, should have met with 
 so much opposition and incredulity ; or that he should have had 
 to strive against so much indifference, when, beginning with the 
 year 1836, he began to maintain this idea in a series of commu- 
 nications addressed to the Societe d'Emulation of Abbeville. 
 
 The horizontal strata of the quaternary beds, known under the 
 name of diluvial, form banks of different shades and material, 
 which place before our eyes in indelible characters the ancient 
 history of our globe. The organic remains which are found in 
 
INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 them are those of beings who were witnesses to the diluvial cata- 
 clysm, and perhaps preceded it by many ages. 
 
 " Therefore," says the prophet of Abbeville, " it is in these ruins 
 of the old world, and in the deposits which have become his sole 
 archives, that we must seek out the traditions of primitive man ; 
 and in default of coins and inscriptions we must rely on the 
 rough stones which, in all their imperfection, prove the existence 
 of man no less surely than all the glory of a Louvre. 
 
 Strong in this conviction, M. Boucher de Perthes devoted him- 
 self ardently to the search in the diluvial beds, either for the bony 
 relics of man, or, at all events, for the material indications of his 
 primitive industry. In the year 1838 he had the honour of 
 submitting to the Societe d'Emulation, at Abbeville, his first 
 specimens of the antediluvian hatchet. 
 
 In the course of the year 1839, Boucher de Perthes took these 
 hatchets to Paris and showed them to several members of the 
 Institute. MM. Alexandre Brongniart, Flourens, Elie de Beau- 
 mont, Cordier, and Jomard, gave at first some encouragement to 
 researches which promised to be so fruitful in results ; but this 
 favourable feeling was not destined to last long. 
 
 These rough specimens of wrought flint, in which Boucher de 
 Perthes already recognised a kind of hatchet, presented very 
 indistinct traces of chipping, and the angles were blunted ; their 
 flattened shape, too, differed from that of the polished hatchets, 
 the only kind that were then known. It was certainly neces- 
 sary to see with the eyes of faith in order to discern the traces 
 of man's work. "I," says the Abbeville archaeologist, "had 
 these 'eyes of faith,' but no one shared them with me." He 
 then made up his mind to seek for help in his labour, and 
 trained workmen to dig in the diluvial beds. Before long he 
 was able to collect, in the quaternary beds at Abbeville, twenty 
 specimens of flint evidently wrought by the hand of man. 
 
 In 1842 the Geological Society of London received a communi- 
 cation from Mr. Godwin Austen, who had found in Kent's Hole 
 various wrought objects, accompanied by animal remains, which 
 must have remained there since the deluge. 
 
 In 1844 appeared Lund's observations on the caverns of Brazil. 
 
 Lund explored as many as 800 caves. In one of them, 
 
io INTRODUCTION. 
 
 situated not far from the lake of Semidouro, he found the bones 
 of no less than thirty individuals of the human species, showing 
 a similar state of decomposition to that of the bones of animals 
 which were along with them. Among these animals were an 
 ape, various carnivora, rodents, pachyderms, sloths, &c. From 
 these facts, Lund inferred that man must have been contem- 
 poraneous with the megatherium, the mylodon, &c., animals 
 which characterised the quaternary epoch. 
 
 Nevertheless, M. Desnoyers, librarian of the Museum of Natural 
 History at Paris, in a very learned article on " Grottos and 
 Caverns," published in 1845 in the " Dictionnaire Universel 
 d'Histoire Naturelle," still energetically expressed himself in 
 opposition to the hypothesis of the high antiquity of man. But 
 the discoveries continued to go on, and, at the present time, 
 M. Desnoyers himself figures among the partisans of the ante- 
 diluvian man. He has even gone beyond their opinions, as he 
 forms one among those who would carry back to the tertiary 
 epoch the earliest date of the appearance of our species. 
 
 In 1847, M'Enery found in Kent's Hole, a cavern in England, 
 under a layer of stalagmite, the remains of men and antediluvian 
 animals mingled together. 
 
 The year 1847 was also marked by the appearance of the first 
 volume of the "Antiquites Celtiques et Antediluviennes," by 
 Boucher de Perthes ; this contained about 1600 plates of the 
 objects which had been discovered in the excavations which the 
 author had caused to be made since the year 1836. 
 
 The strata at Abbeville, where Boucher de Perthes carried out 
 his researches, belong to the quaternary epoch. 
 
 Dr. Rigollot, who had been for ten years one of the most 
 decided opponents of the opinions of Boucher de Perthes, 
 actually himself discovered in 1854 some wrought flints in the 
 quaternary deposits at Saint-Acheul, near Amiens, and it was 
 not long before he took his stand under the banner of the 
 Abbeville archaeologists. 
 
 Thefatma of the Amiens deposits is similar to that of the 
 Abbeville beds. The lower deposits of gravel, in which the 
 wrought flints are met with, have been formed by fresh water, 
 and have not undergone either alteration or disturbance. The 
 
INTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 flints wrought by the hand of man which have been found in 
 them, have in all probability lain there since the epoch of the 
 formation of these deposits an epoch a little later than the 
 diluvial period. The number of wrought flints which have been 
 taken out of the Abbeville beds is really immense. At Menche- 
 court, in twenty years, about 100 well-characterised hatchets 
 have been collected ; at Saint-Gilles, twenty very rough, and as 
 many well-made ones; at Moulin-Quignon, 150 to 200 well- 
 formed hatchets. 
 
 Similar relics of primitive industry have been found also in 
 other localities. In 1853, M. Noulet discovered some in the 
 Infernat Valley (Haute-Garonne) ; in 1858, the English geologists, 
 Messrs. Prestwich, Falconer, Pengelly, &c., also found some in 
 the lower strata of the Baumann cavern in the Hartz. 
 
 To the English geologists whose names we have just mentioned 
 must be attributed the merit of having been the first to bring 
 before the scientific world the due value of the labours of Boucher 
 de Perthes, who had as yet been unsuccessful in obtaining any 
 acceptation of his ideas in France. Dr. Falconer, Vice-president 
 of the Geological Society in London, visited the department of 
 the Somme in order to study the beds and the objects found in 
 them. After him Messrs. Prestwich and Evans came three times 
 to Abbeville in the year 1859. They all brought back to England 
 a full conviction of the antiquity and intact state of the beds 
 explored, and also of the existence of man before the deluge of 
 the quaternary epoch. 
 
 In another journey, made in company with Messrs. Flower, 
 Mylne, and Godwin Austen, Messrs. Prestwich, Falconer, and 
 Evans were present at the digging out of human bones and flint 
 hatchets from the quarries of Saint-Acheul. Lastly, Sir C. Lyell 
 visited the spot, and the English geologist, who, up to that time, 
 had opposed the idea of the existence of antediluvian man, was 
 able to say, Veni, vidi, victus fui! At the meeting of the British 
 Association at Aberdeen, September the 1 5th, 1855, Sir C. Lyell 
 declared himself to be in favour of the existence of quaternary- 
 man ; and this declaration, made by the President of the Geo- 
 logical Society of London, added considerable weight to the new 
 ideas. 
 
12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 M. Hebert, Professor of Geology at the Sorbonne, next took 
 his stand under the same banner. 
 
 M. Albert Gaudry, another French geologist, made a statement 
 to the Academy of Sciences, that he, too, had found flint hatchets, 
 together with the teeth of horses and fossil oxen, in the beds of 
 the Parisian diluvium. 
 
 During the same year M. Gosse, the younger, explored the 
 sand-pits of Crenelle and the avenue of La Mothe-Piquet in 
 Paris, and obtained from them various flint implements, mingled 
 with the bones of the mammoth, fossil ox, &c. 
 
 Facts of a similar character were established at Precy-sur-Oise, 
 and in the diluvial deposits at Giviy. 
 
 The Marquis de Vibraye, also, found in the cave of Arcy 
 various human bones, especially a piece of a jaw-bone, mixed 
 with the bones of animals of extinct species. 
 
 In 1859, M. A. Fontan found in the cave of Massat (Depart- 
 ment of Ariege), not only utensils testifying to the former pre- 
 sence of man, but also human teeth, mixed up with the remains 
 of the great bear (Ursus spelczus), the fossil hyaena (Hyena spelcea), 
 and the cave-lion (Felis spelced). 
 
 In 1 86 1, M. A. Milne Edwards found in the cave of Lourdes 
 (Tarn) certain relics of human industry by the side of the bones 
 of fossil animals. 
 
 The valleys of the Oise and the Seine have also added their 
 contingent to the supply of antediluvian remains. In the sand- 
 pits in the environs of Paris, at Grenelle, Levallois-Perret, and 
 Neuilly, several naturalists, including MM. Gosse, Martin, and 
 Reboux, found numerous flint implements, associated, in certain 
 cases, with the bones of the elephant and hippopotamus. In the 
 valley of the Oise, at Precy, near Creil, MM. Peigne Delacour 
 and Robert likewise collected a few hatchets. 
 
 Lastly, a considerable number of French departments, especially 
 those of the north and centre, have been successfully explored. 
 We may mention the departments of Pas-de-Calais, Aisne, 
 Loire-et-Cher, Indre-et-Loire, Vienne, Allier, Yonne, Saone-et- 
 Loire, Herault, Tarn-et-Garonne, &c. 
 
 In England, too, discoveries were made of an equally valuable 
 character. The movement which was commenced in France by 
 
INTRODUCTION. 13 
 
 Boucher de Perthes, spread in England with remarkable rapidity. 
 In many directions excavations were made which produced 
 excellent results. 
 
 In the gravel beds which lie near Bedford, Mr. Wyatt met with 
 flints resembling the principal types of those of Amiens and Abbe- 
 ville ; they were found in company with the remains of the 
 mammoth, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, ox, horse, and deer. 
 Similar discoveries were made in Suffolk, Kent, Hertfordshire, 
 Hampshire, Wiltshire, &c. 
 
 Some time after his return from Abbeville, Mr. Evans, going 
 round the museum of the Society of Antiquaries in London, found 
 in their rooms some specimens exactly similar to those in the 
 collection of Boucher de Perthes. On making inquiries as to 
 their origin, he found that they had been obtained from the 
 gravel at Hoxne by Mr. Frere, who had collected them there, 
 together with the bones of extinct animals, all of which he had 
 presented to the museum, after having given a description of 
 them in the " Archaeologia " of 1800, with this remark: .... 
 "Fabricated and used by a people who had not the use of metals 
 .... The situation in which these weapons were found may 
 tempt us to refer them to a very remote period indeed, even 
 beyond that of the present world." 
 
 Thus, even at the commencement of the present century, they 
 were in possession, in England, of proofs of the coexistence of 
 man with the great extinct pachyderms ; but, owing to neglect 
 of the subject, scarcely any attention has been paid to them. 
 
 We now come to the most remarkable and most characteristic 
 discoveries of this class which have ever been made. We allude 
 to the explorations made by M. Edouard Lartet, during the year 
 1860, in the curious pre-historic human burial-place at Aurignac 
 (Haute-Garonne). 
 
 Going down the kill on the road leading from Aurignac, after 
 proceeding about a mile, we come to the point where, on the other 
 side of the dale, the ridge of the hill called Fajoles rises, not more 
 than sixty-five feet above a rivulet. We then may notice, on the 
 northern slope of this eminence, an escarpment of the rock, by 
 the side of which there is a kind of niche about six feet deep, the 
 arched opening of it facing towards the north-west. This little 
 
14 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 cave is situated forty-two feet above the rivulet. Below, the 
 calcareous soil slopes down towards the stream. 
 
 The discovery of this hollow, which is now cleared out, was 
 made entirely by chance. It was hidden by a mass of debris of 
 rock and vegetable earth which had crumbled down ; it had, 
 in fact, only been known as a rabbits' hole. In 1842, an exca- 
 vating labourer, named Bonnemaison, took it into his head one 
 day to thrust his arm into this hole, and out of it he drew forth 
 a large bone. Being rather curious to search into the mystery, 
 he made an excavation in the slope below the hole, and, after 
 some hours' labour, came upon a slab of sandstone which closed up 
 an arched opening. Behind the slab of stone, he discovered a 
 hollow in which a quantity of human bones were stored up. 
 
 It was not long before the news of this discovery was spread far 
 and wide. Crowds of curious visitors flocked to the spot, and many 
 endeavoured to explain the origin of these human remains, the 
 immense antiquity of which was attested by their excessive fra- 
 gility. The old inhabitants of the locality took it into their heads 
 to recall to recollection a band of coiners and robbers, who, half a 
 century before, had infested the country. This decidedly popular 
 inquest and decision was judged perfectly satisfactory, and every- 
 one agreed in declaring that the cavern which had justbeen brought 
 to light was nothing but the retreat of these malefactors, who con- 
 cealed all the traces of their crimes by hiding the bodies of their 
 victims in this cave, which was known to these criminals only. 
 
 Doctor Amiel, Mayor of Aurignac, caused all these bones to be 
 collected together, and they were buried in the parish cemetery. 
 Nevertheless, before the re-inhumation was proceeded with, he re- 
 corded the fact that the skeletons were those of seventeen indivi- 
 duals of both sexes. In addition to these skeletons, there were 
 also found in the cave a number of little discs, or flat rings, formed 
 of the shell of a species of cockle (cardium). Flat rings altogether 
 similar to these are not at all unfrequent in the necklaces and 
 other ornaments of Assyrian antiquity found in Nineveh. 
 
 Eighteen years after this event that is, in 1860 M. Edouard 
 Lartet paid a visit to Aurignac. All the details of the above- 
 named discovery were related to him. After the long interval 
 which had elapsed, no one, not even the grave-digger himself, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 could recollect the precise spot where these human remains had 
 been buried in the village cemetery. These precious relics were 
 therefore lost to science. 
 
 M. Lartet resolved, however, to set on foot some excavations 
 in the cave from which they had been taken, and he soon found 
 himself in possession of unhoped-for treasures. The floor of the 
 cavern itself had remained intact, and was covered with a layer 
 of "made ground" mixed with fragments of stone. Outside this 
 same cave M. Lartet discovered a bed of ashes and charcoal, 
 which, however, did not extend to the interior. This bed was 
 covered with " made ground " of an ossiferous and vegetable 
 character. Inside the cave, the ground contained bones of the 
 bear, the fox, the reindeer, the bison, the horse, &c., all inter- 
 mingled with numerous relics of human industry, such as 
 implements made of stag or reindeer's horn, carefully pointed 
 at one end and bevelled off at the other a pierced handle 
 of reindeer's horn flint knives and weapons of different kinds ; 
 lastly, a canine-tooth of a bear, roughly carved in the shape of a 
 bird's head, and pierced with a hole, &c. 
 
 The excavations having been carried to a lower level, brought 
 to light the remains of the bear, the wild-cat, the cave-hyaena, 
 the wolf, the mammoth, the horse, the stag, the reindeer, the ox, 
 the rhinoceros, &c. &c. It was, in fact, a complete Noah's ark. 
 These bones were all broken lengthwise, and some of them were 
 carbonised. Stria and notches were found on them, which could 
 only have been made by cutting instruments. 
 
 M. Lartet, after long and patient investigations, came to the 
 conclusion that the cave of Aurignac was a human burial-place, 
 contemporary with the mammoth, the Rhinocerus tichorhinus, 
 and other great mammals of the quaternary epoch. 
 
 The mode in which the long bones were broken shows that 
 they had been cracked with a view of extracting the marrow ; 
 and the notches on them prove that the flesh had been cut off 
 them with sharp instruments. The ashes point to the existence 
 of a fire, in which some of these bones had been burnt. Men 
 must have resorted to this cavern in order to fulfil certain funereal 
 rites. The weapons and animals' bones must have been deposited 
 there in virtue of some funereal dedication, of which numerous 
 
16 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 instances are found in Druidical or Celtic monuments and in 
 Gallic tombs. 
 
 Such are the valuable discoveries, and such the new facts 
 which were the result of the investigations made by M. Edouard 
 Lartet in the cave of Aurignac. In point of fact, they left no 
 doubt whatever as to the coexistence of man with the great 
 antediluvian animals. 
 
 In 1862, Doctor Felix Garrigou, of Tarrascon, a distinguished 
 geologist, published the results of the researches which he, in 
 conjunction with MM. Rames and Filhol, had made in the 
 caverns of Ariege. These explorers found the lower jaw-bones 
 of the great bear, which, with their sharp and projecting canine- 
 teeth, had been employed by man as an offensive weapon, almost 
 in the same way as Samson used the jaw-bone of an ass in 
 fighting with the Philistines. 
 
 " It was principally," says M. Garrigou, " in the caves of Lom- 
 brives, Lherm, Bouicheta, and Maz-d'Azil that we found the 
 jaw-bones of the great bear and the cave-lion, which were 
 acknowledged to have been wrought by the hand of man, not 
 only by us, but also by the numerous French and English 
 savants who examined them and asked for some of them to 
 place in their collections. The number of these jaw-bones now 
 reaches to more than a hundred. Furnished as they are with 
 an immense canine-tooth, and carved so as to give greater 
 facility for grasping them, they must have formed, when in a 
 fresh state, formidable weapons in the hands of primitive 
 man 
 
 " These animals belong to species which are now extinct, and 
 if their bones while still in a fresh state (since they were gnawed 
 by hyaenas) were used as weapons, man must have been contem- 
 porary with them." 
 
 In the cave of Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne), which was visited 
 in 1862 by MM. Garrigou and Filhol, and other savants, there 
 were found, under a very hard osseous breccia, an ancient fire- 
 hearth with ashes and charcoal, the broken and calcined bones of 
 ruminants of various extinct species, flint flakes used as knives, 
 facetted nuclei, and both triangular and quadrangular arrow- 
 heads of great distinctness, utensils in stags' horn and bone in 
 
INTRODUCTION. 17 
 
 short, everything which could prove the former presence of 
 primitive man. 
 
 About three-quarters of a mile below the cave there was sub- 
 sequently found, at a depth of about twenty feet, an osseous 
 breccia similar to the first, and likewise containing broken bones 
 and a series of ancient fire-hearths filled with ashes and objects 
 of antediluvian industry. Bones, teeth, and flints were to be 
 collected in bushels. 
 
 At the commencement of 1863, M. Garrigou presented to the 
 Geological Society of France the objects which had been found 
 in the caves of Lherm and Bouicheta, and the Abbe Bourgeois 
 published some remarks on the wrought flints from the dihwi-um 
 of Pontlevoy. 
 
 This, therefore, was the position of the question in respect to 
 fossil man, when, in 1863, the scientific world .were made 
 acquainted with the fact of the discovery of a human jaw-bone 
 in the diluvial beds of Moulin-Quignon, near Abbeville. We 
 will relate the circumstances attending this memorable discovery. 
 
 On the 23rd of March, 1863, an excavator who was working 
 in the sand-quarries at Moulin-Quignon brought to Boucher de 
 Perthes at Abbeville, a flint hatchet and a small fragment of 
 bone which he had just picked up. Having cleaned off the 
 earthy coat which covered it, Boucher de Perthes recognised this 
 bone to be a human molar. He immediately visited the spot, 
 and assured himself that the locality where these objects had 
 been found was an argilo-ferruginous vein, impregnated with 
 some colouring matter which appeared to contain organic 
 remains. This layer formed a portion of a virgin bed, as it is 
 called by geologists, that is, without any infiltration or secondary 
 introduction. 
 
 On the 28th of March another excavator brought to Boucher de 
 Perthes a second human tooth, remarking at the same time, " that 
 something resembling a bone was just then to be seen in the sand.'' 
 Boucher de Perthes immediately repaired to the spot, and in the 
 presence of MM. Dimpre the elder and younger, and several 
 members of the Abbeville Societe d' Emulation, he personally ex- 
 tracted from the soil the half of a human lower jaw-bone, covered 
 with an earthy crust. A few inches from this, a flint hatchet 
 
 c 
 
i8 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 was discovered, covered with the same black patina as the jaw- 
 bone. The level where it was found was about fifteen feet below 
 the surface of the ground. 
 
 After this event was duly announced, a considerable number 
 of geologists flocked to Abbeville, about the middle of the month 
 of April. The Abbe Bourgeois, MM. Brady-Buteux, Carpenter 
 Falconer, &c., came one after the other, to verify the locality from 
 which the human jaw-bone had been extracted. All were fully 
 convinced of the intact state of the bed and the high antiquity 
 of the bone which had been found. 
 
 Boucher de Perthes also discovered in the same bed of gravel 
 two mammoth's teeth, and a certain number of wrought hatchets. 
 Finally, he found among the bones which had been taken from 
 
 Fig. i. Human Jaw-bone found at Moulin-Quignon, near Abbeville, in 1863. 
 
 the Menchecourt quarries in the early part of April, a fragment 
 of another jaw-bone and six separate teeth, which were recognised 
 by Dr. Falconer to be also human. 
 
 The jaw-bone found at Moulin-Quignon is very well preserved. 
 It is rather small in size, and appears to have belonged to an aged 
 individual of small stature. It does not possess that ferocious 
 aspect which is noticed in the jaw-bones of certain'of the existing 
 human races. The obliquity of the molar-tooth may be explained 
 by supposing some accident, for the molar which stood next had 
 
INTRODUCTION. 19 
 
 fallen out during the lifetime of the individual, leaving a gap 
 which favoured the obliquity of the tooth which remained in the 
 jaw. This peculiarity is found also in several of the human heads 
 in the collection of the Museum of Natural History in Paris. 
 
 The jaw-bone of the man of Moulin-Quignon, which is repre- 
 sented here (Fig. i) in its natural size, and drawn from the object 
 itself, which is preserved in the Anthropological Gallery of the 
 Museum of Natural History of Paris, does not show any decided 
 points of difference when compared with those of individuals of 
 existing races. 
 
 The same conclusion was arrived at as the result of the com- 
 parative examination which was made of the jaw-bones found by 
 MM. Lartet and De Vibraye in the caves of Aurignac and Arcy ; 
 the latter remains were studied by M. Quatrefages in conjunction 
 with Pruner-Bey, formerly physician to the Viceroy of Egypt, 
 and one of the most distinguished French anthropologists. 
 
 On the 2Oth of April, 1863, M. de Quatrefages announced to 
 the institute the discovery which had been made by Boucher de 
 Perthes, and he presented to the above-named learned body the 
 interesting object itself, which had been sent from Abbeville. 
 
 When the news of this discovery arrived in England it pro- 
 duced no slight sensation. 
 
 Some of the English savants who had more specially devoted 
 their attention to the study of this question, such as Messrs. Christy, 
 Falconer, Carpenter, and Busk, went over to France, and in con- 
 junction with Boucher de Perthes and several members of the 
 Academic des Sciences of Paris, examined the exact locality in 
 which the hatchets and human jaw-bone had been found ; they 
 unanimously agreed in recognising the correctness of the conclu- 
 sions arrived at by the indefatigable geologist of Abbeville.* 
 
 This discovery of the hatchets and the human jaw-bone in the 
 quaternary beds of Moulin-Quignon completed the demonstration 
 of an idea already supported by an important mass of evidence. 
 Setting aside its own special value, this discovery, added to so 
 
 * It should rather have been said, that the ultimate and well-considered judgment 
 of the English geologists was against the authenticity of the Moulin-Quignon jaw. 
 See Dr. Falconer's ' * Palseontological Memoirs," vol. ii. p. 610 ; and Sir C. Lyell's 
 "Antiquity of Man," 3rd eel. p. 515. (Note to Eng. Trans.) 
 
20 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 many others, could not fail to carry conviction into most minds. 
 From this time forth the doctrine of the high antiquity of the 
 human race became an acknowledged idea in the scientific world. 
 
 Before closing our historical sketch, we shall have to ask, what 
 was the precise geological epoch to which we shall have to carry 
 back the date of man's first appearance on this our earth. 
 
 The beds which are anterior to the present period, the series of 
 which forms the solid crust of our globe, have been divided, as is 
 well known, into five groups, corresponding to the same number 
 of periods of the physical development of the earth. These are 
 in their order of age : the primitive rocks, the transition rocks, 
 the secondary rocks, the tertiary and quaternary rocks. Each of 
 these epochs must have embraced an immense lapse of time, 
 since it has radically exhausted .the generation both of animals 
 and plants which was peculiar to it. Some idea may be formed 
 of the extreme slowness with which organic creatures modify 
 their character, when we take into consideration that our con- 
 temporary fauna, that is to say, the collection of animals of every 
 country which belong to the geological period in which we exist, 
 has undergone little, if any, alteration during the thousands of 
 years that it has been in being. 
 
 Is it possible for us to date the appearance of the human race 
 in those prodigiously remote epochs which correspond with the 
 primitive, the transition, or the secondary rocks ? Evidently no ! 
 Is it possible, indeed, to fix this date in the epoch of the tertiary 
 rocks ? Some geologists have fancied that they could find traces 
 of the presence of man in these tertiary rocks (the miocene and 
 pliocene). But this is an opinion in which we, at least, cannot 
 make up our minds to agree. 
 
 In 1863, M. Desnoyers found in the upper strata of the tertiary 
 beds (pliocene) at Saint-Prest, in the department of Eure, certain 
 bones belonging to various extinct animal species ; among others 
 those of an elephant (Elephas meridionalis], an animal which did 
 not form a part of the quaternary fauna. On most of these 
 bones he ascertained the existence of cuts, or notches, which, in 
 his opinion, must have been produced by flint implements. These 
 indications, according to M. Desnoyers, are signs of the existence 
 of man in the tertiary epoch. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 21 
 
 This opinion, however, Sir Charles Lyell hesitates to accept. 
 Moreover, we could hardly depend upon an accident so insignifi- 
 cant as that of a few cuts or notches made upon a bone in order 
 to establish a fact so important as that of the high antiquity of 
 man. We must also state that it is a matter of question whether 
 the beds which contained these notched bones really belonged to 
 the tertiary group. 
 
 The beds which correspond to the quaternary epoch are, there- 
 fore, those in which we find unexceptionable evidence of the 
 existence of man. Consequently, in the quaternary epoch which 
 preceded the existing geological period, we must place the date 
 of the first appearance of mankind upon the earth. 
 
 If the purpose is entertained of discussing, with any degree of 
 certainty, the history of the earliest days of the human race a 
 subject which as yet is a difficult one it is requisite that the long 
 interval should be divided into a certain number of periods. 
 The science of primitive man is one so recently entered upon, 
 that those authors who have written upon the point can hardly 
 be said to have properly discussed and agreed upon a rational 
 scheme of classification. We shall, in this work, adopt the 
 classification proposed by M. Edouard Lartet, which, too, has 
 been adopted in that portion of the museum of Saint-Germain 
 which is devoted to pre-historic antiquities. Following this 
 course, we shall divide the history of primitive mankind into two 
 great periods : 
 
 ist. The Stone Age; 
 
 2nd. The Metal Age. 
 
 These two principal periods must also be subdivided in the fol- 
 lowing mode. The " Stone Age " will embrace three epochs : 
 
 1st. The epoch of extinct animals (or of the great cave-bear 
 and the mammoth). 
 
 2nd. The epoch of migrated existing animals (or the reindeer 
 epoch). 
 
 3rd. The epoch of domesticated existing animals (or the 
 polished-stone epoch). 
 
 The " Metal Age " may also be divided into two periods : 
 
 ist. The Bronze Epoch ; 
 
 2nd. The Iron Epoch. 
 
22 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The following synoptical table will perhaps bring more clearly 
 before the eyes of our readers this mode of classification, which 
 has, at least, the merit of enabling us to make a clear and simple 
 statement of the very incongruous facts which make up the 
 history of primitive man : 
 
 1st. Epoch of extinct animals (or of the great bear and mam- 
 moth). 
 
 2nd. Epoch of migrated existing animals (or the reindeer 
 epoch). 
 
 3rd. Epoch of domesticated existing animals (or the polished- 
 stone epoch). 
 
 THE METAL AGE. } Ist The Bronze Epoch. 
 2nd. The Iron Epoch. 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
THE STONE AGE. 
 
 I. 
 
 THE EPOCH OF EXTINCT SPECIES OF ANIMALS; OR, OF THE 
 GREAT SEAR AND MAMMOTH. 
 

CHAPTER I. 
 
 The earliest Men The type of Man in the Epoch of Animals of Extinct Species 
 Origin of Man Refutation of the Theory which derives the Human Species from 
 the Ape. 
 
 MAN must have lived during the time in which the last repre-^ 
 sentatives of the ancient animal creation the mammoth, the 
 great bear, the cave-hyaena, the Rhinoceros tichorldmis, &c. were 
 still in existence. It is this earliest period of man's history which 
 we are now about to enter upon. 
 
 We have no knowledge of a precise nature with regard to man \ 
 at the period of his first appearance on the globe. How did he 
 appear upon the earth, and in what spot can we mark out the 
 earliest traces of him ? Did he first come into being in that part 
 of the world which we now call Europe, or is it the fact that he 
 made his way to this quarter of our hemisphere, having first seen 
 the light on the great plateaux of Central Asia ? 
 j This latter opinion is the one generally accepted. In the work 
 which will follow the present volume we shall see, when speaking 
 of the various races of manj that the majority of naturalists admit 
 nowadays one common centre of creation for all mankind. Man, 
 no doubt, first came into being on the great plateaux of Central 
 Asia, and thence was distributed over all the various habitable 
 portions of our globe. The action of climate, and the influences 
 of the locality which he inhabited have, therefore, determined 
 the formation of the different races white, black, yellow, and 
 red which now exist, with all their infinite subdivisions. 
 
 But there is another question which arises, to which it is neces- 
 sary to give an immediate answer, for it has been and is incessantly 
 agitated with a degree of vehemence which may be explained by 
 the nature of the discussion being of so profoundly personal a 
 
26 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 character as regards all of us : Was man created by God complete 
 in all parts, and is the human type independent of the type of the 
 animals which existed before him ? Or, on the contrary, are we 
 compelled to admit that man, by insensible transformations, and 
 gradual improvements and developments, is derived jfrom some 
 other animal species, and particularly that of the ape ? 
 
 This latter opinion was maintained at the commencement of the 
 present century by the French naturalist, de Lamarck, who laid 
 down his views very plainly in his work, entitled, " Philosophic 
 Zoologique." The same theory has again been taken up in our 
 own time, and has been developed, with no small supply of facts 
 on which it might appear to be based, by a number of scientific 
 men, among whom we may mention Professor Carl Vogt in 
 Switzerland, and Professor Huxley in England. 
 
 We strongly repudiate any doctrine of this kind. In endeavour- 
 ing to establish the fact that man is nothing more than a developed 
 and improved ape, an orang-outang or a gorilla, somewhat elevated 
 in dignity, the arguments are confined to an appeal to anatomical 
 considerations. The skull of the ape is compared with that of 
 primitive man, and certain characteristics of analogy, more or less 
 real, being found to exist between the two bony cases, the conclu- 
 sion has been arrived at that there has been a gradual blending 
 between the type of the ape and that of man. 
 
 We may observe, in the first place, that these analogies have been 
 very much exaggerated, and that they fail to stand their ground in 
 the face of a thorough examination of the facts. Only look at the 
 skulls which have been found in the tombs belonging to the Stone 
 Age, the so-called Borreby skull for instance examine the human 
 jaw-bone from Moulin-Quignon, the Meilen skull, &c., and you will 
 be surprised to see that they differ very little in appearance from 
 the skulls of existing man. One would really imagine, from what 
 is said by the partisans of "Lamarck's theory, that primitive man 
 possessed the projecting jaw of the ape, or at least that of the negro. 
 We are astonished, therefore, when we ascertain that, on the con- 
 trary, the skull of the man of the Stone Age is almost entirely 
 similar in appearance to those of the existing Caucasian species. 
 Special study is, indeed, required in order to distinguish one from 
 the other. 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 
 
 27 
 
 ;If we place side by side the skull of a man belonging to the 
 Sferie Age, and the skulls of the principal apes of large size, 
 these dissimilarities cannot fail to be obvious. No other elements 
 of comparison, beyond merely looking at them, seem to be 
 requisite to enable us to refute the doctrine of this debased origin 
 of mankind. 
 
 The figure annexed represents the skull of a man belonging to 
 the Stone Age, found in Denmark ; to this skull, which is known 
 by the name of the Borreby skull, we shall have to allude again 
 in the course of the present work : Fig. 3 represents the skull of a 
 
 Fig. 2. Skull of a Man belonging to the Stone Age (the Borreby Skiilt). 
 
 gorilla; Fig. 4 that of an orang-outang; Fig. 5 that of the Cynoce- 
 pliahts ape ; Fig. 6 that of the Macacus. Place the representation 
 of the skull found in Denmark in juxtaposition with these ill- 
 favoured animal masks, and then let the reader draw his own 
 inference, without pre-occupying his mind with the allegations of 
 certain anatomists imbued with contrary ideas. 
 
 Finding themselves beaten as regards the skulls, the advocates 
 of transmutation next appeal to the bones. With this aim they 
 exhibit to us certain similarities of arrangement existing between 
 
28 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 the skeleton of the ape and that of primitive man. Such, for 
 instance, is the longitudinal ridge which exists on the thigh-bone, 
 which is as prominent in primitive man as in the ape. Such, also, 
 is the fibula, which is very stout in primitive man, just as in the 
 ape, but is rather slender in the man of the present period. 
 
 Fig. 3. Skull of Gorilla. 
 
 When we are fully aware how the form of the skeleton is 
 modified by the kind of life which is led, in men just as in animals, 
 we cannot be astonished at finding that certain organs assume a 
 
 Fig. 4. Skull of the Orang-Outang. 
 
 much higher development in those individuals who put them to 
 frequent and violent use, than in others who leave these same 
 organs in a state of comparative repose. 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 29 
 
 ;_If it be a fact that the man of the epoch of the great bear and 
 the mammoth had a more robust leg and a more largely developed 
 thigh-bone than most of the races of existing man, the reason 
 simply is, that his savage life, which was spent in the midst of the 
 wild beasts of the forest, compelled him to make violent exertions, 
 which increased the size of these portions of his body./ 
 
 Fig. 5. Skull of the Cynocephalus Ape. 
 
 Thus it is found that great walkers have a bulky calf, and per- 
 sons leading a sedentary life have slender legs. These variations 
 in the structure of the skeleton are owing, therefore, to nothing 
 but a difference in the mode of life.^ 
 
 Why is it, however, that the skeleton is the only point taken 
 into consideration when analogies are sought for between man 
 
 Fig. 6. Skull of the Macacus Baboon. 
 
 and any species of animal ? If equal investigation were given 
 to other organs, we shouldT arrive at a conclusion which would 
 prove how unreasonable comparisons of this kind are. In fact, 
 if man possesses the osseous structure of the ape, he has also the 
 anatomical structure of many other animals, as far as regards 
 
30 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 several organs. Are not the viscera of the digestive system the 
 same, and are they not organised on the same plan in man as in 
 the carnivorous animals ? As the result of this, would you say 
 that man is derived from the tiger, that he is nothing but an im- 
 proved and developed lion, a cat transmuted into a man ? We 
 may, however, just as plausibly draw this inference, unless we 
 content ourselves with devoting our attention to the skeleton 
 alone, which seems, indeed, to be the only part of the individual in 
 which we are to interest ourselves, for what reason we know not. 
 
 But, in point of fact, this kind of anatomy is pitiable. Is there 
 nothing in man but bones ? Do the skeleton and the viscera 
 make up the entire sum of the human being ? What will you say, 
 then, ye blind rhetoricians, about the faculty of intelligence as 
 manifested in the gift of speech ? Intelligence and speech, these 
 are really the attributes which constitute man ; these are the 
 qualities which make him the most complete being in creation, 
 and the most privileged of God's creatures. Show me an ape who 
 can speak, and then I will agree with you in recognising it as a 
 fact that man is nothing but an improved ape ! Show me an ape 
 who can make flint hatchets and arrow-heads, who can light a fire 
 and cook his food, who, in short, can act like an intelligent crea- 
 ture then, and then only, I am ready to confess that I am 
 nothing more than an orang-outang revised and corrected. 
 
 It is not, however, our desire to speak of a question which has 
 been the subject of so much controversy as that of the anatomical 
 resemblance between the ape and the man without thoroughly 
 entering into it ; we have, indeed, no wish to shun the discussion 
 of the point. _Qn the present occasion, we shall appeal to the 
 opinion of a savant perfectly qualified in such matters; we allude 
 to M. de Quatrefages, Professor of Anthropology in the Museum 
 of Natural History at Paris^J 
 
 M. de Quatrefages, in his work entitled "Rapport sur le Progres 
 de lAnthropologie," published in 1868, has entered rather fully 
 into the question whether man is descended from the ape or not. 
 He has summed up the contents of a multitude of contemporary 
 works on this subject, and has laid down his opinion the perfect 
 impossibility, in an anatomical point of view, of this strange and 
 repugnant genealogy. / 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 31 
 
 The following extract from his work will be sufficient to make 
 our readers acquainted with the ideas of the learned Professor 
 of Anthropology with regard to the question which we are now 
 considering : 
 
 " Man and apes in general," says M. de Quatrefages, " present 
 a most striking contrast a contrast on which Vicq-d'Azyr, Law- 
 rence, and M. Serres have dwelt in detail for some considerable 
 time past. The former is a walking animal, who walks upon his 
 hind legs ; all apes are climbing animals. The whole of the loco- 
 motive system in the two groups bears the stamp of these two very 
 different intentions ; the two types, in fact, are perfectly distinct. 
 
 " The very remarkable words of Duvernoy on the ' Gorilla,' 
 and of MM. Gratiolet and Alix on the ' Chimpanzee/ have fully 
 confirmed this result as regards the anthropomorphous apes a 
 result very important, from whatever point of view it is looked 
 at, but of still greater value to any one who wishes to apply 
 logically Darwin's idea. These recent investigations prove, in 
 fact, that the ape type, however highly it may be developed, 
 loses nothing of its fundamental character, and remains always 
 perfectly distinct from the type of man ; the latter, therefore, 
 cannot have taken its rise from the former. 
 
 " Darwin's doctrine, when rationally adapted to the fact of the 
 appearance of man, would lead us to the following results : 
 
 "We are acquainted with a large number of terms in the Simian 
 series. We see it branching out into secondary series all leading 
 up to anthropomorphous apes, which are not members of one and 
 the same family, but corresponding superior terms of three distinct 
 families (Gratiolet). In spite of the secondary modifications 
 involved by the developments of the same natural qualities, the 
 orang, the gorilla, and the chimpanzee remain none the less 
 fundamentally mere apes and climbers (Duvernoy, Gratiolet, and 
 Alix). Man, consequently, in whom everything shows that he is 
 a walker, cannot belong to any one of these series ; he can only 
 be the higher term of a distinct series, the other representatives 
 of which have disappeared, or up to the present time have evaded 
 our search. Man and the anthropomorphous apes are the final 
 terms of two series, which commence to diverge at the very latest 
 as soon as the lowest of the apes appear upon the earth. 
 
32 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 "This is really the way in which a true disciple of Darwin 
 must reason, even if he solely took into account the external 
 morphological characteristics and the anatomical characte- 
 ristics which are the expression of the former in the adult 
 animal. 
 
 " Will it be said that when the degree of organisation mani- 
 fested in the anthropomorphous apes had been once arrived at, 
 the organism underwent a new impulse and became adapted for 
 walking ? This would be, in fact, adding a fresh hypothesis, and 
 its promoters would not be in a position to appeal to the organised 
 gradation presented by the quadrumanous order as a whole on 
 which stress is laid as leading to the conclusion against which I 
 am contending : they would be completely outside Darwin's 
 theory, on which these opinions claim to be based. 
 
 " Without going beyond these purely morphological considera- 
 tions, we may place side by side, for the sake of comparison, as 
 was done by M. Pruner-Bey, the most striking general charac- 
 teristics in man and in the anthropomorphous apes. As the 
 result, we ascertain this general fact that there exists 'an 
 inverse order of the final term of development in the sensitive 
 and vegetative apparatus, in the systems of locomotion and 
 reproduction' (Pruner-Bey). 
 
 " In addition to this, this inverse order is equally exhibited in 
 the series of phenomena of individual development. 
 
 " M. Pruner-Bey has shown that this is the case with a portion 
 of the permanent teeth. M. Welker, in his curious studies of 
 the sphenoidal angle of Virchow, arrived at a similar result. He 
 demonstrated that the modifications of the base of the skull, that 
 is, of a portion of the skeleton which stands in the most intimate 
 relation to the brain, take place inversely in the man and ape. 
 This angle diminishes from his birth in man, but, on the contrary, 
 in the ape it becomes more and more obtuse, so as sometimes to 
 become entirely extinct. 
 
 " But there is also another fact which is of a still more im- 
 portant character : it is that this inverse course of development 
 has been ascertained to exist even in the brain itself. This fact, 
 which was pointed out by Gratiolet, and dwelt upon by him 
 on various occasions, has never been contested either at the 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 33 
 
 Socitte d' Anthropologic or elsewhere, and possesses an importance 
 and significance which may be readily comprehended. 
 
 " In man and the anthropomorphous ape, when in an adult state, 
 there exists in the mode of arrangement of the cerebral folds a 
 certain similarity on which much stress has been laid ; but this 
 resemblance has been, to some extent, a source of error, for the 
 result is attained by an inverse course of action. In the ape, the 
 temporo-sphenoidal convolutions, which form the middle lobe, 
 make their appearance, and are completed, before the anterior 
 convolutions which form the frontal lobe. In man, on the 
 contrary, the frontal convolutions are the first to appear, and 
 those of the middle lobe are subsequently developed. 
 
 "It is evident that when two organised beings follow an inverse 
 course in their growth, the more highly developed of the two 
 cannot have descended from the other by means of evolution. 
 
 Li.' Embryology next adds its evidence to that of anatomy and 
 morphology, to show how much in error they are who have 
 fancied that Darwin's ideas would afford them the means of 
 maintaining the simial origin of man/) 
 
 " In the face of all these facts, it maybe easily understood that 
 anthropologists, however little in harmony they may sometimes 
 be on other points, are agreed on this, and have equally been led 
 to the conclusion that there is nothing that permits us to look at 
 the brain of the ape as the brain of man smitten with an arrest 
 of development, or, on the other hand, the brain of man as a 
 development of that of the ape (Gratiolet) ; that the study of 
 animal organism in general, and that of the extremities in parti- 
 cular, reveals, in addition to a general plan, certain differences in 
 shape and arrangement which specify two altogether special and 
 distinct adaptations, and are incompatible with the idea of any 
 filiation (Gratiolet and Alix) ; that in their course of improve- 
 ment and development, apes do not tend to become allied to 
 man, and conversely the human type, when in a course of 
 degradation, does not tend to become allied to the ape (Bert) ; 
 finally, that no possible point of transition can exist between 
 man and the ape, unless under the condition of inverting the laws 
 of development (Pruner-Bey), &c. 
 
 " What, we may ask, is brought forward by the partisans of the 
 
34 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 simial origin of man in opposition to these general facts, which 
 here I must confine myself to merely pointing out, and to the 
 multitude of details of which these are only the abstract ? 
 
 " I have done my best to seek out the proofs alleged, but I 
 everywhere meet with nothing but the same kind of argument 
 exaggerations of morphological similarities which no one denies ; 
 inferences drawn from a few exceptional facts which are then 
 generalised upon, or from a few coincidences in which the relations 
 of cause and effect are a matter of supposition ; lastly, an appeal 
 to possibilities from which conclusions of a more or less affirma- 
 tive character are drawn. 
 
 " We will quote a few instances of this mode of reasoning. 
 
 " ist. The bony portion of the hand of man and of that of 
 certain anthropomorphous apes present marked similarities. 
 Would it not therefore have been possible for an almost imper- 
 ceptible modification to have ultimately led to identity ? 
 
 " MM. Gratiolet and Alix reply to this in the negative ; for the 
 muscular system of the thumb establishes a profound difference, 
 and testifies to an adaptation to very different uses. 
 
 " 2nd. It is only in man and the anthropomorphous apes that 
 the articulation of the shoulder is so arranged as to allow of rotatory 
 movements. Have we not here an unmistakable resemblance ? 
 
 " The above-named anatomists again reply in the negative; for 
 even if we only take the bones into account, we at once see that 
 the movements could not be the same ; but when we come to the 
 muscular system, we find decisive differences again testifying to 
 certain special adaptations. 
 
 "These rejoinders are correct, for when locomotion is the matter 
 in question, it is evident that due consideration must be paid to 
 the muscles, which are the active agents in that function at least 
 as much as the bones, which only serve as points of attachment 
 and are only passive. 
 
 " 3rd. In some of the races of man, the arch of the skull, in- 
 stead of presenting a uniform curve in the transverse direction, 
 bends a little towards the top of the two sides, and rises towards 
 the median line (New Caledonians, Australians, &c.). It is asked 
 if this is not a preliminary step towards the bony crests which 
 rise in this region in some of the anthropomorphous apes ? 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 35 
 
 " Again we reply in the negative ; for, in the latter, the bony 
 crests arise from the walls of the skull, and do not form any part 
 of the arch. 
 
 ^4th. Is it not very remarkable that we find the orang to be 
 brachycephalous, just like the Malay, whose country it inhabits, 
 and that the gorilla and chimpanzee are dolichocephalous, like 
 the negro ? Is not this fact a reason for our regarding the former 
 animal as the ancestor of the Malays, and the latter of the 
 African nations ? 
 
 " Even if the facts brought forward were correct, the inference 
 which is drawn from them would be far from satisfactory. But 
 the coincidence which is appealed to does not exist. In point of 
 fact, the orang, which is essentially a native of Borneo, lives 
 among the Dyaks and not among the Malays ; now the Dyaks are 
 rather dolichocephalous than brachycephalous. With respect to 
 gorillas being dolichocephalous, they cannot at least be so gene- 
 rally ; as out of three female specimens of this arje which were 
 examined, two were brachycephalous (Pruner-Bey), / 
 - V*5th. The brains of microcephalous individuals present amix- 
 ttrre~"bf human and simial characteristics, and point to some inter- 
 mediate conformation, which was normal at some anterior epoch, 
 but at the present time is only realised by an arrest of develop- 
 ment and a fact of atavism. 
 
 (^Gratiolet's investigations of the brain of the ape, normal man, 
 and small-brained individuals,! have shown that the similarities 
 pointed out are purely fallaciou|^ People have thought that they 
 could detect them, simply because they have not examined closely 
 enough. In the last-named, the human brain is simplified ; but 
 this causes no alteration in t^ie initial plan, and this plan is not 
 that which is ascertained to exist in the ape. Thus Gratiolet has 
 expressed an opinion which no one has attempted to controvert : 
 ' The human brain differs the more from that of the ape the less 
 the former is developed, and an arrest of development could only 
 exaggerate this natural difference. . . . The brains of microcepha- 
 lous individuals, although often less voluminous and less convo- 
 luted than those of the anthropomorphous apes, do not on this 
 account become like the latter. . . . The idiot, however low he may 
 be reduced, is not a beast ; he is nothing but a deteriorated man/ 
 
36 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 " The laws of the development of the brain in the two types, 
 laws which I mentioned before, explain and justify this language ; 
 and the laws of which it is the summary are a formal refutation of 
 the comparison which some have attempted to make between the 
 contracted human brain and the animal brain, however developed. 
 
 " 6th. The excavations which have been made in intact ancient 
 beds have brought to light skulls of ancient races of man, and 
 these skulls present characteristics which approximate them to 
 the skull of the ape. Does not this pithecoid stamp, which is very 
 striking on the Neanderthal skull in particular, argue a transition 
 from one type to another, and consequently filiation ? 
 
 " This argument is perhaps the only one which has been 
 brought forward with any degree of precision, and it is often 
 recurred to. Is it, on this account, more demonstrative ? Let 
 the reader judge for himself. 
 
 " We may, in the first place, remark that Sir C. Lyell does not 
 venture to pronounce affirmatively as to the high antiquity of the 
 human remains discovered by Dr. Fuhlrott, and that he looked 
 upon them, at the most, as contemporary with the Engis skull, in 
 which the Caucasian type of head was reproduced. 
 
 " Let us, however, admit that the Neanderthal skull belongs to 
 the remote antiquity to which it has been assigned ; what, then, 
 is in reality the significance of this skull ? Is it actually a link 
 between the head of the man and that of the ape ? And does it 
 not find some analogy in comparatively modern races ? 
 
 " Many writings have been published on these questions, and, as 
 it appears to me, some light has gradually been thrown upon the 
 subject. There is no doubt that this skull is really remarkable 
 for the enormous size of its superciliary ridges, the length and 
 narrowness of the bony case, the slight elevation of the top of 
 the skull. But these features are found to be much less excep- 
 tional than was at first supposed, in default of any means of insti- 
 tuting a just comparison ; very far, indeed, from justifying the 
 approximation which some have endeavoured to make, this skull 
 is, in all its characteristics, essentially human. Mr. Busk, in 
 England, has pointed out the great affinity which is established, 
 by the prominence of the superciliary ridges and the depression 
 of the upper region, between certain Danish skulls from Borreby 
 
EPiCtf *F EXTINCT ANfMALS. 37 
 
 and the Neanderthal skull. Dr. Barnard Davis has described the 
 still greater similarities existing between this very fossil and a 
 skull in his collection. Gratiolet forwarded to the Museum the 
 skull of an idiot of the present time, which was almost identical 
 with it in everything, although in slighter proportions, &c. 
 
 " The following appears to me to be decisive : 
 
 " In spite of its curious characteristics, the Neanderthal skull 
 "none-the less belonged to an individual, who, to judge by other 
 bones which have been found, diverged but little from the average 
 type of the present Germanic races, and by no means approxi- 
 maed to that of the ape. 
 
 ^Is it probable, proceeding even on the class of ideas which I 
 am opposing, that in a being in a state of transition between 
 man and the anthropomorphous apes, the body would have 
 become entirely human in its character, whilst the head pre- 
 sented its simial peculiarities ? If a fact like this is admitted, 
 -does it not render the hypothesis absolutely worthless ?} 
 
 "Notwithstanding all the discussion to which tnese curious 
 remains have given rise, it appears to me impossible to look upon 
 them in any other light than as the remains of an individuality, 
 exceptional, no doubt, but clearly belonging to the human species, 
 and, in addition to this, to the Celtic race, one of the branches of 
 our Aryan stock. M. Pruner-Bey appears to me to have placed 
 this fact beyond all question by the whole mass of investigations 
 which he has published on this subject. The most convincing 
 proofs are based on the very great similarity which may be noticed 
 in a Celtic skull taken from a tumulus in Poitou to the skull which 
 has become so well known, and, indeed, so celebrated, owing to 
 the writings of Dr. Schaaffhausen. This similarity is not merely 
 external. An internal cast taken from one skull fits perfectly 
 into the interior of the other. It was, therefore, the brains and 
 not merely the skulls which bore a resemblance to one another. 
 The proof appears to me to be complete, and, with the learned 
 author of this work, I feel no hesitation in concluding that the 
 Neanderthal skull is one of Celtic origin. 
 
 "After all, neither experience nor observation have as yet 
 furnished us with the slightest data with regard to man at his 
 earliest origin. Science, therefore, which pretends to solidity of 
 
38 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 character, must put this problem on one side till fresh informa- 
 tion is obtained. We really approach nearer to the truth when 
 we confess our ignorance, than when we attempt to disguise it 
 either to ourselves or others. 
 
 ^ With regard to the simial origin of man, it is nothing but pure 
 hypothesis, or rather nothing but a merejeu cT esprit, which every- 
 thing proves utterly baseless, ai^d in favour of which no solid 
 fact has as yet been appealed to^ 
 
 fin dealing with this question in a more general point of view, 
 we must add that the most enlightened science declares to us in 
 unmistakable accents that species is immutable, and that no 
 animal species can be derived from another ; they may change, 
 but all bear witness to an independent creation. This truth, 
 which has been developed at length by M. de Quatrefages in his 
 numerous works, is a definite and scientific judgment which must 
 decide this question as far as regards any unprejudiced minds. 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 39 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Man in the condition of Savage Life during the Quaternary Epoch The Glacial 
 Period, and its Ravages on the Primitive Inhabitants of the Globe Man in Conflict 
 with the Animals of the Quaternary Epoch The Discovery of Fire The Weapons 
 of Primitive Man Varieties of Flint-hatchets Manufacture of the earliest Pottery 
 Ornamental objects at the Epoch of the Great Bear and the Mammoth. 
 
 AFTER this dissertation, which was necessary to confute the theory 
 which gives such a degrading explanation of our origin, we must 
 contemplate man at the period when he was first placed upon the 
 earth, weak and helpless, in the midst of the inclement and wild 
 nature which surrounded him. 
 
 However much our pride may suffer by the idea;we must con- 
 fess that, at the earliest period of his existence, man could have 
 been but little distinguished from the brute. Care for his natural 
 wants must have absorbed his whole being ; all his efforts must have 
 tended to one sole aim that of insuring his daily subsistence^ - 
 
 At first his only food must have been fruits and roots ; for he had 
 not as yet invented any weapon wherewith to destroy wild animals. 
 If he succeeded in killing any creatures of small size he devoured 
 them in a raw state, and made a covering of their skins to shelter 
 himself against the inclemency of the weather. His pillow was 
 a stone, his roof was the shadow of a wide-spreading tree, or some 
 dark cavern, which also served as a refuge against wild beasts. 
 
 -For how many ages did this miserable state last ? No one can 
 tell. Man is an improvable being, and indefinite progress is the 
 law of his existence. Improvement is his supreme attribute ; and 
 this it is which gives him the pre-eminence over all the creatures 
 which surround him. But how wavering must have been his first 
 steps in advance, and how many efforts must have been given to 
 the earliest creation of his mind and to the first work of his hands 
 doubtless some shapeless attempt in which we nowadays, 
 
40 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 perhaps, should have some difficulty in recognising the work of 
 any intelligent beingj^ 
 
 Towards the commencement of the quaternary epoch, a great 
 natural phenomenon took place in Europe^) Under the influence 
 of numerous and varied causes, which up to the present time have 
 not been fully recognised, a great portion of Europe became 
 covered with ice, on the one hand, making its way from the poles 
 down to the most southern latitudes, and on the other, descending 
 into the plains from the summits of the highest mountain chains. 
 Ice and ice-fields assumed a most considerable extension. As 
 all the lower parts of the continent were covered by the sea, 
 there were only a few plateaux which could afford a refuge to man 
 and animals flying from this deadly cold. Such was the Glacial 
 period, which produced the annihilation of so many generations 
 of animals, and must have equally affected man himself, so ill- 
 defended against this universal and sudden winter. 
 
 Man, however, was enabled to resist the attacks of revolted 
 nature. Without doubt, in this unhappy period, he must have made 
 but little progress, even if his intellectual development \vere not 
 completely stopped. At all events the human species did not perish. 
 The glacial period came to an end, the ice-fields shrank back to 
 their original limits, and Nature reassumed its primitive aspect^ 
 
 When the ice had gradually retired into the more northern 
 latitudes, and had become confined to the higher summits, a new 
 generation of animals another fauna, as naturalists call it made 
 its appearance on the globe. This group of animals, which had 
 newly come into being, differed much from those that had dis- 
 appeared in the glacial cataclysm^/ Let us cast an inquiring 
 glance on these strange and now extinct creatures. 
 
 First we have the mammoth (Elcphas primigcnius} or the 
 woolly-haired and maned elephant, carcases of which were found, 
 entire and in good preservation, in the ice on the coasts of Siberia. 
 Next comes the rhinoceros with a complete nasal septum 
 (Rhinoceros tichorhinus], likewise clad in a warm and soft fur, the 
 nose of which is surmounted with a remarkable pair of horns. 
 Then follow several species of hippopotamus, which come as far 
 north as the rivers of England and Russia ; a bear of great size 
 inhabiting caverns (Ursus spclceus), and presenting a projecting 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 41 
 
 forehead and a large-sized skull ; the cave lion or tiger (Felts 
 spd<zd), which much surpassed in strength the same animals of the 
 existing species ; various kinds of hyaenas (Hycena spclcea), much 
 stronger than those of our epoch ; the bison or aurochs (Biso 
 europceus}, which still exists in Poland ; the great ox, the Urus 
 of the ancients (Bos primigenius} ; the gigantic Irish elk (Megaceros 
 Jiibernicus], the horns of which attained to surprising dimensions. 
 Other animals made their appearance at the same epoch, but 
 they are too numerous to mention ; among them were some of the 
 Rodent family. Almost all these species are now extinct, but 
 man certainly existed in the midst of them. 
 
 The mammoth, elephant, rhinoceros, stag, and hippopotamus 
 were then in the habit of roaming over Europe in immense herds, 
 just as some of these animals still do in the interior of Africa. 
 These animals must have had their favourite haunts spots 
 where they assembled together in thousands ; or else it would be 
 difficult to account for the countless numbers of bones which are 
 found accumulated at the same spot. 
 
 Before these formidable bands, man could dream of nothing 
 but flight. It was only with some isolated animal that he could 
 dare to engage in a more or less unequal conflict. Farther on in 
 our work, we shall see how he began to fabricate some rough 
 weapons with a view of attacking his mighty enemies. 
 
 JThe first important step which man made in the path of pro- 
 gress was the acquisition of fire. In all probability, man came 
 to the knowledge of it by accident, either by meeting with some 
 substance which had been set on fire by lightning or volcanic 
 heat, or by the friction ofpieces of wood setting a light to some 
 very inflammable matteiv"' 
 
 In order to obtain fire, man of the quaternary epoch may have 
 employed the same means as those made use of by the American 
 aborigines, at the time when Christopher Columbus first fell 
 in with them on the shores of the New World means which 
 savage nations existing at the present day still put in practice. 
 He rubbed two pieces of dry wood one against the other, or 
 turned round and round with great rapidity a stick sharpened to 
 a point, having placed the end of it in a hole made in the trunk 
 of a very dry tree (Fig. 7). 
 
42 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 As among the savages of the present day we find certain ele- 
 mentary mechanisms adapted to facilitate the production of fire, 
 it is not impossible that these same means were practised at an 
 early period of the human race. It would take a considerable 
 time to set light to two pieces of dry wood by merely rubbing 
 them against one another ; but if a bow be made use of, that is, 
 the cord of an arc fixed firmly on a handle, so as to give a rapid 
 revolution to a cylindrical rod of wood ending in a point which 
 entered into a small hole made in a board, the board may be set 
 on fire in a few minutes. Such a mode of obtaining fire may 
 have been made use of by the men who lived in the same epoch 
 with the mammoth and other animals, the species of which are 
 now extinct. 
 
 The first rudiments of combustion having been obtained, so as 
 to serve, during the daytime, for the purposes of warmth and 
 cooking food, and during the night, for giving light, how was the 
 fire to be kept up ? Wood from the trees that grew in the district, 
 or from those which were cast up by the currents of the rivers or 
 sea ; inflammable mineral oils ; resin obtained from coniferous 
 trees ; the fat and grease of wild animals ; oils extracted from 
 the great cetaceans all these substances must have assisted in 
 maintaining combustion, for the purposes both of warmth and light. 
 The only fuel which the Esquimaux of the present day have 
 either to warm their huts or light them during the long nights of 
 their gloomy climate, is the oil of the whale and seal, which, 
 burnt in a lamp with a short wick, serves both to cook their food 
 and also to warm and illumine their huts. 
 
 Even, nowadays, in the Black Forest (Duchy of Baden), instead 
 of candles, long splinters of very dry beech are sometimes made 
 use of, which are fixed in a horizontal position at one end and 
 lighted at the other. This forms an economical lamp, which is 
 really not to be despised. 
 
 We have also heard of the very original method which is re- 
 sorted to by the inhabitants of the Faroe Isles in the northern 
 seas of Europe, in order to warm and light up their huts. This 
 method consists in taking advantage of the fat and greasy con- 
 dition of the young Stormy Petrel (Mother Carey's Chicken), so 
 as to convert its body into a regular lamp. All that is necessary 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 43 
 
 is to draw a wick through its body, projecting at the beak, which 
 when lighted causes this really animal candle to throw out an 
 excellent light until the last greasy morsel of the bird is con- 
 sumed. 
 
 This bird is also used by the natives of the isles as a natural 
 fuel to keep up their fires and cook other birds. 
 
 Whatever may have been the means which were made use of by 
 primitive man in order to procure fire, either the simple friction of 
 two pieces of wood one against the other, continued for a long 
 time, the bow, or merely a stick turned round rapidly by the action 
 of the hand, without any kind of mechanism it is certain that 
 the acquisition of fire must be classed amongst the most beautiful 
 and valuable discoveries which mankind has made) Fire must 
 have put an end to the weariness of the long nigHts. In the pre- 
 sence of fire, the darkness of the holes and caverns in which man 
 made his first retreat must have vanished away. With the aid of 
 fire, the most rigorous climates became habitable, and the damp 
 which impregnated the body of man or his rough garments, made 
 of the skin of the bear or some long-haired ruminant, could be 
 evaporated. With fire near them, the danger arising from ferocious 
 beasts must have much diminished ; for a general instinct leads 
 wild animals to dread the light and the heat of a fire. Buried, 
 as they were, in the midst of forests infested with wild beasts, 
 primitive men might, by means of a fire kept alight during the 
 night, sleep in peace without being disturbed by the attacks of 
 the huge wild beasts which prowled about all round them. 
 /Fire, too, gave the first starting-point to man's industry. It 
 afifblrded means to the earliest inhabitants of the earth for 
 felling trees, for procuring charcoal, for hardening wood for the 
 manufacture of their rudimentary implements, and for baking 
 their primitive pottery^ 
 
 Thus, as soon as man had at his disposal the means for pro- 
 ducing artificial heat, his position began to improve, and the 
 kindly flame of the hearth became the first centre round which 
 the family circle was constituted. 
 
 Ere long man felt the need of strengthening his natural powers 
 against the attacks of wild beasts. At the same time he desired 
 to be able to make his prey some of the more peaceable animals, 
 
44 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 such as the stag, the smaller kinds of ruminants, and the horse. 
 Then it was that he began to manufacture weapons. 
 
 He had remarked, spread about the surface of the ground, 
 certain flints, with sharp corners and cutting edges. These he 
 gathered up, and by the means of other stones of a rather 
 tougher nature, he broke off from them pieces, which he fashioned 
 roughly in the shape of a hatchet or hammer. He fixed these 
 splinters into split sticks by way of a handle, and firmly bound 
 them in their places with the tendons of an animal or the strong 
 stalks of some dried plant. With this weapon he could, if he 
 pleased, strike his prey at a distance. 
 
 When man had invented the bow and chipped out flint arrow- 
 heads, he was enabled to arrest the progress of the swiftest 
 animal in the midst of his flight. 
 
 Since the time when the investigations with regard to primitive 
 man have been set on foot in all countries, and have been ener- 
 getically prosecuted, enormous quantities have been found of 
 these chipped flints, arrow-heads, and various stone implements, 
 which archaeologists designate by the common denomination of 
 hatchets, in default of being able, in some cases, to distinguish 
 the special use for which they had been employed. Before going 
 any further, it will be necessary to enter into some details with 
 regard to these flint implements objects which are altogether 
 characteristic of the earliest ages of civilisation. 
 
 For a long time past chipped stones of a somewhat similar 
 character have been met with here and there in several countries, 
 sometimes on the surface of, and sometimes buried deeply in, the 
 ground ; but no one understood what their significance was. If 
 the common people ever distinguished them from ordinary stones, 
 they attached to them some superstitious belief. Sometimes they 
 called them "thunder-stones," because they attributed to them the 
 power of preserving from lightning those who were in possession 
 of them. It was not until the middle of the present century 
 that naturalists and archaeologists began to comprehend the full 
 advantage which might be derived from the examination of these 
 chipped stones, in reconstructing the lineaments of the earliest 
 of the human race, and in penetrating, up to a certain point, into 
 their manners, customs, and industry. These stone-hatchets and 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 45 
 
 arrow-heads are, therefore, very plentiful in the present day in 
 collections of antiquities and cabinets of natural history. 
 
 Most of these objects which are found in Europe are made of 
 flint, and this circumstance may be easily explained. Flint must 
 have been preferred as a material, on account both of its hardness 
 and its mode of cleavage, which may be so readily adapted to the 
 will of the workman. One hard blow, skilfully applied, is suffi- 
 cient to break off, by the mere shock, a sharp-edged flake of a 
 blade-like shape. These sharp-edged blades of silex might serve 
 as knives. Certainly they would not last long in use, for they 
 are very easily notched ; but primitive men must have been 
 singularly skilful in making them. 
 
 Although the shapes of these stone implements are very varied, 
 they may all be classed under a certain number of prevailing 
 types ; and these types are to be found in very different countries. 
 The flint hatchets are at first very simple although irregular in 
 their shape ; but they gradually manifest a much larger amount 
 of talent exhibited in their manufacture, and a better judgment 
 is shown in adapting them to the special uses for which they were 
 intended. The progress of the human intellect is written in 
 ineffaceable characters on these tablets of stone, which, defended 
 as they were by a thick layer of earth, bid defiance to the 
 injuries of time. 
 
 <tet us not despise these first and feeble efforts of our primitive 
 forefathers, for they mark the date of the starting-point of manu- 
 factures and the arts>) If the men of the Stone Age had not per- 
 severed in their efforts, we, their descendants, should never have 
 possessed either our palaces or our masterpieces of painting and 
 sculpture. As Boucher de Perthes says, " The first man who struck 
 one pebble against another to make some requisite alteration in 
 its form, gave the first blow of the chisel which has resulted in 
 producing the Minerva and all the sculpture of the Parthenon." 
 
 Archaeologists who have devoted their energies to investigating 
 the earliest monuments of human industry, have found it necessary 
 to be on their guard against certain errors, or rather wilful decep- 
 tions, which might readily pervert their judgment and deprive 
 their discoveries of all character of authenticity. There is, in fact, 
 a certain class of persons engaged in a deceptive manufacture who 
 
46 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 have taken a delight in misleading archaeologists by fabricating 
 apocryphal flint and stone implements, in which they drive a 
 rather lucrative trade. They assert, without the least scruple, the 
 high antiquity of their productions, which they sell either to in- 
 experienced amateurs, who are pleased to put them in their col- 
 lections duly labelled and ticketed, or which is a more serious 
 matter to workmen who are engaged in making excavations in 
 fossiliferous beds. These workmen hide the fictitious specimens 
 in the soil they are digging, using every requisite precaution so as 
 to have the opportunity of subsequently extracting them and 
 fingering a reward for them from some too trusting naturalist. 
 These imitations are, moreover, so cleverly made, that it some- 
 times requires well-practised eyes to recognise them ; but they 
 may be recognised with some degree of facility by the following 
 characteristics : 
 
 The ancient flints present a glassy surface which singularly 
 contrasts with the dull appearance of the fresh cleavages. They 
 
 Fig. 8. Dendrites or Crystallisations found on the surface of wrought Flints. 
 
 are also for the most part covered with a whitish coating or 
 patina, which is nothing but a thin layer of carbonate of lime 
 darkened in colour by the action of time. Lastly, many of these 
 flints are ornamented with branching crystallisations, called 
 dendrites, which form on their surface very delicate designs of a 
 dark brown ; these are owing to the combined action of the 
 oxides of iron and manganese (Fig. 8). 
 
 We must add that these flint implements often assume the 
 colour of the soil in which they have been buried for so many 
 centuries ; and as Mr. Prestwich, a learned English geologist, well 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 
 
 47 
 
 remarks, this agreement in colour indicates that they have remained 
 a very considerable time in the stratum which contains them. 
 
 Among the stone implements of primitive ages, some are found 
 in a state of perfect preservation, which clearly bears witness to 
 their almost unused state; others, on the contrary, are worn, 
 rounded, and blunted, sometimes because they have done good 
 service in bygone days, and sometimes because they have been 
 many times rolled over and rubbed by diluvial waters, the action 
 of which has produced this result. Some, too, are met with 
 which are broken, and nothing of them remains but mere vestiges. 
 
 Fig. g. Section of a gravel Quarry at Saint-Acheul, which contained the wrought Flints found by 
 
 Boucher de Perthes. 
 
 In a general way, they are completely covered with a very thick 
 coating, which it is necessary to break off before they can be laid 
 open to view. 
 
 They are especially found under the soil in grottos and caves, on 
 which we shall remark further in some detail, and they are almost 
 always mixed up with the bones of extinct mammalian species. 
 
 Certain districts which are entirely devoid of caves contain, 
 however, considerable deposits of these stone implements. We 
 may mention in this category the alluvial quaternary beds of the 
 valley of the Somme, known under the name of drift beds, which 
 
48 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 were worked by Boucher de Perthes with an equal amount of 
 perseverance and success. 
 
 This alluvium was composed of a gravelly deposit, which geo- 
 logists refer to the great inundations which, during the epoch of 
 the great bear and the mammoth, gave to Europe, by hollowing 
 out its valleys, its present vertical outline. The excavations in 
 the sand and gravel near Amiens and Abbeville, which were 
 directed with so much intelligence by Boucher de Perthes, have 
 been the means of exhuming thousands of worked flints, affording 
 unquestionable testimony of the existence of man during the 
 quaternary epoch. 
 
 All these worked flints may be classed under some of the 
 principal types, from which their intended use may be approxi- 
 mately conjectured. 
 
 Fig. 10. Hatchet of the A Imond-shaped type from the Valley of the Somme. 
 
 One of the types which is most extensively distributed, especi- 
 in the drift beds of the valley of the Somme, where scarcely 
 any other kind is found, is the almond-shaped type (Fig. 10). 
 
 The instruments of this kind are hatchets of an oval shape, 
 more or less elongated, generally flattened on both sides, but 
 sometimes only on one, carefully chipped all over their surface 
 so as to present a cutting edge. The workmen of the Somme 
 give them the graphic name of cats tongues. 
 
 They vary much in size, but are generally about six inches long 
 by three wide, although some are met with which are much 
 larger. The Pre-historic Gallery in the Universal Exposition of 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 
 
 49 
 
 1867 contained one found at Saint-Acheul, and exhibited by M. 
 Robert, which measured eleven inches in length by five in width. 
 This remarkable specimen is represented in Fig. 1 1. 
 
 Fig. ii. Flint Hatchet from Saint-Acheul of the so-called A Imond-shaped type. 
 
 Another very characteristic form is that which is called the 
 Moustier type (Fig. 12), because they have been found in abund- 
 
 Fig. 12. Wrought Flint (Moustier type). 
 
50 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 ance in the beds in the locality of Moustier, which form a por- 
 tion of the department of Dordogne. This name is applied to 
 the pointed flints which are only wrought on one side, the other 
 face being completely plain. 
 
