OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 

S YNOPSI S 
 
 OF 
 
 LECTURES ON GEOLOGY, 
 
 COMPRISING THE 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE. 
 DESIGNED 
 
 AS A 
 
 BY JOHN RUGGLES SOTTING, 
 
 Late Professor of Natural Science in the Brookfield F. C. Seminary, 
 Author of Introduction to Chemistry, $c. 
 
 TAUUTOBT. 
 
 PUBLISHBD FOR THE AUTHOR. 
 
 183,5. 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 18S5. 
 
 BY JOHN R. COTTING, 
 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District 
 of Massachusetts. 
 
 XDMUND ANTHONY, PKIKTEK. 
 TAUNTON, MASS. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 To encourage a taste for the highly interesting and moral sci- 
 ence of Geology, to elicit a spirit of investigation and afford assist- 
 ance to those who are desirous of obtaining a knowledge of its 
 principles, which can no longer be neglected with safety to revela- 
 tion and morals, is the design of the author in the following pages. 
 The work contains the substance of courses of lectures delivered 
 to several classes in the County of Bristol, Mass., and in Rhode 
 Island, in 1834-5. 
 
 The want of a suitable book, of a moderate size, as a companion, 
 or vade mecmn. during the delivery of the lectures was seriously 
 felt, by the members of the different classes. The technical terms 
 being new to most of the audience, were not readily comprehend- 
 ed, although much pains was taken to render them, familiar by 
 specimens and diagrams; it occurred to the lecturer and to others 
 that if a small work could be prepared to which every one might 
 have access, during the lecture, it would greatly facilitate their 
 progress, and, also aid in their future investigations. 
 
 Geological works are, in general, voluminous and scarce, and 
 the expense such, as not to comport with the means, or inclina- 
 tion of many who are desirous of obtaining some knowledge of 
 this useful branch of science, hitherto almost novel in this part of 
 the country. And very few of these are calculated for textbooks, 
 in a popular course of lectures. 
 
 In compliance with the request of many of the members of his 
 classes, the author has here given a synopsis of his lectures accor- 
 ding to the latest and general acknowledged theory of the for- 
 mation of the earth. Which he believes will not only prove use- 
 
IV 
 
 ful as an auxiliary to those attending lectures, but as a book of 
 reference to others. 
 
 In the compilation, he has consulted the works of the most em- 
 inent Geologists of Europe and America. Among others, those 
 of McCulloch, Ure, Conybeare and Philips, de la Beche, Cuvier, 
 Humboldt, Parkinson, Bakewell, Hitchcock, Eaton, &,c. 
 
 No pretensions are made to infallibility, or that the work is un- 
 exceptionable; such pretensions would be falacious in the present 
 state of the science. There is not any science so incumbered with 
 various and conflicting theories as Geology, but it appears approx- 
 imating to a permanency. Great and powerful minds are employ- 
 ed on the subject; analysis and rigid induction are called to its aid 5 
 investigation is pursued with zealous and untiring industry; a de- 
 sire and taste for its pursuit pervades all classes, and we may hope 
 that its correct principles will soon be established on as permanent 
 a basis, as those of Astronomy and Chemistry. 
 
 If this brief manual shall, in any manner contribute to promote 
 the iuterest of science, or gratify the wishes of his friends, the au- 
 thor will feel himself amply rewarded. For many imperfectionsj 
 be claims indulgence, hoping that they will not be found of such 
 importance as to render the wish too presumptuous of having it 
 considered as a humble subsidiary to scientific and valuable com- 
 prehensive works. J. R. C, 
 
 Taunton, August, 1835. 
 
Ho 
 
 DEFINITIONS &c. 
 
 GEOLOGY literally signifies a discourse concern- 
 ing the earth. Its formation, strata, mountains, 
 valleys ; the remains of organized beings found 
 in its solid contents &c. the probable antiquity of 
 the earth ; and the causes which have formerly, 
 or are still operating to produce the changes 
 which we witness on its surface, or beneath its 
 crust. 
 
 Oryctology is the science which treats of the 
 nature, origin and formation of those bodies 
 which possess the figures, markings or structure 
 of vegetables, or animals ; whilst the substance 
 evinces their having been preserved through 
 many ages, by certain changes effected in suba- 
 queous, or subterranean situations. The sub* 
 stance of which they are composed being general- 
 ly of a mineral nature, the term fossils is applied 
 to them as indicative of their having been dug 
 from subterraneous situations. 
 
 The earth was created by an intelligent and 
 Almighty being ; laws or principles were infused 
 and the changes were produced by the efficiency 
 of those laws operating by His agency. 
 
 The earth is a spheroid, this appears to be the 
 
eliect of rotation, or such a figure as a fluid body 
 would assume if revolving in space. Its equatorial 
 diameter, 7924 miles nearly ; Its polar axis 7898. 
 Difference 26 miles. 
 
 Mean density of the earth 5. nearly, or about 
 five times heavier than a globe of water of equal 
 bulk. 
 
 The relative proportion of dry land, at present, 
 is to that of water as 2-5ths to 3-5ths ; but there 
 is but about l-5th habitable by man. 
 
 A central heat appears probably to exist in the 
 earth, which is an important agent in supporting 
 the present temperature of the globe. This hy- 
 pothesis receives confirmation from the occur- 
 rence of numerous active and extinct volcanoes ; 
 from rocks which are evidently of igneous origin, 
 and from Ij^ot and warm springs, as well as from 
 observations made in mines, that the temperature 
 increases as we descend. But decreases from 
 the surface until we arrive at the termination of 
 solar heat, when it begins to increase. 
 
 The superficial contents of the earth are calcu- 
 lated at 190,000,000 square miles. 
 
 The following are the different classes of rocks. 
 
 1 . Primary, or the lowest, containing no fossil 
 organic remains. 
 
 2. Transition, containing organic remains of the 
 lowest class of animals and vegetables ; also frag- 
 mentary rock, of the primary class. 
 
 3. Secondary, lower and upper. 
 
 The lower distinctly stratified, composed of 
 sand stone, beds of coal, and iron stone and the 
 fossil remains of vegetables. 
 
The upper series of secondary strata contain 
 stratified limestone with beds of shale and sand 
 stone interposed, and the fossil remains of 
 marine animals, but different from those in the 
 lower. Here we find the remains of animals of 
 the lizard species of immense size. Also, the 
 bones of fresh water and amphibious reptiles. 
 
 These strata appear to have been formed un- 
 der different circumstances from the lower, but 
 after a long interval of time when the surface of 
 the globe had been much fractured and displaced. 
 They do not lie parrallel with the lower, but are 
 unconformable and cover the edges of the lower. 
 4. Tertiary, or the most recent formation. 
 In these strata arc numerous bones of quadru- 
 peds of the class mammalia, of terrestrial origin, 
 the greater part of which appear to belong to 
 genera and species no longer living in any part 
 of the globe. Also numerous marine and fresh 
 water shells, the latter appear to be more numer- 
 ous than the former. 
 
 Basaltic and volcanic rocks. Or those which 
 have either been ejected from volcanoes, or emit- 
 ted in a state of fusion from rents and opening 
 through the crust of the earth. Sometimes they 
 occur in a columnar form, and sometimes they fill 
 vast fissures, or dykes. 
 
 Diluvial and Alluvial. 
 
 The first consists of vast beds of gravel, frag- 
 ments of rocks, and boulders hurled to great dis- 
 tances from their original beds. Also siliceous 
 sand and disintegrated rocks, assuming a stratifi- 
 
8 
 
 ed structure. The second consists of sand, peb- 
 bles, pieces of wood, leaves &c ; also the bones 
 of animals, and decomposed animal and vegetable 
 substances. 
 
 These classes have their appropriate mineral 
 contents, which serve as data to our observations 
 and the epochs of their formation. 
 
 Iffio 
 
 Of the mineral substances composing the crust 
 of the globe 
 
 The mineral substances that occur in the sur- 
 face of the globe differ in density, hardness, color 
 and other properties. All the variety of rocks, 
 however diversified are composed of a very small 
 number of simple substances. 
 
 The elementary substances of which the solid 
 matter of the globe is composed, are, in general, 
 the following. 
 
 Silex, Allumine, Lime, Magnesia, Iron, Man- 
 ganese, Carbon, Sulphur, Potash, Soda, Muriatic, 
 Carbonic, Sulphuric and Phosphoric acids. Also 
 in a very limited proportion, Strontian, Barytes* 
 Glucina, Zirconia and, Yttria, as well as metallic 
 
ores, but the proportion is so small as not to mer- 
 it notice. 
 
 Silex, or siliceous earth, exists nearly pure in 
 quartz rock, and rock crystal. It communicates 
 a degree of hardness and grittiness to all rocks 
 into which it enters in any considerable degree. 
 It composes more than one half of the solid mat- 
 ter of the crust of the^globe. In some hot springs, 
 silex occurs in the state of minute division, or in 
 solution. As in the Geysers of Iceland. 
 
 Alumine, or pure Clay, this in a mixed state is 
 well known, but unmixed it is very rare. It is 
 soft, smooth, unctuous to the touch ; very absorb- 
 ant of water ; rocks containing it in the propor- 
 tion of 30 per cent, or more are called argilla- 
 ceous. Iron appears to have a greater affinity 
 for this earth than for any other. Few clays are 
 destitute of a portion of iron. It forms a princi- 
 pal constituent part of most stones, and of exten- 
 sive strata. 
 
 Lime, combined with carbonic acid forms 
 lime stone< marble, chalk &c. Stones containing 
 it are called calcareous. United with sulphuric 
 acid, it forms gypsum, or Plaster of Paris, with 
 fluoric acid, Derbyshire Spar. Marl is a compo- 
 sition of lime and clay, with a small portion of si- 
 lex. Limestone generally effervesces with acids. 
 
 Magnesia, rarely pure in nature, but in com- 
 position it communicates a soapy feel to the rock, 
 sometimes, a striated or striped texture and the 
 property of resisting high degrees of temperature. 
 It occurs in limestone in different proportions. It 
 abounds in talc and soap stone. 
 
10 
 
 Iron, is very abundant in the mineral kingdom, 
 it forms a constituent part of various rocks and 
 stones, and imparts different colors. It is com- 
 bined in the state of an oxide, or a metal. In 
 composition, it increases the specific gravity of 
 the mineral. It gives a tendency to decomposit- 
 ion of the rock in which it enters, especially when 
 combined with sulphur. 
 
 Manganese, This in the state of an oxide commu- 
 nicates a dull reddish color inclining to purple, 
 and a peculiar dry. and burnt like appearance. It 
 occurs only in a few rocks. 
 
 Sulphur, combined with oxygen, forming sul- 
 phuric acid, enters into the substance of some 
 rocks, such, as gypsum, though its combinations 
 are not extensive. It combines with iron and 
 forms the well known substance of a crystalline 
 form and yellow color, called sulphur et of iron, 
 or iron pyrites. Often mistaken by the inex- 
 perienced for gold. 
 
 Carbon, enters into the composition of many of 
 the slate rocks, to which it imparts a dark color : 
 it also forms the principal constituent of coal. 
 When combined with oxygen it becomes aeriform 
 and is carbonic acid, or fixed air, in this state, it 
 is solidified in all limestone rocks, forming near- 
 ly 2-5ths of their weight. It is regarded as a 
 constituent element, and not derived from the 
 vegetable kingdom. 
 
 Potash and Soda, these alkalies occur in some 
 minerals, but in a very small proportion. Soda 
 occurs abundantly in sea water. Pure rock salt, 
 or sea salt contains about 53 1-2 per cent of So- 
 da, 46 1-2 muriatic acid, or chlorine. 
 
11 
 
 Muriatic acid, combined with Soda, is the only 
 state in which it is found in rocks ; except in 
 some volcanic rocks ; composition of muriatic 
 acid, hydrogen and chlorine. 
 
 Phosphoric acid, is found in a few secondary 
 limestone beds, perhaps obtained from the de^ 
 composition of animal bones. 
 
 The following simple minerals form what is de^ 
 nominoted the alphabet of Geology, becausej by 
 means of them, we are able to spell out, or deter^ 
 mine all the rocks of the globe, 
 
 Quartz, Feldspar, Mica, Talc, Chlorite, Horn- 
 blende, Gypsum, Limestone and Argillite. 
 
 Quartz, color various, hard and brittle, gives 
 sparks with steal ; fracture of the crystallized con- 
 choidal ; uncrystallized splintery ; lustre vitreous, 
 resembling a piece of polished cold tallow. Oc- 
 curs massive, crystallized, and granular, common 
 form of the crystals, six sided prisms terminated 
 by six sided pyramids, transparent ; uncrystallized, 
 opaque or translucent, sp. gr. 2. 53, composed of 
 silex and a small proportion of alumine. Infusi- 
 ble by itself, not acted upon by any acid except 
 the fluoric. It exists in veins and in large mas- 
 ses forming mountains. Fragments or crys- 
 tals common in compound rocks. Grains of 
 quartz form the principal constituent of sand- 
 stone* It forms the principal constituent of 
 flint, hornestone, chalcedony, opal, agate &c 
 when in combination with a large portion of al- 
 umine, Jaspar. 
 
 Feldspar, is a constituent part of numerous 
 
rocks, less hard than quartz, frangible, laminar or 
 composed of thin plates, which may distinguish 
 it from quartz, crystallized in four and six sided 
 prisms, whose length is greater than the breadth ; 
 lustre shining, resembling the broken edge of a 
 china cup; colors, white, grey, red, reddish white 
 and green. Translucent, or opaque, melts with- 
 out the addition of an alkali, sp. gr. 2. 54. comp. 
 silex 63. 17, alumine 17. 14, potash 13. lime 3. 6, 
 oxide of iron 1 . Its fusibility is owing to the pot- 
 ash in its composition. 
 
 It constitutes the principal constituent of most 
 rocks and light colored lavas. 
 
 Mica, from micans glittering, commonly called 
 Isinglass, or muscovy glass. Occurs in leaves, 
 or lamina, elastic, transparent; colors yellow, grey, 
 blackish, brown, white, green ; yields to the knife, 
 crystallized into six sided tables, or six sided 
 rhomboidal prisms, melts into an enamel ; sp. gr. 
 about 2. 7. 
 
 Composition, silex 48. alumine 34. 35, potash 
 8. 73, oxide ofiron 4. 5, manganese 0. 5, water 
 1.25. 
 
 Talc, nearly resembles mica in appearance. 
 Flexible, but not elastic, softer than mica, infusi- 
 ble. Color silvery white, or green, has a soapy 
 feel, yields to the nail ; lustre shining pearly ; sp, 
 gr. 2. 79. 
 
 Comp. silex 61. magnesia 30. 5, potash 2. 75, 
 oxide of iron 2. 5, water 0. 5. 
 
 Chlorite, nearly resembles talc, it is of a green 
 color, whence its name; lustre glistening ; struct- 
 ure minutely foliated ; soft and rather unctuous. 
 
Sp. gr. from 2. 6 to 2. 9. Silex 26. magnesia 8. 
 alumine 18. 6, oxide of iron 43, muriate of soda 
 and Potash 2. 0, water 2. 
 
 Hornblende^ Fr. amphibole, color black, or dark 
 bottle green, heavier but less hard than quartz, or 
 feldspar ; it may be scratched with a knife, color 
 of the streak light green, yields a bitter smell 
 when breathed on ; melts easily into a black 
 glass, occurs massive and crystallized. Sp. gr. 
 3. 15, to 3. 30. 
 
 Composition. Silex 47. 21, alumine 13. 94; 
 lime 12. 73, magnesia 21. 86, Oxide of iron 
 2. 28 ; oxide of manganese 0. 56 ; fluoric acid 
 0. 90 ; water 0. 44. 
 
 Gypsum or sulphate of lime, color white, snow 
 white, and reddish. Structure laminated, granu- 
 lar, crystalized or compact, yields to the nail ; 
 does not effervesce with acids. Crystalized gyp- 
 sum is called selenite. Sp. gr. 2. 16, to 2. 28. 
 Composition. Lime 32. 7, sulphuric acid 16. 3, 
 water 21. That variety which has no water in 
 its composition is called anhydrous. 
 
 Limestone, color white, yellow, brown, reddish, 
 black, grey, greenish and blue, effervesces with 
 acids, yields to the knife, infusible, sp. gr. 2. 6. 
 Composition. Lime 57. Carbonic acid 43. Mag- 
 nesian limestone is sometimes called Dolomite. 
 
 ArgiUite, color bluish, or greenish grey, lus- 
 tre silky, yields to the knife; emits an argilla- 
 cous odour when breathed on ; roof slate and 
 cyphering slate afford good examples of argillite. 
 Sp. gr. 2. 5. Composition. Silex, 48 ; alumine 
 25. 5, magnesia 1.6; oxide of iron 11. 3 ; oxide 
 B 
 
14 
 
 of manganese 0. 5 ; potash 4. 7 ; carbon 0. 3 : 
 water 7. 6. 
 
 On Stratification. 
 
 Stratum signifies a bed, and in geology, it is 
 applied to a bed of rocks, or a deposite. 
 
 When a stratum of rocks of a different kind 
 invariably covers another stratum, it is said to be 
 in the order of superposition. 
 
 The strata seldom occur in a flat or horizontal 
 position, but generally rise in a certain direction 
 and come to the surface ; and in travelling over 
 a country, we pass over their edges which are 
 called the outcrop, which shows the different 
 strata. We can thus ascertain the contents with- 
 out boring. 
 
 Formations, are a series of strata that are re- 
 garded as being formed nearly at the same time. 
 
 Geological Formation, is where strata of differ- 
 ent kinds graduate into each other, containing 
 similar species of organic remains. 
 
 Coal Formation, is where strata of shale grey- 
 wacke sandstone and iron stone accompany beds 
 of coal. 
 
15 
 
 The formation of a rock implies the agent by 
 which the rock is formed, or consolidated, and 
 a rock formation the effect produced by the agent. 
 
 The line of bearing is the lengthwise direction 
 of strata. 
 
 The line of Dip is at right angles to the line of 
 bearing. 
 
 Inclination, is the angle at which the stratum 
 rises above the horizontal line. 
 
 Saddle back, is where the stratum dips both 
 ways, in the form of the letter V inverted. 
 
 The anticlinal line, is a line traced on the sur- 
 face of a country to designate where the strata 
 dip in opposite directions. 
 
 The true thickness of a stratum is measured by 
 a line perpendicular to the upper and under sur- 
 face, 
 
 In many instances, strata are bent and contort- 
 ed in various directions, in this case, it is diffi- 
 cult to find the true dip, or even to ascertain the 
 class to which the rocks belong. 
 
 Rocks of the primary class, frequently cover 
 each other in an order, which when viewed on a 
 grand scale, may be said to be conformable, but 
 the order of succession is not always easy to trace. 
 Viewed, however, in mountain chains, the gene- 
 ral arrangement is 1 . Granite, 2. Gneiss, 3. Mica 
 slate, 4. Argillite, 5. transition series, 6. the low- 
 er strata with coal, 7* a bed of Limestone, or any 
 other rock in a slate mountain, this is said to be 
 subordinate. A bed of conglomerate, or grey- 
 wacke composed of boulders and fragments of 
 lower rocks is frequently interposed between slate 
 rocks and transition limestone 
 
16 
 
 Unconformable rocks, are Basalt, Serpentine f 
 Porphyry, Hornblende &,c. 
 
 Unstratified unconformable rocks, occur cover- 
 ing primary, transition, secondary and tertiary 
 strata. Those covering secondary and tertiary 
 strata are evidently the product of subterranean 
 fire, ejected from beneath by some violent explo- 
 sion. Those also which cover primary and tran- 
 sition strata bear strong evidence of igneous ori- 
 gin. 
 
 These changes undoubtedly preceded the exis- 
 tence of the human race, at an epoch very re- 
 mote. Many inequalities of the earth's surface 
 must be asscribed to these great catastrophes, 
 and inundations which appear to be nearly con- 
 temporaneous* and it would be absurd to suppose, 
 that they could have been produced, in every 
 part of the world while man existed. Such a sup- 
 position would be contrary to the known and per- 
 manent laws of nature. 
 
 Longitudinal valleys are those in the direction 
 of mountain ranges. 
 
 Transversal valleys are those which cut through 
 ranges of mountains. 
 
 Lateral valleys are those which open into a 
 larger valley nearly at right angles to it. 
 
 Mountains generally form groups, except those 
 which are volcanic and compose long and lofty 
 ridges, denominated mountain chains. 
 
 The principal mountains of Europe and Asia 
 form one immense chain, commencing at Cape 
 Finisterre in Spain, and extending to the eastern 
 extremity of Asia. It is known by different 
 
17 
 
 names in different countries. As, the Pyrenees, 
 Alps, Mount Taurus, Caucasus, Altaic and Him- 
 malah mountains, and the Yobblony in Tartary, 
 extending nearly to Behring's straits, these divide 
 the northern and southern dry land both in Eu- 
 rope and Asia. 
 
 One immense chain of mountains runs nearly the 
 whole length of North and South America, a dis- 
 tance of eight thousand miles, called the Andes 
 and Rocky mountains. Mountain ranges pre- 
 sent the steepest declivities on that side nearest 
 the sea. 
 
 The strata of lofty mountains are generally 
 much inclined, and sometimes nearly vertical. 
 Sometimes beds of limestone occur containing 
 marine shells, which must have been deposited 
 at the bottom of the ocean, and afterwards raised 
 up by some violent convulsion, together with the 
 accompanying strata. 
 
 
On the Primitive formation. 
 
 Those rocks denominated primary are widely 
 spread over the globe in the lowest relative situa- 
 tion, and contain no remains of organic beings. 
 
