GIFT or Daughter or will ism St^vsrt Siriith Digitized by the Internet Arcinive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/englishgrammarreOOtancrich Clamkn |ras 3ixm ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND READING BOOK TANCOCK Eontion MACMILLAN AND CO. PUBLISHERS TO THE UNIVERSITY OF ©xfotD ^htmloton ^r^B^ S>mm AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND READING BOOK FOJ^ LOWER FORMS IN CLASSICAL SCHOOLS REV. O. W. TANCOCK, M.A. // Assistant Master of Sherborne School SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS M DCCC LXXIV [All rights reserved'\ ) • » ♦• PREFACE. This little book is intended to help those who are trying to solve the problem of teaching English systematically in classical schools. My object has been to supply ah English grammar for lower forms which shall teach a boy to apply grammatical terms and explanations to his own language, and which may be learnt by the side of his Latin grammar with little additional trouble ; and to supply a reading book which shall be to the study of English what a Latin Delectus is to the study of Latin. The Glossary explains the meaning and derivation of every word in the Extracts. I believe that a boy who has worked fairly through the book will have laid the foundation of an accurate knowledge of the structure of his mother tongue, and its relation to kindred languages, and will have learned to distinguish between its two great divisions of words — the words of Teutonic, and thoie of Latin origin. I have not attempted to teach everything, or to supply the place of advanced grammars; but I have great hope that those who use it will have nothing to unlearn . when they come to use larger grammars, and to extend their study of English to the earlier stages of the language. In the Introductory Chapter I have given — for teachers rather than for boys — a sketch of the growth of the lan- guage, with some notice of the laws of that growth, and of 870734: VI PREFACE, the changes which have taken place. Much of what I have said is, of course, derived from Mr. Freeman's writings, in whose steps all must follow who deal with the times of our early forefathers. The chapter was written before Mr. Earle's *The Philology of the English Tongue' was published, but I have been happy to be able to add a few references to his pages as giving support to what I had written. In the Grammar in some places rather more of the form and nomenclature of Latin grammar is kept than is entirely pleasing to myself, but I have been obliged to bear in mind that the book is for boys who have their Latin grammars in their hands, and to whom no stumbling-block is greater than a variety of grammatical terms. I have to acknowledge the courtesy of the owners of the copyrights of many of the Extracts, who have in all cases most kindly given their consent to the use of their works. If by mistake I have in any case made use of a copyright without obtaining permission, I hope the oversight will be excused. I owe thanks to many friends for much advice and help, to the Rev. C. W. Boase, M. A., of Exeter College, Oxford ; and especially to A. M. Curteis, Esq., M.A., Assistant- Master of Sherborne School, who has kindly read and cor- rected my proof-sheets, and assisted me much in every part of my work. I gladly take the opportunity of a second edition to thank the Rev. W. W. Skeat for most kindly sending me many valuable criticisms and corrections. March, 1874. CONTENTS. PAGE Introductory Chapter i Grammar 33 Extracts 107 Glossary 227 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. English is a teutonic language of the Low-German branch, § I. The English language which is spoken by most per- sons in England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and in the many colonies founded or occupied by settlers from these lands, is a language of the Low-German branch of the Teutonic family. Differences between related languages, § 2. When people of common origin separate into tribes and pass to various places, small changes and differences grow in their language. As time goes on, the differences become more numerous and more marked, so that the modes of speech of two tribes can be distinguished ac- cording to rules or laws. Such modes of speech are called dialects when the differences which mark them one from another are not great, or distinct languages when the differ- ences have become very important. When we inquire into the dialects or languages spoken by various peoples or nations, we find that some are very near akin, some have more distant relationship, while others appear at first sight to have no relationship one to another. Accordingly languages are divided into classes called families, each containing a group of languages which are near akin or like one to another, as the Teutonic, Celtic, Italic families of languages. ^-^ /" ^ B 1 TESTS OF RELATIONSHIP, . * ''' ' ' f f' ' Tests of relationship, \ 1 l/3-vT^is ti n ship 6,t likeness of languages and dialects is to be looked for — (i) \xv pronunciation, or the ways of speaking the same words by different peoples; (2) in the vocabulary, or the use of the same words to express the same ideas in different languages ; (3) m grammatical structure, or the ways in which words are put together to make sentences. So that in two dialects of the same language we shall find that letters and words are pronounced rather differently, but that the words used are mostly the same, and that there is not much difference in the grammar — this is, in their ways of showing genders, numbers, and cases of nouns, or voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons of verbs, and of linking and arranging words and sentences. Thus, if we take dialects of English as showing difference at its least and likeness at its greatest, Stay me weth flagons, cumfurt me weth apples ; for I'm sick of love. (Cornwall.) Stay me wi' vlagons, comfort me wi' yapples, vor I be zeek o* love. (Somerset.) Stay me wud drinkin pots, comfort me wud appuls, for I be sick wud love. (Sussex.) Stop ma wid flagons, comfort ma wid apples, for aa's seek o' leuvv. (Mid-Cumberland.) Stay mah wih flaggons, cumfurt mah wih apples, for a' seek uv luv. (Durham.)^ the differences are mostly of pronunciation. Between two languages of the same family the likeness will still be strong even when they have been separated for a very long time ; as between English, of the Low-German branch, and modern German, of the High-German branch, ^ Song of Solomon, ii. 5, Bonaparte Collection. Latham, English Lan- guage, pp. 350, 346, 357, 362, 378. TESTS OF RELATIONSHIP. 3 of the Teutonic family. But if two languages do not belong to the same family we find not only different pronunciations of the same words when they occur in both, but also usually different words to express the same ideas, and what is of still more importance, great differences of grammatical struct- ure. And this last is the best test of kinship, for one lan- guage very frequently and very easily borrows words from another, but it cannot give up its own grammar and take the grammar of another. Thus with specimens of English, German, and Latin, we are struck at once by the small differences between the two languages of the Teutonic family, and the great differences between them and the lan- guage of the Italic family, in all our three points : And John was clad with camel's hair and with a leathern girdle about his loins ; and he ate locusts and wild honey. Johannes aber war bekleidet mit Cameers haaren und mit einem ledernen Giirtel um seine Lenden, und ass Heuschrecken und wilden Honig. Et erat Johannes vestitus pilis cameli et zona pellicea circa lumbos eius, et locustas et mel sylvestre edebat. (St. Mark i. 6.) By the use of these rules of relationship it has been shewn that the likenesses between several languages bring them under the Teutonic family, distributed into groups still more nearly akin. Teutonic Family. 1 1 -^ -r -1 McBso-Golhtc. Scandinavian, Low-German. High-German. Iceland, Old Saxon, German of the Norway, German of the North, east and Sweden, Holland, south districts Denmark. Friesland and islands, of Germany. England. In like manner, further inquiries show that distant rela- tionship can be traced by the same rules between various families of languages, thus uniting many under one stock. 