SB ai7 Ws IC-NRLF i; R O NO O .v* u. A Study OF Various Sources of Sugar. Sugar-cane, Sorghums, Sugar Beet, Maple, Watermelons, etc. BY LEWIS S. WARE, MEMBER OF AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY, ETC. PRICE, FIFTY CENTS. .PHILADELPHIA: HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., 8 10 WALNUT STREET. 1881. 1 7 W-3 To DR. GEORGE B. LORING, Commissioner of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. DEAR SIR : In inviting your attention to the fol- lowing pages, in which the undersigned has attempted to examine into the various sources of the supply of sugar, and especially of those which are, or have been, deemed available for this country, no apology is thought necessary. The overwhelming importance of the sub- ject is such that it cannot be ignored by the American people, even if they would. Politically independent for more than a century, the United States has thus far been unable to achieve its industrial and financial independence. The result has been a visitation of almost periodic monetary crises, accompanied each time by a paralysis of industries largely arising from the great indebtedness of our people to Europe. The outlook at the present moment is such as to indicate that the fruits of the protective policy which we have enjoyed for two decades, may be such as to bring at an early day our entire emancipation from this thraldom. The undersigned, therefore, respectfully begs leave to suggest that sugar, being the largest single 646265 article of import into this country, offers a greater field for usefulness in the investigation and the intro- duction and development of a new industry, and the accomplishment of this great national aim, than any not now here existing. That of beet-sugar, after years of patient investigation, he believes to be entirely feasible ; others which have been attempted, he is equally certain must fail. It could not but be a source of satisfaction to yourself during the remain- der of your life to feel that you, as the head of the Department of Agriculture, had been largely instrumental in the introduction of this new industry, so vital to the real independence of your country. He therefore begs leave to express the hope that your administration will be signalized in our history as the one which has done most to bring about this great result. Very respectfully your obedient servant, LEWIS S. WARE. Philadelphia, October r, 1881. PREFACE. THE OBJECT OF THIS PAMPHLET is to Call public attention to the importance of considering a plausible and practical cause, and not theories long since thrown aside in Europe. We refer to cornstalk and sorghum utilization, and the impractica- bility of their ever supplying the home demand with sugar. It would be absurd to suppose that the sugar cane, when to be used for sugar manufacture, can be grown at the North, and it is equally ridiculous to imagine that a sub-variety could be there grown, as experiments have long since proven that the farther north these high breeds are planted the less sugar they contain. This, as one might suppose, would be suffi- cient to condemn the cultivation named ; but, notwith- standing, our Government has spent two years of its time and money upon a series of investigations that have proved absolutely nothing, for the reasons that sugar in no practical amount has ever been produced, and the small quantity obtained was the result of several months' crystallization. This last fact should have been sufficient to condemn further investigations. The greater number of samples selected at Washing- ton were grown under favorable circumstances, and the results obtained should not be compared with those that might have resulted from canes grown by the novice in the Northern and New England States. (What we have just said regarding the sorghum might be repeated in reference to the early amber cane.) In all cases it should be remembered that the sub- varieties must be worked, as admitted by all author- ities, within twenty-four hours after cutting. Storage, consequently, becomes impossible. The time of manu- facturing is reduced to comparatively small limits. As for the possibilities of growing the sorghum, as many contend, from Texas to Maine, we fail to see the truth of the assertion. Attempts made to grow and utilize it in the ^Southern States were satis- factory, much more so than those in the North. But this, again, proves in a positive manner the fallacy of the supposed Northern sugar cane. We are convinced, however, that with a proper selection of seed, etc., its cultivation may be made compatible with the southern climate, which the- sugar cane is not, as the heat required for its complete maturity is less than for the cane from which it originated. In regard to the sugar cane of the South, we would say that it is obtained from cuttings, and not as in the West Indies from early sprouts that come from the original plant after being once planted. But with the sorghum, on the other hand, the seeds are grown one year, and planted the next. Many argue that two crops may be obtained in a season. If this were practically true, the sor- ghum would be of immense advantage to the Southern sugar planters, but is worthless under all other circum- stances. We have endeavored, in the following pages, to call attention to an acknowledged principle in sugar manufacture that is generally overlooked in the sor- ghum arguments. In conclusion we would say, that syrup may be made from many plants that are sweet, or contain combined with them any amount of sac- charine substances ; but this molasses or syrup does but little towards the supplying of the home demand with sugar. We know of no sorghum sugar being prac- tically made by farmers in larger quantities than per- haps a few ounces at a time, and under remarkable 6 circumstances as to period of crystallization and per- centage of juice utilized. The sorghum reports and treatises are in many respects interesting. As a study of botany we find, for example, how the seed grows, how the sugar is formed, etc., but the most interesting of all is over- looked, how the sugar is to be extracted. In theory, we are told how this may be done. Advice is given to follow closely sugar-cane methods, but no practical results are mentioned. In the subsequent pages we have considered every source, for example, water- melons, pumpkins, white and sweet potatoes, etc., and we are convinced that the sugar beet alone can supply the North with sugar, and it is the only profit- able Northern sugar-yielding plant. We trust that our readers will realize this, and concentrate their efforts in the direction indicated. SORGHUM SUGAR. The Sugar from Sorghum Its History, etc. IN the prehistoric ages attempts were made to manu- facture sugar from sorghum. In the histories of Egypt, Arabia, etc. .mention is made of the Emphee and African types. Of these we have, first, the early Sorgo ; second, the white Emphee (or the Nee-a-za-na), and on the other hand the black Emphee; also the red Emphee (or Shla-yoo-va) and the Liberian. Besides these we have no less than twenty or thirty other varieties. The name of sorgo was given in 1542, and mention is made of its having existed in the East Indies during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Numerous essays were written by the botanists of that period regarding this plant and its varieties ; and from the earliest day down to the present, various names have been given, as Sorgo, or Chinese Sugar Cane, India Cane, Emphee, or Coffers' Bread, Pain-des Anye*, etc. In 1850 Count Montigny sent the first samples of sorghum of a Chinese variety to Europe (that people having used it for thousands of years for the manu- facture of a red dye), and exhibited it to the Geographi- cal Society in Paris. Seeds were subsequently sold to Vilmorin & Co. at twenty cents each ; and some of another variety were brought to this country by Leonard Wray, an English gentleman. The type he 8 introduced, however, was of an African origin, and to him is, in part, justly due the foolish experi- ments going on ever since. The seeds were dis- tributed by the Patent Office. From the early intro- duction down to the present day numerous books and articles have been written on this subject ; promises without number have been made, but we know of no case where these were fulfilled. The French feared that when it was first talked of it would compete with the sugar beet, but subsequent research proved there was no occasion for alarm. Experiments, how- ever, in the southern part of Europe were, and are still, extremely promising; but the same cannot be said of the northern attempts ; and it has been con- cluded that nothing is to be expected of sorghum north of Lisbon. The subject has long since been abandoned in France, and the only traces of it are for alcohol manufacture. It seems strange that we Americans were not willing to avail ourselves of what these people have done, but must continue nearly in the same paths, as we have been doing, with negative results, for more than thirty years. We would say that the name sorghum is a mere disguise, for the reason that it is nothing more nor less than a sub-variety of sugar cane, which may explain why it is that the reader and the investigator have so frequently been misled. In consequence of the continual crossing but two principal varieties remain, the Chinese and the African types. Crystallization of Sorghum Sugar. Will this sugar crystallize in a reasonable time ? We can positively say that it will not, in con- sequence of the impurities the juices contain; a 9 well-acknowledged principle in sugar manufacture* being, that every equivalent of impurities, whatever it may be, will prevent an equal amount of crys- tals from forming.f Such, in reality, is one of the principles generally overlooked by those interested in sorghum sugar. Many contend that the sugar is there, and, consequently it may be extracted, but by what method we know not. On the other hand a well-known writer and chemist admits that these impurities are disadvantages to contend with, but when they are removed, the problem will be solved. But what solution is to be given to the chemico- mechanical difficulty is not stated. It is true that any sugar solution will in time crystallize ; but if two, three or four months are required for it to take place, the * It has long since been admitted that impurities includ- ing glucose will prevent four to five times their weight of sugar from crystallizing. In the Comptes Rendus de I Academic des Sciences of 1 873 ice read a note by E. Mon- nier regarding the refining of crude sugar. He says : "To estimate the quantity of imcrystallized or inverted sugar that is produced in the operation of refining, it is suffi- cient to ascertain exactly the amount of salts or ash the molasses contains, and to multiply this by a proper coefficient varying from four to five." In reference to the above we would say : For years past in France the taxa- tion of refined sugars has been estimated upon a basis that salts prevent the sugar from crystallizing to an amount equal to four or five times their weight. The crystallization will not take place when the sugar is four times that of the salts. No allowance has been made .for the action of organic substances. Some salts crystallize simultaneously with the sugar, and become then even more objectionable than if they had simply a mechanical action. f The above is a mimimum limit. 