 They are supposed to constitute the foundation 
 on which other rocks lie, and to be the first 
 deposites made after the creation. The same 
 causes which have produced granite and other 
 primary rocks below all others have in some in- 
 stances reproduced them, covering rocks of the 
 transition and secondary class. Granite is found 
 covering secondary rocks, and sometimes obtrud- 
 ed between them. To account for this, we must 
 suppose granite like volcanic rocks was once in 
 a state of fusion, and was protruded in this state 
 through the upper rocks. Similar facts are ob- 
 served with regard to other primary rocks, which 
 are believed to be oi igneous formation. 
 
 The subordinate rocks which occur among pri- 
 mary and also among the transition and secon- 
 dary are, 
 
 Hornblende, Serpentine, Crystalline limestone, 
 and Quartz rock. 
 
19 
 
 GRANITE. 
 
 Granite is found at the lowest depths at which 
 man has penetrated, forming vast mountains. 
 Where it rises above the surface other rocks rise 
 towards it, and their angles of elevation increase 
 as they approach it. Proper granite is consider- 
 ed as a crystaline unstratified rock. It is essen- 
 tially composed of quartz, feldspar and mica, 
 which vary much in their proportions in different 
 specimens. These are denominated by different 
 names. In general, the quartz is grey, sometimes 
 smoky, blue, yellow and green. The feldspar 
 white, reddish, green, or blue, and sometimes 
 tinged with purple. The mica is commonly of a 
 silvery white, but sometimes brown, grey, black 
 and red. 
 
 Feldspar constitutes, in general, the largest 
 constituent. Other minerals occasionally com- 
 bine to constitute granite, as talc, Chlorite &c. 
 
 The following varieties are often found asso- 
 ciated. 
 
 1. Pseudomorphous granite, where the quartz 
 and feldspar are associated into a solid mass and 
 the mass penetrated by thin plates of mica, not 
 intersecting each other. The smallest fragments 
 of the quartz and feldspar are often separated by 
 thin plates, the solid angles appear like the pro- 
 jecting angles of crystals. 
 
 2. Porphyritic granite, this, besides the seve- 
 ral constituents, contains imbedded crystals of 
 feldspar, some is fine grained, but in this country 
 it is coarse grained, 
 
20 
 
 3. Graphic granite^ this variety consists of 
 quartz and feldspar only, the ingredients are us- 
 ually in lengthwise pieces, so that the cross 
 fracture presents the appearance of Chinese char- 
 acters. The French geologists have given it the 
 name of Pegmatite. 
 
 4. Sienite, or Sienitic granite, in which Horn- 
 blende wholly, or in part, supplies the place of 
 mica. This is for the most part tougher and 
 more durable than common granite. 
 
 5. Talcy, or Chloritic Granite, is composed of 
 quartz, feldspar and talc, or chlorite. This is a 
 softer species than the preceding. It is called 
 by some protogene. 
 
 Granite occurs in masses of vast thickness, 
 which are commonly divided by fissures into 
 blocks which approach to rhomboidal, or pretty 
 regular polyhedral form. Sometimes a colum- 
 nar structure is given to granite mountains, in 
 other instances, when the quantity of mica is con- 
 siderable, granite divides into parallel layers, or 
 plates, that have been mistaken for strata. Some- 
 times it is found in globular masses composed of 
 concentric layers imbedded in other granite, and 
 detached. 
 
 The aspect of granite mountains is various, of- 
 ten disintegrating, sometimes heavy and unpic- 
 turesque. 
 
 Where hard and soft granite are intermixed in 
 the same mountain, the softer granite is disinte- 
 grated and falls to pieces, and the harder blocks 
 remain piled in confusion on each other like an 
 immense mass of ruins. 
 
21 
 
 Wherever granite rises high above the surface 
 of the earth, the strata of limestone and other 
 rocks rise towards it. 
 
 Granite is found to occur at a lower level in 
 America than in Europe. This is an important 
 geological fact. 
 
 Granite sometimes forms veins shooting up in- 
 to the superincumbent strata ; which seems to 
 indicate either that the granite has been in a 
 state of fusion, the heat of which has softened the 
 upper rocks, and forced up the granite in a melt- 
 ed state into those fissures, or else, that the gran- 
 ite and the superincumbent rocks were both in a 
 state of fusion at the same time, and therefore 
 contemporaneous. 
 
 The crystallized earthy minerals most common- 
 ly found in granite are Schorl, Tourmaline, Prehn- 
 ite or Finite, Emerald, Corindon, Axinite and 
 Topaz. 
 
 Granite is not rich in metallic veins. 
 
 
Gneiss, Mica-Slate &c. 
 
 Where one rock occurs imbedded in another, 
 it is evident that the enclosed rock must be as old 
 as the rock which enclosed it. Hence the rocks 
 enclosed in granite, gneiss and mica slate, must 
 be regarded as primary though unconformable. 
 
 Gneiss received its name from the German 
 miners, and is applied to a stratified granite ; be- 
 ing composed of the same constituents as granite. 
 Granite frequently passes into gneiss, it often 
 happens, that in the same bed, granite may exist 
 in one part and gneiss in another. Where the 
 quantity of feldspar decreases, and the crystals or 
 grains become smaller, if the mica increases in 
 quantity and is arranged in layers the rock loses 
 its massive structure and becomes slaty, it is then 
 what is termed gneiss ; if, on the other hand, the 
 quantity of feldspar increases and the mica di- 
 minishes, the structure becomes massive ; and 
 granite is the result. 
 
 When the mica becomes very abundant and the 
 other constituents are small, it passes into mica 
 elate. 
 
 
23 
 
 The following are the several kinds of gneiss. 
 
 1 . Granitic gneiss, which is a species of coarse 
 grained granite, and in hand specimens, often ex- 
 hibits no traces of a schistose structure ; but 
 when viewed in place on a large scale ; some 
 traces of a slaty structure may be observed, 
 
 2. Schistose gneiss, this is considered to be the 
 most common variety ; the structure is foliated, 
 and granular with a laminar tendency ; it passes 
 into mica slate by the disappearance of feldspar. 
 
 3. Laminar gneiss, in this variety different ingre- 
 dients occupy distinct layers ; when the mica, or 
 hornblende is black, the different laminar are dis- 
 tinct and regular. It sometimes exhibits alter- 
 nating layers of gneiss and mica-slate. 
 
 4. Porphyritic gneiss, structure more or less 
 slaty with distinct masses of foliated feldspar, of 
 an ovoid form, or distinct crystals. Color white, 
 grey, or reddish. 
 
 5. Amphibolic gneiss, containing a small pro- 
 portion of hornblende not sufficient to form horn- 
 blende slate. The hornblende is disseminated in 
 black foliated masses from the size of a pin's head 
 to half an inch in diameter, through the rock. 
 Found in the vicinity of hornblende slate. 
 
 6. Epidotic gneiss, containing hornblende and 
 epidote. The epidote is usually in veins, and 
 generally compact. It is sometimes disseminated 
 through the rocks, giving it a peculiar green tinge. 
 
 7. Augitic gneiss, in this augite takes the 
 place of the mica, and is of a lively green color. 
 The augite is disseminated in various proportions 
 through the mass, and the slaty structure is quite 
 indistinct. 
 
8-. Anthophyllitic gneiss, in this variety antho 
 phyllite is disseminated through the gneiss. It is 
 composed almost entirely of quartz, feldspar and 
 anthophyllite, the mica being rare. 
 
 9. Arenaceous gneiss, composed of quartz and 
 feldspar which are in a finely granular state, em- 
 bracing sometimes small but distinct crystals of 
 red garnet. 
 
 10. Talcose gneiss,, composed of feldspar, 
 quartz and talc, in structure irregularly schistose. 
 
 The declivities of granite mountains, in many 
 parts of the world are covered with gneiss. 
 Mountains of gneiss are not so steep and broken 
 as those of granite, and the summits are generally 
 rounded, 
 
 MICA-SLATE. 
 
 This is frequently incumbent on gneiss, or gran* 
 ite, it passes by gradation into both these rocks. 
 
 It is composed essentially of mica arid quartz 
 intimately combined. The feldspar occurs only 
 occasionally. 
 
 Color silvery, or pearly white, bluish grey, 
 light green, blackish or amethystine, inclining to 
 yellow. 
 
 The following are varieties. 
 
 1 . Quartz and mica, the former granular and lam- 
 inar ; the latter in distinct scales and glistening. 
 This is more highly crystalline than the other va- 
 rieties, and is associated with the older rocks. 
 
 2. Containing a larger proportion of feldspar 
 and passing into gneiss. 
 
 Talco Micaceous slate, containing scales of 
 
25 
 
 greenish talc or mica which has lost its elasticity. 
 When the talc predominates it becomes talcous 
 slate. 
 
 4. Amphibolic and Garnitiferous Mica slate, con- 
 taining hornblende and garnets. 
 
 5. Sraurotidiferous Mica slate. Mica in fine 
 scales and resembling argillite, except when the 
 strata are viewed edgewise, they exhibit a striped 
 appearance, in consequence of numerous layers 
 of Staurotide, which appears coextensive with the 
 layers of the rock. 
 
 6. Spangled Mica slate, the basis the same as 
 the last, through it are disseminated numerous 
 thin foliated plates of a deep brown color, some- 
 what resembling mica, but destitute of elasticity^ 
 and brittle, their length, rarely more than a quar- 
 ter of an inch, usually twice as great as their 
 breadth, exhibiting polarity iu their arrangement, 
 that is, their longer axes all lie in the same direc- 
 tion, and the surfaces of the plates in the same or 
 in parallel planes, so as to reflect light from many 
 of them at once, and thus a spangled appearance 
 is produced. These spangles are pretty uniform- 
 ly diffused. 
 
 7. Argillo Micaceous slate. This exists when- 
 ever the mica slate passes by gradation into clay 
 slate. Composed of fine scales of mica, closely 
 compacted so as to give it an argillaceous ap- 
 pearance. This rock sometimes contains large 
 beds of white quartz, sometimes fetid. 
 
 8. Arenaceous Mica slate. In this variety, tha 
 quartz is grey, in sandy grains and diffused through 
 the whole mass, not lamellar. The mica is in 
 
 c 
 
26 
 
 fine disseminated scales although the plates are 
 usually parallel to each other. The mass is 
 frequently imperfectly schistose, though more 
 regularly stratified than many other varieties ; 
 and sometimes there exists a double set of strata 
 seams ; an intermediate variety is remarkably ir- 
 regular. In general it occupies the highest place 
 in mica slate. It is very nearly allied to quartz 
 rock. 
 
 9. Anthracitous Mica slate. This is simply a 
 very fine grained mica slate, approximating to 
 clay slate, ii is rendered black and shining by 
 carbon. 
 
 10. Plumbagineous Mica slate, this exhibits the 
 grey aspect of plumbago. 
 
 1 1 . Conglomerate mica slate, this contains frag- 
 ments of mica slate cemented by the hydrate of 
 iron, so as to form a conglomerate. 
 
 The mica slate and the quartzose rocks, are 
 with those of gneiss, according to M. Brongniart, 
 so clearly prior to all organic life, that he calls 
 them hypozoiques, or inferior to all the rocks 
 which contain organic remains. We hence infer, 
 that all these rocks were formed and arranged 
 before vegetables and animals appeared. The 
 universal absence of all organic remains in these 
 masses, has led every one to this conclusion as a 
 satisfactory certainty. 
 
 Most of the minerals and ores found in gneiss 
 also occur in mica slate, Limestone, (crystalline) 
 and Hornblende rock occur in both, Also 
 most of the metallic ores both in veins and beds. 
 Also crystals of garnets are interspersed. Gneiss 
 
27 
 
 and mica slate sometimes graduate into granite, 
 as well as into each other. 
 
 Talcose slate and chlorite slate, appear to be 
 different modifications of the same minerals; the 
 prevailing color of both is green. These rocks 
 are soft and of a soapy feel. Easily cut with a 
 knife. The passage from talcose slate to serpen- 
 tine forms potstone. 
 
 Steatite or soap stone is a variety of talc, com- 
 monly called talcose rock, the two minerals occur 
 together and mix with each other. 
 
 Granular Limestone, when pure, it is composed 
 of calcareous earth, this is the saccharine lime- 
 stone of the French geologists. It contains no 
 organic remains, and is, therefore, considered as 
 primary. It is yellowish, greenish, or inclining to 
 red. It frequently contains a considerable quan- 
 tity of siliceous earth, to which it owes its hard- 
 ness. 
 
 That this limestone has once been in a state of 
 fusion, is evident from the crystals of garnets and 
 other minerals found imbedded in it. 
 
 Dolomite, called from the French, Dolomieu. 
 is a variety of limestone, containing a large pro- 
 portion of magnesia. It is found in various rocks. 
 It is minutely granular. Color white, often with 
 a tinge of yellow or grey. Occurs massive, often 
 of a slaty texture, lustre glimmering, often trans- 
 lucent on the edges. Softer than primitive lime- 
 stone, which it often resembles. Dolomite forms 
 vast beds in many rocks. It is strictly a magne- 
 sian carbonate of lime. 
 
 Serpentine, derived its name from its variegated 
 
 . 
 
28 
 
 colors and spots, supposed, in some specimens, to 
 resemble the spotted serpent's skin. Color green, 
 yellowish green, blackish green, brown, bluish 
 grey, or reddish, colors variously intermixed ; 
 opaque, or translucent on the edges ; occurs 
 massive, and crystallized. Crystals in the form 
 of four sided prisms, terminated by four sided pyr- 
 amids. Composition, Magnesia 44, silex 44, 
 allumine 2, oxide of iron 7. 3, oxide of manganess 
 1. 5, oxide of chrome 2. Infusible. When bro- 
 ken it has a slight degree of lustre, and some- 
 what of a soapy feel. It is sometimes stratified 
 and sometimes uristratified. It occurs in gneiss 
 and mica and talcose slate as well as in some of 
 the superincumbent rocks. Actynolite, Asbestus, 
 massive garnet &c. are occasionally found in this 
 rock. Its true nature and geological relation^ 
 are but obscurely determined. 
 
 Hornblende rock and Hornblende slate. Color, 
 when it forms the principal parts of rocks, is com- 
 monly a greenish black. Massive hornblende in 
 rocks is generally coarsely granular and lamellar. 
 In hornblende slate it is generally radiated and 
 fibrous, and when the fibres are very minute it 
 possesses a velvety lustre. 
 
 Hornblende slate occurs in beds in granite, 
 gneiss and mica slate, and occasionally in com- 
 mon slate, it appears to pass by gradation into 
 serpentine, the change is effected by the increase 
 of magnesia. 
 
 Hornblende in large lamellar grains intermixed 
 with feldspar forms sienite. 
 
 When hornblende and feldspar are more inti- 
 
29 
 
 mately blended they form Greenstone, Diabase, 
 Diorite. 
 
 Various intermixtures of Hornblende and Feld- 
 spar form rocks commonly called trap rock, or 
 greenstone trap. 
 
 Compact trap', is basalt, or Dolerite of the French. 
 
 Porphyry, derives its name from the Greek and 
 signifies purple, because the rock to which the 
 term was originally applied was of that color. In 
 the modern acceptation of the term, any rock 
 which is compact, or finely granular, and con- 
 tains distinct imbedded crystals of feldspar, is 
 called porphyry. The base, or paste of most 
 porphyritic rocks is feldspar, and the imbedded 
 crystals are for the most part feldspar. 
 
 Geologists have described four formations of 
 porphyry, but their situations are not accurately 
 ascertained. 
 
 Whenever porphyry occurs unconformably, 
 covering other rocks, it is evidently more recent 
 than the rock on which it rests, and must be 
 classed with basaltic or trap rocks. 
 
 c2 
 
Of the Transition class &c. 
 
 Transition, or intermediate rocks cover rocks 
 of the primary class, and are the lowest rocks in 
 which organic remains occur. 
 
 They are the principal repositories of metallic 
 ores, metallic veins and beds. Metallic veins very 
 rarely occur in secondary strata. 
 
 The following arrangement of transition rocks 
 comprises the lowest rocks in which organic re- 
 mains occur, and which are metalliferous, or as- 
 sociated with metalliferous rocks. 
 
 Conformable strata. 
 
 1, Argillite, as also flinty slate and other vari- 
 eties. 
 
 2. Greywacl^e and greywacke slate, passing 
 into sand stone. 
 
 . 3. Transition Limestone, Mountain Limestone. 
 
 Rocks covering transition unconformably. 
 
 1 . Porphyry, passing into trap and greenstone. 
 
 2. Clink stone, passiing into Basalt. 
 
 3. Basalt. 
 
31 
 
 Strata covering transition rocks conformably. 
 
 Coal Formation. 
 
 Argillite, of which roof slate and cyphering 
 slate are varieties ; the softer kind found in coal 
 districts is called by some Geologists Slate-clay. 
 
 Argillite most commonly splits in a transverse 
 direction to that of the beds, unless it be of a 
 kind approaching to shale. 
 
 Slate rocks vary much in quality in the same 
 mountain, those which contain a great portion of 
 silex pass into siliceous slate, when they contain 
 a great quantity of magnesia they pass into chlo- 
 rite or talcy slate, or talco-chloritic slate. Whet- 
 stone slate, or hone, is a variety of talcy slate 
 containing fine grains of silex. 
 
 Roof slate is generally imbedded in other rocks 
 and does not form mountain masses. 
 
 The beds of roof slate sometimes form masses 
 of considerable thickness. 
 
 Those varieties of roof slate are preferred 
 which are the least absorbant of moisture, have 
 the smoothest surface and split into thin laminae. 
 
 The mineral contents of slate are Chiostolite, 
 Octahedral iron ore, Iron pyrites, Calcareous 
 spar, Crystallized quartz &,c. 
 
 Mountains of slate are seldom so precipitous 
 as those of granite, but have often a serrated 
 outline, or rising in aiguilles, or needles. They 
 are covered with verdure on their declivities, as 
 they are absorbant of moisture. 
 
 Flinty slate differs from common slate in con- 
 taining a greater proportion of siliceous earth 
 and partakes of the nature of flint. Slate and 
 flinty slate alternate ; When flinty slate ceases 
 
32 
 
 to have the slaty structure it becomes hornstone, 
 or petrosilex. If it contains crystals of feldspar, 
 it becomes hornstone porphyry. 
 
 It is one of the most metalliferous rocks. 
 
 Greywacke and greywacke slate, called by the 
 French Traumate, from the Greek Thrausma^ a 
 fragment. This comprises an interesting group 
 of rocks, partly chemical, and partly mechanical 
 in their structure. The varieties are numerous 
 and very unlike each other. It includes, when 
 taken in a more general sense, every conglome- 
 rate sandstone, and fragmentous or arenaceous 
 rock of transition formation, that is anterior to the 
 red sandstone and coal formation. The varieties 
 of rock included in this formation are, conglome- 
 rate, Breccias, Quartz rock, talcose aggregate, 
 Classical Greywacke, Greywacke slate, Argilla- 
 ceous slate, Amphibolic aggregate, Varioloid 
 wacke, Flinty slate, Chert, Jasper, Greywacke 
 Limestone. 
 
 Several species of calamites, Equisetae, and 
 Filices are found in the shistose Greywacke, in 
 Seekonk, Mass. Some of immense size ; one 
 fragmentary specimen measured eighteen inches 
 in circumference, having a jointed and striated 
 stem, and appears to be the Calamites Canncefor~ 
 mis of De la Beche. It was found in greywacke 
 slate. Other specimens have been found in the 
 same locality, having the ends and part of the 
 stem converted to coal. Similar specimens have 
 been found in Taunton, in the same kind of Grey 
 wacke. 
 
 This rock varies in texture from the finest ar- 
 
33 
 
 gillaceous slate and shale through all the grades 
 of sandstone up to the coarsest conglomerate, and 
 breccia. The imbedded nodules are composed 
 of all the variety of primary rocks, cemented by 
 an argillaceous paste, or compact feldspar, or of 
 mica, talc or steatite. Proving almost incorites- 
 tibly, that the formation has been the effect of ig- 
 neous action and of some tremendous explosion. 
 '* Conglomerate, composed of roundish pebbles, 
 which have all the appearance of having been 
 worn by a continual friction against each other 
 by the force of water, resembling the pebbles found 
 on the sea shore. Varying in size from that of 
 a pea, to a foot or more in diameter. They con- 
 sist of granite, sienite, compact feldspar, Porphy- 
 ry, quartz, argillaceous and flinty slate, novac- 
 ulite, serpentine and nephrite ; cemented with 
 the same materials, and exhale an argillaceous 
 odor when breathed on. The cement is semi- 
 crystalline, and adheres very firmly to the nodules. 
 Breccia, this differs from the conglomerate, by 
 the angular shape of the imbedded fragments, 
 the cement appears to be composed of the imbed- 
 ded fragments in a comminuted state. 
 
 Quartz rock, this is associated with most rock 
 formations but is particularly conspicuous in grey- 
 wacke, forming veins as well as disseminated. It 
 is of various colors. It occurs massive and crys- 
 tallized, sometimes exhibiting the regular form, at 
 other times indeterminate. It is one of the old- 
 est of the grey wacke formations. Certain local 
 causes appear to have operated to separate the 
 quartz and feldspar from the granite, into masses 
 of considerable size. 
 
34 
 
 Talcose aggregate, this is a slaty rock compos- 
 ed of grains of quartz and sometimes feldspar, 
 with talc or steatite. It is not abundant in the 
 greywacke formation, though many of the oldest 
 varieties have the talcy appearance. 
 
 Classical greywacke, this is composed of angu- 
 lar or other shaped masses of quartz, feldspar, 
 Lydian stone, and clay slate, connected together 
 by means of a basjfe or ground of the nature of 
 clay slate, which is often highly impregnated with 
 silex, thus giving to the rock a considerable de- 
 gree of hardness. The imbedded portions vary 
 in size, but seldom exceed a few inches in breadth 
 and thickness. Sometimes the mass is colored 
 red by the presence of the red oxide of iron. It 
 often occurs fine grained and passes into grey- 
 wacke slate. 
 