4 ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH, A Statement of Grimm's Law, which explains and illustrates these relationships, is to be found at the end of this chapter, P- 32. Origin of the English, § 4. In a part of the duchy of Schleswig, south of Denmark, and on the northern coast of Germany, is a little district which bears the name Angeln, of the Angles. From this district we have received the name Angle or Engle, and then our words England, English; for from this and many neighbouring parts came our English-speaking forefathers. The various invaders of Britain, who are commonly grouped under the names Jutes, Saxons, Angles, by degrees settled on the southern and eastern coasts of the island during the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries of the Christian era\ bringing with them their language called English. All that we know of the bands, or tribes as they are called, of invaders leads us to suppose that they spoke one language. Nothing that is known of the Jutes marks them off distinctly from the others, and they are sometimes called Engle, as if they were not different from the Angles. In like manner we find that the British had one name for all the invaders, calling Jutes, Saxons, and Angles all alike Saxons, or Sas- senach ; while not only the Angles of the north, but also the men of Wessex, or the West Saxon kingdom of the south, called their tongue English, as king Alfred writes, * Ic hie dn Englisc awende^' 'I translated it into English,' that is, into the tongue of his own people. We therefore consider that the many sets of invaders who formed these settlements in ^ Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest, i. p. 12. 2 King Alfred's Gregory's Pastoral Care, p. 6 (Early English Text Society). Compare Mr. Freeman's Lectures on the Origin of the English People, in Macmillan's Magazine, March, April, and May, 1870. SETTLING OF ENGLISH IN BRITAIN. 5 Britain were ^1 alike of the Angle or English race, and that the speech of all alike is to be called English. There were, naturally, many differences of dialect among them — men who came from one place in the fifth century differing from men who came from a neighbouring district in the sixth century. So in the present day, 'the Frisian, which is spoken on a small area . . . between the Scheldt and Judand, and on the islands near the shore ... is broken up into endless local dialects^.' Thus the settlers in Thanet might be distinguished from the setders on the Colne, and both of these from the settlers on the Humber, by their pronuncia- tion or use of certain words, just as a Cumberland man, a Sussex man, and a Dorsetshire man may now be distin- guished. But with these differences the language was one, as it is one now, and it has kept its old name. Settlement of English in Britain. § 5. The bodies of English invaders landed on the coasts of Britain, at first, as mere rovers looking for plunder, and a stronghold on land for the winter, or as helpers in the wars of the British chiefs. After a time they made good their footing as settlers on lands better and more pleasant than those they had left behind them. They found Britain in- habited by people very unlike themselves ; unlike in lan- guage, for the British spoke a language of the Celtic family to which the English gave the name Welsh, that is, foreign or strange ; unlike in religion, for the British were Christians while the English were heathen ; and unlike in manners and customs, for the British had learnt some of the Roman civilisation from their old rulers whom the English did not know. ^ Max Miiller, Lectures on the Science of Language, i. p. 53. INFLUENCE OF CELTIC UPON ENGLISH, Influence of Celtic upon English, § 6. Between the British and the English, who gradually settled in the land and founded communities and kingdoms, there was long and bitter war. By degrees the English pushed the older race back to the western mountain lands, Cumberland, Wales, and the moorland parts of Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall. So that ' during the last years of the sixth century, a line drawn from Abercorn southward to Weymouth would not have unfairly represented the two great divisions of the island^/ with Christian British on the west of the line and heathen English on the east. How far the two races may have mingled is not certain ; probably scarcely at all at first, and Uttle at any time .except on the borders of the hilly lands. At any rate the languages did not mix. This we might expect, because in the other countries where a Celtic language has met with another tongue, the Celtic has usually given way before it, as in Gaul before the Latin, without influencing it much. Accordingly we find that very pure English continued to be spoken in Dorset and Somerset quite up to the rivers Parret and Axe, which were at different times long the frontier line between the Celts and the English. In like manner ' the broadest and purest Lowland Scots is spoken on the edge of the Highland line,' for ^ it was the nature of the language [of these invaders of the Teutonic race] obstinately to resist all admixture with the Gaelic^.' Whatever influence Celtic had upon English was entirely confined to the vocabulary, and did not aff'ect the grammatical structure of the language in any degree. The ^ Hist. Eccl. Baedae, Moberly ; Introduction, p. i. ^ Burton, History of Scotland, i. p. 207. INFLUENCE OF CELTIC UPON ENGLISH. 7 new words introduced were not very many, and they fall under the following heads or classes : — 1. The names of natural objects in the land, as moun- tains, or rivers, or headlands, &c. ; 3.5 Ben, Fen, Penrith; Avon, Axe, Exe, Ox, Oicse, Usk, Derwent, Thames ; Dover, Kent. A new comer would naturally take many such names from the old inhabitants, as Englishmen have taken Mis- sissippi, Ontario, in America; Taranaki, Akaroa, in New Zealand; Wooloomooloo, in Australia. 2. The names of some common objects of daily use and industry. These are not many, and were adopted from the talk of the Celtic agricultural serfs and house slave-women, without changing the language, just as the foreign names of common objects are often now adopted into modern- English without changing our language ; as the American moccasin^ yam; New Zealand pah ; Australian kangaroo, boomerang. Thus among words of Celtic origin are basket, bran, cart, coat, gruel, park, rug, wicket, willow^. 3. The names of some towns or stations, showing in their Latin origin, or Latinised form, a trace of that Roman in- fluence on the Britons of which we have spoken, § 5 ; as \Axvcoln, colonia ; Y)oYicaster, T)oxchester, GloMcester, "Exeter, castra ; Leicester, legionis castra ; Stratton, Stretton, strata ; Portsmouth, portus. We might compare the traces of Dutch near New York in the names Orange, Staaten ; or of French in Canada in the names Montreal, Quebec, It is Hkely that the fortified posts, castra, and roads, strata, and ramparts, vallum, of the Romans in Britain were alto- gether new to the English, and made a great impression on them. ^ Compare Latham, English Language, p. 412 ; Earle, Philology of the English Tongue, p. 20. now LANGUAGES CHANGE English has changed, § 7. From about the end of the sixth century the English were settled in the land as though it were their own home. They were broken up into many communities or kingdoms, speaking several dialects, but the same English language. We find, however, that the early written specimens of this language are very different from what we now call English. Thus — Her cuom ^Ua on Bretonlond This year came ^lla to the land of and his iii suna mid iii scipum, on J?a Britain and his three sons with three stowe^eisnemnedCymenesora.and ships, to the station that is named i>aer ofslogon monige Wealas and Cymenesora, and there slew many sume on fleame bedrifon on J?one Welsh, and some in flight they drove wudu \>e is genemned Andredes- to that wood that is named An- leage. dred's-lea^. So different indeed that people often talk as if it were quite another language, and call it Anglo-Saxon, to distinguish it from English, speaking of our English as a language de- scended from Anglo-Saxon. But the name, though in some ways convenient, is apt to mislead, because it is one which the people did not use, and because it may lead us to sup- pose that the changes in our language have been so unusual as to amount to an absolute break in its history instead of a very regular and natural development. In order to show clearly the relation of our present English to the English of those early times, it is needful to explain of what kind the changes in the language have been, and how they have come about. ^ Earle, Saxon Chronicles, p. 12. FROM SYNTHETIC TO ANALYTIC, 9 i/ooy languages change, § 8. First it must be understood that a language never remains long the same. Change is in fact always going on, so that the speech of each generation differs somewhat from that of the last. The change is of various kinds, and espe- cially in those three points which have been already laid down as points of difference between languages. Thus in the specimen in § 7 we have changes of pronunciation, as monige, now many ; of vocabulary, as mid^ now with ; slowe has given place to station, a word borrowed from Latin ; of grammar, as suna, marking its plural by a, has changed into sons, marking its plural by s ; Bretonlond has become the land of Britain, marking relation by a preposition for greater clearness. Such changes go on in almost all languages, though with more or less quickness and regularity according as the language is little or much disturbed by the influence of people