 To the same deposit also belongs the flint scraper, the sharp 
 edge of which forms the arc of a circle, the opposite side being 
 of some considerable thickness, so as to afford a grasp to the 
 hand of the operator. 
 
 Fig. 13. Flint Scraper. 
 
 Some of these instruments (Fig. 13) are finely toothed all 
 along their sharp edge ; they were evidently used for the same 
 purposes as our saws. 
 
 The third type (Fig. 14) is that of knives. They are thin and 
 
 Fig. 14. Flint Knife, found at Menchecourt, near Abbeville. 
 
 narrow tongue-shaped flakes, cleft off from the lump of flint at 
 one blow. When one of the ends is chipped to a point, these 
 knives become scratchers. Sometimes these flints are found to 
 be wrought so as to do service as augers. 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 51 
 
 The question is often asked, how these primitive men were 
 able to manufacture their weapons, implements, and utensils, on 
 "uniform models, without the help of metallic hammers. This 
 idea has, indeed, been brought forward as an argument against 
 those who contend for the existence of quaternary man. Mr. 
 Evans, an English geologist, replied most successfully to this ob- 
 jection by a very simple experiment. He took a pebble and 
 fixed it in a wooden handle ; having thus manufactured a stone 
 hammer, he made use of it to chip a flint little by little, until he 
 had succeeded in producing an oval hatchet similar to the ancient 
 one which he had before him. 
 
 The flint-workers who, up to the middle of the present century, 
 prepared gun-flints for the army, were in the habit of splitting 
 
 Fig. 15. Flint Core or Nucleus. 
 
 the stone into splinters. But they made use of steel hammers 
 to cleave the flint, whilst primitive man had nothing better at his 
 disposal than another and rather harder stone. 
 
 Primitive men must have gone to work in somewhat the fol- 
 lowing way : They first selected flints, which they brought to the 
 shape of those cores or nuclei which are found in many places in 
 company with finished implements ; then, by means of another 
 and harder stone of elongated shape, they cleft flakes off the flint. 
 These flakes were used for making knives, scratchers, spear or 
 arrow-heads, hatchets, tomahawks, scrapers, &c. Some amount 
 of skill must have been required to obtain the particular shape 
 
52 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 that was required ; but constant practice in this work exclusively 
 must have rendered the task comparatively easy. 
 
 How, in the next place, were these clipped flints fitted with 
 handles, so as to make hatchets, poniards, and knives ? 
 
 Some of them were fixed at right angles between the two split 
 ends of a stick : this kind of weapon must have somewhat resem- 
 bled our present hatchets. Others, of an oval shape and circular 
 edge, might have been fastened transversely into a handle, so as 
 to imitate a carpenter's adze. In case of need, merely a forked 
 branch or a piece of split wood might serve as sheath or handle 
 to the flint blade. Flints might also have been fixed as double- 
 edged blades by means of holes cut in pieces of wood, to which 
 a handle was afterwards added. 
 
 These flint flakes might, lastly, be fitted into a handle at one 
 end. The wide-backed knives, which were only sharp on one side, 
 afforded a grasp for the hand without further trouble, and might 
 dispense with a handle. The small flints might also be darted 
 as projectiles by the help of a branch of a tree forming a kind of 
 spring, such as we may see used as a toy by children. 
 
 The mere description of these stone hatchets, fitted on to pieces 
 of wood, recall to our mind the natural weapons used by some of 
 the American savages, and the tribes which still exist in a state 
 of freedom in the Isles of Oceania. We allude to the tomahawk, 
 a name which we so often meet with in the accounts of voyages 
 round the world. Among those savage nations who have not as 
 yet bent their necks beneath the yoke of civilisation, we might 
 expect to find and, in fact, we do find the weapons and utensils 
 which were peculiar to man in primitive ages. A knowledge of 
 the manners and customs of the present Australian aborigines 
 has much conduced to the success of the endeavours to recon- 
 struct a similar system of manners and customs in respect to 
 man of the quaternary age. 
 
 It was with the weapons and implements that we have just 
 described that man, at the epoch of the great bear and mammoth, 
 was able to repulse the attacks of the ferocious animals which 
 prowled round his retreat and often assailed him (Fig. 16). 
 
 But the whole life of primitive man was not summed up in de- 
 fending himself against ferocious beasts, and in attacking them in 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 53 
 
 the chase. Beyond the needs which were imposed upon him by 
 conflict and hunting, he felt, besides, the constant necessity of 
 quenching his thirst. Water is a thing in constant use by man, 
 whether he be civilised or savage. The fluid nature of water ren- 
 ders it difficult to convey it except by enclosing it in bladders, 
 leathern bottles, hollowed-out stumps of trees, plaited bowls, &c. 
 Receptacles of this kind were certain ultimately to become dirty 
 and unfit for the preservation of water ; added to this they could 
 not endure the action of fire. It was certainly possible to hollow 
 out stone, so as to serve as a receptacle for water ; but any kind 
 of stone which was soft enough to be scooped out, and would re- 
 tain its tenacity after this operation, is very rarely met with. 
 Shells, too, might be used to hold a liquid ; but then shells are 
 not to be found in every place. It was, therefore, necessary to re- 
 solve the problem how far it might be possible to make vessels 
 which would be strong, capable of holding water, and able to stand 
 the heat of the fire without breaking or warping. What was re- 
 quired was, in fact, the manufacture of pottery. 
 
 The potter's art may, perhaps, be traced back to the most re- 
 mote epochs of manr We have already seen, in the introduction 
 to this work, that, in 1835, M. Joly found in the cave of Nabrigas 
 (Lozere), a skull of the great bear pierced with a stone arrow- 
 head, and that by the side of this skull were also discovered 
 fragments of pottery, on which might still be seen the imprint of 
 the fingers which moulded it. Thus, the potter's art may have 
 already been exercised in the earliest period which we can 
 assign to the development of mankind. 
 
 Other causes also might lead us to believe that man, at a very 
 early period of his existence, succeeded in the manufacture of 
 rough pottery. 
 
 The clay which is used in making all kinds of pottery, from the 
 very lowest kitchen utensil up to the most precious specimens of 
 porcelain, may be said to exist almost everywhere. By soften- 
 ing it and kneading it with water, it may be moulded into vessels 
 of all shapes. By mere exposure to the heat of the sun, these 
 vessels will assume a certain amount of cohesion ; for, as tradi- 
 tion tells us, the towers and palaces of ancient Nineveh were 
 built entirely with bricks which had been baked in the sun. 
 
54 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 Yet the idea of hardening any clayey paste by means of the 
 action of fire is so very simple, that we are not of opinion that 
 pottery which had merely been baked in the sun was ever made 
 use of to any great extent, even among primitive man. Mere 
 chance, or the most casual observation, might have taught our 
 earliest forefathers that a morsel of clay placed near a fire- 
 hearth became hardened and altogether impenetrable to water, 
 that is, that it formed a perfect specimen of pottery. Yet the art r . 
 though ancient, has not been universally found among mankind. 
 
 Ere long, experience must have taught men certain improve- 
 ments in the manufacture of pottery. Sand was added to the 
 clay, so as to render it less subject to " flying " on its first meet- 
 ing the heat of the fire ; next, dried straw was mixed with the 
 clay, in order to give it more coherence. 
 
 In this way those rough vessels were produced, which were, of 
 course, moulded with the hand, and still bear the imprints of the 
 
 
 Fig. 18. Fossil Shells used as Ornaments, and found in the Grave at Amiens. 
 
 workman's fingers. They were only half-baked, on account of 
 the slight degree of heat in the furnace which they were then 
 obliged to make use of, which was nothing more than a wood 
 fire, burning in the open air, on a stone hearth. 
 
 From these data we give a representation (Fig. 17) of the work- 
 shop of the earliest potter. 
 
 In the gravel pits in the neighbourhood of Amiens we meet 
 with small globular bodies with a hole through the middle, which 
 are, indeed, nothing but fossil shells found in the white chalk 
 (Fig. 1 8). It is probable that these stony beads were used to 
 adorn the men contemporary with the diluvial period. The 
 natural holes which existed in them enabled them to be threaded 
 as bracelets or necklaces. This, at least, was the opinion of Dr. 
 Rigollot ; and it was founded on the fact that he had often found 
 small heaps of these delicate little balls collected together in the 
 same spot, as if an inundation had drifted them into the bed of 
 the river without breaking the bond which held them together. 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 55 
 
 The necklaces, which men and women had already begun to 
 wear during the epoch of the great bear and the mammoth, were 
 the first outbreak of the sentiment of adornment, a feeling so 
 natural to the human species. The way in which these neck- 
 laces were put together is, however, exactly similar to that which 
 we meet with during the present day among savage tribes a 
 thread on which a few shells were strung, which was passed 
 round the neck. 
 
 It has been supposed, from another series of wrought flints 
 found at Saint-Acheul by Boucher de Perthes, that the men of 
 the epoch of the great bear and mammoth may have executed 
 certain rough sketches of art-workmanship, representing either 
 figures or symbols. Boucher de Perthes has, in fact, found flints 
 which he considered to show representations, with varying degrees 
 of resemblance, of the human head in profile, three-quarter view, 
 and full face ; also of animals, such as the rhinoceros and the 
 mammoth. 
 
 There are many other flints, evidently wrought by the hand of 
 man, which were found by Boucher de Perthes in the same quater- 
 nary deposits ; but it would be a difficult matter to decide their 
 intention or significance. Some, perhaps, were religious symbols, 
 emblems of authority, &c. The features which enable us to 
 recognise the work of man in these works of antediluvian art are 
 the symmetry of shape and the repetition of successive strokes 
 by which the projecting portions are removed, the cutting edges 
 sharpened, or the holes bored out. 
 
 The natural colour of all the wrought flints we have just been 
 considering, which brings under our notice the weapons and uten- 
 sils of man in the earliest epoch of his existence, is a grey which 
 assumes every tint, from the brightest to the darkest ; but gene- 
 rally speaking, they are stained and coloured according to the 
 nature of the soil from which they are dug out. Argillaceous 
 soils colour them white ; ochreous gravels give them a yellowish- 
 brown hue. Some are white on one side and brown on the 
 other, probably from having lain between two different beds. 
 
 This patina (to use the established term) is the proof of their 
 long-continued repose in the beds, and is, so to speak, the stamp 
 of their antiquity. 
 
56 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Man of the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch lived in Caverns Bone Caverns 
 in the Quaternary Rock during the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch Mode of 
 Formation of these Caverns Their Division into several Classes Implements of 
 Flint, Bone, and Reindeer-horn found in these Caverns The Burial-place at 
 Aurignac Its probable Age Customs which it reveals Funeral Banquets during 
 the Great Bear and Mammoth Epoch. 
 
 HAVING given a description of the weapons and working imple- 
 ments of the men belonging to the great bear and mammoth 
 epoch, we must now proceed to speak of their habitations. 
 
 Caverns hollowed out in the depth of the rocks formed the 
 first dwellings of man. We must, therefore, devote some degree 
 
 Fig. 19. Theoretical Section of a Vein of Clay in the Carboniferous Limestone, before the hollowing 
 out of Valleys by diluvial Waters. 
 
 of attention to the simple and wild retreats of our forefathers. 
 As the objects which have been found in these caverns are both 
 numerous and varied in their character, they not only throw a 
 vivid light on the manners and customs of primitive man, but 
 also decisively prove the fact of his being contemporary with 
 mammals of species now extinct, such as the mammoth, the 
 great bear, and the Rkinocerus tichorhinus. 
 
 But before proceeding any further, it is necessary to inquire in 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 
 
 57 
 
 what way these caverns could have been formed, in which we find 
 accumulated so many relics of the existence of primitive man. 
 
 M. Desnoyers, Librarian of the Museum of Natural History 
 at Paris, is of opinion that these caverns are crevices of the same 
 class as metalliferous lodes, only instead of containing metallic 
 ores they must have been originally filled by the deposits of 
 certain thermal springs. 
 
 Fig. 19 represents, according to M. Desnoyers' treatise on 
 caverns, one of these primordial veins in the carboniferous lime- 
 stone. At the time of the diluvial inundation these veins were 
 opened by the impetuous action of the water. When thus cleared 
 out and brought to the light of day, they assumed the aspect of 
 caves, as represented in Fig. 20. 
 
 Fig. 20. Theoretical Section of the same Vein of Clay converted into a Cavern, after the hollowing 
 out of Valleys by diluvial Waters. 
 
 The European diluvial inundation was, as we know, posterior 
 to the glacial epoch. 
 
 It is also likely that caverns were sometimes produced by the 
 falling in of portions of some of the interior strata, or that they 
 were formerly the natural and subterranean channels of certain 
 watercourses ; many instances of this kind being now known in 
 different countries. 
 
 We must also add that it is not probable that all caverns 
 originated in the same way ; but that one or other of the several 
 causes just enumerated must have contributed to their formation. 
 
 Under the general denomination of caverns, all kinds of sub- 
 terranean cavities are comprehended ; but it will be as well to 
 introduce several distinctions in this respect. There are, in the 
 first place, simple clefts or crevices, which are only narrow pits 
 
58 THE STONE AGE, 
 
 
 
 deviating but slightly from the vertical. Next we have grottos 
 (or baumes, as they are called in the south of France), which 
 generally have a widely opening inlet, and are but of small 
 extent. Lastly, we must draw a distinction between these and 
 the real bone caverns, which consist of a series of chambers, 
 separated by extremely narrow passages, and are often of very 
 considerable dimensions. Some of these caverns occupy an 
 extent of several leagues underground, with variations of level 
 which render their exploration very difficult. They are generally 
 very inaccessible, and it is almost always necessary to ply the 
 pickaxe in order to clear a way from one chamber to another. 
 
 In most of these grottos and caverns the ground and sides are 
 covered with calcareous deposits, known by the name of stalactite 
 and stalagmite, which sometimes meet one another, forming 
 columns and pillars which confer on some of these subterranean 
 halls an elegance replete with a kind of mysterious charm. 
 
 These deposits are caused by the infiltrated water charged 
 with carbonate of lime, which, oozing drop by drop through the 
 interstices of the rock, slowly discharge the carbonic acid which 
 held the carbonate of lime in solution, and the salts gradually 
 precipitating from the crystalline or amorphous deposits which 
 constitute these natural columns. 
 
 The calcareous deposits which spread over the ground of the 
 caverns are called stalagmite, and the name of stalactite is given 
 to those which hang down from the roof, forming pendants, 
 natural decorations, and ornaments as of alabaster or marble, 
 producing sometimes the most magnificent effects. 
 
 Under the stalagmite the largest number of animal bones have 
 been found. This crust, which has been to them a preservatory 
 grave, is so thick and hard that a pickaxe is required in order to 
 break it. Thanks to the protecting cover, the bones have been 
 sheltered from all the various causes of decomposition and 
 destruction. The limestone formed a kind of cement which, 
 uniting clay, mud, sand, flint, bones of men and animals, weapons 
 and utensils into a compact mass, has preserved them for the 
 study and consideration of scientific men in our own days. 
 
 The soil called bone-earth is, in fact, found under the crystalline 
 bed which covers the ground of the caverns. 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 
 
 59 
 
 Fig. 21, which represents a section of the cave of Galeinreuth, 
 in Bavaria, will enable us clearly to understand the position 
 occupied by the bones in most of these caverns. 
 
 Bone-earth consists of a reddish or yellowish clay, often mixed 
 with pebbles, which seem to have come from some distant beds, 
 for they cannot be attributed to the adjacent rocks. This stratum 
 varies considerably in depth ; in some spots it is very thin, in 
 others it rises almost to the top of the cavern, to a height of 
 forty or fifty feet. But in this case it is, in reality, composed of 
 
 Fig. 21. The Cave of Galeinreuth, in Bavaria. 
 
 several strata belonging to different ages, and explorers ought to 
 note with much attention the exact depth of any of the organic 
 remains found in their mass. 
 
 There are, however, in several bone caverns certain peculia- 
 rities which demand a special explanation. Caves often contain 
 large heaps of bones, situated at heights which would have 
 been absolutely inaccessible to the animals which lived in these 
 places. How, then, was it possible that these bones could have 
 found their way to such an elevated position ? It is also a very 
 strange fact, that no cavern has ever produced an entire skeleton 
 
60 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 or even a whole limb of the skeleton of a man, and scarcely of 
 any animal whatever. The bones, in fact, not only lie in con- 
 fusion and utter disorder, but, up to the present time, it has been 
 impossible to find all the bones which in times past formed an 
 individual. It must, therefore, be admitted, that the accumula- 
 tion of bones and human remains in most of the caves are owing 
 to other causes than the residence of man and wild animals in 
 these dark retreats. 
 
 It is supposed, therefore, that the bones in question were 
 deposited in these hollows by the rushing in of the currents of 
 diluvial water, which had drifted them along in their course. A 
 fact which renders this hypothesis likely is that drift-pebbles are 
 constantly found in close proximity to these bones. Now these 
 pebbles come from localities at considerable distances from the 
 cavern ; often, indeed, terrestrial and fluviatile shells accompany 
 these bones. It may sometimes be remarked that the femurs 
 and tibias of large mammals have their points rubbed off, and 
 the smallest bones are reduced to rounded fragments. These 
 are all evident indications that these bones had been carried along 
 by rapid currents of water, which swept away everything in their 
 course ; or, in other words, by the current of the waters of the 
 deluge which signalised the quaternary epoch. 
 
 During this period of the existence of primitive man, all these 
 caverns were not applied to the same purpose. Some were the 
 dens of wild beasts, others formed the habitations of man, and 
 others again were used as burial-places. 
 
 There is no difficulty in the idea that dens of wild beasts might 
 very readily be occupied by man, after he had killed or driven out 
 the fierce inhabitants ; no discovery, however, has as yet confirmed 
 this supposition. It can hardly be doubted that primitive man 
 seldom dared to take up his abode in dens which had been, for 
 some time, the refuge of any of the formidable carnivora ; if he 
 did, it was only after having assured himself that these retreats 
 had been altogether abandoned by their terrible inhabitants. 
 
 We shall now proceed to consider these three classes of caverns. 
 
 Caves which, during the quaternary epoch, have served as dens 
 for wild animals, are very numerous. Experienced savants are 
 enabled to recognise them by various indications. The bones 
 they contain are never fractured ; but it may be seen that they 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 61 
 
 have been gnawed by carnivorous animals, as they still bear the 
 marks of their teeth. Into these retreats the cave-lion (Felis 
 spel<za] and the hyaena (Hycena spelcsa) were accustomed to drag 
 their prey, in order there to tear it to pieces and devour it, or 
 divide it into portions for their young ones. In fact, in these 
 caverns, excrements of the hyaena mixed with small and undigested 
 bones are often found. The cave-bear retired into the same re- 
 treats, but he probably only came there to pass the period of his 
 hibernal sleep. Lastly, the same dens no doubt offered a refuge 
 to sick or dying animals, who resorted thither in order to expire 
 in peace. We have a proof of this in the traces of wounds and 
 caries on some of the bones of animals found by Schmerling in the 
 caverns of the Meuse ; also in the skull of a hyaena, the median 
 ridge of which had been bitten and appeared to be half healed. 
 
 Those caverns which formed a shelter for primitive man are, 
 like the preceding ones, to be recognised by a mere inspection of 
 the bones contained in them. The long bones of the ox, horse, 
 stag, rhinoceros, and other quadrupeds which formed the food of 
 man during the quaternary epoch, are always split ; and they are 
 all broken in the same way, that is, lengthwise. The only cause for 
 their having been split in this manner must have been the desire of 
 extracting the marrow for the purpose of eating. Such a mode of 
 breaking them would never have been practised by any animal. 
 
 This apparently trivial circumstance is, however, of the highest 
 importance. In fact, it leads to the following conclusion : "That 
 man, having eaten large mammals of species now extinct, must 
 have been contemporary with these species." 
 
 We shall now proceed to examine the caverns which were used 
 as burial-places for man. 
 
 To M. Edouard Lartet, the celebrated palaeontologist, the 
 honour must be ascribed of having been the first to collect any 
 important data bearing on the fact that caverns were used for 
 burial-places by the primitive man of the great bear and mam- 
 moth epoch. We have thus been led to discover the traces of a 
 funeral custom belonging to the man of these remote ages ; we 
 allude to the funeral banquet. The source of this information was 
 the discovery of a pre-historic burial-place at Aurignac (Haute- 
 Garonne), of which we have given an account in the Introduction 
 to this work, which, however, we must again here refer to. 
 
62 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 Near the town of Aurignac rises the hill of Fajoles, which the 
 inhabitants of the country, in their patois, call "mountagno de las 
 Hajoles " (beech-tree mountain), a circumstance showing that it 
 was formerly covered with beech-trees. As we have already 
 stated, in the Introduction to this work, it was on one of the 
 slopes of this hill that, in the year 1842, an excavator, named 
 Bonnemaison, discovered a great slab of limestone placed in a 
 vertical position and closing up an arched opening. In the cave 
 closed up by this slab the excavator discovered the remains of 
 seventeen human skeletons ! 
 
 We have already told how these skeletons were removed to 
 the village cemetery, and thus, unfortunately, for ever lost to the 
 researches of science. 
 
 Eighteen years after, in 1860, M. Lartet, having heard of the 
 
 Fig. 22. Section of the Sepulchral Cave of Aurignac. 
 
 event, repaired to the spot, accompanied by Bonnemaison ; he 
 quite understood how it had happened that, during a long course 
 of centuries, the cave had escaped the notice of the inhabitants 
 of the country. The entrance to it was concealed by masses of 
 earth which, having been brought down from the top of the hill by 
 the action of the water, had accumulated in front of the entrance, 
 hiding a flat terrace, on which many vestiges of pre-historic times 
 were found. As no disturbance of the ground had taken place in 
 this spot subsequent to the date of the burial, this talus had been 
 sufficient to protect the traces of the men who were contemporary 
 with the mammoth, and to shield their relics from all exterior injury. 
 Fig. 22, taken from M. Lartet's article, represents a vertical 
 section of the sepulchral cave at Aurignac. 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 63 
 
 After a rapid inspection of the cave and its surroundings, M. 
 Lartet resolved to make complete and methodical excavations, 
 aided by intelligent workmen labouring under his superintend- 
 ence ; the following are the results he obtained. 
 
 A bed of " made ground " two feet thick covered the ground 
 of the cave. In this were found some human remains which had 
 escaped the first investigations ; also bones of mammals in good 
 preservation, and exhibiting no fractures or teeth-marks, wrought 
 
 Fig. 23. Flint Knife found in the 
 Sepulchral Cave of Aurignac. 
 
 Fig. 24. Implement made of Reindeer's or Stag's Horn, 
 found in the Sepulchral Cave of Aurignac. 
 
 flints, mostly of the knife type (Fig. 23), and carved reindeer 
 horns, among which there was an instrument carefully tapered 
 off and rounded, but deprived of its point (Fig. 24), the other 
 end being bevelled off, probably to receive a handle. 
 
 We must here add, that at the time of his discovery Bonne- 
 maison collected, from the midst of the bones, eighteen small 
 
6 4 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 discs which were pierced in the centre, and doubtless intended to 
 be strung together in a necklace or bracelet. These discs, which 
 were formed of a white compact substance, were recognised as 
 sea-shells of a Cardium species. 
 
 Fig. 25. Series of perforated Discs of the Carditim Shell found in the Sepulchral Cave of Aurignac. 
 
 The cavern of Aurignac was a burial-place of the quaternary 
 epoch, for M. Lartet found in it a quantity of the bones of the 
 cave-bear, the bison, the reindeer, the horse, &c. 
 
 In Fig. 26 we give a representation of a fragment of the lower 
 jaw of a great bear as an example of the state of the bones found 
 in this cavern. 
 
 Fig. 26. Fragment of the Lower Jaw oi a Cave-Bear, found in the Sepulchral Cave of Aurignac. 
 
 The perfect state of preservation of these bones shows that 
 they were neither broken to furnish food for man nor torn by 
 carnivorous animals, particularly by hyaenas, as is seen in a great 
 many caverns. We must therefore conclude from this peculiarity, 
 that the stone which closed the entrance to the cave was moved 
 away for every interment and carefully put back into its place 
 immediately afterwards. 
 
 In order to explain the presence of so many foreign objects by 
 the side of the human skeletons such as animals' bones imple- 
 ments of flint and reindeer's horn necklaces or bracelets we 
 must admit as probable that a funeral custom existed among the 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 65 
 
 men of the great bear and mammoth epoch, which has been 
 preserved in subsequent ages. They used to place in the tomb, 
 close to the body, the weapons, hunting trophies, and ornaments 
 of all sorts, belonging to the defunct. This custom still exists 
 among many tribes in a more or less savage state. 
 
 In front of the cave there was, as we have already said, a kind 
 of flat spot which had afterwards become covered with earth 
 which had fallen down from the top of the hill. When the earth 
 which covered this flat spot was cleared away, they met with 
 another deposit containing bones. This deposit was situated on 
 a prolongation of the ground on which the skeletons were placed 
 in the interior of the cavern. Under this deposit was a bed of 
 
 Fig. 27. Upper Molar of a Bison, found in the Ashes of the Fire-hearth of the Sepulchral 
 Cave of Aurignac. 
 
 ashes and charcoal, five to seven inches thick. This was therefore 
 the site of an ancient fire-hearth. 
 
 In other words, in front of the sepulchral cave there was a 
 kind of terrace upon which, after the interment of the body in 
 the cavern, a feast called \\\Q funeral banquet was held. 
 
 In this bed, situated in front of the cavern, an immense number 
 of the most interesting relics were discovered a large number 
 of the teeth and broken bones of herbivorous animals (Fig. 27) ; 
 a hundred flint knives ; two chipped flints, which archaeologists 
 believe to be sling projectiles ; a rounded pebble with a depression 
 in the middle, which, according to Mr. Steinhauer, keeper of the 
 Ethnographical Museum at Copenhagen, was used to flake off 
 
66 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 flint knives ; lastly, a large quantity of implements made of 
 reindeer's horn, which exhibit the most varied shapes. We may 
 mention, for instance, the arrow-heads fashioned very simply, 
 without wings or barbs (Fig. 28) ; some of these heads appear to 
 have been subjected to the action of fire, as if they had been left 
 in the body of the animal during the process of cooking; a 
 bodkin made of roebuck's horn (Fig. 29) very carefully pointed, 
 and in such a good state of preservation that it might still be 
 used, says M. Lartet, to perforate the skins of animals before 
 
 Fig. 28. Arrow-head made of Reindeer's Horn, Fig. 29. Bodkin made of Roebuck's Horn, found 
 found in the Sepulchral Cave of Aurignac. in the Sepulchral Cave of Aurignac. 
 
 sewing them ; and this must, in fact, have been its use ; a second 
 instrument, similar to the preceding, but less finely pointed, which 
 M. Lartet is inclined to consider as an instrument for tattooing ; 
 some thin blades of various sizes which, according to Steinhauer, 
 much resemble the reindeer-horn polishers still used by the 
 Laplanders to flatten down the seams of their coarse skin- 
 garments ; another blade accidentally broken at both ends, one 
 of the sides of which is perfectly polished and shows two series 
 of transversal lines at equal distances apart ; the lateral edges of 
 this blade are marked with deeper notches at almost regular inter- 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 67 
 
 vals (Fig. 30). M. Lartet considers that these lines and notches 
 are signs of numeration, and Mr. Steinhauer has propounded the 
 idea that they are hunting-marks. Both hypotheses are possible, 
 and the more so as they do not contradict each other. 
 
 Among the bones, some were partly carbonised, others only 
 scorched, but the greater number had not been subjected at all to 
 the action of fire. All the bones having medullary hollows, and 
 commonly called marrow-bones, were broken lengthwise, a certain 
 indication that this operation had been effected to extract the 
 marrow, and that these bones had been used at a feast carried on 
 according to the manners and customs of that epoch, when the 
 
 Fig. 30. Truncated Blade in Reindeer's Horn, bearing two Series of transversal Lines and 
 Notches, probably used for numeration. 
 
 marrow out of animal bones was regarded as the most delicious 
 viand many men of our own days being also of this opinion. 
 
 A certain number of these bones exhibited shallow cuts, 
 showing that a sharp instrument had been used to detach the 
 flesh from them. Nearly all those which had not been subjected 
 to the action of fire bore the mark of the teeth of some carnivo- 
 rous animal. This animal doubtless came to gnaw them after 
 man had taken his departure from the spot. This carnivorous 
 animal could have been none other than the hyaena, as is shown 
 by the excrements left in the place. 
 
 The ossiferous mound situated immediately above the fire- 
 hearth contained, like the subjacent ashes, a large number of the 
 bones of certain herbivorous animals. 
 
68 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 The discovery of the fire-hearth situated in front of the cave 
 of Aurignac, and the various remains which were found inter- 
 mingled underneath it, enable us to form some idea of the way 
 in which funeral ceremonies took place among the men of 
 the great bear epoch. The parents and friends of the defunct 
 accompanied him to his last resting-place ; after which they 
 assembled together to partake of a feast in front of the tomb 
 soon to be closed on his remains. Then everyone took his 
 departure, leaving the scene of the banquet free to the hyaenas 
 which came to devour the remains of the meal. 
 
 This custom of funeral feasts is, doubtless, very natural, as it 
 has been handed down to our days ; though it now chiefly exists 
 among the poorer classes. 
 
 In accordance with the preceding data we here represent (Fig. 
 31) a funeral feast during the great bear and mammoth epoch. 
 
 On a flat space situated in front of the cave destined to receive 
 the body of the defunct, some men covered merely with bears' 
 skins with the hair on them are seated round a fire, taking their 
 part in the funeral feast. The flesh of the great bear and 
 mammoth forms the menu of these primitive love-feasts. In the 
 distance may be seen the colossal form of the mammoth, which 
 forms the chief dish of the banquet. The manner of eating is 
 that which distinguishes the men of that epoch ; they suck the 
 marrow from the long bones which have previously been split 
 lengthwise, and eat the flesh of the animals cooked on the hearth. 
 The dead body is left at the entrance of the cavern : the primitive 
 grave-stone will soon close on it for ever. 
 
 The relics found in the interior of the sepulchral cave of 
 Aurignac have led to a very remarkable inference, which shows 
 how interesting and fertile are the studies which have been made 
 by naturalists on the subject of the antiquity of man. The 
 weapons, the trophies, the ornaments, and the joints of meat 
 placed by the side of the defunct does not all this seem to 
 establish the fact that a belief in a future life existed at an 
 extraordinarily remote epoch ? What could have been the use 
 of these provisions for travelling, and these instruments of war, 
 if the man who had disappeared from this world was not to live 
 again in another ? The great and supreme truth that the 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 69 
 
 whole being of man does not die with his material body is, 
 therefore, innate in the human heart ; since it is met with in the 
 most remote ages, and even existed in the mental consciousness 
 of the man of the Stone Age. 
 
 An instinct of art also appears to have manifested itself in the 
 human race at this extremely ancient date. Thus one of the 
 articles picked up in the sepulchral cave of Aurignac consisted of 
 a canine tooth of a young cave-bear, perforated so as to allow of 
 its being suspended in some way or other. Now this tooth is so 
 carved that no one can help recognising in it a rough outline 
 of some animal shape, the precise nature of which is difficult to 
 determine, although it may, perhaps, be the head of a bird. It 
 was, doubtless, an amulet or jewel belonging to one of the men 
 
 Fig. 32. Carved and perforated Canine Tooth of a young Cave-Bear. 
 
 interred in the cave, and was buried with him because he probably 
 attached a great value to it. This object, therefore, shows us 
 that some instincts of art existed in the men who hunted the 
 great bear and mammoth. 
 
 We shall close this account of the valuable discoveries which 
 were made in the sepulchral cave of Aurignac, by giving a list of 
 the species of mammals the bones of which were found either in 
 the interior or at the exterior of this cavern. The first six species 
 are extinct ; the others are still living : 
 
 The great cave-bear ( Ursus spel&us) ; the mammoth (Elephas 
 primigenius ; the rhinoceros (Rhinoceros tichorhinus] ; the great 
 cave-lion (Felts spelcsd} ; the cave-hyaena (Hycena spelcsa] ; the 
 gigantic stag (Megaceros hibernicus] ; the bison, the reindeer, the 
 
7 o THE STONE AGE. 
 
 stag, the horse, the ass, the roe, the wild boar, the fox, the wolf r 
 the wild cat, the badger, and the polecat. 
 
 We think it as well to place before the eyes of our readers the. 
 exact forms of the heads of the three great fossil animals found 
 in the cave of Aurignac, which geologically characterise the great 
 bear and mammoth epoch, and evidently prove that man was. 
 contemporary with these extinct species. Figs. 33, 34, and 35. 
 
 Fig. 33- Head of a Cave-Bear found in the Cave of Aurignac. 
 
 represent the heads of the cave-bear, the Rhinoceros tichorhinus* 
 
 and the megaceros or gigantic stag ; they are taken from the casts 
 which adorn the great hall of the Archaeological and Pre-historic 
 Museum at Saint-Germain, and are among the most curious 
 ornaments of this remarkable museum. 
 
 Of all these species, the fox has left behind him the largest num- 
 
 Fig. 34. Head of the Rhinoceros tichorhimis found in the Cave of Aurignac. 
 
 ber of remains. This carnivorous animal was represented by about 
 eighteen to twenty individual specimens. Neither the mammoth,, 
 great cave-lion, nor wild boar appear to have been conveyed into 
 the cave in an entire state ; for two or three molar or incisive teeth 
 are the only remains of their carcases which have been found. 
 But still it is a certain fact that the men who fed on the Rhi~ 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 71 
 
 noceros tichorhinus buried their dead in this cavern. In fact, M. 
 Lartet asserts that the bones of the rhinoceros had been split by 
 man in order to extract the marrow. They had also been gnawed 
 by hyaenas, which would not have been the case if these bones had 
 not been thrown away and left on the ground in a fresh state. 
 
 The burial-place of Aurignac dates back to the earliest an- 
 tiquity; that is to say, it was anterior to the European diluvial 
 period. Thus, according to M. Lartet, the great cave-bear was the 
 first of the extinct species to disappear ; then the mammoth and 
 Rhinoceros tichorhinus were lost sight of ; still later, the reindeer 
 first, and then the bison, migrated to the northern and eastern 
 
 Fig. 35. Head of a great Stag (Megaceros hiberuicus) found in the Cave of Aurignac. 
 
 regions of Europe. Now, the diluvium that is to say, the beds 
 formed by drifted pebbles and originating in the great derange- 
 ment caused by the inundation of the quaternary epoch does not 
 contain any traces of the bones of the cave-bear. It, therefore, 
 belongs to an epoch of the Stone Age more recent than the cave 
 of Aurignac.* All this goes to prove that this sepulchral cave, 
 which has furnished the science of the antiquity of man with so 
 much valuable information, belonged to the great bear and 
 mammoth epoch, which preceded the diluvial cataclysm. 
 
 * " Nouvelles Recherches sur la Coexistence de 1'Homme et des grands Mammi- 
 feres fossiles." ("Annales de Sciences naturelles, Zoologie," vol. xv.) 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Other Caves of the Epoch of the Great Bear and Mammoth Type of the Human 
 Race during the Epochs of the Great Bear and the Reindeer The Skulls from the 
 Caves of Engis and Neanderthal. 
 
 WITH regard to the bone-caves, which have furnished us with 
 such valuable information as to the men who lived in the epoch of 
 the great bear and the mammoth, we have laid down a necessary 
 distinction, dividing them into caves which served as dens for 
 wild beasts, those which have afforded a refuge for man, and those 
 which were used as his burial-places. In order to complete this 
 subject, and set forth the whole of the discoveries which have 
 been made by science on this interesting point, we will say a few 
 words as to the principal bone-caves belonging to the same epoch 
 which have been studied in France, England, and Belgium. 
 
 We will, in the first place, call attention to the fact that these 
 caverns, taken together, embrace a very long period of time, 
 perhaps an enormous number of centuries, and that hence a con- 
 siderable difference must result in the nature of the remains of 
 human industry which they contain. Some certainly manifest 
 a perceptible superiority over others in an industrial point of 
 view ; but the reason is that they belong to a period somewhat 
 nearer our own, although still forming a part of the epoch of the 
 great bear and mammoth. 
 
 We shall divide the caves in France into three groups those of 
 the east, those of the west and centre, and those of the south. 
 
 In the first group we shall mention the Trou de la Fontaine 
 and the Cave of Sainte-Reine, both situated in the environs of 
 Toul (Meurthe). These two caves have furnished bones of bears, 
 hyaenas, and the rhinoceros, along with the products of human 
 industry. That of Sainte-Reine has been explored by M. Gudrin, 
 and especially by M. Husson, who has searched it with much care. 
 
 The second group includes the grottos des F&s, of Vergisson, 
 Vallieres, and La Chaise. 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 73 
 
 The Grotte des Fees, at Arcy (Yonne), has been searched and 
 described by M. de Vibraye, who ascertained the existence of two 
 distinct beds, the upper one belonging to the reindeer epoch, the 
 lower one to the great bear epoch. These two beds were divided 
 from each other by matter which had formed a part of the roof 
 of the cave, and had fallen down on the earlier deposit. In the 
 more ancient bed of the two, M. de Vibraye collected fractured 
 bones of the bear and cave hysena, the mammoth, and the 
 Rhinoceros tickorkinus, all intermingled with flints wrought by the 
 hand of man, amongst which were chips of hyaline quartz (rock 
 crystal). His fellow labourer, M. Franchet, extracted from it a 
 human atlas (the upper part of the vertebral column). 
 
 The cave of Vergisson (Saone-et-Loire), explored by M. de 
 Ferry, furnished the same kind of bones as the preceding cave, 
 and also bones of the bison, the reindeer, the horse, the wolf, and 
 the fox, all intermixed with wrought flints and fragments of rough 
 pottery. The presence of this pottery indicated that the cave of 
 Vergisson belonged to the latter period of the great bear epoch. 
 
 The cave of Vallieres (Loire-et-Cher) was worked first by M. 
 de Vibraye, and subsequently by the Abbe Bourgeois. There 
 was nothing particular to be remarked. 
 
 The cave of La Chaise, near Vouthon (Charente), explored by 
 MM. Bourgeois and Delaunay, furnished bones of the cave-bear, 
 the rhinoceros, and the reindeer, flint blades and scrapers, a bod- 
 kin and a kind of hook made of bone, an arrow-head in the shape 
 of a willow-leaf likewise of bone, a bone perforated so as to hang 
 on a string, and, what is more remarkable, two long rods of rein- 
 deer's horn, tapering at one end and bevelled off at the other, on 
 which figures of animals were graven. These relics betray an 
 artistic feeling of a decided character as existing in the men, the 
 traces of whom are found in this cave. 
 
 Among the caves in the south of France, we must specify those 
 of Perigord, those of Bas Languedoc, and of the district of Foix 
 (department of Ariege). 
 
 The caves of Perigord have all been explored by MM. Lartet 
 and Christy, who have also given learned descriptions of them. 
 We will mention the caves of the Gorge d'Enfer and Moustier, in 
 the valley of the Vezere, and that of Pey de FAzt, all three situate 
 in the department of Dordogne (arrondissement of Sarlat). 
 
74 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 The two caves of the Gorge d'Enferwere, unfortunately, cleared 
 out in 1793, in order to utilise the deposits of saltpetre which they 
 contained in the manufacture of gunpowder. They have, however, 
 furnished flints chipped into the shapes of scrapers, daggers, &c., 
 a small pebble of white quartz, hollowed out on one side, which 
 had probably been used as a mortar, and instruments of bone or 
 reindeer's horn, three of which showed numerous notches. Bones 
 of the great bear clearly indicated the age of these settlements. 
 
 The cave of Moustier, situated about 80 feet above the Vezere, 
 is celebrated for the great number and characteristic shapes of 
 its stone implements, which we have before spoken of. Hatchets 
 of the almond-shaped type, like those of the diluvium of Abbe- 
 ville and Saint-Acheul, were very plentiful. Bi-convex spear- 
 heads were also found, of very careful workmanship, and 
 instruments which might be held in the hand, some of them of 
 considerable dimensions ; but no pieces of bone or of reindeer's 
 horn were discovered which had been adapted to any purpose 
 whatever. The bones were those of the great bear and cave- 
 hysena, accompanied by separate lamince of molars of the mam- 
 moth, the use of which it is impossible to explain. Similar 
 fragments were met with in some of the other Perigord settle- 
 ments, and M. Lartet also found some at Aurignac. 
 
 Next to the cave of Pey de F Aze, on which we shall not dwell, 
 come the caverns of Bas-Languedoc, which we shall only 
 enumerate. They consist of the caves of Pondres and Souvig- 
 nargues (Herault), which were studied in 1829 byM. de Christol, 
 who recognised, from the data he derived from them, the co- 
 existence of man and the great extinct mammals ; also those 
 of Pontil and La Roque, the first explored by M. Paul Gervais, 
 the second by M. Boutin. 
 
 We shall now consider the caves of the department of Ariege, 
 some of which furnish objects of very considerable interest. 
 They consist of the caves of Massat, L/ierm, and BoiticJieta. 
 
 Two caves, very remarkable on account of their extent, have 
 been explored by M. Fontan ; they are situate in the valley of 
 Massat, which contains others of less importance. One is placed 
 at the foot of a limestone mountain, about 60 feet above the 
 bottom of the valley ; the opening of the other is much higher 
 up ; only the latter belongs to the great bear epoch. 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 75 
 
 From the results of his explorations, M. Fontan is of opinion 
 that the ground in them has been greatly altered by some violent 
 inundation which has intermingled the remains of various geo- 
 logical epochs. This savant found in the cave of Massat the 
 bones of the bear, the hyaena, and the great cave-lion, the fox, 
 the badger, the wild boar, the roe, &c., two human teeth, and a 
 bone arrow-head. Two beds of ashes and charcoal were also 
 remarked at different depths. 
 
 In the upper cave of Massat was found the curious stone on 
 which is designed with tolerable correctness a sketch of the great 
 cave-bear (Fig. 36). This singular record marks out for us the 
 
 Fig. 36. Sketch of the Great Bear on a Stone found in the Cave of Massat. 
 
 earliest trace of the art of design, which we shall find developing 
 itself in a more decisive way during the pre-historic period which 
 follows the one we are now considering. 
 
 The caves of Lherm and Bouicheta were inspected by MM. 
 Garrigou and Filhol, who found in them bones of most of the 
 great mammals belonging to extinct species, and particularly 
 those of the great bear, many of which are broken, and still show 
 the marks of the instruments which were used for cutting the 
 flesh off them. Some have been gnawed by hyaenas, as proved by 
 the deep grooves with which they are marked. Lower jaw-bones 
 of the great bear, and of the great cave-lion, have been found 
 fashioned, according to a uniform plan, in the shape of hoes. 
 MM. Garrigou and Filhol were of opinion that these jaw-bones, 
 when thus modified, might have been used as offensive weapons. 
 
 The cave of Lherm contained also human bones; namely, 
 three teeth, a fragment of a scapula, a broken ulna and radius, 
 and the last joint of the great toe ; all these remains presented 
 
76 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 exactly the same appearance and condition as those of the Ursus 
 spelceus, and must, therefore, have belonged to the same epoch. 
 
 We have stated that numerous caves have been explored in 
 England, Belgium, and several other countries. We shall not 
 undertake to give with regard to each details which would only 
 be a reproduction of those which precede. We therefore confine 
 ourselves to mentioning the most celebrated of the caverns 
 belonging to the epoch of the great bear and the mammoth. 
 
 In England we have the Kent's hole and Brixham caverns, near 
 Torquay, in Devonshire, the latter of which is many hundred yards 
 in extent ; the caves of the Gower peninsula in Glamorganshire 
 (South Wales), which have been carefully studied within the last 
 few years by Messrs. Falconer and Wood ; in these were found flint 
 instruments along with bones of the Elephas antiquus and the 
 Rhinoceros hemitcechus, species which were still more ancient than 
 the mammoth and the Rhinoceros tichorhinus \ . those of Kirkdale, 
 in Yorkshire, explored by Dr. Buckland, the geologist ; those near 
 Wells, in Somersetshire, Wokey Hole, Minchin Hole, &c. 
 
 We must mention, in the north of Italy, the caves of Chiampo 
 and Laglio, on the edge of the Lake of Como, in which, just as 
 at Vergisson, fragments of rough pottery have been discovered, 
 indicating some degree of progress in the manufacture ; also the 
 caves' in the neighbourhood of Palermo, and especially those of 
 San Giro and Macagnone. 
 
 In the last-mentioned cave, in the midst of an osseous breccia 
 which rose to the roof, Dr. Falconer collected flint instruments, 
 splinters of bone, pieces of baked clay and wood charcoal mixed 
 up with large land-shells (Helix vermiculata), in a perfect state of 
 preservation, horses' teeth, and the excrements of the hyaena, all 
 cemented together in a deposit of carbonate of lime. In a lower 
 bed were found the bones of various species of the hippopotamus, 
 the Elephas antiquus, and other great mammals. 
 
 Lastly, Spain, Algeria, Egypt, and Syria also present to our 
 notice caves belonging to the Stone Age. 
 
 In the New World various bone-caverns have been explored. 
 We must especially mention Brazil, in which country Lund 
 searched no less than eight hundred caves of different epochs, 
 exhuming in them a great number of unknown animal species. 
 In one of these caves, situated near the Lake of Sumidouro, Lund 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 77 
 
 found some human bones which had formed a part of thirty 
 individuals of different ages, and were "in a similar state of 
 decomposition, and in similar circumstances, to the bones of 
 various extinct species of animals." 
 
 Thus far we have designedly omitted to mention the Belgian 
 caves. They have, in fact, furnished us with such remarkable 
 relics of former ages that, in dealing with them, we could not 
 confine ourselves to a mere notice. The caves in the neighbour- 
 hood of Lidge, which were explored in 1833 by Schmerling, 
 deserve to be described in some detail. 
 
 Schmerling examined more than forty caves in the Valley of 
 the Meuse and its tributaries. The access to some of these caves 
 was so difficult that in order to reach them it was necessary for 
 the explorer to let himself down by a cord, and then to crawl flat 
 on his face through narrow galleries, so as to make his way into 
 the great chambers ; there he was obliged to remain for hours, and 
 sometimes whole days, standing up to his knees in mud, with water 
 dripping from the walls upon his head, while overlooking the 
 workmen breaking up with their pickaxes the layer of stalagmite, 
 so as to bring to light the bone-earth the records on which are. 
 inscribed the palpable evidences of the high antiquity of man. 
 Schmerling was compelled to accomplish a perilous expedition 
 of this kind in his visit to the cave of Engis, which has become 
 celebrated by the two human skulls found there by him. 
 
 Nearly all the caves in the province of Liege contain scattered 
 bones of the great bear, the cave-hyaena, the mammoth, and the 
 rhinoceros, intermixed with those of species which are still living,, 
 such as the wolf, the wild boar, the roe, the beaver, the porcu- 
 pine, &c. Several of them contained human bones, likewise much 
 scattered and rubbed ; they were found in all positions, and at 
 every elevation, sometimes above and sometimes below the above- 
 mentioned animal remains ; from this it may be concluded that 
 these caves had been filled with running water, which drifted in all 
 kinds of debris. None of them, however, contained any gnawed 
 bones, or the fossil excrement of any animal species, which puts-, 
 an end to the hypothesis that these caves had been used as dens, 
 by wild beasts. Here and there bones were found belonging to 
 the same skeleton, which were in perfect preservation, and lying 
 in their natural juxtaposition ; they were probably drifted into 
 
78 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 the cave by gently flowing water, while still covered with their 
 flesh, and no movement of the ground had since separated them. 
 But no complete skeleton has as yet been discovered, even among 
 the smaller species of mammiferous animals, the disjunction of 
 which is generally less complete. 
 
 In almost all the caves Schmerling met with flint implements 
 chipped into the form of hatchets and knives, and he calls atten- 
 tion to the fact " that none of them could have been introduced 
 into the caves at a posterior epoch, as they were found in the 
 same position as the animal remains which accompanied them." 
 In the cave of Clokier, about two and a half miles from Liege, 
 he picked up a polished bone in the shape of a needle, having an 
 eye pierced at the base ; in the cave of Engis he likewise found 
 a carved bone, and also some worked flints. 
 
 We here close our enumeration of the various sources of the 
 archaeological records which have served to reconstruct the history 
 of primitive man during that period of the Stone Age which we 
 have designated under the name of the epoch of the great bear and 
 the mammoth. Before concluding our remarks as to this period, 
 there is one question which we must enter upon, although there 
 is a great deficiency in any positive records by which it might be 
 solved. What was the organic type of man during this epoch ? 
 Could we, for instance, determine what amount of intellect man 
 possessed in this earliest and ancient date of his history ? 
 
 The answer to this question although a very uncertain answer 
 has been supposed to have been found in the caves of Engis 
 and Engihoul, of which we have just spoken as having been 
 explored by Schmerling with such valuable results. 
 
 The cave of Engis contained the remains of three human beings, 
 among which were two skulls, one that of a youth, the other that of 
 an adult. The latter only was preserved, the former having fallen 
 into dust while it was being extracted from the ground. Two small 
 fragments of a human skull were likewise found at Engihoul, also a 
 great many of the bones of the hands and feet of three individuals. 
 
 The Engis skull has been a subject of protracted argument to 
 the palaeontologists and anatomists of the present day. Floods 
 of ink have been spilt upon the question; discussions without end 
 have taken place with respect to this piece of bone, in order to 
 fix accurately the amount of intellect possessed by the inhabitants 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 79 
 
 of Belgium during the epoch of the great bear and the mammoth. 
 Up to a certain point the development of the brain may, in fact, 
 be ascertained from the shape of the cranial envelope, and it is 
 well known that a remarkable similarity exists between the 
 cerebral capacity and the intellectual development of all mammi- 
 ferous animals. But in a question of this kind we must carefully 
 avoid a quicksand on which anthropologists too often make 
 shipwreck ; this danger consists in basing a theory on a too 
 limited number of elements, and of generalising conclusions 
 which are perhaps drawn from one special case. Because we find 
 a portion of a skull not even a whole skull belonging to a 
 human being contemporary with the great bear, we assume that 
 we cannot determine the amount of intellect possessed by man 
 during this epoch. But what proof have we that this skull is 
 not that of an idiot, or, on the contrary, the skull of an individual 
 possessing a superior degree of intelligence ? What deduction 
 can be logically drawn from the examination of one single skull ? 
 None whatever ! " Testis unus testis nullus;" and what is said by 
 jurisprudence, which is nothing but good sense in legal matters 
 science, which is nothing but good sense in learned questions, 
 ought likewise to repeat. If we found ten or twelve skulls, each 
 presenting the same characteristics, we should be justified in 
 thinking that we had before our eyes the human type correspond- 
 ing to the epoch we are considering; but, we again ask, what argu- 
 ments could be based on a few fragments of one single skull ? 
 
 These reservations having been laid down, let us see what 
 some of our great anatomical reasoners have thought about the 
 Engis skull. 
 
 The representation which we here give (Fig. 37) of the Engis 
 skull was taken from the cast in the Museum of Saint-Germain, and 
 we may perceive from it that the skull is not complete ; the entire 
 base of the skull is wanting, and all the bones of the face have 
 disappeared. Consequently it is impossible either to measure the 
 facial angle or to take account of the development of the lower jaw. 
 
 We shall not therefore surprise any of our readers when we stateX 
 that the opinions on this subject differ in the most extraordinary j 
 degree. In the eyes of Professor Huxley, the English anatomist, 
 this skull offers no indication of degradation ; it presents "a good / 
 average," and it might just as well be the head of a philosopher as / 
 
So 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 I the head of an uncivilised savage. To others for instance, to Carl 
 
 Vogt it indicates an altogether rudimentary degree of intellect. 
 
 Thus, Hippocrates-Huxley says yes, Galen-Vogt says 'no, and 
 
 Celsus-Lyell says neither yes nor no. This causes us but little 
 
 surprise, but it induces us not to waste more time in discussing 
 
 Fig. 37. Portion of a Skull of an Individual belonging to the Epoch of the Great Bear and the 
 Mammoth, found in the Cave of Engis. 
 
 a question altogether in the dark, that is, upon altogether 
 incomplete data. 
 
 We will now turn our attention to another skull, equally cele- 
 brated, which was found in 1857 by Dr. Fuhlrott, near Dusseldorf, 
 in a deep ravine known by the name of Neanderthal. This skull 
 
 Fig. 38. Portion of the so-called Neanderthal Skull. 
 
 (Fig. 38) was discovered in the midst of a small cave under a 
 layer of mud about 5 feet in thickness. The entire skeleton was 
 doubtless buried on the same spot, but the workmen engaged in 
 clearing out the cave must have inadvertently scattered a great 
 portion of the bones, for the largest only could be collected. 
 It is well to call attention to the fact that no animal remains 
 
EPOCH OF EXTINCT ANIMALS. 81 
 
 were found near these bones ; there is, therefore, no certain proof 
 that theJatter can be assigned to the epoch of the great bear: 
 they might, in fact, be either more recent or more modern. Most 
 geologists are, however, of opinion that they ought to be referred 
 to the above-named early date. 
 
 The Neanderthal skull, of which we possess even a smaller 
 portion than of the preceding, differs from the Engis skull. It 
 is characterised by an extraordinary development of the frontal 
 sinuses ; that is, by an enormous projection of the superciliary 
 ridges, behind which the frontal bone presents a considerable 
 depression. The cranium is very thick, and of an elongated 
 elliptical shape ; the forehead is narrow and low. 
 
 These remarks were made by Professor Schaafhausen, who 
 also established the fact of the identity in length of the femur, 
 the humerus, the radius, and the ulna, with the same bones of a 
 modern European of equal size. But the Prussian savant was 
 surprised at the really remarkable thickness of these bones, and 
 also at the large development of the projections and depressions 
 which served for the insertion of the muscles. 
 
 Fig. 38 represents this skull, which is drawn from the cast in 
 the Museum of Saint Germain. 
 
 Professor Schaaf hausen's opinion with regard to this skull is 
 that it manifests a degree of intelligence more limited than that 
 of the races of negroes who are least favoured by nature ; in other 
 words, it approaches the nature of the beast more nearly than 
 any other known human skull. But, on the other hand, Mr. Busk 
 and Dr. Barnard Davis look upon this skull as very closely allied 
 to the present race of men ; and Professor Gratiolet produced 
 before the Anthropological Society of Paris an idiot's head of 
 the present day, which showed all the osteological characteristics 
 peculiar to the Neanderthal skull. Lastly, an anthropologist of 
 great authority, Dr. Pruner-Bey, has brought forward all requisite 
 evidence to prove that the Neanderthal skull is identical, in all 
 its parts, with the cranium of the Celt. 
 
 We see, therefore, that the opinion propounded by Dr. Schaaf- 
 hausen at the commencement of his studies was not able to 
 stand its ground before the opposition resulting from subsequent 
 labours on the point ; and that this head of a man belonging to 
 the epoch of the great bear and mammoth, which he regarded ' 
 
 
 
82 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 as manifesting the most limited amount of intelligence, differed 
 in no way from the heads belonging to Celts of historic times, 
 whose moral qualities and manly courage make Frenchmen 
 proud to call themselves their descendants. 
 
 We need scarcely add that the examination of this latter skull, 
 which dated back to the first origin of mankind, is sufficient to set 
 at naught all that has been written as to the pretended analogy 
 of structure existing between primitive man and the ape, and to 
 wipe out for ever from scientific phraseology the improper and 
 unhappy term fossil man, which has not only been the cause of 
 so many lamentable misunderstandings, but has also too long 
 arrested the formation and the progress of the science of the 
 first starting-point of man. 
 
 Other remains of human skulls, appearing to date back to a 
 very ancient epoch, have been found in various countries, since 
 the discovery of those above-named. We will mention a jaw- 
 bone found by M. Edouard Dupont in the cave of Naulette, near 
 Dinant, in Belgium ; a frontal and parietal bone, extracted from 
 the Lehin in the valley of the Rhine, at Eggisheim, near Colmar, 
 by Dr. Faudel ; a skull found by Professor Bocchi, of Florence, 
 in the Olmo pass, near Arezzo ; lastly, the celebrated jaw-bone 
 from Moulin-Quignon, near Abbeville, found in 1863 by Boucher 
 de Perthes, in the diluvium, of which bone we have given an 
 illustration in the introduction to this volume. It is acknowledged 
 by all anthropologists that this portion of the skull of the man 
 of Moulin-Quignon bears a perfect resemblance to that of a man 
 of small size of the present age. 
 
 From the small number of skulls which we possess, it is im- 
 possible for us to estimate what was the precise degree of 
 intelligence to be ascribed to man at the epoch of the great bear 
 and mammoth. No one, assuredly, will be surprised at the fact 
 that the human skull in these prodigiously remote ages did not 
 present any external signs of great intellectual development. 
 The nature of man is eminently improvable ; it is, therefore, 
 easily to be understood, that in the earliest ages of his appearance 
 on the earth his intelligence should have been of a limited 
 character. Time and progress were destined both to improve 
 and extend it ; the flame of the first-lighted torch was to be ex- 
 panded with the lapse of centuries ! 
 
II. 
 
 EPOCH OF THE REINDEER, OR OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 Mankind during the Epoch of the Reindeer Their Manners and Customs Food 
 Garments Weapons, Utensils, and Implements Pottery Ornaments Primitive 
 Arts The principal Caverns Type of the Human Race during the Epoch of the 
 Reindeer. 
 
 WE have now arrived at that subdivision of the Stone Age which 
 we designate by the name of the Reindeer Epoch, or the Epoch of 
 migrated animals. Many ages have elapsed since the commence- 
 ment of the quaternary geological epoch. The mighty animals 
 which characterised the commencement of this period have dis- 
 appeared, or are on the point of becoming extinct. The great 
 bear (Ursus spelceus) and the cave-hyaena (Hycena spelced) will 
 soon cease to tread the soil of our earth. It will not be long 
 before the final term will be completed of the existence of the 
 cave-lion (Felis spelcea), the mammoth, and the Rhinoceros tichor- 
 hinus. Created beings diminish in size as they improve in type. 
 
 To make up for these losses, numerous herds of reindeer now 
 inhabit the forests of Western Europe. In that part of the conti- 
 nent which was one day to be called France, these animals make 
 their way as far as the Pyrenees. The horse (Equus caballus\ in 
 no way different from the present species, is the companion of the 
 above-named valuable ruminant ; also the bison (Biso europceus\ 
 the urus (Bos primigenius\ the musk-ox (Ovibos mosckatus), the 
 elk, the deer, the chamois, the ibex, and various species of rodents, 
 amongst others, the beaver, the hamster-rat, the lemming, the 
 spermophilus, &c. 
 
 After the intense cold of the glacial period the temperature has 
 become sensibly milder, but it is still much lower than at the 
 present day in the same countries ; as the reindeer, an animal 
 belonging to a hyperborean climate, can both enjoy life and mul- 
 tiply in the comparatively southern part of Europe. 
 
 The general composition of the fauna which we have just 
 described is a striking proof of the rigorous cold which still 
 
86 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 characterised the climate of central Europe. Animals which then 
 inhabited those countries are now only met with in the high 
 northern latitudes of the old and new worlds, in close proximity 
 to the ice and snow, or on the lofty summits of great mountain- 
 chains. To localities of this kind have now retired the reindeer, 
 the musk-ox, the elk, the chamois, the wild goat, the hamster-rat, 
 the lemming, and the spermophilus. The beaver, too, is at the 
 present day confined almost entirely to Canada. 
 
 Mr. Christy, an English naturalist, has remarked with much 
 acuteness that the accumulations of bones and other organic 
 remains in caves actually imply the existence of a rigorous climate. 
 Under the influence of even a merely moderate temperature, 
 these accumulations of bones and animal remains would, in fact, 
 have given forth putrid exhalations which would have prevented 
 any human being from living in close contiguity to these infectious 
 heaps. The Esquimaux of the present day live, in this respect, 
 very much like the people of primitive ages that is, close by the 
 side of the most fetid debris ; but, except in the cold regions of 
 the north, they would be quite unable to do this. 
 
 What progress was made by the man of the reindeer epoch 
 (Fig. 39) beyond that attained by his ancestors ? This is the 
 question we are about to consider. But we must confine the 
 sphere of our study to the only two countries in which a sufficient 
 number of investigations have been made in respect to the epoch 
 of the reindeer. We allude to that part of Europe which now- 
 adays forms France and Belgium. 
 
 During the reindeer epoch, man wrought the flint to better 
 effect than in the preceding period. He also manufactured some- 
 what remarkable implements in bone, ivory, and reindeer's horn. 
 In the preceding period, human bones were found in caves, mixed 
 up indiscriminately with those of animals; in the epoch we are now 
 considering, this promiscuous intermingling is no longer met with. 
 
 We shall first pass in review man as existing in this epoch, in 
 respect to his habitation and food. We shall then proceed to 
 speak of the productions of his industry, and also of the earliest 
 essays of his artistic genius. Lastly, we shall briefly consider his 
 physical organisation. 
 
 With respect to his habitation, man, during the reindeer epoch ; 
 
Fig. 39. Man of the Reindeer Epoch. (Page 86. 
 
EPOCH OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. 87 
 
 still took up his abode in caves. According to their depth and 
 the light penetrating them, he either occupied the whole extent 
 of them or established himself in the outlet only. About the 
 centre of the cavern some slabs of stone, selected from the 
 hardest rocks, such as sandstone or slate, were bedded down in 
 the ground, and formed the hearth for cooking his food. During 
 the long nights of winter the whole family must have assembled 
 round this hearth. 
 
 Sometimes, in order the better to defend himself against the 
 various surprises to which he was exposed, the man of the reindeer 
 epoch selected a cavern with a very narrow inlet which could 
 only be entered by climbing. 
 
 A cave formed naturally in the deepest clefts and hollows of 
 some rock constituted, in every climate, the earliest habitation of 
 man. In cold climates it was necessary for him to find some 
 retreat in which to pass the night, and in warmer latitudes he 
 had to ward off the heat of the day. But these natural dwellings 
 could only be met with in districts where rocks existed which 
 offered facilities for cover in the way of clefts and holes. When 
 man took up his abode in a level country, he was compelled to 
 construct for himself some place of shelter. By collecting to- 
 gether stones, brought from various directions, he then managed 
 to build an artificial cavern. Choosing a spot where some natural 
 projection overhung the ground, he enlarged, as far as he was able, 
 this natural roof, and, bringing art to the assistance of nature, he 
 ultimately found himself in possession of a convenient retreat. 
 
 We must not omit to add that the spot in which he established 
 his dwelling was always in the vicinity of some running stream. 
 
 In this way, therefore, the inhabitants of the plains formed 
 their habitations during the epoch which we are considering. 
 
 We have, also, certain proofs that primitive tribes, during this 
 period, did not take up their abode in natural caverns exclusively, 
 but that they were able to make for themselves more convenient 
 sheltering-places under the cover of some great overhanging rock. 
 In various regions of France, especially in Perigord, numerous 
 ancient open-air human settlements have been discovered. They 
 must have been mere sheds or places of shelter, leaning against 
 the base of some high cliff, and protected against the inclemency 
 
88 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 of the weather by projections of the rock which, more or less, 
 hung over them, forming a kind of roof. The name of rock- 
 shelters has been given to these dwellings of primitive man. 
 
 These wild retreats are generally met with in the lower part of 
 some valley in close proximity to a running stream. They, like 
 the caverns, contain very rich deposits of the bones of mammals, 
 birds, and fishes, and also specimens of hatchets and utensils made 
 of flint, bone, and horn. Traces of hearths are also discovered. 
 
 One of the most remarkable of these natural shelters belonging 
 to the reindeer epoch has been discovered at Bruniquel, in the 
 department of Tarn-et-Garonne, not far from Montauban. 
 
 On the left bank of the river Aveyron, under the overhanging 
 shelter of one of the highest rocks of Bruniquel and in close 
 proximity to a chateau, the picturesque ruins of which still stand 
 on the brow of the cliff above, there was discovered, in 1866, a 
 fire-hearth of the pre-historic period ; this hearth and its sur- 
 roundings have afforded us the most complete idea of one of the 
 rock-shelters of man during the reindeer epoch. 
 
 This rock, known by the name of Montastruc, is about 98 feet 
 high, and it overhangs the ground below for an extent of 46 to 
 49 feet. It covers an area of 298 square yards. In this spot, 
 M. V. Brun, the Director of the Museum of Natural History at 
 Montauban, found a host of objects of various descriptions, the 
 study of which has furnished many useful ideas for the history of 
 this epoch of primitive humanity. 
 
 By taking advantage of the photographic views of the pre- 
 historic settlement of Bruniquel, which M. V. Brun has been kind 
 enough to forward to us, we have been enabled to compose the 
 sketch which is presented in Fig. 40 of a rock-shelter, or an open- 
 air settlement of man in the reindeer epoch. 
 
 Men during the reindeer epoch did not possess any notion of 
 agriculture. They had not as yet subdued and domesticated any 
 animal so as to profit by its strength, or to ensure by its means a 
 constant supply of food. They 'were, therefore, like their fore- 
 fathers, essentially hunters ; and pursued wild animals, killing 
 them with their spears or arrows. The reindeer was the animal 
 which they chiefly attacked. This mammal, which then existed 
 all over Europe, in the centre as well as in the south (although it 
 has now retired or migrated into the regions of the extreme 
 
Fig. 40. Rock-shelter at Bruniquel, a supposed Habitation of Man during the Reindeer Epoch. (Page 88.) 
 
EPOCH OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. 89 
 
 north), was for the man of this period all that it nowadays is to 
 the Laplander the most precious gift of nature. They fed upon 
 its flesh and made their garments of its skin, utilising its tendons 
 as thread in the preparation of their dress ; its bones and its 
 antlers they converted into all kinds of weapons and implements. 
 Reindeer's horn was the earliest raw material in the manufactures 
 of these remote ages, and to the man of this epoch was all that 
 iron is to us. 
 
 The horse, the ox, the urus, the elk, the ibex, and the chamois, 
 all formed a considerable part of the food of men during this 
 epoch. They were in the habit of breaking the long bones and 
 the skulls of the recently-killed animals, in order to extract the 
 marrow and the brain, which they ate all steaming with the 
 natural animal heat, as is done in the present day by certain 
 tribes in the Arctic regions. The meat of this animal was cooked 
 on their rough hearths ; for they did not eat it raw, as some 
 naturalists have asserted. The animal bones which have been 
 found, intermingled with human remains, in the caverns of this 
 epoch, bear evident traces of the action of fire. 
 
 To this animal prey they occasionally added certain birds, such 
 as the great heath-cock, willow-grouse, owl, &c. When this kind 
 of game fell short, they fell back upon the rat. Round the hearth- 
 stone, in the cave of Chaleux, M. Dupont found more than twenty 
 pounds weight of the bones of water-rats, half roasted. 
 
 Fish is an article of food which has always been much sought 
 after by man. By mere inference we might, therefore, readily 
 imagine that man during the reindeer epoch fed on fish as well 
 as the flesh of animals, even if the fact were not attested by 
 positive evidence. This evidence is afforded by the remains of 
 fish-bones which are met with in the caves of this epoch, inter- 
 mingled with the bones of mammals, and also by sketches 
 representing parts of fishes, which are found roughly traced on a 
 great number of fragments of bone and horn implements. 
 
 The art of fishing, therefore, must certainly have been in exist- 
 ence during the reindeer epoch. We cannot assert that it was 
 practised during that of the great bear and the mammoth ; but, as 
 regards the period we are now considering, no doubt can be enter- 
 tained on the point. In an article on the " Origine de la Navigation 
 et de la Peche," M. G. de Mortillet expresses himself as follows: 
 
90 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 " The epoch of the reindeer presents to our notice several 
 specimens of fishing-tackle. The most simple is a little splinter 
 of bone, generally about one to two inches long, straight, slender, 
 and pointed at both ends. This is the primitive and elementary 
 fish-hook. This small fragment of bone or reindeer horn was 
 fastened by the middle and covered with a bait ; when swallowed 
 by a fish, or even by an aquatic bird, it became fixed in the in- 
 terior of the body by one of the pointed ends, and the voracious 
 creature found itself caught by the cord attached to the primitive 
 hook. At the Museum of Saint-Germain there are several of 
 these hooks, which came from the rich deposits of Bruniquel, near 
 Montauban (Tarn-et-Garonne). 
 
 " Hooks belonging to the reindeer epoch have also been found 
 in the caves and retreats of Dordogne, so well explored by MM. 
 Lartet and Christy. Along with those of the simple form which 
 we have just described, others were met with of a much more 
 perfect shape. These are likewise small fragments of bone or 
 reindeer's horn, with deep and wide notches on one side, forming 
 a more or less developed series of projecting and sharp teeth, or 
 barbs. Two of them are depicted in PLATE B, VI. of the ' Reli- 
 quise Aquitanicae.' M. Lartet is in possession of several of them ; 
 but the most remarkable specimen forms a part of the beautiful 
 collection of M. Peccadeau de 1'Isle, of Paris.'!* 
 
 There are strong reasons for believing that man during this 
 epoch did not confine himself to a diet of an exclusively carni- 
 vorous character, for vegetable food is in perfect harmony with 
 the organisation of our species. By means of wild fruits, acorns, 
 and chestnuts, he must have introduced some little variety into 
 his ordinary system of sustenance. 
 
 From the data which we have been considering, we furnish, in 
 Fig. 41, a representation of a feast during the reindeer epoch. 
 Men are engaged in cleaving the head of a urus, in order to ex.- 
 tract and devour the smoking brains. Others, sitting round the 
 fire in which the flesh of the same animal is being cooked, are 
 sucking out the marrow from the long bones of the reindeer, 
 which they have broken by blows with a hatchet. 
 
 It becomes a very interesting question to know whether the 
 * " Origine de la Navigation et de la Peche." Paris, 1867, p. 25. 
 
EPOCH OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. 91 
 
 men of these remote periods practised cannibalism or not. On ) 
 this point we have as yet no certain information. We will, how- 
 ever, state some facts which seem to make in favour of this idea. 
 
 Human skulls have been found in Scotland mixed up promis- 
 cuously with sculptured flints, remains of pottery, and children's 
 bones ; on the latter, Professor Owen thinks that he can recognise 
 the trace of human teeth. 
 
 At Solutre, in Maconnais, M. de Ferry has discovered human 
 finger-joints among the remains of cooking of the epoch of the 
 great bear and mammoth, and of that of the reindeer. 
 