 Greywacke slate, structure slaty, colors either 
 grey or red, composed in a great measure of 
 wacke, and sometimes mica enters into the com- 
 position. The layers generally irregular and 
 contorted. It is frequently traversed by veins of 
 quartz. 
 
 Argillaceous slate, or argillite, this is associated 
 with greywacke especially in coal districts ; the 
 laminae are sometimes much curved, it frequently 
 passes into novaculite. 
 
 Amphibolic aggregate is situated between grey- 
 wacke slate and conglomerate, its color is green- 
 ish or grey, containing a green mineral resembling 
 hornblende, sometimes crystalline. 
 
 Varioloid Wacke, usually called amygdaloid ; the 
 color is either grey or dark chocolate containing 
 
35 
 
 numerous nodules of the size of a pea of different 
 colors, mostly red or green, consisting mostly of 
 compact feldspar. This formation appears to be 
 the result of heat and steam, occasioned by infil- 
 tration through the melted mass. 
 
 Flinty slate is associated with greywacke in 
 many places. It appears to be produced by the 
 proximity of granite, porphyry, or talc. It is an 
 altered variety of the greywacke. This rock ex- 
 hibits scarcely any marks of stratificatioa ; but in 
 some masses, the former slaty structure is dis- 
 tinctly visible. In fine, it appears to be the grey- 
 wacke slate fused and indurated. 
 
 Chert, associated with greywacke, appears to 
 be an argillaceous limestone converted by fusion. 
 It is often found with limestone. It is grey pass- 
 ing into blackish brown ; fracture conchoidal, or 
 splintery ; lustre glistening between resinous and 
 vitreous semitransparent or translucent. 
 
 Jasper, this is associated often with greywacke, 
 and is evidently the result of an high degree of 
 temperature. It differs little from a siliceous flin- 
 ty slate, is generally colored red, brown, or yel- 
 low, opaque. In some situations beds of Jasper 
 alternate with slate. Lydian stone is sometimes 
 called black Jasper. Its color is generally owing 
 to the peroxide of iron which is converted from 
 the protoxide by heat. It also contains clay and 
 silex, originally slate impregnated with the prot- 
 oxide of iron ; the iron afforded a flux for the 
 fusion of slate, and thus Jasper would be pro- 
 duced. 
 
 Transition limestone, Greywacke limestone, tex- 
 
36 
 
 lure subcrystalline, translucent on the edges ; 
 most of the colored marbles are transition lime- 
 stone. Colors, bluish, grey, red, brown, black, 
 sometimes veined, striped and spotted. It occurs 
 in beds, alternating with slate, greywacke, grey- 
 wacke slate and coarse gritstone. 
 
 The strata are usually bent and contorted. It 
 contains a great variety of marine shells and 
 must therefore have been formed under the ocean, 
 and as it contains trap and amygdaloid, it must 
 have been subjected to violent igneous action. 
 
 Some of this limestone is metalliferous, con- 
 taining iron, lead, zinc and copper. 
 
 Many of the organic jremains in the transition 
 rocks are of genera, which do not occur in the 
 secondary rocks, as encrinites, madrepores and 
 coralites. Vegetable remains, except in slate 
 rocks, are rare. The trilobite is peculiar to tran- 
 sition rocks. Orthoceratites, gryphites and num- 
 mulites are found in this formation. 
 
 Conformable transition rocks cover the prima- 
 ry and sometimes alternate with them, they are 
 also associated with the lower beds of the coal 
 formation. 
 
 All rocks under the great coal formation be- 
 long to the primary, or transition, and all above, 
 when conformable, belong to the secondary or 
 tertiary formations. 
 
 Where the coal is absent, it is not easy to define 
 the different formations. 
 
Coal Formation. 
 
 ^Previously to arriving at the present formation, 
 we have discovered but few remains of terrestrial 
 Vegetables, or animals, hence we infer that there 
 were but few islands or tracts of dry land emerg- 
 ed from the water. But we are now to contem- 
 plate a most important and extensive change in 
 the condition of the globe, at least, in that part in 
 which coal is found. 
 
 For a depth of two thousand feet or more, al- 
 most exclusively, the remains of terrestrial plants 
 are found ; such as have grown on dry land, or 
 in marshes. Carbon, in the form of coal, consti- 
 tutes extensive beds in the series, varying in thick- 
 ness from a few inches to thirty feet, or more, 
 alternating with beds of shale, argillite, grey wacke, 
 grey wacke slate, iron stone, indulated clay, quartz 
 rock, sandstone &c. In this, the remains of veg- 
 etables are distributed throughout the whole se- 
 ries, which, taken together are called coal meas- 
 ures. 
 
 The coal strata appear to have been deposit- 
 ed in the vicinity of tracts of dry land, containing 
 D 
 
38 
 
 rivers, marshes, fresh water lakes and mountains* 
 
 The marine beds which are the foundation of 
 the coal strata, and also surround them, must 
 have been raised from the bottom of the ancient 
 deep, before the vast accumulation of vegetable 
 matter could have been formed. 
 
 This change appears to have been attended 
 with another remarkable effect, after this period 
 metallic veins have been rarely formed. 
 
 The vegetable remains belong to species found 
 in tropical climates principally, at the present 
 time, and yet, they appear to have grown near 
 the spot where they are entombed. This can be 
 accounted for only by supposing that the earth, 
 generally, was of a pretty high temperature at the 
 time of their flourishing. 
 
 A district with its peculiar series of strata is 
 called a coal field. 
 
 Each district has its peculiar strata unconnect- 
 ed with any other. Sometimes the coal rests on 
 granite ; at other times on limestone, and some- 
 times on greywacke, or greywacke limestone. 
 The coal in Rhode Island alternates with quartz 
 rock of a fibrous structure. 
 
 The strata containing coal are nearly hori- 
 zontal. 
 
 In some coal beds in Europe, there is a tran- 
 sition from marine calcareous strata with animal 
 remains, to fresh water strata with terrestrial veg- 
 etables ; which implies, that the subjacent lime- 
 stone had been gradually but unequally raised 
 above the sea, and during its elevation, some 
 parts remained immersed in the ocean, while oth- 
 
39 
 
 er parts were covered with vegetable depositions. 
 
 Coal strata are often arranged in basin shaped 
 concavities, which appear to have been lakes that 
 were gradually filled by carbonaceous depositions. 
 
 Strata under a bed of coal are frequently simi- 
 lar to those over it ; and the same series are re- 
 peated in some mines several times. 
 
 A fault is a break or intersection of strata by 
 which they are commonly raised up, or thrown 
 down. 
 
 A Dyke is a wall of mineral matter, cutting 
 through the strata in a position nearly vertical. 
 
 The thickness of dykes varies from a few in- 
 ches to twenty or thirty feet, or more. They 
 are composed of indurated clay or basalt. 
 
 Contorted Strata are those which are twisted 
 or bent. 
 
 Coal strata frequently present remarkable con- 
 tortions, which are probably owing to a lateral 
 force that has compressed them into a zig-zag 
 form. 
 
 Coal strata near the surface, are generally in 
 a soft decomposed state, and intermixed with 
 earthy matter ; in this case, the soil is generally 
 of a darker color. 
 
 In general, coal improves in quality as it sinks 
 into the earth. It is more highly carbonized and 
 compact. 
 
 Vertical Joints in coal are called slines ; the 
 oblique shorter joints, cutters. 
 
 Coal is divided into two species, but of these 
 there are various kinds, viz. Brown coal and 
 Black coal. Brown coal, called also lignite, is 
 
40 
 
 principally found in alluvial or diluvial ground, 
 it contains besides charcoal and sometimes bitu- 
 men, various vegetable principles, and the branch- 
 es or trunks of trees partially decomposed, which 
 mark its origin. Such is the lignite of Martha's 
 Vineyard. 
 
 Common coal is composed of charcoal, bitu- 
 men and earthy matter ; the latter forming the 
 ashes, when it is burnt ; the ashes vary in differ- 
 ent kinds, from 2 to 20 per cent. The propor- 
 tion of bitumen from 20 to 40 per cent. 
 
 Anthracite, is a mineral approaching to the na- 
 ture of Plumbago ; it consists nearly of pure car- 
 bon, hard and difficult to ignite ; and often exhib- 
 its a very high degree of lustre, sometimes a me- 
 tallic one, often irridescent. 
 
 It is commonly found in transition rocks, but 
 sometimes in regular coal strata. 
 
 The anthracite of Pennsylvania is not regarded 
 by European Geologists, as the true anthracite * 
 but only a variety of common coal containing but 
 little bitumen. 
 
 The Rhode Island coal approaches nearest the 
 European Anthracite. 
 
 Anthracite ingeneral^is so completely mineral- 
 ized as to present no traces of vegetable origin ; 
 but in some bituminous coal, as in the Pictou and 
 some European coals, there may be found regu- 
 lar strata of vegetables, converted into true min- 
 eral coal, preserving when separated perfect im- 
 pressions of leaves and other parts of vegetables. 
 Hence it may be fairly inferred that all coal is of 
 vegetable origin. 
 
 
41 
 
 In order to account for such a mass of vegeta- 
 bles as must be requisite to form coal beds ; it may 
 be supposed that vegetation, in the primitive ages, 
 was much more rapid under an high degree of 
 temperature, and in an atmosphere probably 
 much more highly charged with carbonic acid, 
 than it was after the creation of man. Vegeta- 
 tion would tend to absord the carbonic acid, or 
 rather the carbon, setting free the oxygen and 
 purifying the air for the respiration of animals. 
 
 The most common vegetables found in coal 
 fields are referred to the Cryptogamous class in 
 Botany, Equisetums (horse tails) of gigantic size, 
 with jointed and striated stems, hence called cal- 
 amites, and Lyeopodiae allied to ferns. From 
 the fact that the plants are found erect in many 
 coal formations, we may infer that they grew 
 near the place where their remains are entombed. 
 
 Wood coal, or Lignite, is found in diluvium, or 
 alluvium, and appears to have been formed of 
 heaps of trees &c., buried by inundations under 
 beds of clay, sand, or gravel. The woody parts 
 have probably undergone a degree of vegetable 
 fermentation under the pressure of the incum- 
 bent earthy matter, by which they have been car- 
 bonized and consolidated. 
 
 In common coal, the vegetable extract and 
 resin have been destroyed and the carbon and 
 bitumen remain. 
 
 Coal may have been formed from peat, if we 
 admit that northern latitudes had the temperature 
 of tropical climates during the geological epoch, 
 when the vegetables flourished that are found in 
 
 D2 
 
42 
 
 the coal strata ; the peat of that period would 
 partake of a different character from recent peat 
 beds, and might be produced by the rapid decom- 
 position of large terrestrial and marsh plants, 
 which have not woody stems and therefore much 
 sooner decomposed. 
 
 Thick beds of peat might have been formed in 
 the primitive ages in a very short time ; vegeta- 
 tion then flourishing and decaying under an high 
 degree of temperature and a moist atmosphere, 
 charged, as we may suppose, with carbonic acid. 
 
 The fossil vegetable remains, found in differ- 
 ent parts of the world in coal fields, under differ- 
 ent latitudes belong, in general, to the same gen- 
 era, and their species are nearly identical. Those 
 in America, Greenland, Nova Zembla, India, and 
 New Holland, belong to the same families as those 
 in Europe. To account for this, we must admit 
 that the temperature of the globe was pretty uni- 
 formly the same under the different latitudes, and 
 jhe temperature that of tropical climates, at the 
 epoch of the coal formation. 
 
 The regular, or great coal formation, seldom 
 occurs at a great elevation above the level of the 
 sea ; it is found near the foot of great mountain 
 chains, or in valleys, or in islands of the sea. 
 - Much of the coal of the Northern and Middle 
 States, is that, kind called anthracite containing 
 little bitumen, and emitting but little flame and 
 smoke in burning. 
 
 The quantity of coal raised in England is im- 
 mense, and it is to this substance and the iron 
 found in the same deposit, that the nation 
 
43 
 
 owes a great part of her commercial prosperity; 
 for to the abundance and cheapness oi'both these 
 articles in various districts, they are indebted for 
 a large proportion of their manufactures ; the 
 same series of beds not only furnishing fuel for 
 working the steam engines, but also iron for their 
 construction. 
 
 Here we see, evidently, design and intelligence 
 in the Great Author of Nature. The accumula- 
 tion of vegetable matter at a remote epoch in the 
 history of the world, for the consumption of crea- 
 tures that afterwards exist on its surface, must 
 strike every inquiring mind with an idea of Omnis- 
 cience and beneficence ; but when the upturned, 
 twisted and contorted strata, so common in coal 
 districts, are taken into consideration, design is 
 not so apparent ; and this might, therefore, be 
 regarded as a bar to the ingenuity of man, in ex- 
 tracting the useful combustible. 
 
 When, however, we examine more closely the 
 subject, we find that the shattered and contorted 
 condition of the rocks, though it may embarrass 
 mining operations for a time, is highly advanta- 
 geous. The faults so cross each other that the 
 surface, if it could be examined without its cov- 
 ering of vegetation and detritus, would present 
 much the appearance, on a great scale, as a fro- 
 zen surface of a great lake broken to pieces and 
 reunited by subsequent frosts. Masses of frac- 
 tured strata are thus often bounded by faults 
 which prevent the passage of subterranean waters 
 from one mass into another, and the miners in 
 collieries situated in one particular mass, have 
 
44 
 
 only to contend with the waters in it ; whereas, if 
 the strata were always horizontal, unbroken and 
 continuous, the abundance of water that would 
 flow into the workings would render them so dif- 
 ficult and expensive, that the extraction of the 
 coal would be abandoned. 
 
 The vegetable remains belonging to the coal 
 formation, generally, appear to be chiefly derived 
 from various grasses and reeds, and plants of the 
 cryptogamous and succulent tribes, many of which 
 are not known to grow, at present, on the surface 
 of the earth. From the latter of these the coal 
 itself appears to have proceeded. In the moun- 
 tain limestone above the coal, and in the different 
 members of this formation, existing between this 
 and the lias, vegetable remains appear to be of 
 rare occurrence ; so that particulars of such as 
 have been discovered in these situations may fur- 
 nish much useful information, and especially with 
 respect to those fossils which have been supposed 
 to have derived their origin from wood. 
 
 It has been asserted that wood, or parts of trees 
 have been found in coal and in the accompanying 
 coal measures ; this requires further confirmation ; 
 except in the lignite, description has not, hitherto, 
 been so exact as to preclude doubt on the subject. 
 It is pretty certain, from recent and more minute 
 observations, that no plants of ligneous stems are 
 found in the great coal measures. Those traces, 
 which have given rise to the idea of trees, are, it 
 is highly probable, gigantic succulent plants of 
 the Equisetee and Cactus tribes ; and may thus 
 have led to the belief of trees, from the ligneous 
 
45 
 
 hardness which large plants of this kind may have 
 acquired, and which, perhaps, may be traced in 
 their mineralized remain. 
 
 The size which these fossil plants have attain- 
 ed compared with the cactuses in the United 
 States and Europe, may lead to a doubt as to the 
 opinion of their agreement with recent cactuses. 
 But to be enabled to form a correct judgment on 
 this point, it is necessary to know the state iu 
 which these plants exist where the soil and cli- 
 mate are such as to allow them to develope them- 
 selves in their native luxuriance. Humbolt's re- 
 searches in the equinoctial region of South Amer- 
 ica, supply us with the most appropriate antl sat- 
 isfactory information. He says : " The hill of 
 calcareous breccia, which we have regarded as 
 an island in the ancient gulph, is covered with a 
 thick forest of columnar cactus and opuntia, some 
 thirty or forty feet high, covered with lichens, and 
 divided into several branches in the form of can- 
 delabras, wearing a singular appearance. Near 
 Maniquarez, at Punta Araya, we measured a cac- 
 tus, the trunk of which was four feet nine inches 
 in circumference. The European, acquainted 
 only with the opuntia, in our hot houses, is sur- 
 prised to see the wood of the plant become so 
 hard by age, and it resists for centuries, both air 
 and water, so that the Indians of Cumana employ 
 it in preference for hords and doorposts. Cuma- 
 na, Caro, the island of Margaretta, and Curaccao 
 are the places in South America that abound 
 most in the plants of the nopals. There only, a 
 botanist can compose a monography of the gen- 
 
46 
 
 us cactus, the species of which vary, not on- 
 ly in their flowers, and fruits, but in the form 
 of their articulated stems, the number of costce 
 and the disposition of the thorns ; the division of 
 property are marked by hedges formed of the 
 agave and cactus. At San Fernando, South 
 America, the soil abounds in aquatic plants with 
 sanitate leaves, some of these aquatic plants are 
 from eight to ten feet high. In Europe, their 
 assemblage would be considered a little wood." 
 He also mentions a kind of bamboo, which the In- 
 dians cattJagua, which is found near San Fernando, 
 more than forty feet in height. " These, he ob- 
 serves, cannot but remind the admirer of fossils 
 of the vast fossil bamboos which are found in the 
 sandstone, accompanying coal. " Speaking of a 
 rock of considerable height and magnitude, he 
 observes : " Euphorbium, Cacalia, Klinia and 
 Cactus, which are become 'wild in the Canary Is- 
 lands, as well as in the South of Europe and the 
 whole continent of Africa, are the only plants 
 we see on this arid rock : being plants which 
 draw their nourishment rather from the air, than 
 from the soil in which they grow." He also re- 
 marks, "It is not, in general, by mosses and lich- 
 ens that vegetation in the countries near the trop- 
 ics begins. In the Canary Islands, as well as in 
 Guinea, and in the rocky coasts of Peru, the 
 first vegetables that prepare the mould for others, 
 are the succulent plants. " 
 
 These interesting observations of Baron Hum- 
 bolt, taken into consideration with the appearan- 
 ces exhibited by the fossils accompanying coal, 
 
47 
 
 tend to the further evidence of the formation of 
 that substance. From its chemical characters, 
 its bearing the impressions of vegetables, and be- 
 ing surrounded with vegetable remains in the 
 roofs and floors of the mines and the accompa- 
 nying coal measures, its vegetable origin may be 
 fairly infered. The examination of the various 
 fossil vegetables which accompany it has deter^ 
 mined that they chiefly belong to the grasses, 
 reeds, the cryptogamous and succulent plants ; 
 and point out the kind of vegetables which most 
 abounded, and, perhaps to the exclusion of trees 
 and arborescent plants, at that period, when the 
 land first rose from the dominion of the waters. 
 It is true, that an exact agreement between the 
 forms and markings of these fossil remains and 
 of those of the succulent plants which are offer- 
 ed to our observation iir the present day, is not 
 often the same ; but it should be considered that 
 analogy will not authorise the expectation of an 
 exact agreement, , since it is rarely to be found 
 between the fossil remains, and the vegetables 
 now existing, owing to the extinction of whole 
 tribes from which those fossil remains have pro- 
 ceeded, Besides, considerable differences must 
 result from the greater size observable in the fos- 
 sil vegetables, especially in those of the succulent 
 tribes, than in those of modern creation. Nor 
 should the difference be unregarded which de^ 
 pends on situation and climate ; the succulent 
 plants of Italy differ materially in size from those 
 of South America and of other regions in the 
 warmer climates. 
 
48 
 
 From the discoveries and observations made* 
 we may safely infer, that, at some very remote pe^ 
 riod in the existence of our planet, it must have 
 abounded with plants of the succulent kinds, and* 
 as it appears from their remains, in a great vari- 
 ety of forms and luxuriance of size. These, from 
 what is discoverable of their structure, armed 
 with Setae and spines, were not formed for the 
 food of animals ; nor from the nature of the sub- 
 stances of which they were composed, were they 
 fitted to be applied to the various purposes for 
 which wood, the product of the earth at a subse- 
 quent period, has been found to be so excellently 
 adapted by man. Their remains, it must also 
 be remarked, are now found in conjunction with 
 that substance which nature has, in all probabili- 
 ty, formed from them, and which by the peculiar 
 economical modification of its combustibility, is 
 rendered an invaluable article of fuel. If this be 
 admitted to be the origin of coal, a satisfactory 
 cause will appear for the vast abundance of vege- 
 table matter with which the earth must have been 
 stored in its early ages ; this vast and in any oth- 
 er view, useless creation, will thus be ascertained 
 to have proceeded from a beneficent arrangement 
 by Providence for man, the being of a creation 
 of a later period. 
 
 According to M. Al. Brongniart, no kind of 
 marine plants occur in the coal measures ; they 
 are all of land origin. He enumerates the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 Equisetum, or horsetails ; Calamites, or reeds ; 
 12 species. FERNS ; 21 kinds of Sphoenopteris ; 
 
49 
 
 2 of Cyclopteris ; 1 1 of Nevropteris ; a Glossop- 
 teris ; 46 speeies of Ptecopteris ; a Lonchopteris ; 
 4 kinds of Odontopteris ; 41 of Sigillaria. 7 spe- 
 cies of marsilleaceae or the pepperwort tribe. 10 
 species of the Lycopodiacese, or the club moss. 
 2 of Selagmites. 34 of Lepidodendron ; 5 of 
 Lepidophyllum ; 4 of Lepidostrobus ; 5 of Cardi- 
 ocarpori ; 8 of Stigmaria ; 3 Palms ; a Canna ; 
 14 species of four monocotyledons, 
 
 On the above enumeration, M. Adolphe Brong- 
 niart remarks : "from which it results, that we 
 have not found in the coal formation any plants 
 of the classes of the agames, the cellular crypto- 
 garnes, phanerogames gymnospermes, nor phane- 
 rogames dicotyledons; while of about 200 known 
 species, there are more than 180 belonging to the 
 vascular cryptogames, and 20 to the phaneroga- 
 mes monocotyledons." 
 
 "We only find these terrestrial or lacustrine 
 vegetables. No shell, no fish, of an origin purely 
 marine, is cited in the coal or in the coal rocks 
 properly so called." 
 