10 working of the plant, as before stated, is not practical. Some sorghum sugar was exhibited at the Ohio State Fair, about five years ago, that required an entire year for its crystallization to become complete. We are informed, on the other hand, that upon several occa- sions samples of excellent " sorghum " sugar (as contended by the interested parties) have been exhibited, which were said to have been obtained from the sorghum plant, but were nothing more than second grades of cane-sugar. This evidently had the effect of misleading the public. In the Agricultural Report of 1877, page 235, a description is given of a certain process partly endorsed by our Government. It is said that the juice of any permanent variety of sorghum now known in the country may be rapidly and uniformly crystallized. " It is claimed that ten pounds of sugar may be made from one gallon of dense syrup." This repre- sents twice the amount admitted as possible by the growers throughout the country. Has this percentage of sugar by this new process ever been obtained ? We can positively say that it has not, as it would be equal to the very best cane grown in the Southern States. The same gentleman claims that he has discov- ered a body possessing the remarkable quality of " isolating the sugars of both kinds in a solution, sucrose and glucose, and protecting them as by an impenetrable shield against the action of the forces by which the other deleterious substances are either neutralized or destroyed." The defecation of the juice is no longer necessary. By this process, carbonic acid need not be used ; the animal black, conse- quently, need be but in very small quantities. In other words, all the costly outlay existing in the cane and beet process are done away with. The sugar has nothing left in its way, and the crystalli- ii zation is perfect. What could be more ridiculous and imaginary than the above? But, notwithstanding, there are many believers who are, we regret to say, sadly misled. It must be remembered that it is not sufficient to see crystals under the microscope to be able to practically extract them, as there is a vast barrier to overcome before obtaining them for commercial purposes. As regards the numerous patents that have had this object in view, or, in other words, the facilitation of crystallization, they have, in all cases, been worth- less, and in a few years they have been a direct loss of $400,000. Not one of them has accomplished what was promised. These were not, as a general thing, original, but were simply a slight modification of supposed principles long since known. We may say, however, in defense perhaps of the well-meaning inventors, that they have confounded, in many cases^ granulation with crystallization. The latter is essential for cane sugar. The crystal lizable sugar contained in the sorghum plant diminishes as it matures, which is a great misfortune. If we admit that the proper time is seized for the manufacture of sugar, it must not be forgotten that whatever the amount is, as indicated by the polariscftpe, it does by no means follow that the same is expected to exist in the syrup. Consequently, in this transformation we have a loss of crystalli- zable sugar, and another loss when the attempt is made at granulation. It seems strange that inves- tigators and writers upon sorghum and its utiliza- tion have invariably added the two sugars, cane sugar (sucrose) and grape sugar (glucose). (If we refer to the Agricultural Reports for 1862, page 223, fifteen analyses of sorghum are given, and examples of this adding may be found.) Why the addition of two ele- ments the one desirable, and the other not ? 12 fail to see. If we subtract these (after having added the impurities to the glucose), as should have been done in all cases, we will have the maximum possible sugar. In nearly every case it will be found that the percentage of sugar is so small that its extraction will be practically impossible. Our Government published in 1878 a special report upon sorghum sugar, and we had the pleasure of examining the same with every possible care, and find the appliances for sorghum- sugar manufacture and its crystallization are completely forgotten. It is true that several machines are given which enable the reader to form a clear idea of the methods adopted by the Hindoos. But machines of practical value of modern origin for the crystalli- zation have been overlooked. (Any ordinary vacuum pan does not answer the purpose.) We give herewith a series of interesting figures based upon experiments made in Washington. As may be noticed, the last column represents the maxi- mum (sucrose) sugar that may be practically extracted. This is obtained by the simple* method before men- tioned, subtraction of the sucrose from the total impurities. This should have been done in the Gov- ernment publication just mentioned. * In reference to the above, we would say, that in many cases the solids, not sugar, are omitted, we know not why. This would make the results still more unfavorable. MISCELLANEOUS SORGHUMS. Date Sept. Oct. Sept. Oct. Aug. 17 ii 17 1 1 ii 23 Variety. *^j Egyptian corn *$!*$ i v *- ^ "- 8 4 4 .i 4 .5 37 2.7 7.7 05 3- 1 i-4 5i -8 3-7 88 2.7 3.7 oo 1.9 8.7 i tu s "^5 3 4.94! 3-07 o.oo 5-15 13-31 7-58 8.9 [l o 4-63 o o o Fodder _ 2 Brown doura 12 Brown doura . ] 4. White doura White doura. Corn 48 ^6 Corn 3 4 6 -7 LIBERIAN. Date. | S t Development. G i Average per cent, glucose in juice. Average per cent, sucrose in juice. Total impurities. sJ 1 e-s July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Sept. Oct. 18 26 7 ii iC 20 22 26 3 8 13 15 20 27 3 21 1 17 I S -'4 Flower-stalk just out and compact Flower-stalk spreading ; seed milky__ i Flower-stalk more spreading ; seed milky 1.14 o.oo 7.80 8.36 10.03 9-73 10.59 3 3-5 4-7 4.80 3-20 4-54 3-77 4-57 3.81 14 2.4 12.9 77 2.0 ' 13.8 27 1.3 14.3 3* i-5 M-4 Seed harder i i. Seed as before _ 2. Seed almost dry i 21 1.4 13.7 2.81 I.OO 10.23 55 6.07 2.29 2.48 3-84 4-3 4-59 5.58 6.65 \ 6.79 8-55 6.65 3.10 10.09 ii. 20 o.oo o.oo 6.53 11.96 12.72 11.31 9-75 7.21 8.32 3-95 o.oo o oo o.oo 13.90 Ripe ; seed dry _ 9 48 .75 8.35 Ripe seed carried off by birds 42 .65 12.6 49 -8 1425 53 -95 15-2 74 i.i 14-15 35 -95 I 4-5 49 LI ii. 8 48 2.1 13-9 65 4.0 10.6 i 74 : 6 05 6.2 i 8 55 8 50 Ripe and dry i Ripe and dry ; largely suckered i Ripe and dry; largely suckered 2 Ripe and dry ; juices bright red 3 Juices bright red 3 Leaves killed by frost 3 Quite dead 2 FOREIGN. Seed just brown ; not in milk__ ._ Brown and in milk 6.65 MISCELLANEOUS SORGHUMS. Date. Variety Sept. Oct. 9 ! Gunnison - 9 I Gunnison 16 ; Gunnison Gunnison Gunnison Mastodon _ . Imphee Black top Oomseeana 27 EARLY AMBER. g sg, ^ c C?i s 1 CO 1 J* . 3 . 5 50 6 v I "S Dat e. Z)eve/opmgn. ! HI Is i "~ C3 "1 as &> a l S sa. a. s 1 1 1 "c s I 1 1 1 g 1 July 18 Flower-stalks just out ; compact 2.35 3-77 4-43 6.12 o.oo Aug. 26 7 Flower-stalks begun to spread Flower-stalks spreading; seed milky . 2.53 1-56 2-97 7.85 11.15 5.67 4-53 2.18 6.62 < ii Seed browning harder 1.43 2.36 13.78 3 79 Q OO ;; 16 20 22 Seed harder ; stalk puckering _. Seed harder ; stalk puckering _. Seed nearly dry, but crushable _ . Seed hard, but splitable 1. 12 I.OO 3-25 i.54 i. 60 1.48 14.67 14-13 14.78 2.86 2-54 4.85 1.48 y.yy "39 12.13 9.28 13.30 i< 26 Seed hard but splitable x '3^- *4-45 I oi I 7 I<1 3 Core of cane turning red 2.47 1.33 14.72 3.80 1 J- 1 'T 10.92 Sept. 12 Ripe; seed dry and mostly gone Ripe; seed carried away entirely- 9-77 2.28 7 .6 8-45 10.47 2.88 0.00 1.8 7 " 12 Ripe and dry ; carried away by birds 3-53 7 14.4 4- 2 3 0.17 <* 16 Ripe and dry 2.16 .65 2.81 22 Ripe and dry 2.27 .7 Its 5 2.97 3- x 4 1.83 Oct. 3 Ripe and dry 2.45 T .1 14.4 o c c 0.85 13 Ripe and dry .7 15.8 j 1 JJ . 7 20 Ripe and dry 4 12 95 ^-5- 75 5-^7 o 68 ^ 20 Leaves killed by frost 3.08 1. 1 17 O 4.18 2.82 Nov. Quite dead 3-47 4*3 A /. 5i ^ 2* -'? & Development* Vl || 1' i i s i s si 1 i i'\$ If k i I Sept. 10 " 10 " 16 " Z 9 25 " 29 Oct. 4 " 20 " 29 Oct. 24 6 ' 3.7 i. 60 2.10 ~) 1.9 1. 60 0.30 8 7-3 3-87 , 3-57 5 7-o 4-53 ; 2.47 i 8.7 2.39 6.31 2:96 1.61 i 7.99 3 10.1 4.00 6.10 D H.03 4.00 7.30 o ! 6.7 6.45 ; 0.25 4 ] 7.4 8.78 o.oo 5 11.7 > 6.44 5.26 Stamens fallen j No change in appearance 3-3 Dry tops suckering .41 Dry tops ; suckers well developed _. 2.70 FOREIGN. Withered . 5.94 HONDURAS. Date. lli I ' g '= .5 I? ! !; Development. ^ ! , &S> " 5l ' i; i r 1 oj onus. Per cent, sucrose in juice of lops. Total impurities. Maximum practical sugar. Aug. 12 19 29 Sept. 10 " 10 " 25 29 Oct. 4 14 20 " 29 Nov. 8 Sept. 17 Oct. i 8 2 4 24 Sept. 30 Oct. 15 No sign of flower-stalk cane 7 ft. high 6. 2 1.7 6.2 0.00 O \ 2.2 5.O O.OO i 4.0 5.1 o.oo O ; 6.2 4.0 ', 2. 2O I 7.9 4.1 i 3.80 o 8.9 4.81 j 4.19 I ' 8.5 5.76 2.74 8 9.4 4.92 4.48 3 10.6 4.01 \ 6.59 5 13.0 5.20 j 7.80 8 ; 14.6 3.35 11.25 4 14.9 6.50 8.40 9 15.0 3.92 11.08 1 13-4 ' 4-99 8.41 7 3.6 7.05 o.oo 4 3.4 11.40 o.oo i 5.6 8.72 o.oo 5 13.0 6.50 7.34 4 7.1 8.14 3.00 i 3.1 7.10 o.oo 8 ; 4.5 8.80 o.oo Stamens just fallen ; no milk ^ 4. In first rfiilk; browning _. .81 4. Full milk 1. 12 3. Full milk -7 1 3- Dough ' i . 70 3 . Harder 5.10 i. Harder: leaves dead 2.02 i. Quite dead 1.89 3. FOREIGN. L>. SMITH. Not brown nor milky ; heads well out 1.35 5 Shorter and more stalky and riper__. 1.74 6 ARSENAL. Seeks not filled out _ _ 7 16 CHINESE. Dot e. Development. Average per cent, solids, not sugar, in juice. Average per cent, glu- cose. Average per cent, su- crose. Total impurities. Total practical sugar. \ug. 6 Flower-stalk just out compact 5-55 1.85 5.55 o.oo 6 6 23 < 12 Seeds beginning to brown .89 4.6 6.3 5-49 0.80 i ig Seeds browner T 36 5 2 5 6*5 6.61 t 8 75 Sept. rf Seeds still green in parts and milky 6.37 < O Seeds nearly gone 2.O 13.75 2.OO 11.75 t 27 Seeds nearly gone .48 14.50 Oct 8 03 14 Dry and ripe 2.21 i 6 15 05 3.81 11.24 < 14 85 Nov. 29 Dry, and leaves killed by frost 2.8 3 1.85 3 8 13-15 4-58 6 20 8.47 Sept FOREIGN. 