 The appearance of certain bones from the cave of Ariege, dug 
 up by MM. Garrigou and Filhol, has led both these savants to the 
 opinion " that pre-historic man may have been anthropophagous." 
 
 The same conclusion would be arrived at from the explorations 
 which have been undertaken in the grottos and caves of Northern 
 Italy by M. Costa de Beauregard. This latter savant found in 
 the caves the small shin-bone of a child which had been carefully 
 emptied and cleansed, leading to the idea that the marrow had 
 been eaten. 
 
 At a point near Finale, on the road from Genoa to Nice, in a 
 vast cave which was for a long period employed as a habitation 
 for our race, M. Issel discovered some human bones which had 
 evidently been calcined. Their whitish colour, their lightness, 
 and their friability left no room for doubt on the point. Added 
 to this, the incrustations on their surface still contained small 
 fragments of carbon. Moreover, many of the bones showed 
 notches which could not have been made without the help of 
 some sharp instrument. 
 
 It is, therefore, probable that men in the Stone Age practised 
 anthropophagy; we have, really, no cause to be surprised at this, 
 since, in our own days, various savage tribes are addicted to can- 
 nibalism, under a considerable diversity of circumstances. 
 
 Not the least trace has been discovered of animals' bones being 
 gnawed by dogs in any of the human settlements during the 
 reindeer epoch. Man, therefore, had not as yet reduced the dog 
 to a state of domesticity. 
 
 How did primitive man dress himself during this epoch ? He 
 must have made garments out of the skins of the quadrupeds 
 
92 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 which he killed in hunting, and especially of the reindeer's hide. 
 There can be no doubt on this point. A large number of reindeers' 
 antlers found in Perigord have at their base certain cuts which 
 evidently could only have been produced in flaying the animal. 
 
 It is no less certainly proved that these men knew how to pre- 
 pare animals' skins by clearing them of their hair, and that they 
 were no longer compelled, like their ancestors, to cover them- 
 selves with rough bear-skins still covered with their fur. To 
 what purpose could they have applied the flint scrapers which 
 are met with everywhere in such abundance, except for scraping 
 the hair off the skins of wild beasts ? Having thus taken off 
 the hair, they render them supple by rubbing them in with brains 
 
 Fig. 42. Flint Bodkin or Stiletto for sewing Reindeer Fig. 43. Bone Needle for 
 
 Skins, found in the Cave of Les Eyzies (Perigord). sewing. 
 
 and the marrow extracted from the long bones of the reindeer. 
 Then they cut them out into some very simple patterns, which 
 are, of course, absolutely unknown to us; and, finally, they joined 
 together the different pieces by rough sewing. 
 
 The fact that man at this epoch knew how to sew together 
 reindeer skins, so as to convert them into garments, is proved by 
 the discovery of numerous specimens of instruments which must 
 have been used for this work ; these are and this is most re- 
 markable exactly the same as those employed nowadays by 
 the Laplanders for the same purpose. They consist of bodkins 
 or stilettos made of flint and bone (Fig. 42), by means of which 
 the holes were pierced in the skin ; also very carefully-fashioned 
 needles, mostly of bone or horn (Fig. 43). 
 
EPOCH OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. 
 
 93 
 
 The inspection of certain reindeer bones has likewise enabled 
 us to recognise the fact that the men of this age used for thread 
 the sinewy fibres of this animal. On these bones transverse cuts 
 may be noticed, just in those very spots where the section of the 
 tendon must have taken place. 
 
 No metal was as yet known ; consequently, man continued to 
 make use of stone instruments both for the implements of labour 
 and also for offensive and defensive weapons. The hatchet was 
 but little employed as a weapon of war, and the flint knife was 
 the arm most extensively used. We must add to this another 
 potent although natural weapon ; this was the lower jaw-bone of 
 the great bear, still retaining its sharp and pointed canine tooth. 
 The elongated and solid bone furnished the handle, and the 
 sharp tooth the formidable point ; and with this instrument man 
 could in the chase attack and pierce any animal with which he 
 entered into a hand-to-hand conflict. 
 
 It may be noticed that this weapon is placed in the hand of the 
 man in Fig. 39, which represents him during the reindeer epoch. 
 
 It must certainly be the case that 
 the human race possesses to a very 
 high degree the taste for personal 
 ornament, since objects used for 
 adornment are found in the most 
 remote ages of mankind and in 
 every country. There can be no 
 doubt that the men and women who 
 lived in the reindeer epoch sacrificed 
 to the graces. In the midst of their 
 precarious mode of life the idea en- 
 tered into their minds of manu- 
 facturing necklaces, bracelets, and 
 pendants, either with shells, which 
 they bored through the middle so 
 as to be able to string them as beads, 
 or with the teeth of various animals, which they pierced with 
 holes with the same intention, as represented in Fig. 44. 
 
 The horny portion of the ear of the horse or ox (Fig. 45) was like- 
 wise used for the same purpose, that is, as an object of adornment. 
 
 Fig. 44. The Ca- Fig. 45. Ornament 
 nine Tooth of a made of the bony part 
 Wolf, bored so of a Horse's Ear. 
 as to be used as 
 an ornament. 
 
94 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 It becomes a question whether man at this epoch had any belief 
 in a future life, and practised anything which bore a resemblance 
 to religious worship. The existence round the fire-hearths of the 
 burial-caverns in Belgium, of large fossil elephant (mammoth's) 
 bones a fact which has been pointed out by M. Edouard Dupont 
 gives us some reason for answering this question in the affir- 
 mative. According to M. Morlot, the practice of placing bones 
 round caverns still survives, as a religious idea, among the 
 Indians. We may, therefore, appeal to this discovery as a hint 
 in favour of the existence of some religious feeling among the 
 men Avho lived during the reindeer epoch. 
 
 In the tombs of this epoch are found the weapons and knives 
 which men carried during their lifetime, and sometimes even a 
 supply of the flesh of animals used for food. This custom of 
 placing near the body of the dead provisions for the journey to 
 "be taken post mortem is, as remarked in reference to the preceding 
 period, the proof of a belief in another life. 
 
 Certain religious, or rather superstitious, ideas may have been 
 attached to some glittering stones and bright fragments of ore 
 which have been picked up in several settlements of these primitive 
 tribes. M. d eVib ray e found at Bourdeilles (Charente) two nodules 
 of hydrated oxide of iron mixed with debris of all kinds ; and at 
 the settlement of Laugerie-Basse (Dordogne), in the middle of 
 the hearth, a small mass of copper covered with a layer of green 
 carbonate. In other spots there have been met with pieces of jet, 
 violet fluor, &c., pierced through the middle, doubtless to enable 
 them to be suspended to the neck and ears. The greater part of 
 these objects may possibly be looked upon as amulets that is, 
 symbols of some religious beliefs entertained by man during the 
 reindeer epoch. 
 
 The social instinct of man, the feeling which compels him to form 
 .an alliance with his fellow-man, had already manifested itself at this 
 early period. Communication was established between localities at 
 ;some considerable distance from one another. Thus it was that 
 the inhabitants of the banks of the Lesse in Belgium travelled as far 
 as that part of France which is now called Champagne, in order to 
 .seek the flints which they could not find in their own districts, 
 although they were indispensable to them in order to manufacture 
 
EPOCH OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. 
 
 95 
 
 their weapons and implements. They likewise brought back fossil 
 shells, of which they made fantastical necklaces. This distant 
 intercourse cannot be called in question, for certain evidences of 
 it can be adduced. M. Edouard Dupont found in the cave of 
 Chaleux, near Dinant (Belgium), fifty-four of these shells, which 
 are not found naturally anywhere else than in Champagne. Here, 
 therefore, we have the rudiments of commerce that is of the im- 
 portation and exchange of commodities which form its earliest 
 manifestations in all nations of the world. 
 
 Again, it may be stated that there existed at this epoch real 
 manufactories of weapons and utensils, the productions of which 
 were distributed around the neighbouring country according to 
 the particular requirements of each family. The cave of Chaleux, 
 which was mentioned above, seems to have been one of these 
 places of manufacture ; for from the 8th to the 3Oth of May, 
 during twenty-two days only, there were collected at this spot 
 nearly 20,000 flints chipped into hatchets, daggers, knives, 
 scrapers, scratchers, &c. 
 
 Workshops of this kind were established in the 
 settlements of Laugerie-Basse and Laugerie- 
 Haute in Perigord. The first was to all appear- 
 ance a special manufactory for spear-heads, some 
 specimens of which have been found by MM. 
 Lartet and Christy of an extremely remarkable 
 nature ; exact representations of them are deline- 
 ated in Fig. 46. In the second were fabricated 
 weapons and implements of reindeer's horn, if we 
 may judge by the large quantity of remains of 
 the antlers of those animals, which were met 
 with by these savants, almost all of which bear 
 the marks of sawing. 
 
 It is not, however, probable that the objects 
 thus manufactured were exported to any great 
 distance, as was subsequently the case that is, in 
 the polished stone epoch. How would it be pos- . 
 
 Laugerie-Basse (Pen- 
 
 sible to cross great rivers, and to pass through s rd )- 
 
 wide tracts overgrown with thick forests, in order to convey far 
 
 and wide these industrial products ; at a time, too, when no 
 
 _ 
 
 Fig. 46. Spear - head 
 
 ound i n e Cae f 
 
9 6 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 means of communication existed between one country and an- 
 other? But it is none the less curious to be able to verify the exist- 
 ence of a rudimentary commerce exercised at so remote an epoch. 
 
 The weapons, utensils, and implements which were used by man 
 during the reindeer epoch testify to a decided progress having been 
 made beyond those of the preceding period. The implements are 
 made of flint, bone, or horn ; but the latter kind are much the 
 most numerous, chiefly in the primitive settlements in the centre 
 and south of France. Those of Perigord are especially remarkable 
 for the abundance of instruments made of reindeers' bones. 
 
 The great diversity of type in the wrought flints furnishes a 
 very evident proof of the long duration of the historical epoch we 
 
 Fig. 47. Worked Flint from 
 Perigord (Knife). 
 
 Fig. 48. Worked Flint from 
 Perigord (Hatchet). 
 
 are considering. In the series of these instruments we can trace 
 all the phases of improvement in workmanship, beginning with 
 the rough shape of the hatchets found in the dihwium at Abbe- 
 ville, and culminating in those elegant spear-heads which are but 
 little inferior to any production of later times. 
 
 We here give representations (Figs. 47, 48, 49, 50) of the most 
 curious specimens of the stone and flint weapons of the reindeer 
 epoch. Knives and other small instruments, such as scrapers, 
 
EPOCH OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. 
 
 97 
 
 piercers, borers, &c., form the great majority ; hatchets are com- 
 paratively rare. Instruments are also met with which might be 
 used for a double purpose ; for instance, borers and also piercers. 
 There are also round stones which musthavebeen used as hammers; 
 it may, at least, be noticed that they have received repeated blows. 
 Sir J. Lubbock is of opinion that some of these stones were 
 employed in heating water, after they had been made red-hot in 
 the fire. According to the above-named author, this plan of pro- 
 curing hot water is still adopted among certain savage tribes who 
 are still ignorant of the art of pottery, and possess nothing but 
 wooden vessels, which cannot be placed over a fire.* 
 
 Fig. 49. Chipped Flint from Perigord (Knife). Fig. 50. Chipped Flint from Perigord (Scraper). 
 
 We must also mention the polishers formed of sandstone or 
 some other material with a rough surface. They could only be 
 used for polishing bone and horn, as the reindeer epoch does not 
 admit of instruments of polished stone. 
 
 There have also been collected here and there pebbles of granite 
 or quartzite hollowed out at the centre, and more or less perfectly 
 
 * " Pre-Historic Times," 2nd ed. p. 319. 
 
 H 
 
98 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 rounded on the edges. It has been conjectured that these were 
 mortars, although their small dimensions scarcely countenance 
 this hypothesis. Neither is it probable that they were used im- 
 pounding seed, as fancied by M. de Vibraye. Nor does the idea 
 which has been entertained of their being used for producing fire 
 seem to have any sufficient ground. 
 
 Among the most interesting specimens in the vast collection of 
 flints belonging to the reindeer epoch which have been found in 
 the countries of France and Belgium, we must mention the deli- 
 cate and very finely-toothed double-edged saws. The one we 
 here represent (Fig. 51) is in the Archaeological 
 Museum of Saint-Germain. It does not measure 
 more than three-quarters of an inch in length, 
 and about one-tenth of an inch in width. It was 
 found by M. V. Brun in one of the rock-shelters 
 at Bruniquel. 
 
 Saws of this kind were, no doubt, employed 
 for fashioning the antlers of the reindeer, and 
 other ruminants that shed their horns. The 
 antler was cut into on each side, and the fracture 
 was finished by hand. 
 
 The objects of bone and reindeer-horn found 
 in the caves of Perigord show a still greater 
 Fig 51 Small Flint variety, and a no less remarkable skilfulness in 
 lock -TLi" ' workmanship. 
 
 We may mention, for instance, the arrow and 
 javelin-heads. Some are slender and tapering off at both ends : 
 in others, the base terminates in a single or double bevel. Among 
 the latter, the greater part seem made to fix in a cleft stick ; some 
 are ornamented with lines and hatching over their surface. Others 
 have notches in them, somewhat similar to an attempt at barbing. 
 We now come to the barbed dart-heads, designated by the 
 name of harpoons. They taper off considerably towards the top, 
 and are characterised by very decided barbs, shaped like hooks, 
 and distributed sometimes on one side only, and sometimes on 
 both (Figs. 53, 54). In the latter case the barbs are arranged in 
 pairs, and are provided with a small furrowor middle groove, which, 
 according to some naturalists, was intended to hold some subtle 
 
Fig- 52. The Chase during the Reindeer Epoch. (Page 98 ) 
 
EPOCH OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. 
 
 99 
 
 poison. Like the present race of Indians of the American forests, 
 primitive man may possibly have poisoned his arrows ; and the 
 longitudinal groove, which is noticed in so many reindeer arrow- 
 heads, may have served to contain the poison. 
 
 We must not, however, fail to state that this opinion has been 
 abandoned, since it has been ascertained that the North American 
 Indians used in former times to hunt the bison with wooden 
 arrows furnished with grooves or channels of a similar character. 
 These channels are said to have been intended to give a freer 
 vent to the flow of the animal's blood, which was thus, so to speak, 
 sucked out of the wound. This may, therefore, have been the 
 intention of the grooves which are noticed on the dart-heads of 
 the reindeer epoch, and the idea of their having been poisoned 
 must be dismissed. 
 
 Fig- 53. Barbed Arrow of 
 Reindeer Horn. 
 
 Fig. 54. Arrow of Reindeer Horn, 
 with double Barbs. 
 
 These barbed darts or harpoons are still used by the Esquimaux 
 of the present day, in pursuing the seal. Such arrows, like those 
 of the primitive hordes of the reindeer epoch which are repre- 
 sented above (Figs. 53, 54), are sharply pointed and provided with 
 barbs ; they are fastened to a string and shot from a bow. The 
 Esquimaux sometimes attach an inflated bladder to the ex- 
 tremity of the arrow, so that the hunter may be apprised whether 
 
IOO 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 he has hit his mark, or in order to show in what direction he 
 should aim again. 
 
 We give here (Fig. 55) a drawing of a fragment of bone found 
 in the cave of Les Eyzies (Perigord) ; a portion of one of these 
 harpoons remains fixed in the bone. 
 
 We must assign to the class of implements the bone bodkins or 
 stilettos of different sizes, either with or without a handle (Figs. 
 
 Fig. 55. Animal Bone, pierced by an 
 Arrow of Reindeer Horn. 
 
 Fig. 56. Tool made of 
 Reindeer Horn, found 
 in the Cave of Laugerie- 
 Basse (Stiletto?). 
 
 Fig. 57. Tool made of 
 Reindeer Horn, found in 
 the Cave of Laugerie- 
 Basse (Needle ?). 
 
 56, 57), and also a numerous series of needles found in the caves 
 of Perigord, some of which are very slender and elegant, and made 
 of bone, horn, and even ivory. In some of the human settlements 
 of the reindeer epoch, bones have been found, from which long 
 splinters have been detached, fitted for the fabrication of needles. 
 The delicate points of flint have also been found which were used 
 to bore the eyes of the needles, and, lastly, the lumps of sandstone 
 on which the latter were polished. 
 
EPOCH OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. 
 
 101 
 
 We must, likewise, point out the smoothers, intended to flatten 
 down the seams in the skins used for garments. 
 
 One of the most important instruments of this epoch is a per- 
 fect drill with a sharpened point and cutting edge. With this 
 flint point rapidly twirled round, holes could be 
 bored in any kind of material bone, teeth, horn, 
 or shells. This stone drill worked as well as our 
 tool made of steel, according to the statement of 
 certain naturalists who have tried the effect of them. 
 
 The primitive human settlement at Laugerie- 
 Basse has furnished several specimens of an in- 
 strument, the exact use of which has not been 
 ascertained. They are rods, tapering off at one 
 end, and hollowed out at the other in the shape 
 of a spoon. M. Edouard Lartet has propounded 
 the opinion that they were used by the tribes of 
 this epoch as spoons, in order to extract the mar- 
 row from the long bones of the animals which 
 were used for their food. M. Lartet would not, 
 however, venture to assert this, and adds : " It is, 
 perhaps, probable that our primitive forefathers 
 would not have taken so much trouble." Be this 
 as it may, one of these instruments is very re- 
 markable for the lines and ornaments in relief 
 with which it is decorated, testifying to the 
 existence in the workman of some feeling of 
 symmetry (Fig. 58). 
 
 In various caves at Les Eyzies, Laugerie- 
 Basse, and Chaffant, commune of Savigne (Vienne) 
 whistles of a peculiar kind have been found (Fig. 59). They 
 are made from the first joint of the foot of the reindeer or some 
 other ruminant of the stag genus. A hole has been bored in the 
 base of the bone, a little in front of the metatarsal joint. If one 
 blows into this hole, placing the lower lip in the hollow answering 
 to the above-named joint, a shrill sound is produced, similar to 
 that made by blowing into a piped key. We ourselves have 
 h ad the pleasure of verifying the fact, at the Museum of Saint- 
 Germain, that these primitive whistles act very well. 
 
 Fig. 58. Spoon of 
 Reindeer Horn. 
 
102 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 The settlements at Perigord have also furnished a certain 
 number of staves made of reindeer horn (Figs. 60, 61), the proper 
 functions of which no one has succeeded in properly explaining. 
 They are invariably bored with one or more holes at the base, 
 and are covered with designs to which we shall hereafter refer. 
 M. Lartet has thought that they were perhaps symbols or staves 
 of authority. 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 59. Knuckle-Bone ot Fig. 60. Staff of authority Fig. 61. Another Staff of 
 
 a Reindeer's Foot, bored in Reindeer's Horn, found authority in Reindeer's 
 
 with a hole and used as in the Cave of Perigord. Horn, 
 a Whistle. 
 
 This explanation appears the correct one when we consider the 
 care with which these batons were fashioned. If the hypothesis of 
 their being symbols of authority be adopted, the varying number 
 of the holes would not be without intention ; it might point to 
 some kind of hierarchy, the highest grade of which corresponded 
 to the baton with the most holes. Thus, in the Chinese empire, 
 the degree of a mandarin's authority is estimated by the number 
 of buttons on his silk cap. And just as in the Mussulman hier- 
 
EPOCH OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. 103 
 
 .archy there were pachas of from one to three tails, so it may be 
 fancied that among primitive man of the reindeer epoch there 
 -were chiefs of from one to three holes. 
 
 We have already stated that in the epoch of the great bear and 
 the mammoth the art of manufacturing a rough description of 
 pottery was, perhaps, known in Europe. The men of the rein- 
 deer epoch made, however, but little progress in this respect. 
 Nevertheless, if certain relics really belong to this period, they 
 may have known how to make rough vessels, formed of clay, 
 mixed with sand, and hardened by the action of fire. This 
 primitive art was, as yet, anything but generally adopted ; for we 
 rarely find debris of pottery in close contiguity with other remains 
 of the reindeer epoch. 
 
 The Archaeological Museum of Saint-Germain is in possession 
 of a hollow vessel, a natural geode, very large and very thick 
 
 Fig. 62. A Geode, used as a cooking Vessel (?), found in the Cave of La Madeleine (Perigord). 
 
 (Fig. 62). It was found in the cave of La Madeleine (department 
 of Dordogne); on one side it has evidently been subjected to the 
 action of fire, and may therefore be presumed to have been used 
 as a large vessel for culinary purposes. 
 
 In a cave at Furfooz, near Dinant in Belgium, to which we shall 
 subsequently refer, M. Edouard Dupont found, intermingled with 
 human bones, an urn, or specimen of rough pottery, which is 
 perhaps one of the most ancient monuments of the ceramic art as 
 practised by our primitive ancestors. This urn (Fig. 63) was partly 
 broken ; by the care of M. Hauzeur it has been put together 
 again, as we represent it from the work of M. le Hon.* 
 
 * "L'Homme Fossile." Brussels, 1868 (p. 71). 
 
104 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 It is in the reindeer epoch that we find the earliest traces of 
 any artistic feeling manifested in man. 
 
 It is a circumstance well worthy of remark, that this feeling 
 appears to have been the peculiar attribute of the tribes which 
 inhabited the south-west of the present France; the departments 
 of Dordogne, Vienne, Charente, Tarn-et-Garonne, and Ariege are,, 
 in fact, the only localities where designs and carvings representing 
 organised beings have been discovered. The departments in the 
 east have not furnished anything of a similar character, any 
 more than Belgium, which has been so thoroughly explored by 
 M. Edouard Dupont, or Wurtemburg, where M. Frass has lately 
 described various settlements of this primitive epoch. 
 
 Fig. 63. Earthen Vase found in the Cave of Furfooz (Belgium). 
 
 It is not sufficient to allege, in order to explain this singular 
 circumstance, that the caves in the south of France belong to a 
 later period of the reindeer epoch, and that the others go back to 
 the earliest commencement of the same age. Apart from the fact 
 that this assertion is in no way proved, a complete and ready 
 answer is involved in the well-verified circumstance, that even in 
 later ages in the polished stone, and even in the bronze epoch 
 no representation of an animal or plant is found to have been exe- 
 cuted in these localities. No specimen of the kind has, in fact, 
 been found in the kitchen-middens of Denmark, or in the lacus- 
 trine settlements of the Stone Age, or even of the Bronze Age. 
 
 It must, then, be admitted that the tribes which were scattered 
 
EPOCH OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. 105 
 
 over those portions of the European continent which now corre- 
 spond to the south-west of France, possessed a special talent in 
 the art of design. There is, moreover, nothing unreasonable in 
 such a supposition. An artistic feeling is not always the off- 
 spring of civilisation, it is rather a gift of nature. It may mani- 
 fest its existence in the most barbarous ages, and may make its 
 influence more deeply felt in nations which are behindhand in 
 respect to general progress than in others which are much further 
 advanced in civilisation. 
 
 There can be no doubt that the rudiments of engraving and 
 sculpture of which we are about to take a view, testify to faculties 
 of an essentially artistic character. Shapes are so well imitated, 
 movements are so thoroughly caught, as it were, in the sudden fact 
 of action, that it is almost always possible to recognise the object 
 which the ancient workman desired to represent, although he had 
 at his disposal nothing but the rudest instruments for executing his 
 work. A splinter of flint was his sole graving-tool, a piece of rein- 
 deer horn, or a flake of slate or ivory, was the only plate on which 
 primitive man could stamp his reproductions of animated nature. 
 
 Perhaps they drew on stone or horn with lumps of red chalk or 
 ochre, for both these substances have been found in the caves of 
 primitive man. Perhaps, too, as is the case with modern savages, 
 the ochre and red chalk were used besides for painting or tattooing 
 his body. When the design was thus executed on stone or horn, 
 it was afterwards engraved with the point of some flint instrument. 
 
 Those persons who have attentively examined the interesting 
 gallery of the Histoire du Travail in the International Exposition 
 of 1867, must have remarked a magnificent collection of these 
 artistic productions of primeval ages. There were no less than 
 fifty-one specimens, which were exhibited by several collectors, and 
 were for the most part extremely curious. In his interesting work, 
 "Promenades Prehistoriques a 1'Exposition Universelle," M.Gabriel 
 de Mortillet has carefully described these objects. In endeavouring 
 to obtain some knowledge of them, we shall take as our guide the 
 learned curator of the Archaeological Museum of Saint-Germain. 
 
 We have, in the first place, various representations of the 
 mammoth, which was still in existence at the commencement of 
 the reindeer epoch. 
 
io6 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 The first (Fig. 64) is an outline sketch, drawn on a slab of 
 ivory, from the cave of La Madeleine. When MM. Lartet and 
 Christy found it, it was broken into five pieces, which they 
 managed to put together very accurately. The small eye and 
 the curved tusks of the animal may be perfectly distinguished, as 
 well as its huge trunk, and even its abundant mane, the latter 
 proving that it is really the mammoth that is, the fossil and 
 not the present species of elephant. 
 
 The second figure is an entire mammoth, graven on a fragment 
 of reindeer horn, from the rock-shelters of Bruniquel, and belongs 
 to M. Peccadeau de 1'Isle. This figure forms the hilt of a poniard, 
 the blade of which springs from the front part of the animal. It 
 may be recognised to be the mammoth by its trunk, its wide flat 
 feet, and especially by its erect tail, ending in a bunch of hair. 
 
 Fig. 64. Sketch of a Mammoth, graven on a Slab of Ivory. 
 
 In point of fact, the present species of elephant never sets up the 
 tail, and has no bunch of hair at the end of it 
 
 A third object brought from the pre-historic station of Laugerie- 
 Basse (M. de Vibraye's collection) is the lower end of a staff of 
 authority, carved in the form of a mammoth's head. The promi- 
 nent forehead, and the body of the animal stretching along the 
 base of the staff, may both be very distinctly seen. 
 
 On another fragment of a staff of authority, found at Bruniquel 
 by M. V. Brun, the cave-lion (Felis spclaa] is carved with great 
 clearness. The head, in particular, is perfectly represented. 
 
 Representations of reindeer, either carved or scratched on stone 
 or horn, are very common ; we mention the following : 
 
 In the first place the hilt of a dagger in reindeer's horn 
 (Fig. 65) of the same type as that shaped in the form of a mam- 
 moth. This specimen is remarkable, because the artist has most 
 
EPOCH OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. 107 
 
 skilfully adapted the shape of the animal to the purpose for which 
 the instrument was intended. The hilt represents a reindeer, 
 which is carved out as if lying in a very peculiar position ; the 
 hind legs are stretched along the blade, and the front legs are 
 doubled back under the belly, so as not to hurt the hand of any 
 one holding the dagger ; lastly, the head is thrown back, the 
 muzzle turned upwards, and the horns flattened down so as not 
 to interfere with the grasp. 
 
 This is, at all events, nothing but a rough sketch. The same 
 remark, however, does not apply to two ivory daggers found at 
 Bruniquel by M. Peccadeau de 1'Isle. These objects are very 
 artistically executed, and are the most finished specimens that 
 have been found up to the present time. Both of them represent 
 a reindeer with the head thrown back as in the preceding plate ; 
 
 Fig. 65. Hilt of a Dagger, carved in the shape of a Reindeer. 
 
 but whilst in one dagger the blade springs from the hinder part 
 of the body, in the same way as in the rough-hewn horn, in the 
 other it proceeds from the front of the body, between the head 
 and the forelegs. The hind legs are stretched out and meet 
 again at the feet, thus forming a hole between them, which was 
 probably used as a ring on which to suspend the dagger. 
 
 We must not omit to mention a slab of slate, on which is drawn 
 in outline a reindeer fight. It was found at Laugerie-Basse by 
 M. de Vibraye. The artist has endeavoured to portray one of 
 those furious contests in which the male reindeer engages during 
 the rutting season, in order to obtain possession of the females ; 
 he has executed his design in a spirited manner, marked by a 
 certain naivete. 
 
 There are a good many other fragments on which reindeer are 
 either drawn or carved ; we shall not dwell upon them, but add 
 
io8 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 a few remarks as to several specimens on which are representa- 
 tions of the stag, the horse, the bison, the ibex, &c. 
 
 A representation of a stag (Fig. 66) is drawn on a fragment of 
 stag's horn found in the cave of La Madeleine by MM. Lartet and 
 Christy. The shape of the antlers, which are very different to those 
 of the reindeer, leave no doubt as to the identity of the animal. 
 
 Fig. 66. Representation of a Stag, drawn on a Stag's Horn. 
 
 The ox and the bison are represented in various fashions. We 
 will mention here a carved head which was found in the cave of 
 Laugerie-Basse by M. de Vibraye. It forms the base of a staff 
 of authority. 
 
 We must, doubtless, class under the same category a fragment 
 of reindeer's horn, found at Laugerie-Basse, on which the hind- 
 quarters of some large herbivorous animal are sketched out with 
 
 Fig. 67. Representation of some large herbivorous Animal on a Fragment of Reindeer's Horn. 
 
 a bold and practised touch (Fig. 67). Various indications have 
 led M. Lartet to think that the artist has not endeavoured to re- 
 present a horse, as was at first imagined, but a bison of rather a 
 slender shape. Unfortunately the fragment is broken at the exact 
 spot where the bushy mane should begin, which characterises the 
 species of the bison sub-genus. 
 
Fig. 63. Arts of Drawing and Sculpture during the Reindeer Epoch. (Page 108.) 
 
EPOCH OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. 
 
 109 
 
 In the same locality another fragment of reindeer's horn was 
 found, on which some horned animal is depicted (Fig. 69), which 
 appears to be an ibex, if we may judge by the lines under the 
 <;hin, which seem to indicate a beard. 
 
 Fig. 69. Representation of an Animal, sketched on a Fragment of Reindeer's Horn. 
 
 In the cave of Les Eyzies, in the department of Dordogne, MM. 
 Lartet and Christy came upon two slabs of quartziferous schist, on 
 l>oth of which are scratched animal forms which are deficient in 
 .any special characteristics. In one (Fig. 70), some have fancied 
 
 Fig. 70. Fragment of a Slab of Schist, bearing the representation of some Animal, and found in 
 the Cave of Les Eyzies. 
 
 they could recognise the elk ; but, as the front part only of the 
 other has been preserved, it is almost impossible to determine 
 what mammiferous animal it is intended to represent. An indis- 
 tinct trace of horns seems to indicate a herbivorous animal. 
 
no 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 \\ 
 
 On each side of a staff of authority made of reindeer's horn, 
 found by MM. Lartet and Christy in the cave of the Madeleine, 
 may be noticed three horses in demi-relief, which are very easily 
 recognisable. 
 
 On a carved bone, found at Bruniquel by M. de Lastic, the head 
 of a reindeer and that of a horse are drawn in outline side by 
 side ; the characteristics of both animals are well maintained. 
 Lastly, we may name a round shaft formed of reindeer's horn 
 (Fig. 71), found at Laugerie-Basse by MM. Lartet 
 and Christy, on which is carved an animal's head, 
 with ears of a considerable length laid back upon 
 the head. It is not easy to determine for what 
 purpose this shaft was intended ; one end being 
 pointed and provided with a lateral hook. It 
 was perhaps used as a harpoon. 
 
 Representations of birds are more uncommon 
 than those of mammals. 
 
 There are, on the other hand, a good many 
 rough delineations of fish, principally on the so- 
 called wands of authority, on which numbers may 
 often be noticed following one another in a series. 
 We have one delineation of a fish, skilfully drawn 
 on a fragment of the lower jaw-bone of a rein- 
 deer, which was found at Laugerie-Basse. 
 
 Also in the cave of La Vache (Ariege), M. 
 Garrigou found a fragment of bone, on which 
 there is a clever design of a fish. 
 Very few representations of reptiles have come to light, and 
 those found are in general badly executed. We must, however, 
 make an exception in favour of the figure of a tadpole, scratched 
 out on an arrow-head, found in the cave of the Madeleine. 
 
 Designs representing flowers are very rare ; in the Galerie du 
 Travail, at the Exposition, only three specimens are exhibited ; 
 they came from La Madeleine and Laugerie-Basse, and were all 
 three graven on spear-heads. 
 
 But did the men of the reindeer epoch make no attempts to 
 portray their own personal appearance ? Have not the excava- 
 tions dug in the settlements of primitive man, found in Perigord, 
 
 Fig. 71. A kind of 
 Harpoon of Rein- 
 deer's Horn, carved 
 
 Animal's 
 
 ape o 
 Head. 
 
EPOCH OF MIGRATED ANIMALS, in 
 
 ever brought to light any imitation of the human form? Nothing 
 could exceed the interest of such a discovery. Research has not 
 been entirely fruitless in this respect, and it is hoped that the first 
 attempt in the art of statuary of this primitive people may yet be 
 discovered. In the cave of Laugerie-Basse, M. de Vibraye found 
 a little ivory statuette, which he takes to be a kind of idol of an 
 indecent character. The head and legs, as well as the arms, are 
 broken off. 
 
 Another human figure (Fig. 72), which, like the preceding one, 
 is long and lean, is graven on a staff of authority, a fragment of 
 which was found in the cave of La Madeleine by MM. Lartet and 
 Christy. The man is represented standing between two horses' 
 heads, and by the side of a long serpent or fish/having the appear- 
 ance of an eel. On the reverse side of the same baton, which is 
 not given in the figure, the heads of two bisons are represented. 
 
 Fig. 72. Staff of Authority, on which are graven representations of a Man, two Horses, and a Fish. 
 
 On a fragment of a spear-head, found in the same settlement of 
 Laugerie-Basse, there is a series of human hands, provided with 
 four fingers only, represented in demi-relief. M . Lartet has called 
 attention to the fact, that certain savage tribes still depict the 
 hand without noticing the thumb. 
 
 In Fig. 39, which represents man during the reindeer epoch, 
 such as we must suppose him tohave been from the sum total of our 
 present stock of information on the point, we see a man clothed in 
 garments sewn with a needle, carrying as his chief weapon the 
 jaw-bone of a bear armed with its sharp fang, and also provided 
 with his flint hatchet or knife. Close to him is a woman seated, 
 arrayed in all the personal ornaments which are known to have 
 been peculiar to this epoch. 
 
 The question now arises, what were the characteristics of man \ 
 during the reindeer epoch, with regard to his physical organisation >J 
 
ii2 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 We know a little of some of the broader features of his physiog- 
 nomy from studying the objects found in the Belgian bone-caves, 
 of which we have spoken in the introduction to this work. These 
 caves were explored by M. Edouard Dupont, assisted by M. Van 
 Beneden, a Belgian palaeontologist and anatomist. The excava- 
 tions in question were ordered by King Leopold's Government, 
 which supplied the funds necessary for extending them as far as 
 possible. The three caves, all situated in the valley of the Lesse, 
 are the Trou des Nutons, the Trou du Frontal, at Furfooz, near 
 Dinant, and the Caverne de Chaleux, in the neighbourhood of the 
 town from which its name is derived. 
 
 The Trou des Nutons and the Trou du Frontal have been com- 
 pletely thrown into confusion by a violent inroad of water ; for 
 the debris that they contained were intermingled in an almost in- 
 credible confusion with a quantity of earthy matter and calcareous 
 rocks, which had been drifted in by the inundation. 
 
 In the Trou des Nutons, which is situated about 1 64 feet above 
 the level of the Lesse, M. Van Beneden recognised a great many 
 bones of the reindeer, the urus, and many other species which are 
 not yet extinct. These bones were indiscriminately mixed up with 
 bones and horns of the reindeer carved into different shapes ; 
 knuckle-bones of the goat polished on both sides ; a whistle made 
 from the tibia of a goat, from which sounds could still be produced ; 
 fragments of very coarse pottery; some remains of fire-hearths, &c. 
 
 The Trou du Frontal was thus named by M. Edouard Dupont, 
 from the fact of a human frontal-bone having been found there on 
 the day that the excavations commenced. This was not the only 
 discovery of the kind that was to be made. Ere long they fell in 
 with a great quantity of human bones, intermixed with a consider- 
 able number of the bones of reindeer and other animals, as well as 
 implements of all kinds. M. Van Beneden ascertained that the 
 bones must have belonged to thirteen persons of various ages ; 
 some of them are the bones of infants scarcely a year old. Among 
 them were found two perfect skulls which are in good preserva- 
 tion ; these remains are also very valuable, because they afford 
 data from which deductions may be drawn as to the cranial con- 
 formation of the primitive inhabitants of the banks of the Lesse. 
 
 M. Edouard Dupont is of opinion that this cave was used as a 
 
EPOCH OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. 113 
 
 burial-place. It is, in fact, very probable that such was the pur- 
 pose for which it was intended ; for a large flag-stone was found 
 in it, which was probably used to close up the mouth of the cave, 
 and to shield the dead bodies from profanation. If this be the 
 case, the animal bones which were scattered around are the re- 
 mains of the funeral banquets which it was the custom to provide 
 during the epoch of the great bear and the mammoth. 
 
 It is interesting to establish the existence of such a similarity 
 between the customs of men who were separated by vast tracts of 
 land and an interval of many thousands of years. 
 
 Immediately above the Trou du Frontal there is a cave called 
 Trou Rosette, in which the bones of three persons of various ages 
 were found intermingled with the bones of reindeer and beavers ; 
 fragments of a blackish kind of pottery were also found there, 
 which were hollowed out in rough grooves by way of ornamenta- 
 tion, and merely hardened in the fire. M. Dupont is of opinion 
 that the three men whose remains were discovered were crushed 
 to death by masses of rock at the time of the great inundation, 
 traces of which may still be seen in the valley of the Lesse. 
 
 By the falling in of its roof, which buried under a mass of 
 rubbish all the objects which were contained in it at the time of 
 the catastrophe, and thus kept them in their places, the cave of 
 Chaleux escaped the complete disturbance with which the above- 
 mentioned caverns were visited. The bones of mammals, of birds, 
 and of fish were found there ; also some carved bones and horns 
 of the reindeer, some fossil shells, which, as we have before 
 observed, came from Champagne, and were used as ornaments ; 
 lastly, and chiefly, wrought flints numbering at least 30,000. In 
 the hearth, which was placed in the middle of the cave, a stone 
 was discovered with certain signs on it, which, up to the present 
 time, have remained unexplained. M. Dupont, as we have pre- 
 viously stated, collected in the immediate vicinity about twenty- 
 two pounds' weight of the bones of the water-rat either scorched 
 or roasted ; this proves that when a more noble and substantial 
 food failed them, the primitive inhabitants of this country were 
 able to content themselves with these small and unsavoury rodents. 
 
 The two skulls which were found at Furfooz have been care- 
 fully examined by MM. Van Beneden and Pruner-Bey, who are 
 
 I 
 
ii4 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 both great authorities on the subject of anthropology. These 
 skulls present considerable discrepancies, but Pruner-Be is of 
 opinion that they are heads of a male and female of the same race. 
 In order to justify his hypothesis the learned anthropologist says, 
 that there is often more difference between the skulls of the two 
 sexes of the same race, than between the skulls of the same sex 
 belonging to two distinct races. 
 
 One of these skulls is distinguished by a projecting jaw ; the 
 other, which is represented in Fig. 73, has jaws even with the facial 
 outline. The prominent jaw of the first, which is the indication 
 of a degraded race (like that of the negro), does not prevent its 
 having a higher forehead and a more capacious cranium than the 
 other skull. We find here an actual intermingling of the charac- 
 
 
 73- Skull found at Furfooz, by M. Edouard Dupont. 
 
 teristics which belong to the inferior races with those peculiar to 
 the Caucasian race, which is considered to be the most exalted 
 , type of the human species. 
 
 '"According to Pruner-Bey, the Belgian people during the rein- 
 deer epoch were a race of small stature but very sturdy ; the face 
 was lozenge-shaped, and the whole skull had the appearance of a 
 pyramid. This race of a Turanian or Mongolian origin was the 
 same as the Ligurian or Iberian race, which still exists in the north 
 of Italy (Gulf of Genoa) and in the Pyrenees (Basque districts). 
 
 These conclusions must be accepted with the highest degree of 
 caution, for they do not agree with the opinions of all anthropo- 
 logists. M. Broca is of opinion that the Basques have sprung from 
 a North African race, which spread over Europe at a time when 
 an isthmus existed where the Straits of Gibraltar are now situated. 
 
EPOCH OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. 115 
 
 This idea is only reasonable ; for certain facts prove that Europe 
 and Africa were formerly connected by a neck of land ; this 
 was afterwards submerged, at the spot where the Straits of 
 Gibraltar now exist, bringing about the disjunction of Europe 
 and Africa. It will be sufficient proof, if we point to the analogy 
 subsisting between the fauna of the two countries, which is 
 established by the existence of a number of wild monkeys which, 
 even in the present day, inhabit this arid rock, and are also to be 
 met with on the opposite African shore. 
 
 In the interesting excavations which were made in the rock- 
 shelters at Bruniquel, M. V. Brun found a quantity of human 
 bones, and particularly two skulls one that of an old man, the 
 other that of an adult. We here (Fig. 74) give a representation 
 
 Fig. 74. Skull of an old Man, found in a Rock-shelter at Bruniquel. 
 
 of the old man's skull taken from a photograph which M. V. Brun 
 has been kind enough to send us. 
 
 If we measure the facial angle of this skull, we shall find that 
 it does not differ from the skulls of the men who at the present 
 time inhabit the same climates. From this fact, it may be gathered 
 how mistaken the idea may be which looks upon primitive man, 
 or the man of the stone epoch, as a being essentially different from 
 the men of the present day. The phrase fossil man, we must 
 again repeat, should be expunged from the vocabulary of science ; 
 we should thus harmonise better with established facts, and 
 should also do away with a misunderstanding which is highly 
 detrimental to the investigations into the origin of man. 
 
 In concluding this account of the manners and customs of man, 
 during the reindeer epoch, we must say a few words as to the 
 
u6 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 funeral rites of this time, or rather, the mode of burial peculiar to 
 this period of primitive man's history. 
 
 Those who lived in caves buried their dead in caves. It is also 
 a fact to be remarked, that man often uses the same type for 
 both his burial-places and dwelling-places. 
 
 The burial-places of the Tartars of Kasan, says M. Nilsson, are 
 exact likenesses, on a small scale, of their dwelling-places, and 
 like them, are constructed of beams placed close to one another. 
 A Circassian burial-place is perfectly similar to a Circassian dwell- 
 ing. The tombs of the Karaite Jews, in the valley of Jehosha- 
 phat, resemble their houses and places of worship, and the Neo- 
 Grecian tombs, in the Crimea, are likewise imitations of their 
 churches.* 
 
 We shall not, therefore, be surprised to learn that man during 
 the reindeer epoch buried his dead in caves, just in the same way 
 as was done by his ancestors during the epoch of the great bear 
 and the mammoth ; that is to say, the dead were interred in the 
 same kind of caves as those which were then generally used as 
 places of abode. 
 
 Fig. 75 represents a funeral ceremonial during the reindeer 
 epoch. 
 
 The corpse is borne on a litter of boughs, a practice which is 
 still in use among some modern savages. Men provided with 
 torches, that is, branches of resinous trees, preceded the funeral 
 procession, in order to light the interior of the cavern. The cave 
 is open, ready to receive the corpse, and it will be closed again 
 after it is deposited there. The weapons, ornaments, and utensils 
 which he had prized during his lifetime are brought in to be laid 
 by the side of the dead. 
 
 We will sum up the principal facts which we have laid before 
 our readers in this account of the condition of mankind during 
 the reindeer epoch, by quoting an eloquent passage from a report 
 addressed by M. Edouard Dupont to the Belgian Minister of the 
 Interior, on the excavations carried on by this eminent Belgian 
 geologist in the caves in the neighbourhood of Furfooz. 
 
 " The data obtained from the fossils of Chaleux, together with 
 
 * " The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia," by Sven Nilsson, p. 155. London, 
 1868. 
 
EPOCH OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. 117 
 
 those which have been met with in the caves of Furfooz, present 
 us," says M. Dupont, " with a striking picture of the primitive 
 ages of mankind in Belgium. 
 
 "These ancient tribes and all their customs, after having been 
 buried in oblivion for thousands and thousands of years, are again 
 vividly brought before our eyes ; and, like the wondrous bird, 
 which, in its ashes, found a new source of life, antiquity lives 
 again in the relics of its former existence. 
 
 " We may almost fancy that we can see them in their dark and 
 subterranean retreats, crouching round their hearths, and skilfully 
 and patiently chipping out their flint instruments and shaping 
 their reindeer-horn tools, in the midst of all the pestilential 
 emanations arising from the various animal remains which their 
 carelessness has allowed to remain in their dwellings. Skins of 
 wild beasts are stripped of their hair, and, by the aid of flint 
 needles, are converted into garments. In our mind's eye, we may 
 see them engaged in the chase, and hunting wild animals their 
 only weapons being darts and spears, the fatal points of which 
 are formed of nothing but a splinter of flint. 
 
 "Again, we are present at their feasts, in which, during the 
 period when their hunting has been fortunate, a horse, a bear, or 
 a reindeer becomes the more noble substitute for the tainted flesh 
 of the rat, their sole resource in the time of famine. 
 
 " Now, we see them trafficking with the tribes inhabiting the 
 region now called France, and procuring the jet and fossil shells 
 with which they love to adorn themselves, and the flint which is 
 to them so precious a material. On one side they are picking up 
 the fluor spar, the colour of which is pleasing to their eyes ; on 
 the other, they are digging out the great slabs of sandstone 
 which are to be placed as hearthstones round their fire. 
 
 " But, alas ! inauspicious days arrive, and certainly misfortune 
 does not seem to spare them. A falling in of the roof of their cave 
 drives them out of their chief dwelling-place. The objects of their 
 worship, their weapons, and their utensils all are buried there, 
 and they are forced to fly and take up their abode in another spot. 
 
 " The ravages of death break in upon them ; how great are the 
 cares which are now lavished upon those whom they have lost ! 
 They bear the corpse into its cavernous sepulchre ; some weapons, 
 
iiS THE STONE AGE. 
 
 an amulet, and perhaps an urn, form the whole of the funeral 
 furniture. A slab of stone prevents the inroad of wild beasts. 
 Then begins the funeral banquet, celebrated close by the abode of 
 the dead : a fire is lighted, great animals are cut up, and portions 
 of their smoking flesh are distributed to each. How strange the 
 ceremonies that must then have taken place ! ceremonies like 
 those told us of the savages of the Indian and African solitudes. 
 Imagination may easily depict the songs, the dances, and the 
 invocations, but science is powerless to call them into life. 
 
 " The sepulchre is often reopened ; little children and adults 
 came in turn to take their places in the gloomy cave. Thirteen 
 times the same ceremonial occurs, and thirteen times the slab is 
 moved to admit the corpses. 
 
 " But the end of this primitive age is at last come. Torrents of 
 water break in upon the country. Its inhabitants, driven from 
 their abodes, in vain take refuge on the lofty mountain summits. 
 Death at last overtakes them, and a dark cavern is the tomb 
 of the wretched beings, who, at Furfooz, were witnesses of this 
 immense catastrophe. 
 
 " Nothing is respected by the terrible element. The sepulchre, 
 the object of such care on the part of the artless tribe, is burst 
 open before the torrent, and the bones of the dead bodies, dis- 
 jointed by the water, are dispersed into the midst of the crumb- 
 ling earth and stones. Their former habitation alone is exempt 
 from this common destruction, for it has been protected by a 
 previous catastrophe the sinking in of its roof on to the ground 
 of the cave." 
 
 Having now given a sketch of the chief features presented by 
 man and his surroundings during the reindeer epoch ; having 
 described the most important objects of his skill, and dwelt upon 
 the products of his artistic faculties ; it now remains for us to 
 complete, in a scientific point of view, the study of this question, 
 by notifying the sources from which we have been able to gather 
 our data, and to bring home to our minds these interesting ideas. 
 Under this head, we may state that almost all the information 
 which has been obtained has been derived from caves ; and it 
 will, therefore, be best to make a few brief remarks on the caverns 
 which have been the scene of these various discoveries. 
 
 Honour to whom honour is due. In mentioning these localities 
 
EPOCH OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. 119 
 
 we must place in the first class the settlements of Perigord, which 
 have contributed to so great an extent towards the knowledge 
 which we possess of primitive man. The four principal ones are 
 the cave of Les Eyzies and the rock-shelters or caverns of La 
 Madeleine, Laugerie-Haute, and Laugerie-Basse. All of them have 
 been explored by MM. Lartet and Christy, who, after having 
 directed the excavations with the greatest ability, have set forth 
 the results of their researches in a manner no less remarkable.* 
 
 The settlement of Laugerie-Basse has also been explored by M 
 de Vibraye, who collected there some very interesting specimens. 
 
 We have no intention of reverting to what we have before 
 stated when describing the objects found in these various localities. 
 We will content ourselves with mentioning the lumbar vertebral 
 bone of a reindeer found in the cave of Eyzies, of which we have 
 given a representation in Fig. 55 ; it was pierced through by an 
 arrow-head, which may still be seen fixed in it. If any doubts 
 could still exist of the co-existence, in France, of man and the 
 reindeer, this object should suffice to put an end to them for ever. 
 
 We will mention, as next in importance, the cave and rock- 
 shelters at Bruniquel (Tarn-et-Garonne). They have been care- 
 fully examined by a great many explorers, among whom we must 
 specify M. Garrigou, M. de Lastic (the proprietor of the cavern)* 
 M. V. Brun, the learned Director of the Museum of Natural His- 
 tory at Montauban, and M. Peccadeau de 1'Isle. 
 
 It is to be regretted that M. de Lastic sold about fifteen hun- 
 dred specimens of every description of the relics which had been 
 found on his property, to Professor Owen, for the British Museum- 
 In this large quantity of relics, there were, of course, specimens 
 which will never be met with elsewhere; which, therefore, it 
 would have been better in every respect to have retained in 
 France. 
 
 The cave of Bruniquel has also furnished us with human bones 
 amongst which are two almost perfect skulls, one of which we 
 have previously represented ; also two half jaw-bones which re- 
 semble those found at Moulin-Quignon. M. V. Brun has given, in 
 his interesting work, a representation of these human remains.f 
 
 * " Reliquiae Aquitanicae," by Ed. Lartet and H. Christy. London, 1865, &c. 
 f " Notice sur les Fouilles Paleontologiques de 1'Age de la Pierre executees a 
 Bnmiquel et Saint- Antonin," by V. Brun. Montauban, 1867. 
 
120 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 We will now mention the Cave of Bize> near Narbonne ( Ancle); 
 the Cave of La Vache, in the Valley of Tarascon (Ariege), in which 
 M. Garrigou collected an immense quantity of bones, on one of 
 which some peculiar characters are graven, constituting, perhaps, 
 a first attempt in the art of writing ; the Cavern of Massat, in the 
 same department, which has been described by M. Fontan, and is 
 thought by M. Lartet to have been a summer dwelling-place, the 
 occupiers of which lived on raw flesh and snails, for no traces of a 
 hearth are to be seen, although it must have been used for a con- 
 siderably time as a shelter by primitive man ; the Cave of Lourdcs, 
 near Tarbes (Hautes-Pyrenees), in which M. Milne-Edwards met 
 with a fragment of a human skull, belonging to an adult indivi- 
 dual ; the Cave of Espalunguc, also called the Grotto of Izcste 
 (Basses-Pyrenees), where MM. Garrigou and Martin found a human 
 bone, the fifth left metatarsal ; the Cave of Savigne (Vienne),, 
 situated on the banks of the Charente, and discovered by M. Joly- 
 Leterme, an architect of Samur, who there found a fragment of a 
 stag's bone, on which the bodies of two animals are graven with 
 hatchings to indicate shadows ; the Grottos of La Balme and 
 Bethenas, in Dauphine, explored by M. Chantre ; lastly, the settle- 
 ment of Solutre, in the neighbourhood of Macon, from which MM. 
 Ferry and Arcelin have exhumed two human skulls, together 
 with some very fine flint instruments of the Laugerie-Haute type. 
 
 These settlements do not all belong to the same epoch, although 
 most of them correspond to the long period known as the reindeer 
 epoch. It is not always possible to determine their comparative 
 chronology. From the state of their debris it can, however, be 
 ascertained that the caves of Lourdes and Espalungue date back 
 to the most ancient period of the reindeer epoch ; whilst the set- 
 tlements of Perigord, of Tarn-et-Garonne, and of Maconnais are of 
 a later date. The cave of Massat seems as if it ought to be dated 
 at the beginning of the wrought-stone epoch, for no bones have 
 been found there, either of the reindeer or the horse ; the remains, 
 of the bison are the sole representatives of the extinct animal 
 species. 
 
 In concluding this list of the French bone caves which have 
 served to throw a light upon the peculiar features of man's exist- 
 ence during the reindeer epoch, we must not omit to mention 
 
EPOCH OF MIGRATED ANIMALS. 121 
 
 the Belgian caves, which have been so zealously explored by 
 M. Edouard Dupont. From the preceding pages, we may perceive 
 how especially important the latter have been in the elucidation 
 of the characteristics of man's physical organisation during this 
 epoch. 
 
 France and Belgium are not the only countries which have 
 furnished monuments relating to man's history during the reindeer 
 epoch. We must not omit to mention that settlements of this epoch 
 have been discovered both in Germany and also in Switzerland. 
 
 In 1866 a great quantity of bones and broken instruments were 
 found at the bottom of an ancient glacier-moraine in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Rabensburg, not far from the lake of Constance. The 
 bones of the reindeer formed about ninety-eight hundredths of 
 these remains. The other debris were the bones of the horse, the 
 wolf, the brown bear, the white fox, the glutton, and the ox. 
 
 In 1858, on a mountain near Geneva, a cave was discovered 
 about 12 feet deep and 6 feet wide, which contained, under a 
 layer of carbonate of lime, a great quantity of flints and bones. 
 The bones of the reindeer formed the great majority of them, 
 for eighteen skeletons of this animal were found. The residue 
 of the remains were composed of four horses, six ibex, inter- 
 mingled with the bones of the marmot, the chamois, and the 
 hazel-hen ; in short, the bones of the whole animal population 
 which, at the present time, has abandoned the valleys of Swit- 
 zerland, and is now only to be met with on the high mountains 
 of the Alps. 
 
III. 
 
 THE POLISHED-STONE EPOCH; OR, THE EPOCH OF TAMED 
 
 ANIMALS, 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 125 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The European Deluge The Dwelling-place of Man during the Polished-stone Epoch 
 The Caves and Rock-shelters still used as Dwelling-places Principal Caves 
 belonging to the Polished-stone Epoch which have been explored up to the present 
 time The Food of Man during this period. 
 
 AIDED by records drawn from the bowels of the earth, we have 
 now traversed the series of antediluvian ages since the era when 
 man first made his appearance on the earth, and have been en- 
 abled, though but very imperfectly, to reconstruct the history of 
 our primitive forefathers. We will now leave this epoch, through 
 the dark night of which science seeks almost in vain to penetrate, 
 and turn our attention to a period the traces of which are more 
 numerous and more easily grasped by our intelligence a period, 
 therefore, which we are able to characterise with a much greater 
 degree of precision. 
 
 A great catastrophe, the tradition of which is preserved in the 
 memory of all nations, marked in Europe the end of the quater- 
 nary epoch. It is not easy to assign the exact causes for this 
 great event in the earth's history ; but whatever may be the ex- 
 planation given, it is certain that a cataclysm, caused by the 
 violent flowing of rushing water, took place during the quaternary 
 geological epoch ; for the traces of it are everywhere visible. 
 These traces consist of a reddish clayey deposit, mixed with sand 
 and pebbles. This deposit is called in some countries red diluvium, 
 and in others grey diluvium. In the valleys of the Rhone and the 
 Rhine it is covered with a layer of loamy deposit, which is known 
 to geologists by the name of loesse or lehm, and as to the origin 
 of which they are not all agreed. Sir Charles Lyell is of opinion 
 that this mud was produced by the crushing of the rocks by early 
 Alpine glaciers, and that it was afterwards carried down by the 
 streams of water which descended from these mountains. This 
 mud covers a great portion of Belgium, where it is from 10 to 
 
126 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 30 feet in thickness, and supplies with material a large number 
 of brickfields. 
 
 This deposit, that is, the diluvial beds, constitutes nearly the 
 most recent of all those which form the earth's crust ; in many 
 European countries it is, in fact, the ground trodden under the 
 feet of the present population. 
 
 The inundation to which the diluvium is referred closes the 
 series of the quaternary ages. After this era, the present geo- 
 logical period commences, which is characterised by the almost 
 entire permanency of the vertical outline of the earth, and by 
 the formation of peat-bogs. 
 
 The earliest Documents afforded us by history are very far from 
 going back to the starting-point of this period. The history of 
 the ages which we call historical is very far from having attained 
 to the beginning of the present geological epoch. 
 
 In order to continue our account of the progressive develop- 
 ment of primitive man, we must now turn our attention to the 
 Polished-stone EpocJi, or the Epoch of Tamed Animals, which 
 precedes the Metal Age. 
 
 As the facts which we shall have to review are very numerous, 
 we will, in the first place, consider this epoch as it affects those 
 parts of our continent which forms the present France and 
 Belgium ; next, with reference to Denmark and Switzerland, in 
 which countries we shall have to point out certain manners and 
 customs of man of an altogether special character. 
 
 We shall consider in turn : 
 
 1st. The habitation of man during the polished-stone epoch. 
 
 2nd. His system of food. 
 
 3rd. His arts and manufactures. 
 
 4th. The weapons manufactured by him, and their use in war. 
 
 5th. His attainments in agriculture, fishing, and navigation. 
 
 6th. His funeral ceremonies. 
 
 7th. Lastly, the characteristics of mankind during this epoch. 
 
 Habitation. In that part of the European continent which now 
 forms the country called France, man, during that period we de- 
 signate under the name of the polished-stone epoch, continued for 
 a considerable time to inhabit rock-shelters and caves which 
 afforded him the best retreat from the attacks of wild beasts. 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 127 
 
 This fact has been specially proved to have been the case in 
 the extreme south of the above-mentioned country. Among the 
 investigations which have contributed towards its verification, we 
 must give particular notice to those made by MM. Garrigou and 
 Filhol in the caves of the Pyrenees (Ariege). These two savants- 
 have also explored the caves of Pradieres, Bedeilhac, Labart,. 
 Niaux, Ussat, and Fontanel.* 
 
 In one of these caves, which we have already mentioned in trie- 
 preceding chapter, but to which we must again call attention 
 for they belong both to the polished-stone, and also to the rein- 
 deer epoch MM. Garrigou and Filhol found the bones of a huge 
 ox, the urus or Bos primigenius^ a smaller kind of ox, the stag, 
 the sheep, the goat, the antelope, the chamois, the wild boar, the 
 wolf, the dog, the fox, the badger, the hare, and possibly those of 
 the horse. Neither the bones of the reindeer nor the bison are 
 included in this list of names ; on account of the mildness of the 
 climate, these two species had already migrated towards the north 
 and east in search of a colder atmosphere. 
 
 The remains of hearths, bones split lengthwise, and broken 
 skulls, indicate that the inhabitants of these caves lived on much 
 the same food as their ancestors. It is probable that they also 
 ate raw snails, for a large quantity of their shells were found in 
 this cave, and also in the cavern of Massat,f the presence of 
 which can only be accounted for in this way. 
 
 These remains were found intermingled with piercers, spear- 
 heads, and arrow-heads, all made of bone ; also hatchets, knives, 
 and scratchers, made of flint, and also of various other substances, 
 which were more plentiful than flint in that country, such as 
 siliceous, schist, quartzite, leptinite, and serpentine stones. These 
 instruments were carefully wrought, and a few had been polished! 
 at one end on a slab of flag-stone. 
 
 In the cave of Lourdes (Hautes-Pyrenees), which has been ex- 
 plored by M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards, two layers were observed ; 
 one belonging to the reindeer epoch, and the other to the polished- 
 
 * " L'Homme Fossile des Cavernes de Lombrive et de Lherm." Toulouse, 1862-. 
 Illustrated. " L'Age de Pierre dans les Vallees de Tarascon" (Ariege). Tarascon, 
 1863. 
 
 f " Sur deux Cavernes decouvertes dans la Montague de Kaer a Massat " (Ariege). 
 Quoted by Lyell, Appendix to " The Antiquity of Man," p. 247. 
 
128 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 stone epoch.* The cave of Pontil (Herault), which has been care- 
 fully examined by Professor Gervais,f has furnished remains of 
 every epoch, including the Bronze Age ; we must, however, except 
 the reindeer epoch, which is not represented in this cave. 
 
 Lastly, we will mention the cave of Saint-Jean-d'Alcas 
 (Aveyron), which has been explored, at different times, by M. 
 Cazalis de Fondou.ce. This is a sepulchral cave, like that of 
 Aurignac. When it was first explored, about twenty years ago, 
 five human skulls, in good preservation, were found in it a dis- 
 covery the importance of which was then unheeded, and the 
 skulls were, in consequence, totally lost to science. Flint, jade, 
 and serpentine instruments, carved bones, remains of rough pot- 
 tery, stone amulets, and the shells of shell-fish, which had formed 
 necklaces and bracelets, were intermingled with human bones. 
 
 At Saint-Jean-d'Alcas, M. Cazalis de Fondouce did not meet 
 with any remains of funeral banquets such as were found at 
 Aurignac and Furfooz ; he only noticed two large flag-stones lying 
 across one another at the mouth of the cave, so as to make the 
 inlet considerably narrower. 
 
 This cave, according to a recent publication of M. Cazalis, must 
 be referred to a more" recent epoch than was at first supposed, for 
 some fragments of metallic substances were found in it. It must, 
 therefore, have belonged to a late period of the polished-stone 
 epoch. J 
 
 System of Feeding during tJie Polished-stone EpocJi. In 
 order to obtain full information on the subject of man's food in 
 the north and centre of Europe during the polished-stone epoch, 
 we must appeal to the interesting researches of which Denmark 
 has been the scene during the last few years ; but these researches, 
 on account of their importance, require a detailed account. 
 
 * "De 1'Existence de 1'Homme pendant la Periode quaternaire dans la grotte de 
 Lourdes" (Hautes-Pyrenees). (" Annales des Sciences Naturelles," 4th series, vol. 
 xvii.) 
 
 t"Memoires de 1' Academic de Montpellier" ("Section des Sciences"), 1857, 
 vol. iii. p. 509. 
 
 + " Sur une Caverne de 1'Age de la Pierre, situee pres de Saint-Jean-d'Alcas" 
 (Aveyron), 1864. " Derniers Temps de 1'Age de la Pierre Polie dans 1' Aveyron," 
 Montpellier, 1867. Illustrated. 
 
Fig. 76. Man oi the Polished-stone Epoch. (Page 128.) 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 129 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Kjoekken-Moeddings or " Kitchen-middens" of Denmark Mode of Life of the 
 Men living in Denmark during the Polished-stone Epoch The Domestication of 
 the Dog the Art of Fishing during the Polished-stone Epoch Fishing-nets 
 Weapons and Instruments of War Type of the Human Race ; the Borreby Skull. 
 
 ALTHOUGH classed in the lowest rank on account of the small 
 extent of its territory and the number of its inhabitants, the 
 Danish nation is, nevertheless, one of the most important in 
 Europe, in virtue of the eminence to which it has attained in 
 science and art. This valiant, although, numerically speaking, 
 inconsiderable people, can boast of a great number of distinguished 
 men who are an honour to science. The unwearied researches of 
 their archaeologists and antiquarians have ransacked the dust of 
 bygone ages, in order to call into new life the features of a 
 vanished world. Their labours, guided by the observations of 
 naturalists, have brought out into the clear light of day some of 
 the earliest stages in man's existence and progress. 
 
 There is no part of the world more adapted than Denmark to 
 this kind of investigation. Antiquities may be met with at every 
 step ; the real point in question is to know how to examine them 
 properly, so as to obtain from them important revelations con- 
 cerning the manners, customs, and manufactures of the pre- 
 historic inhabitants. The Museum of Copenhagen, which con- 
 tains antiquities from various Scandinavian states, is, in this 
 respect, without a rival in the world. 
 
 Among the objects arranged in this well-stocked Museum a 
 great many specimens may be observed which have come from 
 the so-called kitchen-middens. 
 
 In the first place, what are these kjoekken-moeddings, or 
 kitchen-middens, with their uncouth Scandinavian name ? 
 
 Immense accumulations of shells have been observed on dif- 
 
 K 
 
130 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 ferent points of the Danish coast, chiefly in the north, where the 
 sea enters those narrow deep creeks, known by the name of 
 fiords. These deposits are not generally raised more than about 
 3 feet above the level of the sea ; but in some steep places their 
 altitude is greater. They are about 3 to 10 feet in thickness, 
 and from 100 to 200 feet in width ; their length is sometimes as 
 much as 1000 feet, with a width of from 150 to 250 feet. On 
 some of the more level shores they form perfect hills, on which, 
 as at Havelse, windmills are sometimes built. 
 
 What do we meet with in these heaps ? An immense quantity 
 of sea-shells, especially those of the oyster, broken bones of 
 mammiferous animals, remains of birds and fish ; and, lastly, 
 some roughly-wrought flints. 
 
 The first idea formed with regard to these kitchen-middens 
 was that they were nothing but banks of fossil shells, beds which 
 had formerly been submerged, and subsequently brought to light 
 by an upheaval of the earth caused by some volcanic cause. But 
 M. Steenstrup, a Danish savant, opposed this opinion, basing his 
 contradiction on the fact that these shells belong to four different 
 species which are never found together, and consequently they 
 must have been brought together by man. M. Steenstrup also 
 called attention to the fact that almost all these shells must have 
 belonged to full-grown animals, and that there were hardly any 
 young ones to be found amongst them. A peculiarity of this 
 kind is an evident indication of the exercise of some rational 
 purpose ; in fact, of an act of the human will. 
 
 When all the debris and relics which we have enumerated were 
 discovered in these kitchen-middens, when the remains of hearths 
 small spots which still retained traces of fire were found in 
 them, the origin of these heaps was readily conjectured. Tribes 
 once existed there who subsisted on the products of fishing and 
 hunting, and threw out round their cabins the remains of their 
 meals, consisting especially of the debris of shell-fish. These re- 
 mains gradually accumulated, and constituted the considerable 
 heaps which we are discussing ; hence the name of kjoekkeu- 
 moedding, composed of two words kjoekken, kitchen ; and 
 moedding, heap of refuse. These " kitchen-middens," as they are 
 called, are, therefore, the refuse from the meals of the primitive 
 population of Denmark. 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 131 
 
 If we consider the heaps of oyster-shells and other debris which 
 accumulate in the neighbourhood of eating-houses in certain 
 districts, we may readily understand, comparing great things with 
 small, how these Danish kitchen-middens were produced. I my- 
 self well recollect having noticed in the environs of Montpellier 
 small hillocks of a similar character, formed by the accumulation 
 of oyster-shells, mussels, and clams. 
 
 When the conviction was once arrived at that these kitchen-mid- 
 dens were the refuse of the meals of the primitive inhabitants, the 
 careful excavation of all theseheaps scattered along the Danish coast 
 became an extremely interestingoperation. It might be justly ex- 
 pected that some data would be collected as to the customs and 
 manufactures of the ancient dwellers in these countries. A com- 
 mission was, in consequence, appointed by the Danish Government 
 to examine these deposits, and to publish the results of its labours. 
 
 This commission was composed of three savants, each of whom 
 were eminent in their respective line Steenstrup, the naturalist ; 
 Forchammer, a geologist ; and the archaeologist, Worsaae and 
 performed its task with as much talent as zeal. The observations 
 which were made are recorded in three reports presented to the 
 Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen. From these documents 
 are borrowed most of the details which follow. 
 
 Before proceeding to acquaint our readers with the facts brought 
 to light by the Danish commission, it will be well to remark that 
 Denmark does not stand alone in possessing these kitchen- 
 middens. They have been discovered in England in Cornwall 
 and Devonshire in Scotland, and even in France, near Hyeres 
 (Bouches-du-Rhone) .* 
 
 MM. Sauvage and Hamy have pointed out to M. de Mortillet 
 the existence of deposits of this kind in the Pas-de-Calais. They 
 may be noticed, say these naturalists, at La Salle (Commune of 
 Outreau), at certain parts of the coast of Portel, and especially a 
 very large heap at Cronquelets (Commune of Etaples). They 
 chiefly consist of the cardium edule, which appear to abound in 
 the kitchen-middens of the Pas-de-Calais. 
 
 Messrs. Evans, Prestwich, and Lubbock observed one of these 
 
 * " Note sur un Amas de Coquilles melees a cles Silex tallies, signale sur les C6tes 
 de Provence," by M. A. Gory ("Revue Archeologique"). Quoted in the "Materiaux 
 de 1'histoire positive de I'Homme," by M. de Mortillet, vol. i. p. 535. 
 
I 3 2 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 deposits at Saint-Valery, near the mouth of the Somme. Added to 
 this, they have been described by various travellers as existing in 
 different parts of the world. Dampier studied them in Australia, 
 and Darwin in Tierra del Fuego, where deposits of the same cha- 
 racter are now in the course of formation. M. Pereira da Costa found 
 one on the coast of Portugal ; Sir C. Lyell has testified to the exist- 
 ence of others on the coasts of Massachusetts and Georgia, in the 
 United States ; M. Strobel, on the coasts of Brazil. But those in 
 Denmark are the only deposits of this kind which have been the 
 subject of investigations of a deliberate and serious character. 
 
 Almost all these kitchen-middens are found on the coast, along 
 the fiords, where the action of the waves is not much felt. Some 
 have, however, been found several miles inland ; but this must be 
 owing to the fact that the sea once occupied these localities, from 
 which it has subsequently retired. They are not to be met with 
 on some of the Danish coasts, as those of the western side ; this, 
 on the one hand, may be caused by their having been washed 
 away by the sea, which has there encroached on the land, or on 
 the other hand, by the fact that the western coast was much less 
 sheltered than the other parts of the Danish peninsula. They 
 are not unfrequently to be found in the adjacent islands. 
 
 These kitchen-middens form, in a general way, undulating 
 mounds, which sink in a gentle incline from the centre to the 
 circumference. The spot where they are thickest indicates the 
 site of the habitations of man. Sometimes we may notice one 
 principal hillock, surrounded by smaller mounds ; or else, in the 
 middle of the heaps, there is a spot which must have been the 
 site of the encampment. 
 
 These refuse deposits are almost entirely made up of shells of 
 various kinds of molluscs ; the principal species are the oyster, 
 the cockle, the mussel, and the periwinkle. Others, such as 
 whelks, helices (edible snails), nassa, and trigonella, are also 
 found ; but they are comparatively few in number. 
 