speaking a different tongue. Change from Synthetical to Analytical, § 9. The most important change has been the change in the grammar of the language from the synthetic to the ana- lytic condition, that is, from a grammar which expresses the relations of ideas and so of words in a sentence by inflex- ions, as case-endings, tense-endings, and person-endings, to one which expresses them by prepositions, auxiliaries, and pronouns. A tendency to this change is natural to all modern European languages. Thus modern Greek is ana- lytical compared with ancient Greek, and French is analytical compared with Latin. All languages of the Teutonic family have changed or are changing in the same manner as English, but not all to the same extent, so that among them the law is of universal application, ' The earlier the stage, y lO SCANDINAVIAN INFLUENCES. the fuller the inflection ; and as languages become modern, they lose their inflections \' This tendency is always aided • and hastened by any admixture of a foreign language, or any fresh mingling of dialects, causes which have been at work upon English ^. Scandina'vian iwyasions and influence. § 10. The English became Christians during the seventh century, taught in part by missionaries from Rome, who landed in Kent, in part by Scottish missionaries from lona, who converted the northern kingdoms. In the ninth a new wave of invaders poured down from Northern Europe. They were of the Scandinavian race, and, starting from Nor- way and Sweden and Denmark, they wasted those parts of the coast of Neustria which were afterwards called Normandy, and the coasts of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The Danes settled on the eastern coast, radiating from the Humber; the Norwegians settled on the western coast, radiating from Morecambe Bay. These new-comers wrought the first great disturbance upon English speech. Their tongue was of the Scandinavian branch (§ 3) of the Teutonic family, and so nearly akin to English that it was rather a new dialect than a new language. By and by they made good their footing in the north and east of the land. Then by degrees they and their language coalesced with the northern English; and this all the more easily since they were of ^ Latham, English Language, p. 269. ^ Inflexions are lost, because to the uneducated and to foreigners the idea in the word is the main thing, and therefore they lay stress on the root syllables, not on the inflexions, and hence the consonants of the flexion syllables drop off, and the full-toned vowels weaken to the vague e, which soon becomes mute. SCANDINAVIAN INFLUENCES. II much the same habits as the English had been. They fol- lowed the same course, landing as plunderers, fighting for a home, settling as tillers of the soil, adopting Christianity. They became, one might say, another tribe of Englishmen, just like the Saxons and Angles. They were a people that readily accepted a higher civilisation wherever they found it, even giving up their own language, as in Neustria, where they learned to speak French ; or as on the west coast of Scotland, where ^ group after group of Norse invaders were absorbed into the Irish-speaking population,' and where, though the ' Norsemen were conquerors,' * all spoke Irish together ^' So, while they changed English much, yet in the end they gave up most of their ow^n tongue for the English. Though, from their roving habits, and from a Danish king, Cnut, having ruled all the land for a time, with his home at Winchester among the West-Saxons, here and there a trace of Danish influence might be found all over the country, yet for a rough division we place Danes in the Angle lands, Northumbria, East Anglia, and the larger half of Mercia, north-east of WatHng Street, ' from the Firth of Forth to the heart of Mercia,' and the English in the Saxon lands of Wessex and its subject kingdoms. Ac- cordingly, close likeness to Scandinavian dialects is to be found in northern EngHsh, close likeness to Frisian dialects in southern English. On the borders of these, that is, in central England, where Danes and English met, the speech differed from both, and yet was somewhat like both. It kept middle English forms, not like the softer forms of Wessex, and yet less hard than those of the north. But the great distinction was between the south and the ^ Burton, History of Scotland, i. p. 215. 12 SCANDINAVIAN INFLUENCES. north, just as we read that it was at a much later time: ' Men of the est with men of the west .... acordeth more in sounynge of speche than men of the north with men of the south : therfore hyt ys that Mercii, that buth men of myddel Engelond, as hyt were parteners of the endes, undurstondeth betre the syde longages, Northeron and Southeron, than Northern and Southern undurstondeth oyther other. Al the longage of the Northhumbres and specialych at Yorke, ys so scharp, slyttynge and frotynge, and unschape, that we South- eron men may that longage unnethe undurstonde \' The result of the *commyxtion and mellynge with Danes' was to make the northern tongue harder and harsher than the more southern dialects, as is seen in later writers, and as it has remained always. I. Some common forms or words which are now of daily use throughout the country are traced to the very early influence of the Scandinavian dialects, or to that of these various settlers, on the northern speech ; as the plural form are {aron) of the auxiliary verb, which expelled the English plural sindon ; the use of she, the demonstrative pronoun, as the feminine of the 3rd personal pronoun ; and the word egg. And many more are to be found which did not spread far beyond those districts in which the Danes settled, as hairn (child), foss or force (a waterfall), gill or ghyll (a ravine), quern (a handmill), greet (to weep) : and terminations of proper names, as patronymics in -son, Nelson, Swainson: local terminations, -thwaite, Crossthwaite ; -heck, Troutbeck, in the Norwegian settlements in Cumberland and Westmore- land ; -thorpe, Althorpe ; -hy, Derby, Grimsby, in the Danish setdements of Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Lincolnshire, and Lei- cestershire. ^ Trevisa, Translation of Higden's Polychronicon, a.d. 13S7. SCANDINAVIAN INFLUENCES, 1 3 2. The northern dialects began more quickly and readily to develope into an analytical form of speech. Thus in the tenth century, that is, before any other foreign in- fluence was at work, the distinctive termination of the infinitive mood of verbs, an or en^ as sing^«, was falling into disuse in the north. And in the latest portion of the English Chronicle, which was written at Peterborough in the reign of King Stephen, ge, the augment of the past participle, as ^memned, is dropped ; and all inflexion of the definite article the has ceased. In the same way the disuse of inflexions, which had thus begun, is in later time, the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, a sign of a northern as against a southern home of a writer or a manu- script ; as the disuse of ( i ) en, as an inflexion of the plural number of past tense of verbs; (2) eth, as an inflexion of the imperative mood; (3) the prefix ge, or,j/, or ?', of the past participle; (4) final e, an inflexion of verbs, or sub- stantives, or adjectives. And to these may be added the fact that the northern dialects earlier lost forms which seemed to be irregular, as the plurals of nouns in en, which are even to the present day common in Dorset ^. This early loss of inflexion in the north is the more to be remarked, since the influence of Norman-French was far less exer- cised upon the northern dialects of England than upon the southern (§ 17). Such was the Danish or Scandinavian in- fluence which gave great impulse to the development of the language, so as to make it lose ' the fulness and purity of its ancient inflexions and to change it into the analytic language which we use'— a development which advanced steadily in all dialects, in all alike in kind, though not in all at the same rate. ^ Compare Morris, Specimens of Early English, p. xiii. 14 INFLUENCE OF LATIN, Influence of Latin ci'vilisation. X § 1 1. A modification far more marked in its effect has been produced by the influence of the Latin tongue upon English. Almost all the civilisation of western Europe had its origin in Rome, and was spread by men of the Latin race, or at least by men who had learnt to speak Latin in some form. In some countries, as in Gaul and Spain, Latin civilisation followed upon conquest, and meant the introduction of new manners, customs, law, government, and even of a new language. Into England it did not come so; but first, peacefully, brought by Christian missionaries from Rome ; secondly, introduced not by Latins at all, but by Normans and Frenchmen who had learnt their civilisation and lan- guage from Latins, but had altered them in the learning. We shall, therefore, speak of the influence of the Latin language upon English under these two heads, adding a third for the influence of Latin classical literature during the sixteenth century. Early Latin Missionaries, and their influence. § 12. The Roman missionaries began their work in Kent in the year a.d. 597. As would be natural, from their small numbers they did not alter the spoken language much. But as their teaching spread among a people ready to learn, many words which they were accustomed to use, either of genuine Latin or of Latinised Greek, belonging to religion and religious offices and observances, gradually became cur- rent in English ; as apostole, apostle (apostolus) ; hiscop, bishop (episcopus); elusive, cloister (clausterium) ; elmesse, alms (eleemosyna) ; mcBsse, mass (missa) ; mynsire, minster (mon- asterium) ; munucy monk (monachus) ; preosl, priest (presby- MEANING OF ^NORMAN CONQUEST.' 