2 08 6 3 69 8 38 X 7 Seed just browning (D. Smith) .98 7-3 6.7 8.18 0.00 Oct. 8 Seed in douch 8.s 8.8 8.50 0.70 With miscellaneous sorghums five out of six would, if manufactured, yield no practical sugar, the remaining one 4.63 per cent., which is extremely small. The Liberian tests were twenty-four in all ; six of these would give zero sugar, etc. The other series of mis- cellaneous sorghums were better as to results than the first, but the difference is not sufficient to justify any encouragement. The early amber, on the other hand, three out of twenty-four would give zero ; with the pearl millet, three out of eleven. The Honduras was exceptionally worthless ; eight out of twenty-one would give, as a maximum, if worked, zero sugar. The Chinese, sorghum, eight out of seventeen, would give zero percentage of sugar. We append a table in which is given a synopsis of a hundred and eleven experiments above referred to, where is shown the possible maximum practical sugar to be expected from the said hundred and eleven experiments. 17 SYNOPSIS OF EXPERIMENTS AT WASHINGTON. POSSIBLE MAXIMUM SUGAR. O ; rH (M CO Ji 1 ! & v S'fe sit El* felt! ; ss, a ss, a a, ?^ ! a : a, : e, , a,! a a i> 'oo \a> ! o [jj'w co Total of Experiments. ! iH " r-i jrt Miscellan's sorghums i 5' Liber ian _ _ _ 6| i T i 7 7 3 Miscellaneous ' i Early amber_ 7 T T 7 7 ^ 3 2 3 Pearl millet 3 Honduras ! g : 7 IT 7 T ? 7 Chinese ' 81 i Total. ! 3s| 2 7 4 5 i 6 II 6 4 9 10 4 6 6 24 8 23plusi(i ofisper cent, of sugar.) I 7 in One, two, three, or four per cent, of sugar would not possibly pay for work- ing. Consequently, we would have fifty-three samples yielding no sugar, which represent more than half of all tested. If an average be taken of the one hundred and eleven experiments, it will be found to be 4.5 per cent, of practical sugar. This already proves the problem to be impossible. As may be noticed, thirty-five of them would yield zero. If we take the average of the hundred and eleven experiments we find, as a yield 4.5 per cent., which result cannot possibly be practically ac- cepted. In other words our Government experiments, notwithstanding the favorable conditions under which they were made, prove that the sorghum utilization is a fallacy in every sense of the word. If this question of glucose be considered in comparison with the beet, all arguments are in favor of the latter, for the reason that no evidence of glucose is apparent in analyzing beet juices. Such are truths perhaps not entirely agreeable to those interested in the sorghum cultivation, yet we consider it our duty to call atten- tion to it; and we will, in all circumstances, lose no opportunity in bringing our views before farmers and capitalists in general. In conclusion we would say that it is advisable for farmers to realize the above, and not spend their money upon patents that are worthless. If sorghum is to be grown for its syrup, or as a fodder, it will evidently render excellent ser- 18 vice ; and it is to be hoped that these trials will end there, and that further attempts will be abandoned. The More Recent Sorghum Investigations of 1880. It was presumable that the more recent investi- gations would bring to light new ideas and methods. In reference to these, we would say that the experiments made during the month of October were by no means successful, as declared by the practical sugar chemist. An explanation of this was, the hurried erection of the mill, breaking of the bagasse knife, and frost in the field rendering sorghum samples worthless. Open pans were tried and aban- doned ; evaporation in vacuum pans was the only remedy, and sugar in very small quantities was made. The remaining syrup was sent to the Wilmington Beet Sugar Factory, where several hundred additional pounds of sugar were extracted. This was worth about five cents per pound instead of eight cents, as obtained from the beet in Delaware ; it had a green- ish color and a disagreeable taste, judging from sam- ples that we saw and tasted. On the other hand, white sugar may be made from the beet direct. In the same preliminary report, published in February, 1 88 1, an account is given of one hundred experi- ments made in Alabama, Arkansas, California, Con- necticut, Rhode Island, Dakotah Territory, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and only in one case a pound of sugar was made, and this was in Missouri. We would say, however, that one thoughtful planter estimates the value per pound if the sugar had been made. 19 In this, like all other cases, the want of facilities was the main and principal excuse for not obtaining sugar. In June of 1881, Mr. Le Due's second sorghum pamphlet appeared. This gives 3,601 analyses made during 1880. The various stages of the growth of the sorghum are graphically represented. The hybrid grown in California was, however, omitted, for rea- sons not explained. We have, with considerable care, measured from the graphical plates, at intervals of ten days (during the entire investigation), the amount of practical sugar possible to obtain from these various varieties. This has been tabulated. SYNOPSIS OF EXPERIMENTS AT WASHINGTON, in 188O. Table No. 1. Early Amber, Virginia. Number of experiments, Percentage of practical sugar, I 5 | i I Total, 12. 9 10 I AVERAGE 6. Table No. 2. Early Amber, Missouri. Number of experiments, - 112314 Percentage of practical sugar, 045 Number of experiments, - - - Percentage of practical sugar, - - Table No. 3. Early Golden, Minnesota I I I 5 h 6 7 Total, 13. AVERAGE 6. Total, ii. AVERAGE 5. Table No. 4. Golden Syrup, Ohio. Number of experiments, Percentage of practical sugar, - Total, n. AVERAGES. Table No. 5. While Libcnan, Virginia. , 1 T 1 um er o expenmen s, ' Percentage of practical sugar, - 4 9 IO AVERAGE?, 20 Table No. 6. Early Amber, Kansas. Number of experiments, - Percentage of practical sugar, - - Table No. 1. Black Top, South Carolina. Number of experiments, - 211 Percentage of practical sugar, - 5 8 9 I 10 Table No 8 African, Kentucky. Number of experiments, - I 3 I i I 2 I i 3 Percentage of practical sugar, - 06789 Table No. 9 . WJiite Mammoth, Missouri. Total, 12. AVERAGES, Total, ii. AVERAGE?. Number of experiments, - 21121 Percentage of practical sugar, I 4 I 5 I 7 I 10 Table No. W.Onmseea-na, Ohio. Number of experiments, Percentage of practical sugar, Table No. \\.-Rfgular Sorghum. Ohio. Number of experiments, - 2 Percentage of practical sugar, Table No. VI. Hybrid, Tennessee. Number of experiments, - Percentage of practical sugar, Total, ii. AVERAGES. I Total, n. | AVERAGE?. I Total, 12. | AVERAGES. I Total, "ii. I AVERAGES. Total, ii. AVERAGES. lab'e No. 13 Sugar Cane, Iowa. Number of experiments, - 413 Percentage of practical sugar, - -- I I 8 I 10 I I Tablr. No. 14. Ooomseeana, South Carolina. Total, 10. AVERAGES, Number of experiments, Percentage of practical sugar, - 5 I i 3 i Total, 10. AVERAGES. T'ible No. \5.Neeasana,Ohio. Number of experiments, - 4 Percentage of practical sugar, - I Total, 10. I AVERAGE4. 21 Table No. 16. Goose Neck, Missouri. Number of experiments, - I 4 I i Percentage of practical sugar, - 06 Table No. 17. Early Orange, Hfissouri. Number of experiments, --- 42112 i Total, 12. Percentage of practical sugar, - 67 9 10 Table No. \8.Neeasana, Ohio. Number of experiments, - 4124 Percentage of practical sugar, - 0479 Table No. 19. New Variety, Tennessee. Number of experiments, Percentage of practical sugar, 9 I0 Table No. 20. Chimera, Virginia. Number of experiments, -.- 21211 Percentage of practical sugar, - I I i I 5 I 7 I 8 Table No. 21. Wolf Tail, Tennessee. Number of experiments, -- 21111 Percentage of practical sugar, - I 5 6 Table No. 22. Gray Top, Tennessee. Number of experiments, - I 2 I 3 I i I i I 2 Percentage of practical sugar, - 64789 Table No. 2S.Liberian, Ohio. AVERAGES. Total, 12. AVERAGES. Total, 12. AVERAGES, i Total, 10. " | AVERAGES. 3 Total, 10. 9 | AVERAGES, 3 | Total, 9. 10 I AVERAGES. Total, ii. AVERAGES. Number ol experiments, - I 2 I i I i Percentage of practical sugar, - | 3 I 4 & I 9 | lableNo. 24.Liberian. Ohio. Number of experiments, I'M Total, ii. AVERAGES. Total, ii. Percentage of practical sugar, 02| 34|68J9 AVERAGE 5- 22 Table No. 25 Oomseeana, Tennessee. Number of experiments, Total, 10. Percentage of practical sugar, 023589 10 AVERAGES, Table No. 26 Sumac, Alabama. Number of experiments, 2111 Percent, of pract'l sugar, I I 3 I 4 I 5 I 211 Total, 10. 9 10 AVERAGES. Table No. 27. Mastadon, South Carolina. Number of experiments, Percentage of practical sugar, Table No. '28Imphee, South Carolina. Number of experiments, 2Tii2|i|i Percent, of pract'l sugar, 0|2J3478|9 Table No. 29. New Variety. Total, 10. AVERAGES. Total, ii. AVERAGES, Number of experiments, 3111112 Percent, of pract'l sugar, 01245! Table No. 30. Sumac, Alabama. Number of experiments, Percentage of practical sugar, 6 8 10 Total, ii. AVERAGE 4, Total, ii. AVERAGES, Total, 12. AVERAGE 1, Table No. 3U Honduras, District of Columbia. Number of experiments, - 61122 Percentage of practical sugar, - . i | 3 4 5 Tab^e No 32. Honey Cane, Louisiana. Number of experiments, - 412122 Total, 12. Percentage of practical sugar, - | 2 3 6 57 AVERAGES. Table No. ZZ.Sprangle Top, Alabama. Number of experiments, - 411141 Total, 12. Percentage of practical sugar, - I i I 2 4 5 rt I AVERAGE 2, Table No. 34. Honduras, Tennessee. Number of experiments, - 112 Total, i< Percentage of practical sugar, - | | i | 2 | 3 | 5 | 6 | AVERAGE 2. Table No. 35. Honey Top or Texas Cane, Missouri. Number of experiments, - 5 \ * | - | I \ Total, 10. Percentage of practical sugar, - | | 3 | 5 | 6 AVERAGE 2. Table No 36.Hondtiras, Texas. Number of experiments, - 4 i i i 2 | i Total, 10. Percentage of practical sugar. - |o| 2 J3|4|5J 6 AVERAGE 2. Table No. 3~.Suflar Cane, Illinois. Number of experiments, - ^ i 3 2 4 Total, 13. Percentage of practical sugar, AVERAGE 2, Table No. 38. Hybrid, Colorado* Number of experiments, - 45 772121 Total, 65. Percentage of practical sugar, | | i | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | AVERAGED. By many it may be argued that the averages of all the stages is not just, as sugar is to be manu- factured when the most desirable period arrives ; but in answer to this we would say that that period is of very short duration ; and as no allowance has been made for it, it is but just to permit the first periods of sugar formation to enter as a factor into our calcula- tions. We have, in all cases, neglected the fractions, for the reason they would not materially change the results. As may be noticed, these varieties were prin- cipally grown at the South, which evidently had a tendency to lead to better results than if at the North. The average of these thirty-eight varieties and four hundred and seventeen experiments is 4.8 per cent, this is considerably higher than it would have been if we * We were unable to deduct the above from the graphical plates for the reason that it is not given, but we have taken the average of sixty-five experiments, 24 had taken the averages of all the four thousand experi- ments made upon sorghum by the Agricultural Depart- ment in 1880. These, as given by them, would rep- resent an average of 3.3 per cent, (see Table A), which evidently condemns this as a sugar-yielding plant. TABLE.A. General averages for stages, as determined from the results from the same stage for ajl varieties of sorghum. Number of experiments, - 620113411 Total, 19. Percentage of practical sugar, | |i|2| 3 | 4 | 5 |6 7 8 AVERAGE 3.3 American Production of Supposed Sorghum Sugar. If we were to listen to the sayings of thousands of believers in the sorghum fallacy, sorghum sugar has long since been manufactured in the United States in paying quantities. Some of the Eastern States manufacture thousands of pounds yearly ; one factory is now working on a practical basis as to profit ; all of which leaves the problem no longer a doubt in the minds of the masses of our population. This sugar is of an excellent quality, and sold at eight cents per pound ; one million pounds are produced yearly, etc. In answer to this we would say, that no such evidence appears in the Agricultural Reports. The supposed production of sorghum sugar from 1861 to 1877 is 2 5 SUPPOSED YEARLY SORGHUM SUGAR MANUFAC- TURED IN THE UNITED STATES.