 Fishes' bones are discovered in great abundance in the kitchen- 
 middens. They belong to the cod, herring, dab, and eel. From 
 this we may infer that the primitive inhabitants of Denmark 
 were not afraid of venturing out to brave the waves of the sea 
 in their frail skiffs ; for the herring and the cod cannot, in fact, 
 be caught except at some little distance from the shore. 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 133 
 
 Mammalian bones are also plentifully distributed in the Danish 
 kitchen-middens. Those most commonlymet with arethe remains 
 of the stag, the roe, and the boar, which, according to M. Steen- 
 strup's statement, make up ninety-seven hundredths of the whole 
 mass. Others are the relics of the urus, the wolf, the dog, the 
 fox, the wild cat, the lynx, the marten, the otter, the porpoise, the 
 seal, the water-rat, the beaver, and the hedgehog. 
 
 The bison, the reindeer, the elk, the horse, and the domestic ox 
 have not left behind them any trace which will permit us to 
 assume that they existed in Denmark at the period when these 
 deposits were formed. 
 
 Amongst other animals, we have mentioned the dog. By various 
 indications, we are leol to the belief that this intelligent creature 
 had been at this time reduced to a state of domesticity. It has 
 been remarked that a large number of the bones dispersed in these 
 kitchen-middens are incomplete; exactly the same parts are almost 
 always missing, and certain bones are entirely wanting. M. Steen- 
 trup is of opinion that these deficiencies may be owing to the 
 agency of dogs, which have made it their business to ransack the 
 heaps of bones and other matters which were thrown aside by 
 their masters. This hypothesis was confirmed, in his idea, when 
 he became convinced, by experience, that the bones which were 
 deficient in these deposits were precisely those which dogs are in 
 the habit of devouring, and that the remaining portions of those 
 which were found were not likely to have been subject to their 
 attacks, on account of their hardness and the small quantity of 
 assimilable matter which was on or in them. 
 
 Although primitive man may have elevated the dog to the 
 dignity of being his companion and friend, he was, nevertheless, 
 sometimes in the habit of eating him. No doubt he did not fall 
 back upon this last resort except in cases when all other means of 
 subsistence failed him. Bones of the dog, broken by the hand of 
 man, and still bearing the marks of having been cut with a knife, are 
 amongst the remains found, and place the fact beyond any question. 
 
 We find, besides, the same taste existing here which we have 
 seen manifested in other ages and different countries. All the 
 long bones have been split in order to extract their marrow the 
 dainty so highly appreciated by man during the epochs of the 
 reindeer and the mammoth. 
 
134 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 Some remains of birds have been found in the kitchen-middens ; 
 but most of the species are aquatic a fact which may be readily 
 explained by the seaboard position of the men who formed these 
 deposits. 
 
 As the result of this review of the various substances which 
 were made use of for food by the men of the polished-stone epoch, 
 we may infer that they were both hunters and fishermen. 
 
 Animals of rapid pace were hunted down by means of the dart 
 or arrow, and any more formidable prey was struck down at close 
 quarters by some sharp stone weapon. 
 
 j Fishing was practised, as at the present day, by means of the 
 line and net. 
 
 Fig. 77. Bone Skewers used as Fish-hooks. 
 
 We have already seen that men, during the reindeer epoch, 
 probably used hooks fastened at the end of lines. These hooks, as 
 wehave before remarked, were made with splinters of bone or rein- 
 deer horn. During the polished-stone epoch this fishing instrument 
 was much improved, and they now possessed the real hook with a 
 recurvate and pointed end. This kind of hook was found by Dr. 
 Uhlmann in one of the most ancient lacustrine stations of Switzer- 
 land. But a curved hook was both difficult to make and also not 
 very durable ; instead of it was used another and more simple sort 
 the straight skewer fixed to serve as a hook. This is a simple 
 fragment of bone, about an inch long, very slender and pointed at 
 the two ends (Fig. 77). Sometimes it is a little flattened in the 
 middle, or bored with a hole, into which the line was fastened. 
 
 This little splinter of bone, when hidden by the bait and 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 135 
 
 fastened to a line, was swallowed by the fish and could not be 
 disgorged, one of the pointed ends being certain to bury itself in 
 the entrails of the creature. 
 
 Some of our readers will perhaps be surprised to learn that men 
 of the polished-stone epoch were in the habit of fishing with nets ; 
 but it is a fact that cannot be called into question, for the very 
 conclusive reason, that the remains of these nets have been found. 
 
 How could it possibly come to pass that fishing-nets of the 
 polished-stone epoch should have been preserved to so late a 
 period as our times ? This is exactly the question we are about 
 to answer. 
 
 On the lakes of Switzerland and of other countries, there used to 
 exist certain habitations of man. These are the so-called lacustrine 
 dwellings which we shall have hereafter to consider in some con- 
 siderable detail, when we come to the Bronze Age. The men who 
 lived on these lakes were necessarily fishers ; and some traces of 
 their fishing-nets have been discovered by a circumstance which 
 chemistry finds no difficulty in explaining. Some of these lake 
 dwellings were destroyed by fire ; as, for instance, the lacustrine 
 settlements of Robenhausen and Wangen in Switzerland. The 
 outsides of these cabins, which were almost entirely constructed 
 of wood, burnt, of course, very readily ; but the objects inside, 
 chiefly consisting of nets the sole wealth of these tribes could 
 not burn freely for want of oxygen, but were only charred with 
 the heat. They became covered with a slight coating of some 
 empyreumatic or tarry matter an excellent medium for insuring 
 the preservation of any organic substance. These nets having 
 been scorched by the fire, fell into the water with the debris of 
 the hut, and, in consequence of their precipitate fall, never having 
 come in actual contact with the flame, have been preserved 
 almost intact at the bottom of the lakes. When, after a long 
 lapse of centuries, they have been again recovered, these debris 
 have been the means of affording information as to the manu- 
 facture both of the fishing-nets, and also as to the basket-work, 
 vegetable provisions, &c., of these remote ages. 
 
 In one of Dr. Keller's papers on these lacustrine dwellings, of 
 which we shall have more to say further on, we find a description 
 and delineation of certain fishing-nets which were recovered from 
 
136 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 the lake of Robenhausen. In the Museum of Saint-Germain we 
 inspected with curiosity several specimens of these very nets, and 
 here we give a representation of one of them. There were nets 
 with wide meshes like that shown in Fig. 78, and also some more 
 
 Fig. 78. Fishing-net with wide Meshes. 
 
 closely netted. The mesh is a square one, and appears to have 
 been made on a frame by knotting the string at each point of 
 intersection. All these nets are made of flax, for hemp had not 
 yet been cultivated. 
 
 Fig. 79. Stone Weight used for sinking the Fishing-nets. 
 
 These nets were held suspended in the water by means of floats, 
 made, not of cork, but of the thick bark of the pine-tree, and were 
 held down to the bottom of the water by stone weights. We give 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 137 
 
 a representation here (Fig. 79) of one of these stone weights taken 
 from a specimen exhibited in the Museum of Saint-Germain. 
 
 These stone weights, large quantities of which are to be seen in 
 museums, and especially in that of Saint-Germain, are, in almost 
 every case, nothing but pebbles bored through the centre. Some- 
 times, however, they were round pieces of soft stone, having a 
 hole made in the middle. Through this hole the cord was passed 
 and fastened by a knot on the other side. By means of the floats 
 and weights the nets were made to assume any position in the 
 water which was wished. 
 
 The large size of the meshes in the nets belonging to the 
 polished-stone epoch proves, that in the lakes and rivers of this 
 period the fish that were used for food were of considerable 
 dimensions. Added to this, however, the monstrous hooks be- 
 longing to this epoch which have been found in the Seine tend 
 to corroborate this hypothesis. 
 
 Thus, then, the art of fishing had arrived in the polished-stone 
 epoch to a very advanced stage of improvement. 
 
 In Plate 80 we give a representation of fishing as carried on 
 during the polished-stone epoch. 
 
 Returning to the subject of the ancient Danes, we must add, 
 that these men, who lived on the sea-coasts, clad themselves in 
 skins of beasts, rendered supple by the fat of the seal and marrow 
 extracted from the bones of some of the large mammals. For 
 dwelling-places they used tents likewise made of skins prepared 
 in the same way. 
 
 Arts and Manufactures. What degree of skill in this respect 
 was attained by the men who lived during the polished-stone 
 epoch ? To give an answer to this question, we must again ran- 
 sack those same kitchen-middens which have been the means of 
 furnishing us with such accurate information as to the system of 
 food of the man of that period. We shall also have to turn our 
 attention to the remains found in the principal caves of this 
 epoch. 
 
 An examination of the instruments found in the kitchen-middens 
 shows us that the flints are in general of a very imperfect type, 
 with the exception, however, of the long splinters or knives, the 
 workmanship of which indicates a considerable amount of skill. 
 
i 3 8 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 Fig. 8 1 represents a flint knife from one of the Danish deposits, 
 delineated in the Museum of Saint-Germain; and Fig. 82 a nucleus, 
 
 f/l 
 
 Fig. 8r. Flint Knife, from one of the 
 Danish Beds. 
 
 Fig. 82. Nucleus off which Knives are 
 flaked. 
 
 that is, a piece of flint from which splinters have been taken off, 
 which were intended to be used as knives. 
 
 Fig. 83. Flint Hatchet, from one of the 
 Danish Beds. 
 
 Fig. 84. Flint Scraper, from one of the 
 Danish Beds 
 
 We also give a representation of a hatchet (Fig. 83) and a scraper 
 (Fig. 84), which came from the same source. 
 
 Besides these instruments, bodkins, spear-heads, and stones for 
 slings have also been found in the kitchen-middens, without 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 
 
 139 
 
 taking into account a quantity of fragments of flint which do not 
 appear to have been wrought with any special purpose in view, 
 and were probably nothing but rough attempts, or the mere 
 refuse of the manufacture. 
 
 In the same deposits there are also found a good many pebbles, 
 which, according to the general opinion, must have been used as 
 weights to sink the fishing-nets to the bottom of the water. Some 
 are hollowed out with a groove all round them, like that depicted 
 in Fig. 86, which is designed from a specimen in the Museum of 
 Saint-Germain. Others have a hole bored through the middle. 
 
 Fig. 85. Refuse from the Manufacture of wrought 
 Flints. 
 
 Fig. 86. Weight to sink Fishing-nets. 
 
 This groove or hole was, doubtless, intended to hold the cord 
 which fastened the stone weight to the net. 
 
 Weapons and Tools. We shall now pass on to the weapons 
 and tools which were in use among the people in the north of 
 Europe during the period we are considering. 
 
 During the latter period of the polished-stone epoch working 
 in stone attained to a really surprising degree of perfection 
 among the people of the North. It is, in fact, difficult to under- 
 stand how, without making use of any metallic tools, men could 
 possibly impart to flint, when fashioned into weapons and 
 implements of all kinds, those regular and elegant shapes which 
 the numerous excavations that have been set on foot are con- 
 stantly bringing to light. The Danish flint may, it is true, be 
 wrought with great facility ; but nevertheless, an extraordinary 
 amount of skill would be none the less necessary in order to 
 
140 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 produce that rectitude of outline and richness of contour which are 
 presented by the Danish specimens of this epoch specimens 
 which will not be surpassed even in the Bronze Age. 
 
 The hatchets found in the north of Europe, belonging to the 
 polished-stone epoch, differ very considerably from the hatchets of 
 France and Belgium. The latter are rounded and bulging at the 
 edges ; but the hatchets made use of by the people of the North 
 (Fig. 87) were flatter and cut squarely at the edge. They were nearly 
 in the shape of a rectangle or elongated trapezium, with the four 
 
 Fig. 87. Danish Axe of the Polished-stone Epoch. Fig. 88. Double-edged Axe. 
 
 angles cut off. Their dimensions are sometimes considerable ; 
 some have been found which measured nearly 16 inches in length. 
 Independently of this type, which is the most plentiful, the 
 northern tribes used also to manufacture the drilled hatchet, which 
 is combined in various ways with the hammer. In these instru- 
 ments, the best workmanship and the most pleasing shapes are to 
 be noticed. The Figs. 88, 89, and 90, designed in the Museum of 
 Saint-Germain, from authentic specimens sent by the Museum of 
 Copenhagen, represent double-edged axes and axe-hammers. They 
 are all pierced with a round hole, in which the handle was fixed. 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 141 
 
 The cutting edge describes an arc of a circle, and the other end 
 is wrought into sharp angular edges. 
 
 Fig. 89. Danish Axe-hammer, drilled for handle. 
 
 These hatchets are distinguished from those of the reindeer 
 epoch by a characteristic which enables us to refer them without 
 hesitation to their real date, even in cases in which they have not 
 
 Fig. 90. Danish Axe-hammer, drilled for handle. 
 
 yet been subject to the operation of polishing. The hatchets of 
 the reindeer epoch have their cutting edge at the narrowest end, 
 whilst those of the polished-stone epoch are sharp at their widest 
 
I 4 2 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 end. This observation does not apply specially to the Danish 
 hatchets ; it refers equally to those of other European countries. 
 The spear-heads are masterpieces of good taste, patience, and 
 skill. There are two sorts of them. The most beautiful (Figs. 
 91,92) assume the shape of a laurel-leaf; they are quite flat, and 
 chipped all over with an infinite amount of art. Their length is 
 as much as 15 inches. Others are shorter and thicker in shape, 
 
 Fig. 91. Spear-head from Denmark. Fig. 92. Spear-head from Denmark. 
 
 and terminate at the base in an almost cylindrical handle. Some- 
 times they are toothed at the edge (Fig. 93). These spear-heads 
 were evidently fixed at the end of a staff, like the halberds of the 
 middle ages and the modern lance. 
 
 The poniards (Fig. 94) are no less admirable in their workman- 
 ship than the spear-heads, from which they do not perceptibly 
 differ, except in having a handle, which is flat, wide, solid, and 
 made a little thicker at the end. This handle is always more or 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 14.3 
 
 less ornamented, and is sometimes covered with delicate carving. 
 
 '' [JIM 
 
 H 
 
 Fig. 93- Toothed Spear-head of Flint. Fig. 94. Flint Poniard, from Denmark. 
 
 To chip a flint in this way must have required a skilful and well- 
 practised hand. 
 
 * J g- 95. Type of the Danish Arrow-head. Fig. 96. Another Type of Arrow-head. 
 
 After these somewhat extraordinary instruments, we must 
 
144 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 mention the arrow-heads, the shapes of which are rather varied 
 in their character. 
 
 The arrow-heads most frequently found are formed in the shape 
 of a triangular prism, terminating at the lower end in a stem in- 
 tended to be inserted into a stick (Fig. 95) ; others are deeply in- 
 dented at the base and quite flat. Many are finely serrated on the 
 edges, and occasionally even on the inside edge of the indentation. 
 . 95, 96, 97, and 98 represent the various types of Danish 
 
 
 Fig. 97. Arrow-head. Fig. 98. Arrow-head from Denmark. 
 
 Fig. 09. Flint 
 Chisel from 
 Denmark. 
 
 arrow-heads, all of which are in the Museum of Saint-Germain, 
 and from which these designs were made. 
 
 The chisels and gouges equally merit a special mention. 
 
 The chisel (Fig. 99) is a kind of quadrangular prism, chipped 
 in a bevel down to the base. 
 
 The gouges are hollowed out on one of their faces, so as to act 
 as the tool the name of which has been applied to them. 
 
 We next come to some curious instruments, of which we have 
 given designs taken from the specimens in the Museum of Saint- 
 Germain ; the purpose they were applied to is still problematical. 
 They are small flakes or blades, in the shape of a crescent (Figs. 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 
 
 145 
 
 100, 101). The inner edge, which was either straight or concave, 
 is usually serrated like a saw ; the convex side must have been 
 fixed into a handle ; for the traces of the handle may still be 
 detected upon many of them. These instruments were probably 
 made use of as scrapers in the preparation of skins for garments ; 
 perhaps, also, they were used as knives or as saws. 
 
 We must now turn our attention to instruments made of bone 
 or stag's horn. They are much less numerous than those of stone, 
 
 Fig. 100. Small Stone Saw from 
 the Danish Deposits. 
 
 Fig. 101. Another Stone.Saw 
 from Denmark. 
 
 Fig. 102. Bone Har- 
 poon of the Stone 
 Age from Denmark. 
 
 and have nothing about them of a very remarkable character. 
 The only implement that is worthy of notice is the harpoon (Fig. 
 102). It is a carved bone, and furnished with teeth all along one 
 side, the other edge being completely smooth. The harpoon of 
 the reindeer epoch was decidedly superior to it. 
 
 On account of its singularity, we must not omit to mention an 
 object made of bone, composed of a wide flat plate, from which 
 spring seven or eight teeth of considerable length, and placed very 
 close together ; there is a kind of handle, much narrower, and 
 
I 4 6 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 terminating in a knob, like the top of a walking-stick. This is 
 probably one of the first combs which ever unravelled the thickly- 
 grown heads of hair of primitive man. 
 
 Fig. 103. Bone Comb from Denmark. 
 
 It is a well-known fact that amber is very plentiful on the 
 coasts of the Baltic. Even in the Stone Age, it was already 
 much appreciated by the northern tribes, who used to make 
 necklaces of it, either by merely perforating the rough morsels 
 
 Fig. 104. Necklace and various Ornaments of Amber. 
 
 of amber and stringing them in a row, or by cutting them into 
 spherical or elliptical beads, as is the case nowadays. 
 
 Fig. 104 represents a necklace and also various other ornaments 
 made of yellow amber, which have been drawn from specimens 
 in the Museum of Saint-Germain. 
 J Although these northern tribes of the polished-stone epoch were 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 147 
 
 such skilful workmen in flint, they were, nevertheless, but poor 
 hands at pottery. The debris of vessels collected from the Danish 
 kitchen-middens, and also from the peat-bogs and tombs, are in 
 every way rough, and testify to a very imperfect knowledge of the 
 art of moulding clay. They may be said to mark the first efforts 
 of a manufacturing art which is just springing into existence, which 
 is seeking for the right path, although not, as yet, able to find it. 
 The art of pottery (if certain relics be relied on) was more advanced 
 at a more ancient period ; that is, during the reindeer epoch. 
 
 We have already stated that during the reindeer epoch there 
 existed certain manufactories of weapons and tools, the produc- 
 tions of which were distributed all round the adjacent districts, - 
 although over a somewhat restricted circle. In the epoch at which 
 we have now arrived, certain workshops for really this is the 
 proper name to give them acquired a remarkable importance, 
 and their relations became of a much more extensive character. 
 In several of the Belgian caves, flints have been found which must 
 have come from the celebrated workshop of Grand-Pressigny, 
 situated in that part of the present France which forms the de- 
 partment of Indre-et-Loire, and, from their very peculiar character, 
 are easily recognisable. Commerce and manufacture had then 
 emerged from their merely rudimentary state, and were entering 
 into a period of activity implying a certain amount of civilisation. 
 
 The great principle of division of labour had already been put 
 into practice, for there were special workshops both for the 
 shaping and polishing of flints. 
 
 The most important of all the workshops which have been 
 noticed in France is, unquestionably, that of Grand-Pressigny, 
 which we have already mentioned. It was discovered by Dr. 
 L^veille, the medical man of the place ; but, to_tell the truth, it is 
 not so much in itself a centre of manufacture as a series of work- 
 shops distributed in the whole neighbourhood round Pressigny. 
 
 At the time of this discovery, that is, in 1864, flints were found 
 in thousands imbedded in the vegetable mould on the surface of 
 the soil, over a superficies of 1 2 to 14 acres. The Abbe Chevalier, 
 giving an account of this curious discovery to the Academie des 
 Sciences at Paris, wrote : "It is impossible to walk a single step 
 without treading on some of these objects." 
 
148 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 The workshops of Grand-Pressigny furnish us with a consider- 
 able variety of instruments. We find hatchets in all stages of 
 manufacture, from the roughest attempt up to a perfectly polished 
 weapon. We find, also, long flakes or flint-knives cleft off with 
 a single blow with astonishing skill. 
 
 All these objects, even the most beautiful among them, are 
 nevertheless defective in some respect or other ; hence it may be 
 concluded that they were the refuse thrown aside in the process 
 of manufacture. In this way may be explained the accumulation 
 of so many of these objects in the same spot. 
 
 There were likewise narrow and elongated points forming a 
 
 Fig. 105. Nucleus in the Museum of Saint-Germain, from the workshop of Grand-Pressigny. 
 
 kind of piercer, perfectly wrought ; also scrapers, and saws of a 
 particular type, which seem to have been made in a special work- 
 shop. They are short and wide, and have at each end a medial 
 slot intended to receive a handle. 
 
 But the objects which are the most numerous of all, and those 
 which obviate any doubt that Pressigny was once an important 
 centre of the manufacture of flint, are the nuclei (Fig. 105), or the 
 remnants of the lump of flint, from which the large blades known 
 under the name of knives were cleft off. Some of these lumps 
 which we have seen in the Museum of Saint-Germain were as much 
 as 1 1 and 13 inches in length ; but the greater part did not exceed 
 7 inches. The labourers of Touraine, who often turn up these 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 149 
 
 flints with their ploughshares, call them founds of btitter, looking 
 at the similarity of shape. At the present day these nuclei are 
 plentiful in all the collections of natural history and geology. 
 
 A strange objection has been raised against the antiquity of 
 the hatchets, knives, and weapons found at Pressigny. M. Eugene 
 Robert has asserted that these flints were nothing else but the 
 refuse of the siliceous masses which, at the end of the last cen- 
 tury, and especially at the beginning of the present, were used in 
 the manufacture of gun-flints ! 
 
 The Abbe" Bourgeois, M. Penguilly 1'Haridon, and Mr. John 
 Evans did not find much difficulty in proving the slight founda- 
 tion there was for this criticism. In the department of Loire- 
 et-Cher, in which the gun-flint manufacture still exists, the 
 residue from the process bears no resemblance whatever to the 
 nuclei of Pressigny ; the fragments are much less in bulk, and do 
 not present the same constantly-occurring and regular shapes. 
 Added to this, they are never chipped at the edges, like a great 
 number of the flakes coming from the workshops of Touraine. 
 
 But another and altogether peremptory argument is that the 
 flints of Pressigny-le-Grand are unfitted, on account of the texture, 
 for the manufacture of gun-flints. Moreover, the records of the 
 Artillery Depot, as remarked by M. Penguilly 1'Haridon, librarian 
 of the Artillery Museum, do not make mention of the locality of 
 Pressigny having ever been worked for this purpose. Lastly, the 
 oldest inhabitants of the commune have testified that they never 
 either saw or heard of any body of workmen coming into the 
 district to work flints. M. Eugene Robert's hypothesis, which 
 MM. Decaisne and Elie de Beaumont thought right to patronise, 
 is, therefore, as much opposed to facts as to probability. 
 
 Very few polished flints are found in the workshops of Pres- 
 signy-le-Grand ; it is, therefore, imagined that their existence 
 commenced before the polished-stone epoch. According to this 
 idea, the nuclei would belong to a transitional epoch between the 
 period of chipped stone, properly so called, and that of polished 
 stone. The first was just coming to an end, but the second had 
 not actually commenced. In other words, most of the Pressigny 
 flints have the typical shapes and style of cutting peculiar to the 
 polished-stone age, but the polishing is wanting. 
 
150 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 This operation was not practised in the workshops of Pressigny 
 until some considerable period after they were founded, and were 
 already in full operation. In the neighbourhood of this locality a 
 numberof polishers havebeen found of a very remarkable character. 
 They are large blocks of sandstone (Fig. 106), furrowed all over, or 
 only on a portion of their surface, with grooves of various depths, 
 in which objects might be polished by an energetic friction. 
 
 Some polishers of the same kind, which have been found in 
 various departments, are rather different from the one we have 
 just named. Thus, one specimen which was found by M. Leguay 
 in the environs of Paris, in the burial-places of Varenne-Saint- 
 Hilaire, of which we give a representation further on, is provided 
 
 Fig. 106. Polisher from Grand- Pressigny, both faces being shown. 
 
 not only with grooves but also hollows of a basin-like shape, and 
 of some little depth. 
 
 The polishing of the flints was carried into effect by rubbing 
 them against the bottom of these hollows, which were moistened 
 by water, and no doubt contained siliceous dust of a harder 
 nature than the stone which had to be polished. 
 
 We must here pause for a moment to remark that all these 
 operations which were carried out by our ancestors in fashioning 
 the flint could not fail to have presented certain difficulties, and 
 must have required a remarkable development of intelligence 
 and skill. 
 
 Working flints into shape, which appears at first sight a very 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 151 
 
 simple matter, is, however, a rather complicated operation, on 
 account of the properties of this mineral substance and the beds 
 in which it lies. 
 
 In its natural state the flint presents itself in the shape of nearly 
 round lumps, which are brittle, but nevertheless very hard, and 
 which, like glass, can be split in any direction by a blow, so as to 
 furnish scales with sharp edges. In consequence of this circum- 
 stance, all that would be requisite in order to produce sharp objects 
 is to cleave off flakes in the shape of a knife or poniard, by striking 
 a flint, held in the left hand, with another and harder flint or ham- 
 mer. Instead of holding in the left hand the flint which was to be 
 wrought, it might also be placed on a rest, and, being held fast 
 with the left hand, suitable blows might be applied to the stone. 
 
 We must not, however, omit to mention that to enable the flint 
 to be cut up into sharp splinters and to be broken in any desired 
 direction, it is necessary for it to have been very recently extracted 
 from the bosom of the earth ; it must possess the humidity which 
 is peculiar to it, with which it is impregnated when in its natural 
 bed. If pieces of flint are exposed to the open air they cannot 
 afterwards be readily broken with any degree of regularity; they 
 then afford nothing but shapeless and irregular chips, of an entirely 
 different character from that which would be required in fashioning 
 them. This moisture was well known to the workmen who used to 
 manufacture the gun-flints, and was called the quarry damp. 
 
 The necessity that the flint should be wrought when newly ex- 
 tracted from the earth, and that the stones should only be dug just 
 in proportion as they were wanted, brought about as a proximate 
 result the creation and working of mines and quarries, which are 
 thus almost as ancient as humanity itself. Being unable to make 
 use of flints which had been dried in the air, and consequently 
 rendered unfit for being wrought, the workmen were compelled 
 to make excavations, and to construct galleries, either covered or 
 exposed to the open air, to employ wooden battening, shores, 
 supports ; in short, to put in use the whole plant which is required 
 for working a stone-quarry. As, in order not to endanger the 
 lives of the labourers, it was found necessary to prevent any 
 downfalls, they were induced to follow out a certain methodical 
 system in their excavations, by giving a sufficient thickness to 
 
152 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 the roofs of the galleries, by sinking shafts, by building breast- 
 walls, and by adopting the best plan for getting out the useless 
 detritus. When, as was often the case, water came in so as to 
 hinder the miners, it was necessary to get rid of it in order that 
 the workmen should not be drowned. It was also sometimes 
 requisite that the galleries and the whole system of underground 
 ways should be supplied with air. 
 
 Thus their labour in fashioning the flint must have led our 
 ancestors to create the art of working quarries and mines. 
 
 It has been made a subject of inquiry how the tribes of the Stone 
 Age could produce, without the aid of any iron tool, the holes 
 which are found in the flints, and how they could perforate these 
 same flints so as to be able to fit in handles for the hatchets, pon- 
 iards, and knives ; in fact, lapidaries of the present day cannot bore 
 through gun-flints without making use of diamond dust. We are 
 of opinion that the bow, which was employed by primitive man in 
 producing fire by rubbing wood against wood, was also resorted to 
 in the workshops for manufacturing stone implements and weapons 
 for giving a rapid revolving motion to a flint drill, which was suf- 
 ficient to perforate the stone. Certain experiments which have 
 been made in our own day with very sharp arrow-heads which 
 belonged to primitive man have proved that it is thus very possible 
 to pierce fresh flints, if the action of the drill is assisted by the 
 addition of some very hard dust which is capable of increasing the 
 bite of the instrument. This dust or powder, consisting of corun- 
 dum or zircon, might have been found without any great difficulty 
 by the men of the Stone Age. These substances are, in fact, to 
 be met with on the banks of rivers, their presence being betrayed 
 by the golden spangles which glitter in the sand. 
 
 Thus the flint-drill, assisted by one of these powders, was quite 
 adequate for perforating siliceous stones. When it is brought to 
 our knowledge that the workmen of the Black Forest thus bore 
 into Bohemian granite in less than a minute, we shall not feel 
 inclined to call this explanation in question.* 
 
 Fig. 107 attempts to give a representation of the workshop at 
 
 * See J. Evans, " On the Manufacture of Stone Implements in Pre -historic Times," 
 in Trans, of the International Congress of Pre-historic Archaeology (Norwich, 1868), 
 p. 191 ; and C. Rau, " Drilling in Stone without Metal," in Report of Smithsonian 
 Institution, 1868. 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 153 
 
 Pressigny for shaping and polishing flints in other words, a 
 manufacturing workshop of the polished-stone epoch. 
 
 In this sketch we have depicted the polisher found by M. Leguay, 
 of which we give a representation in Fig. 108. In this picture it 
 was indispensable for us to show the operation of polishing, for the 
 latter is a characteristic of the epoch of mankind which we are now 
 describing, that is, the polished-stone period. It must, in fact, be 
 remarked that duringtheepoch of thegreat bearand the mammoth, 
 and the reindeer epoch, stone instruments were not polished, they 
 were purely and simply flakes or fragments of stone. During the 
 epoch at which we have now arrived, a great improvement took 
 place in this kind of work, and stone instruments were polished. 
 It is therefore essential to call attention to the latter operation. 
 
 We think we ought to quote here the brief account M. Leguay 
 has given of the polisher represented in our figure. In his "Note 
 sur une Pierre a polir les Silex trouvee en Septembre, 1860, a la 
 Varenne-Saint-Hilaire (Seine)," M. Leguay thus writes : 
 
 "Amongst the many monuments of the Stone Age which I 
 have collected at Varenne-Saint-Hilaire, on the site of the ancient 
 settlement which once existed there, there is one which has 
 always struck me, not only by its good state of preservation, but 
 also by the revelations which it affords us as to one of the 
 principal manufactures of these tribes the fabrication of flint 
 weapons and utensils. 
 
 " This object is a stone for polishing and fashioning the finest 
 kind of hatchets. I discovered it in September, 1860, at a spot 
 called La Pierre ait Pretre, along with several other monuments 
 of primitive art, which I intend before long to make public. 
 This stone is a rough sandstone of cubical shape, showing no 
 trace whatever of having been hewn. It is 13 inches in its 
 greatest thickness, and measures 37 inches long by 21 wide, and, 
 just as in many boulders, one of its faces is well adapted to the 
 use for which it was employed. 
 
 "This is the face which was used for many long years for 
 rubbing and polishing the weapons made in the place, the 
 remains of which are still found in small quantities in the 
 neighbourhood, and abound in the burial-places, where they have 
 been deposited as votive offerings. 
 
 " Almost the whole of its surface is occupied. In the centre is 
 
154 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 a basin presenting an oval surface, 25 inches the long way, and 
 12 inches the narrow way. The stone, which has been consider- 
 ably worn away in consequence of long use, has been rubbed off 
 to a central depth of about I inch ; this portion must have been 
 used for rubbing the larger objects after they had been roughly 
 shaped by chipping. The length of the basin allowed a motion 
 of considerable length to be given to the stone which was being 
 worked, at the same time giving facilities to the workman for the 
 exercise of all his strength. Added to this, this cavity enabled 
 the almond-like shape to be given to the objects a form which 
 they nearly all present. 
 
 "Either in front or to the right, according to the position in 
 
 Fig. 108. Polisher found by M. Leguay. 
 
 which the observer stands, and almost touching the edge of this 
 basin, there is a hole deeply hollowed in the stone, being 30 inches 
 long ; it extends along almost the whole length of the sandstone, 
 with the maximum breadth of about I inch, and presents the 
 shape of a very elongated spindle hollowed out to a depth of 
 something less than half an inch in the centre, which tapers off 
 to nothing at the two ends. 
 
 " The wear of the stone and the shape of this groove point out 
 its intention. It must have been used to reduce the edges or the 
 sides of the hatchet, which, after the chipping and flat polishing, 
 were left either too thick or too sharp for a handle to be easily 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 155 
 
 fitted to them. Added to this, it smoothed down the roughnesses 
 caused by chipping, which it replaced by a round form of no great 
 thickness, which was again and again rubbed flatly on the stone 
 to give it a square and sharp-edged level. This last operation 
 took place in a basin, and it gave to the hatchet a curve in a 
 lengthwise direction which is by no means ungraceful. 
 
 " The thinning off of the edges of the groove was not an imma- 
 terial matter. It not only assisted in forming the above-named 
 curve, but also prevented the cutting edge being distorted, and 
 avoided the need of subsequent repolishing, which spoiled the 
 object by rubbing it away too much. 
 
 " It must not be for a moment imagined that the edge of the 
 hatchet was made in this groove. Examination proves the con- 
 trary, and that it was done flatwise while polishing the rest of the 
 object ; and if sometimes its thickness did not allow this, it was 
 preliminarily done, and then finished in the general polishing. 
 
 " But although this basin, and its accompanying groove, on ac- 
 count of their dimensions, acted very well for polishing the large 
 hatchets, the case was different with the smaller ones. This is the 
 reason why two other smaller basins, and also a small groove, 
 were made on the flat part of the stone by the side of the others. 
 
 " These two basins were placed at two corners of the face of the 
 stone, but still parallel to the larger basin and also to the larger 
 groove, so as to be convenient for the requirements of the work- 
 man engaged in polishing, without compelling him to shift hi s 
 position ; one is 10 inches and the other 13 inches in length, 
 with a mean breadth of about 2^ inches. They are both in the 
 shape of a rather narrow almond, and end almost in a point, which 
 seems to show that they also were used in polishing somewhat 
 narrow objects perhaps to set right the edges of hatchets, in 
 which the rubbing in the larger basin had produced cavities pre- 
 judicial to the perfection of the faces. 
 
 "The small groove, placed very near the larger one, is 9 inches 
 long. It is the same shape as the other, but is not so deep, and 
 scarcely half an inch wide. 
 
 " Not far from the end of this latter groove, at the point 
 where it approaches the larger one, there are traces of a groove 
 scarcely commenced. 
 
 "Lastly, the flat portions of the stone which are not occupied 
 
156 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 by the basins and grooves were sometimes used for touching up 
 the polish, or even for smoothing various objects. 
 
 "Thus, as we see, this polishing-stone, which is one of the most 
 complete in existence, has on it three basins of different sizes, 
 two well-defined grooves, and one only just sketched out. It 
 would serve for finishing off all the instruments that could be 
 required ; but, nevertheless, two other sandstones of moderate 
 size were found near it ; one round, and the other of a spindle- 
 like shape ; these, which were worn and rubbed all over their 
 surfaces, must also have been used in polishing objects. 
 
 " Finding these stones was, however, a thing of frequent occur- 
 rence in several spots of this locality, where I often met with 
 them ; they were of all sizes and all shapes, and perfectly adapted 
 for polishing small flints, needles, and the cutting edges of knives, 
 deposited with them in the sepulchres. 
 
 " This polishing-stone, which is thickly covered with dendrites 
 or incrustations, must have been in use at the time it was aban- 
 doned. I found it about 2 feet below the surface of the soil, in 
 which it was turned upside down ; that is, the basin lay next the 
 earth. The few monuments that were with it one among which 
 I looked upon as an idol roughly carved in a block of sandstone 
 were all likewise turned upside down. There had been 
 sepulchres in the neighbourhood, but they had been violated ; 
 and the displaced stones, as well as the bones themselves, only 
 served to point out the presence of the former burial-place." 
 
 The polishing of stone instruments was effected by rubbing the 
 object operated upon in a cavity hollowed out in the centre of the 
 polisher, in which cavity a little water was poured, mixed with 
 zircon, or corundum powder, or, perhaps, merely with oxide of 
 iron, which is used by jewellers in carrying out the same opera- 
 tion. 
 
 It is really surprising to learn what an enormous quantity of 
 flints could be prepared by a single workman, provided with the 
 proper utensils. For information on this point, it is requisite to 
 know what could be done by our former flint-workers in the de- 
 partments of Indre and Loire-et-Cher, who are, in fact, the 
 descendants of the workmen of the Stone Age. Dolomieu, a 
 French naturalist, desired at the beginning of the century to 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 157 
 
 acquaint himself with the quantity which these workmen could 
 produce, and at the same time to thoroughly understand the 
 process which they employed in manufacturing gun-flints. 
 
 By visiting the workshops of the flint-workers, M. Dolomieu 
 ascertained that the first shape which the workman gave to the 
 flint was that of a many-sided prism. In the next place, five or 
 six blows with the hammer, which were applied in a minute, were 
 sufficient to cleave off from the mass certain fragments as exact in 
 shape, with faces as smooth, outlines as straight, and angles as sharp, 
 as if the stone had been wrought by a lapidary's wheel an opera- 
 tion which, in the latter case, would have required an hour's handi- 
 work. All that was requisite, says Dolomieu, is that the stones 
 should be fresh, and devoid of flaws or heterogeneous matter. When 
 operating upon a good kind of flint, freshly extracted from the 
 ground, a workman could prepare 1000 proper flakes of flint in a 
 day, turning out 500 gun-flints, so that in three days he would 
 perfectly finish 1000 ready for sale. In 1789, the Russian army 
 was furnished with gun-flints from Poland. The manufactory was 
 established at Kisniew. At this period, according to Dolomieu,. 
 90,000 of these gun-flints were made in two months. 
 
 Besides those at Grand-Pressigny, some other pre-historic work- 
 shops have been pointed out in France. We may mention those 
 of Charente, discovered by M. de Rochebrune ; also those of Poitou, 
 and, lastly, the field of Diorieres, at Chauvigny (Loire-et-Cher), 
 which appears to have been a special workshop for polishing flint 
 instruments. There is, in fact, not far from Chauvigny, in the 
 same department, a rock on which twenty-five furrows, similar to 
 those in the polishing-stones, are still visible ; on which account 
 the inhabitants of the district have given it the name of the 
 " Scored Rock." It is probable that this rock was used for polish- 
 ing the instruments which were sculptured at Diorieres. 
 
 The same kind of open-air workshops for the working of flints. 
 have also been discovered in Belgium. 
 
 The environs of Mons are specially remarkable in this respect. 
 At Spiennes, particularly, there can be no doubt that an important 
 manufactory of wrought flints existed during the polished-stone 
 epoch. A considerable number of hatchets and other implements 
 have been found there ; all of them being either unfinished, de- 
 
158 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 fective, or scarcely commenced. We here give a representation 
 (Fig. 109) of a spear-head which came from this settlement. 
 
 Sometimes these workshops were established in caverns, and 
 not in the open air. We are told this by M. J. Fournet, a natu- 
 ralist of Lyons, in his work entitled " Influence du Mineur sur 
 la Civilisation/' 
 
 " For a very long time past," says M. Fournet, the caves of 
 Mentone had been known to the inhabitants of the district, on 
 account of the accumulation of debris contained in them, a boxful 
 of which were sent to Paris, before 1848, by the Prince of Monaco; 
 the contents of it, however, were never subjected to any proper 
 
 Fig. 109. Spear-head from Spiennes. 
 
 explanation. Since this date, M. Grand, of Lyons, to whom I am 
 indebted for a collection of specimens from these caves, carefully 
 made several excavations, by which he was enabled to ascertain 
 that the most remarkable objects are only to be met with at a 
 certain depth in the clayey deposit with which the soil of these 
 caves is covered. All the instruments are rough and rudi- 
 mentary in their character, and must, consequently, be assigned 
 to the first commencement of the art. Nevertheless, among the 
 flints some agates were found, which, in my opinion, certainly 
 came from the neighbourhood of Frejus ; and with them also 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 159 
 
 some pieces of hyaline quartz in the shape of prisms terminated 
 by their two ordinary pyramids. We have a right to suppose 
 that these crystals, which resembled the Mcylau Diamonds found 
 near Grenoble, did not come there by chance, and that their sharp 
 points, when fixed in a handle and acting as drills, were used for 
 boring holes in stone." 
 
 Flint was not, however, the only substance used during this 
 epoch in the manufacture of st one-hatchets, instruments, and 
 tools. In the caves of France, Belgium, and Denmark a con- 
 siderable number of hatchets have been found, made of gneiss, 
 diorite, ophite, fibrolite, jade, and vari ous other very hard mineral 
 substances, which were well adapted to the purpose required and 
 the use to which they were put. 
 
 Fig. no. Polished Jade Hatchet in the Museum of Saint-Germain. 
 
 Among the most remarkable we may mention several jade 
 hatchets which were found in the department of Gers, and orna- 
 mented with small hooks on each side of the edge. One of these 
 beautiful jade hatchets (Fig. no), the delineation of which is 
 "taken from the specimen in the Museum of Saint-Germain, was 
 found in the department of Seine-et-Oise ; it has a sculptured 
 ridge in the middle of each face. 
 
 But neither flint, gneiss, nor diorite exist in every country. 
 For these stones some less hard substance was then substituted. 
 In Switzerland the instruments and tools were generally made of 
 
160 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 pebbles which had been drifted down by the streams. They 
 were fashioned by breaking them with other stones, by rubbing 
 them on sandstone, or by sawing them with toothed blades of 
 flint according to their cohesive nature. 
 
 In some localities also objects of large size were made of 
 serpentine, basalts, lavas, jades, and other rocks chosen on 
 account of their extreme cohesiveness. 
 
 Manual skill had, however, attained such a pitch of perfection 
 among the workmen of this period, in consequence of their being 
 habituated to one exclusive kind of labour, that the nature of the 
 stone became a matter of indifference to them. The hammer, 
 with the proper use of which our workmen are almost unac- 
 quainted, was a marvellous instrument in the hands of our ances- 
 tors ; with it they executed prodigies of workmanship, which 
 seem as if they ought to have been reserved for the file and 
 grindstone of the lapidary of the present day. 
 
 We shall not, perhaps, surprise our readers if we add that as 
 certain volcanic lavas, especially obsidian, fracture with the same 
 regularity and the same facility as the flint, obsidian was em- 
 ployed by the natives of America as a material for making sharp 
 instruments. The ancient quarries whence the Indians procured 
 this rock for the manufacture of instruments and tools, were 
 situate at the Cerro de Navajas that is, the Mountain of Knives 
 in Mexico. M. H. de Saussure, the descendant of the great 
 geologist, was fortunate enough to meet with, at this spot, pieces 
 of mineral which had merely been begun upon, and allowed a 
 series of double-edged blades to be subsequently cut off them ; 
 these were always to be obtained by a simple blow skilfully 
 applied. According to M. H. de Saussure, the first fashioning of 
 these implements was confined to producing a large six-sided 
 prism, the vertical corners of which were regularly and succes- 
 sively hewn off, until the piece left, or nucleus, became too small 
 for the operation to be further continued. 
 
 Hernandez, the Spanish historian, states that he has seen 100 
 blades an hour manufactured in this way. Added to this, the 
 ancient aborigines of Peru, and the Guanches of Teneriffe, like- 
 wise carved out of obsidian both darts and poniards. And, 
 lastly, we must not omit to mention that M. Place, one of 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 
 
 161 
 
 the explorers of Nineveh, found on the site of this ancient city, 
 knives of obsidian, supposed to be used for the purpose of cir- 
 cumcision. 
 
 Having considered the flint instruments peculiar to the polished- 
 stone epoch, we must now turn our attention to those made of 
 stag's horn. 
 
 The valley of the Somme, which has furnished such convincing 
 proof of the co-existence of man with the great mammals of 
 extinct species, is a no less precious repository for instruments of 
 stag's horn belonging to the polished-stone epoch. The vast 
 peat-bogs of this region are the localities where these relics have 
 been chiefly found. Boucher de Perthes collected a considerable 
 number of them in the neighbourhood of Abbeville. 
 
 These peat-bogs are, as is well known, former marshes which 
 have been gradually filled up by the growth of peat-moss (sphag- 
 num), which, mixed with fallen leaves, wood, 
 &c., and being slowly rotted by the sur- 
 rounding* water, became converted after a 
 
 o " 
 
 certain time into that kind of combustible 
 matter which is called peat. The bogs in 
 the valley of the Somme in some places 
 attain to the depth of 34 feet. In the lower 
 beds of this peat are found the weapons^ 
 the tools, and the ornaments of the polished- 
 stone epoch. 
 
 Among these ancient relics we must men- 
 tion one very interesting class ; it is that 
 formed by the association of two distinct 
 component parts, such as stone and stag's 
 horn, or stone and bone. 
 
 The hatchets of this type are particularly 
 remarkable ; they consist of a piece of 
 polished flint half buried in a kind of sheath 
 of stag's horn, either polished or rough, as Fig. m.-poiished Flint Hat- 
 the case may be (Fig. 1 1 1). 
 
 The middle of this sheath is generally 
 perforated with a round or oval hole intended to receive a handle 
 of oak, birch, or some other kind of wood adapted for such a use. 
 
 chet, with a Sheath of Stag's 
 Horn fitted for a Handle. 
 
1 62 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 Fig. 112, taken from the illustration in Boucher de Perthes' 
 work (" Antiquites Celtiques et Antediluviennes"), represents this 
 hatchet fitted into a handle made of oak. 
 
 It is difficult to understand how it was that a hatchet of this 
 kind did not fall out of its sheath in consequence of any moderately 
 violent blow ; for it seems as if there was nothing to hold it in its 
 place. This observation especially applies to hatchets, the whole 
 length of which even the portion covered by the sheath was 
 polished ; for the latter would certainly slide out of their casing with 
 ease. The fact is, that complete specimens are seldom found, and, 
 generally speaking, the flints are separated from their sheaths. 
 
 Fig. 112. Flint Hatchet fitted into a Stag's-horn Sheath, having an Oak Handle, from 
 Boucher de Perthes' illustration. 
 
 With regard to the handles, the nature of the material they 
 were made from was unfavourable to their preservation through 
 a long course of centuries ; it is, therefore, only exceptionally that 
 we meet with them, and even then they are always defaced. 
 
 Fig. 113 is given by Boucher de Perthes, in his "Antiquites 
 Celtiques," as the representation of an oaken handle found by him. 
 
 A number of these sheaths have been found, which were provided 
 at the end opposite to the stone hatchet with strong and pointed 
 teeth. These are boars' tusks, firmly buried in the stag's horn. 
 These instruments therefore fulfilled a double purpose ; they cut 
 or crushed with one end and pierced with the other. 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 
 
 163 
 
 Sheaths are also found which are not only provided with the 
 boars' tusks, but are hollowed out at each end so as to hold two 
 flint hatchets at once. This is represented in Fig. 114, from one 
 of Boucher de Perthes' illustrations. 
 
 The hatchet fitted into a sheath of stag's horn which we here 
 delineate (Fig. 1 1 5), was picked up in the environs of Aershot, 
 
 Fig. 113.- Hatchet-handle 
 made of Oak. 
 
 Fig. 114. Stag's-horn Sheath, 
 open at each end so as to 
 receive two Hatchets. 
 
 Fig. 115. Polished Flint 
 Hatchet from Belgium, 
 fitted into a Stag's- 
 horn Sheath. 
 
 and is an object well worthy of note ; it is now in the Museum 
 of Antiquities at Brussels. Its workmanship is perfect, and 
 superior to that of similar instruments found in the peat-bogs of 
 the valley of the Somme. 
 
1 64 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 Stag's horn was often used alone as a material for the manu- 
 facture of tools which were not intended to endure any very hard 
 work; among these were instruments of husbandry and gardening. 
 
 We here give representations (Figs. 1 16, 1 17, 1 18) from^Boucher 
 de Perthes' illustrations, of certain implements made of stag's 
 horn which appear to have had this purpose in view. It is re- 
 marked that they are not all perforated for holding a handle ; 
 in some cases, a portion of the stag's antler formed the handle. 
 
 Fig. 1 1 6. Gardening Tool made of Stag's 
 Horn (after Boucher de Perthes). 
 
 Fig. 117. Gardening Tool made of Stag's 
 Horn (after Boucher de Perthes). 
 
 In the course of his explorations in the peat-bogs of Abbeville, 
 M. Boucher de Perthes found numerous flakes of flint of irregular 
 shapes, the use of which he was unable to explain. But there 
 have also been discovered in the same deposits some long bones 
 belonging to mammals tibia, femur, radius, ulna all cut in a 
 uniform way, either in the middle or at the ends ; he was led to 
 imagine that these bones might have been the handles intended 
 to hold the flints. In order to assure himself that this idea was 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 165 
 
 well founded, he took one of the bones and a stone which came 
 out of the peat, and, having put them together, he found he had 
 made a kind of chisel, well adapted for cutting, scooping out, 
 scratching and polishing horn or wood. He tried this experiment 
 again several times, and always with full success. If the stone 
 did not fit firmly into the bone, one or two wooden wedges were 
 sufficient to steady it. 
 
 After this, Boucher de Perthes entertained no doubt whatever 
 that these bones' had been formerly employed as handles for flint 
 implements. The same handle would serve for several stones, 
 owing to the ease with which the artisan could take one flint out 
 
 Fig. 1 18. Gardening Tool made of Stag's Horn (after Boucher de Perthes). 
 
 and replace it with another, by the aid of nothing but these 
 wooden wedges. This is the reason why, in the peat-bogs, flints 
 of this sort are always much more plentiful than the bone 
 handles. We must also state that it seems as if they took little 
 or no trouble in repairing the flints when they were blunted, 
 knowing how easy it would be to replace them. They were 
 thrown away, without further care ; hence their profusion. 
 
 These handles are made of extremely hard bone, from which 
 we may conclude that they were applied to operations requiring 
 solid tools. Most of them held the flint at one end only ; but 
 
i66 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 some were open at both ends, and would serve as handles for 
 two tools at once. 
 
 Figs. 119 and 120 represent some of these flint tools in bone 
 handles the plates are taken from those in Boucher de Perthes' 
 work. 
 
 Generally speaking, these handles gave but little trouble to 
 those who made them. They were content with merely breaking 
 the bone across, without even smoothing down the fracture, and 
 then enlarging the medullary hollow which naturally existed ; 
 
 Fig. 119. Flint Tool in 
 a Bone Handle. 
 
 Fig. 120. Flint Tool 
 with Bone Handle. 
 
 Fig. 121. Ornamented 
 Bone Handle. 
 
 next they roughly squared or rounded the end which was 
 intended to be grasped by the hand. 
 
 In Fig. 121 we delineate one of these bone handles, which is 
 much more carefully fashioned ; it has been cut off smooth at 
 the open end, and the opposite extremity has been rounded off 
 into a knob, which is ornamented with a design. 
 
 During the polished-stone epoch, as during that which pre- 
 ceded it, the teeth of certain mammals were used in the way of 
 ornament. But they were not content, as heretofore, with 
 merely perforating them with holes and hanging them in a 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 
 
 167 
 
 string round their necks ; they were now wrought with consider- 
 able care. The teeth of the wild boar were those chiefly selected 
 for this purpose. They were split lengthwise, so as to render 
 them only half their original thickness, and were then polished 
 and perforated with holes in order to string them. 
 
 In the peat-mosses of the valley of the Somme a number of 
 boars' tusks have been found thus fashioned. The most curious 
 discovery of this kind which has been made, was that of the 
 
 Fig. 122. Necklace made of Boars' Tusks, longitudinally divided. 
 
 object of which we give a sketch in Fig. 122. It was found in 
 1834, near Pecquigny (Somme), and is composed of nineteen 
 boars' tusks split into two halves, as we before mentioned, per- 
 fectly polished, and perforated at each end with a round hole. 
 Through these holes was passed a string of some tendinous sub- 
 . stance, the remains of which were, it is stated, actually to be seen 
 at the time of the discovery. A necklace of this kind must have 
 
1 68 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 been of considerable value, as it would have necessitated a large 
 amount of very tedious and delicate work. 
 
 In the peat-bogs near Brussels polished flints have likewise 
 been found, associated with animal bones, and two specimens of 
 the human humerus, belonging to two individuals. 
 
 The peat-bogs of Antwerp, in which were found a human 
 frontal bone, characterised by its great thickness, and its small 
 surface, have also furnished fine specimens of flint knives (Fig.. 
 123), which are in no way inferior to the best of those discovered 
 at Grand- Pressigny. 
 
 Fig. 123. Flint Knife, from the Peat-bogs near Antwerp. 
 
 On none of the instruments of bone or iron, of which we have 
 been speaking, are to be found the designs which we have de- 
 scribed as being the work of man during the reindeer epoch. The 
 artistic instinct seems to have entirely vanished. Perhaps the 
 diluvial catastrophe, which destroyed so many victims, had, as- 
 one of its results, the effect of effacing the feeling of art, by 
 forcing men to concentrate their ideas on one sole point the 
 care of providing for their subsistence and defence. 
 
 A quantity of remains, gathered here and there, bear witness to 
 the fact that in the polished-stone epoch the use of pottery was- 
 pretty widely spread. Most of the specimens are, as we have 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 169 
 
 said, nothing but attempts of a very rough character, but still 
 they testify to a certain amount of progress. The ornamentation 
 is more delicate and more complicated. We notice the appear- 
 ance of open-work handles, and projections perforated for the 
 purpose of suspension. In short, there is a perceptible, though 
 but preliminary, step made towards the real creations of art. 
 
 In the caves of Ariege, MM. Garrigou and Filhol found some 
 remains of ancient pottery of clay provided with handles, although 
 of a shape altogether primitive. Among the fragments of pottery 
 found by these savants, there was one which measured 1 1 inches 
 in height, and must have formed a portion of a vase 20 inches 
 high. This vessel, which was necessarily very heavy, had been 
 hung to cords ; this was proved by finding on another portion of 
 the same specimen three holes which had been perforated in it. 
 
 Agriculture. We have certain evidence that man, during the 
 polished-stone epoch, was acquainted with husbandry, or, in other 
 words, that he cultivated cereals. MM. Garrigou and Filhol 
 found in the caves of Ariege more than twenty millstones, which 
 could only have been used in grinding corn. These stones are 
 from 8 to 24 inches in diameter. 
 
 The tribes, therefore, which, during the polished-stone epoch, 
 inhabited the district now called Ariege, were acquainted with 
 the cultivation of corn. 
 
 In 1869, Dr. Foulon-Menard published an article intended to 
 describe a stone found at Penchasteau, near Nantes, in a tomb 
 belonging to the Stone Age.* This stone is 24 inches wide, and 
 hollowed out on its upper face. It was evidently used for crush- 
 ing grain with the help of a stone roller, or merely a round 
 pebble, which was rolled up and down in the cavity. The meal 
 obtained by this pressure and friction made its way down the 
 slope in the hollowing out of the stone, and was caught in a piece 
 of matting, or something of the kind. 
 
 To enable our readers to understand the fact that an excava- 
 tion made in a circular stone formed the earliest corn-mill in 
 these primitive ages, we may mention that, even in our own time, 
 
 * "Les Moulins Primitifs," Nantes, 1869. Extract from the "Bulletin de la 
 Societe Archeologique de Nantes." 
 
1 70 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 this is the mode of procedure practised among certain savage 
 tribes in order to crush various seeds and corn. 
 
 In the " Voyage du Mississippi a 1'Ocean," by M. Molhausen, 
 we read : 
 
 " The principal food of the Indians consisted of roasted cakes 
 of maize and wheat, the grains of which had been pulverised 
 between two stones!'* 
 
 In Livingstone's Expedition to the Zambesi (Central Africa), 
 it is stated that " the corn-mills of the Mangajas, Makalolos, 
 Landines, and other tribes are composed of a block of granite or 
 syenite, sometimes even of mica-schist, 15 to 1 8 inches square, by 5 
 or 6 inches thick, and a piece of quartz, or some other rock of 
 equal hardness, about the size of a half-brick ; one of the sides 
 of this substitute for a millstone is convex, so as to fit into a 
 hollow of a trough-like shape made in the large block, which 
 
 Fig. 124. Primitive Corn-mill. 
 
 remains motionless. When the woman wants to grind any corn, 
 she kneels down, and, taking in both hands the convex stone, 
 she rubs it up and down in the hollow of the lower stone with a 
 motion similar to that of a baker pressing down his dough and 
 rolling it in front of him. Whilst rubbing it to and fro, the 
 housewife leans all her weight on the smaller stone, and every 
 now and then places a little more corn in the trough. The latter 
 is made sloping, so that the meal, as soon as it is made, falls 
 down into a cloth fixed to catch it." 
 
 Such, therefore, was the earliest corn-mill. We shall soon see 
 it re-appear in another form ; two millstones placed one over the 
 other, one being set in motion above the other by means of a 
 wooden handle. This is the corn-mill of the bronze epoch. This 
 
 * " Tour du Monde," p. 374, 1860. 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 171 
 
 type maintained its place down to historic times, as it constituted 
 the earliest kind of mill employed by the Roman agriculturist. 
 
 In order to represent the existence of agriculture during the 
 polished-stone epoch, we have annexed a delineation of a woman 
 grinding corn into meal in the primitive mill (Fig. 125). 
 
 In the same figure may be noticed the way of preparing the meal 
 coming from the mill for making a rough kind of cake. The chil- 
 dren are heating in the fire some flat circular stones. When these 
 stones are sufficiently heated, they rapidly withdraw them from the 
 fire, using for the purpose two damp sticks ; they then place on 
 the stones a little of the meal mixed with water. The heat of the 
 stones sufficed to bake the meal and form a sort of cake or biscuit. 
 
 We may here state, in order to show that we are not dealing 
 with a mere hypothesis, that it is just in this way that, in the 
 poor districts of Tuscany, the polenta is prepared even in the 
 present day. The dough made of chestnut-meal, moistened with 
 water, is cooked between flat stones that are placed one over 
 the other in small piles, as portrayed in the annexed plate. 
 
 In the background of the same sketch we see animals, reduced 
 to the state of domestic cattle, being driven towards the group at 
 work. By this particular feature we have wished to point out 
 that the polished-stone epoch was also that of the domestication 
 of animals, and that even at this early period the sheep, the dog, 
 and the horse had been tamed by man, and served him either as 
 auxiliaries or companions. 
 
 The traces of agriculture which we have remarked on as exist- 
 ing in the caves of Ariege, are also found in other parts of France. 
 Round the hearths in the department of Puy-de-D6me, MM. 
 Pommerol discovered carbonised wheat intermingled with pottery 
 and flint instruments. The men of the period we are now con- 
 sidering no longer devoted themselves exclusively to the pursuits 
 of hunting and fishing. They now began to exercise the noble 
 profession of agriculture, which was destined to be subsequently 
 the chief source of national wealth. 
 
 Navigation. The first origin of the art of navigation must be 
 ascribed to the polished-stone epoch. With regard to this sub- 
 ject, let us pay attention to what is said on the point by M. G. de 
 
172 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 Mortillet, curator at the Archaeological and Pre-historic Museum 
 of Saint-Germain one of the best-informed men we have in all 
 questions relating to the antiquity of man. 
 
 In M. de Mortillet' s opinion, navigation, both marine and inland, 
 was in actual existence during the polished-stone epoch. 
 
 The earliest boats that were made by man consisted simply of 
 great trunks of trees, shaped on the outside, and hollowed out in 
 the interior. They were not provided with any rest or rowlocks 
 for the oars or paddles, which were wielded by both hands. In 
 hollowing out the tree they used both their stone implements 
 and also the action of fire. 
 
 In the earliest boats, the trunk of the tree, cut through at the 
 two ends as well as their imperfect tools allowed, preserved its 
 original outward form. The boat, in fact, was nothing but the 
 trunk of a tree first burnt out and then chipped on the inside by 
 some cutting instrument, that is, by the stone-hatchet. 
 
 Some improvement subsequently took place in making them. 
 The outside of the tree was also chipped, and its two ends, instead 
 of being cut straight through, were made to terminate in a point. 
 In order to give it more stability in the water, and to prevent it 
 from capsizing, it was dressed equally all over, and the bottom of 
 the canoe was scooped out. Cross-stays were left in the interior 
 to give the boat more solidity, and, perhaps, also to serve as a 
 support to the back, or, more probably, to the feet of the rowers, 
 who sat in the bottom of the canoe. 
 
 Sails must soon have been added to these means of nautical pro- 
 gression. But it would be a difficult matter to fix any precise date for 
 this important discovery, which was the point of transition between 
 elementary and primitive navigation, and more important voyages. 
 This progress could not have been made without the help of metals. 
 
 In an article entitled "Origine de la Navigation et de la Peche," 
 M. de Mortillet passes in review all the discoveries, which have 
 been made in different countries, of the earliest boats belonging 
 to pre-historic man. 
 
 After stating that the Museum of Copenhagen contains draw- 
 ings of three ancient canoes, he goes on to say : 
 
 " The first canoe is the half-trunk of a tree 17 inches wide, 
 cut straight at the two ends, about 7 feet in length, and hollowed 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 173 
 
 out in a trough-like shape. This canoe much resembles that of 
 Switzerland. 
 
 "The second was about 10 feet in length, one end terminating 
 in a point, the other more rounded. It was formed of the trunk 
 of a tree hollowed out into two compartments, a kind of cross- 
 stay or seat being left at a point about one-third of the length 
 from the widest end. 
 
 " The third canoe, No. 295, likewise made of the trunk of a 
 tree, was much longer, having a length of at least 13 feet, and was 
 terminated by a point at both ends. At the sharpest end, the 
 hollow is finished off squarely, and there is also a small triangular 
 seat at the extremity. Two cross-stays were left in the interior. 
 
 " These three canoes are classed in the bronze series ; a note 
 of interrogation or doubt is, however, affixed to the two latter. 
 
 " Ireland, like Scandinavia, has a history which does not go 
 back very far into the remote past ; like Scandinavia, too, Ireland 
 has been one of the first to collect with care not only the monu- 
 ments, but even the slightest relics of remote antiquity and of 
 pre-historic times. The Royal Irish Academy has collected at 
 Dublin a magnificent Museum, and the praiseworthy idea has 
 also been put in practice of publishing a catalogue illustrated 
 with 626 plates. 
 
 " In these collections there are three ancient canoes. The first 
 is about 23 feet long, 31 inches wide, and 12 inches deep, 
 and is hollowed out of the trunk of an oak, which must have 
 been at least 4^4, feet in diameter. This boat, which came from 
 the bogs of Cahore, on the coast of Wexford, is roughly squared 
 underneath. One of the ends is rounded and is slightly raised : 
 the other is cut across at right angles, and closed with a piece let 
 in and fitted into grooves which were caulked with bark. In the 
 interior there are three cross-stays cut out of the solid oak. 
 
 " The interior, at the time the canoe was discovered, contained 
 a wooden vessel, intended to bale out the boat, and two rollers, 
 probably meant to assist in conveying it down to the sea. 
 
 " The second is a canoe made of one piece of oak, rather more 
 than 23 feet long, about 12 inches wide, and 8 inches deep. It 
 terminates in a point at both ends, and contains three cross-stays 
 cut out of the solid wood, and a small terminal triangular seat. 
 
I 7 4 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 " The third, likewise made of one piece, is rather more than 20 
 feet long and about 21 inches wide. On each side the wood is 
 cut out so as to receive a seat This boat appears less ancient 
 than the others, although these may not have belonged to any 
 very remote antiquity. In fact, Ware states that in his time 
 there were still to be seen on some of the Irish rivers canoes 
 hollowed out of a single trunk of oak. 
 
 " It is also well known that the lacustrine habitations con- 
 structed on the artificial islands called Crannoges, existed to a 
 late period in Ireland. All the boats found round these island- 
 dwellings are canoes made all in one piece and hollowed out of 
 the trunks of large trees. 
 
 " The trough-shaped canoe, consisting merely of the trunk of a 
 tree cut straight through at the two ends, and in no way squared 
 on the outside, also exists in Ireland. A very singular variety 
 has been found in the county of Monaghan ;* at the two ends 
 are two projections or handles, which were probably used for 
 carrying the boat from one place to another, or to draw it up 
 upon the beach after a voyage. 
 
 " According to Mr. John Buchanan, quoted by Sir C. Lyell,f at 
 least seventeen canoes have been found in the low ground along 
 the margin of the Clyde at Glasgow. Mr. Buchanan examined 
 several of them before they were dug out. Five of them were 
 found buried in the silt under the streets of Glasgow. One canoe 
 was discovered in a vertical position with the prow upwards, as if 
 it had foundered in a tempest ; it contained no small quantity of 
 sea-shells. Twelve other canoes were found about 100 yards from 
 the river, at the average depth of about 19 feet below the surface 
 of the ground, or about 7 feet below high-water mark. A few only 
 of them were found at a depth of no more than 4 or 5 feet, and 
 consequently more than 20 feet above the present level of the sea. 
 One was stuck into the sand at an angle of 45; another had been 
 turned over and lay keel upwards ; the others were in a horizontal 
 position, as if they had sunk in still water. 
 
 " Almost every one of these ancient boats had been formed of 
 
 Shirley's " Account of the Territory of Farney." 
 
 tj. Buchanan, " British Association Reports," 1855, p. 80. Sir C. Lyell, "An- 
 tiquity of Man," p." 48. 
 
s 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 175 
 
 a single trunk of oak, and hollowed out with some blunt instru- 
 ment, probably stone hatchets, assisted also by the action of fire. 
 A few of them presented clean-made cuts, evidently produced by 
 a metallic tool. Two of them were constructed of planks. The 
 most elaborate of the number bore the traces of square metal 
 nails, which, however, had entirely disappeared. In one canoe 
 was found a diorite hatchet, and at the bottom of another, a cork 
 bung, which certainly implies relations with southern France, 
 Spain, or Italy. 
 
 " The Swiss lakes, with their lacustrine habitations, have fur- 
 nished numerous specimens of canoes. Dr. Keller, in his fifth 
 Report on Lake Dwellings (Plate X. Fig. 23), represents a canoe 
 from Robenhausen ; it is the half-trunk of a tree 12 feet long and 
 29 inches wide, hollowed out to a depth of from 6 to 7 inches only. 
 Taking the centre as the widest part, this trunk has been chipped 
 off so as to taper towards the two points, which are rounded. It 
 is, however, very probable that the whole of this work was exe- 
 cuted with stone implements ; for the primitive settlement of 
 Robenhausen, situated in a peat-bog near the small lake Pfeffikon, 
 in the canton of Zurich, although very rich in many kinds of 
 objects, has not, up to the present time, furnished us with any 
 metal instruments. 
 
 " In his first report (Plate IV. Fig. 21), Dr. Keller had given the 
 sketch of another canoe which came from the Lake of Bienne. Like 
 the first, mentioned by M. Worsaae, it is the half of the trunk of a 
 tree cut almost straight through, its two ends hollowed out inside 
 in the shape of a trough, the exterior being left entirely unwrought. 
 
 "Professor Desor mentions several canoes found in the Lake of 
 Bienne. One of them, near the island Saint-Pierre, was still full of 
 stones. According to M. Desor, the builders of the lacustrine habi- 
 tations during the polished-stone epoch, in order to consolidate 
 the piles which were intended to support their dwellings, were 
 accustomed to bank them up with stones which they fetched in 
 boats from the shore : the bottom of the lake being completely 
 devoid of them. The canoe found at the isle of Saint-Pierre had 
 therefore sunk to the bottom with its cargo, and thus may be 
 dated back to the polished-stone epoch. M. Troyon* gives some 
 
 * " Habitations Lacustres des Temps anciens et modernes," pp. 119, 159, 166. 
 
176 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 still more circumstantial details as to this canoe. It is partly 
 buried in the mud at the northern angle of the isle, and is made 
 of a single piece of the trunk of an oak of large dimensions ; it 
 is not much less than 49 feet long, with a breadth of from 3 J feet 
 to 4 feet. 
 
 " M. Desor, in his Palafittes, informs us that the Museum of 
 Neuchatel has lately been enriched by the addition of a canoe 
 which was discovered in the lake ; unfortunately it was dread- 
 fully warped in drying. 
 
 " Also M. Troyon, in his ' Habitations Lacustres/ speaks of 
 several canoes at Estavayer and Morges. 
 
 " Estavayer is situated on the Lake of Neuchatel. There are 
 two settlements near it, one of the Stone Age, and one of the 
 Bronze Age. One canoe is still lying at the bottom of the lake, 
 near these settlements. Another was brought out of the water 
 by the fishermen some years ago ; it was about 10 feet in length 
 and 2 feet in width. The end which had been preserved was cut 
 to a point and slightly turned upwards. 
 
 "Morges is on the Lake of Geneva, in the canton of Vaud. 
 MM. Forel discovered there two interesting settlements of the 
 Bronze Age. Two canoes were found. According to M. Troyon, 
 one of them, which had been carried up on to the bank, was not 
 long before it was destroyed. It was formed of the trunk of an 
 oak, hollowed out like a basin. The other still lay near some 
 piles in 1 3 to 15 feet of water. One portion of it is buried in the 
 sand, the other part, which is not covered, measures about 10 feet 
 in length by 2 feet in width. It terminates in a point, and 
 has been cut out so as to provide a kind of seat, taken out of the 
 thickness of the wood at the end, just as in the third canoe repre- 
 sented in the Catalogue of the Copenhagen Museum. 
 
 " In France, too, several canoes have been found which date 
 back to pre-historic times. 
 
 "On the 6th of January, 1860, the labourers who were working 
 at the fortifications which the engineers were making at Abbeville, 
 found a canoe in the place called Saint-Jean-des-Pres, on the left 
 bank of the canal ; it was discovered in the peat, 36 feet below 
 the road and about 220 yards from the railway station. It was 
 made out of a single stick of oak, and was about 22 feet in length; 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 177 
 
 its ends were square and cut in a slope, so that its upper surface 
 was 8 feet longer than its bottom, which was flattened off to a 
 width of about 14 inches. The greatest width of its upper 
 surface, the widest part being placed at about one-third of its 
 length, measured nearly 3 feet ; from this point the canoe con- 
 tracted in width, and was not more than 18 inches in width at 
 the furthest end. Now, as no tree exists which diminishes to 
 this extent in diameter on so short a length, we must conclude 
 that the trunk which formed the canoe must have been shaped 
 outside. 
 