15 ter) ; seint, saint (sanctus) ; iempel, temple (templum). These words soon passed into the spoken language and took forms differing much from Latin, and were formed into compounds as ordinary English words ; as biscopr^Vf, biscep^^?;;^^, biscep- hade, hdddensprcBce (Latin speech), 'Ls&dengef/ieode (the Latin language). Through the intercourse thus opened foreign novelties came in which had no English names, and so kept their Latin names ; as candel (candela), rose (rosa), lilie (lilia), and the pepper (piper) which Baeda had in his capsella. The clergy were educators also, and hence in time many an English monk, like Baeda, would be wont to write in Latin while he would sing his hymns in his own English tongue ^ Latin was also the language of legal documents, and on this account too a few phrases or words became current. To sum up, Latin being thus the Uterary language as well as the language of the service books of the churches, gave many new words. But that the language was unchanged by this introduction of Latin words King Alfred shows, for though he uses most of these words, yet in speaking of those who could understand the Latin of the service books he says, ' Sw3e feawe hiora waeron 'Saette ic fur^um anne anlepne ne mseg ge^encean besu^an Temese ^a ^a ic to rice feng.' * So few of them there were that I cannot think of a single one south of the Thames when I came to the kingdom ^.' Meaning of the ' Norman Conquest,* § 13. The Norman Conquest was the beginning of the second wave of Latin influence. It has been said (§10) ^ Hist. Eccl. Baedae, Moberly ; Introduction, pp. xvi, xvii. 2 King Alfred's Gregory's Pastoral Care, p. 2 (Early English Text Society). l6 MEANING OF ^NORMAN CONQUEST/ that some of the Danes and Northmen had settled in western Neustria (hence Normannia, Normandy, the land of the Northman), and had adopted that form of the Latin language which we call French. In the eleventh century these French-speaking Normans overcame England, and thus the Latin tongue, starting from a new home, again influenced English. We speak of the Norman Conquest because we thereby get a well-known date for our starting- point ; but we mean the influence of French upon English from the eleventh to the fifteenth century. For these Normans spoke a dialect of French, and by the writers of the time are usually called French as opposed to the English. Moreover the invaders were not all Normans, but there were volunteers from Picardy also, and from the royal dominions of the He de France, and from Burgundy^; in fact, representatives of the *four principal dialects of the Langue d'Oil, Norman, Picard, Burgundian, and French of the He de France ^.' In the thirteenth still another dialect, the southern tongue of Langue d'Oc, had its influence, for after the marriage of Henry III with Eleanor of Provence, we read that a great cry arose that England was being handed over to the many adventurers who flocked from Provence. And during a still later period almost all the new words which were introduced came from the French of the He de France, which gradually rose to be the received French language of the educated classes of all parts of the country. ^ Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest, iii. p. 305. 2 Brachet, Historical French Grammar, p. 18. NORMANS AND FRENCH IN ENGLAND. Ij Settlement of the Normans and French in England. § 14. The Normans spread throughout England as a supe- rior caste ; and there were now two languages in all parts, languages which could not unite. The English of the. old inhabitant and the French of the new-comer contended during the eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth cent- uries. The invaders were systematic in subduing every part of the land. William the Conqueror had castles in Exeter, CarHsle, and Newcastle, as well as in London and Winchester. A Norman baron, Montgomery, fixed himself on the Welsh border ; and by and by Norman barons, Brus and Baliol, Sayncler, Fryser, Graeme ^ setded beyond the Scottish border. The English gradually but surely were ousted from lands and offices. Almost everywhere were new foreign bishops, like Roger of Salisbury in the reign of Henry I, Henry of Winchester in the reign of Stephen, or Hugh of Lincoln in the reign of Henry II, ' a foreigner with no knowledge of the English tongue/ who never learnt it. During these centuries came also crowds of French- speaking monks, so that a very large number of monasteries of Norman foundation arose in the land, ^garrisoning it, as it were, against the Church of the land as the Nor- mans in their casdes against the independent spirit of the English.' i:he Ncrmans learnt English and became Englishmen, § 15. The history of the language during these centuries would be the story of the way in which the speech of the home-dwellers swallowed up that of the new-comers. The tongue of the lower classes, the majority, prevailed against 1 Burton, History of Scotland, ii. p. 85. C 1 8 USE OF FRENCH IN ENGLAND, that of the upper, the minority ; the outlying districts pre- vailed against the centres, the villages against the castles, the old monasteries against the large rich new foundations. The Northmen, who had become Frenchmen in France, became Englishmen in England. Some common events of history will illustrate this. At Duke William's coronation at West- minster, at Christmas 1066, the English archbishop Ealdred of York first demanded in English whether the crowd would have him for king, and then the Norman Geoffrey bishop of Coutances asked the same of the Normans in French \ In the next generation soldiers of the conquered English race served with honour in the army of William 11. Henry I did his best towards uniting the two races by marrying an Englishwoman of the old English line of kings, daughter of Edgar the Atheling's sister. King John's loss of Normandy, which was joined to the dominions of the French king, warned the Normans in England that they must altogether throw in their lot with their new country. In the reign of Henry III the great rebellion of the barons under Montfort, Earl of Leicester, was based on the cry of ' England for the English;' both Norman and Englishman finding a common cause in resisting the king's constant encouragement of foreign adventurers. And presently a king bears the old English name Edward, and calls himself an Englishman. The (Widespread use of Fre7ich in England. § 16. The French language, however, spread in the land more than we should have expected from the mere numbers of the Normans; for the usage of the court and the ex- ample of the upper classes made it fashionable and a mark of ^ Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest, iii. p. 559. USE OF FRENCH IN ENGLAND. 1 9 education and good breeding. Thus, to take the evidence of the end of the fourteenth century, ' Gentilmen children buth ytaught for to speke Freynsch fram tyme that a buth yrokked in here cradel/ ' Uplondysche men wol lykne hamsylf to gentile men and fondeth (try) with gret bysynes for to speke Freynsch for to be more y-told of/ (Trevisa's Higden, A.D. 1387.) The proverb, * Jack would be a gentleman if he could speak French,' shows how very general it was among the upper classes. In Piers the Plowman, Avarice is repre- sented as supposing rtstitucioun to be French for robbery : * I wende ryflynge were restitucioun ;' and as excusing his ignorance, * I lerned never rede on boke, And I can no Frenche in feith but of the ferthest ende of Norfolke ^.' Chaucer's Prioresse, who was a woman of fashion, spoke French which had not been learned in France, ' And Frensch sche spak ful faire and fetysly After the scole ^i. e. manner) of Stratford atte Bowe *.* Yet English was about this time fully recovering its place, for though under Edward I French superseded Latin as the language of the lawyers, yet ' the yer of oure Lord, a thousond thre hondred foure score and fyve of the secunde kyng Richard after the conquest nyne, in al the gramer scoles of Engelond children leveth Freynsch and construeth and lurneth an Englysch.' (Trevisa's Higden.) ^ Piers the Plowman (Clarendon Press ed.), v. 231-239. See note. Compare Earle, Philology of the English Tongue, p. 65. 