* i86i 80,400 Ibs. 1870 1862 i37,43o 1863 183,795 1864 208,300 1865 280,330 1866 511,565 1867 140,658 1868 200,676 1869 224,000 U.S. 1872 17 2 ,995 1873 ___i84,23o 1874 182,050 1875 108,840 1876 97,420 1877 80,760 as shown after twenty years' agitation, kept up by those directly interested in sorghum machinery. The total amount produced, if it be actual, was the same in 1877 as in 1861, or, in other words, 80,760 pounds. (This represents 40,000 pounds less than was obtained at the Delaware Beet Sugar Factory, which worked but thirty days, under very unfavorable circumstances.) These figures also show that there has been a continual decrease in the pro- duction during the last ten years of this supposed sorghum sugar for the entire United States. Of the important States producing sugar and syrup, we may mention Ohio and Iowa. The total area devoted to the said culture in Ohio was 30,872 acres in 1862, and 9,426 in 1872, proving a decline of two-thirds in ten years. The sugar supposed to have been obtained was, however, greater by 10,000 pounds, notwithstanding diminished area devoted to its cultivation, proving how little reliance is to be placed upon the figures above given. In 1862 and 1866 the area devoted to it in Iowa was 37,607 and 25,796, showing a decline in the interest in sorghum in those years, possibly owing to the war, etc. Even if the interest had increased during * The above table is taken from the Government Agricultural Report. We had hoped completing it, but give the task up in despair, as we have written letter upon letter to the Agricultural Department, at Washington, which, instead of answering our question as to the total production of sorghum sugar in 1878, 1879, J 88o, sends in reply the sorghum reports above referred to, in which the data was not given. This evidently proves that the term SUPPOSED (that we make use of) are not exaggera- tions. 26 the same time, it would not have proved that the problem has been solved, and that there was in the future any prospect of the sub-variety find- ing an industrial application as a home sugar plant. In the Agricultural Report of 1867, page 78, we read the following, which is true : " Sorghum has suffered a natural decline for several years, which has continued causing despondency to producers." Many gentlemen, however, of good faith in years gone by, thought they obtained sorghum sugar, which we have great reasons to believe was not the case. Mr. J. S. Levering, in 1857, published some startling accounts as to results from sorghum, with a similar sub-variety of sugar cane grown in Pennsylvania. But if there had been no mistake as to results, why are these not put into prac- tice to-day, now that the country is so much interested ? and why should they have been confined to the early stages of sorghum introduction, when but little or nothing was known concerning it ? We regret that our ex-Commissioner of Agriculture, Mr. Le Due, who had this home sugar problem so much at heart, should have been infatuated with a sample of sorghum sugar exhib- ited at the Minnesota State Fair in 1877, and from that time have abandoned a practical idea for a theo- retical one, which up to the present day has amounted to nothing. We read in his report for 1877, page 229: "We cannot reasonably hope to find in beet culture a sure compensation for diminished cane crop." We beg to know why. Is it because inexperienced hands have led to poor results ? Is it because we have experimented, rather than adhered to conclusions long since determined in Europe? Would not the results obtained at the Delaware Beet Sugar Factory in 1880, if they had had a longer duration, given a practical hint as to possibility of finding in the beet a sure compensation for the diminished cane crop ? 27 Have the sorghum sugar results ever led to any rea- sonable hopes of such accomplishment outside of the laboratory experiments, which prove absolutely noth- ing? If we, on the other hand, admit that Mr. Lover- ing's statements are correct, and, also, that the most recent data upon sorghum has, at least, some truth, the problem is not even then practical, and cannot compete with the sugar beet. We will make a few calculations based upon Government sorghum figures, and compare these results with those beet-sugar results already obtained. We give herewith the number of gallons of sorghum syrup obtained from an acre in several States of the Union ; and, as shown, the average yield is 128 gallons; the average value, fifty cents per gallon. As to the cost of a cultivation of sorghum per acre, we quote from a recent book upon so-called Northern sugar cane as follows : Preparation of the soil for planting, _ $2 oo Planting seed, i Working through twice with one-horse plow, 2 oo Hoeing and thinning four times, 4 oo Stripping blades, one hand four days, 4 oo Topping cane one and a half days, i 50 Cutting and hauling cane to mill, one hand and team three days, 6 oo Use of land, 5 oo Total, $25 50 In this same essay it is estimated that the cost of working up syrup is twenty cents per gallon. For 128 gallons before mentioned, it would be $25.60. The total cost of preparing the resulting syrup from one acre alone for market would be as follows : For cultivation, $25 50 For manufacturing, .2560 Total, $51 10 28 Table showing the average number of gallons of syrup obtained per acre for the entire United States. State. Alabama !_1 122 Jo 50 Arkansas 117 48 Colorado 116 90 California 196 50 Delaware __ 25 Dakota Territory 112 66 Florida 145 30 Georgia 104 48 Illinois 132 46 Indiana __ 127 40 Indian Territory 127 Iowa 130 52 Kan? 49 Kentucky 119 39 Maryland in 60 Michigan 166 51 Minnesota 138 56 Mississippi in 49 Missouri 135 40 Nebraska 124 55 New Jersey 147 New York 175 75 North Carolina 16} 57 Ohio 151 48 Pennsylvania 138 50 South Carolina 94 50 Tennessee 138 41 Texas _ 114 57 Utah Territory | 117 62 Virginia 113 55 West Virginia __. 127 51 Wisconsin 149 54 Average of total f 128 50 From the sale of 128 gallons at fifty cents we have $64.00; less $51.10, equal to $12.90. If we admit that the refuse may be fed to cattle, and worth $5.00, this would represent a total of about $17.90; whilst beet-sugar profits would be $46.00 for the same area, or a difference of $28.10 to the acre. If we should admit that the working of sorghum sugar is practical, and that five pounds of sugar to the gallon may be obtained (which result is simply ridiculous, but it has been supposed for argument's sake that it is based upon the maximum as claimed by the sorghum 29 enthusiasts), and that this be worth eight cents per pound, we would then have 640 pounds of sugar at eight cents, which would be equal to $51.20, leaving, we will say, 320 pounds of molasses, or forty gallons, which we will admit as worth twenty cents per gallon, giving a total for the receipts of about $60.00. As for the cost of obtaining the syrup by improved methods, we will admit that it is represented by thirty-five cents per gallon of syrup obtained, or, in other words, seven cents per pound ; consequently the cost of manufacture on a large scale of 640 pounds of sugar is 640 X 7 $44.80. We will then have for the net profit $60.00 $44. 80= $15. 20, or about the same as is real- ized in selling the syrup alone. In conclusion we would say, that we agree with the writer upon sorghum who says, " That the great object should be, first, to obtain that variety of cane which has proved most successful in crystalliza- tion, reject the unripe or inferior canes, cut and use only about two-thirds of the stalks, cutting off at six or eight inches above the ground " (this has to be done, and is yet to be). If the worthless portions are to be taken off and thrown away, there remains but little of the original stalk, thus rendering the problem still more difficult from a financial point of view. AMBER CANE SUGAR. Sugar from the Early Amber Cane. FROM the close of the war (at which period it was discovered in Minnesota) but little has been accomplished with the early amber cane from a sugar point of view. Experiments without number have been made, and hundreds of gallons of syrup manufactured, and it may be justly stated that it is not from the amber cane we may look for a plant qualified to produce our home Northern sugars. Government experiments have proved little or nothing. Those of the Amherst Agricultural College demonstrated the impossibility of any practical results being realized. These were conducted by Professor Goesmann, whose reputation as a chemist is sufficient to warrant the accuracy of the results obtained. They were made in August and September, 1878, and by closely examining them we find a pos- sible maximum sugar of five per cent, in one case only, one of four, and the other of three per cent. The conclusions arrived at are the same as those our correspondents have led us to believe. We quote in consequence the following, which speaks for itself: " A part of our cane, after being cut, was left upon the field for about ten days before being ground and pressed ; the remainder was cut without delay and sent to the mill. Examinations of the juice obtained from both of these lots of cane were made, and they admit of no other explanation but that the best course to pursue consists in grinding the matured cane as soon as it is cut." We may consequently conclude from the above that the working cannot be carried on in the winter (the time most favorable, and, in our mind, the only practicable period in the Northern States). If we should admit that the cane sugar exists in sufficient quantities immediately after cutting, storage is impossible, and this should be sufficient to condemn it, as we have already stated. But this is not the only difficulty ; for, even if the entire freshly cut amber cane should be sent to the mill in one day, the juice, in the process of manufacture, undergoes changes, for example : " The juice of a healthy, fresh- cut cane was tested before it .passed into the defecator, and also subsequently ; the juice, before being worked, contained 3.61 per cent, of grape sugar, and 8.16 per cent, of cane sugar. The resulting syrup was again analyzed : it contained grape sugar, 37.87 per cent. ; cane sugar, 37.48 per cent." The conclusions to be drawn from these experiments are exactly the same as our own, and we quote, " It will be generally conceded that the sugar production from syrup like the above must remain a mere incidental feature in the amber cane industry in our section of the country [Mass.]