 " Two projections about 4 inches in thickness, placed 6^ feet 
 from the narrowest end, and forming one piece with the sides and 
 the bottom, which in this part are very thick, left between them 
 an empty space, which was probably intended to fit against the 
 two sides of a piece of wood cut square at the bottom and meant 
 to serve as a mast. The deepest internal hollow had not more 
 than 10 inches in rise, and the side, which at the upper part was 
 not more than an inch in thickness, followed the natural curve 
 of the trunk, and united with the much thicker portion at the 
 bottom. This canoe, although it was completely uncovered and 
 still remained in a very good state of preservation, has not been 
 got out from the place in which it lay. 
 
 " In 1834, another canoe was discovered at Estrebceuf, 33 feet 
 long, about 21 inches wide, and 18 inches deep. The bottom 
 was flat, the sides cut vertically both within and without, which 
 gave it nearly the shape of a squared trough. In its widest part 
 it bore some signs of having carried a mast. It was conveyed 
 to the Museum at Abbeville and became completely rotten ; 
 nothing now is left but shapeless remains. 
 
 " The Abbe Cochet relates that between 1788 and 1800, during 
 the excavation of the basin of La Barre at Havre, at 1 1 feet in 
 depth, a canoe was discovered more than 44 feet in length, and 
 hollowed out of one trunk of a tree. The two ends were pointed 
 and solid, and the interior was strengthened with curved stays 
 formed out of the solid wood. This canoe was found to be made 
 of elm, and was hollowed out to a depth of nearly 4 feet. It was 
 in so good a state of preservation, that it bore being carried to a 
 spot behind the engineer's house on the south jetty ; but when 
 
 N 
 
i;8 THE STONE AfE. 
 
 it was deposited there, it gradually wasted away by the successive 
 action of the rain and sun. 
 
 " The same archaeologist also mentions another canoe, with a 
 keel of from 1 6 to 20 feet long, which was discovered in the year 
 1680, at Monteviliers, in the filled-up ditches known under the 
 name of La Bergue. 
 
 "The Archaeological Museum of Dijon also contains a canoe 
 found in the gravel in the bed of the Loue, on the boundaries of the 
 department of Jura, between Dole and Salins. It is made of a 
 single colossal trunk of oak, shaped, in M. Baudot's opinion, by 
 means of fire. Its present length is 17 feet, and its width, 2 feet 
 4 inches ; but it has become much less in the process of drying. 
 Some iron braces which were fixed to keep the wood in position 
 plainly showed that the width had diminished at least 6 inches. 
 In the interior, the traces of two seats or supports, which had 
 been left in the solid wood, in order to give strength to the canoe, 
 might be very distinctly seen. The first was about a yard from 
 one end, the other 5^ feet from the other. Both extremities 
 terminate in a point, one end being much sharper and longer 
 than the other. 
 
 " At the Museum of Lyons there is a canoe which was found 
 in the gravel of the Rhone, near the bridge of Cordon, in the de- 
 partment of Ain. It is 41 feet in length, and hollowed out of a 
 single trunk of oak, tapering off at the two ends. The middle of 
 it is squared, and the interior is strengthened by two braces left 
 in the solid wood. 
 
 " Lastly, we must mention the canoe that was dug out of the bed 
 of the Seine in Paris, and presented by M. Forgeais to the Emperor. 
 It is now in the Museum of Saint-Germain. It was made of a single 
 trunk of oak and had been skilfully wrought on the outside, termi- 
 nating in a point at both ends. This canoe was bedded in the mud 
 and gravel at the extremity of the Cite, on the Notre-Dame side. 
 Close by a worked flint was met with, and various bronze weapons ; 
 among others, a helmet and several swords were also found. In the 
 beds of rivers objects belonging to different epochs readily get 
 mixed up. This flint appears to have accidentally come thither ; 
 the bronze arms, on the contrary, seem to mark the date of the 
 canoe."* 
 
 * " Origine de la Navigation et de la Peche," pp. II 21. Paris, 1867. 
 
Fig. 127. The earliest regular Conflicts between Men of the Stone Age ; or the Entrenched 
 Camp of Furfooz. (Page 178.) 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 179 
 
 We have previously spoken of tine primitive workshop of human 
 industry, of which, indeed, we gave a design. In contrast to this 
 peaceful picture, we may also give a representation of the evidences 
 which have been preserved, even to our own days, of the earliest 
 means of attack and defence constituting regular war among 
 nations. War and battles must have doubtless taken their rise 
 almost simultaneously with the origin of humanity itself. The 
 hatred and rivalry which first sprang up between individuals and 
 families hatred and rivalry which must have existed from all 
 time gradually extended to tribes, and then to whole nations, 
 and were outwardly expressed in armed invasion, pillage, and 
 slaughter. These acts of violence were, in very early days, 
 reduced to a system in the art of war that terrible expedient 
 from which even modern nations have not been able to escape. 
 
 In order to find the still existing evidence of the wars which took 
 place among men in the Stone Age, we must repair to that portion 
 of Europe which is now called Belgium. Yes, even in the Stone 
 Age, at a date far beyond all written record, the people of this 
 district already were in the habit of making war, either among 
 themselves, or against other tribes invading them from other lands. 
 This fact is proved by the fortified enclosures, or entrenched camps, 
 which have been discovered by MM. Hannour and Himelette. 
 These camps are those of Furfooz, Pont-de-Bonn, Simon, Jemelle, 
 Hastedon, and Poilvache. 
 
 All these different camps possess certain characteristics in com- 
 mon. They are generally established on points overhanging valleys, 
 on a mass of rock forming a kind of headland, which is united to 
 the rest of the country by a narrow neck of land. A wide ditch 
 was dug across this narrow tongue of land, and the whole camp was 
 surrounded by a thick wall of stones, simply piled one upon another, 
 without either mortar or cement. At the camp of Hastedon, near 
 Namur, this wall, which was still in a good state of preservation at 
 the time it was described, measured 10 feet in width, and about 
 the same in height. When an attack was made, the defenders, 
 assembled within the enclosure, rained down on their assailants 
 stones torn away from their wall, which thus became at the same 
 time both a defensive and offensive work (Fig. 127). 
 
 These entrenched positions were so well chosen that most of them 
 continued to be occupied during the age which followed. We may 
 
i8o THE STONE AGE. 
 
 mention, as an instance, the camp of Poilvache. After having been 
 a Roman citadel it was converted in the middle ages into a strongly 
 fortified castle, which was not destroyed until the fifteenth century. 
 
 The camps of Hastedon and Furfooz were likewise utilised by 
 the Romans. 
 
 Over the whole enclosure of these ancient camps worked flints 
 and remains of pottery have been found objects which are suffi- 
 cient to testify to the former presence of primitive man. The 
 enormous ramparts of these camps also tend to show that pre- 
 historic man must have existed in comparatively numerous asso- 
 ciations at the various spots where these works are found. 
 
 Fig. 128. Flint Arrow-Head, from Civita-Nova (Italy). 
 
 If we were to enter into a detailed study of the vestiges of the 
 polished-stone epoch existing in the other countries of Europe, 
 we should be led into a repetition of much that we have already 
 stated with regard to the districts now forming France and 
 Belgium. Over a great portion of Europe we should find the 
 same mode of life, the same manners and customs, and the same 
 degree of nascent civilisation. From the scope, therefore, of our 
 present work, we shall not make it our task to take each country 
 into special consideration. 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 181 
 
 We will content ourselves with stating that the caves of Old 
 Castile in Spain, which were explored by M. Ed. Lartet, have fur- 
 nished various relics of the reindeer and polished-stone epochs. 
 Also in the provinces of Seville and Badajos, polished hatchets 
 have been found, made for the most part of dioritic rocks. 
 
 Numerous vestiges of the same epoch have, too, been dis- 
 covered in various provinces of Italy. 
 
 We give in Fig. 128 the sketch of a very remarkable arrow-head 
 found in the province of Civita-Nova (the former kingdom of 
 Naples). It is provided with a short stem with lateral grooves, so 
 as to facilitate the point being fitted into a wooden shaft. 
 
 Elba, too, was surveyed by M. Raffaelle Foresi, who found in this 
 Mediterranean isle a large quantity of arrows, knives, saws, scrapers, 
 &c., formed of flint, jasper, obsidian, and even rock crystal. There 
 were also found in the Isle of Elba workshops for shaping flints. 
 Great Britain, Wurtemburg,Hungary,Poland,and Russia all furnish 
 us with specimens of polished stone instruments ; but, for the reason 
 whiclrwe-stated above, it would be superfluous to dwell upon them. 
 ^We shall now pass on to an examination of the type of the 
 human race which existed among the northern nations of Europe 
 during the polished-stone age. 
 
 There is a cavern of Ariege which belongs to the polished-stone 
 epoch, and has been explored by MM. Garrigou and Filhol this 
 is the cavern of Lombrive or des Eschelles ; the latter name being 
 given it because it is divided into two portions placed at such very 
 different levels that the help of five long ladders is required in 
 order to pass from one to the other. This cave has become in- 
 teresting from the fact that it has furnished a large quantity of 
 human bones, belonging to individuals of both sexes and every 
 age ; also two entire skulls, which M. Garrigou has presented to 
 the Anthropological Society of Paris. 
 
 These two skulls, which appear to have belonged, one to a child 
 of eight to ten years of age, the other to a female, present a some- 
 what peculiar shape. The forehead, which is high in the centre, 
 is low at the sides ; and the orbits of the eyes and also the 
 hollows of the cheeks are deep. 
 
 We shall not. enter into the diverse and contrary hypotheses 
 which have been advanced by MM. Vogt, Broca, Pruner-Bey, Gar- 
 
1 82 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 rigou, and Filhol, in order to connect the skulls found in the cave 
 of Ariege with the present races of the human species. This ethno- 
 logical question is very far from having been decided in any uni- 
 form way ; and so it will always be, as long as scientific men are 
 compelled to base their opinions on a limited number of skulls, 
 which are, moreover, always incomplete : each savant being free 
 to interpret their features according to his own system. 
 
 Neither in the Danish kitchen-middens nor in the lower beds of 
 the peat-bogs have any human bones been discovered ; but the 
 
 Fig. 129. The Borreby Skull. 
 
 tombs in Denmark belonging to the polished-stone epoch have 
 furnished a few human skulls which, up to a certain point, enable 
 us to estimate the intellectual condition and affinities of the race 
 of men who lived in these climates. We may particularly men- 
 tion the skull found in the tumulus at Borreby, in Denmark, 
 which has been studied with extreme care by Mr. Busk. 
 
 This skull (Fig. 129) presents a somewhat remarkable similarity 
 to that of Neanderthal, of which we have spoken in a previous 
 chapter. The superciliary ridges are very prominent, the forehead 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 183 
 
 is retiring, the occiput is short and sloped forward. It might, 
 therefore, find its origin among the races of which the skulls of 
 Neanderthal and Borreby are the representatives and the relics, 
 and the latter might well be the descendants of the former. 
 
 Anthropologists have had much discussion about the question, 
 To what particular human race of the present time may the skulls 
 found in the tumuhis at Borreby be considered to be allied ? But 
 all these discussions are deficient in those elements on which any 
 serious and definite argument might be founded. It would, there- 
 fore, be going beyond our purpose should we reproduce them 
 here. If, in the sketch of the Borreby skull, we place before the 
 eyes of our readers the type of the human cranium which existed 
 during the period of the Stone Age, our only object is to prove 
 that the primitive Northerner resembles the present race of man, 
 both in the beauty and in the regularity of the shape of his skull ; 
 also, in order once more to recall to mind how false and trivial 
 must the judgment be of those short-sighted savants who would 
 establish a genealogical filiation between man and the ape. 
 
 As we stated in the Introduction to this volume, a mere glance 
 cast upon this skull is sufficient to bring to naught all that has 
 been written and propounded touching the organic consanguinity 
 which is asserted to exist between man and the ape, to say 
 nothing of the objects produced by primitive man objects which, 
 in this work, we are studying in all necessary detail. An examina- 
 tion of the labours of primitive man is the best means of proving 
 every other consideration being set aside that a great abyss 
 exists between him and the animal ; this is the best argument 
 against our pretended simial origin, as it is called by those who 
 seek to veil their absurd ideas under grand scientific phrases. 
 
1 84 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Tombs and Mode of Interment during the Polished-stone Epoch Tumuli and other 
 sepulchral Monuments formerly called Celtic Labours of MM. Alexandra Bertrand 
 and Bonstetten Funeral Customs. 
 
 HAVING in our previous chapters described and delineated both 
 the weapons and instruments produced by the rudimentary manu- 
 facturing skill of man during the polished-stone epoch ; having 
 also introduced to notice the types of the human race during this 
 period ; we now have to speak of their tombs, their mode of inter- 
 ment, and all the facts connected with their funeral customs. 
 
 A fortunate and rather strange circumstance has both facilitated 
 and given a degree of certainty to the information and ideas we 
 are about to lay before our readers. The tombs of the men of the 
 polished-stone epoch their funeral monuments have been 
 thoroughly studied, described, and ransacked by archaeologists 
 and antiquarians, who for many years past have made them the 
 subject of a multitude of publications and learned dissertations. 
 In fact, these tombs are nothing but the dolmens, or the so-called 
 Celtic and Druidical monuments ; but they by no means belong, 
 as has always been thought, to any historical period that is, to 
 the times of the Celts, for they go back to a much more remote 
 antiquity the pre-historic period of the polished-stone age. 
 
 This explanatory datum having been taken into account, we 
 shall now study the dolmens and other so-called megalithic 
 monuments the grand relics of an epoch buried in the night of 
 time ; those colossal enigmas which impose upon our reason and 
 excite to the very highest pitch the curiosity of men of science. 
 
 Dolmens are monuments composed of a great block or slab of 
 rock, more or less flat in their shape according to the country in 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 
 
 185 
 
 which they are situate, placed horizontally on a certain number 
 of stones which are reared up perpendicularly to serve as its 
 supports. 
 
 Fi.j. 130. Danish Dolmen. 
 
 This kind of sepulchral chamber was usually covered by earth, 
 which formed a hillock over it. But in the course of time this 
 earth often disappeared, leaving nothing but the naked stones of 
 the sepulchral monument. 
 
 Fig. 131. Dolmen at Assies (Department of Lot). 
 
 These are the bare stones which have been taken for stone 
 altars, being referred to the religious worship of the Gauls. The 
 supposed Druidical altars are, in fact, nothing but ruined dolmens. 
 The purpose, therefore, for which they were elevated was not, as 
 has always been stated, to serve as the scene of the sacrifices of a 
 cruel religion ; for, at the present day, it is completely proved 
 that the dolmens were the tombs of a pre-historic epoch. 
 
 These tombs were intended to receive several dead bodies. The 
 corpses were placed in the chamber which was formed by the 
 upper slab and the supports. Some of these chambers had two 
 stages or stories, and then furnished a larger number of sepulchres. 
 
1 86 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 Figs. 132 and 133 represent different dolmens which still exist 
 in France. 
 
 Some dolmens are completely open to view, like that represented 
 in Fig. 132, nothing impeding a perfect sight of them ; others, on 
 
 Fig. 132. Dolmen at Connere (Marne). 
 
 the contrary, are covered with a hillock of earth, the dimensions 
 of which vary according to the size of the monument itself. 
 
 Fig. 133. Vertical Section of the Dolmen of Locmariaker, in Brittany. In the Museum of Saint- 
 Germain. 
 
 This latter kind of dolmen more specially assumes the nature 
 of a tumulus ; a designation which conveys the idea of some 
 mound raised above the tomb. 
 
 Figs. 134 and 135 represent the tumulus-dolmen existing at 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 
 
 187 
 
 Gavr'inis (Oak Island), in Brittany, or, more exactly, in the depart- 
 ment of Morbihan. It is the diminished sketch of an enormous 
 model exhibited in the Museum of Saint-Germain. This model 
 in relief has a portion cut off it which, by means of a cord and 
 pulley, can be elevated or lowered at will, thus affording a view 
 of the interior of the dolmen. It is composed of a single chamber, 
 leading to which there is a long passage. 
 
 Fig. 134. Tumulus-Dolmen at Gavr'inis (Morbihan). 
 
 Were all these dolmens originally covered by earth ? This is 
 a question which still remains unsolved. M. Alexandre Bertrand, 
 Director of the Archaeological Museum of Saint-Germain,]to whom 
 we owe some very remarkable works on the primitive monuments 
 
 Fig. 135. A portion of the Dolmen at Gavr'inis. 
 
 of ancient Gaul, decides it in the affirmative ; whilst M. de Bon- 
 stetten, a Swiss archaeologist of great merit, is of the contrary 
 opinion. The matter, however, is of no very great importance in 
 itself. It is, at all events, an unquestionable fact that certain dol- 
 mens which are now uncovered were once buried ; for they are 
 noticed to stand in the centre of slightly raised mounds in which 
 the supports are deeply buried. As we before stated, the action 
 of time has destroyed the covering which the pre-historic peoples 
 
1 88 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 placed over their sepulchres in order to defend them from the 
 injuries of time and the profanation of man. Thus, all that we 
 now see is the bare stones of the sepulchral chambers for so 
 long a time supposed to be altars, and ascribed to the religious 
 worship of the Gauls. 
 
 In considering, therefore, the dolmens of Brittany, which have 
 been so many times described by antiquarians, and made to figure 
 among the number of our historical monuments, we must renounce 
 
 Fig. 136. General Form of a covered Passage-Tomb. 
 
 the idea of looking upon them as symbols of the religion of our 
 ancestors. They can now only be regarded as sepulchral chambers. 
 
 Fig. 137. Passage-Tomb at Bagneux, near Saumur. 
 
 Dolmens are very numerous in France ; much more numerous, 
 indeed, than is generally thought. It used to be the common idea 
 that they existed only in Brittany, and those curious in such 
 ^natters wondered at the supposed Druidical altars which were so 
 plentifully distributed in this ancient province of France. But 
 Brittany is far from possessing the exclusive privilege of these 
 megalithic constructions. They are found in fifty-eight of the 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 
 
 189 
 
 French departments, belonging, for the most part, to the regions 
 of the south and south-west. The department of Finisterre con- 
 tains 500 of them ; Lot, 500; Morbihan, 250; Ardeche, 155; 
 Aveyron, 125 ; Dordogne, 100 ; &c.* 
 
 Fig. 138. Passage-Tomb at Plauharmel (Morbihan). 
 
 The authors who have written on the question we are now 
 considering, especially Sir J. Lubbock, in his work on " Pre- 
 historic Times," and Nilsson, the Swedish archaeologist, have 
 given a much too complicated aspect to their descriptions of the 
 tomb of pre-historic ages, owing to their having multiplied the 
 distinctions in this kind of monument. We should only perplex 
 
 Fig. 139. Passage-Tomb ; the so-called Table de Cesar, at Locmariaker (Morbihan). 
 
 our readers by following these authors into all their divisions. 
 We must, however, give some few details about them. 
 
 Sir J. Lubbock gives the name of passage grave to that which 
 the northern archaeologists call Ganggraben (tomb with passages) ; 
 of these we have given four representations (Figs. 136, 137, 138, 
 
 * Alexandre Bertrand's " Les Monumens Primitifs de la Gaule." 
 
190 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 1 39), all selected from specimens in France. This name is applied 
 to a passage leading to a more spacious chamber, round which 
 the bodies are ranged. The gallery, formed of enormous slabs 
 of stone placed in succession one after the other, almost always 
 points towards the same point of the compass ; in the Scandi- 
 navian states it generally has its opening facing the south or 
 east, never the north. 
 
 The same author gives the name of chambered tumuli (Fig. 140) 
 to tombs which are composed either of a single chamber or of a 
 collection of large chambers, the roofs and walls of which are con- 
 structed with stones of immense size, which are again covered up 
 by considerable masses of earth. This kind of tomb is found 
 most frequently in the countries of the north. 
 
 Fig. 140 represents, according to Sir J. Lubbock's work, a 
 Danish chambered tumulus. 
 
 Fig. 140. A Danish Titmulus, or chambered Sepulchre. 
 
 Before bringing to a close this description of megalithic monu- 
 ments, we must say a few words as to menhirs and cromlechs. 
 
 Menhirs (Fig. 141) are enormous blocks of rough stone which 
 were set up in the ground in the vicinity of tombs. They were 
 set up either separately, as represented in Fig. 141, or in rows, 
 that is, in a circle or in an avenue. 
 
 There is in Brittany an extremely curious array of stones of 
 this kind ; this is the range of menhirs of Carnac (Fig. 142). 
 The stones are here distributed in eleven parallel lines, over a 
 distance of noo yards, and, running along the sea-shore of 
 Brittany, present a very strange appearance. 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 
 
 191 
 
 When menhirs are arranged in circles, either single or several 
 together, they are called cromlechs. They are vast circuits of 
 
 Fig. 141. Usual shape of a Menhir. 
 
 stones, generally arranged round a dolmen. The respect which 
 was considered due to the dead appears to have converted these 
 
 Fig. 142. The rows of Menhirs at Carnac. 
 
 enclosures into places of pilgrimage, where, on certain days, 
 public assemblies were held. These enclosures are sometimes 
 
192 
 
 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 circular, as in England ; sometimes rectangular, as in Germany ; 
 and embrace one or more ranks. 
 
 Fig. 143 represents a dolmen with a circuit of stones ; that is, a 
 
 Fig. 143. Dolmen with a Circuit of Stones (CromlecK), in the province of Constantine. 
 
 cromlech, which has been discovered in the province of Constan- 
 tine. In Fig. 144 we have a group of Danish cromlechs. 
 
 Fig. 144. Group of Danish CromiecJis. 
 
 Among all these various monuments the "passage- tombs" and 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 193 
 
 the tumuli are the only ones which will come within the scope of 
 this work ; for these only have furnished us with any relics of 
 pre-historic times, and have given us any information with 
 respect to the peoples who occupied a great part of Europe at a 
 date far anterior to any traditionary record. 
 
 These stone monuments, as we have already stated, are neither 
 Celtic nor Druidical. The Celts a nation which occupied a por- 
 tion of Gaul at a period long before the Christian era were 
 altogether innocent of any megalithic construction. They found 
 these monuments already in existence at the time of their immi- 
 gration, and, doubtless, looked upon them with as much astonish- 
 ment as is shown by observers of the present day. Whenever 
 there appeared any advantage in utilising them, the Celts did not 
 fail to avail themselves of them. The priests of this ancient 
 people, the Druids, who plucked from off the oak the sacred 
 mistletoe, performed their religious ceremonies in the depths of 
 some obscure forest. Now, no dolmen was ever built in the midst 
 of a forest ; all the stone monuments which now exist stand in 
 comparatively unwooded parts of the country. We must, there- 
 fore, renounce the ancient and poetical idea which recognised in 
 these dolmens the sacrificial altars of the religion of our ancestors. 
 
 Some tumuli attain proportions which are really colossal. 
 Among these is Silbury Hill, the largest in Great Britain, which 
 is nearly 200 feet high. The enormous amount of labour which 
 would be involved in constructions of this kind has led to the 
 idea that they were not raised except in honour of chiefs and 
 other great personages. 
 
 On consulting those records of history which extend back to 
 the most remote antiquity, we arrive at the fact that the custom 
 of raising colossal tombs to the illustrious dead was one that was 
 much in vogue in the ancient Eastern world. Traces of these 
 monuments are found among the Hebrews, the Assyrians, the 
 Greeks, the Egyptians, &c. 
 
 Thus Semiramis, Queen of Nineveh, raised a mound over the 
 tomb of Ninus, her husband. Stones were likewise piled up over 
 the remains of LaTus, father of CEdipus. In the "Iliad," Homer 
 speaks of the mounds that were raised to the memory of Hector 
 and Patroclus. That dedicated to Patroclus the pious work of 
 
I 9 4 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 Achilles was more than 100 feet in diameter. Homer speaks 
 of the tumuli existing in Greece, which, even in his time, were 
 considered very ancient, and calls them the tombs of the heroes. 
 A tumulus was raised by Alexander the Great over the ashes of 
 his friend Hephsestio, and so great were the dimensions of this 
 monument, that it is said to have cost 1,200 talents; that is, about 
 ^240,000 of our money. In Roman history, too, we find instances 
 of the same kind. Lastly, the pyramids of Egypt, those costly 
 and colossal funeral monuments, are the still visible representa- 
 tions of the highest expression of posthumous homage which was 
 rendered by the generations of antiquity to their most illustrious 
 and mighty men. 
 
 This, however, could not have been in every case the prevailing 
 idea in the men of the Stone Age, in causing the construction of 
 these tumuli. The large number of bodies which have been found 
 
 Fig. 145. Position of Skeletons in a Swedish Tomb of the Stone Age. 
 
 in some of these monuments completely does away with the notion 
 that they were raised in honour of a single personage, or even of a 
 single family. They were often sepulchres or burial-places com- 
 mon to the use of all. Among this class we must rank the tumuli 
 of Axevalla and of Luttra, situated not far from one another in 
 Sweden. The first, which was opened in 1805, contained twenty 
 tombs of an almost cubical form, each containing a skeleton in a 
 crouching or contracted attitude. When the second was opened, 
 the explorers found themselves in the presence of hundreds of 
 skeletons placed in four rows one upon another, all in a contracted 
 position like those at Axevalla ; along with these human remains 
 various relics of the Stone Age were also discovered. 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 195 
 
 Fig. 145 represents the position in which the skeletons were 
 fou nd. 
 
 M. Nilsson has propounded the opinion that the " passage- 
 graves " are nothing but former habitations, which had been con- 
 verted into tombs after the death of those who had previously 
 occupied them. When the master of the house had breathed his 
 last especially in the case of some illustrious individual his 
 surviving friends used to place near him various articles of food 
 to provide for his long journey ; and also his weapons and other 
 objects which were most precious to him when in life ; then the 
 dwelling was closed up, and was only reopened for the purpose 
 of bearing in the remains of his spouse and of his children. 
 
 Sir J. Lubbock shares in this opinion, and brings forward facts 
 in its favour. He recites the accounts of various travellers, accord- 
 ing to which, the winter-dwellings of certain people in the extreme 
 north bear a very marked resemblance to the " passage-tombs " of 
 the Stone Age. Of this kind are the habitations of the Siberians 
 and the Esquimaux, which are composed of an oval or circular 
 chamber placed a little under the surface of the ground, and com- 
 pletely covered with earth. Sir J. Lubbock thinks, therefore, that 
 in many cases habitations of this kind may have been taken for 
 tumuli a mistake, he adds, all the more likely to be made 
 because some of these mounds, although containing ashes, re- 
 mains of pottery, and various implements, have not furnished 
 any relics of human bones. 
 
 In his work on the " Sepultures de 1'Age de la Pierre chez les 
 Parisii," M. Leguay, a learned architect and member of the Arch- 
 aeological Society, has called attention to the fact that the con- 
 struction of these dolmens betrays, as existing in the men of this 
 epoch, a somewhat advanced degree of knowledge of the elements 
 of architecture : 
 
 " The interment of the dead," says M. Leguay, " took place, 
 during the polished-stone epoch, in vaults, or a kind of tomb con- 
 structed on the spot, of stones of various thicknesses, generally 
 flat in shape, and not elevated to any very great height, being 
 laid without any kind of cement or mortar. These vaults, which 
 were at first undivided, were subsequently separated into com- 
 partments by stones of a similar character, in which compartments 
 bodies were placed in various positions. They were covered with 
 
196 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 earth or with flat stones, and sometimes we meet with a circular 
 eminence raised over them, formed of a considerable heap of stones 
 which had been subsequently brought thither ; this fact was veri- 
 fied by M. Brouillet in 1862 at the Tombelle de Brioux (Vienne). 
 
 " This kind of interment bears evidence of some real progress. 
 Polished flint instruments are met with intermingled with worked 
 stones which have been brought from a distance. Pottery of a 
 very significant character approaches that of the epoch at which 
 ornamentation commenced ; and the Tombelle de Brioux\\d, < $ fur- 
 nished two vessels with projecting and perforated handles formed 
 in the clay itself. I met with specimens similar to these both in 
 shape and workmanship in the cremation-tombs at Villeneuve- 
 Saint-Georges, which, as I have previously stated, appeared to me 
 to be later in date than the simple interment situated below them. 
 
 " The first element in the art of construction, that is, stability, 
 is manifested in these latter monuments. They do not come up 
 to the fine dolmens, or to the monuments which followed them, 
 but the principle on which stones should be laid together is already 
 arrived at. The slab forming the covering is the first attempt at 
 the lintel, the primitive base of architectural science. By in- 
 sensible degrees the dimensions of the monument increased, the 
 nature of the materials were modified, and, from the small ele- 
 mentary monument to the grand sepulchral dolmen, but one step 
 remained to be made a giant step, certainly, but not beyond the 
 reach of human intelligence. 
 
 " This step, however, was not accomplished suddenly and with- 
 out transitional stages. We find a proof of this in the beautiful 
 ossuary discovered in 1863, at Chamant, near Senlis (Oise), on the 
 property of the Comte de Lavaulx. This monument does not yet 
 come up to the most beautiful of the class ; but it possesses all 
 the inspirations which suggested the form of its successors, of 
 which, indeed, it is the type. 
 
 " Almost flat slabs of stone, of a greater height than those form- 
 ing the vaults, and of rather considerable dimensions, are placed 
 on edge so as to form a square chamber. A partition, formed of 
 stones of a similar character, leaving a space or passage between 
 them, separates the chamber into two unequal portions. Some 
 arrangement of this kind has been observed in most of the finest 
 dolmens ; it is found at a spot not far from Chamant, in a covered 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 197 
 
 way known under the name of the Pierres Turquoises, in the 
 forest of Carnelle, near Beaumont-sur-Oise (Seine-et-Oise). 
 
 " At Chamant, however, the chamber was not more than 3 to 
 4 feet in height under the roof, which was formed of large flat 
 stones, and was large enough to allow of a considerable number of 
 bodies to be deposited within it, either in a recumbent or con- 
 tracted position. Near them there were placed delicately- 
 wrought flints, and also some fine-polished hatchets, one of 
 which was of serpentine ; another of large dimensions, sculptured 
 after the fashion of the diluvial hatchets, appeared to me to have 
 been prepared for polishing. 
 
 ''"The researches which have been made have brought to light 
 but slight traces of pottery, and the small fragments that I have 
 examined do not point out any very remote age for this monu- 
 ment. Nevertheless, the investigation of this sepulchre, in which 
 I was guided by a somewhat different idea from that of merely 
 studying the monument itself, was not carried out with the exact 
 care that would be necessary for collecting all the indications 
 which it might have furnished. 
 
 " Between the sepulchre of Chamant and the finest dolmens, the 
 distinction is nothing more than a question of dimensions rather 
 than any chronological point. The latter are formed of colossal 
 stones, and when one examines them and seeks to realise the pro- 
 cess which must have been employed for raising them, the mind is 
 utterly perplexed, and the imagination finds a difficulty in con- 
 ceiving how it was possible to move these immense masses, and 
 especially, to place them in the position they now occupy; for at the 
 present day, in order to arrive at similar results, it would be neces- 
 sary to employ all the means which science has at command."* 
 
 The megalithic constructions do not all date back to the same 
 epoch. Some were raised during the Stone Age, others during 
 the Bronze Age. There is nothing in their mode of architecture 
 which will enable us to recognise their degree of antiquity ; but 
 the relics which they contain afford us complete information in 
 this respect Thus, in France, according to M. Alexandre Ber- 
 trand, the dolmens and the tumuli-dolmens contain, in a general 
 way, nothing but stone and bone articles ; those of bronze and 
 .gold are very rare, and iron is never met with. In the true 
 
 "Des Sepultures a 1'Age de la Pierre," pp. 15, 16. 1865. 
 
198 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 tumuli, on the contrary, bronze objects predominate, and iron is 
 very abundant ; this is an evident proof that these monuments 
 are of less ancient origin than the dolmens. In the same way we 
 ascertain that the Danish dolmens and the great sepulchral cham- 
 bers of Scandinavia, all belong to the polished-stone epoch. 
 When, therefore, we class the dolmens in this last-named epoch of 
 man's history, we are deciding in full harmony with the great 
 body of data which bear upon the point. 
 
 In order to fix the period with still greater accuracy, we might 
 add that the dolmens belong to the latter portion of the polished- 
 stone epoch and the commencement of the Bronze Age. But, as 
 we before said, we do not attach any importance to these distinc- 
 tions, which would only uselessly embarrass the mind of the reader. 
 
 An examination of the Danish dolmens has led the author of 
 the " Catalogue of Pre-historic Objects sent by Denmark to the 
 Universal Exposition of 1867," to sum up in the following words 
 the details concerning these sepulchral monuments : 
 
 " As regards the Danish dolmens, the number of skeletons con- 
 tained in them varies much ; in the largest there are as many as 
 twenty, and in the smallest there are not more than five or six ; 
 sometimes they are placed in stages, one above the other. 
 
 " The bones are never found in natural order ; the head lies 
 close to the knees, and no limb is in its natural place. It follows 
 from this, that in the course of interment the body was contracted 
 into a crouching position. 
 
 " The bottom of the sepulchral chamber of a dolmen is generally 
 covered with a layer of flints which have been subjected to fire ;. 
 this is the floor on which the body was deposited ; it was then 
 covered with a thin coating of earth, and the tomb was closed. 
 Yet, as we have just observed, it was but very rarely that dolmens 
 contained only one skeleton. They must, therefore, have been 
 opened afresh in order to deposit other bodies. It must have been 
 on these occasions, in order to contend with the miasma of putre- 
 faction, that they lighted the fires, of which numerous and evident 
 traces are seen inside the dolmens. This course of action con- 
 tinued, as it appears, until the time when the dolmen was entirely 
 filled up : but even then the tomb does not, in every case, seem 
 to have been abandoned. Sometimes the most ancient skeletons 
 have been displaced to make room for fresh bodies. This had 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 199 
 
 taken place in a dolmen near Copenhagen, which was opened 
 and searched in the presence of the late King Frederick VII. 
 
 " A dolmen situated near the village of Hammer, opened a few 
 years ago by M. Boye, presented some very curious peculiarities. 
 In addition to flint instruments, human bones were discovered 
 which had also been subjected to the action of fire. We are 
 therefore, led to suppose that a funeral banquet had taken place 
 in the vicinity of the tomb, and that some joints of human flesh 
 had formed an addition to the roasted stag. This is, however, 
 the only discovery of the kind which has been made up to the 
 present time, and we should by no means be justified in drawing 
 the inference that the inhabitants of Denmark at this epoch were 
 addicted to cannibalism. 
 
 " The dead bodies were deposited along with their weapons 
 and implements, and also with certain vessels which must have 
 contained the food which perhaps some religious usage induced 
 them to leave close to the body. For a long time it was supposed 
 that it was the custom to place these weapons by the side of men 
 only. But in a dolmen at Gieruen, a hatchet was found near a 
 skeleton which was evidently that of a woman. 
 
 " We now give the inventory of a ' find ' made in a Danish 
 dolmen, that of Hielm, in the Isle of Moen, which was opened in 
 1853. The sepulchral chamber was 1 6^ feet in length, I \y 2 feet 
 in width, and 4^ feet in height. 
 
 " In it were discovered twenty-two spear-heads, the largest of 
 which -was 1 1 inches in length, and the smallest 5J^ inches ; more 
 than forty flint flakes or knives from 2 to 5 inches in length ; 
 three flat hatchets, and one rather thicker ; three carpenter's 
 chisels, the longest of which measured 8 inches ; a finely-made 
 hammer 5 inches long ; three flint nuclei exactly similar to those 
 found in the kitchen-middens ; and lastly, in addition to all these 
 flint articles, some amber beads and forty earthen vessels moulded 
 by the hand." * 
 
 What were the funeral customs in use among men during the 
 polished-stone epoch ? and what were the ceremonies which took 
 place at that period when they buried their dead ? These are 
 questions which it will not be difficult to answer after a due 
 investigation of the dolmens and tttmidi. 
 
 * " Le Danemark a 1'Exposition Universelle de 1867." Paris, 1868. 
 
200 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 In a great number of tumuli, animal bones have been found 
 either broken or notched by sharp instruments. This is an indi- 
 cation that the funeral rites were accompanied by feasts just as 
 in the preceding epochs. 
 
 The body which was about to be enclosed in the tumulus was 
 borne upon boughs of trees, as is the case among some savage 
 tribes of the present day. The men and women attending wore 
 their best attire ; necklaces of amber and shells adorned their 
 necks. Men carrying torches walked in front of the procession, 
 in order to guide the bearers into the dark recesses of the sepul- 
 chral chambers. 
 
 From these data Fig. 146 has been designed, which gives a repre- 
 sentation of a funeral ceremony during the polished-stone epoch. 
 
 If we may judge by the calcined human bones which are rather 
 frequently met with in tombs, there is reason to believe that some- 
 times victims were sacrificed over the body of the defunct, per- 
 haps slaves, perhaps even his widow the custom of sacrificing 
 the widow still being in practice in certain parts of India. 
 
 Sir J. Lubbock is, besides, of opinion that when a woman died 
 in giving birth to a child, or even whilst she was still suckling it, 
 the child was interred alive with her. This hypothesis appears 
 a natural one, when we take into account the great number of 
 cases in which the skeletons of a woman and child have been 
 found together. 
 
 M. Leguay, in his " Memoire sur les Sepultures des Parisii," 
 which we quoted above, expresses the opinion that after each 
 interment, in addition to the funeral banquet, a fire was lighted 
 on the mound above the tumulus, and that each attendant threw 
 certain precious objects into the flames. 
 
 The objects which were most precious during the polished-stone 
 epoch were flints wrought into hatchets, poniards, or knives. 
 
 " On to this burning hearth," says M. Leguay, " as numerous 
 instances prove, those who were present were in the habit of casting 
 stones, or more generally wrought flints, utensils and instruments, 
 all made either of some kind of stone or of bone ; also fragments of 
 pottery, and, doubtless, other objects which the fire has destroyed. 
 
 " There are many of these objects which have not suffered any 
 injury from the fire ; some of the flints, indeed, seem so freshly 
 cut and are so little altered by the lapse of time, that it might be 
 
EPOCH OF TAMED ANIMALS. 201 
 
 readily imagined that they had been but recently wrought ; these 
 were not placed in the sepulchre, but are met with intermingled 
 with the earth which covers or surrounds the hearth, and appear 
 in many cases to have been cast in after the extinction of the fire 
 as the earth was being filled in. 
 
 "Sometimes, indeed, when the archaeologist devotes especial care 
 to his digging, he comes across a kind of layer of wrought flints 
 which are, in fact, to be looked upon as refuse rather than wrought 
 articles. Their position appears to indicate the surface of the 
 soil during that epoch, a surface which has been covered up by the 
 successive deposits of subsequent ages ; and although some of 
 these flakes may have been due to some of the objects which had 
 been placed in the sepulchre having been chipped on the spot, there 
 are many others which have not originated in this way, and have 
 come from objects which have been deposited in other places. 
 
 " All these stones, which are common to three kinds of burial- 
 places, have fulfilled, in my opinion, a votive function ; that is to 
 say, that they represent, as regards this epoch, the wreaths and 
 coronals of immortelles or the other objects which we in the present 
 day place upon the tombs of our relations or friends, thus follow- 
 ing out a custom the origin of which is lost in the night of time. 
 
 " And let not the reader treat with ridicule these ideas, which I 
 hold to be not far from the truth. Men, as individuals, may pass 
 away and generations may disappear; but they always hand down 
 to their progeny and those that succeed them the customs of their 
 epoch, which customs will undergo little or no change until the 
 causes which have produced them also disappear. Thus it is with 
 all that concerns the ceremonies observed in bearing man to his last 
 resting-place a duty which can never change, and always brings 
 with it its train of sorrow and regret. Nowadays, a small sum of 
 money is sufficient to give outward expression to our grief; but at 
 these remote epochs each individual fashioned his own offering, 
 chipped his own flint, and bore it himself to the grave of his friend. 
 
 '' This idea will explain the diversity of shape in the flints 
 placed round and in the sepulchres, and especially the uncouth- 
 ness of many of the articles which, although all manufactured of 
 the same material, betray a style of workmanship exercised by 
 numerous hands more or less practised in the work. 
 
 " It may, however, be readily conceived that during an epoch 
 
202 THE STONE AGE. 
 
 when stones were the chief material for all useful implements, 
 every wrought flint represented a certain value. To deprive them- 
 selves of these objects of value in order t<3 offer them to the manes 
 of the dead was considered a laudable action, just as was the case 
 subsequently as regards still more precious objects ; and this cus- 
 tom, which was observed during many long ages, although some- 
 times, and perhaps often practised with the declining energy in- 
 herent in every religious custom, was the origin of a practice 
 adopted by many of the nations of antiquity that, namely, of 
 casting a stone upon the tomb of the dead. Thus were formed 
 those sepulchral heaps of stones called gal-gals, some of which still 
 exist. 
 
 " It is, without doubt, to this votive idea that we must attribute 
 the fact that so many beautiful objects which ornament our 
 museums have been found deposited in these sepulchres ; but we 
 must remark that the large and roughly-hewn hatchets, and also 
 the knives of the second epoch, are replaced, in the third epoch, 
 by polished hatchets often even fitted with handles, and also by 
 knives of much larger size and finer workmanship. 
 
 " As an additional corroboration of my ideas, I will mention a 
 curious fact which I ascertained to exist in two sepulchres of this 
 kind which I searched ; the significance of this fact can only be 
 explained by a hypothesis which any one may readily develop. 
 
 " Each of them contained one long polished hatchet, broken in 
 two in the middle, the other portion of which was not found in 
 the sepulchre. 
 
 " One is now in the Museum at Cluny, where I deposited it ; 
 the other is still in my own possession. It is beyond all dispute 
 that they were thus broken at the time of the interment. 
 
 " Numerous hatchets broken in a similar way have been found 
 by M. A. Forgeais in the bed of the Seine at Paris, and also in 
 various other spots ; all of them were broken in the middle, and 
 I have always been of opinion that they proceeded from sepul- 
 chres of a like kind, which, having been placed on the edge of 
 the river, had been washed away by the flow of water which, 
 during long ages, had eaten away the banks." 
 
 At a subsequent period, that is, during the bronze epoch, dead 
 bodies were often, as we shall see, reduced to ashes either wholly 
 or in part, and the ashes were enclosed in urns. 
 
THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 I 
 
 I. 
 
 THE BRONZE EPOCH. 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 205. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The Discovery of Metals Various Reasons suggested for explaining the Origin of 
 Bronze in the West The Invention of Bronze A Foundry during the Bronze 
 Epoch Permanent and Itinerant Foundries existing during the Bronze Epoch 
 Did the knowledge of Metals take its rise in Europe owing to the Progress of 
 Civilisation, or was it a Foreign Importation ? 
 
 THE acquisition and employment of metals is one of the greatest 
 facts in our social history. Thenard, the chemist, has asserted 
 that we may judge of the state of civilisation of any nation by the 
 degree of perfection at which it has arrived in the workmanship 
 of iron. Looking at the matter in a more general point of view, we 
 may safely say that if man had never become acquainted with 
 metals he would have remained for ever in his originally savage 
 state. 
 
 There can be no doubt that the free use of, or privation from, 
 metals is a question of life and death for any nation. When we 
 take into account the important part that is played by metals in 
 all modern communities, we cannot fail to be convinced that, 
 without metals, civilisation would have been impossible. That 
 astonishing scientific and industrial movement which this nine- 
 teenth century presents to us in its most remarkable form the 
 material comfort which existing generations are enjoying all 
 our mechanical appliances, manufactures of such diverse kinds, 
 books and arts not one of all these benefits for man, in the 
 absence of metals, could ever have come into existence. With- 
 out the help of metal, man would have been condemned to live 
 in great discomfort ; but, aided by this irresistible lever, his. 
 powers have been increased a hundredfold, and man's empire 
 has been gradually extended over the whole of nature. 
 
 In all probability, gold, among all the metals, is the first with 
 which man became acquainted. Gold, in a metallic state, is drifted 
 down by the waters of many a river, and its glittering brightness 
 
206 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 would naturally point it out to primitive peoples. Savages are 
 like children, they love everything that shines brightly. Gold, 
 therefore, must, in very early days, have found its way into the 
 possession of the primitive inhabitants of our globe. 
 
 Gold is still often met with in the Ural mountains ; and thence, 
 perhaps, it originally spread all over the north of Europe. The 
 streams and the rivers of some of the central countries of Europe, 
 such as Switzerland, France, and Germany, might also have fur- 
 nished a small quantity. 
 
 After gold, copper must have been the next metal which 
 attracted the attention of men ; in the first place, because this 
 metal is sometimes found in a native state, and also because 
 cupriferous ores, and especially copper pyrites, are very widely 
 distributed. Nevertheless, the extraction of copper from the 
 ores is an operation of such a delicate character, that it must have 
 been beyond the reach of the metallurgic appliances at the dis- 
 posal of men during the early pre-historic period. 
 
 The knowledge of tin also dates back to a very high antiquity. 
 Still, although men might become acquainted with tin ores, a 
 long interval must have elapsed before they could have succeeded 
 in extracting the pure metal. 
 
 Silver did not become known to men until a much later date ; 
 for this metal is very seldom met with in the tumuli of the 
 bronze epoch. The fact is, that silver is seldom found in a pure 
 state, and scarcely ever except in combination with lead ores ; 
 lead, however, was not known until after iron. 
 
 Bronze, as every one knows, is an alloy of copper and tin (nine 
 parts of copper and one of tin). Now it is precisely this alloy, 
 namely bronze, which was the first metallic substance used in 
 Europe ; indeed, the sole substance used, to the exclusion of 
 copper. We have, therefore, to explain the somewhat singular 
 circumstance that an alloy, and not a pure metal, was the metallic 
 substance that was earliest used in Europe ; and we must also 
 inquire how it was that bronze could have been composed by the 
 nations which succeeded those of the polished-stone epoch. 
 
 At first sight it might appear strange that an alloy like bronze 
 should have been the first metallic substance used by man, thus 
 setting aside iron, deposits of which are very plentiful in Europe. 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 207 
 
 But it is to be remarked, in the first place, that iron ores do not 
 attract the attention so much as those of tin and copper. Added 
 to this the extraction of iron from its ores is one of the most difficult 
 operations of the kind. When dealing with ferruginous ores, the 
 first operation produces nothing more than rough cast iron a very 
 impure substance, which is so short and brittle that it possesses 
 scarcely any metallic qualities, and differs but little from stone as 
 regards any use it could be applied to. It requires re-heating and 
 hammering to bring it into the condition of malleable iron. On 
 the other hand, by simply smelting together copper and tin ores, 
 and adding a little charcoal, bronze might be at once produced, 
 without any necessity for previously extracting and obtaining 
 pure copper and tin in a separate state. This will explain how 
 it came to pass that the earliest metal-workers produced bronze 
 at one operation, without even being acquainted with the separate 
 metals which enter into its composition. 
 
 We are left entirely to hypothesis in endeavouring to realise to 
 ourselves how men were led to mix together copper and tin ores, 
 and thus to produce bronze a hard, durable, and fusible alloy, 
 and consequently well adapted, without much trouble, for the 
 fabrication, by melting in moulds, of hatchets, poniards, and 
 swords, as well as agricultural and mechanical instruments. 
 
 Bronze was endowed with all the most admirable qualities for 
 aiding the nascent industrial skill of mankind. It is more fusible 
 than copper, and is also harder than this metal ; indeed, in the 
 latter respect, it may compete with iron. It is a curious fact that 
 bronze has the peculiarity of hardening when cooled gradually. 
 If it is made red-hot in the fire, and is then suddenly cooled by 
 plunging it into water, the metal becomes more ductile, and may 
 be easily hammered ; but it regains its original hardness if it is 
 again heated red-hot and then allowed to cool slowly. This, as 
 we see, is just the contrary to the properties of steel. 
 
 By taking advantage of this quality of bronze they were enabled 
 to hammer it, and, after the necessary work with the hammer was 
 finished, they could, by means of gradual cooling, restore the 
 metal to its original hardness. At the present day, cymbals and 
 tomtoms are made exactly in this way. 
 
 All these considerations will perhaps sufficiently explain to the 
 
208 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 reader why the use of bronze preceded that of iron among all the 
 European and Asiatic peoples. 
 
 On this quasi-absence of manufactured copper in the pre-historic 
 monuments of Europe, certain archaeologists have relied when 
 propounding the opinion that bronze was brought into Europe 
 by a people coming from the East, a more advanced and civilised 
 people, who had already passed through' their copper age, that is, 
 had known and made use of pure copper. This people, it is said, 
 violently invaded Europe, and in almost every district took the 
 place of the primitive population ; so that, in every country, 
 bronze suddenly succeeded stone for the manufacture of instru- 
 ments, weapons, and implements. 
 
 By the side of these savants, who represent, to some extent, in 
 ethnological questions, the partisans of the great geological cata- 
 clysms or revolutions of the globe, there are others who would 
 refer the appearance of bronze in Europe to a great extension of 
 commercial relations. They utterly reject the idea of any con- 
 quest, of any great invasion having brought with it a complete 
 change in manners, customs, and processes of industrial skill. In 
 their opinion, it was commerce which first brought bronze from 
 the East and introduced it to the men of the West. This is the 
 view of Sir Cornewall Lewis, the archaeologist and statesman, 
 and also of Prof. Nilsson, who attributes to the Phoenicians the 
 importation of bronze into Europe. 
 
 Without attaining any great result, Nilsson has taken much 
 trouble in supporting this idea by acceptable proofs. We are 
 called upon to agree with the Danish archaeologist in admitting 
 that the Phoenicians, that is, the inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon, 
 went with their ships to procure tin from Great Britain, in order 
 to make an alloy with it in their own country, which alloy they 
 subsequently imported into Europe. 
 
 This is nothing but historic fancy. To this romance of archaeo- 
 logy we shall oppose the simple explanation which chemistry 
 suggests to us. Our belief is that the bronze was fabricated on 
 the spot by the very people who made use of it. All that was 
 requisite in order to obtain bronze, was to mix and smelt together 
 the ores of oxidised copper or copper pyrites, and tin ore, adding 
 a small quantity of charcoal. Now, copper ore abounds in 
 Europe ; that of tin is certainly rare ; and it is this rarity of tin 
 
\ 
 
 THE BRONZE EPOCH. 209 
 
 ore which is appealed to in support of the conjecture against 
 which we are contending. But, although tin ores are nowadays 
 rare in Europe, except in England and Saxony, they are, never- 
 theless, to be met with in the centre and south of the Continent ; 
 and, doubtless, in the early ages of mankind the quantities were 
 quite sufficient to supply the slender requirements of the dawning 
 efforts of industrial skill. We may, perhaps, be permitted to 
 allege that the cause of the supplies of tin ores being so poor in 
 the centre and south of Europe, may be the fact that they were 
 exhausted by the workings of our ancestors. Thus, at least, 
 many of the deposits of copper, silver, and lead have been 
 exhausted by the Romans, and we now find nothing more than 
 the mere remains of mines which were once very productive. 
 
 We may easily see that, in order to account for the presence 
 of bronze in Europe during the primitive epochs of mankind, it 
 was not necessary to build up such a framework of hypothesis as 
 Prof. Nilsson has so elaborately raised. 
 
 To sum up the whole matter, we may say that the use of bronze 
 preceded that of iron in the primitive industry of Europe and 
 Asia ; and that the people of our hemisphere were acquainted 
 with bronze before they came to the knowledge of pure copper 
 and tin ; this is all that we can safely assert on the point. 
 
 It might of course have been the case that copper and tin were 
 first used alone, and that the idea was subsequently entertained 
 of combining the two metals, so as to improve both. But the 
 facts evidently show that, so far as regards Europe, things did 
 not take place in this way, and that bronze was employed in the 
 works of primitive industry before copper and tin were known as 
 existing in a separate state.* 
 
 We must, however, state that in the New World the matter 
 was different. The Indians of North America, long before they 
 knew anything about bronze, were in the habit of hammering 
 the copper which was procured from the mines of Lake Superior, 
 and of making of it weapons, ornaments, and implements. 
 
 * It must, however, be observed that the author's theory does not agree with the 
 opinion of metallurgists, who do not consider the reduction of mixed copper and tin 
 ore a practically effective process, and would favour the more usual view that the 
 metals were smelted separately, and afterwards fused together to form bronze. {Note 
 to Eng. Trans.) 
 
 P 
 
210 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 After considering these general and theoretical points, we shall 
 now pass on to the history of the employment of bronze among 
 men of pre-historic ages, and shall endeavour to give some 
 description of their works for the manufacture of metals. 
 
 Facts handed down by tradition evidently show that, among 
 the peoples both of Europe and Asia, the use of bronze preceded 
 that of iron. 
 
 Homer tells us that the soldiers of the Greek and Trojan armies 
 were provided with iron weapons, yet he reserves for the heroes 
 weapons made of bronze. It seems that bronze being the most 
 ancient, was therefore looked upon as the more noble metal ; 
 hence, its use is reserved for chiefs or great warriors. Among all 
 nations, that which is the most ancient is ever the most honour- 
 able and the most sacred. Thus, to mention one instance only, 
 the Jews of our own times still perform the ceremony of circum- 
 cision with a knife made of stone. In this case, the stone-knife 
 is an object consecrated by religion, because the antiquity of this 
 instrument is actually lost in the night of time. 
 
 Bronze (or brass) is often mentioned in the Book of Genesis. 
 Tubalcain, the first metal-worker of the Scriptures, who forged 
 iron for all kinds of purposes, also wrought in bronze (or brass). 
 This alloy was devoted to the production of objects of ornament. 
 
 We read in the First Book of Kings (vii. 13, 14), "And King 
 Solomon sent and fetched Hiram out of Tyre. He was a widow's 
 son of the tribe of Naphtali, and his father was a man of Tyre, 
 a worker in brass : and he was filled with wisdom, and under- 
 standing, and cunning, to work all works in brass" 
 
 The word brass must be here understood as being synonymous 
 with bronze, and certainly the Hebrew term had this signification. 
 
 As a specially remarkable object of bronze work, we may 
 mention the "sea of brass" of the Hebrews, which contained 
 3000 measures of water. 
 
 Herodotus* speaks of another colossal basin made of bronze, 
 which was sixty times the size of that which Pausanias, son of 
 Cleobrontos, presented to the temple of Jupiter Oris, a temple 
 which had been built near the Euxine, on the borders of Scythia. 
 Its capacity was six hundred amphora, and it was six " fingers " 
 
 * Book iv. p. 81. 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 211 
 
 in thickness. The Greeks used to employ these enormous basins 
 in their religious ceremonies. 
 
 In Sweden and Norway, large receptacles of a similar kind 
 were in primitive ages employed in sacrificial ceremonies ; they 
 used to receive the blood which flowed from the slaughtered 
 animals. 
 
 In order to produce objects of this magnitude it was of course 
 necessary to have at disposal large foundries of bronze. These 
 foundries, which existed during historic periods, were preceded 
 by others of less importance used during the pre-historic epochs 
 which we are considering, that is, during the bronze epoch. 
 
 Vestiges of these ancient foundries have been discovered in 
 Switzerland, at Devaine, near Thonon, and at Walflinger, near 
 Wintherthur; especially also at Echallens, where objects have 
 been found which evidently originated from the working of some 
 pre-historic foundry. 
 
 At Merges, in Switzerland, a stone mould has been discovered 
 intended for casting hatchets. By running bronze into this an- 
 cient mould a hatchet has been made exactly similar to some of 
 those in our collections. 
 
 The casting was also effected in moulds of sand, which is the 
 more usual and more easy plan. 
 
 From these data, it is possible to imagine what sort of place a 
 foundry must have been during the bronze epoch. 
 
 In the production of bronze, they used to mix oxydated tin 
 ore, in the proportions which experience had taught them, with 
 oxydated copper ore or copper pyrites ; to this mixture was added 
 a small quantity of charcoal. The whole was placed in an earthen 
 vessel in the midst of a burning furnace. The two oxides were 
 reduced to a metallic state by means of the charcoal ; the copper 
 and tin being set free, blended and formed bronze. 
 
 When the alloy was obtained, all that was necessary was to 
 dip it out and pour it into sand or stone moulds, which had been 
 previously arranged for the purpose. 
 
 The art of casting in bronze must have played a very essen- 
 tial part among primitive people. There was no instrument that 
 they used which could not be made by casting it in bronze. The 
 sword-blades were thus made ; and, in order to harden the edge 
 
212 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 of the weapon, it was first heated and then cooled suddenly, 
 being afterwards hammered with a stone hammer. 
 
 In Fig. 147 we represent the workshop of a caster in bronze 
 during the epoch we are considering. The alloy, having been 
 previously mixed, has been smelted in a furnace, and a workman 
 is pouring it into a sand-mould. Another man is examining a 
 sword-blade which has just been cast. 
 
 Bronze being precious, it is probable that in these ancient com- 
 munities bronze weapons and implements were reserved for rich 
 and powerful personages, and that stone weapons remained the 
 attribute of the common people. The use of bronze could only 
 become general after the lapse of time. 
 
 The high value of bronze would lead to its being economised 
 as much as possible. The Pre-historic Museum at Copenhagen 
 contains unquestionable proofs of this scarcity of the metal, and 
 the means which were used for obviating it. Among the bronze 
 hatchets in the Museum of Copenhagen, there are some which 
 could only have served as ornaments, for they contained a nucleus 
 of clay, and the metal of which they were composed was not 
 thicker than a sheet of paper. 
 
 We must also add that worn-out instruments of bronze and 
 utensils which were out of use were carefully preserved, in order 
 to be re-cast ; the same material reappearing in various forms 
 and shapes. 
 
 We have just given a representation of the workshop of a 
 founder of bronze ; but we must also state that in addition to 
 these fixed establishments, there must have existed, at the epoch 
 of which we are speaking, certain itinerant founders who travelled 
 about, carrying all their necessary utensils on their backs, and 
 offered their services wherever they were required. 
 
 Every one is acquainted with the travelling tinkers who, at 
 the present day, make their way down from the mountains of 
 Auvergne, the Black Forest, the Alps, or the CeVennes, and are 
 called peirerous and estama-brazaires in the south of France, and 
 fyingliers in other districts. These men are in the habit of 
 working at separate jobs in the villages, and even in the public 
 places of the towns. Of course they travel with no more of the 
 utensils of their craft than strict necessity requires ; but, never- 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 213 
 
 theless, what they carry is sufficient for every purpose. A hollow 
 made in the ground is the furnace in which they place the nozzle 
 of their portable bellows, and they hammer the iron on a small 
 anvil fixed in the earth. 
 
 Aided by these merely rudimentary means they execute pieces 
 of metal-work, the dimensions of which are really surprising. 
 They make nails and tacks, and even worm-screws, repair locks, 
 clean clocks, make knives, mend skimmers, and restore umbrella 
 frames. They make bronze rings out of republican decimes, and 
 sell these popular trinkets to the village beauties. 
 
 Incomparable in their line of business, these men are unequalled 
 in patching or re-tinning vessels made of tin and wrought or 
 sheet-iron. The mending of crockeryware also forms one of their 
 numerous vocations ; and the repairing of a broken plate by means 
 of an iron rivet is mere play-work for their dexterous fingers. 
 But melting down and re-casting these are the real triumphs of 
 their art. The village housewife brings to them her worn-out 
 pewter vessel, and soon sees it re-appear as a new, brilliant, and 
 polished utensil. Lamps, cans, covers, and tin-plates and dishes 
 are thus made to re-appear in all their primitive brightness. 
 
 The fusion and casting of bronze does not perplex them any 
 more than working in tin. They are in the habit of casting 
 various utensils in brass or bronze, such as candlesticks, bells, 
 brackets, &c. The crucible which they use in melting brass is 
 nothing but a hole dug in the earth and filled up with burning 
 charcoal, the fire being kept up with the help of their bellows, the 
 nozzle of which is lengthened so as to open in the middle of the 
 charcoal. On this furnace they place their portable crucible, 
 which is a kind of earthen ladle provided with a handle. 
 
 Their system of casting is simple in the extreme. The pressed 
 sand, which serves them for a mould, is procured from the ditch 
 at the side of the road.. Into this mould they pour the alloy out 
 of the very crucible in which it has been melted. 
 
 These itinerant metallurgists, these estama-brazaires, who may 
 be noticed working in the villages of Lower Languedoc, whose 
 ways we have just depicted (not without some degree of pleasant 
 reminiscence), are nothing but the descendants of the travelling 
 metal-workers of the pre-historic bronze epoch. In addition to the 
 
214 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 permanent establishment of this kind the foundries, the remains 
 of which have been found in Switzerland, the French Jura, Ger- 
 many, and Denmark, there certainly existed at that time certain 
 workmen who travelled about singly, from place to place, exer- 
 cising their trade. Their stock of tools, like the objects which 
 they had to make or repair, was of a very simple character ; the 
 sand from the wayside formed their moulds, and their fuel was 
 the dry wood of the forest. 
 
 The existence, at this remote epoch in the history of mankind, 
 of the itinerant workers in metal is proved by the fact, that 
 practitioners of this kind were known in the earliest historic 
 periods who had already to some extent become proficients in the 
 art. Moses, the Hebrew lawgiver, was able in the wilderness to 
 make a brazen serpent, the sight of which healed the Israelites 
 who had been bitten by venomous snakes ; and, during the 
 retirement of the prophet to Mount Sinai, Aaron seemed to find 
 no difficulty in casting the golden calf, which was required of him 
 by the murmurs of the people. Itinerant founders must there- 
 fore have accompanied the Jewish army. 
 
 We have been compelled to dwell to some extent on the general 
 considerations which bear upon the introduction of bronze among 
 the ancient inhabitants of Europe who succeeded the men of 
 the Stone Age. In the chapters which follow we intend as far 
 as possible to trace out the picture of that period of man's his- 
 tory, which is called the Bronze Epoch, and constitutes the first 
 division of the Age of Metals. 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 215 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Sources of Information at our Disposal for reconstructing the History of the 
 Bronze Epoch The Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland Enumeration and 
 Classification of them Their Mode of Construction Workmanship and Position 
 of the Piles Shape and Size of the Huts Population Instruments of Stone, 
 Bone, and Stag's Horn Pottery Clothing Food Fauna Domestic Animals. 
 
 IN endeavouring to trace out the early history of the human race, 
 we naturally turn our attention to all the means of investigation 
 which either study or chance have placed at our disposal. 
 Grottos and caves, the rock-shelters, the ancient camps, the 
 centres of flint-working, the Scandinavian kitchen-middens, the 
 dolmens, and the tumuli all have lent their aid in affording those 
 elements for the representation of the earliest epoch of the 
 history of primitive man which we have already considered. 
 The data which we shall resort to for delineating the bronze 
 epoch will be of a different kind. 
 
 Among all the sources of authentic information as to the 
 manners and customs of man in his earliest existence, none, cer- 
 tainly, are more curious than those ancient remains which have 
 lately been brought to light and explored, and have received the 
 name of lacustrine dwellings. 
 
 The question may be asked, What are these lacustrine dwellings -, 
 and in what way do they serve to elucidate the history of the 
 bronze epoch ? These are just the points which we are about to 
 explain. 
 
 The most important discoveries have often depended on very- 
 slight causes. This assertion, although it has been made common 
 by frequent repetition, is none the less perfectly correct. To what 
 do we owe the knowledge of a multitude of curious details as to 
 pre-historic peoples ? To an accidental and unusual depression 
 of the temperature in Switzerland. But we will explain. 
 
 The winter of 1853-1854 was, in Switzerland, so dry and cold 
 that the waters of the lakes fell far below their ordinary level. 
 
216 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 The inhabitants of Meilan, a place situated on the banks of the 
 Lake of Zurich, took advantage of this circumstance, and gained 
 from the lake a tract of ground, which they set to work to raise 
 and surround with banks. 
 
 In carrying out these works they found in the mud at the 
 bottom of the lake a number of piles, some thrown down and 
 others still upright, fragments of rough pottery, bone and stone 
 instruments, and various other relics similar to those found in 
 the Danish peat-bogs. 
 
 This extraordinary accumulation of objects of all kinds on the 
 dried bed of the lake appeared altogether inexplicable, and every 
 one was at fault in their remarks ; but Dr. Keller, of Zurich, having 
 examined the objects, at once came to a right understanding as to 
 their signification. It was evident to him that they belonged to 
 pre-historic times. By an association of ideas which no one had 
 previously dreamt of, he perceived that a relation existed between 
 the piles and the other relics discovered in the vicinity, and saw 
 clearly that both dated back to the same epoch. He thus came 
 to the conclusion, that the ancient inhabitants of the Lake of 
 Zurich were in the habit of constructing dwellings over the 
 water, and that the same custom must have existed as regards 
 the other Swiss lakes. 
 
 This idea was developed by Dr. Keller in five very remarkable 
 memoirs, which were published in German.* 
 
 This discovery was the spark which lighted up a torch destined 
 to dissipate the darkness which hung over a long-protracted and 
 little-known period of man's history. 
 
 Previous to the discovery made on the dried-up bed of the Lake 
 of Zurich, various instruments and singular utensils had been 
 obtained from the mud of some of the lakes of Switzerland, and 
 piles had often been noticed standing up in the depths of the 
 water ; but no one had been able to investigate these vestiges of 
 another age, or had had any idea of ascribing to them anything 
 like the remote antiquity which has since been recognised as be- 
 longing to them. To Dr. Keller the honour is due of having in- 
 terpreted these facts in their real bearing, at a time when every- 
 one else looked upon them as nothing but objects of curiosity. 
 
 * " Pfahlbauten," Zurich, 1854-1856. 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 217 
 
 It is, therefore, only just to pronounce the physician of Zurich to 
 have been the first originator of pre-historic archaeological 
 science in Switzerland. 
 
 In 1854, after the publication of Dr. Keller's first article, the 
 Swiss lakes were explored with much energy, and it was not long 
 before numerous traces of human settlements were discovered. 
 At the present day more than 200 are known, and every year 
 fresh ones are being found.* 
 
 Thanks to the activity which has been shown by a great num- 
 ber of observers, magnificent collections have been formed of these 
 archaeological treasures. The fishermen of the lakes have been 
 acquainted, for many years back, with the sites of some of these 
 settlements, in consequence of having, on many occasions, torn 
 their nets on the piles sticking up in the mud. Numerous ques- 
 tions were asked them, and they were taken as guides to the dif- 
 ferent spots, and ere long a whole system of civilisation, hereto- 
 fore unknown, emerged from the beds of the Swiss lakes. 
 
 Among the lakes which have furnished the largest quantity of 
 relics of pre-historic ages, we may mention that of Neuchatel, in 
 which, in 1867, no less than forty-six settlements were counted ; 
 in Lake Constance (thirty-two settlements) ; in the Lake of 
 Geneva (twenty-four settlements) ; in the Lake of Bienne, canton 
 of Berne (twenty settlements) ; in the Lake of Morat, canton of 
 Fribourg (eight settlements). 
 
 Next come several other lakes of less importance. The Lake 
 of Zurich (three settlements) ; the Lake of Pfseffikon, canton of 
 Zurich (four settlements) ; the Lake of Sempach, canton of 
 Lucerne (four settlements) ; the Lake of Moosseedorf, canton of 
 Berne (two settlements) ; the Lake of Inkwyl, near Soleure (one 
 settlement) ; the Lake of Nussbaumen, canton of Thurgau (one 
 settlement) ; the Lake of Zug, &c. 
 
 * Various distinguished savants have taken upon themselves the task of making 
 known to the public the results of these unceasing investigations, and of bringing 
 before the eyes of the present generation the ancient civilisation of the Swiss valleys. 
 Among the works which have best attained this end, we must mention Troyon's 
 " Habitations Lacustres des Temps anciens et modernes," Morlot's ' ' Etudes Geologico- 
 archeologiques en Danemark et en Suisse," and M. Desor's " Palafittes, ou Construc- 
 tions Lacustres du Lac de Neuchatel." These works, which have been translated into- 
 various languages, contain a statement of all the archaeological discoveries which have 
 been made in Switzerland. 
 
218 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 Pile-work has also been discovered in former lakes now trans- 
 formed into peat-bogs. We must place in this class the peat- 
 bog of Wauwyl, canton of Lucerne (five settlements). 
 
 We will mention, in the last place, the settlement at the bridge 
 of Thiele, on the water-course which unites the lakes of Bienne 
 and Neuchatel. This settlement must once have formed a por- 
 tion of the Lake of Bienne, at the time when the latter extended 
 as far as the bridge of Thiele. 
 
 The lacustrine villages of Switzerland do not all belong to the 
 same period. The nature of the remains that they contain in- 
 dubitably prove that some are far more ancient than others. The 
 vestiges have been discovered of three successive epochs the 
 polished-stone epoch and the epochs of bronze and of iron. 
 
 The lacustrine settlements of Switzerland, when considered 
 under the heads of the various pre-historical epochs to which 
 they belong, may be divided in the following way : 
 
 The Stone Age : The Lake of Constance (about thirty settle- 
 ments) ; and Lake of Neuchatel (twelve settlements) ; the Lake 
 of Geneva (two settlements) ; the Lake of Morat (one settle- 
 ment) ; the lakes of Bienne, Zurich, Pfaefnkon, Inkwyl, Moossee- 
 dorf, Nussbaumen, Wanger, &c. ; the settlements of Saint-Aubin 
 and Concise, the peat-bog of Wauwyl, and the settlement at the 
 bridge of Thiele. 
 
 The Bronze Epoch: The Lake of Geneva (twenty settlements) ; 
 the Lake of Neuchatel (twenty-five settlements) ; the Lake of 
 Bienne (ten settlements) ; also the lakes of Morat and Sempach. 
 
 The Iron Epoch : The lakes of Neuchatel and Bienne. 
 
 It may appear strange that the primitive inhabitants of 
 Switzerland should have preferred aquatic dwellings to habita- 
 tions built on terra finna, which could certainly have been con- 
 structed much more easily. Further on in our work we shall 
 have something to say as to the advantages which men might 
 derive from such a peculiar arrangement of their dwellings ; but 
 we may now remark that this custom was somewhat prevalent 
 among the earliest inhabitants of Europe. Ancient history fur- 
 nishes us with several instances of it. Herodotus, speaking of 
 the Paeonians, of the Lake Prasias, in Thrace, says : 
 
 "Their habitations are built in the following way. On long 
 piles, sunk into the bottom of the lake, planks are placed, form- 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 219 
 
 ing a floor ; a narrow bridge is the means of access to them. 
 These piles used to be fixed by the inhabitants at their joint 
 expense; but afterwards it was settled 'that each man should 
 bring three from Mount Orbelus for every woman whom he 
 married. Plurality of wives, be it observed, was permitted in 
 this country. On these planks each has his hut with a trap-door 
 down into the lake ; and lest any of their children should fall 
 through this opening they took care to attach a cord to their feet. 
 They used to feed their horses and beasts of burden on fish. In 
 this lake fish was so abundant that if a basket was let down 
 through the trap-door it might be drawn up a short time after- 
 wards filled with fish." 
 