 Marine plants are not found in the coal meas- 
 ures but in the limestone above them ; hence it is 
 ^evident that the Magnesian limestone was formed 
 
 r- at the bottom of the sea, and deposited after the 
 
 fr great coal formation. 
 
 | In the opinion of M. Adolphe Brongniart, the 
 antiquity of the formations in which the vegeta- 
 bles of the first period of creation, are found, prove, 
 hat we might admit a priori, that life began on 
 the earth by the vegetable kingdom, That veg- 
 etation preceded all animal life, precisely as Mo- 
 ses has stated. E 
 

 Secondary Formations. 
 
 Secondary rock formations comprise all the 
 regular strata that cover the transition rocks, and 
 coal measures, and in Europe terminate with 
 chalk. They are composed of vast depositions 
 of sandstone and conglomerate beds, separated 
 by beds of clay and sand. 
 
 The secondary limestones are less crystalline 
 and more soft and earthy than transition and 
 mountain limestone, but some yield a beautiful 
 marble used in the arts. It abounds in a great 
 variety of organic remains, consisting of corals 
 and many species of Zoophytes, and other radiat- 
 ed animals ; some species of Crustacea, a few re- . 
 mains offish and a great variety of marine shells. 
 It forms a considerable stratum in various parts 
 of the world, and abounds, in many places, in 
 valuable ores of lead. In some parts it is estima- 
 ted to be nine hundred feet in thickness. 
 
 The secondary strata abound almost through- 
 out, especially in the lower secondary, with re- 
 mains of marine animals. 
 
51 
 
 The remains of fresh water animals, in some of 
 the secondary strata, and parts of terrestrial vege- 
 tables also occur ; proving the existence of tracts 
 of dry land at the time the strata were deposited. 
 
 The secondary strata, in some one, or other of 
 their varieties, cover a large portion of the habit- 
 able globe. 
 
 Some beds of imperfect coal and lignite occur 
 in the secondary strata. 
 
 Few metallic veins, or beds, except iron and 
 lead, occur in the secondary formation; neither 
 are there any rare species of crystallized minerals. 
 
 In this formation occur rock salt and gypsum, 
 in a rock consisting of red, or bluish grey sand, 
 or clay marie, or both. Hence called Saliferoits 
 rock. 
 
 The loiver secondary or third series, include those 
 rock strata which in addition to the relics of the 
 transition class, contain univalve marine shells, 
 not chambered, with stiped and mostly culmiferous 
 monocotyledonous vegetables, 
 
 Upper secondary, or fourth series, includes those 
 strata which, in addition to the relics of the third 
 series contain oviparous vertebrated animals'. 
 
 After the deposition of the coal strata, another 
 important change appears to have taken place in 
 the condition'of our planet. The upper secon- 
 dary strata contain principally the remains of ma- 
 rine animals ; here the bones and entire skeletons 
 of enormous reptiles are first discovered ; but no 
 remains of mammiferous land quadrupeds, except 
 in one or two instances, have been found. 
 
 New red sandstone, so called to distinguish it 
 
52 
 
 from another sandstone found in the transition 
 rock. 
 
 This is a very extensive and complex formation. 
 
 Its prevailing mineral character is siliceous. It 
 is of different colors, most commonly verging to 
 a red, which is evidently a protoxide of iron con- 
 verted into the peroxide by heat. 
 
 It may be divided into three series, or the up- 
 per the middle and lower beds. These are sub- 
 divided into varieties and all included in the great 
 red sandstone formation, viz. Conglomerates, red 
 and grey. Trap conglomerates, Sandstone red 
 and grey. Micaceous schist. Variegated sand- 
 stone. Shale, Bituminous shale, Bituminous 
 marlite, Bituminous limestone, Fetid limestone, 
 Argillaceous carbonate of lime, or Lias. 
 
 Fragments of the older rocks occur in the dif- 
 ferent beds of sandstone, and sometimes the beds 
 are formed almost entirely of these fragments. It 
 appears that the disintegrating causes which 
 broke down part of the ancient rocks, acted at 
 successive intervals of short duration ; succeeded 
 by long periods of repose in which the calcareous 
 deposites were made. 
 
 In magnesian limestone, in this divisirn, occur 
 the fossil encrinites, ammonites, terrcbratulites 
 and muscles. 
 
 The sandstone appears principally to be formed 
 by the disintegration of the unconformable rocks 
 in the lower formations. This group is estimated 
 at not less than 2100 feet in thickness. 
 
 Tracks, or impressions of the feet of an animal 
 resembling a turkey have been found in the sand- 
 
53 
 
 stone near Montague, in Massachusetts ; but to 
 what animal it did properly belong is not accurate- 
 ly determined, They are also found in the same 
 rock in other parts of the Connecticut valley.* 
 
 Vegetable remains are also found in this for- 
 mation. Such as the Calamites, Lyeopodite, the 
 Voltzia and many of the Genus Ficoides. Ichthy- 
 olites are found in Bituminous marlite, also the 
 family of Molusceco, Zoophytes and Radiatae. 
 
 The remains of fishes occasionally occur in all 
 the secondary strata. Fossil fish have been less 
 accurately ascertained, as to the genera to which 
 they belong, than the other kinds of animal re- 
 mains, because the science of fishes is not so far 
 advanced as other branches of Zoology. 
 
 Ichthyolites, or impression of fish, are found in 
 abundance in the New Red Sandstone group in 
 Sunderland, Mass, and in Middletown, Conn. 
 These occur in Bituminous Shale and Bitumin- 
 ous Marlite ; a thin layer of Carbonaceous matter 
 marks out the spot where the fish lay ; except the 
 
 The following interesting notice is from a Northampton paper. 
 
 Bird Tracks in Stone. Prof. Hitchcock of Amherst, passing 
 over our side walks, discovered distinct prints of the feet of a very 
 large bird ; three tracks succeeding each other, in two places on 
 the paving stones. One set of tracks is on the pavement in front 
 of the Court House steps, and the other on a large flat stone in 
 front of the east door of the old Meeting House. These stones 
 were brought from the banks of the river at South Hadley Falls 
 and are of the sandstone formation. 
 
 The tracks are about one foot and nine inches apart, and must 
 have been imprinted when the stones were in a soft state, by some 
 larger bird than is now known to inhabit these regions, excepting 
 the wild Turkey. The Professor mentioned having seen ten of 
 these tracks in succession in a stone at Gill, we believe, and the 
 Franklin Mercury, not long since, gave an account of similar im- 
 pressions. 
 
 E2 
 
54 
 
 head, whose outlines are rendered visible only by 
 irregular ridges and furrows. Sometimes the im- 
 pression is perfect, but most commonly the out- 
 lines are much deranged, so that it becomes a 
 difficult task to ascertain the species. 
 
 In the magnesian limestone are found the fossil 
 Productus and Spirifcr, 
 
 Some of the magnesian limestone is fetid when 
 rubbed. 
 
 Magnesian limestone affords the most durable 
 building stone that is found in the upper secon- 
 dary series. 
 
 Gypsum and Rock salt occur in the new red 
 sandstone, But they are not confined to this for- 
 mation. Salt springs rise in the coal strata, and 
 gypsum and rock salt, are found in the upper 
 Secondary and Tertiary beds ; but the reposito- 
 ries of these minerals are more characteristic of 
 the new red sandstone. 
 
 Gypsum, both fibrous and massive, occurs in 
 the new red marl, and sandstone ; the fibrous al- 
 ternates in seams the massive is granular and oc- 
 curs in regular beds and blocks, in the red marl. 
 
 Gypsum is associated with rock salt. 
 
 Anhydrous Gypsum is entirely free from water, 
 and is much harder and heavier than common 
 gypsum. Rock salt is sometimes situated near 
 the feet of high mountains and appears to have 
 been deposited originally in salt water lakes. 
 It is sometimes surrounded by red sand stone. 
 Hungary and Poland afford the most extensive 
 repositories of rock salt in Europe. 
 
 In Caramania in Asia, rock salt is said to be 
 
55 
 
 so abundant and the atmosphere so dry, that 
 houses have been built of it. 
 
 In Peru, rock salt is said to occur at an eleva- 
 tion of 9000 feet above the level of the sea. Salt 
 springs and licks abound in some parts of the 
 United States. Near some of these places at a 
 little depth below the surface the bones of the 
 great Mastodon are frequently found. 
 
 Rock salt has not been found in the United 
 States. 
 
 The new red sandstone appears to be produced 
 principally by the agency of water, which first 
 wore away the rocks, and then transported their 
 fragments and deposited them where we now find 
 them. They were probably consolidated by the 
 agencies of water, air and heat. It was deposited 
 beneath the ocean and afterwards elevated. The 
 fossil vegetables found in it were evidently marine, 
 or grew in salt water ; and the animals are, as far 
 as our knowledge extends, of marine origin. The 
 temperature at the time of their formation was 
 evidently, much higher than at present ; as the 
 fossil remains found in the sandstone, are allied 
 to those genera now peculiar to the torrid zone. 
 
 The fact appears pretty well established, that 
 these have been several successive creations and 
 extinctions of animals and plants on our globe, 
 previously to the production of the present organ- 
 ized beings. 
 
 According to Brongniart, there have been four 
 periods of vegetation since the creation, each dif- 
 fering from the other by a marked distinction in 
 
56 
 
 the species and even genera of plants, and in the 
 numerical proportion of the different kinds. 
 
 During the first period, the strata, from the 
 lowest fossiliferous rocks to the lower part of the 
 new red sand stone, were deposited. The second 
 period includes the time in which the new red 
 sandstone series were forming. The third period, 
 the vegetables lived which are found between the 
 new red sandstone and the chalk, including the 
 latter. The fourth period commenced after the 
 deposition of the chalk, and reaches to the high- 
 est of the tertiary deposites. 
 
 During each successive period, the vegetation 
 became more perfect. Cryptogamous plants pre- 
 dominated during the first period, while dicotyle- 
 donous and monocotyledonous during the last 
 period. The same is true in regard to animals. 
 Those found in the lower rocks are extremely 
 simple in their organization, and vertebral animals, 
 except a few fishes, do not appear lower down 
 than the new red sand stone, while land animals 
 begin to appear higher in the series. 
 
Of the Lias Formation. 
 
 The term Lias is supposed to be a corruption 
 of the word Layers it being in thin strata or lay- 
 ers ; and is argillaceous limestone of a dark grey 
 color ; and associated with beds of clay. It is 
 best characterised of all the secondary formation, 
 both from its mineral character and the fossil re- 
 mains found in it. 
 
 The marly stratum may be regarded as the first 
 approach to a formation resembling lias in its 
 characters. This occupies the upper part of the 
 bed, and the lias limestone the lower. The latter 
 has frequently a yellowish white color, or smoke 
 grey. 
 
 If iron enter largely into the composition, it 
 forms when burnt, an excellent water cement. 
 
 The finer kinds of lias are used for Lithography ; 
 the best is found on tho Rhine. It is, when pol- 
 ished, a beautiful stone, moderately hard and 
 compact, and is highly absorbable of water and 
 oil. 
 
 The beds of lias, clay and limestene are partic- 
 ularly distinguished by the number and variety of 
 
58 
 
 organic remains which* they contain. Such as 
 ammonites, nautulites, belemnites, and other spe- 
 cies of chambered shells. 
 
 Univalved unehambered shells are not nume- 
 rous. 
 
 A great variety of bivalve shells occur. 
 
 The gryphea incurva, and Pentacrinites abound 
 in the lias. 
 
 The most remarkable organic remains, are cer- 
 tain species of fish, and vertebrated animals al- 
 lied to the lizard tribe. 
 
 The Ichthyosaurus, or fish lizard, had a head 
 resembling a dolphin, and numerous conical teeth. 
 The eyes were of enormous magnitude, measur- 
 ing ten inches in diameter, and they have been 
 found from five to twenty feet in length. They 
 naturally breathed air, for which purpose they 
 were oblidged to swim on the surface of the wa- 
 ter. Several species have been discovered. 
 
 The Plesiosaurus resembled the former in many 
 particulars, in its osteology ; its vertebrae ap- 
 proach those of the crocodile. Its neck was lon- 
 ger than its body. The dimensions were as 
 follows : 
 
 Cervical vertebras, 35 
 
 With the dorsal ribs, 6 
 
 Back and loins, 21 
 
 Tail, 26 
 
 Sacral, 2 
 
 Total, 90 
 
 It is considered as a marine animal intermedi- 
 ate in its structure between the crocodile and 
 Ichthyosaurus. 
 
59 
 
 The Sea-serpent, which has frequently visited 
 the waters of New England, is supposed to belong 
 to the genus Plesiosaurus. Its existence has been 
 so often attested by thousands of competent wit- 
 nesses, that its identity is no longer problematical. 
 
 The organic remains in lias are not always ma- 
 rine. It contains the bones of the turtle and 
 crocodile ; and also terrestrial plants. Proving 
 that dry land must have existed in the vicinity 
 previously to the deposition. 
 
 Oolite, is so named from its being composed of 
 small grains of the size of mustard seed, or the 
 roe of fish ; of a vellowish color alternating with 
 
 / O 
 
 beds of clay, marl, sand and sandstone. This 
 formation in England has an aggregate depth of 
 1200 feet. When the globules attain the size of 
 a pea, the aggregate is called Pea stone, or pisi- 
 form Oolite. Some beds of Oolite are used in Ar- 
 chitecture but it, is liable to disintegration. 
 
 Fossil genera of animals are found in the Oolite 
 which differ remarkably from those found in the 
 lower strata, and indicate a considerable change 
 in the condition of the globe, or in those parts of 
 it where the strata are deposited. 
 
 Most of the genera of fossils found in the lower 
 strata belong to the acephalous moluscce or such 
 as had neither heads, nor eyes, and inhabited bi- 
 valve shells. 
 
 In the Oolite the genera and species ofuni- 
 valve unchambered shells are more numerous, 
 and the individual shells of several species abound 
 in some of the strata. 
 
 Now, as these animals had heads and eyes and 
 
60 
 
 moved on their bellies like the land snails, we 
 may infer that they did not live in deep seas, 
 where the sense of vision could not be available, 
 they lived and moved in comparatively shallow 
 water near the shore. 
 
 The vertebrated animals whose remains aro 
 found in Oolite, are fishes and reptiles of the 
 same genera as those discovered in the Lias ; the 
 reptiles undoubtedly belong to the crocodile ge- 
 nus, and had feet like the living species of croco- 
 dile, hence it appears there were dry land and 
 rivers in the vicinity. 
 
 Madrepores, and Millepores, together with fos- 
 sil sponges and alcyonia, also occur in this for- 
 mation. 
 
 More than twenty species of top shaped spiral 
 shells and several species of echinites are found 
 in the Oolite. 
 
 The Oolite is not known to exist in this country, 
 except in one or two instances, but in England, it 
 is a very extensive formation, and affords abun- 
 dant materials for building. The Island of Port- 
 land near the Isle of Wight abounds in this stone, 
 hence called Portland stone. Westminster A bbey, 
 St Paul's Cathedral, Somerset House and St 
 James Palace are constructed of this stone. In 
 the Portland quarry are found petrified trees nearly 
 resembling the Palm, which is a tropical produc- 
 tion. This affords, among many others, a proof 
 that England must have once been under water, 
 and the appearance is such as to induce the be- 
 lief that the surface undulated, or must have gone 
 up and down several times. 
 
61 
 
 Many parts of the surface of the globe afford 
 proof of the rising and falling of land ; the most 
 remarkable of which are Pozzuoli formerly called 
 Putioli. These are remains of the temple of Ju- 
 piter Serapis, and are known to have once been 
 under water from the perforations made in them 
 by shell fish. These pillars must have fallen and 
 risen again. In 1822, there -were tremendous 
 earthquakes in Lima, in consequence of which, 
 the land to the extent of one hundred miles along 
 the coast of Chili, rose from five to seven feet. 
 On the coast of Sweden, an ancient Sea level has 
 been discovered between two and three hundred 
 feet above the surface of the water ; Greenland 
 is known to be sinking ; yet such movements are 
 very gradual, except occasioned by earthquakes. 
 
 The Oolite is included in three divisions viz. 
 the upper the middle and the loiver. 
 
 The loweT division of the Oolite, comprises, 
 1. An imperfect, dark brown limestone,intermixed 
 with sand and the oxide of iron. 2. Beds of clay 
 and fuller's earth. 3. The great Oolite, of consid- 
 erable thickness, composed of minute globules 
 and broken shells, united by yellowish earthy cal- 
 careous cement. 4. Forest marble, and a sandy 
 calcareous stone dividing into shale and carbona- 
 ceous matter. 
 
 The univalve shells are the most numerous in 
 the thin beds, and the bivalve in the thicker beds. 
 5. A brown stone called cornbrash, in detached 
 masses, cemented by clay, abounding in shells 
 and other fossils. 
 
 The Middle division of Oolite, consists 1. of 
 F 
 
62 
 
 siliceous and calcareous sand stone. 2. Coralline 
 limestone, containing numerous madrepores, in 
 some parts called coral ragg. 3. Oolite resemb- 
 ling the thin species in the lower division. 
 
 The beds of the middle Oolite pass into each 
 other, and may be regarded as one formation. 
 Bones of the lizard shaped animals have been 
 found in this division. 
 
 The upper division of Oolite comprises 1. Port-* 
 land Stone, which is a calcareo siliceous free stone, 
 with beds and nodules of flint. It is not exten- 
 sive. It is succeeded by beds of limestone. 
 
 In some of the Oolite are beds of slate contain- 
 ing the impressions of the outer cases, or elytra 
 of winged insects, and bones of a small animal of 
 the opossum genus ; and also of the megalosau- 
 rus, or gigantic lizard. Calculating from the size 
 of the bones the animal was 40 feet long and i2 
 feet high. Also the legs and thigh bones of birds, 
 teeth, palates and vertebrae of fishes, with crabs, 
 and lobsters. 
 
 The occurrence of wood and beds of lignite in 
 the Oolite, leads to the inference that dry land 
 existed in the vicinity, at the period when the 
 Oolite beds were formed. 
 
 Chalk. In England, the geological position of 
 chalk is over the Oolite formation, though the 
 arrangement varies in different places. Chalk if 
 found at all, is in a very limited quantity in the 
 United States. 
 
 The position is as follows : Upper, or Portland 
 Oolite, Limestone, conglomerates, Sandstone and 
 Clay, called Wealden beds, Lower green sand, 
 Blue clay, called gait, upper green sand, chalk. 
 
63 
 
 Chalk is found of different colors, it is gene- 
 rally white or yellowish white ; occurs massive ; 
 fracture earthy ; meagre to the touch ; dull ; 
 opaque ; soft ; soils the fingers ; adheres to the 
 tongue ; gives a white streak. Effervesces with 
 acids, burns to quicklime. 
 
 Composition. Clay, silex and carbonate of lime. 
 The greatest proportion is carbonate of lime. 
 
 It is the highest stratum of the secondary for- 
 mation. 
 
 When compact, it is used as a building stone. 
 
 The upper part of the chalk throughout Eng- 
 land is characterized by the presence of nume- 
 rous flint stones, more or less arranged in parallel 
 lines ; seams of this substance not only occur in 
 a line with the flints, but also traverse the beds 
 diagonally. 
 
 When chalk is freed from silex, it contains, 
 according to M. Berthier, in 100 parts, 98 lime, 
 1 magnesia and a little iron, 1 alumine. 
 
 x-. > i. .. i . < r *!,,. 17... i' * - - 11- i 
 
 m me lower parts Oi die; j^ngusn cuaiK aepos- 
 ites, the flints disappear becoming gradually more 
 rare in the passage from the upper to the lower 
 parts. 
 
 From this circumstance, the chalk has been 
 divided into two divisions, viz. The upper, or 
 chalk ivith flints, and lower, or chalk without flints. 
 
 This division, however, does not always hold, 
 for in some parts of France, the lower chalk con- 
 tains an abundance of flint and chert nodules, 
 where it passes into the upper green sand. There 
 can be but little dependence placed on minute 
 divisions of rocks, even within the distance of a 
 few miles. 
 
64 
 
 In some parts of England, the chalk beds are 
 characterized by the presence of small and ir- 
 regularly rounded grains of quartz, probably of 
 mechanical origin, occasionally disseminated 
 through the mass in great abundance. These 
 beds are also remarkable for a great variety of 
 organic remains. They become suddenly replaced 
 by others, where the quartz entirely disappears. 
 
 Green sand which appears to graduate into the 
 chalk, or cretaceous group which is charged with 
 green particles, is composed of Silex, 0. 50, pro- 
 toxide of iron 0. 21, alumine 0. 07, potash 0. 10. 
 
 The greenish or reddish nodules disseminated 
 through the same rock at Havre, contained : 
 phorphate of lime 0. 57, carbonate of lime 0. 07, 
 carbonate of magnesia 0. 02, Silicate of iron and 
 alumine 0. 25, water and bituminous matter 0. 07, 
 Here we readily perceive a different composition 
 of the nodules and grains. Respecting the for- 
 mer M. Al. Brongniart observes, that the phos- 
 phate of lime sometimes so abounds as nearly to 
 constitute the whole substance. 
 
 The gait, is an argillaceous depositeof a bluish 
 grey color, frequently composed of clay in the 
 upper, and marls in the lower part, containing 
 disseminated species of mica ; it effervesces 
 strongly with acids. 
 
 The lower green sand is formed of sand and 
 sandstones of various degrees of induration, prin- 
 cipally of iron grey and green colors. The for- 
 mer constituting the upper part and the latter the 
 lower portions ; which are frequently argill< 
 arenaceous, particularly at bottom. 
 
65 
 
 The whole of the chalk series, taken as a mass, 
 may, in England and a considerable portion of 
 France and Germany, be considered as cretaceous 
 in its upper part, and arenaceous and argillaceous 
 in its lower part. 
 
 The greatest thickness of the chalk strata in 
 England may be estimated at from six to eight 
 hundred Jeet. 
 