2 Chaucer, Canterbury Tales, Prologue 124. C 2 20 INFLUENCE OF FRENCH W^ Influence of French on the English language. § 17. The English language was changed much in this long struggle and mingling of races. In grammatical struct- ure the change was not great, for the syntax was almost unaffected, no French syntax finding an abiding home in English; just as the result of the great German invasion of Gaul was that 'this invasion touched the vocabulary only; there are no traces of German influence on French syntax \' i. Influence on the Grammar, Some effect, however, on the grammar may be traced, for the change of which we have spoken in § 9 from synthetic to analytic was hastened. As the foreigners learnt English, and learnt it from conversation and not from grammars and exercise-books, they could not master all its distinctions of inflexions, as oi gender and case, or of person, but confused them. Their own French language was passing through the same development and loss of inflexions. French had already reduced its cases to two, subjective and objective, and was reducing these two to one — it had reduced its genders to two by dropping the neuter of Latin ; and it was bringing its modes of forming the plural of nouns to one uniform method. French in- fluence therefore helped the great change working in Eng- lish, and we may see that it moulded that change specially in one or two instances. Chaucer may be counted as the earliest well-known writer of the English upon which this French influence had done its work. If we study his lan- guage to find the effect produced, we see that substantives have little more inflexion than in our own modern English. ^ Brachet, Historical Fre.ich Grammar, p. ll. ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR. %t The nominative plural is mostly in es or s. All distinction of form between the nominative and objective cases of sub- stantives has been lost, and scarcely any other case-form re- mains : old distinctions of gender are found no longer \ The adjective has lost all inflexions of gender and case, and though the definite form is often distinguished from the indefinite by the final e, this too is going, for ' words of more than one syllable nearly always omit the final e ^/ So too the e of plural adjectives is often omitted. Verbs also were losing their inflexions — e/h of the plural indicative and imperative ; the infinitive ending en, often . weakened to e; and the dis- tinctive form of the gerund. The old termination ende of the present participle was giving place to mg, and the participle was becoming confused with the verbal sub- stantive ; the prefix ge or y or z of the past participle was disappearing, and its sufiix en was dropping ofl" from many verbs. An illustration of the power and weakness of French influence in assisting or guiding such changes may be seen in the history of the plural inflexion s. In our earliest written form of English the forms of the plural were several. One declension formed its plural nominative and accusative in as, and later this as is represented by es or s ; and to this one form the other declensions seem to have been gradually yielding. It happened that this plural form was like the regular plural form of French nouns, while the other English forms were unlike; for exactly the same change had taken place in French nouns. The several plural forms of the early French, as of the Latin, objective case had all ended in s (neuter nouns becoming masculine, or in a few instances ^ Here and there we find an oblique case, or a feminine genitive, with the inflexion e, and sun is still feminine and moon masculine. ^ Chaucer, Prologue, &c. (Clarendon Press Series), Introduction, p. xxviii. %% INFLUENCE OF FRENCH feminine), and when the French subjective case became in time merged in the objective, the s of the objective case be- came for all words the sign of the plural \ The French form being the same as that English form which was gaining the mastery, all French substantives adopted into EngUsh assisted the natural process. But the power of French was limited. For, on the other hand, English adjectives had a plural inflexion, not s, but an or en, which became weakened into e in later time. Now French adjectives, like sub- stantives, had the usual French plural form s, but this being a strange form could no1: be naturalised in English. So that the few foreign forms, ' verbs actyves personalles,' ' cardinales vertues,' which are sometimes found in writers of about Chaucer's date, gained no place in the language. Some modes of forming derived or compounded words passed from French into English. Words adapted them- selves to English rules of inflexion, as the verbs which readily fell under the rules of the weak conjugation, or the nouns which formed a new possessive in s like English nouns. And several French suffixes became naturalised, as -age (Latin -a/i'cum, -agiuni), as in viage, /romage, message, which was in time added to true English roots, as bondage, baggage, package, steerage : so we have -ance (Latin -antiam), as repugnance, added to an English root in dalliance, hindr- ance ; just as in modern English -Hon (Latin -iionevi) is sometimes added to English roots, as in the very modern word starvation. Some French suffixes also became con- fused with English when they were somewhat alike, as is seen in the following example. In English -er was a mascu- ^ 5, AC, z, regarded as orthographic signs, are equivalents in Old P'rench ; voix was written indifferently vo/^, vois, or voiz, Brachet, Historical French Grammar, p. 94, note i. ON THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY. 2$ line suffix, as hunter, having in very many instances a cor- responding feminine form in -sfer^ as brewesternus Systran yesterday western y^estre] 6vydTr]p ^ohtor daughter ^ochter ^ochter ki' The changes are well illustrated by the various forms of the name of the German race : (i) Teutones, in Roman times before the Christian era; (2) Muda, ^ the people,' Gothic, after the third century, Theod, oldest EngHsh; (3) Z)eutsch, in modern High-German. The exceptions which may be noted usually arise from some words having escaped the influence of the general law and having remained unchanged. GRAMMAR. The Alphabet. § 21. An Alphabet is a collection of letters or signs used to represent sounds, so that letters combined into syl- lables and words convey through the eye the same ideas as are conveyed through the ear by sounds. A perfect alphabet would neither have more than one letter for any one sound, nor express more sounds than one by one letter. But alphabets commonly have more letters than one for some of the sounds in the language, that is, they are redundant : (i) because some new letter has been introduced from another language using a different sign for the sound, as in English K has been introduced expressing the same sound as c {hard), and has taken its place in many words, knight (^cniht)\ (2) or because pronunciation has changed and assimilated sounds of letters which once were different, as the pronunciation of c before E and i, which was hard, has been assimilated to s, or the soft c of the French language. On the other hand, alphabets commonly express more sounds than one by one letter, that is, they are deficient: (i) because small varieties of sound are too many to be distinguished at the early stage of a language when writing is first used in a nation, as of vowel-sounds, ache^ hat ; being, bed; avhite, (whit ; brute, but: (2) or because intercourse with other nations brings in new sounds without new signs for them, as ch in cherry, z in azure, u in pure : (3) or because such intercourse lessens the distinction between two sounds, so that one sign is lost and the remaining one serves for both, as in English th stands for dh in this, and for th in thing. The English alphabet of twenty-six letters, now used, is the common Latin alphabet (which was spread by the Romans over Western Europe), with one letter, w, from low or mediaeval Latin, added. D 34 GRAMMAR. The letters have two forms : — The capital— A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z. The small— a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, I, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, V, w, X, y, z. § 2 2. Letters are Vowels, expressing sound by them- selves, A, E, I, 0, u ; a, e, i, o, u : Or Consonants, requiring a vowel to be sounded with them; as, b (be), l (el). Consonants may be divided into — Liquids, l, m, n, r. Spirants, f, h, j, s, v. Mutes, B, C, D, G, K, P, Q, T. Double, X ( = cs, ks, gs), z ( = ds, ts). Y is sometimes a vowel ; as, story, j^-clept, hyssop : some- times combined with a vowel to make an improper diphthong; as, day, huy : sometimes a consonant ; as, j/ard, j/oung. W is sometimes combined with a vowel to make an im- proper diphthong; as, h\ow, draw: and sometimes it is a consonant; as, ze^ard, z£;ood. It is never really a vowel, but in such words as draw is like y in day, little more