 Sir J. Lubbock, repeating the statement of one of his friends 
 who resides at Salonica, asserts that the fishermen of the Lake 
 Prasias still inhabit wooden huts built over the water, as in the 
 time of Herodotus. There is nothing improbable in this, since the 
 town of Tcherkask in Russia is constructed in a similar way over 
 the River Don, and Venice itself is nothing but a lacustrine city 
 built during historic times over a lagune of the Adriatic sea. 
 
 We may add that even in modern times this custom of building 
 villages on piles still exists in some parts of the world. According 
 to the evidence of Dampier and Dumont d'Urville, habitations 
 built on piles are to be met with in New Guinea, Celebes, Ceram, 
 Mindanao, the Caroline Islands, &c. The city of Borneo is, in- 
 deed, entirely built on this plan. In some of the isles of the 
 Pacific Ocean there are several tribes of savages who likewise 
 make their dwellings over water. The Indians of Venezuela 
 have adopted this custom with the sole intention of sheltering 
 themselves from the mosquitoes. 
 
 It is quite permissible to suppose that the need for security 
 was the motive which induced the ancient inhabitants of Switzer- 
 land, and other countries, thus to make settlements and live upon 
 the lakes. Surrounded as they were by vast marshes and im- 
 penetrable forests, they lived in dread of the attacks of numerous 
 wild beasts. They therefore taxed their ingenuity to ensure their 
 safety as far as they possibly could, and no means appeared more 
 efficacious than that of surrounding themselves with water. At 
 a subsequent period, when men commenced to make war against 
 one another, these aquatic habitations became still more valu- 
 
220 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 able. They then constituted something in the nature of camps 
 or fortifications in which, being well protected from all danger of 
 sudden surprise, the people of the country could defy the efforts 
 of their enemies. 
 
 We must, however, add, that in more recent times these build- 
 ings on piles were according to M. Desor used only as store- 
 houses for utensils and provisions ; the actual dwellings for men 
 being built on terra finna. 
 
 These lacustrine dwellings are designated under various names 
 by different authors. Dr. Keller, who was the first to describe 
 them, gave them in German the name of pfahlbauten (buildings 
 on piles) which the Italians have translated by the word palafitta. 
 This latter appellation, when Gallicised by M. Desor, becomes 
 
 Fig. 148. Section of the Teneviere of Hauterive. 
 
 palafitte. Lastly, the name tenevteres or Steinbergs (mountains of 
 stone) is given to constructions of a peculiar character in which the 
 piles are kept up by masses of stone which have been brought to 
 the spot. By Dr. Keller this latter kind are called, packwerkbauten. 
 
 When we examine as a whole the character of the lacustrine 
 settlements which have hitherto been discovered, it may, in fact, 
 be perceived that those who bnilt them proceeded on two dif- 
 ferent systems of construction ; either they buried the piles very 
 deeply in the bed of the lake, and on these piles placed the plat- 
 form which was to support their huts ; or, they artificially raised 
 the bed of the lake by means of heaps of stones, fixing in these 
 heap somewhat large stakes, not so much for the purpose of sup- 
 porting the habitations themselves, as with, a view of making the 
 heaps of stones a firm and compact body. 
 
 This latter mode of construction is represented in Fig. 148, 
 taken from a design given by M. Desor in his remarkable work 
 "Les Palafittes."* 
 
 * " Les Palafittes, ou Constructions Lacustres du Lac de Neuchatel." Paris, 1865. 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 221 
 
 One or the other of these modes of construction was employed 
 according to the nature of the bed of the lake. In lakes with a 
 muddy bottom, the first plan could be easily employed ; but when 
 the bed was rocky it was necessary to have recourse to the second. 
 This is the reason why on the northern shore of the Lake of Neu- 
 chatel, where the banks of limestone come very close to the surface, 
 a comparatively large number of tenevttres may be observed. 
 
 These are the facts as generally noticed, especially in wide and 
 deep lakes ; the edifice, however, was not always constructed in 
 this mode. In marshes and small lakes, which have now become 
 peat-bogs, another system was frequently applied, a remarkable 
 instance of which is furnished by the peat-moss at Wauwyl. In 
 this locality were found several quadrangular spaces very dis- 
 tinctly enclosed by piles, between which were raised as many as 
 five platforms one above the other. These piles are naturally 
 very long, and some are buried as much as seven feet in the solid 
 ground an operation which must have required an enormous 
 amount of labour. The intervals between the platforms are filled 
 up with boughs of trees and clay, and the floors themselves are 
 made in nearly the same way as those we have before mentioned. 
 The lowest rested directly on the bed of the lake, and on the 
 upper one the huts were placed. 
 
 It is sometimes the case that these heaps of stones rise above 
 the water ; they then form perfect artificial islands, and the 
 habitations which covered them are no longer, properly speaking, 
 dwellings on piles. Of this kind is the station on the Lake of. 
 Inkwyl in Switzerland ; of this kind, also, are the crannoges of 
 Ireland, of which we shall subsequently make special mention. 
 Some of these artificial islands have braved the destructive action 
 of ages, and are still inhabited at the present time. M. Desor 
 mentions the Isle of Roses in the Lake of Starnberg (Bavaria) 
 which has never been known to have been unfrequented by man; 
 it now contains a royal residence. 
 
 Let us revert to the mode of construction of the aquatic dwell- 
 ings of Switzerland. 
 
 In all probability the stones used were conveyed to the required 
 spot by means of canoes made of hollowed-out trunks of trees. 
 Several of these canoes may still be seen at the bottom of Lake 
 Bienne, and one, indeed, is still laden with pebbles, which leads us 
 
222 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 _J_ to think that it must have foundered with its cargo. But it is 
 very difficult to raise these canoes from the bottom, and it is, 
 besides, probable that when exposed to the open air they would 
 fall to dust. Nevertheless, one of them is exhibited in the 
 Museum at Neuchatel. 
 
 In the Museum at Saint-Germain there is a canoe very similar 
 to that of Neuchatel. It is' made out of the trunk of a hollow 
 tree. A second canoe, very like the first, but with the bark still 
 on it, and in a bad state of preservation, lies in the entry of the 
 same Museum of Saint-Germain. It was taken out of the Seine, 
 as we stated when speaking in a previous chapter of the first 
 discovery of the art of navigation during the Stone Age. 
 
 It may very easily be explained how the constructors went to 
 work in felling the trees and converting them into piles. M. 
 Desor has remarked that the pieces of wood composing the piles 
 are cut cleanly through round their circumference only; the 
 central part shows inequalities just like those which are noticed 
 when a stick is broken in two by the hand after having been cut 
 into all round the outside. The builders of the lacustrine villages, 
 therefore, when they wanted to fell a tree, must have acted much 
 as follows ; having cut all round it to a depth of 3 or 4 inches, 
 they fixed a cord to the top, and broke the tree down by forcibly 
 pulling at the upper part. They then cut it through in the same 
 way with stone or bronze hatchets, giving it the requisite length, 
 hewing it into a point at one end so that it should more easily 
 penetrate the mud. Sometimes a fire applied to the base of the 
 tree prepared for and facilitated the effect of the sharp instru- 
 ments used. A great number of the piles that have been found 
 still bear the marks of the fire and the cuts made by stone 
 hatchets. In constructing the tenevieres, the labour of pointing 
 the piles was needless, as the latter were thoroughly wedged in 
 by the accumulation of stones of which we gave a representation 
 in Fig. 148. 
 
 When the piles were prepared, they had to be floated to the 
 spot fixed upon for the village, and to be fixed in the bed of the 
 lake. If we consider that, in many cases, the length of these piles 
 reached to as much as 1 6 or 20 feet, some idea may be formed of 
 the difficulty of an undertaking of this kind. In the construction 
 of the tenevteres much thicker piles were used, and the labour 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 223 
 
 was much less difficult. For instance, in the more ancient tene- 
 vttres of the Lake of Neuchatel piles are found made of whole 
 trunks of trees which measure 10 to 12 inches in diameter. 
 
 The mind is almost confused when it endeavours to sum up the v 
 amount of energy and strong will which the primitive population 
 of Switzerland must have bestowed on constructing, unaided as 
 they were by metal implements, the earliest lacustrine settlements, 
 some of which are of very considerable extent. The settlement 
 of Morges, one of the largest in the Lake of Geneva, is not less 
 than 71,000 square yards in area. That of Chabrey, in the Lake 
 of Neuchatel, measures about 60,000 square yards ; another, in 
 the same lake, 48,000 yards ; and, lastly, a third, that of La Tene, 
 36,000 yards. There are many others which are smaller, although 
 of respectable dimensions. 
 
 The number of piles which must have been used in some of 
 these constructions is really surprising. M. Lohle has calculated 
 that in the single lacustrine village of Wangen, in the Lake of 
 Constance, at least 40,000 piles have been fixed, and that several 
 generations must have been necessary to terminate the work. 
 The more reasonable interpretation to give to a fact of this kind 
 is that Wangen, which was very thinly populated at first, in- 
 creased in size gradually as the number of inhabitants aug- 
 mented. The same remark may be doubtless applied to all the 
 important stations. 
 
 This was the plan employed in building a single habitation. 
 When a whole village had to be built in the open water, a 
 methodical course of action was adopted. They began by placing 
 a certain number of piles parallel to the shore, and these they at 
 once threw across the bridge which was intended to connect the 
 village with the land, thus rendering the carriage of the materials 
 much less difficult. 
 
 When the bridge was finished, and before fixing all the piles, 
 the platform was commenced immediately ; this constituted a 
 base of operations, by the help of which the pile work could more 
 easily be finished. 
 
 This platform was raised 3 or 4 feet above the surface of the 
 water, so as to obviate any danger arising from the waves during 
 a tempest. It was generally composed of branches and trunks 
 of trees, not squared, and bound horizontally to each other, the 
 
224 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 whole cemented together with clay ; sometimes, also, they used 
 thick, rough slabs, which were obtained by splitting trunks of 
 trees with wedges. The platform was fixed firmly on the pile- 
 work, and in some cases wooden pegs were used to fasten together 
 the largest pieces of timber, so that the cohesion and incorpora- 
 tion of the floor was rendered more complete. As soon as the 
 esplanade was finished, they then proceeded to the construction 
 of the huts. 
 
 The huts must have opened on to the platform by doors. Did 
 they possess windows ? Nothing is known as to this point. But 
 in all probability there was an opening at the top of the roof 
 through which the smoke of the fire made its way. To avoid 
 any fear of conflagration, a stone fireplace was placed in the 
 middle of each dwelling. The daylight must have come in 
 through the hole in the roof in a quantity almost sufficient to 
 cause the absence of windows to be not much felt. 
 
 In each habitation there was, no doubt, a trap-door in direct 
 communication with the lake, such as those which existed in the 
 dwellings of the Paeonians described by Herodotus. Under this 
 trap-door there was a reservoir made of osiers, intended for the 
 preservation of fish. 
 
 As the inhabitants of the lacustrine villages only lived upon 
 the water with a view of increasing their security, it would be 
 absurd to suppose that they would construct a large number of 
 bridges between their aquatic settlement and the banks of the 
 lake. There must have been, in general, but one bridge for each 
 of these lake villages. 
 
 How were the huts constructed, and what were their shape and 
 dimensions ? These questions certainly seem difficult to answer, 
 for, as may be well imagined, no specimen of these ancient dwell- 
 ings has been preserved to our days. Nevertheless, a few relics, 
 insignificant in appearance, enable us to reply to these inquiries 
 in a way more or less satisfactory. 
 
 Everything seems to indicate that the huts were formed of 
 trunks of trees placed upright, one by the side of the other, and 
 bound together horizontally by interwoven branches. A coating 
 of earth covered this wattling. 
 
 It has been fancied, from the imprint left by some of the 
 branches which were used in building these huts, that it might 
 
Lkl 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 225 
 
 be inferred that they were circular, like those which historians 
 attribute to the ancient Gauls. This was Troyon's opinion, and 
 at first Dr. Keller's also. This author has even sketched a cir- 
 cular hut in a plate representing a restored lacustrine habitation, 
 which accompanies one of his memoirs. Sir C. Lyell, also, has 
 reproduced this same plate in the frontispiece of his work on the 
 " Antiquity of Man." But Dr. Keller has subsequently abandoned 
 this idea, and in another of his memoirs he has supplied a fresh 
 design, showing nothing but huts with flat or sloping roofs. 
 
 From this latter plate, taken from Dr. Keller's work, we here 
 give a representation of a Swiss lacustrine village (Fig. 149). 
 
 The suggestions for this reconstructive sketch were furnished 
 to Dr. Keller, not only by various scientific indications, but also 
 and especially by a drawing made by Dumont d'Urville among 
 the Papuans of New Guinea. 
 
 According to Dr. Keller, during the last century there still 
 existed on the river Limmat, near Zurich, some fishermen's huts 
 built in a similar way to those of the lacustrine villages. 
 
 What might have been the population of one of these settle- 
 ments ? This estimate M. Troyon endeavoured to make an 
 undertaking of a very interesting nature. He adopted as the 
 base of his calculations the lacustrine village of Merges (Lake of 
 Geneva), which, as we have already stated, had an area of 71,000 
 square yards. Allowing that only one-half of this area was 
 occupied by huts, the other half being reserved for gangways 
 between the dwellings, and assuming an average diameter of 16 
 feet for each hut, M. Troyon reckoned the number of dwellings 
 in the pre-historic village of Merges at 311. Next, supposing 
 that four individuals lived in each hut, the total amount of popu- 
 lation he arrived at was 1,244 inhabitants. 
 
 We might very justly be surprised if the men of the bronze 
 epoch, who were provided with metallic weapons, and were con- 
 sequently in a much better position for resisting any violent attack, 
 had continued to dwell exclusively in the midst of the water, and 
 should not, to some extent, have dispersed over terra firma, which 
 is man's natural standing-ground. It was, therefore, nothing 
 more than might have been expected, when the discovery was 
 made of the relics of dwellings upon land, containing remains of 
 the bronze epoch. This discovery, in fact, took place, and those 
 
 Q 
 
226 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 investigating the subject came to the conclusion that the valleys 
 of Switzerland, as well as the lakes, were occupied during this 
 period by an industrious and agricultural people. 
 
 At Ebersberg, canton of Zurich, there was discovered which is 
 a very curious fact the remains of an ancient settlement situated 
 on terra firma, and containing utensils similar to those found in 
 the lacustrine settlements. In 1864, Dr. Clement searched several 
 mounds composed of pebbles bearing the traces of fire ; these 
 mounds were situated in the neighbourhood of Gorgier (canton of 
 Neuchatel). One of these mounds has furnished various objects 
 of bronze intermingled with fragments of charcoal, especially a 
 bracelet and some sickles characterised by a projection or set-off 
 at the spring of the blade. 
 
 On the plateau of Granges (canton of Soleure), Dr. Schild 
 studied a certain spot which he considers to be the site of an 
 ancient bronze foundry ; for, besides finding there pebbles and 
 calcined earth, he also discovered a number of reaping-hooks 
 made with a shoulder, and also a fragment of a sword and four 
 finely-made knives. 
 
 A hatchet-knife was likewise found in the gorge of the Seyon, 
 near Neuchatel ; and a bracelet in the vicinity of Morges (canton 
 of Geneva). Some other bracelets, accompanied by calcined 
 human bones, were discovered near Sion, in the Valais. 
 
 Lastly, M. Thioly obtained from a cave of Mont Saleve, near 
 Geneva, numerous fragments of pottery of the bronze epoch ; and 
 in a grotto on the banks of the Reuse, in the canton of Neuchatel, 
 M. Otz found relics of pottery of very fine clay, along with a 
 quantity of bones. 
 
 Thus the people of this epoch did not dwell exclusively in 
 settlements made over the water. They also were in the habit of 
 building habitations on terra firma, and of furnishing them with 
 everything which was necessary for existence. 
 
 All the facts which have been observed in Switzerland may, 
 doubtless, be applied generally ; and it may be said that during 
 the bronze epoch the nature of man's habitation became decidedly 
 fixed. The caves of the great bear and mammoth period, and the 
 rock-shelters of the reindeer and polished-stone periods were now 
 succeeded by dwelling-places which differ but little from those of 
 the more civilised peoples who commence the era of historic times. 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 227 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Lacustrine Habitations of Upper Italy, Bavaria, Carinthia and Carniola, Pomerania, 
 France, and England The Crannoges of Ireland. 
 
 IT was difficult to believe that Switzerland alone possessed the 
 monopoly of these pilework-constructions. It was certainly to be 
 supposed that the southern slopes of the Alps, which were all 
 dotted over with large and beautiful lakes, must likewise contain 
 constructions of a similar character ; this, at least, was M. Desor's 
 opinion. After the numerous pre-historic discoveries which had 
 been made in Switzerland, the Zurich professor proceeded in 1860 
 to explore the lakes of Lombardy, being well convinced that there 
 too he should find remains of lacustrine habitations. 
 
 The hopes he had formed were not deceived. Ere long, in 
 fact, M. Desor obtained from the peat-bogs round Lake Maggiore 
 piles and other objects similar to those found in the Swiss lakes. 
 These researches were continued by MM. Gastaldi and Moro, 
 who discovered in the peat-bogs round this lake several ancient 
 villages built upon piles. 
 
 In the Lake of Varese, also in Lombardy, which was examined 
 in 1863 by MM. Desor, G. de Mortillet, and the Abbe Stoppani, 
 were discovered five settlements, some of which were of the Stone 
 Age. Subsequently, the Abbe Ranchet pointed out four others, 
 which raise to the number of nine the pileworks found in this 
 lake. In order to render due honour to MM. Kellor and Desor, 
 who have contributed so much to the investigation and popularity 
 of lacustrine antiquities, the Abbe Stoppani gave the name of 
 these savants to two of the settlements. 
 
 One of these isles is very curious, as it is inhabited up to the 
 present day. It is called Isoletta (" small island "), and the Litta 
 family possess a chateau upon it. 
 
 In the peat-mosses of Brianza, a portion of Lombardy situated 
 to the north of Milan, the remains of lacustrine constructions 
 have been discovered, together with bones, fragments of pottery, 
 
228 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 pieces of charcoal, and carbonised stone ; also weapons, both of 
 bronze and flint. 
 
 The Lake of Garda has been searched over by various explorers, 
 who have discovered in it the sites of several lacustrine habitations. 
 The authors of these discoveries are Dr. Alberti, of Veroni, and 
 MM. Kosterlitz and Silber, two Austrian officers, who presented all 
 the objects which they collected to the antiquarian museums of 
 Vienna and Zurich. The traces of pileworks were first perceived 
 when the works were in progress which were excavated by the 
 Austrians in 1855 round the fortress of Peschiera ; which proves, at 
 least, that fortresses may occasionally serve some useful purpose. 
 
 A settlement of the Stone Age, which was examined by M. 
 Paolo Lioy, is situated in a small lake in Venetia, the length of 
 which does not exceed half a mile, and the depth 30 feet ; we 
 allude to the Lake of Fimon, near Vicenza. M. Lioy discovered 
 oaken piles partially charred, which proves that the village had at 
 one time been burnt down ; also slabs of timber roughly squared, 
 a canoe hollowed out of a trunk of oak, cakes of clay which had 
 come from the sides of huts, and still bore the imprint of the 
 reed-stalks, and no doubt formed a kind of coating inside the 
 huts ; various instruments made of bone, flint, sandstone, granite, 
 and stag's horn ; rings or spindle-weights made of burnt earth, 
 numerous fragments of rough pottery, merely dried in the sun, 
 and, among all these remains, a dozen entire vessels. 
 
 There were also found stores of acorns, nuts, and water-chest- 
 nuts, the fruit of the sorb-tree, some sloe-stones, &c. A large 
 quantity of animal bones certified to the existence of the bison, 
 the stag, the wild boar, the fox, and several other doubtful species. 
 All the long bones were broken, as is usually the case, for the 
 extraction of the marrow, but not with the ordinary regularity ; 
 they had merely been cracked by blows with stones. 
 
 The investigation of lacustrine antiquities which had been in- 
 augurated in Switzerland could hardly stop short in its path of 
 progress. Attempts were made to discover palafittes in other 
 countries, and these attempts met with success. 
 
 Thanks to the initiative action taken by M. Desor, and the 
 liberality of the Bavarian Government, pile-works of ancient date 
 have been discovered in six of the Bavarian lakes. Most of them 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 229 
 
 go back to the Stone Age, but some belong to the bronze epoch. 
 Among the latter we may mention the Isles of Roses, in the Lake 
 of Starnberg, which is, in fact, an artificial island, like the Isoletta 
 in the Lake of Varese. We have previously stated that this 
 island has never ceased to be inhabited, and that a chateau now 
 exists on it. 
 
 The movement spread from one place to another. Austria 
 made it a point of honour not to remain in the rear of Bavaria, 
 and Professor Hochstetter was commissioned by the Academy of 
 Sciences at Vienna to undertake a search for palafittes in the 
 lakes of Carinthia and Carniola. 
 
 These explorations were not without result. In four lakes of 
 Carinthia, Dr. Hochstetter discovered piles, remains of pottery, 
 bones, nuts, &c. In the lake of Reutschach, which was the most 
 closely investigated, he discovered shallows formed by stones, 
 similar to the Steinbergs of Switzerland. The marshes of Lay- 
 bach have also furnished instruments of stag's horn, a perforated 
 stone, and a canoe. 
 
 Next to Austria, Prussia took the matter up. Specimens of 
 pile-work were discovered in several provinces of this kingdom ; 
 among these were Brandenburg and Pomerania, a district rich in 
 marshes. In the environs of Lubtow the lacustrine constructions 
 have the same characteristics as those of Robenhausen,on the Lake 
 of Pfaefnkon (Switzerland). Two distinct archaeological strata may 
 be distinguished ; in the lower are found, all mingled together, 
 bronze and stone instruments, fragments of pottery, wheat, barley, 
 and charred peas ; the upper stratum belongs to the Iron Age. 
 
 We have not as yet said anything about France ; lacustrine 
 dwellings have, however, been discovered in some of the depart- 
 ments which border on Switzerland. 
 
 The lakes of Bourget and Annecy, in Savoy, contain several of 
 them. The former of these lakes was thoroughly explored by M. 
 Laurent Rabut, author of an article on the " Habitations Lacustres 
 de la Savoie," which obtained a silver medal at the competition of 
 the learned societies in 1863. In the Lake of Bourget, M. Rabut 
 ascertained the existence of five or six settlements of the bronze 
 epoch, three of which, those of Tresserve, Gresine, and Chatillon, 
 have been distinguished as furnishing numerous ancient relics. 
 
230 
 
 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 The Lake of Paladru (Isere) which has been searched by M. 
 Gustave Vallier, has afforded similar results. Pile-works are 
 thought to exist in some other small lakes in the same district 
 those of Sainte-Helene, on the left bank of the Isere, Saint- 
 Martin-de-Belville, and Saint-Marcel, near Moutiers. Pile-works 
 have also been discovered on the site of an ancient lake on the 
 banks of the Saone ; and in a totally different district, at the foot 
 of the Pyrenees, as many as five have been pointed out. 
 
 Everything therefore leads us to believe that if we searched 
 with care the peat-mosses and pools which are very common in a 
 good many of the French departments, we should discover the 
 vestiges of various pre-historic epochs. 
 
 In order to complete the enumeration of the lacustrine con- 
 structions of Europe, we may state that they have been found in 
 Denmark in the Lake of Maribo, and in England in the county 
 of Norfolk. 
 
 Fig. 150. Vertical Section of a Crannoge in the Arclakillin Lake. 
 
 With these constructions we must also connect the crannoges 
 or artificial islands of Ireland, the first of which was discovered 
 in 1 836. by Sir W. R. Wilde, a member of the Royal Academy 
 of Dublin. Since this date various investigations have been 
 made of these objects, and, at the present time, no less than 
 fifty crannoges have been discovered, distributed among the 
 various counties of Ireland. 
 
 Most of these islets were composed of heaps of stones held 
 together by piles, nearly in the same way as in the tennevieres in 
 Switzerland ; but the crannoges differ from the latter in being 
 raised above the water. Some of them, however, are formed by 
 a collection of vertical piles and horizontal joists, constituting 
 an external inclosure, and even internal compartments, inside 
 which all kinds of remains were collected. This kind are called 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 231 
 
 stockaded islands. They are generally of an oval or circular shape, 
 and their dimensions are always kept within rather narrow limits. 
 In his work on " Pre-historic Times," Sir John Lubbock gives 
 the foregoing sketch of & crannoge in the Ardakillin Lake. 
 
 Captain Mudge, of the Royal British Navy, has described a 
 hut which he found at a depth of 16 feet, in the Drumkellin 
 marsh. Its area was about 5 feet square, and its height 10 feet ; 
 it included two stories, each about 4^ feet high. The roof was 
 flat, and the hut was surrounded by a fence of piles, doubtless in- 
 tended to separate it from other adjacent huts, the remains of 
 which are still to be perceived. The whole construction had 
 been executed by means of stone instruments, a fact that was 
 proved by the nature of the cuts that were still visible on some 
 of the pieces of wood. Added to this, a hatchet, a chisel, and an 
 arrow-head, all made of flint, were found on the floor of the 
 cabin, and left no doubt whatever on this point. This, therefore, 
 was in fact a habitation belonging to the Stone Age. Some nuts 
 and a large quantity of broken shells were scattered over the 
 ground. A large flat stone, perforated with a little hole in the 
 middle, was found on the spot ; it was probably used to break 
 the nuts by means of round pebbles picked up outside. 
 
 From some of these settlements considerable masses of bones 
 have been obtained, which have, alas, been utilised as manure. 
 Sir John Lubbock tells us that the crannoge of Dunshaughlin 
 alone has furnished more than 150 cartloads of bones. These bones 
 belong to the following species : the ox, the pig, the goat, the 
 sheep, the horse, the ass, the dog, the fox, the roe, the fallow-deer, 
 and the great Irish stag, now extinct. If all other proof were 
 wanting, the presence of the remains of this latter animal would 
 be sufficient to indicate that certain crannoges date back to the 
 Stone Age ; but as in this case we evidently have to do with the 
 polished-stone epoch, it is also proved that the gigantic antlered 
 stag existed in Ireland at a much later date than on the continent. 
 
 Various historical records testify to the fact, that the crannoges 
 were inhabited up to the end of the sixteenth century. They then 
 constituted a kind of fortress, in which petty chiefs braved for a 
 long time the royal power. After the definitive pacification of 
 the country they were completely abandoned. 
 
232 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Palustrine Habitations or Marsh-Villages" Surveys made by MM. Strobel and 
 Pigorini of the Terramares of Tuscany The Terramares of Brazil. 
 
 HAVING described the lacustrine habitations which have been dis- 
 covered in various parts of Europe, we must now mention the so- 
 czllzd palustrine habitations, as peculiar to the bronze epoch. This 
 name has been given to that kind of village, the remains of which 
 have been discovered round marshes and pools. Upper Italy is 
 the locality in which these settlements have been pointed out. 
 
 The name of palustrine settlements, or marnieras, has been 
 given to the sites of ancient villages established by means of piles 
 on marshes or pools of no great size, which in the course of time 
 have been filled up by mould of a peaty character, containing a 
 quantity of organic and other detritus. 
 
 The discovery of those palustrine settlements is due to MM. 
 Strobel and Pigorini, who have designated them by the name of 
 terramares. 
 
 This term is applied by these savants to the accumulation of 
 ashes, charcoal, animal bones, and remains of all kinds which 
 have been thrown away by man all round his dwellings, and 
 have accumulated there during the lapse of centuries. The name 
 which has been given them was derived from the fact that they 
 furnish a kind of earthy ammoniacal manure, known in the dis- 
 trict by the name of terramare. 
 
 These accumulations are the representatives of the Danish 
 kitchen-middens ; but with this difference, that instead of dating 
 back to the Stone Age, the former belong to the bronze epoch. 
 
 Terramares are numerous in the districts of Parma and Modena ; 
 they are, however, almost entirely confined to the plain which ex- 
 tends between the Po, the Apennines, the Adda, and the Reno, 
 forming an area of about 60 miles long and 30 miles wide. In a 
 general way, they form small mounds which rise from 6 to 12 
 feet above the level of the plain ; as they go down some depth in 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 
 
 233 
 
 the ground, their total thickness is in some places as much as 
 20 feet Very few are seen having an area exceeding 9 acres. 
 
 Excavations which have been made in several spots enable a 
 tolerably exact account to be given of the mode of construction 
 adopted in these palustrine settlements. The marniera of Castione, 
 in particular, has furnished us with valuable information on this 
 point ; and we shall describe this settlement as a type of the rest. 
 Piles from 6 to 10 feet in length, and 4 to 6 inches in diameter 
 (Fig. 151), formed of trunks of trees, either whole or split, and 
 pointed at the ends by some rough tool, were sunk to the depth 
 of some inches in the bed of the hollow. Some of them still show 
 on their tops the marks of the blows that they received when they 
 
 Fig. 151. Vertical Section of the Marniera of Castione. 
 
 were driven in. They were placed at intervals of from 18 inches 
 to 6 feet; and connecting beams from 6 to 10 feet in length, placed 
 horizontally, and crossing one another, bound the piles together, 
 and insured the solidity of the whole construction. On these 
 cross-beams rested a floor (Fig. 152) formed of joists I to 3 inches 
 thick, 6 to 12 inches wide, and 5 to 7 feet long. 
 
 Fig- 153 gives the plan of the tie-beams and piles of the mar- 
 niera of Castione, taken from the author's work.* These slabs 
 or joists were not fixed in any way ; at least, no trace now exists 
 of any fastening. They seem to have been provided by splitting 
 trunks of trees by means of wooden wedges, a number of these 
 
 * " Les Terramares et les Pilotages du Parmesan ; " Milan, 1864. (Extract from 
 the " Atti della Societa Italiana di Scienze natural!.") 
 
234 
 
 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 wedges having been found in the peaty earth. Neither the saw 
 nor the gimlet appear to have been employed ; but the square 
 holes have been cut out by means of the chisel. The timber 
 that was used was principally ash and oak. 
 
 Fig. 152. Floor of the Marniera of Castione. 
 
 The floor was covered with beaten earth to a thickness of 10 
 to 12 inches. Fragments of this kind of paving were found scat- 
 tered about in two sandy heaps, almost entirely devoid of other 
 debris, whilst the adjacent earth, of a blackish colour, contained a 
 
 ' >< 
 
 Q G 
 
 Fig. 153. Plan of the Piles and Cross-beams in the Maniiera of Castione. 
 
 large quantity of relics of all kinds. It is probable that the huts of 
 the inhabitants of the marniera were situated upon these sandy 
 heaps, and that the dark-coloured earth is the final result of the 
 accumulation of refuse and various kinds of detritiisvvL thesamespot. 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 235 
 
 It is not known whether the layer of beaten earth extended over 
 the whole surface of the floor, or was confined to the interior of 
 the habitations. In the former case, it is probable that it was 
 rammed down with less care on the outside than on the inside of 
 the huts, as is shown by the discovery of a storehouse for corn, 
 the floor of which is formed by nothing but a layer of sandy 
 earth placed upon the planks. This storehouse, which, from the 
 use to which it was put, could not have been used as a dwelling 
 by any one, measured 13 feet in length and 10 feet in width. It 
 contained carbonised beans and wheat, spread in a layer of 
 about 4 inches thick. 
 
 MM. Strobel and Pigorini found no remains of huts in the 
 marniera of Castione ; probably because, having been built 
 entirely of wood, they were completely destroyed by fire, nu- 
 merous traces of which may still be detected. In addition to the 
 carbonised corn and fruit already mentioned, many other objects 
 bearing the evident marks of fire, were, in fact, collected at 
 Castione. The floor-slabs, the tie-beams, and the tops of the 
 piles, were often found to be half-consumed. 
 
 But although at Castione there is no evidence forthcoming in 
 respect to huts, information which bears upon this point has been 
 obtained at other spots. MM. Strobel and Pigorini have ascer- 
 tained that the palustrine dwellings bore a great similarity to 
 those on the Swiss lakes. The sides were lined with boughs, and 
 the interior was daubed with clay. In Italy, just as in Switzer- 
 land, certain fragments of the clayey coating which have been 
 hardened and preserved by the fire, have enabled us to draw 
 these inferences. 
 
 At Castione several beds of ashes and charcoal containing re- 
 mains of meals, pointed out the sites of the domestic hearths, 
 round which they, doubtless, assembled to eat their food. Another 
 bed of charcoal mixed with straw, wheat, and pieces of burnt 
 pottery, was found in a peculiar situation it was embedded in a 
 bank of calcareous pebbles vitrified on the surface ; this bank 
 was about 5 feet wide, and about 8 inches in thickness. The 
 explorers thought that it was, perhaps, a place which had been 
 devoted to the fusion of metals. 
 
 On the edge of the basin of the marsh, a kind of rampart or 
 
236 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 defensive work was discovered, composed of slabs as much as 
 1 6 feet in length, laid horizontally one over the other. These slabs 
 were tied down by stakes driven in obliquely/and likewise placed 
 one above the other, their ends being inserted between the slabs. 
 
 This last discovery, added to other indications, led MM. Strobel 
 and Pigorini to the supposition that the pile-work of Castione, 
 and doubtless also those in all the marnieras, were in the first place 
 constructed as places of defence, and were subsequently converted 
 into fixed and permanent residences. The basin of the marsh 
 having been gradually filled up by the accumulations of debris 
 resulting from the presence of man, the habitations were built on a 
 solid foundation, and a great portion of the former floor was done 
 away with, which would account for so little of it now remaining. 
 
 The objects discovered in the terramares and marnieras do not 
 essentially differ from those found in the pile-works of Switzerland. 
 They are almost all worn or broken, just as might be expected 
 from finding them in rubbish heaps. There are a great quantity 
 of fragments of pottery of a greyish or dark-coloured clay mixed 
 with grains of quartz, imperfectly baked, and made without the 
 aid of a potter's wheel. The ornamentation is, in general, of a 
 very simple character, but the shapes of the ears, or handles, are 
 very varied. Some of the vessels are furnished with a spout or 
 holes for the liquid to flow out. The terramares also contain 
 supports for vessels with round or pointed bottoms. 
 
 In the marniera of San Ambrogio a slab of pottery was found, 
 elliptical in shape, and about half an inch in thickness, concave 
 on one side and convex on the other, and pierced with seventeen 
 circular holes about a quarter of an inch in diameter. The idea 
 was entertained that this object was used as a kind of fire-grating, 
 for it bore traces of the long-continned action of fire. 
 
 The other objects most commonly found were weights made of, 
 baked earth, and perhaps used for the weaving loom, much worn 
 in the place where the cord passed through on which they were 
 hung ; fusaiolas, or spindle-whorls, very varied both in shape 
 and size, likewise made of baked earth ; large mill-stones with a 
 polished surface. Next we have poniards or spear-heads, hatchets, 
 and hair-pins, all made of bronze. The marniera of San Am- 
 brogio has furnished a mould indicating that bronze was melted 
 and cast in this district. 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 237 
 
 An attentive study of the bones of animals contained in the 
 terramares has led to the following information being obtained 
 as to the /#?/;/# of Upper Italy during the bronze epoch. 
 
 With respect to the mammals which lived in a wild state, the 
 existence has been ascertained of a species of stag of much greater 
 size than the present variety, and about equal to that of the 
 lacustrine settlements of Switzerland (Fig. 154) ; also of a wild- 
 boar much more powerful than that of Sardinia or even of 
 Algeria, the roe, the bear, the rat, and the porcupine. In different 
 spots have been found stags' horns and bones, and also sloe- 
 stones which have retained the impression of the teeth of some 
 small rodent. The bear, the wild-boar, the stag, and the roe, 
 have, at the present day, disappeared from the country. The 
 porcupine, too, has migrated into regions further south, which leads 
 to the supposition that the temperature of the provinces of Parma 
 and Modena is a little lowered since the date of the bronze epoch. 
 
 It is to be remarked that in these settlements, contrary to what 
 has been noticed in Switzerland, in the lacustrine habitations be- 
 longing to the Stone Age, the remains of wild animals are met 
 with much more rarely than those of domestic animals ; this must 
 be consequent on a superior and more advanced stage of civilisa- 
 tion having existed in Italy. Among the domestic species found 
 we may mention the dog, two breeds of which, of different sizes, 
 must have existed ; the pig of the peat-bogs, the same variety as 
 that of which the bones were discovered in Switzerland ; the 
 horse, the remains of which, although rare, testify to the existence 
 of two breeds, one large and bulky, the other of slighter and 
 more elegant proportions ; the ass, of which there are but few 
 bones, could not, therefore, have been very common ; the ox, the 
 remains of which are on the contrary very abundant, like the 
 dog and the horse, is represented by two distinct breeds, the 
 more powerful of which appears to have descended from the 
 Bos primigenius or Urns ; lastly, the sheep and the goat, the 
 remains of which can scarcely be clearly distinguished, on 
 account of their great anatomical resemblance. 
 
 When we compare the present fauna with that of which we 
 have just given the details, we may perceive several important 
 modifications. Thus the pig of the peat-bogs, one breed of oxen, 
 and a breed of sheep (the smallest) have become entirely extinct; 
 
238 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 and the common sheep, the goat, the horse, and the ass have 
 assumed much more important dimensions. With regard to the 
 wild species of mammals, we have already said that some have 
 become less in size, and others have disappeared. Hence results 
 one proof of a fact which is beyond dispute, although often called 
 in question, namely, that the intelligent action of man working 
 by means of domestication on wild natures, will ultimately 
 succeed in ameliorating, reclaiming, and perfecting them. 
 
 The skulls and the long bones found in the terramares are 
 almost always broken for the purpose of extracting the brain and 
 the marrow, a very ancient usage which had endured to this com- 
 paratively late epoch. But instead of being split longitudinally, 
 as was the case in preceding epochs, they are generally broken 
 across at one end. The terramares and the kitchen-middens have 
 this peculiarity in common that all the dogs' skulls found in 
 them have been intentionally broken ; a fact which proves that 
 in Italy, as in Denmark, this faithful guest or servant of man 
 was occasionally, in default of some better food, and doubtless 
 with much regret, used as an article of subsistence. 
 
 No remains of fish have been found in these marnieras ; from 
 this, MM. Strobel and Pigorini have justly concluded that the 
 inhabitants of these pile-works were not fishermen, and that, at 
 all events, the water which surrounded them was shallow and of 
 limited extent. 
 
 The species of birds, molluscs, and insects, the remains of which 
 have been found in the terramares, are likewise determined. The 
 existence of the domestic fowl and the duck, no doubt living in 
 complete liberty, has been duly recognised; but it is thought 
 that the appearance of these species must not be dated further 
 back than the end of the bronze epoch, and perhaps even the 
 beginning of that of iron. 
 
 The examination of the insect remains has enabled us to ascer- 
 tain that the refuse food and rubbish must have lain for some 
 little time in front of the doors of the habitations before it was 
 pushed into the water ; for in it, flies, and other insects of the 
 kind, found time to be born, to mature, and to undergo their 
 whole series of metamorphoses ; a fact which is proved by the 
 perforated and empty envelopes of their chrysalides. 
 
 We mention this last fact as one of the most curious instances 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 239 
 
 of the results which science and inference may, in combination, 
 arrive at when devoted to the novel and interesting study of some 
 of the earlier stages in man's existence. But, on the other hand, 
 it gives us but a poor idea of the cleanliness of the Italian race 
 during the bronze epoch. It would seem to us that a feeling of 
 the dignity inherent in the body of man, and the cares that it so 
 imperiously claims, would have been now more strongly developed 
 than at a period when men dwelt confined in caves. This, how- 
 ever, is not the case. But have we, in the present day, any right 
 to be astonished, when we see, even now, the prevalence, in some 
 of the great cities of America, of certain practices so disgusting in 
 character and so opposed to the public health ? Osculati, an 
 Italian traveller, relates that at all the street corners in the city 
 of Guayaquil, in the republic of Ecuador, heaps of filth are to be 
 seen which exhale an insupportable odour. Similar heaps exist 
 at the very gates of Mexico, where, at the present time, they form 
 small hills. These facts ought to render us indulgent towards the 
 neglect of cleanliness by our ancestors during the bronze epoch. 
 
 Such were the animal remains collected in the terramares. 
 The vegetable remains consisted of grains of carbonised corn, 
 broken nuts, acorns, halves of burnt apples, stones of the dog- 
 berry, plums and grapes. 
 
 In concluding our consideration of the palustrine settlements, 
 we may add, that some have recently been discovered in Moravia 
 and Mecklenburg. At Olmutz, a city of Moravia, M. Jeitteler, a 
 learned Viennese, has found piles sunk into the peat, along with 
 various bronze and stone objects, ornamented pottery, charcoal, 
 charred wheat, numerous animal bones, and a human skeleton of 
 a brachycephalous race. All the facts lead to the belief that this 
 will not be the last discovery of the kind. 
 
 We must also state that the terramares, or deposits of the re- 
 mains of habitations on the edge of marshes, are not peculiar to 
 Europe exclusively. On the coast of Africa (at San Vicente) M. 
 Strobel found remains of an exactly similar nature ; and Dr. 
 Henrique Naegeli, a distinguished naturalist of Rio Janeiro, has 
 testified to the existence on the coast of Brazil of like deposits, 
 which he proposes to subject to a thorough examination.* 
 
 * "Materiaux pour 1'histoire positive et philosophique de 1'Homme," by G. de 
 Mortillet. Paris, 1865 ; vol. i. p. 397. 
 
240 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Weapons, Instruments, and Utensils contained in the various Lacustrine Settlements 
 in Europe, enabling us to become acquainted with the Manners and Customs of 
 Man during the Bronze Epoch. 
 
 WE have just spoken of the discovery and investigation of the 
 lacustrine habitations found in various parts of Europe, and also 
 of the palustrine villages of Northern Italy. These rich deposits 
 have thrown a considerable light on the primitive history of the 
 human race. With the elements that have been thus placed at 
 our disposal, it will be possible to reconstruct the domestic life 
 of the tribes of the bronze epoch, that is, to describe the weapons, 
 instruments, and utensils which were proper to the every-day 
 proceedings of this period. 
 
 In order to give perspicuity to our representation or account, 
 we have classed the lacustrinenabitations under the head of the 
 bronze epoch. But we must by no means forget that these 
 lacustrine villages contained other objects besides those belonging 
 to the bronze epoch ; there were also found in them a number of 
 articles which must be referred to the preceding period, that is, 
 the polished-stone epoch. 
 
 It is a question indifferent to our purpose, whether the lacustrine 
 villages were constructed during the Stone Age, as inferred from 
 the presence in some settlements 6f stone objects only, or whether 
 the habitations were built during the bronze epoch, some of the 
 articles made of stone and dating back to the preceding period 
 being still preserved in use. For it is certain that the larger num- 
 ber of lacustrine settlements do not go back beyond the bronze 
 epoch. But as certain objects made of stone form a portion of the 
 implements found in these ancient habitations, we must commence 
 by describing these relics of the Stone Age ; although we shall 
 considerably abridge this description, so as to avoid repeating those 
 details which we have already given in the preceding chapters. 
 
 The stone weapons and instruments are found to consist, in 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 
 
 241 
 
 Switzerland as elsewhere, of hatchets, spear-heads, and arrow- 
 heads, hammers, saws, knives, and chisels. 
 
 The hatchets and hammers are made of various materials, as 
 flint, quartzite, diorite, nephrite, jade, serpentine, &c. But the 
 other weapons and implements are, nearly all of them, of flint. 
 
 The hatchet was in continual use, not merely as a weapon but 
 as a tool ; thus, very numerous specimens of it are found in the 
 Swiss lakes. 
 
 The hatchets, however, are, generally speaking, small in size. 
 Their length varies from 2 to 8 inches, and their width, at the 
 cutting edge, from I ^ to 2 inches. Fig. 155 represents one of the 
 
 Fig. 155. Stone Hatchet from 
 the Lacustrine Habitations of 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Fig. 156. Stone Chisel with Stag's- 
 horn Handle from the Lacustrine 
 Habitations of Switzerland. 
 
 flint hatchets. They are the same shape as the Danish hatchets 
 during the polished-stone epoch. 
 
 The most simple plan of fixing a handle to the small-sized 
 hatchets, which were in fact chisels, consisted in inserting them 
 into a piece of stag's horn, hollowed out for this purpose at one 
 end. In this way they obtained a kind of chisel which was very 
 ready of use. Fig. 156 represents this kind of handle. 
 
 There was also another mode of fixing handles to these instru- 
 ments. The shaped flint was previously fixed in a holder of 
 stag's horn. This holder was itself perforated through the middle 
 with a round hole, in order to receive a wooden handle. It then 
 became a complete hatchet. 
 
242 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 Fig. 157 represents one of these hatchets fitted with a handle 
 in a way similar to many of the specimens in the Museum of 
 Saint-Germain. 
 
 This mode of insertion into a handle is frequently met with 
 
 Fig. 157. Flint Hammer, fitted with a Stag's-horn Handle. 
 
 during the polished-stone epoch, as we have already stated upon 
 the authority of Boucher de Perthes (see Fig. 112). 
 
 There was also another way of adapting for use the stone chisels 
 and hammers. The following is the mode employed. The flint 
 was inserted into a short holder of stag's horn, hollowed out at 
 one end for this purpose, the other end of the piece of horn being 
 cut square. This squared end, which was thinner than the rest of 
 
 Fig. 158. Stone Hatchet, with double Handle of Wood and Stag's Horn. 
 
 the holder, was fitted into a wooden handle, which had been per- 
 forated with a hole of the same shape and size. 
 
 M. Desor, in his " Memoire sur les Palafittes," supplies the 
 following sketch (Fig. 1 5 8), as representing these double-handled 
 hatchets. 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 
 
 243 
 
 It is very seldom that hatchets of this type are met with in a 
 complete state in the lacustrine habitations of Switzerland ; the 
 handles have generally disappeared. In other localities, where the 
 hatchets are very plentiful, very few holders are found. Is it not 
 the case that in these spots the stone was the special object of 
 work and not the handles? There were, in fact, in Switzerland, as 
 in France and Belgium, workshops devoted to the manufacture of 
 these articles. The large number of hatchets, either just commenced 
 or defective in workmanship, which have been found in some of 
 the principal lacustrine settlements leave no doubt on this point. 
 
 The finest and most carefully-wrought instruments are the 
 hammers and double or hatchet-hammers. Most of them are made 
 of serpentine. One of the ends is generally rounded or flattened, 
 whilst the other tapers off either into a point or a cutting edge, 
 as represented in Fig. 159-160, taken from M. Desor's work. 
 
 Fig. 159-160. Serpentine Hatchet-hammers, from the 
 Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland. 
 
 Fig. 161. Another Hatchet-hammer, 
 from the Lacustrine Habitations of 
 Switzerland. 
 
 They are perforated with a round hole intended to receive a 
 handle of wood. This hole is so sharply and regularly cut out, that 
 it is difficult to believe it could have been made with nothing 
 better than a flint tool. Metal alone would appear to be capable 
 of effecting such finished work. This is one of the facts which 
 tend to the idea that the lacustrine settlements, which have been 
 ascribed to the Stone Age, belong rather to the bronze epoch. 
 
244 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 Fig. 1 6 1 represents another hatchet-hammer obtained from the 
 Swiss lakes. 
 
 The knives and saws have nothing remarkable about them. 
 They are mere flakes of flint, long and narrow in shape, the 
 
 Fig. 162. Flint Saw fitted into a piece of Stag's Horn. 
 
 cutting-edge or teeth being on the widest side. There are some 
 which are fitted into handles of stag's horn, as represented in 
 Fig. 162, taken from M. Desor's work. 
 
 They must have been fastened into the handles by means of 
 
 Fig. 163. Flint Spear-head Fig. 164. Various shapes of Flint Arrow-heads, 
 
 from the Lacustrine settle- from the Lacustrine settlements of Switzer- 
 
 ments of Switzerland. land. 
 
 bitumen, for traces of this substance have been found on some of 
 the handles. The same plan was adopted in order to fix the 
 hatchets in their holders. 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 
 
 245 
 
 The spear-heads (Fig. 163) are very skilfully fashioned ; their 
 shape is regular, and the chiselling very perfect, although inferior 
 to that observed in Denmark. They are made level on one side, 
 and with a longitudinal middle ridge on the other. 
 
 The arrow-heads are very varied in shape (Fig. 164). In de 
 licacy of workmanship they are in no way inferior to the spear or 
 javelin-heads. The cutting of these small objects must have re- 
 quired much labour and skill. Some are toothed on the edges, 
 
 Fig. 165. Arrow-head of Bone 
 fixed on the shaft by means 
 of Bitumen. 
 
 Fig. 166. Stone Arrow-head 
 fixed on the Shaft by means 
 of Bitumen. 
 
 Fig. 167. Arrow-head fixed 
 on the Shaft by a Ligature 
 of String. 
 
 which must have rendered the wounds inflicted by them much 
 more dangerous. The greater part of these arrow-heads are 
 made of flint, but some have been found the material of which is 
 bone, and even stag's horn. 
 
 The arrow-heads were fixed into the shafts by means of bitu- 
 men. This plan is represented in Figs. 165 and 166, which are 
 given by M. Mortillet in his " Promenades prehistoriques a 1'Ex- 
 position Universelle." 
 
2 4 6 
 
 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 Sometimes they were merely attached to the shaft by a liga- 
 ture of string (Fig. 167). 
 
 A few relics have been discovered of the bows which were used 
 to impel these arrows. They were made of yew, and roughly cut. 
 
 Tools and instruments of bone seem, like those made of flint, 
 to have been much in use. In addition to the arrow-heads which 
 we have just mentioned, there have also been found piercers, or 
 bodkins, of various shapes (Figs. 168 and 169), chisels for working 
 in wood (Fig. 170), pins with lenticular heads (Fig. 171), needles 
 perforated sometimes with one eye and sometimes with two, and 
 occasionally hollowed out round the top in a circular groove, so- 
 as to attach the thread. 
 
 Fig. 168. Bone Bodkin, Fig. 169. Bone Bodkin, Fig. 170. Carpenters' Chisel, Fig. 171. Bone 
 
 from the Lacustrine from the Lacustrine from the Lacustrine Habi- Needle. 
 
 Habitations of Switzer- Habitations of Switzer- tations of Switzerland, 
 land. land. 
 
 Figs. 1 68, 169, 170, and 171 are given by M. Desor in his 
 " Memoire sur les Palafittes." 
 
 It is probable that, as during the reindeer epoch, garments 
 were sewn by means of the needle and the bodkin, the- latter 
 piercing the holes through which the needle passed the thread. 
 
 That kind of needle which has a hole in the middle, and is 
 pointed at the two ends, which is found in large numbers in the 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 247 
 
 lacustrine settlements, must doubtless have been used as a hook 
 for fishing. When the fish had swallowed the bait, the two points 
 stuck into the flesh, and it was then easy to pull out the captive. 
 Some of these fish-hooks are carved out of boar's tusks. 
 
 Fig. 172. Pickaxe of Stag's Horn Fig. 173. Harpoon made of Stag's Fig. 174. Harpoon made 
 
 Horn, from the Lacustrine Habi- of Stag's Horn, from 
 tations of Switzerland. the Lacustrine Habita- 
 
 tions of Switzerland. 
 
 Stag's horn was likewise employed for several other purposes. 
 A kind of pickaxe was sometimes made of it (Fig. 172) ; also 
 harpoons (Fig. 1/3), harpoons with a double row of barbs (Fig. 
 174), and small cups of conical shape (Fig. 175), perforated with 
 
 Fig. 175. Vessel made of Stag's Horn. 
 
 a hole in the upper part so that they could be suspended if 
 required. 
 
 The taste for personal adornment was not foreign to the nature 
 
248 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 of the primitive people of Switzerland. Canine teeth and incisors 
 of various animals, rings and beads made of bone or stag's horn, all 
 united in a necklace, formed one of their most u&ual adornments. 
 
 They also made use of hair-pins and bone combs. These pins 
 were finished off with a knob, and combined elegance and sim- 
 plicity in their shape ; they would, indeed, be no disfigurement 
 to the coiffure of the women of modern times. 
 
 Such were the instruments, utensils, and tools, used for the 
 purpose of domestic life, which have been found in the lacustrine 
 habitations of Switzerland belonging to the Stone Age. We 
 will now pass on to the objects of the same character, peculiar to 
 the bronze epoch. 
 
 The quantity of bronze objects which, up to the present time, 
 have been collected from the Swiss lakes is very considerable. 
 The finest collection in the country, that of Colonel Schwab, 
 contained in 1867, according to a catalogue drawn up by Dr. 
 Keller, no less than 4346 specimens. 
 
 Most of these objects have been cast in moulds, as is evident 
 from the seams, the traces of which may be observed on several 
 of the specimens. 
 
 Among the most remarkable of the relics of the bronze epoch 
 which have been recovered from the Swiss lakes, the hatchets or 
 celts are well deserving of mention. They are from 4 to 8 inches 
 in length, and weigh from 10 to 15 pounds. Their shapes are 
 varied ; but all possess the distinctive characteristic of being 
 adapted to fit longitudinally on their handles, and not transversely, 
 as in the Stone Age. It is but seldom that they are not fur- 
 nished with a hole or ear, so as to furnish an additional means of 
 attachment. 
 
 We have, in the first place, the hatchet with wings bent round 
 on each side of the blade, so as to constitute a kind of double 
 socket, intended to receive a handle divided in the middle and 
 bent into an elbow. This is the most prevalent type. Some- 
 times, as may be noticed in Fig. 176, the upper end is pierced 
 with an eye, doubtless intended to hold a band for fixing firmly 
 the curved handle. This arrangement is peculiar to the hatchets 
 of large size, that is, to those which had the most strain put upon 
 them. 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 249 
 
 Another type, which is very rare in Switzerland only one 
 specimen of it existing in the Museum of Neuchatel is that 
 (Fig. 177) in which the wings, instead of bending back upon the 
 blade perpendicularly to the plane of the cutting edge, turn back 
 in the same plane with it, or in the thickness of the blade. 
 
 Fig. 176. Bronze Winged Hatchet, from the Fig. 177. Winged Hatchet (front and side view) 
 
 Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland. from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland. 
 
 There is also the hatchet with the ordinary socket, either 
 cylindrical (Fig. 178) or angular. This shape is very common in 
 France, where they are known by the name of celts. 
 
 Fig. 178. Socketed Hatchet from the Lacustrine Fig. 179. Knife Hatchet (front and side view), 
 Habitations. from the Lacustrine Habitations. 
 
 M. Morlot has given the name of knife-hatchets (Fig. 179), to 
 those instruments, the perforated ears of which are scarcely, if at 
 all developed, and could by no means serve to give firmness to a 
 
250 
 
 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 handle. It is probable that these instruments were grasped 
 directly by the hand, and that the mere rudiments of wings 
 which may be noticed, were merely intended to substitute a 
 rounded surface for a sharp ridge. Figures 176, 177, 178, and 
 179 are taken from M. Desor's "Me"moire sur les Palafittes." 
 
 Next to the hatchets we must mention the chisels for wood- 
 work (Fig. 1 80), which are cut out to a great nicety, and in no way 
 differ from our present chisels, except in the mode of fitting to 
 the handle, which is done by means of a socket. 
 
 Fig. 180. Carpenters' Chisel 
 in Bronze. 
 
 Fig. 181. Hexagonal 
 Hammer. 
 
 Fig. 182. Knife with a'tang 
 to fit into a Handle, from 
 the Lacustrine settlements 
 of Switzerland. 
 
 There has also been discovered a kind of prismatically shaped 
 hexagonal hammer (Fig. 181), likewise provided with a socket, 
 the length of which is about 3 inches. This hammer forms a 
 portion of the collection of Colonel Schwab. 
 
 The knives are the most numerous of all the sharp instruments. 
 The workmanship of them is, in general, very skilfully executed, 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 
 
 251 
 
 and their shape is very elegant Some of them have a metallic 
 handle ; but the greater part terminate in a kind of tang intended 
 to fit into a handle of wood or stag's horn, as represented in Fig. 
 182, taken from M. Desor's " Memoire sur les Palafittes." 
 
 We also find knives furnished with a socket (Fig. 183). The 
 blade measures from 4 to 8 inches in length, and is often adorned 
 with tracings ; in some instances the back of the blade is very 
 much thickened. 
 
 Together with the knives we must also class the sickles or 
 
 Fig. 183. Socketed Knife, from the Lacustrine 
 settlements of Switzerland. 
 
 Fig. 184. Bronze Sickle, found by M. Desor, 
 at Chevroux. 
 
 reaping hooks. These implements have been collected in some- 
 what large quantities in the settlements of Auvernier and Cor- 
 taillod (Lake of Neuchatel). They are of good workmanship, and 
 frequently provided with ridges or ribs in the metal of the blade. 
 Fig. 184, given by M. Desor in his work, represents a sickle of 
 this kind which was found by the author at Chevroux. 
 
 The largest of these sickles does not exceed 6 inches in length. 
 They were fitted into a wooden handle. 
 
252 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 We cannot of course describe all the bronze objects which have 
 been recovered from the Swiss lakes. After having mentioned 
 the preceding, we shall content ourselves with naming certain 
 saws of various shapes razors, actual razors, indicating no small 
 care given to personal appearance bodkins, or piercers, needles, 
 with eyes either at the end or some distance from the end, 
 articles of fishing tackle, such as single and double fishing-hooks 
 (Figs. 185 and 186), with a plain or barbed point harpoons, 
 various small vessels, &c. 
 
 Fig. 185. Bronze Fish-hook, from the Fig. 186. Double Fish-hook, from the 
 
 Lacustrine settlements of Switzer- Lacustrine settlements of Switzer- 
 
 land, land. 
 
 We shall dwell, although briefly, on the various objects of per- 
 sonal ornament which have been found in the Swiss lacustrine 
 settlements of the bronze epoch. 
 
 We will mention, in the first place, the hair-pins, &c., which 
 have been recovered from the various lakes. The most curious 
 fact about them is, that no one has ever found two exactly alike 
 both in shape and dimensions. We borrow from M. Desor's 
 work the four following figures representing various shapes of 
 pins. Some have a round head (Fig. 187), and others a flat (Fig. 
 1 88), or cylindrical head (Fig. 189); others, again, are finished off 
 with a twisted end to which is attached a moveable end (Fig. 190). 
 
 The round-headed pins are sometimes massive in shape and 
 unornamented, that is, exactly similar to the bone pins of the 
 Stone Age ; sometimes, and even more frequently, they are 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 
 
 253 
 
 perforated with one or more round holes and adorned with a few 
 chasings. 
 
 The flat-headed pins differ veiy much in the diameter of the 
 button at the end, which is sometimes of considerable size. There 
 are some, the head of which is nothing more than a small enlarge- 
 
 Fig. 1 88. Hair-pin, found 
 by M. Desor in one of the 
 
 Fig. 189. Hair-pin 
 with cylindrical 
 Head. 
 
 Fig. 190. Hair-pin 
 with curled Head. 
 
 Fig. 187. Hair-pin 
 found by M. Desor 
 
 in one of the Swiss Swiss Lakes. 
 
 Lakes. 
 
 ment of the pin, and others, in which there are two or three of 
 these enlargements, placed a little way apart and separated by a 
 twist. Their sizes are very various, and in some cases are so 
 
254 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 exaggerated, that it is quite evident that the objects cannot have 
 been used as hair-pins. In Colonel Schwab's collection there is 
 one 33 inches long, and M. Troyon has mentioned some 20 and 
 24 inches long. 
 
 At the Exposition Universelle of 1 867, in the collection sent by 
 M. Desor, the visitors' admiration might have been called forth 
 by some of the pins which had been repolished by the care of 
 the learned Swiss naturalist. They were certainly very elegant, 
 and ladies of the present day might well have decorated them- 
 selves with these ornaments, although they dated back to an 
 era so many thousands of years ago. 
 
 Among many savage tribes, the dressing of the hair, especially 
 among the men, is carried to an excessively elaborate pitch. 
 The head of hair of an Abyssinian soldier forms a species of 
 
 Fig. 191. Bronze Bracelet, found in one of the Swiss Lakes. 
 
 lofty system of curls which is meant to last a whole life-time. 
 He carries with him a long pin, furnished with a thick button, 
 owing to the impossibility of reaching his skin through his coiffure 
 with the extremities of his fingers. 
 
 In the same way the New Zealanders wear an enormous 
 " chignon," 2 feet high, and ornamented with ribbons. 
 
 The Chinese and the Japanese also devote excessive attention 
 to the dressing of their hair. 
 
 It is, therefore, probable that the inhabitants of the lacustrine 
 villages, both men and women, devoted an immense amount of 
 care to the cultivation of their coiffure. In the tombs of the 
 bronze epoch pins have been found 2^/2 feet in length, with large 
 knobs or buttons at the end, similar to those used by the Abys- 
 sinian soldiers of our own day. The combs, which resembled 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 255 
 
 those of the present New Zealanders, although 6 inches long, 
 had only 6 to 8 teeth, and must have been better fitted to scratch 
 their heads than to dress their hair. 
 
 Bracelets, too, have been found in some considerable numbers in 
 the Swiss lakes. They are very varied in their shapes, decidedly 
 artistic in their workmanship, and often set off with carved designs. 
 
 Some (Fig. 191) are composed of a single ring of varying width, 
 the ends of which almost meet and terminate by a semicircular 
 
 Fig. 192. Another Bronze Bracelet. 
 
 clasp ; others (Fig. 192), are a combination of straight or twisted 
 wires ingeniously joined to one another. 
 
 We also find certain rings, cylindrical in shape, and made all in 
 one piece (Fig. 193), which were probably placed round the legs. 
 
 Some of these ornaments remain, even up to the present day, 
 in a perfect state of preservation. In an urn which was recovered 
 from the settlement of Cortaillod, six specimens were discovered, 
 the designs of which appeared quite as clearly as if they had only 
 
 Fig. 193. Bronze Ring. 
 
 just been engraved. There is one point which must be remarked, 
 because it forms an important datum in respect to the size of the 
 Swiss people during the bronze epoch ; this is, that most of the 
 bracelets are so small that they could scarcely be worn nowadays. 
 They must, therefore, have been adapted to very slender wrists 
 a fact which naturally leads us to believe that all the other 
 limbs were small in proportion. This small size in the bracelets 
 coincides with the diminutiveness of the sword-hilts which have 
 been found in the lacustrine habitations of Switzerland. 
 
2 5 6 
 
 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 Earrings, also, have been found in great numbers in the Swiss 
 lakes. They are either metallic plates, or wires differently 
 fashioned ; all, Jiowever, testifying to a somewhat developed 
 degree of taste. 
 
 Fig. 194. Bronze Pendant from the Lacustrine 
 Habitations of Switzerland. 
 
 Fig. 195. Another Bronze Pendant from the 
 Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland. 
 
 Next after these trinkets and objects of adornment we must 
 class certain articles of a peculiar character which must have been 
 pendants or appendages to bracelets. 
 
 All these ornaments are, in fact, perforated at the top with a 
 
 Fig. 196.- Bronze Ring from the Lacustrine 
 Habitations of Switzerland. 
 
 Fig. 197. Another Ornamental Ring. 
 
 circular hole, intended, no doubt, to have a thread passed through 
 it, by which it was hung round the neck. Some of them (Fig. 
 194), are small triangular plates of metal, frequently ornamented 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 257 
 
 with engraved designs ; others (Fig. 195), are in openwork, and 
 include several branches, each terminated by a hole similar to 
 that at the top. Some, again, assume the form of a ring not 
 completely closed up (Fig. 196), or rather, perhaps, of a crescent 
 with wide and almost contiguous horns. In the same class may 
 be placed the rings (Fig. 197) to which were suspended movable 
 ornaments in the shape of a double spiral. 
 
 The four bronze objects, representations of which we have just 
 given, are designed from the sketches supplied by M. Desor in 
 his " Memoire sur les Palafittes." 
 
 Some few trinkets of gold have been found in the lacustrine 
 settlements of the bronze epoch ; but this sort of " find " is very 
 rare. They are in the form of earrings, and may be seen in the 
 collection of Colonel Schwab. 
 
258 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Industrial Skill and Agriculture during the Bronze Epoch The Invention of Glass 
 Invention of Weaving. 
 
 THE manufacture of pottery, which appears to have remained 
 stationary during the Stone Age, assumed a considerable de- 
 velopment during the bronze epoch. The clay intended for making 
 pottery was duly puddled, and the objects when moulded were 
 baked in properly-formed furnaces. At this date also commences 
 the art of surfacing articles of earthenware. 
 
 The specimens of pottery which have been found in the settle- 
 ments of man of this period are both numerous and interesting ; 
 entire vessels have indeed been discovered. We notice indications 
 of very marked progress beyond the objects of this kind manu- 
 factured in the preceding age. They are still fashioned by the 
 hand, and without the aid of the wheel ; but the shapes are both 
 more varied in their character and more elegant. In addition to 
 this, although in the larger kind of vessels the clay used is still 
 rough in its nature and full of hard lumps of quartz like the 
 material employed in the Stone Age, that of the smaller vessels 
 is much finer, and frequently covered with a black-lead coating. 
 
 Most of these vessels are characterised by a conical base, a shape 
 which we had before occasion to point out in the stag's-horn 
 vessels of the Stone Age. If, therefore, it was requisite to place 
 them upright, the lower ends of them had to be stuck into the 
 earth, or to be placed in holders hollowed out to receive them. 
 
 Some of these supports, or holders, have been discovered. They 
 are called torches, or torcheres, by French archaeologists. 
 
 Figs. 198 and 199 give a representation of a bronze vessel 
 from the lacustrine habitations of Switzerland with its support or 
 torchhe. 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 
 
 259 
 
 In a general way, the vessels made with conical bases have no 
 handles ; but others, on the contrary, are provided with them 
 (Fig. 200). They are nearly always ornamented with some sort 
 of design, either mere lines parallel to the rim, triangles, chevrons, 
 or rows of points round the handle or the neck. Even the very 
 
 Fig. 198. Earthenware Vessel with Conical Bottom, Fig. 199. Earthen Vessel placed on its sup- 
 from the Lacustrine Habitations of Switzerland. port. 
 
 roughest specimens are not altogether devoid of ornamentation, 
 and a stripe may often be observed round the neck, on which the 
 fingers of the potter have left their traces. 
 
 These vessels were intended to contain beverages and substances 
 
 Fig. 200. Fragment of an Earthen Vessel with a Handle. 
 
 used for food. Out of one of them M. Desor took some apples, 
 cherries, wild plums, and a large quantity of nuts. Some of these 
 vessels, perforated with small holes, were used in the manufac- 
 ture of cheese. Dishes, porringers, &c., have also been found. 
 Relics of the pottery of the Stone Age are very frequently 
 
260 
 
 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 recovered from the Swiss lakes ; but vessels in an entire state are 
 seldom met with. It is, however, stated as a fact that consider- 
 able accumulations of them once existed ; but, unfortunately, the 
 importance of them was not recognised until too late. An old 
 fisherman of the Lake of Neuchatel told M. Desor that in his child- 
 hood he had sometimes amused himself by pushing at these old 
 earthen pots with a long pole, and that in certain parts of the lake 
 there were real mountains of them. At the present day the old 
 earthen pots are all broken, and nothing but pieces can be recovered. 
 These relics are, however, sufficient to afford a tolerably exact 
 idea of the way in which the primitive Swiss used to fashion clay. 
 They seem to denote large vessels either cylindrical (Figs. 201 and 
 202) .or bulbous-shaped with a flat bottom moulded by the hand 
 
 Fig. 201. Vessel of Baked Clay, from the 
 Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland. 
 
 Fig. 202. Vessel of Baked Clay, from the 
 Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland. 
 
 without the aid of a potter's wheel. The material of which they 
 are composed is rough, and of a grey or black colour, and is 
 always mingled with small grains of quartz ; the baking of the 
 clay is far from satisfactory. 
 
 The ornamentation is altogether of an ordinary character. It 
 generally consists of mere lines traced out in the soft clay, either 
 by the finger, a pointed stick, or sometimes a string was used. 
 There are neither curves nor arabesques of any kind ; the lines 
 are almost always straight. 
 
 A few of the vessels are, however, decorated in a somewhat 
 better style. Some are provided with small projections perforated 
 with holes, through which might be passed a string for the pur- 
 pose of hanging them up ; there are others which have a row of 
 studs arranged all round them, just below the rim, and others, 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 261 
 
 indeed, in which hollows take the place of the studs. Several 
 have been met with which are pierced with holes at different 
 heights ; it is supposed that they were used in the preparation 
 of milk-curd, the holes being made to let out the whey. The 
 vessels of this period are entirely devoid of handles ; this orna- 
 ment did not appear until the Bronze Age. 
 
 Mill-stones, or stones for crushing grain, are not unfrequently 
 found in the Swiss lakes. 
 
 At some date during the period we are now discussing we must 
 place the discovery of glass. Glass beads of a blue or green colour 
 are, in fact, found in the tombs of the bronze epoch. What was 
 their origin ? Chemistry and metallurgy combine to inform us 
 that as soon as bronze foundries existed glass must have been 
 discovered. What, in fact, does glass consist of? A silicate 
 with a basis of soda and potash, combined with some particles 
 of the silicates of iron and copper, which coloured it blue and 
 green. As the scoria from bronze foundries is partly composed 
 of these silicates, it is indubitable that a kind of glass was formed 
 in the earliest metal works where this alloy was made. It con- 
 stituted the slag or dross of the metal works. 
 
 Thus, the classic tradition which attributes the invention of 
 glass to certain Phoenician merchants, who produced a mass of 
 glass by heating on the sand the natron, that is soda, brought from 
 Egypt, ascribe too recent a date to the discovery of this substance. 
 It should properly be carried back to the bronze epoch. 
 
 The working of amber was carried out to a very great extent 
 by these peoples. Ornaments and objects of this material have 
 been discovered in great abundance in the lacustrine settlements 
 of Switzerland. 
 
 On the whole, if we compare the industrial skill of the bronze 
 age with that of the preceding age, we shall find that the later 
 is vastly superior to the earlier. 
 
 The art of weaving seems to have been invented during the 
 Stone Age. We have positive and indisputable proofs that the 
 people who lived during this epoch were acquainted with the art 
 of manufacturing cloth.* All the objects which we have thus 
 
 * See "The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland," &c., p. 323, by Dr. F. Keller. 
 Translated and edited by Dr. J. E. Lee. London, 1866. 
 