 Humbolt observes, after noticing the great in- 
 termixture of the sandy calcareous and argilla- 
 ceous beds, in the formation below chalk, that na- 
 ture seems to have relented in her tendency to form 
 complex mixtures when chalk was deposited. 
 
 Chalk which contains a considerable portion of 
 magnesia, may generally be known by an appear- 
 ance of dendritical spotted delineations on the 
 surface of the natural partings, and by minute 
 black spots, like grains of gunpowder, in the sub- 
 stance of the chalk. 
 
 The organic remains in the chalk formation 
 are exclusively marine. These are echinites, 
 particularly the helmet shaped species, called 
 ananchytes, and the heart shaped species called 
 spatangus, cor anguinum. The chambered shells 
 called Scaphites, Harnites, Turrilites and Bacul- 
 ites are regarded as peculiar to the chalk forma 
 tion ; it also contains Ammonites, Belemnites 
 and Nautilites. 
 
 Numerous organic remains of Zoophytes in the 
 
 state of flint, particularly of Sponges and Alcyo- 
 
 nia, and various species of bivalve shells, occur in 
 
 chalk, but comparatively few spiral univalve shells. 
 
 It is probable that the deep ocean in which 
 
 F2 
 
66 
 
 chalk was deposited was not suited to the inhab- 
 itants of such shells, for the animals had heads 
 and eyes and required shallow water to see their 
 food. Teeth, palates and scales of fishes occur 
 in chalk. 
 
 The vegetable remains in chalk, are few, and 
 those appear to belong to the family of Fuci. 
 
 There appears to have been a considerable in- 
 terval between the epoch when the chalk was de- 
 posited, and the period when it was covered with 
 the tertiary strata ; during which the surface of 
 the extensive mass of chalk was deeply furrowed 
 and excavated, before a new series of strata were 
 deposited upon it, destined to support a new cre- 
 ation of animals of a superior class, entirely differ- 
 ent from those which have left their remains in 
 the subjacent strata. In some situations how- 
 ever, the tertiary strata appear to rest conformably 
 on chalk, and present no indications of any inter- 
 ruption in the succession of regular deposits. 
 
 The Ferruginous sand Formation, is considered 
 as equivalent to the cretaceous group, by Dr. 
 Morton, who describes it as occupying a great 
 part of the triangular peninsula of New Jersey, 
 formed by the Atlantic ; Delaware and Raritan 
 rivers, and extending across the state of Delaware, 
 from near Delaware city, to the Chesapeake ; ap- 
 pearing again near Annapolis in Maryland ; at 
 Lynch's Creek, in South Carolina, at Cockspur 
 Island, in Georgia ; and several places in Alabama, 
 Florida &c. 
 
 When Chalk was formed, the land must have 
 been again submerged as it had been in some 
 
67 
 
 previous formations. As this is exclusively a ma- 
 rine formation. One mile below the surface of 
 this formation foot-marks have been discovered, 
 supposed to be that of the tortoise, which is an 
 amphibeous animal. No viviparous vertebrated 
 animals are found within or below the clialk for- 
 mation. All animals below are oviparous. 
 
 Chalk being so abundant in England, gave rise 
 to the ancient name of that country, Albion, 
 meaning whiteness or chalk. This substance 
 covers one half of Europe. 
 
 It may have been ejected from the ancient deep 
 by volcanic energy. 
 
 It is observed, that the remains of fish found in 
 chalk, are of a roundish shape. This may arise 
 from the circumstance, that the chalk surrounded 
 the fish in a soft plastic state, like a pulp. 
 
 In the flint which accompanies chalk there are 
 cavities containing animals. In the original for- 
 mation, the flint was probably in a state of chem- 
 ical solution, and coming in contact with organ- 
 ized matter deposited itself around it. In this 
 series are found the Sea hedgehog, and the teeth 
 of sharks of such a size as to justify the conclu- 
 sion that the animal to which they belonged was 
 fifty eight feet in length. 
 
Of the Tertiary Formation. 
 
 The name tertiary, has been given to all the 
 strata that are more recent than the secondary ; 
 it is called by De la Beche, super cretaceous, but 
 these strata may cover any of the lower rocks, 
 and in some parts of France they rest on granite, 
 the name therefore is appropriate when applied 
 to designate the upper strata. 
 
 The term tertiary is applied to the formations 
 which comprise all the regular strata of limestone, 
 marl, clay and sandstone, that have been deposited 
 after chalk. 
 
 This numerical arrangement has been made 
 but about twenty years. The term first began to 
 be used at Paris and its environs ; as in the exca- 
 vation in and around that city, many new geolog- 
 ical facts had been developed. A long period of 
 time must have elapsed, after the chalk was form- 
 ed, before the tertiary rocks came upon it. There 
 are excavations in the form of basins, made in the 
 chalk beds which are filled with the tertiary. 
 
 It is widely spread over many parts of the globe 
 and often of considerable thickness. 
 
69 
 
 Many of the tertiary beds contain the bones of 
 the higher order of animals, as perfect in their 
 organization as any of the existing species of 
 quadrupeds. 
 
 It presents likewise frequent alternations of 
 beds, containing the remains of marine animals ; 
 with other beds that contain exclusively the re- 
 mains of land animals ; and plants, and fresh wa- 
 ter shells ; hence the latter beds were denomina- 
 ted fresh water formations. 
 
 The fresh water formations are discoverable in 
 some of the older strata, but they are not so dis- 
 tinctly marked as in the tertiary. 
 
 In some parts of this continent the line of sep- 
 aration between the tertiary and secondary is not 
 conspicuous, or very faintly so. 
 
 The tertiary strata form the outer crust of the 
 globe, and have every where, been subjected to 
 erosion from torrents and inundations, or floods 
 that have swept over parts of its surface, and 
 transported the substances into distant countries, 
 or into the ocean. It is impossible, from the 
 present localities of the upper strata, to determine, 
 with any precision, the boundaries of the inland 
 lakes or seas in which they were deposited. Many 
 of these strata have, evidently, once extended far 
 beyond their present limits ; but have been so 
 completely destroyed, that we can infer their form- 
 er existence, only from a few remaining detached 
 portions. 
 
 France, more than scarcely any other District, 
 affords an excellent example of the different strata. 
 And has been studied with ardor and success by 
 
70 
 
 the celebrated Cuvier and Brongniart. Which 
 has tended to elucidate many facts, and afforded 
 to Geologists data on which to found their 
 systems. 
 
 Many of the tertiary beds in the Paris basins 
 are not found elsewhere, and therefore cannot in 
 all cases be taken as types of other tertiary for- 
 mations ; and the lower bed called Plastic day 
 is but very imperfectly developed near Paris. 
 
 In attempting to generallize the tertiary forma- 
 tions a difficulty presents itself, if we are to class 
 them by their zoological characters ; for some of 
 the formations, which in certain situations, con- 
 tain, exclusively the remains of marine animals, 
 present, in other places, river, or lake shells, with 
 wood, and the remains of land animals. It is, 
 therefore, probable that while the waters in one 
 Lake were saline, those in another might be fresh ; 
 and two contemporaneous formations may hence 
 contain very different organic remains. 
 
 Plastic clay and marly clay with sand may be 
 considered as one formation, of which in England 
 and France the plastic clay is the lowest, resting 
 on chalk. In the plastic clay, there are imperfect 
 beds of wood coal (lignite) ; but in this arid Lon- 
 don clay the remains of marine animals are chiefly 
 prevalent ; though intermixed with some fresh 
 water shells. The beds of sand are of conside- 
 rable thickness. The bones of vertebrated ani- 
 mals of the higher order next to man, and the 
 teeth df elephants are found in this formation* 
 
 In some places, the London, or marl clay is 
 from one hundred to four hundred feet thick. 
 
71 
 
 This clay appears to be the limit of the Saurian 
 tribe. 
 
 The bones of a species of crocodile have been 
 found in this clay. Ammonites and Belemnites 
 and many genera of testaceous animals which 
 have left their remains in chalk, appear to have 
 been extinct before the deposition of the clay. 
 
 Nautilites have been found in the clay, similar 
 to those now inhabiting the Indian ocean. The 
 shells belong mostly to genera inhabiting our pres- 
 ent seas, though of different species. 
 
 The water arising from springs in this forma- 
 tion generally, contains sulphate and muriate of 
 lime, magnesia and iron. 
 
 This formation contains the remains of the 
 narrow toothed Mastodon, and of other mam- 
 malia. 
 
 In France, a coarse limestone called calcaire 
 grassier, is deposited on the plastic clay. It is 
 a yellowish earthy limestone, not Oolite. It alter- 
 nates with argillaceous marl and shale, and with 
 calcareous marl. It is found to be one hundred 
 and twelve feet in thickness. 
 
 In this are found the fossil nummulite, so named 
 on account of its being flat and round, resembling 
 money, or small coin. It also contains numerous 
 porous shells, and the bones of the Walrus. 
 
 Thin strata of flint, or chert are often found in 
 this formation. 
 
 Siliceous limestone also occurs in small quan- 
 tities. 
 
 Gypsum alternates with argillaceous beds and 
 calcareous marl. Although gypsum occurs lower 
 down. 
 
72 
 
 The gypsum beds are covered in Paris by ma- 
 rine sand and sandstone. The sandstone is often 
 composed of transparent pure silex, and contains 
 occasionally small scales of mica. This is called 
 the upper marine formation. 
 
 The marine sand and sandstone are sometimes 
 covered with a bed of argillaceous and frrugin- 
 eous marl in which are imbedded layers of horn- 
 stone, full of holes or cavities, which forms the 
 burrh stone, used as millstones. When unmixed 
 they are pure silex. Color reddish or yellow ; 
 containing no shells or organic remains. 
 
 In the tertiary formation, we first come to the 
 remains of viviparous animals, or those which pro- 
 duce their young alive ; which fact shows that 
 land had now been provided for them. These 
 animals, of which there are several hundreds, are 
 now extinct. They lived at a time when the re- 
 gion in the vicinity consisted of low marshes, 
 islands and lakes. 
 
 This petrifaction of animals is not peculiar to 
 the epoch when the rock formations were effected 
 but takes place at the present day, in seas, springs, 
 and lakes. 
 
 Upper ] Fresh water Formation, so called, be- 
 cause the shells found in it are analogous to those 
 of fresh water. It consists of calcareous and 
 siliceous earth, pebbles worn by attrition, marly 
 clay, sand, gravel, and debris. 
 
 The tertiary formations have been deposited 
 from materials diffused, or dissolvd in water, in 
 independant basins and at various epochs. The 
 remains of dicotyledonous plants, fresh water 
 
73 
 
 shells mixed with the remains of sharks, alcyonia, 
 crabs and marine shells, seem to indicate that 
 these strata were deposited in estuaries which 
 were occasionally inundated by fresh water. 
 
 During the period in which these strata were 
 deposited, violent convulsions succeeded by long 
 intervals of repose, took place ; by which some 
 of the mountains on the globe were elevated, and 
 portions of those formations elevated with them ; 
 so as now to cap their summits. 
 
 The tertiary formations are distinguished from 
 diluvium and alluvium by a much finer state of 
 most of the materials that compose them, by the 
 greater regularity of their stratification, and by 
 their containing peculiar organic remains. 
 
 Diluvium includes that coating of gravel, sand 
 and loam which is spread over almost every part 
 of the surface of the globe, and which has been 
 obviously mingled confusedly together by power- 
 ful currents of water. 
 
 This has been refered by some to the agency 
 of a general deluge ; but probably there were 
 several deluges, partial or general, concerned in 
 bringing about the present state of the surface of 
 our globe. Others regard diluvium as the result 
 of various agencies, operating at different periods; 
 among which are the floods produced by the ele- 
 vation of the rock strata at several times. But 
 they do not admit that we have in this diluvium 
 any evidence of a deluge contemporaneous with that 
 described by Moses. They do not deny the occur- 
 rence of the Noacan deluge, they merely say, 
 that Geology does not furnish sufficient evidence 
 
74 
 
 of such a catastrophe, although it affords no evi- 
 dence to the contrary, but rather a presumption 
 in its favor, in the fact so abundantly proved by 
 the records of Geology, that numerous deluges 
 have occurred since the creation. 
 
 The transient deluge of Moses could not have 
 produced all the diluvium which is now spread 
 over the surface of this continent. This idea can- 
 not be entertained on scientific principles, and is 
 utterly repugnant to common sense and common 
 observation. 
 
 Alluvium, this contains debris of rocks, sand, 
 gravel, clay &c., together with decomposed ani- 
 mals and vegetables carried by, and deposited 
 from water. The causes are daily operating, and 
 unlike the other formations, it is forming in many 
 places every year. 
 
 The most common is that produced by the over- 
 flowing of rivers, and it forms the most valuable 
 agricultural district. 
 
 Coast Alluvium is that produced byjides and 
 currents of the ocean, which frequently transport 
 large quantities of soil from one place to another. 
 
 Salt marsh Alluvium, results from the joint ac- 
 tion of two and sometimes three causes. 1 . The 
 decay of salt marsh plants. 2. The silt brought 
 over the marsh by tides. 3. From the alluvial 
 soils brought down by streams. 
 
 Peat, or the deposite on the bottoms of ponds, 
 lakes and estuaries, various equatic plants take 
 root, and by their decay increase the deposite. 
 At length the pulpy mass nearly reaches the sur- 
 face, sphagnus and other mosses take root in it, 
 
75 
 
 with numerous other plants, and by their gradual 
 decomposition the pond or lake becomes convert- 
 ed, in process of time, into a swamp or marsh ; 
 the lower part of this marsh will be found to be 
 converted into perfect compact peat, with alter- 
 nate layers of mud, the next stratum will be less 
 compact, and the upper will be interlaced fibres 
 and roots with very little earth. 
 
 In the vicinity of limestone, marl is found in 
 alluvium composed of lime and fine clay. 
 
 Alluvium of disintegration, is that jformed by 
 the wearing away of rocks by water and attrition. 
 
 Many rocks are liable to disentegration, such 
 as sandstone, gneiss, some species of greywacke, 
 Mica and talcose slate &c. 
 
 Alluvium of degradation, is that which arises 
 from the wearing down of mountains and hills, 
 and is the deposite of valleys, occasioned by rains, 
 frosts and gravity. 
 
 That mountains are lessening in height appears 
 evident from observation, and as a proof that the 
 surface of the globe has not existed in its present 
 state eternally, as some would unphilosophically 
 imagine, but as it was successively formed, so it is 
 successively wearing away. 
 
On Volcanoes. 
 
 Volcanoes are openings made in the earth T s 
 surface by internal tires. From these are regu- 
 larly, or at intervals, ejected smoke, vapor, flame, 
 large stones and sand, or melted stones called lava. 
 
 Some throw out mud and water. 
 
 There are between two and three hundred ac- 
 tive volcanoes now on the globe, 
 
 They are most frequently situated near the sea, 
 or in the vicinity of large lakes, and they break 
 out from unfathomable depths below the surface 
 of the ocean, and form islands. 
 
 When a volcano breaks out in a new situation, 
 it is preceded by violent earthquakes, rumbling 
 subterranean noises, the ground is heated and 
 swelled up, at length a rent, or fissure is made 
 sometimes of vast extent. 
 
 Through this opening, masses of rock with 
 flame, smoke and lava are thrown out, choke up 
 part of the passage, and confine the eruption to 
 one aperture or more, around which Conical hills 
 or mountains are formed. 
 
77 
 
 The concavity in the centre is called the crater. 
 
 The following are the prognostics of an erup- 
 tion from a dormant volcano. 
 
 1. An increase of smoke from the summit, 
 which sometimes rises to a great height. 2. Tre- 
 mendous explosions like the firing of artillery, 
 which are succeeded by red colored flames, and 
 showers of stones. 3. Ejection of lava from the 
 top of the crater, or through the sides of the 
 mountain. This has been known to continue 
 several months. 
 
 The lava in time becomes consolidated, form- 
 ing a stony mass often not less than some hun- 
 dred square miles in extent. 
 
 After the lava ceases to flow, intensely black 
 clouds, composed of a dark sand or powder, im- 
 properly called ashes, are thrown out of the crater, 
 and sometimes, at noon day, involve the country 
 in total darkness. Toward the conclusion, the 
 color of the volcanic ashes changes to white, this 
 is pumice in a finely comminuted state. 
 
 When the lava flows freely, the earthquakes 
 are less frequent and violent, which affords a 
 proof that they were occasioned by the confine- 
 ment of the erupted matter both gaseous and solid. 
 
 The seat of the volcano is not in the mountain 
 itself, this is merely a chimney or vent for the gas- 
 eous and solid fluid. For in some eruptions the 
 matter ejected exceeds in solid contents the moun- 
 tain itself; and this during several eruptions, yet 
 the mountain remains stationary neither do its 
 sides fall in ; a proof that the fire is not in the 
 mountain. 
 
 G2 
 
78 
 
 Kircher informs us, that up to the year 1660, 
 the ejections from ./Etna would equal a mass 
 twenty times as large as the mountain itself. In 
 1775, the same volcano poured out another 
 stream of lava twelve miles in length, one mile 
 and a half in breadth, and two hundred feet high. 
 
 Submarine volcanoes are preceded by a vio- 
 lent boiling and agitation of the water, and by the 
 discharge of volumes of gas and vapour., which 
 take fire and roll in sheets of flame over the sur- 
 face of the water. Masses of rock are darted 
 with great violence through the water, and accu- 
 mulate until they form islands. Sometimes dur- 
 ing an eruption the crater rises out of the sea. 
 
 Some volcanoes throw out aqueous torrents, 
 mixed with sand and stones. The volcanoes in 
 S. America oftener throw out these substances, 
 than lava. And some, according to Humbolt, have 
 thrown out small fish, which resembled those in 
 the lake near the mountain. 
 
 Volcanoes frequently occur in groups, some- 
 times arranged along a line, as if formed over a 
 vast chasm. 
 
 In South America, they are arranged in rows 
 sometimes in one line, and sometimes in two par- 
 allel lines ; generally in the same direction as 
 those of the Cordilleras, and sometimes they form 
 an angle with it of 70 deg. 
 
 The volcanoes of Mexico form a narrow zone, 
 between lat. 18 deg. 59 min. and 19 deg. 12. min. 
 This is regarded as a vast chasm 750 miles in 
 length extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 
 
 There appears to be a connection between vol- 
 canoes at a vast distance from each other. 
 
79 
 
 It is highly probable from the remains of an- 
 cient volcanoes, that their action was much 
 more intense than at present. 
 
 The only formations of hard crystalline rocks, 
 in the present day, are volcanic ; and if we trace 
 the connection which exists between modern and 
 ancient volcanic rocks, and between the latter 
 and the rocks of trap and porphyry among the 
 aucient rock formations, we shall extend the in- 
 fluence of volcanic fire over a great portion of 
 the globe. 
 
 Pseudo Volcanoes. This name has been given 
 to those accidental combustions of beds of coal. 
 There are instances of coal beds being on fire for 
 many years. Some of the coal beds near Pitts- 
 burg, Pa. have been on fire for upwards of forty 
 years, and are continually emitting smoke from 
 their summits. The beds of clay associated with 
 the coal is converted into a substance resembling 
 Jasper. 
 
 The sulphuret of iron and carbonaceous matter 
 contained in the clay and other minerals associ- 
 ated with the coal, decompose rapidly when 
 moistened with water. During the decomposition 
 sufficient heat is evolved to ignite the bituminous 
 matter in the coal, and when once ignited, it will 
 burn foj a long period. 
 
 The earth itself is, in all probability, the great 
 laboratory, in which by the aid of subterranean 
 heat, are combined and prepared the mineral sub- 
 stances that compose the hard crystalline crust of 
 the, globe. 
 
 All the minerals which compose primary rocks 
 
80 
 
 occur in a perfect state in modern or ancient vol- 
 canoes. 
 
 The substances ejected from volcanoes belong 
 to the four grand divisions of the mineral king- 
 dom, the inflammable, saline, metallic and earthy. 
 
 The inflammable substances are sulphur, car- 
 bon and hydrogen. 
 
 Sulphur combined with oxygen forms sulphu- 
 rous and sulphuric acid. 
 
 Carbon combined with hydrogen forms bitumen, 
 and carburetted hydrogen gas. 
 
 The Saline products are alum, sulphate of iron 
 and copper, sulphate of magnesia, gypsum, muri- 
 ate of Ammonia, muriate of Soda, muriate of 
 Copper, muriate of Iron and muriatic acid. 
 
 The metallic substances, are iron, titanium, 
 antim6ny, copper, manganese, tellurium, Gold. 
 Iron in different combinations, occurs in the fis- 
 sures of many volcanoes ; also specular oxide of 
 iron. 
 
 The earthy products are either vitreous, or 
 stony, scoriaceous, or spongy, or in loose grains, 
 or powder. 
 
 Volcanic rocks are chiefly composed of feldspar 
 and the dark colored mineral called augite. Con- 
 tents ; hornblende, magnetic iron ore, olivine, mi- 
 ca, leucite, iron pyrites, garnets, rubies, and 
 zircon. 
 
 The white or grey lava is composed principally 
 of feldspar, to which the French have given the 
 name Trachyte ; the common or stony has a white 
 or greyish color, fracture dull and more or less 
 fine grained. Lustre glistening, when compact, 
 
81 
 
 it is called pearl stone. It melts readily, into a 
 grey ishglass. Pumice appears to be formed from 
 trachyte by an intense heat. 
 
 Obsidian, or volcanic glass so nearly resembles 
 lumps of black glass that it can scarcely be dis- 
 tinguished by an unpractised observer. Color, 
 velvet black ; thin pieces translucent. Harder 
 than glass and strikes fire with steel. 
 