than a breathing, a slight remnant of a guttural or hard consonant, which was at one time distinctly pronounced. This may be seen by com- parison of the forms drazi/, dra^ ; dajy, dae^. In some dialects w was written instead of the vowel u, as in Scottish — ' It is he onlie that ta^s on ws cure.' Consonants may be arranged according to the organs of speech. Ijabial, or lip-letters. P B F [PH] [V] Guttural, or throat-letters. C (hard) K [Q] G CH (loch), GH {hough) X Dental, or tooth-letters. T D TH (thing) [ = DHMf] Z THE ALPHABET. ^^ c is hard, =K, before A, o, u; as cat, cot, cut: but soft, = s, before E, l, Y ; as cent, city, cypress. CH is guttural in a few words, as mechanics, ache ; but is soft, sometimes = the palatal tch, and sometimes = the sibilant sh, in words introduced from French, as chapel, cherry, chandler, and chandelier, machine ; and in some words of English origin which French has influenced, as churl, child, speech, teach ; in a few words it is mute, as drachm, schism. G is hard before A, o, u, and in most English words before E, i, as game, get, gild, got, gut ; but soft, = J, before E, I, Y in words introduced from French, as gentle, gin, gypsy ; and in a few words of English origin influenced by French, as gibe'^. Almost all trace of aspirated guttural sounds has been lost from English, as for instance the old sound of GH, as lough, which has been weakened till in some words it has no sound, — hough = hock', cough ■=f\ hiccough =p', thorough,^ 2i very slight aspirate or breathing ; light, in which all trace is lost. And the other gutt- urals also are often almost or quite mute, G in gnaw, K in knee. Q is always followed by u ; its sound then is the same as that of cqju or kcw, as quite", in some words it is almost =^, as conqueror. X has two sounds, cs in axe, gs in exact. s has two sounds, sharp as in so, this ; flat, and like z, in his, flies : accordingly in many words S or z may be used, as ci'vilise, ci'vilize. In a few words it is = SH, as censure. z is in some words introduced from French = ZH, as azure, an Italian word brought into English through French. Four letters, 3, B, p, p, of the earlier English alphabet are not now used, having fallen into disuse chiefly because they were not in the Latin or the Norman-French alphabet, and represented sounds difficult of pronunciation to the Norman-French invaders of the eleventh century, who exercised much influence on the English language and literature : — 5 was a guttural, and was equivalent to an initial g or sometimes y (itself near akin to g), and to gh at the end of a word, or before T, as ^ive, ^oure, hii^tes,= give, your, knights. D ?J, p J), were dentals, equivalent to dh, and later to th : they were used indiflferently in diff'erent dialects and at different times. At last they passed from use, and are now represented by th, which has two sounds dh and th, as this, thing. p was used till the end of the thirteenth century, and then supplanted by the low Latin w. ^ In one word, gaol (French geole), and its derivative gaoler, g before A has the soft j sound. The words are often spelt jail, jailer — an instance at once of the power of French influence, and of the truth of the rule that g is hard before a in English. 36 GRAMMAR. § 23. A diphthong is the combined sound of two dif- ferent vowels, as ae, ai : -^thelstan, nail. A syllable is one or more letters, one at least being a vowel, sounded continuously, as a, man, sword, stretch, also, A word is one or more syllables having a meaning, as a, man, extraordinary. A word of one syllable is a monosyllable; of two, is a disyllabic; of three, is a trisyllable; of more than three, is a polysyllable. The Parts of Speech. § 24. Words are called in Grammar Parts of Speech, and are of four kinds : — i. Nouns. ii. Pronouns. iii. Verbs. iv. Particles. i. Noun is the name of anything. Nouns are — (i) Substantive, the name of a thing existing or con- ceived by the mind ; as man, grass, virtue, length, whiteness. (2) Adjective, the name of a quality conceived as be- longing to the thing of which a substantive is the name ; as ^ long grass,' ^ remarkable virtue.' ii. A Pronoun is a word used as either a substantive or an adjective ; as he, my, who, that. iii. A Verb is a word which expresses some judgment about a noun (its subject), and makes a sentence ; as. Grass grows. Light shines, iv. Particles are words which help to define the relations THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 37 of nouns and verbs in sentences, or of sentences one to another. These are : — (i) Adverb, which qualifies a verb, or sometimes other words, as adjective, substantive, or an- other adverb ; as, He writes dadly. (2) Preposition, which defines the relation of a noun to some other word or words in the sentence ; as. They lived on land. (3) Conjunction, which connects words, clauses, and sentences ; as. Yesterday and to-day. (4) Interjection, which is an exclamation, expressing feeling, but not grammatically part of a sent- ence ; as, ak ! fie ! Of these parts of speech- r Substantive, N0UN< [ Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, have inflexion. ["Adverb, ^ Preposition, Particles.^ ^ . I Conjunction, [interjection, have no inflexion. Inflexion is a series of changes made in the form of a word to express changes in its meaning in relation to other words in a sentence. The part of a word on which the inflexions are based is the Stem. Those letters in a word which are common to it and all kindred words are the Root. Nouns and Pronouns substantive have inflexion to mark Gender, Number, Case. This inflexion is called Declension; so we speak of declining a substantive. Nouns adjective have inflexion to mark Degree. This is called Comparison ; so we speak of comparing an adjective. Verbs have inflexion to mark Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, Person. This is called Conjugation ; so we speak of conjugating a verb. H 38 GRAMMAR, ' ^ NOUN SUBSTANTIVE. § 25. Substantives are divided into Common, Proper, and Abstract. A Common noun is the name of a thing, which may be used as the name of a class and also of each particular member of the class ; as many dog, city, A CoUecti've noun is (a common noun) the name of a thing composed of many individuals ; as army (of many soldiers), Jleet (of many ships). A Proper noun is the name of a thing, which cannot also be used as the name of a class containing it and other like things : as Europe^ John, London. An Abstract noun is the name of a quality, or attribute, that is thought of, though it cannot exist, apart from the thing to which it belongs ; as whiteness, length. Inflexion of the Substantive. § 26. The Substantive is inflected so as to mark Gender, Number, and Case. Genders. § 27. Genders are three — Masculine, Feminine, Neuter. Gender depends on the natural distinction of sex in the thing of which the noun is the name ; so that a noun signifying a thing of the male sex may be considered masculine, a noun signifying a thing of the female sex feminine, a noun signifying a thing with- out sex, that is, an inanimate object, neuter — that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Nouns signifying things of which the sex is not apparent, or in which the idea of sex is not made pro- minent, are commonly treated as neuter, and accordingly may have the neuter pronoun it used with them, as — It is a fine bird. Take this child away and nurse it for me. But as modern English has, except in few instances, ceased to show gender by the form of the noun, we may say that in general English nouns have no genders. SUBSTANTIVES. 39 Many nouns signifying things of both sexes are called common, that is, are considered to be either masculine or feminine ; thus of most animals the usual masculine name may be used to include the feminine, as man, horse, dog ; or the usual feminine name may sometimes be used to include the masculine, as goose, duck. In- animate things are sometimes personified, that is, are spoken of as if they were persons, and therefore of the masculine or feminine gender ; and especially things of familiar life are spoken of as if of the feminine gender, as — Charity seeketh not her own. A brave vessel Who had, no doubt, some noble creature in her, Dashed all to pieces. In Early English the laws of gender were different ; and the gender of a noun was shown sometimes by its form, and sometimes only by its meaning, as in Latin, and in German, and most languages. Thus nouns signifying things of the female sex might be of the neuter gender, as wif^ a wife ; and nouns signifying things without sex might be masculine, or feminine, or neuter ; as dream^ star, masc. ; soul, heart, tongue, door, fem. ; eye, house, neut. So also nouns ending in -dom were masculine ; nouns ending in -nes were feminine, whatever their meaning ^. The modern law of want of gender came into general use during the fourteenth century, and is in great measure due to the inability of the Norman-French lords to master the laws of gender of the speech of their English subjects. The Gender of Nouns, when shown in their form, is expressed — i. By the ending, or termination, when the noun has both a masculine and feminine form. (i) Masculines ending in -er in one or two instances have a feminine form in -ster, as spinner, spinj'/^r. In modern English -ster has become in many words a mascu- line ending, as m.2Mster, tapj^^r; and in some it implies some little contempt, as gamej^^r, oldj^^r, youngster, •punster. See § 17. The word ^idow was formerly common ; but a masc. widower has been formed by adding the masculine termination -er to it. (2) Masculine nouns ending in -dor, -tor, -or, -er, when derived from Latin, have usually a femin- ine form in -dress, -tress, (-trix), -ess; as ^ Vernon, Anglo-Saxon Guide, pp. 8, 9. 