262 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 far considered do not, in fact, surpass those which might be ex- 
 pected from any intelligent savage ; but the art of preparing and 
 manufacturing textile fabrics marks out one of the earliest acqui- 
 sitions of man's civilisation. 
 
 In the Museum of Saint-Germain we may both see and handle 
 some specimens of woven cloth which were, met with in some of 
 the lacustrine settlements in Switzerland, and specially at Roben- 
 hausen and Wangen. This cloth, which is represented in Fig. 203, 
 taken from a specimen in the Museum of Saint-Germain, is formed 
 of twists of interwoven flax ; of rough workmanship, it is true, 
 but none the less remarkable, considering the epoch in which it 
 Avas manufactured. It is owing to the fact of their having been 
 charred and buried in the peat that these remains of pre-historic 
 fabrics have been kept in good preservation up to the present time. 
 
 Fig. 203. Cloth of the Bronze Age, found in the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland. 
 
 Balls of thread and twine have also been found ; likewise ends 
 of cord, and ropes made of bark, nets with large and moderately- 
 sized meshes, which we have previously represented, and lastly 
 some fragments of a basket of straw or osier. 
 
 Ribs of animals, split through and tapering off at one end, have 
 been considered to be the teeth of the cards or combs which were 
 used for unravelling the flax. The whole comb was formed of 
 several of these bones joined firmly together with a band. 
 
 There were also found in the Swiss lakes a large number of 
 discs made of baked earth perforated with a hole in their centre, 
 of which we here give a representation (Fig. 205), taken from one 
 of the numerous specimens in the Museum of Saint-Germain. 
 There are ordinary spindle-whorls. 
 
 Also, terra cotta weights pierced with a hole through the centre 
 
Fig. 204. The First Weaver. (Page 262.) 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 263 
 
 were intended to support the thread of flax in the weaving-loom. 
 The thread passed through the hole and was stopped by a knot 
 at its extremity. We think that this interpretation of the use of 
 these objects can hardly be called in question. 
 
 We also find in the lacustrine settlements woven fabrics, 
 threads, strings, combs used for carding the flax, and spindle- 
 whorls; the co-existence of all these objects proves that the 
 invention of the art of weaving may be fixed at this date. The 
 loom of the weaver may, therefore, be traced back to the most 
 remote ages. 
 
 Acting upon this idea we have given a representation of weav- 
 ing in prc-historic times. 
 
 The weaving-loom is so simple a matter that the men of the 
 Bronze Age were enabled to produce it in nearly the same form 
 as that in which it exists in the present day for the manufacture 
 
 Fig. 205. Spindle-whorls made of baked Clay, found in the Lacustrine Settlements of Switzerland. 
 
 of plain kinds of cloth in various districts of the world where the 
 art is still in a barbaric condition. The loom being upright, not 
 horizontal as with us, the terra cotta weights just mentioned were 
 used to keep the threads of the warp stretched. This seems to 
 be the only difference. But, as we again repeat, the weaver's 
 loom, on the whole, must have differed but very slightly from 
 that of the present day. Its productions bear testimony to the 
 fact. 
 
 Metal weapons and implements were at first obtained by means 
 of exchange. But very soon the art of manufacturing bronze 
 became prevalent in Switzerland, and foundries were established 
 there. No doubt can be entertained on this point, as a mould for 
 celts or hatchets has been found at Merges, and also a bar of tin 
 .at Estavayer. 
 
264 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 During this epoch the shape of the pottery became more ad- 
 vanced in character, and ornamentation was the rule and not 
 the exception. After the indispensable comes the superfluous. 
 Taste in ornamentation made its appearance, and soon developed 
 itself in ceramic objects of an elegant style. Articles of pottery 
 now assumed more pleasing outlines, and were ornamented with 
 various designs. Progress in artistic feeling was evidently 
 manifested. 
 
 The simplicity and monotony of ornamentation during this 
 epoch is especially remarkable. Art was then confined to the 
 mere representation of a certain number of lines and geometrical 
 figures. They were similar to those represented in Fig. 206, and 
 were applied to all kinds of objects weapons, vases, utensils 
 
 4- * + 
 
 Fig. 206. Principal Designs for the ornamentation of Pottery during the Bronze Epoch. 
 
 and trinkets. None of them attempt any delineation of nature ; 
 this idea does not seem to have entered into the head of man 
 during the bronze epoch. In this respect they were inferior to 
 their predecessors, the inhabitants of the caves of Perigord, the 
 contemporaries of the mammoth and the reindeer. 
 
 During the period we are now considering, commercial inter- 
 course had assumed an. activity of a totally different character 
 from that manifested during the Stone Age. It became necessary 
 to procure tin, which was indispensable for the manufacture of 
 bronze. As no tin ore could be found in Switzerland, the inhabi- 
 tants, doubtless, went to Saxony in order to obtain it. The 
 traffic must have been carried out by means of barter, as is 
 customary among all infant nations.. 
 
 Flint, which likewise did not exist in Switzerland, was 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 26$ 
 
 necessarily procured from the surrounding countries which were 
 more fortunate in this respect. No country was more favoured 
 on this point than France ; commerce must, therefore, have 
 existed between the two countries. 
 
 At Concise, in Switzerland, some pieces of white coral were 
 found, and at Meilen, on the banks of the Lake of Zurich, some 
 fragments of amber ; from this we may conclude that during the 
 bronze epoch the inhabitants of Switzerland traded with the in- 
 habitants of the shores of the Mediterranean and the Baltic. 
 
 Among the other specimens of foreign productions, we must not 
 omit to mention graphite, which was used to surface pottery, amber 
 beads, and even a few glass trinkets suitable for female adornment. 
 
 We will now pass on to the system of food adopted by man 
 during the bronze epoch. 
 
 Researches made in various lacustrine settlements have furnished 
 us with very circumstantial information upon the system of food 
 customary among the earliest inhabitants of Switzerland. From 
 them we learn that these men did not live solely upon the pro- 
 ducts of fishing and hunting, but that they possessed certain ideas 
 of agriculture, and also devoted themselves to the breeding of 
 cattle. We shall enter into a few details as to this eminently in- 
 teresting aspect of their history, taking as our guides Professors 
 Heer and Rutimeyer, the first of whom has carefully examined 
 the vegetable remains, and the second the animal relics which 
 have been found in the lacustrine settlements of Switzerland. 
 
 At Meilen, Moosseedorf,and Wangen some charred cereals have 
 been found, viz., barley and wheat. The latter was the most 
 abundant, and, at Wangen in particular, there were several bushels, 
 of it, either in ears or in thrashed corn, collected in large heaps.. 
 These grains are almost the same shape and size as the wheat of 
 the present time. Several ears of six-rowed barley (Hordeum 
 hexastichon) were found, which differ from our common barley in 
 having smaller grains arranged in six rows. De Candolle is of 
 opinion that this is the species which was cultivated by the ancient 
 Greeks, Egyptians, and Romans. 
 
 This corn was preserved in large earthen vessels, as may be 
 gathered from the contents of some of them, still in an entire state. 
 
 What preparation did the corn undergo in order to render it fit 
 
266 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 for human food ? On this subject we have tolerably exact data 
 to go upon. 
 
 The grain was bruised by hand, either between two stone discs 
 or mill-stones, or in a mortar by means of a round pestle. In 
 almost all of the lacustrine villages, some of these mill-stones, 
 made of granite or sandstone, have been met with, a few of which 
 are as much as 2. feet in diameter. M. Heer is of opinion that 
 the grain was parched before being pounded, and then placed in 
 vessels and slightly soaked. In this state it was fit for eating. 
 
 At the time of the conquest of the Canary Islands by the 
 Spaniards, it was remarked that the natives prepared their corn 
 in this manner ; and in the present day the inhabitants of the 
 same regions still feed on parched grain. 
 
 Nevertheless, the earliest inhabitants of western Switzerland 
 also made real bread, or rather wheat-cakes, for leaven was not 
 then known. Charred fragments of these loaves have been found, 
 the grain of which is badly ground, thus affording us the oppor- 
 tunity of recognising the species of corn of which they are com- 
 posed. These fragments are flat, and indicate that the whole cake 
 was of a circular form. No doubt, after being bruised and wetted, 
 the grain was made into a sort of dough, which was baked between 
 two heated stones a process we have previously described as 
 having been practised in the Stone Age. 
 
 In order to cultivate cereals, it was, of course, necessary for the 
 ground to undergo some preliminary preparation. It was at least 
 necessary to break it up so as to mellow it, and to make furrows in 
 which to sow the seed. We are reduced to mere conjecture as to 
 all the details of these operations, for no agricultural implements 
 have been discovered in any of the settlements of man belonging 
 to the bronze epoch. Perhaps, as M. Heer suggests, they made 
 use of the stem of a tree with a projecting crooked branch, and 
 adapted it so as to perform the functions of the plough. 
 
 Wild fruits and berries formed a considerable portion of the food 
 of the earliest lacustrine peoples ; and, from certain indications, 
 which have been brought to our notice, we have reason to believe 
 that several varieties of trees were the objects of their intelligent 
 culture ; in short, that they were cultivated in orchards and gardens. 
 The settlement of Robenhausen on the Lake of Pfa^ffikon, has fur- 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 267 
 
 nished us with the most valuable information on this point. The 
 lacustrine villages of Wangen (Lake of Constance), and Concise 
 (Lake of Neuchatel) have also been the scenes of curious discoveries. 
 
 In all of these settlements a large number of charred apples 
 have been met with, cut in two, and sometimes four pieces, and 
 evidently stored up for the winter. These apples are no larger 
 than walnuts, and, in many of the Swiss forests a species of apple 
 still exists which appears to be the same sort as those found in 
 the lacustrine settlements. Pears have been discovered only in 
 the settlement of Wangen ; they were cut up and dried just like 
 the apples. 
 
 In the mud of the lakes, stones of the wild plum and the bird- 
 cherry, or Sainte-Lucie plum, were found ; also the seeds of black- 
 berries and raspberries, the shells of beech-nuts and hazel-nuts 
 and several species of the water-chestnut, which is now only to 
 be met with at two points of the Swiss Alps. 
 
 We must also add that M. Gillieron collected in the settlement 
 of the Isle of Saint-Pierre, oats, peas, lentils, and acorns, the latter 
 evidently having been intended for the food of swine. This dis- 
 covery is an important one, because oats had hitherto never been 
 met with anywhere. 
 
 We shall complete this list of names by enumerating the other 
 vegetables which have been ascertained to have existed in the 
 lake settlements, the berries and seeds of some of which were used 
 as food, &c. They are the strawberry, the beech, the yew, the 
 dog-rose, which is found in hedges, the white and yellow water- 
 lily, the rush, and the forest and the marsh pine. There are no 
 traces of the vine, rye, or hemp. 
 
 Fig. 207, representing the cultivation of gardens during the 
 bronze epoch, is intended to sum up and delineate materially all 
 the ideas we have previously suggested concerning the agricul- 
 tural and horticultural knowledge possessed by man during the 
 bronze epoch. A gardener is tilling the ground with a horn pick- 
 axe, a representation of which we have previously given. Others 
 are gathering fruit from trees which have been planted and culti- 
 vated with a view of increasing the stock of food. 
 
 The sheep and oxen, which may be noticed in this figure, indi- 
 cate the domestication of these animals, and of their having been 
 
268 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 reared as tame cattle. The dog, the faithful companion of man, 
 could scarcely have been omitted in this assemblage of the auxi- 
 liary or domestic animals of the bronze epoch. 
 
 The bones which have been found in the lacustrine settlements 
 of Switzerland have enabled us to reconstruct with some degree 
 of accuracy the fauna of this epoch, and to ascertain what species 
 of animals were then in subjugation to the yoke of man. 
 
 Professor Rutimeyer is of opinion that the whole of these bones 
 may be referred to about seventy species of animals ten of which 
 are fish, three reptiles, twenty birds, and the rest mammiferous 
 animals. 
 
 The remains most commonly met with are those of the stag and 
 the ox, the former wild, and the latter domestic. Next in order 
 comes the pig, remains of which are also very abundant ; then 
 follows the roe, the goat, and the sheep, all of which are much 
 less common. The remains of the fox are met with almost as 
 often as those of the latter species, and, in spite of the fcetid smell 
 of this animal, it certainly was used for food a fact which is 
 proved by its bones having been split open and notched with 
 knives. It is, however, very probable that this kind of suste- 
 nance was turned to as a last resort only in cases when no other 
 more suitable food could be obtained. 
 
 The long bones which have been found in lakes, like those met 
 with in caves and kitchen-middens, have been split in order to 
 extract the marrow. Just as in the kitchen-middens, the softer 
 parts are always gnawed, which shows us that the dog had been 
 there. 
 
 The repugnance which is felt by so many nations for the flesh 
 of the hare is a very curious fact, and shows us how difficult it is 
 to root out certain prejudices. This repugnance may be traced 
 back as far as pre-historic ages. Neither the diluvial beds, the 
 caves, the kitchen-middens, nor the lacustrine settlements have, 
 in fact, furnished us with any traces of the hare. Even in the 
 present day, the Laplanders and Greenlanders banish this animal 
 from their alimental list. 
 
 Among the Hottentots the women eat it but not the men. The 
 Jews, too, look upon it as unclean, and many years have not 
 elapsed since the Bretons would hardly endure to hear it spoken of 
 
-mi 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 269 
 
 The antipathy which is thus shown by certain modern nations 
 to the flesh of the hare has, therefore, been handed down to 
 them from the primitive ages of mankind. 
 
 The researches of Prof. Riitimeyer have led to the conclusion 
 that there existed in Switzerland during the Stone Age six species 
 of domestic animals the ox, the pig, the goat, the sheep, the dog, 
 and the horse, the latter being very rare. There were, also, three 
 specimens of the bovine race ; the two wild species of the ox 
 genus, namely, the urus and the bison, both very anciently 
 known, had been increased by a third, the domestic ox. 
 
 The bones belonging to the Stone Age seem to point to the 
 existence of a larger proportion of wild beasts than of domestic 
 animals ; and this is only what might be expected, for the art of 
 domesticating animals was at this epoch still in its infancy, but a 
 commencement had been made, and the practice continued to 
 spread rapidly during the following age. 
 
 In fact, agriculture and the breeding of cattle made consider- 
 able progress during the bronze epoch. There were brought into 
 use various new breeds of cattle. The ox became a substitute for 
 the bison ; the sheep was bred as well as the goat ; and all these 
 animals were devoted to the purpose of providing food for man. 
 
 We may here pause for a moment and contemplate, with just 
 pride, this marvellous resuscitation of an era long ago buried in 
 the darkness of bygone ages. 
 
 By means of the investigations of science, we know that the 
 primitive inhabitants of Switzerland dwelt in wooden villages 
 built on lakes ; that they were hunters, fishers, shepherds, and 
 husbandmen ; that they cultivated wheat, barley, and oats ; that 
 they brought into a state of servitude several species of animals, 
 and devoted to the requirements of agriculture the sheep and the 
 goat ; that they were acquainted with the principal rudiments of 
 the baker's art ; that they stored up apples, pears, and other fruits 
 or berries for the winter, either for their own use or that of their 
 cattle ; that they understood the art of weaving and manu- 
 facturing flaxen fabrics ; that they twisted up cord and mats of 
 bark ; and, lastly, that as a material for the manufacture of their 
 implements and weapons they availed themselves of stone, 
 bronze, animals' bones, and stag's horn. 
 
, 
 270 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 It is equally certain that they kept up some kind of commercial 
 intercourse with the adjacent countries. This must have been 
 the case, if it were only for the purpose, as before mentioned, of 
 procuring flints, which are not found in Switzerland ; also amber 
 and white coral, numerous relics of which have been met with 
 in the settlements of Meilen and Concise. 
 
 Though there may still remain many an obscure page in the 
 history of mankind during the bronze epoch, it must, neverthe- 
 less, be confessed that, as far as Switzerland is concerned, a bright 
 light has of late years been thrown on that branch of the sub- 
 ject which refers to man's mode of existence in these regions 
 during the bronze epoch. 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 271 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The Art of War during the Bronze Epoch Swords, Spears, and Daggers The 
 Bronze Epoch in Scandinavia, in the British Isles, France, Switzerland, and Italy 
 Did the Man of the Bronze Epoch entertain any religious or superstitious Belief? 
 
 THE Swiss lakes have furnished us with elements which afford us 
 some knowledge of the state of man's industrial skill during the 
 bronze epoch, and also enable us to form a due estimation of the 
 manners and customs of the people of these remote ages. But 
 if we wish to become acquainted with all the details which con- 
 cern the art of war at the same date, we must direct our attention 
 to the north of Europe, that is to say, to the Scandinavian peoples. 
 
 Nevertheless, before we touch upon the important pre-historic 
 relics found in Denmark, we must say a few words concerning the 
 traces of the art of war which have been furnished by the investi- 
 gations made in the Swiss lakes. 
 
 The warlike accoutrements of the bronze epoch are, like those 
 of the Stone Age, composed of spear-heads and arrow-heads, 
 poniards and, in addition, swords. Swords are, however, but 
 rarely met with in the Swiss lakes. The few which have been 
 found are straight, short, double-edged, and without hilts. In 
 the Museum of Neuchatel there is a sword (Fig. 209) which was 
 discovered forty years ago at Concise, at a time when no one 
 suspected the existence of any such thing as lacustrine settle- 
 ments ; M. Desor has supplied a sketch of it in his "Memoire sur 
 les Palafittes." This sword measures 16 inches in length, and 
 has on its surface four grooves which join together on the middle 
 ridge of the blade. The handle, which is terminated by a double 
 volute, is remarkably small, being only 3 inches in length. 
 
272 
 
 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 Daggers (Fig. 210), too, like the swords, are but rarely found in 
 the Swiss lakes. From the specimen found in the lake of Bienne, 
 we see that the blade was fixed to the handle by means of a 
 series of rivets arranged in a single line. This dagger is, like the 
 sword found at Concise, ornamented with grooves symmetrically 
 placed on each side of the projecting ridge which divides the blade 
 into two equal portions. 
 
 Fig. 209. Bronze Sword, in the 
 Museum of Neuchatel. 
 
 Fig. 210. Bronze Dagger, found 
 in one of the Swiss Lakes. 
 
 In the collection of Colonel Schwab, there are two daggers, of 
 an extraordinary character, having hilts enriched with silver. 
 
 The spear-heads (Fig. 211) are not inferior either to the swords 
 or the daggers in the skill and finish of their workmanship. 
 They are formed of a nearly oval blade, strongly consolidated in 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 
 
 273 
 
 the middle by a rounded ridge, which is prolonged so as to form 
 a socket intended to hold a thick wooden handle. The length 
 of the daggers varies from 4 to 7 inches. 
 
 The arrow-heads (Fig. 212) are, except in their material, identical 
 with those of the preceding age. They are triangular, with more 
 or less pointed barbs, and provided with a stem, by which they 
 were fastened to the stick. A few have, however, been found 
 which are made with sockets. They do not exceed I to 2 inches 
 in length. 
 
 We shall now pass on to the consideration of the relics found 
 in the tombs of Scandinavia, Great Britain, Ireland, and France ; 
 
 Fig. 2ii. Bronze Spear-head, found 
 in one of the Swiss Lakes. 
 
 Fig. 212. Bronze Arrow-heads, found in a 
 Lacustrine Settlement of Switzerland. 
 
 which remains will throw some light on the subject of the 
 weapons and warlike instruments belonging to the bronze 
 epoch. 
 
 The Scandinavian States (Denmark, Sweden, and Norway) are 
 very rich in instruments belonging to the bronze epoch. The 
 workmanship of the swords and other weapons of war is much 
 more elaborate here than anywhere else, on account of the tardy 
 introduction of metal into these countries. These weapons are 
 nearly always adorned with somewhat complicated designs, 
 among which curved lines and spiral scrolls are the most 
 prevalent. 
 
274 
 
 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 The Danish swords of the bronze epoch (Figs. 213, 214) are of 
 quite a peculiar shape. The hilt is firmly fixed to the blade by 
 
 Fig. 213. Scandinavian Sword. 
 
 Fig. 214.- Hilt of a Scandinavian Sword. 
 
 means of two or more rivets. The daggers and poniards only 
 differ from the swords in the smallness of their dimensions. 
 
 Some of the hatchets seem to have been copied from models 
 belonging to the Stone Age ; these are probably the most ancient, 
 and their ornamentation is of a very scanty character. Others are 
 winged or with sockets, and a few have been found perforated 
 
 Fig. 215. Mode of fixing the Handle to 
 a Scandinavian Hatchet. 
 
 Fig. 216. Another mode of fixing the Handle 
 to a Scandinavian Hatchet. 
 
 with a transverse hole, like those which have long been used by 
 civilised nations. In this hole a wooden handle was inserted, 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 
 
 275 
 
 which was fixed by means of a strap, or merely forcibly driven 
 in. The rarely-found specimens of this kind are sharply defined 
 in shape and splendidly ornamented. 
 
 Figs. 215 and 216, taken from Sir J. Lubbock's work, represent 
 the probable way in which handles were fitted to the various 
 kinds of hatchets used in the North. 
 
 The blades of the bronze knives found in Scandinavia are, like 
 those of Switzerland, somewhat curved in their shape, but the 
 handles are much more richly ornamented. Two of these knives 
 
 Fig. 217. Danish Bronze Knife, 
 of the Bronze Epoch. 
 
 Fig. 218. Danish Bronze Knife, 
 of the Bronze Epoch. 
 
 have furnished us with the only examples known of any repre- 
 sentation of living beings during the bronze epoch. We may 
 notice that on one of these knives, which is represented in Fig. 
 217, taken from Sir J. Lubbock's work, a swan is roughly carved 
 at the offset of the blade. 
 
 In another knife, which is represented in Fig. 218, taken from 
 the same work, the handle is formed by a human figure, executed 
 with some degree of fidelity. The figure is in a standing position, 
 and holds in front of it a nearly cylindrical-shaped vessel ; the in- 
 
27 6 
 
 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 dividual is represented as wearing large earrings. There is every 
 reason to believe that this last-mentioned article belongs to the 
 end of the bronze epoch, or else to a transitionary epoch between 
 this and the following, for the blade is straight, like those of all 
 the knives belonging to the Iron Age. 
 
 The same thing may, doubtless, be said of several razors 
 (Fig. 219) with straight blades, which appear even overloaded with 
 ornaments ; among these embellishments is an attempt to repre- 
 sent a sort of vessel. 
 
 These designs evidently point to some very advanced period in 
 
 Fig. 219. Blade of a Danish Razor of the Bronze Epoch. 
 
 the bronze epoch ; and perhaps these objects may belong to the 
 commencement of the Iron Age. 
 
 What, we may ask, was the wearing apparel of man during the 
 period we are describing ? 
 
 A very important discovery, made in 1861, in a tumulus in 
 Jutland (Denmark), has lately supplied us with the most accurate 
 data respecting the way in which the inhabitants of the north of 
 Europe were clothed during the bronze epoch. In this tumnhis 
 MM. Worsaae and Herbst found three wooden coffins, one of 
 which was smaller than the two others, and was no doubt that of 
 a child. One of the two larger coffins was minutely examined by 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 277 
 
 these savants, and measured inside 7 feet in length and 20 inches 
 in width. It was closed up by means of a movable lid. By an 
 extremely rare chance the soft parts of the body had been to some 
 extent preserved, and had become converted into a black greasy 
 substance. The bones were decomposed, and had decayed into a 
 kind of blue powder. The brain had preserved its normal con- 
 formation. They found it at one end of the coffin (where the 
 head had lain) ; it was still covered with a woollen cap, about 
 6 inches high, to which several black hairs were adhering. 
 
 Several woollen garments, in which the body had been buried, 
 were also found in different parts of the coffin. We add a de- 
 scription of these garments. 
 
 Fig. 220. Woollen Cloak of the Bronze Epoch, Fig. 221. Woollen Shawl found in 
 
 found in 1861, in a Tomb in Denmark. the same Tomb. 
 
 There was in the first place a coarse cloak (Fig. 220) which ap- 
 peared shaggy in the inside, and was .scalloped out round the 
 neck. This cloak was 3 feet 4 inches long, and wide in proportion. 
 Next there were two shawls nearly square in shape (Fig. 221), 
 ornamented with a- long fringe, and measuring 4^ feet in length 
 and 3^ feet in width. Afterwards came a shirt (Fig. 222), also 
 scalloped out round the neck, and drawn in at the waist by means 
 of a long narrow band. Lastly, at the feet of the body, two pieces 
 of woollen material were found, which were 14 inches long by 
 4 inches wide, and bore the appearance of having been the remains 
 of gaiters. Close to the latter were also found vestiges of leather, 
 evidently belonging to feet-coverings of some kind. 
 
27 8 
 
 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 The whole body had been wrapped up in the skin of an ox. 
 
 The coffin also contained a box, tied up with strips of osier or 
 bark, and in this box was a smaller one, in which were found two 
 woven woollen caps (Figs. 223, 224), a comb (Fig. 225), and a 
 bronze razor. 
 
 Fig. 222. Woollen Shirt, taken from the same Tomb. 
 
 We must not forget to mention a bronze sword, placed on the 
 left side of the body, in a wooden sheath ; this sword measured 1 
 about 26 inches in length. 
 
 There is no doubt that all these relics were those of a warrior- 
 
 Fig. 223. First Woollen Cap, 
 lound in the same Tomb. 
 
 Fig. 224. Second Woollen Cap, 
 found in the same Tomb. 
 
 Fig. 225. Bronze Comb found 1 
 in the same Tomb. 
 
 of the bronze epoch ; there is the less reason to doubt this,, 
 owing to the fact that the objects taken from the two other coffins- 
 most certainly belonged to that period. These were a sword, a 
 knife, a bodkin, an awl, a pair of tweezers, a double button, and 
 
Fig. 226. -Warriors during the Bronze^ Epoch. (Page 278.) 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 
 
 279 
 
 a small bronze bracelet ; also a double tin button, a ball of amber, 
 and a flint spear-head. 
 
 The shape of the swords and knives shows that this burial-place 
 in Jutland must be referred to the latter part of the bronze epoch 
 to a time, perhaps, when iron was first used. 
 
 Following out the data afforded by these records, and all the 
 discoveries which have been made in other tombs, we have given 
 in Fig. 226 a representation of warriors of the bronze epoch. 
 
 The accoutrements of the horseman of pre-historic ages are com- 
 posed of a bronze sword, like those found in the tombs in Den- 
 mark, and a bronze hatchet and sword-belt. The horse is decked 
 with round bronze discs, which, in after times, formed among the 
 Romans the chief ornament of this faithful and intrepid auxiliary 
 
 Fig. 227. Bronze Hatchet-mould found in Ireland. 
 
 of man in all his combats. The horseman's head is bare ; for no 
 helmet or metallic head-covering has ever, at least, to our know- 
 ledge, been discovered in the tombs of the bronze epoch. The 
 spear and bronze hatchet are the weapons of the foot-soldiers. 
 
 Next to the Scandinavian regions, Great Britain and Ireland 
 occupy an important place in the history of the civilisation of the 
 bronze epoch. The same type of implements are found in these 
 countries as in Denmark and Switzerland. 
 
 Hatchet-moulds (Fig. 227) are also found there a circumstance 
 which proves that the founder's art was known and practised in 
 these countries. The Dublin Museum contains a beautiful collec- 
 tion of various objects belonging to the bronze epoch. 
 
 Some of the departments of France have also furnished objects 
 
28o THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 belonging to the same period ; but there is nothing peculiar 
 among them which deserves mention. 
 
 Did any kind of religious worship exist among the men of the 
 bronze epoch ? Nothing would be more interesting than any dis- 
 covery bearing on this point ; but up to the present time no 
 vestiges of anything in the shape of an idol have been found, nor 
 anything whatever which authorises us unhesitatingly to answer 
 this question in the affirmative. The only thing which might 
 prove the existence of any religious feeling, is the discovery, in 
 various lacustrine settlements, of a certain number of crescent- 
 shaped objects, most of them made of very coarse baked earth 
 and some of stone. 
 
 The dimensions of these crescents vary considerably ; there are 
 some which measure as much as 16 inches from one point to the 
 other. They are ornamented with perfectly primitive designs, as 
 
 Fig. 228. Stone Crescent found in one of the Swiss Lakes. 
 
 shown in Fig. 228, drawn at the Museum of Saint-Germain from 
 one of the numerous specimens of this class of objects. 
 
 Several archaeologists consider these crescents to have been reli- 
 gious emblems or talismans, which were suspended either outside 
 or inside the habitations. Dr. Keller is of opinion that they bear 
 some relation to the worship of the moon an hypothesis which 
 is not at all an impossible one ; for all nations who have not 
 attained to a certain degree of moral and intellectual culture 
 adore the heavenly bodies as the sources of light and heat. 
 
 M. Carl Vogt, in considering the crescents which have been 
 discovered in such large quantities in the lacustrine habitations, 
 cannot admit that they indicate that any religious belief existed 
 among these ancient nations. He attributes to these objects a 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 281 
 
 very different kind of use, and, as we shall presently show, rather 
 an odd one. 
 
 In the lectures on pre-historic man which were delivered by 
 Prof. Carl Vogt at Antwerp, in 1868, and have been reported by 
 the Belgian journals,* when speaking on the subject of the 
 crescents belonging to the bronze epoch, he expresses himself as 
 follows : 
 
 " My opinion is that these crescents were used as resting-places 
 for the head during the night. Among many savage tribes we 
 find the attention paid to the dressing of the hair carried to a high 
 pitch, especially among the men ; it was not until a later period 
 that women also devoted her cares to the culture of her coiffure. 
 Now this care is, by many nations, carried out to a really curious 
 extent. They inflict the most severe tortures on themselves in 
 order to satisfy their vanity. Everyone has seen, in the ' Magasin 
 Pittoresque ' and other illustrated journals, the strange head- 
 dresses of the Abyssinian soldiers. They really seem to form 
 a kind of fleece, and it may be noticed that each soldier carries 
 in this hairy construction a large pin. 
 
 " Well, all this tends to explain the use of these crescents. In 
 Abyssinia, as soon as a young girl is married it becomes her duty 
 to devote herself to her husband's head of hair. This head of hair 
 is made to assume a certain shape, which it has to retain during 
 his whole lifetime. The labour which this process necessitates 
 lasts for three years. Each hair is twisted round a stem of straw, 
 and remains so until the straw perishes. The man's head is thus 
 covered with a whole system of spirals, the top of which is a 
 foot from the surface of his head. During the whole remainder 
 of his life this coiffure must never be again disturbed. When 
 asleep, the Abyssinian rests the nape of his neck on a triangle 
 which he carries about everywhere with him. He has also a 
 long pin, as it would be impossible for him to reach the skin of 
 his head with the end of his finger. 
 
 " The same custom exists among the New Zealanders, who also 
 have an apparatus upon which they rest their necks, in order, 
 when asleep, to save their coiffures. They wear an enormous 
 chignon, two feet high and ornamented with ribbons, of which 
 
 * Independancc Belge^ November and December, 1868. 
 
282 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 they are very proud. The only difference between this chignon 
 and certain others which I need not mention is, that the former 
 cannot be removed at will. This object, thus adorned, rests, 
 during the sleep of its owner, on a sort of framework. 
 
 " The Chinese and Japanese sleep, in the same way, on a bed- 
 stead bevelled off at the head ; and in the Egyptian hieroglyphical 
 drawings we find instruments evidently meant for the same use. 
 
 " It is very probable that during the bronze epoch great atten- 
 tion was devoted to the hair, and this is the more probable as 
 in every tomb belonging to this period we find pins from 2 feet to 
 2^ feet in length, furnished with large nobs, and of the same 
 shape as the pins used by the Abyssinian soldiers ; and also, be- 
 cause during the Stone Age, as well as the Bronze Age, a kind of 
 comb is found which is similar to that which is now used by the 
 New Zealanders to scratch, rather than to comb, their heads. 
 The heads of the pins are often very richly ornamented ; they 
 are of the most varied shapes, and are extremely common both 
 in the tombs and also in the lacustrine dwellings. 
 
 " We have the less right to be astonished at our ancestors 
 sleeping with their heads resting on such a machine as we have 
 just described, knowing, as we do, that the hussars of Frederick 
 the Great used to spend the whole night in arranging their 
 coiffures ! " 
 
 Thus, while Dr. Keller and many other archaeologists ascribe 
 the crescents found in the Swiss lakes to some kind of religious 
 worship, M. Vogt, whose idea is of a much more prosaic character, 
 does not attribute them to any other worship but that of self as 
 represented by the hair ! The reader can take his choice between 
 these two explanations. We shall only remark, in corroboration 
 of Dr. Keller's opinion, that certain Gallic tribes used for a 
 religious symbol this very crescent which M. Vogt would make 
 out to be a pillow a stone pillow which, as it seems to us, must 
 have been very hard, even for primitive man. 
 
 Various objects found in the dwellings of man belonging to the 
 bronze epoch appear to have been religious symbols. Such, for 
 instance, are the designs so often met with on swords, vases, &c. 
 These drawings never represent objects in nature ; they seem 
 rather to be cabalistic signs or talismans. Most of them bear 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 283 
 
 some relation to a circle ; sometimes they are single circles, and 
 sometimes combinations of circles. Many authors have had the 
 idea of attributing them to the worship of the sun. 
 
 Another sign was still more often used, and it was known even 
 as early as the Stone Age we speak of the cross. It is one 
 of the most ancient symbols that ever existed. M. G. de Mortillet, 
 in a work entitled " La Croix avant le Christianisme," has en- 
 deavoured to establish the fact that the cross has always been 
 the symbol of a sect which contended against fetishism. This 
 much is at least certain, that it is one of the most ancient sym- 
 bolical signs, for it is found depicted on objects belonging to the 
 Stone Age and on some of the earliest relics of the Bronze Age. 
 At the time of the Etruscans the cross was generally prevalent as 
 a sign. But at a later period Christianity exclusively monopolised 
 this religious symbol. 
 
 A third figure is sometimes found on various objects belonging 
 to the bronze epoch ; this figure is the triangle. 
 
 It is, on the whole, very probable that all these signs which are 
 not connected with any known object, bear some relation to 
 certain religious or superstitious ideas entertained by the men of 
 the bronze epoch ; and, as a consequence of this, that their hearts 
 must have been inspired with some degree of religious feeling. 
 
284 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Mode of Interment and Burial-places of the Bronze Epoch Characteristics of the 
 Human Race during the same period. 
 
 THE question naturally arises what was the mode of interment, 
 and what was the nature of the burial-places employed by man 
 during the bronze epoch ? 
 
 In the early part of this period the dead were still buried in 
 those sepulchral chambers which are now called by the name of 
 dolmens ; Nilsson and Lubbock have drawn somewhat confused 
 and abitrary distinctions in discussing these burial-places ; but 
 it may be positively asserted that towards the conclusion of this 
 period the practice of burning dead bodies was commenced. 
 
 In a work, published in 1869, and entitled " La Danemark a 
 1'Exposition Universelle," being a sort of catalogue of the objects 
 which were exhibited in the galleries devoted to the History of 
 Labour, in the Exhibition of the Champ de Mars, in 1867, we 
 find several pages which we shall quote, as they seem to recapi- 
 tulate pretty clearly the ideas which are now current among 
 scientific men concerning the burial-places and funeral customs 
 of the bronze epoch : 
 
 " The study which, during the last few years has been devoted 
 by M. Worsaae to the tombs belonging to the bronze epoch, has 
 thrown much light," says M. Valdemar Schmidt, " on the com- 
 mencement of the bronze age in Denmark. It appears that at 
 the first beginning of the bronze epoch the dead were buried in a 
 manner similar to that practised during the Stone Age, that is 
 to say, the bodies of the defunct were deposited in sepulchral 
 chambers made of stone, and covered by tumuli ; the only dif- 
 ference is, these chambers are rather small, and generally contain 
 but one skeleton. But to make up for this, several of these 
 small sepulchral chambers, or rather stone coffins, are sometimes 
 found in the same tumulus. 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 285 
 
 "These chambers present, however, in some respects, great simi- 
 larities with those of the Stone Age ; thus, beds of flint which 
 have been subjected to the action of fire, are often found spread 
 over the ground, and on these beds skeletons are met with which 
 appear to have been placed in a contracted position before they 
 were buried, exactly following the practice of the Stone Age. 
 
 " After this class of tombs we have another, in which the sepul- 
 chral chamber, though always made of stone, is not covered with 
 a stone slab, but with a wooden roof. Elsewhere skeletons have 
 been found along with bronze weapons deposited in a sort of 
 wooden framezuork, which has in many cases entirely perished 
 except a few minute fragments. These cases were covered with 
 small stones, which now seem to lie immediately upon the skeleton. 
 
 " Lastly, in all the Danish provinces large oak coffins are found > 
 formed of hollowed-out trunks of trees ; these also contain human 
 bodies, which seemed to have been buried in woollen garments. 
 
 "With regard to the funeral rites observed, these tombs do not 
 appear to have differed much. The bodies were deposited in them 
 with their implements, weapons, and utensils, either of bronze or 
 stone ; but, in addition, at the bottom of the tomb, animal skins,, 
 generally those of oxen, were often spread. 
 
 " Next, a new period succeeded, when the bodies were burned 
 and the remains collected together. All the ancient customs were 
 not, however, at once given up. Thus, as the dead were formerly 
 buried in woollen garments, the debris of the bones were now 
 wrapped in pieces of cloaks made of the same material. Sub- 
 sequently, however, this custom also disappeared, and the ashes 
 and remains of bones were simply collected together in urns. 
 This custom was observed until the bronze epoch, and characterises, 
 so to speak, its second and last period which was, however, the 
 longest of that age. 
 
 " There were, then, in short, two distinct epochs in the bronze 
 age ; firstly, that in which the dead were quite simply interred, 
 either in small sepulchral chambers or wooden coffins ; and, 
 secondly, that in which the bodies of the dead were incinerated. 
 
 " One of the most remarkable 'finds,' as regards the first period 
 of the bronze epoch, was made in 1861, in the two mounds known 
 by the names of Treenhoi and Kengehoi, and situated near 
 
286 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 Kongeaa, in Jutland. In each of these tumuli two people had 
 been buried, both having a double coffin, made of magnificent 
 trunks of oak trees. The skeletons had been almost entirely 
 destroyed by the damp, which, on the contrary, had preserved the 
 garments. These individuals seem to have been dressed almost 
 like the Scotch ; at least they must have worn a sort of woollen 
 petticoat, and bands by way of trousers, very like those worn by 
 the warriors depicted in the Carlovingian minatures, and, in 
 addition, a cloak, a cap, and also perhaps a shawl. With these 
 garments were found some bronze swords in wooden sheaths; 
 also some bronze knives, a comb, some boxes, cups, small wooden 
 coffers, a tin ball, and, lastly, in one of the coffins, a small flint 
 arrow-head. A fragment of the cloak was to be seen in the 
 Palace of the Champ de Mars (No. 596). 
 
 "Another 'find,' made a few miles from this tumulus, at Hoimp, 
 in North Schleswig, has also brought to light skeletons in oak 
 coffins together with bronze implements. 
 
 " Discoveries of no less interest have been made in Zealand. 
 Thus, in 1845, in a tumulus at Hoidegaard, near Copenhagen, a 
 tomb belonging to the first period of the bronze epoch was found ; 
 it was searched in the presence of some of the principal Danish 
 archaeologists. The tomb was placed at a distance of more than 
 10 feet below the summit of the tumulus, and was built of stones ; 
 it was more than 6 feet in length, and its width on the eastern 
 side was about 2 feet, and on the western side 19 inches. The 
 bottom was lined with a layer of small flint stones, on which was 
 found, in the first place, a skin, doubtless that of an ox, and above 
 it, besides a piece of tissue containing remains of human bones, a 
 bronze sword with a wooden sheath, covered with leather, and in 
 a perfect state of preservation ; lastly, a box containing the follow- 
 ing articles : ist, a fragment of an amber bead ; 2nd, a piece of 
 reddish stone ; 3rd, a small shell, which can be none other than 
 the Conus Mediterraneus ; it is perforated so as to be worn as a 
 pendant for the neck ; 4th, a fragment of a flint point, doubtless 
 an amulet; 5th, the tail of a serpent (Coluber Icevis); 6th, a small 
 cube of pine or fir-wood ; and, 7th, a bronze knife with a convex 
 blade* and ornamented handle. 
 
 "According to the investigations of various savants, these bones 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 287 
 
 belong to a man, who, to judge from the objects placed by his 
 side in his tomb, must have been some distinguished personage, 
 and perhaps combined the functions of a warrior and a sorcerer. 
 The cube of pine-wood leads us to conjecture that that tree had 
 not then completely disappeared, and from this fact we may infer 
 that the period at which the sorcerer in question lived was very 
 remote. It is, however, possible that this piece of pine-wood, as 
 well as the shell, were introduced from some other country. The 
 existence of the Conns Mediterraneus seems to establish the fact 
 that Denmark had already formed some kind of connection with 
 the Mediterranean. 
 
 " The second period of the bronze epoch is characterised by the 
 custom of the cremation of the dead, which generally took place 
 in the following way : the body of the defunct was usually placed 
 together with his weapons and ornaments, on the funeral pile, 
 which was built on the exact spot which was destined to form 
 the centre of the tnmnlus ; the fire was then lighted, and, after 
 the body was consumed, the remains of the bones were collected 
 together in an urn. The rubbish that resulted was left on the 
 spot, surrounded with stones, and covered with earth till the 
 tumulus was complete. The urn which contained the ashes was 
 then placed in another part of the tumulus. This course of pro- 
 cedure was not the only one employed ; in some cases the weapons 
 and other articles of adornment were not placed upon the funeral 
 pile, but were afterwards brought and placed round the urn. 
 
 " The number of tombs of the bronze epoch which have been 
 discovered in Denmark is very considerable. There are thousands 
 of tumuli, and many of them contain a large number of funeral 
 urns. A great many of these tumuli have been searched at various 
 times and have produced a number of different bronze articles. 
 The Museum of Copenhagen possesses no less than 600 swords 
 dating back to the bronze epoch." * 
 
 Twenty years ago, however, a very curious discovery was made 
 at Lubeck (Pomerania), for it exhibited, so to speak, in the same 
 tomb, the three modes of interment belonging to the pre-historic 
 -epochs of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages. 
 
 * " Le Danemark a 1'Exposition Universelle de 1867, by Valdemar Schmidt," 
 vol. i. pp. 60 64. Paris, 1868. 
 
288 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 At Waldhausen, near Lubeck, a tumulus was found, which 
 was 1 3 feet 9 inches in height. This tumulus was pulled down in 
 horizontal layers, and the following details were successively 
 brought to light. 
 
 At the top was a very ancient burial-place, evidently belonging 
 to the Iron Age ; for the skeleton it contained was accompanied 
 by an object made of rusty iron and several earthenware articles. 
 It was buried in loose earth. 
 
 Underneath this, and half way down the tumulus, there were 
 some small enclosures composed of uncemented walls, each one 
 containing a sepulchral urn filled with calcined bones, as well as 
 necklaces, hair-pins, and a bronze knife. 
 
 Lastly, at the base of the tumulus there was a tomb belonging 
 to the Stone Age. It was formed of large rough blocks of stone, 
 and contained, in addition to the bones, some coarse specimens 
 of pottery, with flint hatchets. 
 
 It is evident that the first inhabitants of the country began by 
 building a tomb on the bare ground, according to the customs of 
 the age, and then covered it up with earth. During the bronze 
 epoch another burial-place was made on this foundation, and a 
 fresh heap of earth doubled the height of the mound. Lastly, 
 during the Iron Age, a dead body was buried in a grave hollowed 
 out on the top of the same mound. Here, then, we have a clear 
 delineation of the three different modes of interment belonging 
 to the three pre-historic periods. 
 
 In short, during the bronze epoch, the dead were generally 
 buried in sepulchral chambers, and sometimes, exceptionally, 
 they were burned. The custom of funeral feasts still remained 
 in full force. The pious practice of placing by the side of the 
 dead body the instruments or weapons which the individual 
 had been fond of during his lifetime, was likewise still kept up ; 
 and it is, moreover, owing to this circumstance that archaeolo- 
 gical science is now enabled to collect numerous vestiges of the 
 ancient customs of these remote ages. 
 
 But we must call attention to the fact that, at the end of and 
 after this epoch, the hatchets and instruments which were placed 
 in the tombs were often of much smaller dimensions than those 
 employed for everyday use. They were small and delicately- 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 289 
 
 made hatchets, intended as votive offerings. Some might, per- 
 haps, conclude from this that the heirs, animated by a feeling of 
 economy, had contented themselves with depositing very dimi- 
 nutive offerings in the tombs of the dead. The human race was 
 already becoming degenerate, since it curtailed its homage and 
 its offerings to the dead ! 
 
 In order to bring to a conclusion all the details which concern 
 the bronze epoch, the question will naturally arise, what was the 
 human type at this epoch, and did it differ from that of the pre- 
 ceding age ? Unfortunately, the positive information which is 
 required for the elucidation of this question is entirely wanting ; 
 this deficiency is owing to the extreme rarity of human bones, 
 both in the lacustrine settlements of Switzerland, and also in 
 
 Fig. 229. Skull found at Meilen, front view. Fig. 230. Skull found at Meilen, profile view. 
 
 the tombs belonging to that epoch which have been searched in 
 different European countries. The whole of the lacustrine settle- 
 ments of Switzerland have furnished no more than some seven 
 skeletons, one of which was found at Meilen, two at Nidau, one 
 at Sutz, one in the settlement of Bienne, and two at Auvernier. 
 The first, that is the skeleton found at Meilen, near Lake Zurich, 
 is the only one which belongs to the Stone Age ; the six others 
 are all of the Bronze or Iron Ages. 
 
 The skeleton found at Meilen is that of a child ; the skull, 
 which is in a tolerable state of preservation, although incomplete, 
 occupies, according to the observations of MM. His and Riitimeyer, 
 a middle place between the long and short heads. 
 
 U 
 
290 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 Figs. 229 and 230, representing this skull, are taken from M. 
 Desor's work, entitled " Memoire sur les Palafittes." From the 
 mere fact that it is a child's skull, it is almost impossible to make 
 any use of it in ascertaining the characteristic features of the race 
 to which it belongs ; for these features are not sufficiently marked 
 at such an early age. The skull is of a very elongated shape, that 
 is to say, it belongs to the dolichocephalous type. The upper part 
 of the skull is flattened, and it has an enormous occipital develop- 
 ment ; but, on the other hand, there is scarcely any forehead. If 
 these special features might be generally applied, they would not 
 prove much in favour of the intellectual capacity of the Helvetic 
 nation, or of its superiority over the races of anterior ages ; it 
 represents, in fact, a very low type of conformation, which, how- 
 ever, harmonises perfectly with the rough manners and cruel 
 practices of the Gallic tribes. 
 
 At the time of the discovery, this skull was accompanied by 
 various bones belonging to the body and limbs, which show by 
 their extraordinary bulk that their owners were men of very large 
 size. We have already remarked upon the large size of the men 
 existing in the Stone Age, that is to say, at the time of the first 
 appearance of mankind. Thus, the human type had changed but 
 little since its first appearance on the globe. 
 
 The settlement of Auvernier, in the lake of Neuchatel has, as 
 we have before said, contributed two skulls. One belonged to a 
 child about eight years of age, and the other to an adult. The 
 child's skull differs very slightly from the one found at Meilen. 
 It is small, elongated, and has a low and narrow forehead. That 
 of the adult presents the same characteristics, and, in addition, an 
 extraordinary development of the occiput, a feature which is not 
 observable in the former, probably on account of the youth of 
 the subject. These two skulls seem, therefore, to show that the 
 population of the lacustrine settlements had not at all changed 
 at the beginning of the bronze epoch. 
 
 A discovery made in the neighbourhood of Sion has confirmed 
 these first ideas. At this spot, in tombs of rough stone, there 
 were found some bodies bent into a contracted position, and 
 accompanied by certain bronze objects. According to MM. His 
 and Carl Vogt, the skulls found at Sion agree tolerably well with 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 291 
 
 those discovered at Meilen and Auvernier ; and, in addition to this, 
 the same shape is perpetuated down to our own days in German 
 Switzerland, where it strongly predominates, and constitutes 
 what is called the Helvetic type. 
 
 The data which have been collected up to the present time are 
 not sufficient to enable us to make any positive assertion respect- 
 ing the development of the intelligence of man during the bronze 
 epoch. The few skulls which have been recovered are always 
 in an incomplete state, and do not justify us in forming any exact 
 opinion on this matter. But when we are considering the degree 
 of intelligence possessed by our ancestors at this period of man's 
 development, there are things which will enlighten us far better 
 than any fragments of bones or any remains of skeletons ; these 
 are the works which have been executed by their hands. The 
 fine arts had already begun to throw out promising germs, indus- 
 trial skill had become an established fact, agriculture was in full 
 practice, and bronze was made to adapt itself to all the caprices 
 and all the boldest ideas of the imagination. What more can be 
 necessary to prove that man, at this epoch, was already com- 
 paratively far advanced in intellectual culture ? 
 ~"Tn concluding our account of the bronze epoch, the question 
 naturally arises whether it is possible to form any estimate of the 
 exact space of time embraced by this period of man's history. 
 We shall endeavour here to give, not the solution of the problem, 
 but merely an idea of the way in which scientific men have 
 entered on the question. 
 
 Marlot, the Swiss archaeologist and naturalist, who has written V 
 a great deal upon the subject of the lacustrine settlements, was \ 
 the first to endeavour to estimate the duration of the Stone Age 
 as well as that of the Bronze Epoch, and the following is the 
 way in which he set about it. 
 
 In the neighbourhood of Villeneuve there is a cone or hillock 
 formed of gravel and alluvitim, slowly deposited there by the 
 stream of the Tiniere which falls at this spot into the lake of 
 Geneva. This cone was cut in two, to lay down the railway 
 which runs along the side of the lake. Its interior structure was 
 thus laid bare, and appeared to be perfectly regular, a proof that 
 it had been gradually formed during a long course of ages. There 
 
 U 2 
 
292 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 were three layers of vegetable earth placed at different depths 
 between the deposits of alluvium, each of which double layers 
 had in its turn formed the outer surface of the cone. 
 
 The first layer was found at a depth of 3 feet 6 inches from the 
 top, and was 4 to 6 inches thick. In it were found some relics 
 of the Roman epoch. 
 
 The second, situated 5 feet 3 inches lower, measured 6 inches 
 in depth, and was recognised as belonging to the Bronze Age ; it 
 contained a pair of bronze pincers and some fragments of un- 
 glazed earthenware. 
 
 The lower bed lay at a depth of 18 feet from the top, and varied 
 in thickness from 6 to 7 inches. It contained some rough earthen- 
 ware, charcoal, and animal bones, all pointing to the Stone Age, 
 but to the latest times of that period. 
 
 After having carefully examined these different beds and ascer- 
 tained the regular structure of the cone, Morlot fancied that he 
 could calculate approximately the age of each of them. He took 
 for his base of operations two historical dates : that of the 
 entrance of the Romans into Helvetia, fifty-eight years before 
 Christ, and that of their decisive expulsion towards the end of 
 the fifth century of the Christian era. By comparing these two 
 dates he came to the conclusion that the Roman layer was at the 
 most eighteen and at the least thirteen centuries old. Then re- 
 marking that since that epoch the cone had increased 3 feet 
 6 inches, and always going upon the hypothesis that the increase 
 was the same as in subsequent ages, he came to the conclusion 
 that the bed corresponding with the bronze epoch was at least 
 2,900 and at the most 4,200 years old ; and that the layer 
 belonging to the Stone Age, forming the entire remainder of the 
 cone, was from 4,700 to 10,000 years old. 
 
 Another calculation, the conclusions of which agree tolerably 
 /well with these, was made by M. Gillieron, professor at the college 
 (of Neuveville. We have already said that the remains of a pile- 
 work belonging to the Stone Age was discovered near the bridge 
 of Thiele, between the lakes of Bienne and Neuchatel. It is evi- 
 dent that the valley, the narrowest part of which was occupied by 
 the lacustrine settlement, was formerly almost entirely under 
 water, for below this point it suddenly widens out and retains 
 
THE BRONZE EPOCH. 293 
 
 these proportions as far as the lake of Bienne. The lake must, 
 therefore, have retired slowly and regularly, as may be ascer- 
 tained from an examination of the mud deposited by it. If, 
 therefore, we know its annual coefficient of retreat, that is to say, 
 how much it retired every year, we should be able to estimate 
 with a sufficient degree of approximation the age of the settle- 
 ment of the bridge of Thiele. 
 
 Now there is, not far from the lake, at about 1,230 feet from 
 the present shore, an old abbey, that of Saint-Jean, which is 
 known to have been built about the year noo. A document of 
 that time mentions that the cloister had the right of fishing in a 
 certain part of the lake ; and there is some likelihood that it was 
 built on the edge of the lake ; a supposition which naturally 
 presents itself to the mind. The lake, then, must have retired 
 1,230 feet in 750 years. This granted, M. Gillieron easily calcu- 
 lated the time which would be taken for a retreat of 11,072 feet, 
 this number representing the distance from the present shore to 
 the entrance of the defile which contains the settlement of the 
 bridge of Thiele. He found by this means that the settlement 
 is at least 6,750 years old, a figure which confirms those of 
 Morlot. 
 
 The preceding calculations assign to the Stone Age in Switzer- 
 land an antiquity of 6,000 to 7,000 years before the Christian 
 era, and to the bronze epoch an antiquity of 4,000 years before 
 the same era. There is still much uncertainty in the figures 
 thus given to satisfy public curiosity ; but there is at least one 
 fact which is altogether unquestionable that these calculations 
 liave dealt a fatal blow to recognised chronology. 
 
II. 
 
 THE IRON EPOCH. 
 
THE IRON EPOCH. 297 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Essential Characteristics of the Iron Epoch Preparation of Iron in Pre-historic 
 Times Discovery of Silver and Lead Earthenware made on the Potter's 
 Wheel Invention of Coined Money. 
 
 WITHOUT metals, as we have said in one of the preceding chapters, 
 man must have remained for ever in a state of barbarism. To 
 this we must add, that the civilisation of man has made progress 
 just in proportion to the degree of perfection he has arrived at in 
 the working of the metals and alloys which he has had at his dis- 
 posal. The knowledge and use of bronze communicated a strong 
 impulse to nascent civilisation, and was the means of founding 
 the first human communities. But bronze is far from possessing 
 all the qualities which ought to belong to metals when applied 
 to various industrial purposes. This alloy is neither hard nor 
 elastic enough to make good tools ; and, in addition to this, 
 it is composed of metals which in a natural state are very scarce. 
 Man requires a metal which is cheap, hard, easy to work, and 
 adapted to all the requirements which are exacted by industrial 
 skill, which is so manifold in its works and wants. 
 
 A metal of this sort was at length discovered, and a new era 
 opened for the future of men. They learned how to extract from 
 its ore iron the true king of metals, as it may well be called 
 on account of its inestimable qualities. From the day when iron 
 was first placed at man's disposal civilisation began to make its 
 longest strides, and as the working of this metal improved, so 
 the dominion of man his faculties and his intellectual activity 
 likewise enlarged in the same proportion. 
 
 It is, therefore, with good reason that the name of Iron Epoch 
 has been given to the latest period of the development of primi- 
 tive man, and it is not surprising that the last portion of the iron 
 epoch formed the commencement of historical times. After this 
 period, in fact, man ceased to live in that half-savage state, the 
 most striking features of which we have endeavoured to pourtray. 
 
298 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 As the use of iron essentially characterises this epoch in the 
 history of mankind, we ought to give an account of the processes 
 of manufacture employed by the primitive metallurgists, that is 
 to say, we should enquire how they proceeded at this epoch to 
 extract iron from its native ore. 
 
 The art of metallurgy had made great progress during the 
 bronze epoch. There were at that time considerable workshops 
 for the preparation of bronze, and small foundries for melting and 
 casting this alloy. When once formed into weapons, instruments, 
 and tools, bronze objects were fashioned by artisans of various 
 professions. The moulder's art had already attained to a high 
 degree of perfection, a fact which is proved by the gigantic bronze 
 objects which we have already mentioned, as well as the castings, 
 so many of which have been represented in the preceding pages. 
 The phenomenon of tempering was well known, that is the prin- 
 cipal modifications which are experienced by bronze in its cooling, 
 whether slow or sudden. It was well known how to vary the 
 proportions of the tin and copper so as to obtain bronze of different 
 degrees of hardness. All the means of soldering were also familiarly 
 known. Damascening was introduced in order to diversify the 
 appearance of wrought metallic objects. The cutting qualities of 
 instruments were increased by forging them and consolidating 
 them by hammering. They had even gone so far as to discover 
 the utility of the addition of certain mineral salts in the founder's 
 crucible in order to facilitate the fusion of the bronze. 
 
 Thus at the end of the bronze epoch the knowledge of metals 
 had attained to a comparatively considerable development. 
 Hence we may conclude that the substitution of iron for bronze 
 took place without any great difficulty. Owing to the natural 
 progress and successive improvements made in metallurgic art, 
 the blacksmith made his appearance on the scene and took the 
 place of the bronze-moulder. 
 
 What, however, was the process which enabled our earliest 
 metallurgists to extract iron from its native ore ? 
 
 Native iron, that is metallic iron in a natural state, is eminently 
 rare ; except in aerolites it is scarcely ever found. According to 
 Pallas, the Russian naturalist, certain Siberian tribes have suc- 
 ceeded, with a great amount of labour, in obtaining from the 
 
THE IRON EPOCH. 299 
 
 aerolites which have been met with in their country small quan- 
 tities of iron, which they have made into knives. The same 
 practice existed among the Laplanders. Lastly, we are told by 
 Amerigo Vespucci that in the fifteenth century the Indians at the 
 mouth of the La Plata river were in the habit of making arrow- 
 heads and other instruments with iron extracted from aerolites.* 
 
 But, as we hardly need observe, stones of this kind do not often 
 drop down from the skies, and their employment is of too acci- 
 dental a character ever to have suggested to men the right mode 
 of the extraction of iron. It is, therefore, almost certain that the 
 first iron used was extracted from its ore just like copper and tin, 
 that is, by the reduction of its oxide under the influence of heat 
 and charcoal. In opposition to this explanation, some bring for- 
 ward as an objection the prodigiously high temperature which is 
 required for the fusion of iron, or, in fact, the almost impossibility 
 of melting iron in the primitive furnaces. But the fusion of iron 
 was in no way necessary for the extraction of this metal ; and if 
 it had been requisite to procure liquid iron, primitive industrial 
 skill would never have succeeded in doing it. All that was neces- 
 sary was so to reduce the oxide of iron as to obtain the metal in a 
 spongy state without any fusion. The hammering of this spongy 
 mass when in a red-hot state soon converted it into a real bar of iron, 
 
 If we cast a glance on the metallurgic industry of some of the 
 semi-barbarous nations of ancient times, we shall find, as regards 
 the extraction of iron, a process in use among them which will 
 fully justify the idea we have formed of the way in which iron 
 must have been obtained in primitive times. Gmelin, the natu- 
 ralist, during his travels in Tartary, was a witness of the elemen- 
 tary process which was employed by these northern tribes in pro- 
 curing iron. There, every one prepares his own iron just as every 
 household might make its own bread. The furnace for the ex- 
 traction of iron is placed in the kitchen, and is nothing but a mere 
 cavity, 9 inches cube, which is filled up with iron-ore ; the furnace 
 is surmounted by an earthen chimney, and there is a door in front 
 of the furnace for introducing the ore, this door being kept closed 
 
 * Details as to the relation of the Stone Age to the Bronze and Iron Ages may 
 be found in " Researches into the Early History of Mankind," by Edward B. Tylor. 
 Chap. VIII., " Pre-Historic Times," by Sir J. Lubbock, Chaps. I. and II. 
 
300 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 during the smelting process. In an orifice at the side the nozzle of 
 a pair of bellows is inserted, which are blown by one man whilst 
 another introduces the ore and charcoal in successive layers. The 
 furnace never holds more than 3 y z Ibs. of ore for each operation. 
 When this quantity has been placed in the furnace, in small pieces 
 one after the other, all that is done is keeping up the action of the 
 bellows for some minutes. Lastly, the door of the furnace is 
 opened, and the ashes and other products of combustion having 
 been drawn out, a small mass of spongy iron is found, which pro- 
 ceeds from the reduction of the oxide of iron by means of the 
 charcoal, without the metal being in a state of fusion, properly so 
 called. This small lump of iron was cleaned with a piece of wood, 
 and was put on one side to be subsequently welded to others, and 
 hammered several times when in a red-hot state ; and by means 
 of several forgings the whole mass was converted into a single bar. 
 
 This same process for the extraction of iron from its natural 
 oxide, without fusion, is practised by the negroes of Fouta-Djallon, 
 in Senegal. 
 
 After having become acquainted with the elementary process 
 which is practised by the semi-barbarous tribes of the present day, 
 we shall find but little difficulty in understanding all that Morlot, 
 the Swiss naturalist, has said as to the iron-furnaces of pre-historic 
 man, and shall probably agree in his opinions on the subject. 
 Morlot, in his "Memoires sur 1'Archeologie de la Suisse," has de- 
 scribed the vestiges of the pre-historic furnaces intended for the 
 preparation of iron, which were found by him in Carinthia (Austria). 
 
 According to M. Morlot, the plan adopted for extracting iron 
 from its oxide in pre-historic times was as follows : On the side 
 of a slope exposed to the wind, a hole was hollowed out. The 
 bottom of this hole was filled up with a heap of wood, on which 
 was placed a layer of ore. This layer of ore was covered by a 
 second heap of wood ; then, taking advantage of a strong breeze 
 rising, which had to perform the functions of the bellows, the 
 lowest pile of wood was kindled at its base. The wood by its 
 combustion was converted into charcoal, and this charcoal, under 
 the influence of heat, soon reduced the iron oxide to a metallic 
 state. When the combustion had come to an end, a few pieces 
 of iron were found among the ashes. 
 
THE IRON EPOCH. 301 
 
 By increasing the size of the apparatus used, far more consider- 
 able results were of course obtained. In Dalecarlia (Sweden), 
 M. Morlot found smelting-houses, so to speak, in which the original 
 hole, of which we have just been speaking, is surrounded with 
 stones so as to form a sort of circular receptacle. In this rough 
 stone crucible layers of charcoal and iron-ore were placed in suc- 
 cession. After having burnt for some hours, the heap was searched 
 over and the spongy iron was found mixed with the ashes at the 
 bottom of the furnace. 
 
 The slowness of the operation, and the inconsiderable metallic 
 result induced them to increase the size of the stone receptacle, 
 They first gave to it a depth of 7 feet, and then of 1 3 feet, and, at 
 the same time, coated the walls of it with clay. They thus had at 
 their disposal a kind of vast circular crucible, in which they placed 
 successive layers of iron-ore and wood or charcoal. 
 
 In this altogether elementary arrangement no use was made, as 
 it seems, of the bellows. This amounts to stating that the primitive 
 method of smelting iron was not, as is commonly thought, an adapta- 
 tion of the Catalan furnace. This latter process, which, even in the 
 present time, is made use of in the Pyrenean smelting works, does 
 not dateback further than thetimesof the Roman empire. It is based 
 on the continual action of the bellows; whilst in the pre-historic fur- 
 naces this instrument, we will again repeat, was never employed. 
 
 These primitive furnaces applied to the reduction of iron-ore, 
 traces of which had been recognised by Morlot, the naturalist, in 
 Austria and Sweden, have lately been discovered in considerable 
 numbers in the canton of Berne by M. Quiquerez, a scientific 
 mining engineer. They consist of cylindrical excavations, of no 
 great depth, dug out on the side of a hill, and surmounted by a 
 clay funnel of conical form. Wood-charcoal was the fuel employed 
 for charging the furnaces, for stores of this combustible are always 
 found lying round the ancient smelting works. 
 
 In an extremely curious memoir, which was published in 1866 
 by the Jura Society of Emulation, under the title of "Recherches 
 sur les anciennes Forges du Jura Bernois," M. Quiquerez summed 
 up the results of his protracted and minute investigations. A few 
 extracts from this valuable work will bring to our knowledge the 
 real construction of the furnaces used by pre-historic man ; 400 
 
302 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 of these furnaces having been discovered by M. Quiquerez in the 
 district of the Bernese Jura. 
 
 We will, however, previously mention that M. Quiquerez had 
 represented, or materialised, as it were, the results of his interest- 
 ing labours, by constructing a model in miniature of a siderurgical 
 establishment belonging to the earliest iron epoch. This curious 
 specimen of workmanship showed the clay-furnace placed against 
 the side of a hill, the heaps of charcoal, the scoriae, the hut used 
 as a dwelling by the workmen, the furnace implements in short, 
 all the details which formed the result of the patient researches 
 of the learned Swiss engineer. 
 
 M. Quiquerez had prepared this interesting model of the ancient 
 industrial pursuits of man with a view of exhibiting it in the 
 Exposition Universelle of 1 867, together with the very substances, 
 productions, and implements which he had found in his explora- 
 tions in the Jura. But the commission appointed for selecting 
 objects for admission refused to grant him the modest square-yard 
 of area which he required for placing his model. How ridiculous 
 it seems ! In the immense Champ de Mars, in which so many 
 useless and absurd objects perfectly swarmed, one square yard of 
 space was refused for one of the most curious productions which 
 was ever turned out by the skilful hands of any savant ! 
 
 The result of this unintelligent refusal was that M. Quiquerez's 
 model did not make its appearance in the Exposition Universelle 
 in the Champ de Mars, and that it was missing from the curious 
 Gallery of the History of Labour, which called forth so much of 
 the attention of the public. For our readers, however, it will not 
 be altogether lost. M. Quiquerez has been good enough to forward 
 to us from Bellerive, where he resides (near Delemont, canton of 
 Basle, Switzerland), a photograph of his curious model of a pre- 
 historic workshop for the preparation of iron. From this photo- 
 graph we have designed the annexed plate, representing a primi- 
 tive furnace for tJie extraction of iron. 
 
 This composition reproduces with tolerable accuracy the model 
 in relief constructed by the author. The furnace is shown ; it is 
 nothing but a simple cavity surmounted by a conical chimney- 
 funnel, and placed against the side of a hill. Steps made of 
 rough stone, placed on each side of the mound, enable the work- 
 
 
THE IRON EPOCH. 33 
 
 men to mount to the summit. The height of the funnel is about 
 9 feet. At the side of the furnace stands the hut for the 
 labourers, constructed of a number of round poles placed side by 
 side ; for centuries past huts of this kind have been erected in 
 almost every country. 
 
 On the right, in the foreground, we may notice a heap of char- 
 coal intended to be placed in the furnace in order to reduce the ore ; 
 on the left, there is the store of ore called in ironworks the ore-pen. 
 The provision of iron-ore is enclosed between four wooden slabs, 
 forming a quadrangular space. In the centre are the scoriae 
 which result from the operations carried on. A workman is 
 extracting the cake of spongy iron from the ashes of the furnace ; 
 another is hammering on the anvil a piece of iron drawn from 
 the furnace in order to forge it into a bar. Round the furnace 
 various implements are scattered about, such as the anvil, the 
 pincers, the hammer, &c. All the instruments are designed from 
 various specimens found by the author. 
 
 After these explanations, we may now give some extracts from 
 M. Quiquerez's work, and we trust our readers will find no difficulty 
 in comprehending the details given by the learned engineer, 
 describing the primitive furnaces for the extraction of iron which 
 he discovered in the Bernese Jura. 
 
 M. Quiquerez has remarked two kinds of primitive furnaces 
 for the fabrication of iron, or, rather, two stages of improvement 
 in their construction. The first sort, that which the author con- 
 siders as dating back to the most remote antiquity, is not so 
 numerous as the others ; the second kind form the largest number 
 of those which he has explored. 
 
 " Furnaces of the first kind," says M. Quiquerez, " consisted of 
 nothing but a small cylindrical excavation of no great regularity in 
 shape, with a cup-shaped bottom, hollowed out in the side of a 
 hill so as to give more natural height on one side ; the front of the 
 furnace was closed up by fire-proof clay, supported with stones. 
 This cavity was plastered over with 4 to 6 inches of clay, generally 
 of a whitish colour, which became red after coming in contact with 
 the fire. These smelting-furnaces were not more than 12 to 18 
 inches in depth, as seemed to be shown by the upper edges being 
 rounded and more or less scoriated. The front, which was always 
 
304 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 more or less broken, had an opening at its base to admit a current 
 of air, and to allow the workmen to deal with the melted material ; 
 but this opening seems to show that the piece of metal which had 
 been formed during the operation must have been extracted by 
 breaking in the front. 
 
 " The second kind of furnace, which is by far the most numer- 
 ously found and widely distributed, is, in fact, nothing but an 
 improvement of that which preceded it, the edges of the furnace 
 or crucible being considerably raised in height. They vary in 
 depth from 75^ to 8 feet, with a diameter of most irregular dimen- 
 sions, from 1 8 inches upwards, and a thickness of 12 inches to 7 
 feet. They are likewise formed of fire-proof clay, and their 
 average capacity is about 25 gallons. 
 
 " The constructor, having dug out in the side of the hill an 
 opening circular, or rather semicircular, at the base, with a 
 diameter nearly three times as wide as the future furnace, 
 arranged in the centre of this hole a kind of furnace-bed made 
 of plastic clay at bottom, and covered with a layer of fire-proof 
 clay on the top of it. The bed of the furnace, which lies on the 
 natural and hardly levelled earth, is, generally speaking, not so 
 thick as the side walls, which are formed of sandy or siliceous 
 clay, always fire-proof on the inside, but sometimes of a more 
 plastic nature on the exterior ; the empty space left between the 
 walls of the furnace and the solid ground round it was filled up 
 with earth and other material. In front the furnace was enclosed 
 by a rough wall, sometimes straight and sometimes curving, built, 
 without mortar, of rough limestone, and dressed with earth to 
 fill up the gaps. In front of the furnace an opening was made 
 in this wall, taking its rise a few inches above the bottom of the 
 furnace and increasing in size in an outward direction, so as to 
 enable the workmen to see into and work in the furnace. 
 