 Basalt, is a volcanic product, colors greyish 
 black, brownish grey, or bluish black ; occurs in 
 amorphous masses, or in globular, columnar, or 
 tabular forms ; fracture splintery, or coarse grain- 
 ed, uneven ; sometimes conchoidal, lustre feebly 
 glimmering, or dull ; streak, ash grey ; often po- 
 rous, or vescicular. It is often porphyritic, con- 
 taining imbedded crystals of hornblende, olivine, 
 feldspar, quartz, mica, analcime, clay &c. 
 
 Columnar basalt, occurs in columns of a pris- 
 matic form, having from three to nine plane sides, 
 most commonly five, or six. These columns are 
 of all sizes from a few inches to several feet in 
 diameter, and sometimes nearly 100 feet high, 
 occasionally straight, but often curved ; they are 
 jointed, or composed of several pieces of the same 
 shape and dimensions, lying one on the other, the 
 end of one being convex and the other concave, 
 so as to fit each other like a ball and socket. 
 
 Various theories have been adopted for the ex- 
 planation of volcanic phenomena, none of which 
 are perfectly satisfactory : the real causes appear 
 to be subjects of conjecture. We are familiar 
 with some of the effects ; though with the districts 
 most ravaged by the erupted matter, Ite are fav 
 
82 
 
 from being well acquainted ; our principle knowl- 
 edge of volcanoes being derived from the two 
 largest active vents of Europe, ^Etna and Vesu- 
 vius, but principally from the latter. ^Etna cov- 
 ers a cpnsiderable surface, but Vesuvius sinks into 
 insignificance, when compared with some of the 
 great volcanoes of the world. 
 
 From their general proximity to, or occurrence 
 in the sea, it has been supposed that the active 
 state of volcanoes has been produced by the per- 
 colation of sea-water to certain metallic bases of 
 the earth's or alkalies -at various depths beneath 
 the surface, which metallic bases being thus in- 
 flamed, cause the phenomena observed in vol- 
 canic eruptions. The volcanoes in the interior 
 of Mexico and in Tartary, have been accounted 
 for, by the advocates of this theory ; the former, 
 by supposing a connexion between the vents of 
 Calima, Jorullo, Pococatepetl and Orizaba, all 
 situated in the same line ; the latter, by consider- 
 ing the waters of salt lakes may percolate to their 
 foci. As the first chemical operation, if this the- 
 ory was true, would be the union of the oxygen 
 with the metallic bases, and the escape of an im- 
 mense quantity of hydrogen, M. Gay Lussac has 
 objected to it, that pure hydrogen is not evolved 
 from volcanoes ; because, if it were present, it 
 would be inflamed by the red hot matter ejected 
 from the crater. Dr. Daubeny, on the other 
 hand, supposes the hydrogen to have combined 
 in its nascent state with sulphur, and the two bod- 
 ies to have been evolved in the form of sulphuret- 
 ted hydrogen gas. He also considers that the 
 
83 
 
 presence of a large quantity of muriatic acid 
 would destroy the inflammability of the hydrogen. 
 
 According to the same author, the gasses evolv- 
 ed from volcanoes consist of muriatic acid gas, 
 sulphur combined with oxygen, or hydrogen, car- 
 bonic acid gas and nitrogen ; and a quantity of 
 aqueous vapor. 
 
 A large portion of the globe is volcanic, or is 
 the effect of volcanic agency. The whole of Ice- 
 land may be considered little less than a volcanic 
 mass, in which there are many apertures for the 
 ejection of lava, ashes and other products. The 
 igneous matter struggles to escape in various 
 places, and consequently, many single eruptions 
 from different points have taken place since the" 
 records of history. There have been twenty-two 
 eruptions from Hecla since 1004; seven from 
 Kattlagian Jokul since 900 ; and four from Krabla 
 since 1724 
 
 In Iceland, the eruptions are not confined to 
 the immediate dry land, but have pierced through 
 the sea in the vicinity. In January, 1 783, a vol- 
 canic eruption, described as flame, rose through 
 the sea; several islands were observed, as if 
 raised from beneath, and a reef of rocks exists 
 where these appearances were observed. Ac- 
 cording to Sir George Mackenzie, the flames last- 
 ed several months, during which, vast quantities 
 of pumice were washed on shore. In the begin- 
 ning of June, earthquakes shook the whole of 
 Iceland ; the flames in the sea disappeared ; and 
 the dreadful eruption commenced from the Shap- 
 tar Jakul, which is nearly two hundred miles dis- 
 
84 
 
 tant from the spot where the marine eruption took 
 place. 
 
 Another marine eruption occurred near the 
 same island, in June 13, 1830; an island was 
 formed and consequent eruptions were appre- 
 hended in the interior. 
 
 There are numerous islands composed entirely 
 of volcanic matter in different oceans, many of 
 them are now on arches of fire ; and in some, ac- 
 tive volcanoes still exist. The dome or cone not 
 giving way before the pressure of water, but grad- 
 ually accumulating a mass of lava, cinders and 
 ashes, so that the islands have become firm, and 
 even of considerable size. Owyhee, or Hawaii, 
 is perhaps a magnificent example of such an isl- 
 and. The whole mass, estimated as exposing a 
 surface of four thousand square miles, is compos- 
 ed of lava, or other volcanic matter, which rises 
 in the peaks of Mouna Rou and Mouna Kaah, to 
 the height of between fifteen thousand and sixteen 
 thousand feet above the level of the sea. Ac- 
 cording to Mr. Ellis, the crater of Kiranea is sit* 
 uated in a lofty, elevated plain, bounded. by a prec- 
 ipice fifteen or sixteen miles in circumference, 
 apparently sunk from two to four hundred feet 
 below its original level. "The surface of this 
 plain was uneven, and strewed over with loose 
 stones and volcanic rock ; and in the centre of it 
 was the great crater, at a distance of a mile and 
 a half from the place where we were standing. 
 We walked on to the north end of the ridge, 
 where the precipice being less steep, a descent 
 to the plain below seemed practicable. After 
 
85 
 
 Walking some distance over the sunken plain, 
 which in several places sounded hollow under our 
 feet, we, at length, came to the edge of the great 
 crater, where a spectacle, sublime and even ap- 
 palling, presented itself. Immediately before us 
 yawned an immense gulf, in the form of a crescent, 
 about two miles in length, from N. E. to S. W., 
 nearly a mile in width, and apparently eight hun- 
 dred feet deep. The bottom was covered with 
 lava, and the southwest and northern parts of it 
 were one vast flood of burning matter, in the state 
 of ebullition, rolling too and fro its fiery surge, and 
 flaming billows. Fifty-one conical islands of va- 
 ried form and size, containing as many craters, 
 rose either round the edge, or from the surface of 
 the burning lake ; twenty-two constantly emitted 
 columns of grey smoke, or pyramids of brilliant 
 flame ; and several of these, at the same time 
 vomited from their ignited mouths, streams of la- 
 va, which rolled in blazing torrents down their 
 black indented sides into the mass below." From 
 the existence of these cones, it was concluded, 
 that the mass of boiling lava resulted from the 
 streams poured from the craters into this upper 
 reservoir, which appeared to vary in its level ; for 
 there were marks on the rocks bounding it, which 
 indicated that the great crater had been recently 
 filled up three or four hundred feet higher to a 
 black ledge, whence there was a slope to the hot 
 fluid mass." 
 
 The depth of water round Owhyhee, and in- 
 deed round the Sandwich Islands generally, is so 
 great, that they are somewhat dangerous to ap- 
 H 
 
86 
 
 proach in stormy weather, as anchorage cannot 
 be obtained, except close to the land ; which 
 seems to demonstrate that these volcanic masses 
 rise from considerable depths, and are only partly 
 out of water. 
 
 The number of volcanoes which border the 
 Pacific ocean or occur in it, or in that part of the 
 Indian ocean in the vicinity of Java far exceeds 
 that of any other part of the world. From Terra 
 del Fuego they occur northerly through the range 
 of the Andes, often attaining very considerable 
 elevations. In Mexico, the northerly line is met 
 by an east and west line, connecting it with the 
 volcanoes in the West India Islands. In Calafor- 
 nia there are three volcanoes of which one, Mt. 
 Elias, is variously estimated from thirteen thou- 
 sand to seventeen thousand feet in height. Amer- 
 ica is connected by means of volcanic vents of the 
 Aleutian, or Fox Islands. From Kamptschatka 
 southward, volcanoes are observed in the Kurule 
 Islands, Japan, the Soo Choo Isles, Formosa and 
 the Philippines. From the latter, a range ol vol- 
 canic vents proceed to nearly latitude 10 deg., 
 S. ranges westward along this parallel for about 
 twenty-five degrees of longitude, and then turns 
 up N. W diagonally through about twenty deg* 
 of latitude, This line, which, when represented 
 on maps, resembles an enormous fish hook, passes 
 from the Phillipinesby the N. E. point of Celebes, 
 Gilolo, the volcanic isles between New Guinea 
 and Timor, Floris, Sumbawa, Java and Sumatra, 
 to Barren Island. 
 
 Active volcanoes are not so abundant in, or on 
 
87 
 
 the shores of the Atlantic. In fact the shores of 
 this ocean in Europe, Africa and America, ap- 
 pear free from them, at the present time ; if we 
 except Mexico, and the land connecting the main 
 body of N. America with the Southern continent, 
 which may be considered as common to the At- 
 lantic and Pacific oceans. A volcano has been 
 discovered off the main land of Greenland. It is 
 situated in the island of Jan Magen, and presents 
 marks of recent eruption. Its crater is about five 
 hundred feet deep, and two thousand feet in di- 
 ameter. 
 
 Teneriffe affords the greatest volcanic eleva- 
 tion in the Atlantic, the Peak rising two thousand 
 two hundred and sixteen feet. 
 
 It is computed that there are twenty volcanic 
 eruptions every year on the globe, of more or 
 less activity. 
 
 There are eighty principal volcanic eminences 
 connected with ^Etna. 
 
 Many volcanoes are known to have been burn- 
 ing for a long period of time. Stromboli has 
 been in a state of eruption for two thousand years. 
 
 Volcanoes appear to be among the instruments 
 used by the Author of Nature for the production 
 of the various mineral forms, found in the crust 
 of the globe. As all fused substances will tend 
 to crystallize, or arrange their component 
 parts more compactly, where their liquidity 
 continues the longest, and their loss of tempera- 
 ture is the slowest, we find that lava currents arc 
 always more crystalline, or compact in their inte- 
 rior parts ; and that dykes cutting volcanic cones 
 
88 
 
 are generally more compact and crystalline to- 
 wards their interior parts than towards their walls 
 or sides. It has been inferred from the appear- 
 ance and distribution of the ejected matters, that 
 many volcanic rocks have not been formed in the 
 atmosphere, but beneath seas, and that they have 
 been subsequently elevated. The ashes aud pum- 
 ice ejected from volcanoes seem to be, merely 
 the lighter substance floating on the surface of 
 the great fused and incandescent mass within, 
 produced by the action of elastic vapors, or by 
 the intumescence of that matter under diminished 
 pressure. The force required to eject such light 
 substances, is evidently far inferior to that nece- 
 sary for the propulsion of the more solid lava, 
 consequently the one is more common than the 
 other. 
 
 Volcanic substances vary from the lightest ash- 
 es to a highly crystalline rock, the intermediate 
 states being vitreous and of the character of 
 obsidian. 
 
 The quantity of minerals detected in volcanic 
 products is very great, a circumstance by no means 
 surprising, when we consider the various elemen- 
 tary substances acted upon by heat in the bowels 
 of a volcano, and having a tendency to combine 
 with each other in various ways. 
 
 The most abundant rock in New England which 
 appears to have a connection with volcanoes is 
 trap, or greenstone. This abounds throughout 
 the Connecticut valley, in the states of Massachu- 
 setts and Connecticut. It presents what are call' 
 ed mural fronts, of regular slope, from the vertex 
 
89 
 
 down to the ruins, which generally lie in large 
 masses below the columns. The form of this 
 rock is prismatic, and its cracking is vertical, so 
 that the water enters into it, freezes, expands, 
 and thus breaks down the walls. It is supposad 
 to have been once melted, and therefore a pro- 
 duction of internal fire. 
 
 There are marks of volcanic action in other 
 parts of the U. States, besides the Connecticut 
 valley. The trap rocks in the vicinity of Boston ; 
 in the State of New Hampshire ; the Palisadoes 
 on the Hudson, N. Y. and in some parts of the 
 Green Mountains in Vermont, indicate volcanic 
 influence at some remote period in the existence 
 of our planet. 
 
 Psuedo Volcanoes have been frequent in some 
 parts of our country, particularly in the vicinity 
 of iron and copper mines. Probably occasioned 
 by the decomposition of Pyrites. 
 
 H2 
 
On Earthquakes. 
 
 Earthquakes and volcanoes may be considered 
 as different effects, produced by the agency of 
 subterranean fire. They frequently accompany 
 each other, and in most instances the first erup- 
 tion is preceded by an earthquake of greater or 
 less extent. They are more frequent in volcanic 
 districts than any other, though they are not pe- 
 culiar to those districts. 
 
 PROGNOSTICS. 
 
 An uncommon agitation of the waters of the 
 ocean and lakes ; ejection of mud from springs, 
 accompanied with a fetid odour. Air generally 
 calm. Animals discover much alarm and appear 
 to be instinctively aware of approaching calamity. 
 A deep rumbling noise like carriages over a rough 
 pavement, a rushing sound like wind, or a tre- 
 mendous explosion like that of artillery, immedi- 
 ately precede the shock, which suddenly heaves 
 the ground upwards, or tosses it from side to side 
 with violent and successive vibrations. 
 
91 
 
 One shock seldom lasts more than a minute, 
 but is frequently succeeded by others of greater, 
 or less violence, which for a considerable time 
 continue to agitate the surface of the earth. 
 
 During these shocks, large chasms are frequent- 
 ly made in the earth, through which flame and 
 smoke issue ; these sometimes break out where 
 no chasms can be perceived. Frequently stones 
 arid torrents of water are ejected from these open- 
 ings. Cities have sunk down or been engulphed 
 in those openings, and a stagnant lake has occu- 
 pied the situation. 
 
 In some instances, the extent of the effects of 
 earthquakes is very great. During the earth- 
 quake of Lisbon 1774, almost all the springs and 
 lakes in Britain, and every part of Europe and 
 some parts of the United States were violently 
 agitated, and the waters of Lake Ontario, were 
 violently troubled at the same time. Hence we 
 conclude that there are subterranean communi- 
 cations under large portions of the globe, and 
 that large quantities of elastic vapour are gene- 
 rated and endeavoring to escape. The gas ap- 
 pears to be hydrogen or sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 In some instances it may be steam which con- 
 densing would produce a vacuum, and cause the 
 external air to press downwards. 
 
 It is highly probable that every extensive earth- 
 quake is succeeded by a volcanic eruption more 
 or less distant. 
 
 The cause of earthquakes and volcanic erup- 
 tions is deeply seated below the surface of the 
 earth. On the same day on which Lisbon was 
 
92 
 
 nearly destroyed by an earthquake one fourth of 
 the northern hemisphere felt the shock, including 
 all Europe, a great part of northern Africa, the 
 United States and West Indies. The bed of the 
 Atlantic was raised above the surface of the ocean, 
 in many places, and flames and vapour were dis- 
 charged; this was observed by vessels at sea. 
 
 The cause which must produce a simultaneous 
 concussion over such a vast extent, must proba- 
 bly be seated about midway between the surface, 
 and centre of the earth. 
 
 Earthquakes in general are more severely felt 
 in mountainous than in low countries. 
 
 All the phenomena that accompany earth- 
 quakes indicate the intense operation of elastic 
 vapour, expanding and endeavoring to escape 
 where the least resistance is presented, and pro- 
 ducing vibrations of the solid strata. 
 
 The horrid crash like the rattling of carriages, 
 which precedes earthquakes, may be occasioned 
 by the rending of the rocks, or parting of the strata 
 through which the confined vapour is forcing a 
 passage. 
 
 If there be a central fire under every part of 
 the globe, or if certain spaces only are filled with 
 igneous matter, we can scarcely doubt that chem- 
 ical changes are continually going on, which will 
 also change the electrical relations between min- 
 eral beds. A series of strata may act like the 
 plates of an immense voltaic battery, and dis- 
 charge the electricity from one part of the globe 
 to another, creating vibrations that may agitate 
 a whole hemisphere. Subterranean thunder is 
 
93 
 
 often heard in the district of the Andes and the 
 Himmelah mountains which are followed by earth- 
 quakes. 
 
 Earthquakes and volcanoes appear to be the 
 great agents employed by the Author of Nature, 
 to bring about the present condition of our planet 
 for the convenience and sustenance of man, to 
 elevate new and submerge ancient continents, 
 and to renovate the surface of the globe, every 
 where. And as these changes are universal, they 
 must have happened ages ago before the crea- 
 tion of man ; for it would have been impossible, 
 constituted as man is, for him to have existed dur- 
 ing the phenomenon. 
 
 Although it can be demonstrated that the world 
 is not eternal, yet a long period must have elapsed 
 before man could have existed, constituted as he 
 now is ; therefore, we infer, that the six days of 
 creation must have been periods of indefinite 
 duration, notwithstanding we acknowledge the 
 Mosaic account to be correct, viz. " In the be- 
 ginning, God created the heavens and the earth," 
 and established laws for the government thereof, 
 under His direction. For to suppose a law, 
 would be to suppose a law-giver, and an executor, 
 otherwise, the law is a nullity. Matter cannot 
 contain in itself a law and an executor. Inert 
 matter can have no design, or motive. 
 
The Sea amd the Atmosphere. 
 
 The ocean and the atmosphere have undoubt- 
 edly both contributed to produce changes in the 
 surface of the globe. 
 
 Nearly three fourths of the surface of the globe 
 is assigned to the water. 
 
 Although the land rises considerably above the 
 level of the sea, yet in reality it is but slightly re- 
 moved above the level, when considered as it 
 should be in reference to the radius of the earth. 
 
 The superfices of the Pacific ocean alone, is 
 estimated at somewhat greater than that of the 
 whole dry land. 
 
 Dry land can only be considered as so much of 
 the rough surface of our globe as may happen 
 for the time being to be above the water, beneath 
 which it may disappear as it has done at various 
 times. 
 
 The mean depth of the ocean has been vari- 
 ously estimated at between two and three miles, 
 
 The mean height of the dry land above the 
 ocean level does not exceed two miles. 
 
95 
 
 Therefore, assuming two miles for the mean 
 depth of the ocean, the water occupying three 
 fourths of the earth's surface, the present dry land 
 might be distributed over the bottom of the ocean, 
 in such a manner that the globe might present a 
 mass of water. With this at command, every va- 
 riety of the superficial distribution of land and 
 water may be imagined, consequently every vari- 
 ety of organic life, each suited to the various sit- 
 uations and climates under which it would be 
 placed. 
 
 Masses of salt water are sometimes included in 
 the dry land, which have been called Caspians, 
 from the Caspian sea, the largest body of internal 
 salt water. These have no visible communica- 
 tion with the ocean. 
 
 No measurement by soundings has exceeded 
 one mile and a quarter. 
 
 The ocean has not always occupied its present 
 bed* for rocks almost entirely composed of the 
 shells or remains of marine animals are found in 
 almost every country that has been explored ; and 
 on the summits of high mountains, some of which 
 rise more than two miles above the level of the 
 sea. 
 
 The whole body of the ocean is composed of 
 salt water, which does not vary materially in com- 
 position. 
 
 The gravity and pressure of the sea are of great 
 consequence in accounting for many geological 
 phenomena ; for as the pressure increases with 
 the depth, effects, which would be possible at one 
 depth, would be impossible at another. Thus, 
 
96 
 
 from experiment, it is found, that carbonate of 
 lime may be fused by heat, without the loss of its 
 carbonic acid, if subjected to great pressure, snch 
 as exists at the bottom of the deep ocean. 
 
 The compressibility of water is found to be 51. 
 3, million ths of its volume for a pressure equal 
 to one atmosphere, it follows then, that at great 
 depths and beneath a great pressure of the ocean, 
 a given quantity of water will occupy less space 
 than on the surface, and will consequently by this, 
 circumstance alone, have its specific gravity great- 
 ly increased. 
 
 In former periods^ the waters of the ocean cov- 
 ered the summits of some of the highest moun^ 
 tains ; we are thus irresistibly compelled to ad- 
 mit, either that the sea has retired and sunk far 
 below its former level, or that some power ope- 
 rating from beneath has lifted up the islands and 
 continents, with their hills and mountains, to their 
 present elevation above the ocean. 
 
 The atmosphere which surrounds the earth and 
 is at the height of at least forty five miles, does 
 not concern the Geologist so much as the Natu- 
 ral philosopher, in his investigations, except as an 
 agent in wearing down the solid surface of mod- 
 erate elevations, as well as rocks, hills and moun- 
 tains, by the precipitation of rain, and by change 
 of temperature. The wearing down of moun- 
 tains by rain, and decomposition of the mineral 
 substances by exposure to the atmosphere, afford 
 frequent opportunities for observing that the min- 
 eral substances of which they are composed are 
 of different kinds. 
 
97 
 
 The atmosphere has undoubtedly undergone 
 great changes since the creation. The revolu- 
 tions and changes to which the earth was subject- 
 ed in the first epochs of creation might have 
 been designed to prepare the atmosphere by nice- 
 ly balancing its two constituents, oxygen and ni- 
 trogen, so as to render it fit for the free and salu- 
 tary respiration of animals. 
 