." What is here stated applies, we consider, to all the Northern States. In conclusion, we would say that we are convinced excellent results may be ob- tained in the South from the early amber, as shown by the Government analysis. The results are more satisfactory than with sorghum ; but to extract the sugar from it is extremely difficult; and the percent- age obtained decreases upon Northern cultivation. CORNSTALK SUGAR. Sugar from Cornstalk and Maize. IN Prescott's " Conquest of Mexico," mention is made of sugar being manufactured from corn- stalks. Dr. Ackerly wrote, some forty years ago, to one of the agricultural papers as follows: " If a semi-civilized nation on the continent of America make sugar from the stalks of Indian corn, why may not a more civilized nation of the present day, with the aid of art and science, do the same ?" The above items are sufficient to show that even in this country the problem of cornstalk sugar was one of the first ideas of the early settlers, with the view of supplying their domestic requirements with sugar. We may ask, Could the product thus obtained be sold on our market to-day ? We can positively say that it could not ; for, as then, the sugar was not practically fit to eat, from our civilized point of view. (If, on the other hand, we consult the earliest documents, going back thousands of years, this sort of sugar was suggested ; experiments, so called, were made, but syrup was the only reward.) The greatest excitement over the subject prevailed in 1840 to 1845 in the United States, from which day until within recent years nothing of moment has been said or done ; consequently, if now desiring its introduction, knowing the experience of older nations, and after attempting its manufacture for a period of five years, we would, in 1881, be recommencing on a project upon which thousands of dollars have been thrown away. Prospects of any practical results being 33 obtained are by no means encouraging, notwithstand- ing overwhelming promises ; and these will be all that the interested capitalists will receive for their money. We beg to recall a few past sayings : * " Complete suc- cess has attended the experiments on this subject in Delaware, and leaves no room to doubt the fact that if the stalk is permitted to mature, and without suffering the ear to form, the saccharine matter is three times as great as in the beet, and equal to the cane ; and it will amply repay the manufacture into sugar." We have not seen any analysis of cornstalks then grown, but, when compared with those of to-day, we fail to realize that therein three times the sugar is to be found that exists in an ordinary beet. But we would say, whatever it be in the latter case, it may be extracted ; the same cannot be said of the former, judging from present existing results and methods. In 1843 Mr. Webb, of Wilmington, speaking of his experiments, stated : " We had ten gallons of syrup evaporated in a broad, shallow vessel ; this crystallized readily and made good sugar." The amount of the latter is, however, not stated, hence we can draw no conclusions ; for there can be no doubt that sugar does exist, but in what quantities ? We know not. These efforts continued, and one year later (see Patent Office Report, 1843, P a g e 5 8) the opinion was ex- pressed that the results from Indian corn were most encouraging. The manufacture of sugar compared with that from the beet offers many advantages. It is more simple and less liable to fail ; the machinery is less expensive, and the amount of fuel required is less by one half. The amount of sugar produced upon one acre of ground is greater, beside being of a better quality ; we fail to appreciate what are the : See Patent Office Report, 1842, page 5. 34 advantages in corn sugar ; there is one, however, which is, that its manufacture exists in theory but not in practice. The machinery for corn sugar is at a mini- mum, for it does not practically exist. We also read that " the proportion of crystallizable sugar appears to be larger than is obtained from the cane in Lou- isiana." If such an assertion was true in 1844, wn 7 should it not be in 1881 ? Of all the attempts made in this cornstalk utilization, those in the Southern States were by far the most successful. Those in the North amounted to but little, and even in the latter case the syrup is said to have crystallized only after two months. Why this happened no explanation is given; six hundred and eighty-eight pounds, however, are said to have been obtained per acre. If we admit that this is the average, even with the above attempt of crystal- lization, the yield would be one-half that obtained from sugar beets in the Northern States ; and the attempt to extract as much sugar from cornstalks as from beets would be absurd. What we have already said should be sufficient to condemn this plant as a source of sugar, even in the Southern States. After many years of experiments it was concluded that the corn sugar would not easily crystallize, and until 1875 little or no mention is made of it in the Agricultural Reports. Some years ago, as we have already stated, when it was suggested and asserted that sugar could be made from cornstalks, hopes were again entertained as to the results that might be expected. Attention was called to the fact that if one acre out of fifty grown in the United States, or one-eleventh of the yearly acreage cultivated in Illinois, was utilized for sugar manufacture, it would supply the home demand. A well-known author estimated that 2 1 ,700 pounds Kansas corn may be grown to the acre, from the stalks 35 of which could easily be extracted 1,800 pounds of excellent sugar. We find in the Agricultual Report of 1877 that Mr. Stewart argued that the limit of sugar to be obtained from an acre of land was 3,000 pounds. This would represent over double the amount realized on an average Southern sugar cane planta- tion. The farmers were to utilize the stalks, and each man was to be independent of his neighboring grocery. Was this ever realized ? Not to our knowl- edge. If we should even admit that the factory said to have been established in Iowa is now working on a paying basis, it must not be forgotten that the corn- stalks must be utilized immediately after cutting ; and the manufacture of sugar (as in the sorghum utiliza- tion), when it exists, be carried on within restricted limits. Do not all the arguments we have expounded relating to sorghum also hold good in regard to corn- stalk utilization ? If we should admit that the cornstalk be success- fully and profitably utilized, it would have for effect the ruin of the soil, as comparatively nothing would be returned to the ground ; while in the sugar beet cultivation the leaves and neck are left, and these contain a large amount of what has been extracted by the plant in growing. CANE SUGAR. Sugar from Sugar Cane. FROM this source wonders have been expected in the United States since 1751, when it was first introduced into Louisiana. The yearly results, as to sugar yield, however, have been steadily on the decline, and many of the sugar lands were, in 1 874, turned into rice fields. What was in years gone by obtained in Louisiana is not again to be hoped for many years to come. Such being the case, other Southern States have been suggested and tried ; they give, in many respects, fair results, but whatever these have thus far been, they are so insignificant when compared with our total con- sumption of sugar that they can hardly be considered. But many argue that the time will come when Texas alone will grow sufficient cane to supply the entire North with sugar. Is this period near at hand ? We think not, and trust that our people will realize the same. We doubt if the lands, for example of Louisiana, will be in a proper state for cane cultivation for hundreds of years to come. They, unfortunately, nearly all are subjected to a continual overflow ; these were partly protected before the war by jetties, but the latter have since been destroyed, and to restore them to the proper state would necessitate a Government expense of millions of dollars ; and local State taxa- tion would be of little help, as the amount required is beyond the purse of the few. If the question simply depended upon the rebuilding of the jetties, we might 37 see our way more clearly ; but the yearly repairs would amount to sums that would, in many respects, be greater than the value of the sugar cane grown and thus protected. We can only cite a letter from Mr. Norbert Lange, St. Charles Parish, in speaking of the ruin of these lands : " On my place, before the cre- vasse of Bonnet Carre, my crop ordinarily was from 200,000 to 300,000 pounds. The crops of seven of my neighbors were in the aggregate 2,600,000 pounds. All these lands, as also those of thousands of others adapted to the culture of the sugar cane, remain unal- tered, for the reason that every year they are inundated by the waters of the river." We can only say, in addi- tion to Mr. Lange's remarks, that if these sugar lands had any actual value they could not possibly be pur- chased for $ 1 5 to $20 per acre. Those interested assert that 2,000 and even 5,000 pounds of sugar may be obtained from cane grown upon them. These figures simply mislead the novice, as the average yearly produc- tion per acre was only 1,200 pounds; whilst in the West Indies it frequently runs up to 7,000 pounds per acre. On the island of Mauritius the latter yield is of very common occurrence. In the countries just men- tioned, the production of sugar rose in ten years from 750,000 tons to 1,050,000 tons. During the same period the increase of beet-sugar production in Europe was two hundred per cent. The increase in the East Indies during the same time was forty-four per cent. Why are such results obtained in the above-mentioned climes and not here ? Is the destruction of the jetties above referred to the sole cause of the trouble in Louisiana? or is it that the handling of the bagasse is not as scientific as elsewhere ? or, again, has the successive planting of the same seed resulted in a deterioration of the stock ? To actually bring about a reform, the entire system of cultivating the cane 38 should be changed ; for example, deep plowing should be resorted to, and a scientific utilization of fertiliz- ers ; with this a complete and proper drainage of the swamps and lowlands would be needed, with plenty of labor, black and white, which is now so scarce (as the slave population is migrating north). The cane seed should be imported from other lati- tudes, and would thereby probably improve, etc. Can this be accomplished in a few years ? We doubt it. Then, again, the question in our minds is (one that we have not seen discussed) whether the tem- perature of the Southern States is sufficiently high or constant for the proper maturity of the sugar cane. Possibly this may be one of the sources of trouble. By referring to the physical conditions of the climate of Mauritius, we find that ninety degrees represents the almost constant temperature for the year. If this is not as important as we consider it, it is, without a doubt, one source of difficulty which may partially explain why it is there are sugar lands which do not yield the proper amount. Comparative Cost and Return from the Cane and the Sugar Beet. SUGAR CANE COSTS AND PROFITS. In all cases here following we will take the average of the results obtained upon large areas, for example, those in growing the sugar cane in Louisiana : Upon one hundred acres* under cultivation, 135,000 pounds of sugar were extracted ; these were sold at eight cents per pound, and the total value of the cane was $10,800. Besides this there were 90,000 pounds of *See Agricultural Report, 1872. 