 " The work thus commenced was carried up to the requisite 
 height ; and when the excavation in the side of the hill was not 
 lofty enough, the dome of the furnace was raised by placing 
 buttresses against the fire-clay, so as to prevent the earth falling in. 
 When these furnaces were established on almost level ground, as 
 is sometimes the case, they form a truncated cone, with a base 
 varying in size according to the height of the apparatus. 
 
THE IRON EPOCH. 305 
 
 "The furnace was not always built upright ; it often deviated from 
 the perpendicular, leaning to one side or the other to an extent as 
 considerable as its own diameter, but no constant rule as to this can 
 be recognised. The internal shape was just as irregular, changing 
 from circular to oval without any apparent motive beyond want of 
 care in the workman. The crucibles or furnaces are sometimes larger 
 at the top than at the bottom, and sometimes these proportions are 
 reversed, but always with extreme irregularity. We have noticed 
 some which at a point 10 or 12 inches above the crucible were per- 
 ceptibly contracted on three sides, thus representing the first rudi- 
 ments of the appearance of our modern furnaces. But this, perhaps, 
 was nothing but a caprice on the part of the builder. 
 
 " The furnace thus being established, the wood was withdrawn 
 which had formed the cone, if, indeed, any had been used, and at 
 the hole made at the base of the crucible a clod of fire-clay some 
 inches in height was placed, so as to form a dam, and to confine in 
 the crucible the molten or soft metal ; the scoriae, being of a lighter 
 nature and floating at the top, made their escape over the top of 
 the dam. As the latter were not very liquid, their issue was pro- 
 moted by means of pokers or wooden poles, perhaps damped, with 
 which also the metal was stirred in the crucible. 
 
 "In neither of these two kinds of furnaces do we find any trace of 
 bellows, and a more or less strong draught must have been procured 
 through the opening made for the escape of the scoriae, according 
 to the elevation of the dome of the furnace. The limestones which 
 have been found in certain furnaces were probably employed with 
 a view of increasing the draught ; they doubtless belonged to the 
 upper part of the furnace, where they had been fixed so as to add 
 height to the orifice. This rudimentary plan must have been like- 
 wise used in the earliest crucibles. The mode of obtaining a 
 draught which we have just pointed out is indicated most plainly 
 by the scorification of the walls of the furnace on the side opposite 
 to the air passage ; this side has evidently experienced a more 
 intense heat, whilst on the other the walls are much less affected 
 by the fire, and, in some cases, pieces of the mineral still remain 
 in a pasty or semi-molten state, just as they were when the work 
 of the furnace ceased. . . . 
 
 " The absence of any machine in the shape of bellows in the 
 
 x 
 
306 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 ancient metal works of the Jura appears all the more remarkable as 
 these implements were known both to the Greeks and Romans ; 
 hence we may at least infer, not only that these nations did not in- 
 troduce the art of iron-working into the Jura, but that it must have 
 existed at a much earlier period. It must also be remarked that the 
 openings in the furnaces are not placed in the direction of the winds 
 prevailing in the country a plan which might have increased the 
 draught but are made quite at hazard, just as the nature of the 
 spot rendered the construction of the furnace more easy. 
 
 " .... In respect to fuel it must be remarked that in all the 
 siderurgical establishments which we have discovered, certain fea- 
 tures indicate that wood carbonised in a stack was exclusively used 
 as fuel. The furnaces are too small for the employment of rough 
 wood ; added to this, charcoal stores are placed near the furnaces ; 
 and charcoal burnt in a stack is constantly met with all round the 
 sites, in the scoriae, and all the debris. We must, besides, mention 
 the discovery, at Bellelay, of a charcoal store 8 feet in diameter, 
 situated under a compact bed of peat 20 feet in thickness. It was 
 established on the solid earth, anterior to the formation of the peat. 
 Now, from this very peat a parcel of coins belonging to the 
 fifteenth century was recovered, over which only 2 feet of peat 
 had grown in a period of 400 years. There, too, at a depth of 
 9 feet, were found the scattered bones of a horse, with the foot 
 still shod with those undulating edged shoes with elongated and 
 strongly punched holes, in which were fitted the ends of nails of 
 the shape of a T, the heads of which were conical. This kind of 
 shoe is found in the Celtic settlements, the villages, habitations, 
 and ironworks, also in the pasturages and forests of the country, 
 but rarely in the Roman camps ; in the latter they are always in 
 less number than the wilder metallic shoes, which are larger, and 
 furnished with a groove indicating the line in which the nail- 
 holes were punched. The calculations which have been made 
 from the discovery of the coins of the fifteenth century (A.D. 1478) 
 would give an antiquity of at least twenty to twenty-four cen- 
 turies to the horse-shoe we have just mentioned, for the animal 
 must have died and been devoured on the then existing surface of 
 the ground, and could not have been buried in the peat, as the 
 bones, instead of lying grouped together, were dispersed in 
 
THE IRON EPOCH. 307 
 
 every direction. These same calculations would carry back the 
 date of the charcoal-store to an era 4,000 years ago. 
 
 " Owing to the imperfection of the furnaces, the quantity of 
 charcoal used must have been quadruple the present consumption 
 for the same results. The metal, as it was extracted from the 
 ore, fell down into the bottom of the crucible. In proportion as 
 the mass of metal increased, a workman, with a poker made of 
 damp green wood, brought out the scoriae which floated on the 
 top, and stirred the metal so as to fine it. It is proved that these 
 wooden pokers or poles were made use of in all the furnace- 
 works. A quantity of morsels of scoriae is found which, having 
 been in a soft state when extracted, have retained the imprint of 
 the piece of wood, the end of which was evidently charred. 
 M. Morlot, in his article on the Roman ironworks at Wocheim, in 
 Upper Carniola, has also noticed the existence, in the scoriae, of 
 frequent traces of pokers, sometimes round and sometimes three- 
 cornered in shape, but all of them must have been made of iron, 
 whilst throughout the whole of the Jura we have never recognised 
 the traces of any but wooden implements of this kind. 
 
 " Owing to the imperfection of the furnaces, and especially the 
 deficiency in the draught caused by the want of bellows, the 
 metal contained in the ore could be but very imperfectly ex- 
 tracted ; the scoriae are therefore still so very rich in iron that, 
 about twenty years ago, the manager of the ironworks at Unter- 
 velier tried to use them over again as ore. Accumulations of 
 this dross, measuring from 100 to 200 yards square, may be seen 
 near certain furnaces a fact which would infer a somewhat con- 
 siderable production of iron. The examination of these scoriae 
 proves that iron was then made by one single operation, and not 
 liquid pigs fit for casting, or to be converted into iron by a second 
 series of operations. 
 
 "The iron produced was introduced into commerce in large 
 blocks, shaped like two quadrangular pyramids joined at the base, 
 weighing from 12 to 1 6 Ibs. One of these pieces was found near a 
 furnace which had been demolished in order to establish a char- 
 coal furnace, in the commune of Untervelier, and another in one 
 of the furnaces of Boecourt. 
 
 "All round the furnaces there have been found numerous 
 
 x 2 
 
3o8 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 remains of rough pottery ; it is badly baked, and made without 
 the help of the wheel, from clay which is mingled with grains of 
 quartz the pottery, in fact, which is called Celtic. Pieces of 
 stag's horn have also been discovered, which must have been 
 used for the handles of tools ; also iron hatchets. One of them 
 has a socket at the end made in a line with the length of the 
 implement ; it is an instrument belonging to the most remote 
 period of the Iron Age. The others have transversal sockets like 
 our present hatchets. One of the latter was made of steel so 
 hard that it could not be touched with the file. With regard to 
 coins, both Gallic and Roman were found, and some of the latter 
 were of as late a date as that of the Constantines. The persis- 
 tence in practising the routine of all the most ancient processes 
 may be explained by the monopoly of the iron-working trade 
 being retained in the same families. We have the less need to 
 be surprised at this, because we may notice that the wood- cutters 
 and charcoal-burners of our own days, when they have to take 
 up their abode in a locality for any length of time, and to carry 
 on their trade there, always make certain arrangements which 
 have doubtless been handed down from the most primitive times. 
 In order to protect their beds from the damp, they make a kind 
 of shelf of fir-poles which is used as a bedstead. Some of them 
 have two stories ; the under-one intended for the children, and 
 the one above for the parents. Moss, ferns, and dried grass form 
 the mattress. Coverlets impossible to describe were made good 
 use of, and some were even made of branches of fir-trees. These 
 bedsteads take the place both of benches and chairs. A stone 
 fireplace, roughly arranged in the centre of the hut, fills the double 
 function of warming in winter and cooking the food all the year 
 round. We may also add, that the fire, which is almost always 
 kept lighted, and the ashes spread over the floor all round, pre- 
 serve the hut from certain troublesome insects, which lose their 
 lives by jumping imprudently into this unknown trap. The 
 smoke finds no other issue but through a hole made in the roof."* 
 
 * " De 1'Age du Fer, Recherches sur les anciennes Forges du Jura Bernois," by 
 A. Quiquerez, Engineer of the Jura Mines. Porrentruy, 1866 ; pp. 35-39, 77-80. 
 Also, "Materiaux pour 1'Histoire positif de rilomme," by G. de Mortillet, vol. ii. 
 PP. 505-510. 
 
THE IRON EPOCH. 309 
 
 Such is the description given by M. Quiquerez of the iron 
 furnaces of a really pre-historic character those, namely, which 
 are characterised by the absence of bellows. We think, however, 
 that there must have been holes below the hearth which afforded 
 access to currents of air, and, by being alternately open or closed, 
 served either to increase or diminish the intensity of the draught. 
 But bellows, properly so called, intended to promote the com- 
 bustion and chemical reaction between the oxide of iron and the 
 charcoal did not then exist. 
 
 The addition of the bellows to iron-furnaces brought an essen- 
 tial improvement to the art of the manufacture of iron. 
 
 Another improvement consisted in making, at the bottom of 
 the stone receptacle where the fuel and the ore were burnt 
 together, a door composed of several bricks which could be 
 readily moved. At the completion of each operation they drew 
 out, through this door, the cake of iron, which could not be so 
 conveniently extracted at the upper part of the furnace on 
 account of its height. The hammering, assisted by several 
 heatings, finally cleared the iron in the usual way, from all 
 extraneous matter, consolidated it, and converted it into the 
 state of bar-iron fit for the blacksmith's use, and for the fabrica- 
 tion of utensils and tools. 
 
 These improved primitive furnaces are well known to German 
 miners under the name of Stuckofeu (" fragment furnaces "). They 
 are modified in different ways in different countries ; and accord- 
 ing to the arrangement of the furnace, and especially according 
 to the nature of the ferruginous ores, certain methods or manipu- 
 lations of the iron have been introduced, which are nowadays 
 known under the names of the Swedish, German, Styrian, Carin- 
 thian, Corsican, and Catalan methods. 
 
 The ancient furnaces for the extraction of iron may be com- 
 bined under the name of smelting forges or bloomeries. 
 
 The invention of siliceous fluxes as applied to the extraction 
 of iron, and facilitating the production of a liquid scoria which 
 could flow out in the form of a stream of fire, put the finishing 
 stroke to the preparation of iron. The constructors next con- 
 siderably increased the height of the stone crucible in which the 
 fuel and the ore, now mingled with siliceous flux, were placed, 
 
3io THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 and the blast furnace, that is, the present system of the pre- 
 paration of iron, soon came into existence. 
 
 But, there may be reason to think, neither of these two kinds 
 of furnaces belongs to the primitive ages of mankind which are 
 the object of this work. In the iron epoch that we are con- 
 sidering the furnace without bellows was possibly the only 
 one known ; the iron was prepared in very small quantities at a 
 time, and the meagre metallic cake, the result from each opera- 
 tion, had to be picked out from among the ashes drawn from the 
 stone receptacle. 
 
 Gold, as we have already said, was known to the men of the 
 bronze epoch. Silver, on the contrary, did not come into use 
 until the iron epoch. 
 
 Another characteristic of the epoch we are now studying is the 
 appearance of pottery made on the potter's wheel, and baked in 
 an improved kind of furnace. Up to that time pottery had been 
 
 Fig. 232. Bronze Coin, from the Lake of Neuchatel. 
 
 moulded by the hand and merely burnt in the open air. In the 
 iron epoch, the potter's wheel came into use, a*nd articles of 
 earthenware were manufactured on this wheel, and baked in an 
 unexceptionable way in an oven especially constructed for the 
 purpose. 
 
 There is another fact which likewise characterises the iron 
 epoch ; this was the appearance of coined money. The earliest 
 known coins belong to this period ; they are made of bronze, and 
 bear a figure or effigy, not stamped, but obtained by melting and 
 casting. 
 
 The most ancient coins that are known are Greek, and date 
 back to the eighth century before Christ. These are the coins of 
 ^Egina, Athens, and Cyzicum, such as were found many years ago 
 in the Duchy of Posen. In the lacustrine settlement of Neuchatel, 
 coins of a remote antiquity have also been found. We here re- 
 present in its natural size (Fig. 232), taken from M. Desor's work 
 
THE IRON EPOCH. 311 
 
 a bronze coin found in the settlement of La Tene in the Lake of 
 Neuchatel. But these coins are not more ancient than the Greek 
 specimens that we have before named. They are shown to be 
 Gallic by the horned horse, which is a Gallic emblem. 
 
 At Tiefenau, near Berne, coins have been found of a nearly 
 similar character associated with others having on them the effigy 
 of Apollo, and bearing an imprint of Massilia (Marseilles). As 
 the foundation of this Phocaean colony dates back to the sixth 
 century before Christ, these coins may be said to be among the 
 most ancient which exist. 
 
 Glass became known, as we have before stated, in the bronze 
 epoch. 
 
 In short, the essential features which distinguish the iron epoch 
 are, iron instruments, and implements combining with those of 
 bronze to replace stone in all the uses for which it was anciently 
 employed the knowledge of silver and lead, the improvement of 
 pottery, and the introduction of coined money. With regard to 
 its chronological date we should adopt that of about 2,000 years 
 before the Christian era, thus agreeing with the generality of 
 authors the date of the bronze epoch being fixed about 4,000 
 years before Christ. 
 
 After these general considerations, we shall pass on to give 
 some account of the manners and customs of man during the 
 iron epoch, or, at least, during the earlier portion of this period, 
 which ere long became blended with historic ages. 
 
 When we have completed our study of man in the earlier 
 period of the iron epoch, we shall have terminated the rapid sketch 
 which we have intended to trace out of primitive man and his 
 labours. This period commenced, as we have just stated, about 
 2,000 years before Christ, and ultimately merged into the earliest 
 glimmer of historical records. Our task now is to describe all we 
 know about man at this date of nascent civilisation. Afterwards, 
 the earliest historians and among them, Herodotus, the father 
 of history are the authorities whom we must consult for an 
 account of the actions and exploits of the human race in Europe. 
 
3 i2 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Weapons Tools, Instruments, Utensils, and Pottery The Tombs of Hallstadt and 
 the Plateau of La Somma The Lake Settlements of Switzerland Human Sacrifices 
 Type of Man during the Iron Epoch Commencement of the Historic Era. 
 
 THE most valuable traces of the manners and customs of man 
 during the earlier period of the iron epoch have been furnished 
 by the vast burial-ground discovered recently at Hallstadt, near 
 Salzburg, in Austria. M. Ramsauer, Director of the salt-mines 
 of Salzburg, has explored more than 1,000 tombs in this locality, 
 and has described them in a work full of interest, a manuscript 
 copy of which we have consulted in the Archaeological Museum 
 of Saint-Germain. 
 
 As the tombs at Hallstadt belong to the earlier period of the 
 iron epoch, they represent to us the natural transition from the 
 epoch of bronze to that of iron. In fact, in a great number of 
 objects contained in these tombs such as daggers, swords, and 
 various ornaments bronze and iron are combined. One sword, 
 for instance, is formed of a bronze hilt and an iron blade. This 
 is represented in Figs. 233, 234, 235, and 236, drawn from the 
 sketches in M. Ramsauer's manuscript work entitled " Les Tombes 
 de Hallstadt," in which this combination of the two metals is 
 remarked upon ; the sword-hilts being formed of one metal and 
 the blades of another. 
 
 By taking a rapid survey of the objects found in the tombs of 
 Hallstadt, we can form a somewhat accurate idea of the first out- 
 set of the Iron Age. 
 
 The first point which strikes us in this period, is the utter 
 change which had taken place in the interment of the dead. 
 
 During the Stone Age, the dead were placed in small subter- 
 ranean crypts, that is in dolmens or tumuli. During the Bronze 
 
THE IRON EPOCH, 
 
 313 
 
 Age it became to a great extent customary for men to burn the 
 dead bodies of their friends. 
 
 This custom was destined to become more and more prevalent 
 century after century, and during historic times it became uni- 
 versal among a great many nations. 
 
 Fig. 233. Sword, from the Tombs of Hallstadt 
 (with a Bronze Hilt and Iron Blade). 
 
 Fig 234. -Sword, from the Tombs of Hallstadt 
 (with a Bronze Hilt and Iron Blade). 
 
 In fact, in the tombs of Hallstadt, several little earthen vessels 
 containing ashes maybe seen. Sometimes only part of the body 
 was burnt, so that a portion of a skeleton was found in these tombs, 
 and near it the ashes of the partswhich the fire had consumed. 
 
314 
 
 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 The remains found in the tombs of Hallstadt are almost equally 
 divided between these two modes of inhumation. About half of 
 the tombs contain nothing but ashes ; in the other half, corpses 
 are laid extended, according to the custom which was most preva- 
 lent in the Iron Age. Lastly, as we have just stated, some of them 
 contained skeletons which were partially burnt. Sometimes it 
 was the head, sometimes the whole bust, or sometimes the lower 
 
 Fig- 235. Dagger, from the Tombs of Hallstadt 
 (Bronze Handle and Iron Blade). 
 
 Fig. 236. Dagger, from the Tombs of Hallstadt 
 (Bronze Handle and Iron Blade). 
 
 limbs which were consumed, the ashes being deposited by the 
 side of the intact portions of the skeleton. Fig. 238, which is 
 designed from one of the .illustrations in M. Ramsauer's manu- 
 script work, " Les Tombes de Hallstadt," in the Museum of Saint- 
 Germain, represents a skeleton, part of which (the chest) has been 
 consumed. The ashes are contained in small earthen vessels 
 which are seen near the corpse. 
 
Fig. 237. Funeral Ceremonies during the Iron Epoch. (Page 314.) 
 
THE IRON EPOCH. 315 
 
 From the data which we have acquired as to this custom of 
 burning dead bodies during the iron epoch, we have been able to 
 represent the funeral ceremonies of the iron epoch in the preceding 
 figure. 
 
 The corpse is placed on a funeral pile, and the stone door of 
 
 Fig. 238. A Skeleton, portions of which have been burnt, from the Tombs of Hallstadt. 
 
 the tumulus is raised in order to deposit in it the cinerary urn. 
 The relations of the deceased accompany the procession clothed 
 in their handsomest garments and adorned with the bronze and 
 iron ornaments which were then in vogue. One of those present 
 may be seen throwing some precious objects into the flames of 
 the funeral pile in honour of the deceased. 
 
3 i6 
 
 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 The tombs of Hallstadt are the locality in which the largest 
 number of objects, such as weapons, instruments, and implements, 
 have been met with, which have tended to throw a light upon 
 the history of the transition from the bronze to the iron epoch. 
 All these objects are either of bronze or iron ; but in the weapons 
 the latter predominates. Swords, spear-heads, daggers, knives, 
 socketed hatchets and winged hatchets form the catalogue of the 
 sharp instruments. In the preceding pages (Figs. 233, 234, 235, 
 and 236) we have given representations of swords and daggers 
 designed from the specimens in the Museum of Saint-Germain. 
 
 Fig. 239. A Necklace with Pendants, from the Tombs of Hallstadt. 
 
 In all these weapons the handle is made of bronze and the blade 
 of iron. Warriors' sword-belts are frequently formed of plates 
 of bronze, and are embellished with a repousse ornamentation 
 executed by the hammer. 
 
 In Fig. 239 we give a representation of a necklace with pen- 
 dants which is most remarkable in its workmanship. It may be 
 readily seen that art had now attained some degree of maturity. 
 This necklace was a prelude to the marvellous works of art which 
 were about to be brought to light under the skies of Greece. 
 
THE IRON EPOCH. 317 
 
 The bracelets which have been met with by hundreds, hair pins, 
 and bronze fibitlce are all wrought with taste, and are often 
 adorned with very elegant pendants. In Figs. 240 and 241 we 
 show two bracelets, the sketches for which were taken from the 
 designs in the manuscript of the " Tombes de Hallstadt." 
 
 Fig. 240. Bracelet, from the Tombs of Hallstadt. Fig. 241. Bracelet, from the Tombs of Hallstadt. 
 
 We may add a few amber necklace-beads and some of enamel, 
 and we have then concluded the series of personal ornaments. 
 
 In the tombs of Hallstadt nearly 200 bronze vessels have been 
 discovered, some of which are as much as 36 inches in height. 
 
 Fig. 242. Bronze Vase, from the Tombs ot Fig. 243. Bronze Vase,' from the Tombs of 
 
 Hallstadt. Hallstadt. 
 
 These bronze vessels were composed of several pieces skilfully 
 riveted but not soldered. Plates 242 and 243 are reproduced 
 from the same beautiful manuscript. 
 
 In the tombs of Hallstadt some small glass vessels have also 
 been discovered. 
 
3 i8 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 Remains of pottery are very plentiful, and a decided improve- 
 ment is shown in their workmanship. Some gold trinkets were 
 also met with in these tombs. The gold was, doubtless, obtained 
 from the mines of Transylvania. 
 
 African Ivory abounds in these graves a fact which indicates 
 commercial intercourse with very distant countries. This pro- 
 duct, as well as the glass, was introduced into Europe by the 
 Phoenicians. The inhabitants of central Europe obtained ivory 
 from Tyre and Sidon by means of barter. 
 
 The ivory objects which were found at Hallstadt consisted of 
 the heads of hair-pins and the pommels of swords. 
 
 There were no traces whatever of money, the use of it not 
 being then established in that part of Europe. 
 
 The population which lived in the vicinity of the Salzburg 
 mines were in reality rich ; for the salt-mines were a source of 
 great wealth to them at a period when the deposit of rock-salt in 
 Poland, being still buried in the depths of the earth, were as yet 
 unknown or inaccessible. In this way we may account for the 
 general opulence of these commercial nations, and for the elegance 
 and taste displayed in the objects which have been found in the 
 tombs of Hallstadt. 
 
 Guided by these various remains, it is not difficult to reproduce 
 an ideal picture of the warriors of the iron epoch, a representation 
 of which we have endeavoured to give in Fig. 244. The different 
 pieces of the ornaments observed on the horseman, on the foot- 
 soldier, and also on the horse, are drawn from specimens exhibited 
 in the Museum of Saint-Germain which were modelled at Hall- 
 stadt. The helmet is in perfect preservation, and resembles those 
 which, shortly after, were worn by the Gallic soldiers. The bosses, 
 also, on the horse's harness, ere long came into use both among 
 the Gauls and also the Romans. 
 
 Next to the tombs of Hallstadt we must mention the tombs 
 discovered on the plateau of La Somma, in Lombardy, which 
 have contributed a valuable addition to the history of the earliest 
 period of the iron epoch. 
 
 On this plateau there were discovered certain tombs, composed 
 of rough stones of a rectangular form. In the interior there were 
 some vases of a shape suited to the purpose, containing ashes. 
 
Fig. 244. Warriors of the Iron Epoch. (Page 318.) 
 
THE IRON EPOCH. 
 
 319 
 
 The material of which they were made was fine clay ; they had 
 been wrought by means of the potter's wheel, were ornamented 
 with various designs, and also provided with encircling projec- 
 tions. On some of them, representations of animals may be seen, 
 which indicate a considerable progress in the province of art. 
 The historic date of these urns is pointed out by fibulce (clasps 
 for cloaks), iron rings and bracelets, sword-belts partly bronze 
 and partly iron, and small bronze chains. The tombs of La 
 Somma belong, therefore, to a period of transition between the 
 bronze and iron epochs. According to M. Mortillet, they date 
 back to the seventh century before Christ. 
 
 Figs. 245, 246. Fore-arm, encircled with Bracelets, found in the Tombs of Belleville (Savoy). 
 
 Under the same head we will class the tombs of Saint-Jean de 
 Belleville, in Savoy. At this spot several tombs belonging to the 
 commencement of the iron epoch have been explored by MM. 
 Borel and Costa de Beauregard. The latter, in a splendid work pub- 
 lished in Savoy, has given a detailed description of these tombs.* 
 
 Some of the skeletons are extended on their backs, others have 
 been consumed, but only partially, like those which we have 
 already mentioned in the tombs of Hallstadt. Various objects, 
 * "Les Sepultures de Saint-Jean de Belleville," with lithographed plates. 
 
320 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 consisting chiefly of trinkets and ornaments, have been met with 
 in these tombs. We will mention in particular the fibula, brace- 
 lets, and necklaces made of amber, enamelled glass, &c. 
 
 In Figs. 245 and 246 we give a representation of two skeleton 
 arms, which are encircled with several bracelets just as they were 
 found in these tombs. 
 
 The lacustrine settlements of Switzerland have contributed a 
 valuable element towards the historic reconstruction of the iron 
 epoch. 
 
 In different parts of the lakes of Bienne and Neuchatel there are 
 pile-works which contain iron objects intermingled with the re- 
 mains of preceding ages. But there is only one lacustrine settle- 
 ment in Switzerland which belongs exclusively to the earliest 
 period of the Iron Age that of La Tene on the Lake of Neuchatel. 
 
 Most of the objects which have been met with in this lacustrine 
 settlement have been recovered from the mud in which they had 
 been so remarkably preserved, being sheltered from any contact 
 with the outer air. There are, however, many spots in which 
 piles maybe seen, where objects of this kind have not been found ; 
 but if subsequent researches are attended w r ith any results, we 
 shall be forced to attribute to the settlement of La Tene a con- 
 siderable degree of importance, for the piles there extend over an 
 area of 37 acres. 
 
 The remains of all kinds which have been found in this settle- 
 ment are evidently of Gallic origin. It is an easy matter to prove 
 this by comparing the weapons found in this settlement with 
 those which were discovered in the trenches of Alise-Sainte-Reine, 
 the ancient Alcsia, where, in its last contest against Caesar, the 
 independence of ancient Gaul came to an end. 
 
 M. de Rougemont has called attention to the fact that these 
 weapons correspond very exactly to the description given by 
 Diodorus Siculus of the Gallic weapons. Switzerland thus seems 
 to have been inhabited in the earliest iron epoch by Gallic tribes, 
 that is to say, by a different race from that which occupied it 
 during the stone and bronze epochs ; and it was this race which 
 introduced into Switzerland the use of iron. 
 
 Among the objects collected in the late settlements of La Tene, 
 weapons are the most numerous ; they consist of swords and the 
 
THE IRON EPOCH. 
 
 321 
 
 heads of spears and javelins. Most of them have been kept from 
 oxidation by the peaty mud which entirely covered them, and 
 they are, consequently, in a state of perfect preservation. 
 
 The swords are all straight, of no very great thickness, and 
 perfectly flat. The blade is from 31 to 35 inches in length, and is 
 
 Fig. 247. Iron Sword, found in one of the 
 Swiss Lakes. 
 
 Fig. 248. Sword with Damascened Blade, 
 found in one of the Swiss Lakes. 
 
 terminated by a handle about 6 inches long. They have neither 
 guards nor cross-pieces. Several of them were still in their 
 sheaths, from which many of them have been drawn out in a 
 state of perfect preservation, and even tolerably sharp. 
 
 Y 
 
322 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 Fig. 247 represents one of the iron swords from the Swiss lakes, 
 which are depicted in M. Desor's memoir. 
 
 On another sword, of which we also give a representation 
 (Fig. 248), a sort of damascening work extends over almost the 
 whole surface, leaving the edges alone entirely smooth. 
 
 M. de Reffye, the archaeologist, accounts for this fact in the fol- 
 lowing way : He is of opinion that the body of the blade is made 
 of very hard unyielding iron, whilst the edges are made of small 
 strips of mellower iron, which have been subsequently welded and 
 wrought by the hammer. This mode of manufacture enabled the 
 soldier, when his sword was notched, to repair it by means of ham- 
 mering. This was a most valuable resource during an epoch in 
 
 Fig. 249. Sheath of a Sword, found in one of the Swiss Lakes. 
 
 which armies did not convey stores along with them, and when 
 the soldier's baggage was reduced to a very little more than he 
 could personally carry. Several of these damascened blades have 
 been found in the trenches of Alise. 
 
 The sheaths, the existence of which now for the first time comes 
 under our notice, are of great importance on account of the designs 
 with which they are ornamented. Most of these designs are en- 
 graved with a tool, others are executed in repousse work. All of 
 them show great originality and peculiar characteristics, which pre- 
 vent them from being confounded with works of Roman art. One 
 of these sheaths (Fig. 249), which belongs to M. Desor's collection 
 
THE IRON EPOCH. 
 
 323 
 
 and is depicted in his memoir, represents the "horned horse," 
 the emblem of Gaul, which is sufficient proof of the Gallic origin 
 of the weapons found in the Lake of La Tene. Below this 
 emblem there is a kind of granulated surface which bears some 
 resemblance to shagreen. 
 
 This sheath is composed of two very thin plates of wrought iron 
 laid one upon the other, except at the base, where they are united 
 by means of a cleverly-wrought band of iron. At its upper ex- 
 tremity there is a plate, on one side of which may be seen the 
 
 Fig. 250. Lance-head, found in one of the Swiss Lakes. 
 
 designs which we have already described, and on the other a ring, 
 intended to suspend the weapon to the belt. 
 
 The lance-heads are very remarkable on account of their extra- 
 ordinary shape and large size. They measure as much as 16 inches 
 long, by 2 to 4 inches wide, and are double-edged and twisted 
 into very diversified shapes. Some are winged, and others are 
 irregularly indented. Some have perforations in the shape of a 
 half-moon (Fig. 250). The halberd of the middle ages was, very 
 probably, nothing but an improvement on, or a deviation from, 
 these singular blades. 
 
 Fragments of wooden staves have been met with which had 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 been fitted into these spear-heads ; they are slender, and shod 
 with iron at one end. 
 
 The care with which these instruments are wrought proves that 
 they are lance-heads, and not mere darts or javelins intended to be 
 thrown to a distance and consequently lost. They certainly would 
 not have taken so much pains with the manufacture of a weapon 
 which would be used only once. 
 
 It is altogether a different matter with respect to the javelins, 
 a tolerably large number of which have been found in the 
 lacustrine settlements of La Tene. They are simply socketed 
 heads (Fig. 251) terminating in a laurel-leaf shape, about 4 to 5 
 inches in length. 
 
 Fig. 251. Head of a Javelin, found in the Lacustrine Settlement of La Tcne (Neuchatel). 
 
 It appears from experiments ordered by the Emperor of the 
 French, that these javelins could only have been used as missile 
 weapons, and that they were thrown, not by the hand merely 
 grasping the shaft (which would be impossible to do effectually 
 on account of their light weight), but by means of a cord or 
 thong, which was designated among the Romans by the name of 
 amentum. These experiments have shown that a dart which 
 could be thrown only 65 feet with the hand, might be cast four 
 times that distance by the aid of the amentum. There probably 
 
THE IRON EPOCH. 
 
 325 
 
 existed among the Gauls certain military corps who practised 
 the use of the amentum, that is to say, the management of 
 thonged javelins ) and threw this javelin in the same way as other 
 warriors threw stones by means of a sling. This conclusion, 
 which has been drawn by M. Desor, seems to us a very just one. 
 Javelins of the preceding type are very common in the trenches 
 of Alise. In this neighbourhood a large number of iron arrows 
 have also been found which have never been met with in the 
 lacustrine settlements of La Tene. 
 
 Fig. 253. Square-socketed Iron Hatchet, 
 found in one of the Lakes of Switzerland. 
 
 Fig. 254. Sickle. 
 
 War was not the only purpose for which these javelins were 
 used by the men of the iron epoch. Hunting, too, was carried on 
 by means of these missile weapons. The bow and the thonged 
 javelin constituted the hunting weapons of this epoch. We have 
 depicted this in the accompanying plate, which represents the 
 chase during the iron epoch. 
 
 Next to the weapons come the implements. We will, in the 
 first place, mention the hatchets (Fig. 253). They are larger, more 
 
326 
 
 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 solid, and have a wider cutting edge than those used in the bronze 
 epoch ; wings were no longer in use, only a square-shaped socket 
 into which was fitted a wooden handle, probably made with an 
 elbow. 
 
 The sickles (Fig. 254) are likewise larger and also more simple 
 
 Fig. 255. Scythe, from the Lacustrine Settlements 
 of Switzerland. 
 
 Fig. 256. Iron Point of Boat-hook, 
 used by the Swiss Boatmen during 
 the Iron Epoch. 
 
 than those of the bronze epoch ; there are neither designs nor 
 ornaments of any kind on them. 
 
 With the pruning-bills or sickles we must class the regular 
 scythes (Fig. 255) with stems for handling, two specimens of 
 which have been discovered in the lake settlement of the Tene. 
 
 Fig. 257. Horse's Bit, found in the Lake of Neuchatel. 
 
 Their length is about 14 inches, that is, about one-third as large 
 as the scythes used by the Swiss harvest-men of the present day. 
 One important inference is drawn from the existence of these 
 scythes ; it is, that at the commencement of the iron epoch men 
 
THE IRON EPOCH. 
 
 327 
 
 were in the habit of storing up a provision of hay, and must con- 
 sequently have reared cattle. 
 
 The iron fittings at the ends of the boats-hooks used by the 
 boatmen on the lake are frequently found at La Tene ; they ter- 
 minate in a quadrangular pyramid or in a cone (Fig. 256). Some 
 still contain the end of the wooden pole, which was attached to 
 it by means of a nail. 
 
 Next in order to these objects we must mention the horses' bits 
 and shoes ; the first being very simply constructed so as to last for 
 a very long period of time. They were composed of a short piece of 
 
 Fig. 258. Fibula, or Iron Brooch, found in the Lake of Neuchatel. 
 
 iron chain (Fig. 257), which was placed in the horse's mouth, and 
 terminated at each end in a ring to which the reins were attached. 
 ^h& fibula (Fig. 2 5 8), or clasps for cloaks, are especially calculated 
 to attract attention in the class of ornamental objects ; they are 
 very elegant and diversified in their shapes, their dimensions vary- 
 ing from 2^/2 to 5 inches. They are all formed of a pin in communi- 
 cation with a twisted spring bent in various ways. They are pro- 
 vided with a sheath to hold the end of the brooch pin, so as to 
 avoid any danger of pricking. A large number of them are in 
 an excellent state of preservation, and might well be used at the 
 present day. 
 
3 28 
 
 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 These brooches, which we have already called attention to 
 when speaking of the tombs of Hallstadt, were also used by the 
 Etruscans and the Romans ; their existence in the pre-historic 
 
 Fig. 259. Iron Buckle for a Sword-belt, found in the Lake of Neuchatel. 
 
 tombs tends to prove that, like the above-named nations, the 
 Swiss and Germans wore the toga or mantle. These fibula have 
 a peculiar character, and it is impossible to confuse them with 
 the Roman fibula. They are, however, similar in every way to 
 those which have been found at Alise. 
 
 Fig. 260. Iron Pincers, found in the 
 Lake of Neuchatel. 
 
 Fig. 261. Iron Spring-Scissors, found in the 
 Lake of Neuchatel. 
 
 There have also been found in the Swiss lakes, along with the 
 fibulce, a number of rings, the use of which is still problematical. 
 Some are flat, and others chiselled in various ways. It is thought 
 
THE IRON EPOCH. 329 
 
 that some of them must have been used as buckles for soldiers' 
 sword-belts (Fig. 259) ; but there are others which do not afford 
 any countenance to this explanation. Neither can they be looked 
 on as bracelets, for most of them are too small for any such 
 purpose. Some show numerous cuts at regular intervals all 
 round their circumference ; this fact has given rise to the supposi- 
 tion that they might perhaps have served as a kind of money. 
 
 In the lake settlement of La Tene (Lake of Neuchatel), iron 
 pincers have also been found (Fig. 260), which were doubtless 
 used for pulling out hair, and are of very perfect workmanship ; 
 also scissors with a spring (Fig. 261), the two legs being made in 
 one piece, and some very thin blades (Fig. 262), which must have 
 been razors. 
 
 The specimens of pottery belonging to this date do not testify 
 to any real progress having been made beyond the workmanship 
 
 Fig. 262. Razor. 
 
 of the bronze epoch ; the clay is still badly baked, and of a darkish 
 colour. It certainly is the case, that along with these remains a 
 quantity of fragments of vessels have been picked up, and even 
 entire vessels, which have been made by the help of the potter's 
 wheel and baked in an oven, and consequently present the red 
 colour usual in modern earthenware. 
 
 But archaeologists are of opinion that this class of pottery does 
 not date back beyond the Roman epoch ; and this opinion would 
 seem to be confirmed by the existence, in the midst of the piles at 
 the settlement of La Tene, of a mass of tiles, evidently of Roman 
 origin. The conclusion to be drawn from these facts is, that 
 many of the pile-works in the Swiss lakes continued to be 
 occupied when the country was under the Roman rule. 
 
 One of the characteristics of the iron epoch is, as we have before 
 stated, the appearance of coin or money. In 1864, M. Desor re- 
 
330 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 covered from the Lake of La Tene five coins of unquestionable 
 Gallic origin. They are of bronze, and bear on one side the figure 
 of the horned horse, and on the other a human profile. In Fig. 
 232 we gave a representation of these curious specimens of coin 
 found by M. Desor in the lacustrine settlements of the Lake of 
 Neuchatel. The marks of the mould still existing on each side 
 show that these coins were cast in a series, and that after the 
 casting the coins were separated from one another by means of 
 the file. 
 
 Coins of a similar character have been discovered, as we before 
 observed, at Tiefenau, near Berne, with others bearing the effigy 
 of Diana and Apollo, and the imprint of Massilia. The latter 
 date from the foundation of Marseilles, and could not, therefore, 
 be anterior to the sixth century before the Christian era ; it is 
 probable that those discovered along w r ith them must be referred 
 to nearly the same epoch. 
 
 Such are the relics of instruments, tools, weapons, &c., made of 
 iron and recovered from the lacustrine settlement of La Tene, 
 that is, from the Lake of Neuchatel. We must add that, near 
 Berne, at a spot which is designated by the name of the " Battle- 
 field of Tiefenau," because it appears to have been the theatre of 
 a great conflict between the Helvetians and the Gauls, a hundred 
 swords and spear-heads have been picked up, similar to those 
 found at La Tene ; also fragments of coats of mail, rings, fibula, 
 the tires of chariot-wheels, horses' bits, and lastly, Gallic and 
 Marseillaise coins in gold,, silver, and bronze. The field of battle 
 appears, therefore to have been contemporary with the settle- 
 ment of La Tene. 
 
 In addition to these valuable sources of information La Tene 
 and Tiefenau Switzerland also possesses tumuli and simple 
 tombs, both constituting records useful to consult in respect to 
 the iron epoch. But on this point it must be remarked that it 
 is often difficult, with any degree of security, to connect them 
 with the two preceding sites; and that considerable reserve is 
 recommended in attempting any kind of identification. 
 
 Upon the whole, the Iron Age, looking even"only to its earliest 
 period, is the date of the beginning of real civilisation among 
 European nations. 
 
THE IRON EPOCH. 331 
 
 Their industrial skill, exercised on the earliest-used materials, 
 such as iron and textile products, furnished all that was required 
 by the usages of life. Commerce was already in a flourishing 
 state, for it was no longer carried on by the process of barter 
 only. Money, in the shape of coin, the conventional symbol of 
 wealth, came into use during this epoch, and must have singularly 
 facilitated the operations of trade. Agriculture, too, had advanced 
 as much as it could at this earliest dawn of civilisation. The 
 remains of cereals found in the lake settlements of Switzerland, 
 added to the iron instruments intended to secure the products of 
 the cultivation of the ground, such as the scythes and sickles 
 which we have previously depicted (Figs. 254 and 255)? ^ re 
 sufficient to show us that agriculture constituted at that time the 
 chief wealth of nations. The horse, the ass, the dog, the ox, and 
 the pig, had for long time back been devoted to the service of 
 man, either as auxiliaries in his field-labours, or as additions to 
 his resources in the article of food. Fruit-trees, too, were culti- 
 vated in great numbers. 
 
 As a matter of fact, we have no acquaintance with any of the 
 iron and bronze instruments which were used by men of the iron 
 epoch in cultivation of the ground. Scythes and sickles are the 
 only agricultural implements which have been discovered. But 
 even these instruments, added to a quantity of remains of the 
 bones of cattle which have been found in the lacustrine and 
 palustrine settlements, are sufficient to prove that the art of 
 cultivating the earth and of extracting produce from its bosom, 
 rendered fertile by practices sanctioned by experience, existed 
 in full vigour among the men who lived during the period imme- 
 diately preceding historic times. 
 
 The plate which accompanies this page is intended to represent 
 in a material form the state of agriculture during the iron epoch. 
 We may notice the corn-harvest being carried on by means of 
 sickles, like those found in the lacustrine settlements of Switzer- 
 land. A man is engaged in beating out, with a mere stick, the 
 wheatsheaves in order to thrash out the grain. The grain is then 
 ground in a circular mill, worked by a horizontal handle. This 
 mill is composed of two stones revolving one above the other, 
 and was the substitute for the rough primitive corn-mill ; it subse 
 
332 THE AGE OF METALS. 
 
 quently became the mill used by the Romans the pistnnum 
 at which the slaves were condemned to work. 
 
 Indications of an unequivocal character have enabled us to 
 recognise as a fact, that human sacrifices took place among the 
 Helvetians during this period. It is, however, well known, from 
 the accounts of ancient historians, that this barbarous custom 
 existed among the Gauls and various nations in the north of 
 Europe. In a tumulus situated near Lausanne, which contained 
 four cinerary urns, there were also found the skeletons of four 
 young females. Their broken bones testified but too surely to 
 the tortures which had terminated their existence. The remains 
 of their ornaments lay scattered about in every direction, and 
 everything was calculated to lead to the belief that they had been 
 crushed under the mass of stones which formed the tumulus 
 unhappy victims of a cruel superstition. Not far from this spot, 
 another tumulus contained twelve skeletons lying in all kinds of 
 unusual postures. It is but too probable that these were the 
 remains of individuals who had all been immolated together on 
 the altar of some supposed implacable divinity. 
 /"What was the character of the type of the human race during 
 
 / the iron epoch ? It must evidently have been that of the present 
 era. Both the skulls and the bodies of the skeletons found in 
 
 \ the tombs of this epoch point to a race of men entirely identical 
 
 \ with that of our own days. 
 
 We shall not carry on our study of pre-historic mankind to any 
 later date. We have now arrived at an epoch upon which suffi- 
 cient light has been thrown by oral tradition combined with 
 historical records. The task of the historian begins at the point 
 where the naturalist's investigations come to an end. 
 
PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA. 
 

PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA. 
 
 THE development of mankind has, doubtless, been of much the 
 same character in all parts of the world, so that, in whatever 
 quarter of the world man may come under our consideration, he 
 must have passed through the same phases of progress ere he 
 arrived at his present state. Everywhere man must have had his 
 Stone Age, his Bronze Epoch, and his Iron Epoch, succeeding 
 one another in the same order which we have ascertained to have 
 existed in Europe. In the sketch which we have drawn of primi- 
 tive man, we have devoted our attention almost entirely to Europe; 
 but the cause simply is, that this part of the world has, up to the 
 present day, been the principal subject of special and attentive 
 studies in this respect. Asia, Africa, and America can scarcely 
 be said to have been explored in reference to the antiquity of our 
 species ; but it is probable that the facts which have been brought 
 to light in Europe, would be almost identically reproduced in 
 other parts of the world. 
 
 This is a fact which, as regards dolmens, has been already 
 verified. The sepulchral monuments of the Stone Age, which 
 were at first believed to be peculiar to France, and, indeed, to 
 one province of France namely, Brittany have since been met 
 with in almost every part of the world. Not only have they been 
 discovered all over Europe, but even the coasts of Africa bring to 
 our notice numerous relics of them ; also, through the whole 
 extent of Asia, and even in the interior of India, this same form 
 of sepulchre, bearing witness to a well-determined epoch in 
 man's history, hvae been pointed out and described by recent 
 travellers. 
 
 Thus, the information which we possess on these points as re- 
 gards Europe, may well be generalised and applied to the other 
 quarters of the world to Asia, Africa, America, and Oceania. 
 
336 PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA. 
 
 America, however, has been the scene of certain investigations 
 concerning primitive man which have not been without fertile 
 results ; we shall, therefore, devote the last few pages of our work 
 to a consideration of the pre-historic remains of America, and to 
 giving an account of the probable conditions of man's existence 
 there, as they have been revealed to us by these relics. 
 
 The information which has been made public on these points 
 concerns North America only. 
 
 It would be useless to dwell on the stone and bone instru- 
 ments of the New World ; in their shape they differ but little 
 from those of Europe. They were applied to the same uses, and 
 the only perceptible difference in them is in the substance of 
 which they were made. We find there hatchets, knives, arrow- 
 heads, &c., but these instruments are not so almost universally 
 made from flint, which is to a considerable extent replaced by 
 obsidian, and other hard stones. 
 
 In the history of primitive man in North America we shall 
 have to invent another age of a special character ; this is the Age 
 of Copper. In America the use of copper seems to have preceded 
 the use of bronze ; native metallic copper having been largely in 
 use among certain races. On the shores of Lake Superior there 
 are some very important mines of native copper, which must have 
 been worked by the Indians at a very early date ; in fact, the 
 traces of the ancient workings have been distinctly recognised 
 by various travellers. 
 
 Mr. Knapp, the agent of the Minnesota Mining Company, 
 was the first to point out these pre-historic mines. In 1847, his 
 researches having led him into a cavern much frequented by por- 
 cupines, he discovered, under an accumulation of heaped-up earth, 
 a vein of native copper, containing a great number of stone 
 hammers. A short time afterwards, some other excavations, 25 
 to 35 feet in depth, and stretching over an extent of several 
 miles, came under his notice. The earth dug out had been 
 thrown on each side of the excavations ; and mighty forest trees 
 had ^taken root and grown there. In the trunk of a hemlock 
 tree growing in this " made ground," Mr. Knapp counted 395 
 rings of growth, and this tree had probably been preceded by 
 other forest-giants no less venerable. In the trenches themselves, 
 
PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA. 337 
 
 which had been gradually filled up by vegetable debris, trees had 
 formerly grown, which, after having lived for hundreds of years, 
 had succumbed and decayed ; being then replaced by other gene- 
 rations of vegetation, the duration of which had been quite as 
 long. When, therefore, we consider these workings of the native 
 copper-mines of Lake Superior, we are compelled to ascribe the 
 above-named excavations to a considerable antiquity. 
 
 In many of these ancient diggings stone hammers have been 
 found, sometimes in large quantities. One of the diggings con- 
 tained some great diorite hatchets which were worked by the aid 
 of a handle, and also large cylindrical masses of the same substance 
 hollowed out to receive a handle. These sledges, which are too 
 heavy to be lifted by one man alone, were doubtless used for break- 
 ing off lumps of copper, and then reducing them to fragments of 
 a size which could easily be carried away. If we may put faith 
 in Professor Mather, who explored these ancient mines, some of 
 the rocks still bore the mark of the blow they had received from 
 these granite rollers. 
 
 The work employed in adapting the native copper was of the 
 most simple character. The Indians hammered it cold, and 
 taking into account its malleable character, they were enabled 
 with tolerable facility to give it any shape that they wished. 
 
 In America, just as in Europe, a great number of specimens of 
 pre-historic pottery have been collected. They are, it must be 
 confessed, superior to most of those found in the ancient world. 
 The material of which they were made is very fine, excepting in 
 the case of the vessels of every-day use, in which the clay is 
 mixed with quartz reduced to powder ; the shapes of the vessels 
 are of the purest character, and the utmost care has been devoted 
 to the workmanship. They do not appear to have been con- 
 structed by the aid of the potter's wheel; but Messrs. Squier 
 and Davis, very competent American archaeologists, are of opinion 
 that the Indians, in doing this kind of work, made use of a stick 
 held in the middle. The workman turned this stick round and 
 round inside the mass of clay, which an assistant kept on adding 
 to all round the circumference. 
 
 In regard, to pottery, the most interesting specimens are the 
 pipes, which we should, indeed, expect to meet with in the native 
 
 z 
 
338 PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA. 
 
 country of the tobacco plant and the classic calumet. Many of 
 these pipes are carved in the shape of animals, which are very 
 faithfully represented. These figures are very various in character, 
 including quadrupeds and birds of all kinds. Indeed, in the state 
 of Ohio seven pipes were found, on each of which the manatee 
 was so plainly depicted that it is impossible to mistake the 
 sculptor's intention. This discovery is a curious one, from the 
 fact that at the present day the manatee is not met with except 
 in localities 300 or 400 leagues distant, as in Florida. 
 
 The pre-historic ornaments and trinkets found in North America 
 consist of bracelets, necklaces, earrings, &c. The bracelets are 
 copper rings bent by hammerings, so that the two ends meet. 
 The necklaces are composed of shell beads (of which considerable 
 quantities have been collected), shells, animals' teeth, and 'small 
 flakes of mica, all perforated by a hole so as to be strung on a 
 thread. The earrings also are made of the same material. 
 
 All these objects weapons, implements, pottery, and orna- 
 ments have been derived from certain gigantic works which ex- 
 hibit some similarity, and occasionally even a striking resem- 
 blance, to the great earthwork constructions of the Old World. 
 American archaeologists have arranged these works in various 
 classes according to the probable purpose for which they were 
 intended ; we shall now dwell for a short time on these divisions. 
 
 In the first place, we have the sepulchral mounds or tumuli, 
 the numbers of which may be reckoned by tens of thousands. 
 They vary in height from 6 feet to 80 feet, and are generally of a 
 circular form ; being found either separately or in groups. Most 
 frequently only one skeleton is found in them, either reduced 
 almost to ashes, or which is more rare in its ordinary condi- 
 tion, and in a crouching posture. By the side of the corpse are 
 deposited trinkets, and, in a few cases, weapons. A practice the 
 very contrary to this now obtains in America ; and from this we 
 may conclude that a profound modification of their ideas has 
 taken place among the Indians since the pre-historic epochs. 
 
 It is now almost a certain fact that some of the small tumuli 
 are nothing but the remains of mud-huts, especially as they do 
 not contain either ashes or bones. Others, on the contrary, and 
 some of the largest, contain a quantity of bones ; the latter must 
 
PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA. 339 
 
 be allied with the ossuaries or bone-pits, some of which contain 
 the remains of several thousand individuals. 
 
 It would be difficult to explain the existence of accumulations of 
 this kind if we did not know from the accounts of ancient authors 
 that the Indians were in the habit of assembling every eight or ten 
 years in some appointed spot to inter altogether in one mass the 
 bones of their dead friends, which had been previously exhumed. 
 This singular ceremony was called " the feast of the dead." 
 
 We shall not say much here as to the sacrificial mounds, be- 
 cause no very precise agreement has yet been arrived at as to their 
 exact signification. Their chief characteristics are, that, in the 
 first place, they are nearly always found within certain sacred en- 
 closures of which we shall have more to say further on, and also 
 that they cover a sort of altar placed on the surface of the ground 
 and made of stone or baked clay. In the opinion of certain 
 archaeologists, this supposed altar is nothing but the sight of a 
 former fire-hearth, and the mound itself a habitation converted 
 into a tomb after the death of its proprietor. It will therefore be 
 best to reserve our judgment as to the existence of the human 
 sacrifices of which these places might have been the scene, until 
 we obtain some more complete knowledge of the matter. 
 
 The Temple- Mounds are hillocks in the shape of a truncated 
 pyramid, with paths or steps leading to the summit, and sometimes 
 with terraces at different heights. They invariably terminate in a 
 platform of varying extent, but sometimes reaching very consider- 
 able dimensions. That of Cahokia, in Illinois, is about 100 feet in 
 height, and at the base is 700 feet long and 500 feet wide. There is 
 no doubt that these mounds were not exclusively used as temples, 
 and, adopting as our authority several instances taken from Indian 
 history, we may be permitted to think that on this upper terrace 
 they were in the habit of building the dwelling of their chief. 
 
 The most curious of these earthworks are, beyond question, 
 those which the American archaeologists have designated by the 
 name of animal-mounds. They consist of gigantic bas-reliefs 
 formed on the surface of the ground, and representing men, 
 mammals, birds, reptiles, and even inanimate objects, such as 
 crosses, pipes, &c. They exist in thousands in Wisconsin, being 
 chiefly found between the Mississippi and Lake Michigan, and 
 
340 PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA. 
 
 along the war-path of the Indians. Their height is never very 
 considerable, and it is but seldom that they reach so much as 
 6 feet ; but their length and breadth is sometimes enormously 
 developed. Many of these figures are copied very exactly from 
 Nature ; but there are, on the other hand, some the meaning of 
 which it is very difficult to discover, because they have been in- 
 jured by the influence of atmospheric action during a long course 
 of ages. 
 
 In Dale county there is an interesting group composed of a 
 man with extended arms, six quadrupeds, a simple tumuhis, 
 and seven mounds without any artistic pretensions. The man 
 measured 125 feet long, and nearly 140 feet from the end of one 
 arm to the other. The quadrupeds are from 100 to 120 feet 
 long. 
 
 The representations of lizards and tortoises are frequently re- 
 cognised in these monstrous figures. A group of mounds, situate 
 near the village of Pewaukee, included when it was discovered 
 two lizards and seven tortoises. One of these tortoises measured 
 470 feet. At Waukesha there was found a monstrous " turtle " 
 admirably executed, the tail of which stretched over an extent of 
 250 feet. 
 
 On a high hill near Granville, in the state of Ohio, a representa- 
 tion is sculptured of the reptile which is now known under the 
 name of alligator. Its paws are 40 feet long, and its total length 
 exceeds 250 feet. In the same state there exists the figure of a 
 vast serpent, the most remarkable work of its kind ; its head 
 occupies the summit of a hill, round which the body extends for 
 about 800 feet, forming graceful coils and undulations; the mouth 
 is opened wide, as if the monster was swallowing its prey. The 
 prey is represented by an oval-shaped mass of earth, part of which 
 lies in the creature's jaws. This mass of earth is about 160 feet 
 long and 80 feet wide, and its height is about 4 feet. In some 
 localities excavations are substituted for these raised figures ; that 
 is to say, that the delineations of the animals are sunk instead of 
 being in relief a strange variety in these strange works. 
 
 The mind may readily be perplexed when endeavouring to trace 
 out the origin and purpose of works of this kind. They do not, 
 in a general way, contain any human remains, and consequently 
 
PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA. 341 
 
 could not have been intended to be used as sepulchres. Up to 
 the present time, therefore, the circumstances which have accom- 
 panied the construction of these eminently remarkable pre-his- 
 toric monuments are veiled in the darkest mystery. 
 
 We now have to speak of those enclosures which are divided by 
 American archaeologists into the classes of defensive and sacred. 
 This distinction is, however, based on very uncertain data, and it 
 is probable that a large portion of the so-called sacred enclosures 
 were in the first place constructed for a simply defensive purpose. 
 They were, in general, composed of a wall made of stones, and 
 an internal or external ditch. They often assumed the form of 
 a parallelogram, and even of a perfect square or circle, from which 
 it has been inferred that the ancient Indians must have possessed 
 an unit of measurement, and some means of determining angles. 
 These walls sometimes embraced a considerable area, and not 
 unfrequently inside the principal enclosure there were other 
 smaller enclosures, flanked with defensive mounds performing 
 the service of bastions. In some cases enclosures of different 
 shapes are grouped side by side, either joined by avenues or 
 entirely independent of one another. 
 
 The most important of these groups is that at Newark, in the 
 Valley of Scioto ; it covers an area of 4 square miles, and is com- 
 posed of an octagon, a square, and two large circles. The external 
 wall of one of these circles is even at the present day 50 feet in 
 width at the base and 1 3 feet high ; there are several doorways 
 in it, near which the height of the wall is increased about 3 feet. 
 Inside there is a ditch 6 feet in depth, and 13 feet in the vicinity 
 of the doors, its width being about 40 feet. The whole enclosure 
 is now covered by gigantic trees, perhaps 500 or 600 years old 
 a fact which points to a considerable antiquity for the date of its 
 construction. 
 
 When we reflect on the almost countless multitude, and the \ 
 magnificent proportions of the monuments we have just described, 
 we are compelled to recognise the fact that the American valleys 
 must at some early date have been much more densely populated 
 than at the time when Europeans first made their way thither. 
 These peoples must have formed considerable communities, and 
 have attained to a somewhat high state of civilisation at all 
 
342 PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA. 
 
 ] events a state very superior to that which is at present the 
 attribute of the Indian tribes. 
 
 Tribes which were compelled to seek in hunting their means 
 of everyday existence, could never have succeeded in raising con- 
 structions of this kind. They must therefore necessarily have 
 found other resources in agricultural pursuits. 
 
 This inference is moreover confirmed by facts. In several 
 localities in the United States the ground is covered with small 
 elevations known under the name of Indian corn-hills ; they take 
 their rise from the fact that the maize having been planted every 
 year in the same spot, has ultimately, after a long course of time, 
 formed rising grounds. The traces of ancient corn-patches have 
 also been discovered symmetrically arranged in regular beds and 
 parallel rows. 
 
 Can any date be assigned to this period of semi-civilisation 
 which, instead of improving more and more like civilisation in 
 Europe, became suddenly eclipsed, owing to causes which are 
 unknown to us ? This question must be answered in the nega- 
 tive, if we are called upon to fix any settled and definite date. 
 Nevertheless, the conclusion to which American archaeologists 
 have arrived is, that the history of the New World must be divided 
 into four definite periods. 
 
 The first period includes the rise of agriculture and industrial 
 skill ; the second, the construction of mounds and enclosures ; the 
 third, the formation of the " garden beds." In the last period, the 
 American nation again relapsed into savage life and to the free 
 occupation of the spots which had been devoted to agriculture. 
 
 In his work on " Pre-historic Times," Sir John Lubbock, who 
 has furnished us with most of these details, estimates that this 
 course of events would not necessarily have required a duration 
 of time of more than 3,000 years, although he confesses that this 
 figure might be much more considerable. But Dr. Douler, another 
 savant, regards this subject in a very different way. Near New 
 Orleans he discovered a human skeleton and the remains of a 
 fire, to which, basing his calculations on more or less admissible 
 data, he attributes an antiquity of 500 centuries ! Young America 
 would thus be very ancient indeed ! 
 
 By this instance we may see how much uncertainty surrounds 
 
PRIMITIVE MAN IN AMERICA. 343 
 
 the history of primitive man in America ; and it may be readily 
 understood why we have thought it necessary to adhere closely to 
 scientific ideas and to limit ourselves to those facts which are 
 peculiar to Europe. To apply to the whole world the results 
 which have been verified in Europe is a much surer course of 
 procedure than describing local and imperfectly-studied pheno- 
 mena, which, in their interpretation, lead to differences in the/ 
 estimate of time, such as that between 3,000 and 50,000 years. 
 
CONCLUSION. 
 
 BEFORE bringing our work to a close we may be permitted to 
 retrace the path we have trod, and to embrace in one rapid 
 glance the immense space we have traversed. 
 
 We have now arrived at a point of time very far removed from 
 that of the dweller in caves, the man who was contemporary with 
 the great bear and the mammoth ! Scarcely, perhaps, have we 
 preserved a reminiscence of those mighty quadrupeds whose broad 
 shadows seem to flit indistinctly across the dim light of the 
 quaternary epoch. Face to face with these gigantic creatures, 
 which have definitively disappeared from the surface of our globe, 
 there were, as we have seen, beings of a human aspect who, 
 dwelling in caves and hollows of the earth, clothed themselves 
 in the skins of beasts and cleft flakes of stone in order to form 
 their weapons and implements. We can hardly have failed to 
 feel a certain interest in and sympathy with them, when tracing 
 out the dim vestiges of their progress ; for, in spite of their rude 
 appearance, in spite of their coarse customs and their rough mode 
 of life, they were our brethren, our ancestors, and the far- distant 
 precursors of modern civilisation. 
 
 We have given due commendation to their efforts and to their 
 progress. After a protracted use of weapons and implements 
 simply chipped out of the rough flint, we have seen them adopt 
 weapons and instruments of polished stone, that is, objects which 
 had undergone that material preparation which is the germ of 
 the industrial skill of primitive nations. 
 
 Aided by these polished-stone instruments, added to those of 
 bone and reindeer's or stag's horn, they did not fear to enter into 
 a conflict which every day became more and more successful 
 with all the external forces which menaced them. As we have 
 seen, they brought under the yoke of servitude various kinds of 
 
CONCLUSION. 345 
 
 animals ; they made the dog and the horse the companion 
 and the auxiliary of their labour. The sheep, the ox, and other 
 ruminants were converted into domesticated cattle, capable of 
 ensuring a constant supply of food. 
 
 After the lapse of ages metals made their appearance ! metals, 
 the most precious acquisition of all, the pledge of the advent of 
 a new era, replete with power and activity, to primitive man. 
 Instruments made of stone, bone, reindeer or stag's horn, were 
 replaced by those composed of metal. In all the communities of 
 man civilisation and metals seem to be constant companions. 
 Though bronze may have served for the forging of swords and 
 spears, it also provides the material for implements of peaceful 
 labour. Owing to the efforts of continuous toil, owing also to the 
 development of intelligence which is its natural consequence, the 
 empire of man over the world of nature is still increasing, and 
 man's moral improvement follows the same law of progression. 
 But who shall enumerate the ages which have elapsed whilst 
 these achievements have been realised ? 
 
 But thy task is not yet terminated ! Onward, and still onward, 
 brave pioneer of progress ! The path is a long one and the goal 
 is not yet attained ! Once thou wert contented with bronze, now 
 thou hast iron iron, that terrible power, whose function is to 
 mangle and to kill the cause of so much blood and so many 
 bitter tears ! but also the beneficent metal which fertilises and 
 gives life, affording nutriment to the body as well as to the mind. 
 The Romans applied the name of ferrum to the blade of their 
 swords ; but in after times ferrum was also the term for the 
 peaceful ploughshare. The metal which had brought with it 
 terror, devastation, and death, ere long introduced among nations 
 peace, wealth, and happiness. 
 
 And now, O man, thy work is nearly done ! The mighty 
 conflicts against nature are consummated, and thy universal 
 empire is for ever sure ! Animals are subject to thy will and 
 even to thy fancies. At thy command the obedient earth opens 
 its bosom and unfolds the riches it contains. Thou hast turned 
 the course of rivers, cleared the mountain-sides of the forests 
 which covered them, and cultivated the plains and valleys ; by 
 thy culture the earth has become a verdant and fruitful garden. 
 
 2 A 
 
346 CONCLUSION. 
 
 Thou hast changed the whole aspect of the globe, and mayest 
 well call thyself the lord of creation ! 
 
 Doubtless the expanding circle of thy peaceful conquests will 
 not stop here, and who can tell how far thy sway may extend ? 
 Onward then ! still onward ! proud and unfettered in thy vigilant 
 and active course towards new and unknown destinies ! 
 
 But look to it, lest thy pride lead thee to forget thy origin. 
 However great may be thy moral grandeur, and however complete 
 thy empire over a docile nature, confess and acknowledge every 
 hour the Almighty Power of the great Creator. Submit thyself 
 before thy Lord and Master, the God of goodness and of love, the 
 Author of thy existence, who has reserved for thee still higher 
 destinies in another life. Learn to show thyself worthy of the 
 supreme blessing the happy immortality which awaits thee in 
 a world above, if thou hast merited it by a worship conceived in 
 spirit and in truth, and by the fulfilment of thy duty both towards 
 God and towards thy neighbour ! 
 
347 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX 
 
 AUTHORS' NAMES CITED IN THIS VOLUME. 
 
 Albert!, 228 
 Arcelin, 120 
 Austen (Godwin), 9 
 
 Baudot, 178 
 
 Bertrand, 187, 197 
 
 Bocchi, 82 
 
 Bonstetten, 187 
 
 Borel, 319 
 
 Boucher de Perthes, 8, 9, 16, 17, 18, 45, 
 
 82, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166 
 Boue (Aime), 6 
 
 Bourgeois (Abbe), 3, 16, 17, 73, 149 
 Boutin, 74 
 Broca, 114, 181 
 
 Brun(V.), 88, 98, 106, 115, 119 
 Buckland, 6 
 Busk, 36, 81, 182 
 
 Camper, 5 
 
 Cazalis de Fondouce, 128 
 
 Chantre, 120 
 
 Chevalier (Abbe), 147 
 
 Christol (de), 7, 74 
 
 Christy, 73, 86, 90, 95, 106, 108, 109, 
 
 no, in, 118 
 Clement, 225 
 Cochet (Abbe), 177 
 Costa de Beauregard, 91, 319 
 Cuvier, 6, 7 
 
 Dampier, 132, 219 
 
 Darwin, 132 
 
 Davis (Dr. Barnard), 36, 8l, 337 
 
 Delaunay, 73 
 
 Desnoyers, 9, 20, 57 
 
 Desor, 175, 217 note, 220, 221, 227, 242, 
 
 244, 251, 252, 257, 260, 271, 289, 310, 
 
 321, 324, 329 
 Dolomieu, 156, 157 
 Dumont d'Urville, 219, 225 
 Dupont (Edouard), 82, 94, 95, 104, 112, 
 
 113, 114, 116, 120 
 
 Edwards (Milne), 12, 120, 127 
 
 Esper, 6 
 
 Evans, II, 12, 51, 131, 149 
 
 Falconer, 10, n, 76 
 Faudel, 82 
 
 Ferry (de), 73, 91, 120 
 Filhol, 15, 75, 127, 169, 181 
 Flower, n 
 Fontan, n, 74, 119 
 Forchhammer, 131 
 Forel, 176 
 
 Foresi (Raffaello), 181 
 , Forgeais, 178, 202 
 Foulon-Menard, 169 
 Fournet, 158 
 Fraas, 104 
 Franchet, 73 
 Frere, 6, 12 
 Fuhlrott, 80 
 
 Garrigou, 15, 16, 75, no, 119, 127, 169, 
 
 181 
 
 Gastaldi and Moro, 227 
 Gaudry (Albert), 1 1 
 Gervais (Paul), 74, 128 
 Gillieron, 267, 292, 293 
 Gmelin, 299 
 Gosse, n, 12 
 
 Gratiolet and Alix, 31, 33, 34 
 Guerin, 72 
 
 Hannour and Himelette, 179 
 
 Hauzeur, 104 
 
 Hebert, II 
 
 Heer, 265 
 
 Hernandez, 160 
 
 His, 290 
 
 Hochstetter, 229 
 
 Hussan, 72 
 
 Huxley, 26, 80 
 
 Issel, 91 
 
348 
 
 Jeitteler, 239 
 Joly, 8 
 Joly-Leterme, 120 
 
 Keller, 135, 175, 216, 220, 225, 227, 280, 
 
 282 
 
 Kemp, 6 
 Knapp, 336 
 Kosterlitz, 228 
 
 Lambert (1'Abbe), 3 
 
 Lartet, I, 2, 13, 14, 15, 18, 20, 6l, 62, 
 63, 64, 66, 67, 71, 101, 102, 106, 108, 
 109, no, in, 118, 120, 180 
 
 Lawrence, 31 
 
 Leguay, 150, 153, 195, 200 
 
 Leveille (Cornewall), 208 
 
 Lioy (Paolo), 228 
 
 Lohle, 223 
 
 Lubbock (Sir John), 97, 131, 189, 190, 
 195, 200, 219, 230, 275, 342 
 
 Lund, 9, 77 
 
 Lyell (Sir Charles), n, 20, 36, 132, 224 
 
 Marcel de Serres, 3, 7 
 
 Martin, 12 
 
 Morlot, 94, 217 note, 249, 291, 300, 301 
 
 Mortillet (de), 89, 131 note, 172, 227, 
 
 245, 283, 308 note 
 Mudge, 231 
 Mylne, n 
 
 Naegeli, 239 
 
 Nilsson, 1 1 6, 189, 195, 208, 209 
 
 Noulet, 10 
 
 Osculati, 239 
 Otz, 226 
 Owen, 91, 119 
 
 Peccadeau de 1'Isle, 90, 106, 107, 119 
 Peigne Delacour, 12 
 Penguelly, 10 
 Penguilly, 1'Haridon, 149 
 Pereira de Costa, 132 
 Pigorini, 232, 235, 236, 238 
 Place, 1 60 
 Pommerol, 171 
 Prestwich, n, 46, 131 
 Pruner-Bey, 18, 32, 33, 35, 37, 81, 113, 
 114, 181 
 
 Quatrefages (de), 1 8, 30, 31, 38 
 Quiquerez, 301, 302, 303, 308 
 
 Rabut, 229 
 
 Rames, 15 
 
 Ramsauer, 312, 314 
 
 Ranchet, 227 
 
 Reboux, 12 
 
 Reffye, 321 
 
 Rigollot, 10, 54 
 
 Robert (Eugene), 12, 149 
 
 Rochebrune, 157 
 
 Rougemont (de), 320 
 
 Riitimeyer, 265, 268 
 
 Saussure (de), 160 . 
 
 Sauvage and Hamy, 131 
 
 Schaaffhausen, 37, 8 1 
 
 Scheuchzer, 5 
 
 Schild, 226 
 
 Schmerling, 7, 77 
 
 Schmidt, 284, 287 note 
 
 Schwab, 248, 250 
 
 Silber, 228 
 
 Squier, 337 
 
 Steenstrup, 130, 131 133 
 
 Steinhauer, 66 
 
 Stopani (1'Abbe), 227 
 
 Strobel, 132, 232, -.35, 236, 238, 239 
 
 Thioly, 226 
 
 Tournal, 7 
 
 Troyon, 175, 217 note, 225, 253 
 
 Uhlmann, 134 
 
 Vallier, 229 
 
 Van Beneden, 112, 113 
 
 Vibraye (Marquis de), II, 73, 94, 98 
 
 Vicq-d'Azyr, 31 
 
 Vogt, 26, 80, 181, 280, 281, 282 
 
 Welker, 32 
 
 Wilde ( Sir W. R.), 230 
 
 Wood, 76 
 
 Worsaae, 131, 175, 276 
 
 Wyatt, 12 
 
 CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS, CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS. 
 

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