 If the globe was an ignited fluid mass, in the be- 
 ginning, then all the aqueous particles that form 
 the ocean, and all the more volatile mineral sub- 
 stances would have existed in the form of vapour, 
 and would have constituted a dense, or nebulous 
 medium of vast extent, similar to the atmosphere 
 of a comet. By refrigeration, the volatile mine- 
 ral matter would become concrete, and the aque- 
 ous particles precipitated, until the constitution of 
 the atmosphere became fitted for the support of 
 animal life. And it is probable, that the animals 
 of the earliest creation were constituted to breathe 
 a denser atmosphere than the present one. Such 
 an atmosphere would, in a considerable degree, 
 equalize the mean temperature of the earth, and 
 the excess of moisture and carbonic acid gas, 
 would also be favorable to the rapid develope- 
 ment of vegetable organization. 
 v*- The earth has evidently been gradually cooling 
 for ages ; some have supposed that the time would 
 arrive when it would be actually and universally 
 frozen, that is, when it ceases to radiate heat. 
 This supposition is unchemical, for it can radiate 
 no longer than until there is an equilibrium be- 
 tween the atmosphere and the interior of the 
 
98 
 
 earth. This equilibrium may be restored without 
 effecting very materially the present temperature 
 of the surface. 
 
 On the Formation of Soils. 
 
 Soil, on which vegetation of different kinds 
 flourishes, is formed by the decomposition of the 
 harder strata, and of animal and vegetable sub- 
 stances occasionally mixed with it. 
 
 A due proportion of the different ingredients is 
 requisite to the fertility of the soil. 
 
 The disintegration of mountains and the filling 
 up of valleys are designed by the great Author of 
 Nature, for the support of the vegetable tribes, 
 and these, in their turn, for the support of animals, 
 who, in their turn, shall administer to the support 
 of man. 
 
 The quality of the soil depends on the nature 
 of the rocks from which it is formed ; those rocks 
 
99 
 
 which decompose the most readily form the most 
 fertile soils. 
 
 Granite and siliceous rocks form sandy soils. 
 Argillaceous rocks form stiff clay soils, and cal- 
 careous rocks, when mixed, with clay form marl, 
 but when not covered by other strata, they form 
 a transient but nutritious soil. 
 
 For a productive soil, the due intermixture of 
 the three earths, lime, sand and clay is necessary. 
 The oxide of iron appears also requisite. 
 
 Different vegetables require different admix- 
 tures of earth. They require it, first, because it 
 is necessary for their growth that the soil should 
 be sufficiently stiff and deep to keep them firm in 
 their places ; secondly, that it should not be too 
 stiff to prohibit the expansion and growth of 
 their roots ; and, lastly, that it should supply them 
 with a constant quantity of water, in due propor- 
 tions. 
 
 By imitating nature, by observing the soils in 
 which uncultivated plants grow luxuriantly, we 
 may obtain advantageous results, and acquire 
 certain fixed principles to guide us in our attempts 
 to bring barren soils into a state of profitable cul- 
 tivation. 
 
 When rocks contain silex, clay and lime, they 
 form soils whose fertility may be considered per- 
 manent. 
 
 The small portion of earths and alkalies which 
 plants contain, are, in all probability, formed from 
 a process of vegetation, from more simple elements 
 as the earths and alkalies are compound sub- 
 stances. 
 
100 
 
 The principal elements found in plants are, 
 hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. Hydrogen and 
 oxygen exist in the proportion to form water. 
 By volume 2, hydrogen 1 , oxygen ; by weight, 88. 
 9, oxygen, 11.1, hydrogen nearly. 
 
 Water and the atmosphere contain in them- 
 selves, or in solution, all the elements for the 
 support and growth of vegetables. But most 
 soils are either too wet, or too dry, too loose, or 
 too adhesive, to admit plants to extract these 
 elements, in the proportions necessary to their 
 growth. 
 
 Manures, by furnishing in great abundance the 
 Hydrogen, Carbon and Nitrogen, which plants 
 require, supply the deficiency. 
 
 In proportion as soils possess a due degree of 
 tenacity, and power of retaining and absorbing 
 heat and moisture, the necessity for a supply of 
 manure is diminished ; and in some instances the 
 earths are so combined as to render the applica- 
 tion of manure unnecessary. 
 
 In general the character of a soil depends more 
 upon the nature and amount of vegetable and 
 animal matter it contains, than upon the nature 
 of its other ingredients. 
 
 Alluvial meadows have always been celebrated 
 for their fertility, because they are a deposite from 
 water, of the finest and richest portion of every 
 soil over which the waters have passed. 
 
 Diluvium is the most unfriendly to fertility, and 
 requires abundant manuring. 
 
 New red sand stone is easily disintegrated, and 
 affords a good soil for some kind of vegetables, 
 
101 
 
 especially that part denominated red marl ; this 
 forms an excellent soil for wheat, rye, barley, 
 beans, &c. It is also peculiarly well adapted for 
 fruit. 
 
 Argillaceous slate and greywacke afford by 
 decomposition a black, or dark colored soil, this 
 though cold, is capable of being made very fertile 
 and is peculiarly well adapted for onions and 
 many other garden vegetables. 
 
 Oxide of iron when not in too great proportion, 
 when mixed with other ingredients, affords a pro- 
 ductive soil. 
 
 Limestone, when decomposed, affords a good 
 soil. 
 
 Talcose and Mica slate do not afford a produc- 
 tive soil by decomposition. 
 
 Gneiss affords a strong productive soil, espec- 
 ially when the rock contains iron. 
 
 Greenstone by decomposition affords a fertile 
 soil, probably, in a great measure, owing to the 
 iron. 
 
 Granite and Sienite afford a superior soil, it is 
 generally strong and retentive of moisture. It is 
 usually of a dark color and fine texture. 
 
 Lime is the only earth, either carbonate or sul- 
 phate, that has been generally used to mix with 
 soils. 
 
 It is considered by agriculturists in general, 
 as a manure, but its operation as such is very im- 
 perfectly understood. Burnt lime, when caustic, 
 destroys undecomposed vegetable matter, and re- 
 duces it to mould ; so far its use is intelligible. 
 It combines, also, with vegetable and mineral 
 i2 
 
102 
 
 acids in the soil which might be injurious to vege- 
 tation ; here its operation is likewise intelligible ; 
 but if we assert, that when burnt lime has absorded 
 carbonic acid and becomes mild, it gives out its 
 carbon again to roots of plants, we assume a fact, 
 which we have neither experiments nor analogies 
 to support. The utility of lime in decomposing 
 vegetable matter and neutralizing acids is obvious, 
 but its other uses are not so obvious ; except we 
 admit that it acts mechanically on the soil, and 
 renders the clay, or sand with which it is inter- 
 mixed, better adapted to the proper expansion of 
 the ro'ots, and more disposed to modify the power 
 of retaining, or absorbing the requisite degree of 
 heat and moisture, which particular ingredients 
 may demand. 
 
 The temperature requisite for the growth of 
 plants is influenced by the power of different soils 
 to absorb and retain heat from the solar rays, 
 which depends much upon the moisture and tenac- 
 ity of the soil. Rich or clayey soils absorb heat 
 slowly, and part with it again more reluctantly 
 than the calcareous soils, owing to the greater 
 quantity of moisture in the clay, which is an im- 
 perfect conductor of heat. Hence the vegetation 
 of grasses in the spring is much sooner on lime- 
 stone and sandy soils, if not extremely barren, 
 than on clayey, or deep rich soils ; and the differ- 
 ence is more than reversed in the autumn. 
 
 It is important that every person intending to 
 purchase a farm, should understand the Geological 
 formations in and around it. In this way, only, 
 he can form a correct judgment of the produc- 
 
103 
 
 tiveness of the soil ; and save much expense and 
 disappointment, to which those who are ignorant 
 of the principles of Geology are continually liable. 
 He can ascertain pretty accurately, the quantity 
 of labor and money that will be necessary to be 
 expended to bring his farm into successful culti- 
 vation, and the vegetables that are peculiarly 
 adapted to the soil, which will yield a luxuriant 
 produce. 
 
 Of Organic Remains. 
 
 Organic remains are those remains of animals 
 or vegetables found imbedded in strata of differ- 
 ent ages. In general they differ from animals and 
 vegetables now existing. 
 
 They are generally colored by the strata in 
 which they are imbedded. 
 
 Some animal remains contain the most delicate 
 fibres perfect and unbroken, which seems to prove 
 that the mineral matter in which they are depos- 
 
104 
 
 ited was in a finely comminuted state, in a tran- 
 quil sea. In some instances, the most delicate 
 shells are regularly arranged, so that their genera 
 are readily determined. While in others, they 
 are broken and confused. These facts are of 
 immense geological importance, as they mark in 
 a striking manner, the convulsions which the 
 globe has undergone at different periods. 
 
 Some of the more delicately constructed ani- 
 mals, and even fish whose bodies are found entire, 
 imbedded in stone, appear to have been instantan- 
 eously destroyed and 'enveloped in the mineral 
 matter before the putrefactive process had com- 
 menced. The petrifaction must, in some instan- 
 ces, immediately have commenced after death. 
 
 All animals are distributed according to their 
 organization, into four grand divisions : Verte- 
 brated, Moluscous, Articulated and Radiated. 
 
 1. Vertebrated, having a skull containing the 
 brain, and a spine or back bone, containing the 
 principal trunk of the nervous system, commonly 
 called the spinal marrow. This division compris- 
 es the Mammalia, or such as suckle their young, 
 and birds, reptiles, and fishes ; the latter are called 
 oviparous animals, such as produce their young 
 from an egg. Viviparous, bring forth their young 
 alive. 
 
 2. Moluscous, animals which have no internal 
 skeleton, the muscles are attached to the skin, 
 which, in many species, is covered with a shell. 
 The nervous system and viscera are composed of 
 detached masses, united by nervous filaments, 
 they possess only the sense of feeling, taste and 
 
105 
 
 sight, but some want the latter. They have a 
 complete system of circulation, and particular or- 
 gans for respiration. Animals with bivalve, uni- 
 valve and chambered shells, are of this division, 
 such as oysters, muscles, nautulus, &c.; some are 
 destitute of a shell. 
 
 3. Articulated. In this division are compre- 
 hended crustaceous animals and insects ; their 
 nervous system consists of two long chords, rang- 
 ing along the body, and swelling out in different 
 parts into ganglions and knots. Worms, having 
 their bodies composed of rings are called anneli- 
 des; they have red blood; some species inhabit 
 a calcareous tube, supposed to be formed by ex- 
 udation. 
 
 4. Radiated, the animals which were formerly 
 called zoophytes, or animal plants, as the coral- 
 lines which were long mistaken for marine vege- 
 tables. The organ of sense and motion are dis- 
 posed circularly, around a centre, or axis ; des- 
 titute of nervous system, circulation obscure. 
 Many have no power of locomotion, as madre- 
 pores and encrinites, others as echinus, possess 
 a very complex organization, and the power of 
 moving from place to place on their spines, which 
 serve as feet. 
 
 The radiated animals have left their remains 
 disposed in the transition strata ; and they afford 
 us the most ancient history of animated nature ; 
 they are likewise found in some of the upper se- 
 ries of limestone. 
 
 The pentacrinus makes its first distinct appear- 
 ance in the lias. 
 
106 
 
 Articulated animals, some of the annelides in- 
 habiting tubes are found in the upper seconda- 
 ry and tertiary strata, crustaceous animals, crab; 
 &c., are found in the upper secondary and ter- 
 tiary strata ; they are more common in chalk and 
 in beds of clay covering chalk. The Trilobite is 
 found in slate, and may be considered as one of 
 the oldest inhabitants of the globe, cotemporan- 
 eous with radiated animals. It had three longi- 
 tudinal lobes, with transverse fins, something like 
 those under the tail of a lobster. The genus is 
 supposed to be extinct. 
 
 Articulated animals have supplied the smallest 
 number of organic remains. 
 
 Moluscous animals. Bivalve shells occur in 
 transition limestone, but rarely ; some chambered 
 shells are also found in transition limestone ; bi- 
 valves and univalves are abundant in the lower 
 secondary series. Also chambered shells, such 
 as nautilites and ammonites abound in the sec- 
 ondary and chalk formation ; but no ammonites 
 are found in the strata above chalk. 
 
 Top shaped spiral univalve shells first appear 
 in the lower secondary series, but become more 
 numerous in the upper. 
 
 In the tertiary strata, the species of univalve 
 shells greatly exceed the bivalve. The organic 
 remains of shells in the tertiary strata bear a 
 nearer resemblance to moluscous animals living 
 in our present seas, than those found in more an- 
 cient strata. 
 
 Vertebrate A Animals, are arranged under four 
 classes. Fishes, reptiles, birds and mammiferous 
 
107 
 
 animals. Remains of fishes are rare in transition 
 rocks ; but are found in abundance in the lower 
 secondary strata. In some instances the entire 
 bodies are well preserved, also the bones, scales, 
 palates and vertebrae are found in the upper sec- 
 ondary and tertiary strata. 
 
 In the lower secondary are found entire skele- 
 tons of animals belonging to the Saurian or liz- 
 ard tribe> and are very abundant in an argilla- 
 ceous limestone called lias, and in the beds of 
 clay that are over it. Many of these are differ- 
 ent from any known genera now existing, and 
 were inhabitants of the ocean, being furnished 
 with paddles instead of feet, such as the Ichthy- 
 osaurus and Plesiosaurus. Other saurian animals 
 having feet, allied to the present genera of lizards 
 and crocodiles, they were evidently amphibious ; 
 these are found between the lias and chalk. The 
 Iguanodon is found in this series ; it was of the 
 Saurian tribe and gigantic size, being eighty feet 
 in length ; and the thickness of the body equaling 
 that of the elephant. It is supposed to have been 
 herbivorous. 
 
 The remains of birds are rare in any of the 
 strata. 
 
 Animals of the Mammalia class occur in the 
 tertiary strata, and in beds of gravel and clay. 
 Cetaceous animals allied to the Whale and Seal ? 
 occasionally occur in the tertiary strata. The 
 bones of mammiferous land quadrupeds occur in 
 the upper part of the tertiary strata ; they are 
 more frequently found in beds of clay and gravel. 
 Seventy different species of land quadrupeds ac* 
 
108 
 
 cording to Cuvier, have been found in the tertiary 
 strata near Paris. Nearly forty of these are of 
 species no longer existing, and several belong to 
 extinct genera. 
 
 Neither the bones of man or monkeys have 
 been found with those of the more ancient inhabi- 
 tants of the globe. 
 
 The animal remains found in transition are al- 
 most exclusively marine, hence we could not have 
 inferred that any portion of the globe was dry 
 land, when these deposites were made. In some 
 of the slate rocks however, a few remains of ter- 
 restial plants nearly allied to ferns are found, 
 which indicate the existence of some tracts of dry 
 land, or islands at that remote period. 
 
 As we ascend from the lower to the upper 
 strata, a progression from imperfect to more per- 
 fect forms of vegetables, is evident. In transition 
 slate are found algae, or sea weed, and a few fronds 
 or leaves of ferns. 
 
 Coal measures abound in vegetable remains. 
 As Ferns, Equisetae, Lycopodiae, Palms and canes 
 or reeds. 
 
 In the secondary class are found an higher 
 species of ferns and Lycopodige, and the Coniferae 
 and Cycodeae. 
 
 In the tertiary beds are found pi ants of an high- 
 er order still, which are rarely if ever found in 
 the secondary veins, such as the perfect plants, 
 trees, &c. 
 
 It appears that the devastating effects accom- 
 panying the vast changes which this planet has 
 undergone, were so extensive, that not only some 
 
109 
 
 species of quadrupeds were entirely removed, of 
 some genera, such as the elephant, rhinoceros 
 and hippopotamus, of which other species still 
 remain ; but that other genera, such as Mastodon, 
 Palseotherium and Anoplotherium were complete- 
 ly annihilated. 
 
 These changes in the state of the plants, and 
 this partial destruction of quadrupeds, appear to 
 have been succeeded by the creation of man, and 
 of such quadrupeds and other animals as were fit 
 inhabitants of the earth after its last change. But 
 man did not retain his dominion uninterrupted 
 long. The scriptures teach us that a flood of 
 waters was brought upon the earth which pre- 
 vailed on it for an hundred and fifty days, and by 
 which the whole race was nearly destroyed. The 
 Mosaic account of this deluge has, however, been 
 doubted, from the total absence of the fossil re- 
 mains of man. But a reference will shew, that 
 no circumstances are stated in that account which 
 will authorize the supposition, that the deluge was 
 accompanied with such subversive violence, as 
 would bury its victims in those situations which 
 would dispose to the mineralization and conse- 
 quent preservation of their remains. 
 
 The assumption of successive creations with 
 accordant changes in the, state of the earth, does 
 not agree literally, with the Mosaic account of 
 creation, as commonly received. The facts, holv- 
 ever, appear to be as they are stated, and cannot 
 be controverted on philosophical and geological 
 principles. They are in perfect accordance with 
 the laws of nature, which* have ever been under 
 
110 
 
 the guidance of Infinite Wisdom. It must, there- 
 fore be, that we have misinterpreted, or misun- 
 derstood the sacred history. Or, may not the 
 days of creation be considered as epochs of indefi- 
 nite duration ? As the Hebrew word for day is of- 
 ten so translated in the Scriptures. 
 
 This system of successive creations fitted to 
 the existing state of the planet, appears not only 
 not to derogate from the wisdom and power of 
 the Almighty, but to be perfectly in accordance 
 with the agency of Providence, as taught by the 
 Author of our religion. The world is seen in its 
 formation and continuance, constantly under the 
 providence of Almighty God, without whose 
 knowledge, not a sparrow falls to the ground. 
 
 Under these impressions we view the results of 
 these several changes and creations, as manifest- 
 ing the prescience, power and benevolence of our 
 Great Creator. The general form of the earth's 
 surface, varied by the distribution of hills and val- 
 leys, and of land and water ; the prodigious accu- 
 mulation of coal derived from vegetables of a for- 
 mer creation, and the accompanying slates and 
 schists ; the useful, durable and often beautiful, 
 encrinitical and shelly limestones ; the immense 
 formations of chalk and flints, and the various 
 series of clays ; all evince a careful providence 
 in the wants of man. The several breaks and 
 faults in the stratified masses, and the various in- 
 clinations of the different strata, as well as the 
 vast abruptions by which these various substances 
 are brought to the hand of man, may be regarded 
 as most beneficent provisions resulting from ca- 
 
Ill 
 
 tastrophes too vast and tremendous for human in- 
 tellect to comprehend. 
 
 From these several creations, it appears that 
 beings have proceeded, gradually increasing in 
 superiority from testaceous animals to reptiles, 
 fish, marine and fresh water animals, quadrupeds, 
 and lastly, man, who, in his turn, is destined, with 
 the earth he inhabits, to pass away, and be suc- 
 ceeded by a new heaven and a new earth. 
 
VOCABULARY, 
 
 Or Explanation of Terms used in Geology. 
 
 A. 
 
 Abbreviated, shortened. 
 
 Abdominal, relating to the cavity 
 of the belly. 
 
 Abrupt, terminating suddenly. 
 
 Acaulis, applied to vegetable fos- 
 sil remains, destitute of stems. 
 
 Acephalous, without a head,aterm 
 applied to those shell fish who 
 are destitute of a head, as the 
 oysters &c. 
 
 dicotyledonous, plants destitute 
 of seed lobes, and which put 
 forth no seminal or seed leaves. 
 
 Accessory, additional. 
 
 Accuminate, abruptly sharp 
 pointed. 
 
 Acute, sharp pointed. 
 
 Acute angle, an angle less than 
 ninety degrees. 
 
 Acute Octohedron, where the 
 base of the plane is shorter 
 than the two sides. 
 
 Acute Rhomboid, where the three 
 planes meet at the apex, under 
 an acute angle. 
 
 Adamantine Spar, crystallized 
 alumine. 
 
 Adhesive, sticking, tenacious. 
 
 Adherent, fixed to solid bodies. 
 
 Adnate, growing firmly together. 
 
 Aiguilles, needle shaped strata, 
 or deposites. 
 
 Alcyonia, zoophytes nearly al- 
 lied to sponges, the habitation 
 of polypi. 
 JJ 
 
 Alluvial, or alluvium, a term ap- 
 plied to substances brought 
 down by rains, and deposited 
 from fresh water. 
 
 Alveolate, having large cells. 
 
 Alternations, reciprocal depos- 
 ites, as layers of quartz and An- 
 thracite, in coal beds. 
 
 Alumine, pure clay, the base of 
 alum. 
 
 Ammonites, so named from Ju- 
 piter Ammon, a univalve spiral 
 shell, the whorls, or turns are 
 all distinct, and in the same 
 plane, and the cells are very 
 small ; variety of species; an 
 extinct genus. 
 
 Amphibole, hornblende. 
 
 Amphitrite, a tubular elongated, 
 cylindrical shell, attenuated at 
 the base. 
 
 Amphibious, living both on the 
 land and in the water. 
 
 Amygdaloid, rocks containing 
 kernel shaped cavities filled 
 with mineral matter of a differ- 
 ent kind. 
 
 Ananchytes, an helmet shaped 
 echinus. 
 
 Angle of Inclination, the angle 
 which strata make with the 
 horizon. 
 
 Anomites, a term applied to cer- 
 tain fossil shells, with two 
 valves, where one valve is per- 
 forated. 
 
114 
 
 Anhydrous, destitute of water, a Jlreola, or posterior slope, when 
 
 term applied to rocks contain- 
 ing no water. 
 
 Jlngiosp ermes, plants whose 
 seeds are enclosed, or covered. 
 
 Angular, forming angles. 
 
 Anoplotherium, an extraordinary 
 fossil quadruped found in the 
 Paris gypsum, it was destitute 
 of canine teeth. 
 
 Annual, continuing butone j'ear. 
 
 Annular, in the form of a ring. 
 
 Annuli, applied to the muscular 
 fibres which surround the bod- 
 ies of some animals like rings. 
 
 Anomalous i irregular, or whatev- 
 er forms an exception to the 
 general rule. 
 
 Antennce, organs of touch, situa- 
 ted near the mouth of insects, 
 having many joints. 
 
 Anthracite, coal which burns 
 without flame or smoke. 
 
 Anticlinal line, a line traced on 
 the surface of a country to shew 
 
 where the strata dip in oppo- 
 site directions. 
 