39 molasses which sold at four cents per pound ; we have, consequently, as returns : From sugar at eight cents per pound, $10,800 From sale of molasses, 3, 600 $14,400 The cost of cultivating one hundred acres was $5,000, or $50 to the acre. The expense of manufacture, including the overseer, etc., was $7,400. For cultivating one hundred acres at $50 per acre, $5,ooo Expense of manufacture, - 7,400 $12,400 Consequently we have for profits : Receipts, $14,400 Expenses, 12,400 Net profit, $2,000 or $20 per acre of land under cultivation. SUGAR BEET COST AND PROFITS. Our experi- ence in raising beets has convinced us that fifteen tons to the acre is a just average for the entire Northern States ; beets may be grown at about $45 per acre, but as we are in this argument to consider averages, we will take those of nearly two thousand farmers of Delaware, Maine, and Massachusetts. The average results obtained by them were ten tons to the acre. The average cost of raising b^ets was $50 per acre. As these were grown under contract, they were sold, we will suppose, at cost price ; or, for argu- ment's sake, we may admit that they were grown by the manufacturer, and $50* consequently represents the actual cost of cultivation, including seed and the various * In the growing of over three hundred acres, by the Delaware Beet Sugar Company, this year, it is estimated that the above is a maximum figure. 40 operations, rent of land, interest of money invested in the agricultural implements, etc. As for the amount of sugar that may be extracted, we will take the results obtained at Portland * in 1880, under unfavorable circumstances : from 70,000 tons of roots 420 tons of sugar were obtained, corres- ponding to a yield of at least six per cent. During the same campaign in Delaware, with fewer beets, this average was nearly maintained. We are also informed that at the Alvarado Factory these results were prac- tically the same ; consequently, with ten tons or 22,000 pounds, at six per cent., we would have 1,320 pounds of sugar, which were and may be sold at eight cents per pound, or $105.60 ; with this we would have, say, fifty per cent, of molasses, or 660 pounds, which were and may be sold at two and a half cents per pound (in Delaware and Maine the molasses was sold at twenty cents per gallon). RETURNS. From sugar at eight cents per pound, $105.60 From molasses at two and a half cents per pound, 16.50 From pulp, forty per cent, or four tons at $i per ton, 4-OO Total receipts, $ I26 1 I __ It has been generally admitted that the cost of work- ing one ton of beets, including wear and tear of ma- chines, interest on money, labor, etc., is $3 a ton. This is an average ; consequently for profits we would have: For cultivation of one acre of ten tons, $50.00 Expenses of manufacture, 30.00 $80.00 See The Sugar Beet for description of Portland factory. 41 PROFITS. Returns, $126.10 Expenses, 80.00 Net profit, $46.10 from one acre of land under cultivation. These figures are as accurate as we can make them, and have been based on actual data obtained in the North with the beet, upon ordinary land and in the South with the sugar cane upon a Southern plan- tation. The difference, $46.00 less $20.00 or $26. 10, favor of the Sugar Beet, we trust will be sufficient to convince our readers of the impossibility of the cane, under the best of circumstances in the South, compet- ing with the sugar beet in the North, even by present methods. The transportation of the sugar north must be done in the one case ; whilst in the other it need not be, for the reason that it is produced in the centre of demand. In the one case the article must be refined, and in the other that process is not requisite (by recent improvements refined sugar may be made directly from the beet). Nothing is in the way for the complete success of the beet-sugar industry in our country but the confi- dence of our people (as they imagine that the problem is a difficult one), and the strict adherence to foreign methods. Condition of American Sugar Industry. Too much confidence is placed in the future possible Southern cane sugar supply ; and the complete ignorance of the masses of the difficul- ties to be overcome may partially explain why more has not been done, and why the industry has not been 42 ere this established in America. Sugar cane has never been able to supply our home demand with sugar, whilst the beet has, in Europe, permitted for years an immense export of sugar. We fear that but few of our readers realize the exact condition of the home sugar production from various sources, consumption and importation. With the view of rendering it com- prehensible, we give a table based on official data, for example : In every State, with two exceptions, /. e., Ten- nessee and South Carolina, there has been a falling off in ten years. In Mississippi, for example, this has been 1000 per cent. The table shows that, while the total home production has not regularly diminished, it has practically, for the reason that nearly 30,000,000 pounds less are made to-day than twenty years ago. The production in Louisiana was in 1860 one- third of the total (as before stated), but to-day it is so small as to be doubtful of ever again attaining this same proportional growth. One curious fact relating to our home sugar production is, that whilst it has practically yearly decreased the population augmented, and the production remaining the same, the total exportation of sugar has increased; it was 4,466,031 pounds in 1860, whilst it was 54,073,814 in 1877. Whilst our total imports were in 1860 but 694,879,795 pounds, in 1877, for example, they had increased over one hundred per cent, and were 1,623,973,537 pounds. In 1863, on account of the war, there was a slight falling off; but from 1868 to the present day the increase has been very steady, with little or no fluctuation. During these same years the exportation of for- eign sugars has fallen in 1863 from 34,016,070 pounds, to 3,122,956 pounds in 1877, from which period it has somewhat increased. 43 CO bl h {{ j > i i * *> ^ (N ro CO I K " N o'oo' ro N oo vo 1 ?vo* ro . in r>vo rooo^vo LOOE ;i VC VC Q bJ 1 Q rooo (XMtn-^-^Ni-iO oo ro t-. xnvo oo t^. 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I ro bl .^ j2 .5 lo'n .5 1'P : CO < S H (S h lilofof^ll'lf Mc^c?c?o?|-^l J N < a 8 58 S 2 g" g" > 5 ON K vO H t-*. Tt- i-J oT* M cTr-i.^ri.rr-!^"" 1 ^ O^OO vcT rT c of ^22s"?lim SSfJju o Q c> rooo N 1 i < g $&% 9 % & 8 ^N?^ roo\ To ^ 5, g; ^ 3 Q ON t- M ro o q, O^NO^ NO^ moo^ N oo io rooo M o< fn ^ S;^ s 2 s? r? i 2" p" o" c? i-T N 1 mvo NO NO CT^O? 2 JT ^"S C) ro h (N 00 NO ^ ? ^ So? - ? Tp o rovcT tC o^oo^ cfvo^ tC 0* rr\rX ra IL /M ^X ZJ Zl * t^^MiN^OoOt^ ON'O ro Q & 74o,796 1866 37,532,000 1867 35,654,000 1868 33,421,000 1869 29,114,500 1870 28,443,645 Ibs. 1871 30.756,000 1872 31,682,000 1873 32,157,000 1874 33,044,200 1875 43,197,930 i-876___ 43,288,080 1877 41,000,000 MAPLE SUGAR MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES. State. Sugar. 1870 1860 1850 Illinois POUNDS. 136 873 POUNDS. POUNDS. Indiana 1,332,332 1,541,761 2,921,192 ?8 4O7 Kentucky 269,416 380,941 1 60 805 Massachusetts 399,800 1,006,078 795,525 Michigan 1,781,855 Minnesota 210,467 370,669 2,95O Missouri 116,980 142,028 New Hampshire New York 1,800,704 6,692,040 2,255,012 10,816.419 1,298,863 10 357 484 Ohio Pennsylvania I 545 917 2,767,335 2,326 525 Vermont 8,894,302 9,897,781 6,349,357 West Virginia 490,606 Wisconsin 507 192 I 584 451 United States 28,443, 6 45 40,120,205 34, 2 53,436 * We regret to have been unable to complete the above, but the reasons we before explained. POTATO SUGAR. Sugar from the Sweet Potato. WE cannot admit the sweet potato as a source of Northern sugar supply, for the reason that it is essentially a Southern vegetable. It is true the sandy soils of New Jersey have yielded satisfactory results as to the number of bushels grown to the acre, but we know nothing of their saccharine qualities. We are convinced, however, that this sugar percentage would be less than it would have been had these roots been grown at the South. For example : sweet potatoes raised in South Carolina contain more sugar than those of Virginia ; and it is presumable that those raised in Vermont would be inferior to others of Louisiana. The maximum sugar existing in the sweet potato, to our knowledge, in the Southern climes, is ten per cent. We have not been able to find any data as to the yield per acre to be expected North, but we are informed that the Southern yield is about three times that of corn, or, in other words, about 6,000 pounds, or less than three tons per acre. (This latter may be taken as a basis.) The maximum possible sugar to be extracted from this would be, say, six per cent., or, perhaps, 400 pounds. If this should be sold at eight cents per pound, it would represent $32.00. If we admit that the total residue molasses is 300 pounds, and if this be sold at two cents per pound, it would represent $6.00, or a total for the receipts of $38.00. As for the cost of raising the sweet potatoes, it would 5 1 be at least $40.00 per acre. If the cost of manufacture should be identical with that required by sugar beets, we would have for the three tons $9.00, or a total of $49.00 for the cost of cultivation and manufacture. The profits would consequently be negative, or, in other words, there would be a loss of $11.00. If we should admit that by careful selection of seed, and the most improved methods of cultivation upon suitable lands, the average yield to the acre