40 GRAMMAR. ambassa^<:7r, ambassa^/r.?^^ ; 2ic/or, 2ic/ress ; ex- Qcutor, QxecMirix ; governor, govern^jj*. Hence -ess has become a received feminine ending, and is added to many masculine nouns, even to some of English origin, with or without modifying the final syllable of the masculine ; as, lion, \\oness ; negro, negr^j^ ; duke, duch^^^ ; so, god, godd^jj ; sempstr^j^, songstr^^j, murder^jj. (3) The ending -ine has been adopted for a few femin- ines ; as, hero, hexoine. The word 'vixen^ feminine oi fox, formed by modifying the stem-vowel and adding the feminine ending -en, is one remaining instance of an old formation once very common. ii. By adding a prefix signifying sex, as — ^(f-goat, ^^^-goat. r(?c^- sparrow, ^^;z- sparrow. zw<3:w-servant, z;2^z'^- servant. man, z£;^man ( = wi/em2^xi). iii. By the use of distinct words, correlative one to another, as — husband, wife. brother, sister. cock, hen. uncle. aunt. father. mother. bull, cow. Numbers. § 28. Nouns (and Pronouns) substantive usually have one form to shew that one thing denoted by the word is spoken of, and another form to shew that more things than one are spoken of. These forms are called Numbers, Singular and Plural. The singular number speaks of one thing, as man, dog, he. The plural number speaks of more than one, as men, dogs, they. There are three modes of forming the plural number of nouns, and some nouns have the same form in singular and plural ; making four divisions or declensions of substantives. SUBSTANTIVES, 41 i. Nouns forming the plural by adding the syllable -en ; as, ox, oxen. This form is rare in modern English, but was common in earher English, as hosen, housen^ eyen, eyne^ sistereny sustrin, shoon ; and is still common in some provincial dialects. ii. Nouns forming the plural by a change or modifi- cation of the stem- vowel ; as, man, men ; goose, geese ; mouse, mice. Some words bear traces of both these modes ; as, brother (old plural bretber), bretheren, brethren \ children contains a trace of an older formation, child (old plural childer, once cildru), childeren, children : cow (rw, old plural ry), kine, iii. Nouns which have their singular and plural alike ; as, deer, grouse, sheep, swine. In old English such nouns are mostly neuter, as deer, sheep, sewine; so too hors, see § 31, the modern horses is a double plural. iv. Nouns forming the plural by adding the syllable -es, which in many words coalesces with the final syllable of the singular, and appears as merely -s : — (i) Nouns ending in ch (soft), s/i, ss, x, 0; nouns which changey*or^into v, or x into c; nouns ending my following a consonant and changing into t, — mostly retain -es ; as, church, churches ; dish, dishes ; kiss, kisses ; box, boxes ; negro, negroes ; thief, thieves ; staff, s/aves ; appendix, appendices ; story, stories, (2) Other nouns merely add -s to the singular; as, loch, lochs ; noun, nouns ; chief, chie/s ; valley, valleys. (3) A few nouns have plurals irregular in spelling, which really belong to this declension ; as, die, dice; ipenny, pence. In these words -ce misre- presents an earlier plural in s, as dys, dees, pens, just as once is a misspelling for ones. 4a GRAMMAR. Almost all nouns now belong to this division ; for though it was originally only one form among several, yet since words from foreign tongues, as Latin and French, adapted themselves to it more easily than to the others, it encroached upon the others and became the commonest form. Then the usual law, that languages throw off all formations which seem irregularities, has worked so as to make the other forms of the plural disappear, except in the case of a few words in very common use. Thus all new words now adopted into the language in time fall under ' this declension. See § 20, 5. Foreign words used in English commonly retain at first the plural formation of their own language, but gradually conform to the usual English mode of forming the plural in es or s, as banditti^ cherubim^ memoranda^ fungi \ bandits, cherubs, memorandums, funguses, 1 . Many nouns are used in the singular number only, as proper names, many abstract nouns, names of materials, which have plural forms exceptionally only, to mark special distinctions or varieties ; as London, Cicero, knowledge, strength, gold, 2. Many nouns are used in the plural number only; as scissors, shears, pincers, trousers, obsequies, aborigines, 'victuals, entrails, politics, ethics. Means, which was plural, is now used as singular ; so nenvs also, which originally a genitive singular, *hwoet neo^es^ = ofnecw, became a plural noun in Shakespeare, ^ I tell these news to thee.' 3. Some nouns change their meaning in the plural; as iron, irons ; baggage, baggages ; compass, compasses ; spectacle, spectacles. 4. Some nouns have two plural forms (these often, but not always, differ in meaning, and cannot be interchanged in their use); as — brother, brethren, and brothers, die, dice, dies, staff, sta'ves, staffs, index, indices, indexes, 5. A few words really singular have, on account of their form, come to be used as plurals : — alms, a shortened form of mlmesse ; eaves, peas (from which, by mistake, new singular forms ea've, pea, have been formed), riches. Of ea've, peas, and riches plural forms eueses, peses, pesen, richessis, were once in use. 6. Compounded substantives take the inflexion at the end of the word; as handfuls, pailfuls, forget-me-nots: but if the parts retain their distinctive forces the simple substantive claims the inflexion ; as courts martial, jo«j-in-law. i ^j» DECLENSION I. Nom, Obj. Pass, Sing. ox ox ox's Plur. oxen oxen oxen's DECLEl Sing. shoe shoe shoe's ^SION II. Plur. shoon [or shoes] shoon [shoes] . . [shoes'! Nom. Obj. Poss. man man man's men men men's DECLEl goose goose goose's sfSiON in. geese geese geese's Nom. Obj. Poss. sheep sheep sheep's sheep sheep sheep's DECLEl ^SION IV. Nom. Obj. Poss. ass ass ass's asses asses asses' negro negro negro's negroes negroes negroes' Nom. Obj. Poss. thief thief thiefs thieves thieves thieves' lady lady lady's ladies ladies ladies' Nom. Obj. Poss. girl girl girl's girls girls girls' boy boy boy's boys boys boys' SUBSTANTIVES. 45 Comparative Table of Inflexions. § 3 ^ • English of the English of the Modebn loth and I ith cent.^ 13th and 14th cent.^ English. Sing. Norn, cage eye eye Obj. cage eye eye Poss, eagan eye eye's Dai. eagan eye Plur. Norn. eagan eyen eyes Obj. eagan eyen eyes Poss. eagena eyene eyes* Dat. eagum eyen Sing. Notn. hors hors horse Obj. hors hors horse Poss. horses horses horse's Dat. horse horse Plur. Nom. hors hors horses Obj. hors hors horses Poss. horsa horse horses* Dat. horsum horse Sing. Nom. feld feld field Obj. feld feld field Poss. feldes feldes field's Dat. felda felde Plur. Nom. feldas feldes fields Obj. feldas feldes fields Poss, felda feldene fields' Dat. feldum feldes * Vernon, Anglo-Saxon Guide, pp. 13-15. ^ Morris, Specimens of Early English, pp. xvii, xix. 4^ GRAMMAR ADJECTIVES. § 32. Adjectives are words joined to substantives to denote some quality or attribute belonging to the thing of which the substantive is the name. They are also called Epithets, and sometimes also Attributes. Adjectives (except pronouns adjective) have no inflexion of gender, number, and case ; as — A good man. The woman is good. It is a good thing. They are good men. He likes a good horse. That is a good man's action. Adjectives are often used in a sentence as substantives, and then, like substantives, have inflexion of number and case; as — The goods the gods provide us. And for it came up four notable ones toward the four winds of heaven. Form /ours. I will not do it for /orfy's sake. I will not destroy it for /ens sake. In Early English adjectives had inflexions to mark gender, number, and case ; and also different inflexions to distinguish an adjective used definitely, that is, with the definite article, or with a demonstrative or a possessive pro- noun, from the same adjective used indefinitely. The inflexion of number, marking the plural by final e, remained some time after the other inflexions had been lost. ./ y ADJECTIVES, 47 Comparative Table of Inflexions. Definite 1 Form. § 33. English of the lothand llthcent.