 Antimony, one of the brittle met- 
 als. 
 
 Apetalous, without petals. 
 
 Apex, the top, or summit. 
 
 Apopbysis, an excrescence, 
 projection. 
 
 Oppressed, closely pressed, 
 
 Approximate, approaching each 
 other. 
 
 Apterous, without wings. 
 
 -Aqua Marine, the Beryl, 
 
 Aquatic, living in the water. 
 
 .Arborescent, resembling a shrub. 
 
 Argil, clay. 
 
 Argillaceous, containing a large 
 portion of clay. 
 
 Argillite, clay slate, roof slate, 
 cyphering slate. 
 
 Area, or anterior slope, a term 
 applied to shells, that on which 
 the ligament is placed. 
 
 applied to a shell the side of 
 the back opposite to the liga- 
 ment. 
 
 Arenaceous, of a sandy consis- 
 tence. 
 
 Arched Strata, curved, bowed, 
 
 Artesian [Veils, wells of water 
 made by boring into strata. 
 
 Articulated, jointed, or one part 
 growing on another. 
 
 Jlsphaltum, mineral pitch. 
 
 Attenuated, tapering to a point, 
 or edge, thin. 
 
 Jlugite, a black mineral resem- 
 bling in appearance hornblende 
 but differs in crystallization. 
 
 Jluriferous, applied to a rock con- 
 taining gold. 
 
 B. 
 
 Baculile, a fossil straight cham- 
 bered shell, the chambers sep- 
 arated bv sinuous septce. 
 
 Bagshot $and, marine sand. 
 
 Balkstone, an impure stratified 
 
 Limestone. 
 
 Basalt, a species of Trap rock 
 supposed to be of volcanic ori- 
 gin. It is unoonformable. 
 
 Basanite, a species of flinty slate. 
 
 Beaks, the summits of bivalve 
 shells. 
 
 Belemnites, a conical or fusiform 
 stone, of brown radiating spar, 
 generally terminating at the 
 small end in a point ; and hav- 
 ing at the lar^e end a conical 
 cavity, naturally containing a 
 testaceous body, divided into 
 chambers by plain concave 
 septa3 and pierced by a siyhun- 
 cle. 
 
 Binder clunch, argillaceous beds 
 in coal strata. 
 
 Bitter Spar, Rhomb spar. 
 
 Bitumen, an inflammable mine- 
 ral substance composed of car-? 
 bon and hydrogen. 
 
115 
 
 Bituminous, partaking of the na- 
 ture of bitumen. 
 
 Bivalve, two valves, as the clam 
 and oyster. 
 
 Black W add t an ore of manga- 
 nese. 
 
 Bladed, Resembling the blade of 
 a knife. 
 
 Blende, sulphuret of zinc. 
 
 Blue John, Fluate of lime. 
 
 Botryoidal, a mineral presenting 
 an aggregate of sections of nu- 
 merous small globules, like a 
 bunch of grapes, as some spe- 
 cies of chalcedony. 
 
 Breccia, angular fragments of 
 different rocks cemented to- 
 gether. 
 
 Bucardium, a univalve shell, the 
 animal puts out a triangular 
 body formed of two pipes, or 
 tubes, seperated and flat, but 
 which becomes round as the 
 water enters by the lower tube, 
 and goes out at the upper one. 
 These tubes are surrounded 
 with hairs. 
 
 Buccinum, a univalve shell, the 
 animal has a head with two 
 eyes, and a trunk resembling 
 the trunk of an elephant ; with 
 this trunk it seizes its food. It 
 crawls upon a fleshy foot, near 
 the end of which is an horny 
 substance, called an operculum 
 that serves as a door to close 
 the shell, when the animal 
 withdraws into it. 
 
 Calamites, fossil reeds. 
 
 Calcareous, belonging to lime. 
 
 Carbon, charcoal, coal, diamond. 
 
 Carbonate of Lime . Limestone. 
 
 Carboniferous, rocks allied to the 
 coal formation. 
 
 Calp, an argillaceous ferruge- 
 neous limestone. 
 
 Cawk, sulphate of Barytes. 
 
 Cellular, full of pores, or round- 
 
 ed cavities. 
 
 Chert, hornstone. 
 
 Chlorite, a stone nearly allied to 
 talc, of a greenish color and 
 soapy feel. 
 
 Cleavage, a term applied to those 
 minerals which have a natural 
 fracture, and which cleave in 
 the direction of that fracture. 
 
 Clinkstone, an imperfect slato 
 containing hornblende, which 
 rings like metal, when struck 
 with a hammer. 
 
 Cols, depressions in mountain 
 ranges. 
 
 Conchoidal, resembling a shell. 
 
 Conchology, the science of shells. 
 
 Conglomerates, large fragments 
 of stone whether rounded or 
 angular, and imbedded in other 
 minerals. 
 
 Contemporaneous^ formed at the 
 same time. 
 
 Contorted, twisted. 
 
 Coral, and coralline, species of 
 limestone formed by polypi. 
 
 Corneous, resembling horn. 
 
 Cornitiferous Limestone, a spe- 
 cies of limestone embracing 
 hornstone. 
 
 Cretaceous, chalky. 
 
 Crustacea, a genus of animals 
 which have a shell like a Lob- 
 ster, or crab &c. 
 
 Cuneiform, wedge form. 
 
 Curved Strata, where the Strata 
 encircle the mountain like a 
 mantle. 
 
 D. 
 
 Debris, fragments. 
 
 Degradation, wearing away. 
 
 Dendritic, assuming the form of 
 a tree or shrub. 
 
 Denudations, strata which have 
 been laid bare by some foreign 
 agent. 
 
 Detritus, rubbish. 
 
 Diabase, Greenstone, 
 
116 
 
 Diallage, crystallized serpentine. 
 Dicotyledonous, those plants 
 
 which have seed with two lobes 
 
 as the bean. 
 'Diluvium or Diluvion, deposites 
 
 made by Deluges. 
 Disintegration, crumbling to 
 
 pieces. 
 Divergent, spreading out from 
 
 a centre. 
 
 der threads. 
 
 Fire Damp, carburetted hydro- 
 gen gas. 
 
 Floetz, a term applied to rocks 
 which lie parallel. 
 
 Fluor Spar, fluate of lime. 
 
 Fluviatile, inhabiting'*rivers, or 
 belonging to fresh water. 
 
 Foliated or Foliaceous, like thin 
 leaves laid over each other. 
 
 Dolerite, a mineral composed of Formations, strata of contempo- 
 
 Feldspar and Augite. 
 Dolomite a magnesian limestone. 
 Druses, hollows in metallic veins. 
 
 E. 
 
 Earthy Composed of minute parts 
 resembling dried earth. 
 
 Eboulements, falling down of 
 rocks, &c. 
 
 Echinite, a fossil resembling the 
 echinus. 
 
 Echinus, Sea Urchin, which is 
 set with spines. 
 
 Elevation, height above the hor- 
 izon. 
 
 Encrinite, a radiated zoophyte, 
 one of the links between the 
 animal and vegetable kingdom. 
 
 Equilateral, sides equal. 
 
 Equivalents, the different rocks 
 which occur in the same geo- 
 logical position in distant dis- 
 tricts. 
 
 Equivalve, applied to shells, 
 where the valves are equal and 
 similar. 
 
 Escarpment, steepest side of a 
 mountain. 
 
 Eurite, a variety of granite in 
 which feldspar predominates. 
 
 Exserted, protruded. 
 F. 
 
 Facicular, applied to a species 
 of hornblende where the crys- 
 tals are in a bundle. 
 
 Falsiform, sickle shaped. 
 
 Faults, breaks in strata. 
 
 Fibrous, composed of long slen- 
 
 raneous origin. 
 
 Foss, or Fossa, a cavity. 
 
 Fossil, any organic remain. 
 
 Fusiform, spindle shaped. 
 
 Fuller's Earth, a species of clay 
 composed of silex, alumine, 
 magnesia } lime and oxide of 
 iron. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gait, a species of marl. 
 
 Geode, a hollow ball lined with 
 crystals. 
 
 Geodiferous, containing geodes. 
 
 Geology, a description of the in- 
 terior of the earth. 
 
 Globular structure, consisting of 
 rounded masses either detach- 
 ed or imbedded in rocks. 
 
 Gneiss, schistose, or slaty granite. 
 
 Gorgonia, the sea fan, a fixed 
 dendroidal polypifer composed 
 of a central axis and a cortici- 
 form crust. 
 
 Granite, a rock composed of 
 quartz, feldspar and mica. 
 
 Granular, composed of grains. 
 
 Green sand, arenaceous beds be- 
 low chalk. 
 
 Greenstone, or trap, a rock con- 
 taining a large portion of horn- 
 blende. 
 
 Greywacke, a rock composed of 
 a great variety of minerals and 
 cemented by an argillo sili- 
 ceous cement. 
 
 Gypsum, sulphate of Lime, 
 Plaster of Paris. 
 
117 
 
 H. 
 
 Hading, dipping of a metallic 
 vein. 
 
 Helix, shells of the snail family, 
 terrestrial and aquatic. 
 
 Hone, whetstone slate. 
 
 Hornblende Rock, composed 
 mostly of hornblende. 
 
 Hornstone, principally composed 
 of silex and alumine. 
 
 Hyaline, transparent like glass. 
 I & J. 
 
 Jasper, a very compact, hard 
 stone, composed mostly of alu- 
 mine, colored by iron. 
 
 Icthyosaurus, a fossil animal hav- 
 ing a head like a Dolphin, 
 the Saurian genus. 
 
 Jet, a substance found with coal 
 of the newest formation, and 
 sometimes with lignite and am- 
 ber. It is principally carbon. 
 
 Iguanodon, a fossil herbivorous 
 reptile. It is considered by 
 Cuvier, the most remarkable 
 animal yet discovered. It was, 
 in a living state, between sixty 
 and seventy feet in length. 
 
 Imbedded Rock, a bed of any 
 rock in a slate mountain, or in 
 any other stratum, where the 
 stratum is different from the 
 rock enclosed. 
 
 Incandescence, in the state of a 
 red heat. 
 
 Inclination of Strata the raised 
 situation of strata from a hori- 
 zontal position. 
 
 Intermediate Rocks, transition 
 rocks. 
 
 Intumescence, swe]Y\ng, puffed [up. 
 
 Inundations, 
 or Rivers. 
 
 Isocronous, in the same time. 
 
 Isothermal Lines, lines of equal 
 temperature. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kaolin, soft earthy feldspar 
 
 for porcelain. 
 L. 
 
 Lamella, a thin layer, or scale. 
 
 Lamellar Structure, slaty, or in 
 layers. 
 
 Lava, a volcanic product mostly 
 composed of felJspar. 
 
 Lenticular, in the form of a lens. 
 
 Leucite, a volcanic product com- 
 posed of silex, alumine and 
 potash. 
 
 Lias, argillaceous limestone. 
 Water setting lime. 
 
 Lignite, wood coal. 
 
 Lime, one of the earths ; its me- 
 tallic base is calcium, 
 of Limestone, a stone composed of 
 carbonic acid and lime. 
 
 Line of Bearing, a line drawn 
 lengthwise of the strata. 
 
 Line of Dip, aline drawn from 
 the outcrop of the strata down 
 to the horizon. 
 
 Lydian Stone, Touch stone. 
 Basanite. 
 
 M. 
 
 Madrepores, stony polypi, with 
 concentric lamellae in the form 
 of Stars ; in a living state, the 
 stony matter is covered with a 
 skin of living gelatinous mat- 
 ter, fringed with little bunches 
 of tentaculse ; these are the 
 polypi ; the skin and the poly- 
 pi contract on the slightest 
 touch. Madrepores are some- 
 times united and sometimes de- 
 tached; where the laminae take 
 a serpentine direction, they are 
 called Meandrina, or brain 
 stone, 
 overflowing of Seas Madreporites, stony madrepores. 
 
 Magnesia, one of tbe earths, a- 
 bounds in steatite and gives to 
 the rock a soapy feel, and the 
 property of resisting high de- 
 grees of temperature, 
 used Magnesian Limestone, Dolo- 
 
118 
 
 mite, a limestone containing! France and Germany, 
 magnesia, some specimens us- Muscle-bind, a stratum contain- 
 
 in j fresh water muscles. 
 
 N. 
 
 ed for water lime. 
 (Mammillary or Mammiferous, 
 
 covered with roundish protu-'.Nacre, like pearl. 
 
 berances. \Nacrile, a mineral resembling 
 
 Jtfanganese, one of the metals,; pearls. 
 
 found in the state of an oxide. \Nagil-flue> a term used in Swit- 
 
 tMarine, relating to the ocean. 
 
 Marl, a composition of calcare- 
 ous earth and clay. 
 
 Jdarly Clay, London clay. 
 
 Mustoden, the Mammoth, ac- 
 cording to Cuvier, it did not 
 
 zerland for sandstone conglom- 
 erate. 
 
 Norfolk-crag, the most recent of 
 
 the tertiary beds in England. 
 
 O. 
 
 Obsidian, volcanic glass, resemb- 
 
 exceed the elephant in height, ling green bottle glass. 
 but was rather longer in pro-Oolite, a calcareous rock, com- 
 posed of globules resembling 
 
 the roe of fish, the upper of the 
 
 portion, its limbs rather thicker 
 
 and its belly smaller. It ap- 
 pears to have had a trunk, and; secondary strata. 
 
 to have agreed with the e\e- Orbicular, globular. 
 
 phant in having tusks ; and in Organic, a term applied to ani- 
 
 the whole of its osteology except mal, or vegetable remains. 
 
 the teeth ; which differ so much 
 
 in every respect, as to forbic 
 
 their being placed in the same 
 
 genus. 
 Megalosawus, an enormous fos- 
 
 sil lizard, in some instances 
 
 the animal must have attainec 
 
 the length of forty feet, and to 
 
 have been eight feet high. 
 Mica. Isinglass, Muscovy glass. 
 Millstone grit, a sandstone con- 
 taining 
 
 quartz 
 
 angular grains oi 
 
 Molasse, soft tertiary sandstone 
 
 Moluscous, a term applied to sof 
 animals having no bones, as 
 the oyster and clarn. 
 
 Monitor, a large fossil animal 
 belonging to the Saurian genus. 
 
 Morains, piles of stones trans- 
 ported .by glaciers. 
 
 Mountain ^Limestone, 
 transition limestone. 
 
 upper 
 
 Mutchel kalk, a series of calca- 
 reous strata between the red 
 sand stone raid red marl, in 
 
 Osseous, relating to bone. 
 P. 
 
 Pachydermata,\.\\\ck skinned animal*. 
 
 Partings, separation of strata. 
 
 Pebbles, stones rounded by attrition. 
 
 Pepperino, volcanic tufa. 
 
 Petrifactions, where stone has taken 
 the place and form of organic remains, 
 
 Phonolite, Clinkstone. 
 
 Pitchstone, semivitreoiis stone of a 
 blackish green, or nearly black color, 
 of volcanic origin. 
 
 Piaster stone, gypsum. 
 
 Plastic clay, clay ol which brick*, and 
 pottery are made. 
 
 Plesiosaurus, from the Greek p lesi os, 
 approximate to } Sauros, a lizard, a 
 fossil animal of the Saurian family, 
 distinguished by its peculiar dentit- 
 ion and the number of vertebrae in 
 the back. 
 
 Plumbago, graphite, black lead, car- 
 buret of iron. 
 
 Porphyritic Structure, containing 
 large crystals of feldspar. 
 
 Porphyry, composed principally of 
 feldspar. 
 
 Potstone, a greenish mineral composed 
 principally of silex, magnesia, iron 
 and a In mine; less uncteoua than ste- 
 atite. 
 
119 
 
 Pozzolana, a volcanic substance, con- 
 sisting of minute particles of scoriee 
 which have been partially decompos- 
 ed. 
 
 Primary Rocks, those supposed to 
 bave been formed before animals or 
 vegetables. 
 
 Protogene, a variety of granite in 
 which talc or chlorite supplies the 
 place of mica. 
 
 Protrusion, applied to rocks, which 
 have been ejected through others by 
 some force below. 
 
 Psammite, a species of Greywacke. 
 
 Pudding Stone, rounded stones ce- 
 mented by a mineral paste. 
 
 Pumice, lighter colored lava, consid- 
 ered to be decomposed feldspar. 
 
 Purbeck Limestone, an argillaceous 
 limestone. 
 
 Pyriform, pear shaped, 
 
 Pyrites, sulphuret of iron, or copper. 
 
 Pyrilous Shale, third Greywacke of 
 Eaton. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quadrate, somewhat square. 
 
 Quartz, one of the simple minerals, 
 composed mostly ofsilex. 
 
 Quartz Rock, a rock composed of 
 crystalline grains ef quartz. 
 
 Quaternary, the more recent tertiary 
 strata. 
 
 R. 
 
 Radiated ^Animals, Zoophyles, the 
 lowest order of animals, sometimes 
 called animal plants, such as the cor- 
 allines, encrini, madrepores, &c. 
 wnich were long mistaken for marine 
 vegetables. 
 
 Radiated Structure, applied to those 
 minerals whose fibres ate broad, flat- 
 tish and diverging. 
 
 Rents, the partings or divisions of rocks. 
 
 Retinasphaltum, a resinous substance 
 found in Boveycoal. 
 
 Rock Salt, salt obtained in a stony 
 form from mines. 
 
 Roe Stone, Oolite. 
 
 Rubble, composed of fragments, or 
 loose materials. 
 
 .S. 
 
 Saddle Shaped, applied to strata that 
 dip in opposite directions. 
 
 Sandstone, a term applied to a stone 
 composed of grains of sand or gravel, 
 and oxide of iron. 
 
 Sapphire, crystallized alumine, or clay. 
 
 Saurian, a term applied to the gnus 
 lizard. 
 
 Saussurite, crystallised Serpentine, 
 combined with feldspar, or Jade. 
 
 Scaglia, a formation of chalk. 
 
 Schistose, slaty. 
 
 Seams, partings. 
 
 Secondary Formation, that immedi- 
 ately above the transition. 
 
 Selenile, crystallized gypsum. 
 
 Septaria, stones divided into cells or 
 partitions, sometimes the cells are 
 empty and sometimes filled. 
 
 Septa:, partitions. 
 
 Seta;, bristles, or hairs. 
 
 Shale, slate with an excess of carbon* 
 
 Shell marl, marl containing shells. 
 
 Sienite, a variety of granite in which 
 hornblende supplies the place of mi- 
 ca. 
 
 Silcx, one of the earths, and the most 
 abundant; it is a constituent of most 
 rocks. 
 
 Sill, synonymous with stratum. 
 
 Silt, the deposite from salt water. 
 
 Sinus, an excavation. 
 
 Siphunculus, a tube passing through 
 the chambers of some univalve shells 
 
 Slate, argillite, and other schistose 
 rocks, 
 
 Slate Clay, shale charged with carbon. 
 
 Slaty, composed of straight parallel 
 thin plates, lamellar. 
 
 Stalactites, carbonate of lime formed 
 by the percolation of water charged 
 with carbonate of lime, through the 
 roof of caverns to which the stalac- 
 tites are appended. 
 
 Stalagmites, substances arising from 
 the floors of caverns, occasioned by 
 the dropping of lime water from the 
 roof. 
 
 Stratum, pi. Strata, continuous beds 
 of rocks. 
 
 Stratified Rocks> those rocks which lie 
 in regular strata. 
 
 Stria;, thread like lines. 
 
 Sub, (in composition) means approach* 
 ing to, or nearly. 
 
 Submarine, under the ocean. 
 
 Submersion, sunken. 
 
 Subterranean^ under the earth. 
 
 Succession, a term applied to the regn- 
 larly placed strata. 
 
 Sulcus f a groove, or furrow. 
 
120 
 
 Supercretaceous* a term improperly 
 given to the tertiary strata. 
 
 Superposition, is when similar beds 
 occur together in the same order* 
 
 Swilleys, small coal basins. 
 
 Swine Stone, Bituminous limestone. 
 T. 
 
 Tabular, in large plates. 
 
 Talc a substance resembling mica, but 
 not elastic. 
 
 Talcous slate, slate containing a large 
 portion of talc: saponaceous and sec- 
 tile, nearly allied to chlorite slate. 
 
 Tertiary Formation, the upper for- 
 mation. 
 
 Testaceous, shelly. 
 
 Thermal waters, warm springs, 
 
 Tortuous, twisted, winding. 
 
 Tow, combustible clay in coal mines. 
 
 Trachyte, white, or grey lava, com- 
 posed principally of feldspar. 
 
 Transition Formation, that next to 
 the primitive, sometimes called inter- 
 mediate. 
 
 Trap Rock, greenstone, the princi- 
 pal constituent hornblende. 
 
 Traumate, greywacke. 
 
 Trilobite, a crustaceous fossil animal. 
 
 Troubles, broken strata in coal fields. 
 
 Truncated, cut off. 
 
 Uaconformable position, those rocks 
 
 not in the order of superposition. 
 Univalve, shells containing one valve. 
 Upheaving, forcing up from beneath. 
 
 Veins, foreign minerals passing through 
 a stratum. 
 
 Vertebrated, animals, those animals 
 possessed of a skull and spine. 
 
 Vesicular, containing cells or holes. 
 
 Volcanic Rocks, those formed by the 
 action of volcanoes, 
 W. 
 
 Wacke, earthy basalt. 
 
 Way boards, strata of clay which di- 
 vide the strata of limestone. 
 
 Whetstone, a variety of talcy elate 
 with quartz. 
 
 Whinstone, a variety of trap. 
 
 Whilestone, a variety of granite in 
 which feldspar is the principal in- 
 gredient, by some called Enrite. 
 
 Wild measures, soft imperfect lime* 
 stone and shale. 
 
 Wood coal, lignite, 
 Z. 
 
 Zetchstein, magnesian limestone. 
 

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