would become equal to that of sugar beets, or ten tons, it would necessarily be a crop (as it always has been) upon which very little reliance could be placed, in conse- quence of the extreme tenderness of the plant. We are willing to throw aside these arguments, and admit that it is equal to the beet from every point of view, but there remains a factor which cannot possibly be overlooked, and that is a natural color peculiar to this sugar ; and this cannot be eliminated by any known economical method. If we should admit that it could be done, the cost of the 'sugar must necessarily be greater than were there no necessity for the expensive removal. Sugar, to yield a high price, must be free from all foreign substances. Sugar from the White Potato. The idea of this source is foolish in the extreme. Many argue that sugar has been made from it. So it has, but not cane sugar. The starch sugar generally referred to is obtained by the simple addition of an acid, and the whole becomes changed into grape sugar or glucose. Many other substances may be used for the manufacture of this same sugar, such as paper, saw-dust, flax, cotton and linen rags, sea-weeds, 52 etc. All of these may be transformed into sugar by two chemical changes. Calculations are, we consider, in this case unnecessary, for this source will never supply the home demand with sugar, unless glucose be transformed by an unknown principle into cane sugar (sucrose). WATERMELON SUGAR. Sugar from "Watermelons. SOME few French and German writers many years ago expressed their opinion that the melon would be a capital plant for sugar manufacture. Factories are said to have existed in Hungary and Northern Italy, but we have not, during the last ten years, seen any accounts of results there obtained. With the view to home sugar manufacture, -a factory was started, with a capital of $200,000, in Cali- fornia, having for object the utilization of watermelons. What success was there obtained we have never heard, as the results were not published in the Government Agricultural Reports. One of the arguments advanced in favor of the melon utilization is, that with a small capital the farmer, or a combination of a few farmers, may make excellent brown sugar for domestic usage, on a total capital of $r,OOO. If surplus sugar is pro- duced, this could be sold to the refiner, who could manufacture from it an excellent white and refined sugar. These same theories have been advanced for every plant that has been proposed for Northern sugar for the past fifty years (and we have discussed them under the head of Sorghum, etc.). And it is also argued that working of melons into sugar may com- mence a month earlier than with beets. But how can this be, when the necessary temperature for their com- plete maturity has not existed ? Whilst in New Jersey the melon may be grown and ripened, apparently, 54 upon a sandy soil, sufficiently so for eating (in conse- quence of the surplus radiated heat), it is not, on this account, suitable for the manufacture of sugar. The ripest, and, consequently, those containing the most sugar, are to be found in Southern Hungary, Egypt, Persia, Italy, India (grown on the river edge where the cane will not flourish) ; the temperature in those climes being sufficient for the complete maturity of the melon. It requires a subsoil slightly damp. In growing this fruit it has frequently been sug- gested to plant a crop between the rows, to economize the land ; but we have reasons to believe that the result as to the quality, etc., would be sadly impaired. It is contended that the cost of cultivation of melons is one-fourth that of beets ; but we doubt it, as experi- ence has, in every case, proved the contrary. The ploughing of the field for beet cultivation is an actual outlay at the commencement, but is in reality an economy for subsequent crops. If plowing several times should be resorted to, it would not leave the ground in a condition like it is after a crop of beets. Argument in favor of melon cultivation and utilization is, that a larger amount may be sold at retail, repre- senting an immense revenue, which is admitted would be greater than could possibly be expected from beets. But we would say in answer, the experience in beet growing in America has been that the farmers esti- mate, in many cases, there is more profit derived from feeding them to cattle than selling to the factory at $5 a ton, in consequence of their immense feeding qualities. If only ten tons to the acre be obtained, this would represent a value for fodder of $50 ; we know of no other plant of which the same may be said. It is true that melons yield seed every year, so does sorghum ; and beets require two years for matu- 55 rity, occupying, it is true, the soil twice, whilst the other plants but once. But the advantage is greatly in favor of the beet, as it permits a principle of selec- tion that could not otherwise possibly exist, the proof of which being that the beet of the past cannot be compared with the beet of to-day. Little, however, has been done to ameliorate the melon from a sugar point of view. The beet seed in beet-growing districts is sold by specialists who do nothing else, and they guarantee a given result as to yield and sugar percent- age. As for the value of the melon seed for the manu- facture of oil, this may, without doubt, be extremely profitable, as sixteen per cent, of the total weight of the melon are said to be extracted ; but we doubt whether the profits from the same would, as many contend, represent one-half the cost of cultivation. It is true that beet seed cannot be used for this purpose ; but the latter seed are grown only in amounts needed, and con- sequently from them a profitable selection may be made, and the remainder sold at a reasonable price. When comparing the cost of harvesting in the two cases, in one it is comparatively easy work, it being sufficient to take the melon from the vine and throw it into carts ; whilst in the other, beets must be pulled or taken from the ground with a special harvesting appliance, the leaves being twisted off and left upon the soil, consequently the cost for this operation is greater for the beet than for the melon ; but the tear- ing up of the soil for some depth in this work is most beneficial. From the time the roots arrive at the factory until they leave they are not subject to manual labor. Is this so with the melon ? To our knowl- edge it is not. For no appliance could possibly be made that would empty the latter of its interior, and consequently it must be done by hand ; which opera- tion, to be effectual, must necessarily be extremely 56 expensive. Any fruit or root must permit of preserva- tion during three or four months at least if to be used for sugar manufacture. The watermelon crop cannot be kept during that time. The work of a sugar factory during the summer months would not be as profitable as during the winter, in consequence of the fermentation to be contended with ; whilst the beet may be preserved during four to five months of the winter in an excellent condition. Cantaloupes should be worked two days after harvesting (as admitted by advocates), otherwise they become too ripe, and the sugar disappears. This, even if the problem were practicable, would condemn their usage. The working (according to theory) of squashes, pump- kins, and cantaloupes, differs essentially from that of the melon-sugar manufacture, the rind being utilized, as it contains a small percentage of sugar. As may be imagined, the impurities the juice contains under these circumstances would be considerable. The same may be said of pumpkin utilization, from which some argue that forty per cent, of sugar may be extracted; but we would like some practical figures demonstrating the truth of the assertion. It is true that in the process of making sugar from melons no water need be added ; but, on the other hand, the melon juice is extremely diluted and does not ferment in a few hours, whilst beet juice does. If, however, the latter be mixed with water to the same degree as the melon juice, we are convinced there will be no difference in the fermenting qualities. The portion of the beet which grows above ground is worthless for sugar manufacture, but the entire melon is equally so if the temperature is not suffi- ciently high. It is frequently asked why it is that red garden beets are not used for sugar manufacture, as they are far superior in taste to the well-known sugar 57 beet. The reason is that the coloring matter would be extremely difficult to extract. The same argu- ment applies to many other plants, and we are con- vinced that the watermelon is one of them. The cost of the melon sugar is said to be less than from any other source ; we are willing to believe this, but we have never seen any practical data as to the results obtained.* Factories may, as contended, exist in the countries already named, but the sugar and revenue from the same have not, to our knowledge, ever been published. It is true that the washing of the beets is an operation to which the melons need not be sub- mitted, but it is continuous, and done at a compara- tively small cost, a single machine performing work for 200 tons or more a day, and using only the waste steam of the factory. The slicing and rasping is extremely rapid, and requires but little care. The pressing of the juice being done by hydraulic presses is evidently not continuous, but the diffusion, etc., is. The cost of a melon factory is sadly exaggerated by those interested, who contend that with $10,000 as a first investment we are to obtain six per cent, for our money, and a larger dividend. When it is admit- ted that a still smaller factory may be started on a capital of $1,000, it is simply acknowledging a com- plete ignorance of the subject under discussion. * In the Agricultural Report of 1844, page 139, mention is made of an excellent syrup manufactured in South Carolina. But how about the sugar ? We have no hopes of this source as a Northern home supply. BEET SUGAR. Sugar from the Sugar Beet. WE think it hardly worth while to repeat what was said as to the advantages of the intro- duction of the sugar beet into the United States, but to simply assert that it is the only possible plant which can supply the North with sugar, when it be once taken hold of by our farmers, and tillers in general. The results at Portland and Wilmington were satisfactory, and proved beyond a doubt that if the supply of beets had been sufficient, the supposed fail- ure of the beet sugar enterprise would no longer have been considered. On the other hand, excellent sugar was made, and sold on the market with the same ease as any of the imported. The factory at Alvarado not only has been a success, but the stockholders received last year a dividend, which was the first declared by any American beet sugar factory. In Canada several new establishments have been organized, and are being built by experienced hands. These will be worked by competent men. The farmers are there interested in the subject, and success is assured ; consequently the prospect of the final estab- lishment of the sugar beet industry in America has never appeared more favorable. Would it not be well for all interested in the good of the country to exert themselves in aid of a plausible cause rather than in a scheme originally theoretical, and which has remained so ? The sugar beet, and the manufacture of sugar therefrom, does not depend, in the Northern 59 States, upon the building of jetties, the employment of Chinese labor, or upon a temperature for the maturity that is never attained. Neither does it depend upon the refiner, after it has traveled hundreds of of miles (thus increasing its cost), or upon the drying- up of thousands of acres of swamps, etc. (where it should be grown but cannot be), or upon the utilization of unpopulated districts, where labor is scarce. The manufacture of beet sugar is not based upon a series of hypotheses absurdly false, such as comparing it with another plant of the same kind, but superior to it, whose juice contains but a small percentage of impurities, in which case the crystallization is comparatively easy. Sugar may be made from the beet during a period of a few hours' visit at the factory ; whilst, on the other hand, if one should attempt to use the sorghum or the early amber, one month after harvesting, several weeks would be required for the processes. What is sup- posed to be true, relating to the sugar beet, is true ; in other words, it is a Northern sugar-yielding plant, as it has proved for fifty or more years in Europe. The coloring substances nearly all other sources of sugar possess, and which cannot be eliminated, are in the beet-juice entirely extracted. No money need be spent on unnecessary experiments, these have all been made in Europe. Is it not consequently important that our Hon. Commissioner of Agriculture, G. B. Loring, should ask for a Govern- ment appropriation, having these facts in view ? As a hearty support of this kind would, without doubt, be advantageous, and possibly the only means of attain- ing that which could not otherwise be achieved, we have endeavored to call attention to the fact that sugar beets in the North, when grown under ordinary cir- cumstances, may compete with the sugar cane on a well- organized Southern sugar plantation ; and they will, 60 without a doubt, act as an agricultural reformer. This can never be accomplished with the sugar cane, or its sub-varieties, for the reason that the system of cultiva- tion of sorghum, etc., is closely allied to that of the corn, from which the American farmer can learn but little; whilst, on the other hand, the beet teaches new prin- ciples and puts the land in excellent condition for subsequent crops. The importance of the rotation becomes evident, as already stated. Many argue against the sugar beet industry, that it requires a con- siderable capital for commencement, and the risks are such that but few are willing to invest their money therein. It is extremely rational that there should be a feeling of the sort, for the reason that other indus- tries may be worked upon a small scale for a trial, but the beet-sugar manufacture cannot be ; and any establishment started with less than one hundred tons a day capacity, and a capital of less than $200,000, must not expect to succeed. We have now in this country too many examples of failures resulting from these foolish attempts. The industry should not be managed by. inexperienced hands; it does not pretend to be within the easy reach of every farmer and house- hold, as the sorghum and maple are said to be. We beg to call attention to the fact that by a judicious management a beet-sugar factory may be started on a small capital, and will lead to sugar results no ima- ginary sorghum mill has ever attained, or perhaps ever will. An idea has long since been expounded, and in Europe has proved to be excellent; and it would be still better in America. It consists in a utilization of the beet which would enable experience to be acquired by our farmers as to the best methods of planting, and the most satisfactory fertilizer to be used upon a given soil, after having judiciously selected the locality. This proposition is simply distilling the beet juice with the 61 view to alcohol manufacture ; not spirits of a second- ary quality, but rectified alcohol fit for the use of laboratories and pharmacies, marking, say, 95 B. This evidently requires a special beet-distilling appa- ratus. It would lead to a positive failure if attempts were made to utilize a whiskey-still, or some other similar appliances. As for special work special appli- ances are required, so in beet-juice distillation volatile oils are to be contended with, which are unfamiliar to the grain distiller. The refuse pulp may be sold for manure, or, better still, used as a fodder. If the latter plan be adopted, it may be safely said that alcohol may be manufactured from the beet that could com- pete with corn or any other substance (having sugar in its composition), for the reason that the mash from a corn distillery is nothing like as valuable for a fodder as the beet refuse. Even if this alcohol be sold at cost, it would leave to the manufacturer a profit from the increase in weight of the animals attached to all well-organized beet-sugar factories. (The distil- lery utilizes the molasses, from the refuse of which potassa is obtained. From the refuse, after potassa remains a fertilizer which represents nearly all the ele- ments that had previously been extracted from the soil. If farms are in the immediate neighborhood, this will be to them an immense advantage.) We beg to call attention to the fact that our system of taxation is such that our Government knows exactly the number of gallons distilled, hence can be known the amount of sugar the primitive grain or root con- tained. Consequently, after several years of experience in growing these roots, a company could be easily formed, for the reason that exact figures could be given, such as the average amount of sugar that roots contained during the four years of their growth upon a given soil, for example, and not based upon European 62 data, which are not, in many respects, compatible with results to be here expected, having also a tendency to mislead. The average number of tons to the" acre, and the cost of growing the same, could be positively ascertained in advance. The distillery, after the beet sugar factory is started, could use the refuse molasses, as above stated. It becomes evident that thus the uncertainty of the enterprise would no longer exist. We would say, that when the farmers are willing to contract for beets for a period of years, and when the elution method, so called, is generally prac- ticed, refuse molasses will not exist. The distillery would then be unnecessary. But we consider that under the present farmers' difficulties the distillation idea is extremely plausible. Notwithstanding, would it not be well for the friends of the beet-sugar industry, who are anti-liquor men, to realize the harm they would do if they offered any opposition to this beet-alcohol project, which is such an easy solution of so great a result? 63 MISCELLANEOUS SUGARS. Various Sources of Sugar from which Nothing is to be Expected. First. FINITE or PINE SUGAR. It is to be found in the sap of the California pine. Second. ACORN SUGAR. To be found in acorns. It crystallizes. Third. MANNITE or MANNA SUGAR. This variety of sugar forms during the viscous fermentation of cane sugar ; it crystallizes ; it is to be found in the concrete juice of two kinds of ash, grown in Southern and in Eastern countries. It is also taken from certain trees very much in the same way as the maple. This sugar contains a crystalline called mannite, which is agreeable in taste. There are 11,000 pounds of the manna imported yearly to Great Britain. After being kept for some time it produces a laxative effect upon the system. It exists in many sea-weeds. Of the various kinds of manna sugars we may mention MANNA OAK, LARCH MANNA, CEDAR MANNA (this is said to have wonderful curative properties for lung complaints), PERSIAN MANNA, TAMARISK MANNA (this latter grows in the neighborhood of Mount Sinai), ARCIN MANNA or SUGAR. Fourth. DULCITE. This is to be found in a crys- talline substance little known, brought from Mada- gascar. It is also formed by the action of sodium upon milk-sugar. Fifth. ISODULCITE. It is formed by submitting quercitrine to the action of acids. Its crystallization 64 is very similar to that of cane sugar, and it is sweeter than glucose. Sixth. CHESTNUT SUGAR. It is made from the chestnut tree. Seventh. EUCALYPTUS SUGAR. Made from the sap of trees found principally in Australia, Algiers, etc. Eighth. LIQUORICE SUGAR. From the root of common liquorice. Ninth. MILK SUGAR. Tenth. Last of all the various GLUCOSES : Glucose rarely, if ever, occurs in nature ; it is produced by the action of acids upon cane sugar, and many erroneously confound it with the latter. The evil effects produced by it upon our community are very much greater than many suppose. As a general thing a certain amount of acid is used in its prepara- tion, and frequently in excess, which cannot be bene- ficial. The crystallization, so called, is nothing more nor less than a granulation. The less we say upon this subject the better (unless a solution be given to the manner of transforming glucose into sucrose). MALTOSE is a variety of glucose ; it is produced by the action of malt upon starch paste. FRUIT SUGAR is formed by the mixing of two glucoses in equal quantities. MANITOSE is a glucose produced by the action of mannitic acid. GALOTOSE is obtained by boiling milk-sugar with diluted acids. SORBINE may be obtained from ripe mountain ash berries (also called elderberry sugar) ; it crystallizes, and is nearly as sweet as cane sugar. SUGAR FROM THE PALM OR DATE. The palm and date are used for sugar manufacture principally near Bengal, and the secondary product is 65 sold as jaggery, and is anything but attractive in appearance. The same may be said of the purer arti- cle from the same source known as kham. The manu- facture of palm sugar, it is true, has, in India, attained a very advanced state. About 1 1 ,000 pounds are yearly extracted from that tree. The molasses is good, and may be directly eaten. The sucrose (cane sugar) crystallizes with ease. If the palm were grown over some hundred thousand times the area it now is, it might reduce considerably the price of sugar the World over. But it may be justly said that it will never be a source for sugar extraction in our Northern climes. 66 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. SEP 8-196876 & V LD 21A-60m-10,'65 (F7763slO)476B General Library University of California Berkeley