^ English of the 13th and 14th cent Modern :.^ English. Sing. Sing. M. F. N, M. F. N. Nom. goda, Obj. g6dan, Poss. Dat.\ Abl. 1 gode, gode. godan, gode. g6dan. godan. Plur. gode. goden (gode). goden „ goden „ Plur. good. [of both definite and indefinite forms, of all genders, numb- Nom. Obj. Poss. M.F.N. godan. godan. godena. M.F.N. goden (gode). goden (gode). godene (gode). ers, and cases.] Bat. \ Abl.\ godum. goden (gode). Indefinite Form. Ipth and nth cent. 13th and ] [4th cent. M. Sing. F. N. Sing. M, F. N. Nom. god, Obj. godne, Poss. godes, god, god. gode, god. godre, g6des. god, god, godne, gode, godes, godre, god. god. godes. m} ■e°''™' godre, godum. gode, godre, gode. Plur. Plur. M.F,N. M.F.N. Nom. Obj. Poss. Dat\ Abl.; g6de. gode. godra. g6dum. gode. gode. godre. gode. ^ Vernon, Anglo-Saxon Guide, pp. 21, 22. ^ Morris, Specimens of Early English, p. xxiii. 48 GRAMMAR, Comparison of Adjectives. § 34. The adjective has three degrees of comparison : — Positive, speaking of the quality of a thing or class without relation to any other thing ; as — A long stick. Comparative, speaking of the quality of a thing or class as compared with one other thing or group of things ; as — A longer stick. These are larger than those. Superlative, speaking of the quality of a thing or class as compared with all other things of the same class ; as — This is the longest stick. Adjectives are compared by inflexion. i. The Comparative is now formed by adding -er, and the Superlative by adding -est, to the Positive — great, greater, greatest, gay, gayer, gayest. The inflexion sometimes modifies the termination of the positive, or stem. According to the ordinary rules of com- position — (i) Final mute e is elided — white, whiter, whitest, (2) Y following a consonant becomes i — tidy, tidier, tidiest, silly, sillier, silliest* But shy, shyer, shyest. ADJECTIVES, 49 (3) In monosyllables, and a few other words, a single final consonant following a short vowel is doubled — sad, sadder, saddest. thin, thinner, thinnest, hopeful, hopefuller, hopefullest. ii. A mode of inflexion by modification of the vowel of the positive has almost disappeared ; a few instances only remain in use — old, elder, eldest. nigh, [near,] next. \he]neath, nether, iii. Some words, mostly adverbs or prepositions, have a comparative and superlative ending in -more and -most added to the positive or to the comparative — fore. [former], foremost. [further], furthermore. furthermost. in, inner. inmost, innermost. out. outer. outmost, outermost. [ut], utter, utmost, uttermost. up, upper, uppermost. under. . . undermost. hind, hinder. hindmost, hindermost. mid, .. midmost. [be] neath, nether, nethermost. top. .. topmost In some of these instances we have a real superlative inflexion -est or -est added to a termination -me, which was itself a superlative form, and was thus again compared, as in foremost, of which the old forms ^eYQfore,for-me,fyr-m-est; but in others we have a later formation, compounded, according to a false analogy, of the adverbs more, most, as rear-most. 50 GRAMMAR. Comparison formed by inflexion is less common now than in the earlier stages of the language : many words are seldom inflected, many never ; some because of their form, some because of usage merely. Words of English origin, and monosyllables generally, can almost always form comparison by inflexion ; while words of Latin origin usually are not in- flected. Di syllables, especially words ending in a vowel, may often form comparison by inflexion; while words of more than two syllables are not commonly in- flected. Adjectives which do not use inflexion, and some also which have inflected forms, express comparison by means of the adverbs more and most; as — beautiful, more beautiful, most beaut fuL A degree of quality more than ordinary, expressed without relation to another thing or class, may be called the Absolute Comparative; and in like manner a degree of quality the utmost conceivable may be called the Absolute Superlative. These used sometimes to be expressed by the inflected forms, as in Spenser's Faerie Queene — * Help thy tweaker novice ' ; i. e. thy novice who is too ^eak. *And spake reprochfull shame of highest God'; i.e. of most high God. Modern English, however, does not allow this use of the in- flected forms, but employs adverbs ; as — sometwhat long ; too long ; very long ; a most beautiful woman. Some irregular formations are found, of which the fol- lowing are the most important : — ADJECTIVES. 51 I. [good], [bet], better, best, [bad], [evil], [ill], worse, worst. ere, [or], erst, far, [fer], farther, farthest, first, fore, former, foremost, forth, [furth], further, furthest, late, later, latter, latest, last, little, less, lesser, least, [mid], [middle], ... ... midst. much (many), [mo], more, most, nigh, nigher, [near,] nighest, next, old, . older, elder, oldest, eldest, [rathe], rather, [rathest]. 2. The origin of the comparative and its force, in a few words of irregular form, have been forgotten, and the words have been inflected a second time ; as bet, better ; less, lesser; mo, more ; near, nearer, nearest ; worse, worser. With such double comparatives may be compared the expressions more better, more fairer, most highest, chief est and most principal, 3. Some Latin comparatives, adopted into English, retain their proper form and force; as exterior, interior, major, prior, superior. Extreme, having taken an English shape, forms a new superlative extremest. Numerals. § 35. i. Cardinal numerals are adjectives answering the question 'how many?* — one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, hundred, thousand. Some are to be regarded also as collective substantives; as, a hundred, a thousand, &c.; and to these may be "added, a pair, a couple, a leash, a dozen, a score. £ 2 For numbers from thirteen to twenty, and for all decades, compounds of the first ten are used ; for other numbers the different numerals are combined, as twenty-five, or five and twenty. Million^ billion, &c., are of Latin origin. From one is formed none {ne, not, one), both singular and plural. ii. Ordinal numerals are adjectives answering the quest- ion 'which ih order of number?'— yfrj*/, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, &c. First is a superlative form of far, and has taken the place of that one, the tone, the one, which was once used as the first ordinal. Second is borrowed from Latin (secundus, following), and has taken the place of that other, the tother, the other. Other ordinals are formed by adding th to the cardinals ; four, io\xxth ; thousand//^ ; million/^. From three was formed thriddcy final th being weakened into d to avoid a second aspirate in the same syllable, then thridde, thrid, by meta- thesis became third, as hrid became bird. Complex ordinals above twentieth are expressed by using the cardinal form for all except the last number, and the ordinal form for the last ; as — , In his twenty fourth year. In his four and twentieth year. In the one thousand eight hundred and seventieth year. iii. Three numeral adverbs, once (ones), twice (twies), thrive (thries), answering the question *how many times?' are possessive cases of the first three cardinals, which alone were inflected. iv. Multiplicatives answering the question * how many fold?* are compounded of cardinal numerals and the word 'fold': twofold, threefold, hundredfold, &c. PRONOUNS. 53 Single (Latin singuli) supplies the place of a compound of one; and like forms from the Latin numerals are used, as double^ triple y treble^ quadruple ^ &c. aA PRONOUNS. § 36. Pronouns are Substantive or Adjective, ac- cording as they may stand as substantives or adjectives in a sentence. § 37. i. The Substantive Pronouns are — i. Personal, 2. Reflexive, 3. the Relative That. I. Personal: — First Person. Second Person. Third Person. {Speaking.) (Spoken to,) (Spoken of.) M. F. N. Sing. Nom. I, Obj. me, Pojs, mine, my, thou, thee, thine, thy. he, she, him, her, his, hers, her, M. F. N. it. it. its. Plur. Nom, we, Obj. us, Posj. ours, our. ye, you, you, yours, your. they, them, theirs, their. In the pronouns of the first and second persons gender is not marked, because the speaker and hearer being (usually) present to each other the distinction of sex in conversation was not necessary. Of the first person the objective and possessive forms are not from the same root as the nominative. The forms my, thy are weakened forms of mine, thine, as ^? is a weakened form of an. Mine, thine, ours, yours, hers, theirs are the predicative forms. This is my hat; This hat is mine. See § 38, In earlier English ye was always nominative, ^ow always objective, and both forms were of the plural number only, as is the usage in the Authorised Version of the Bible. But this distinction of the cases was lost, and ye treated as a weakened form of you, so that the forms become interchange- able, as in Spenser and Shakespeare. The plural form you gradually came to be used as a more poHte and less familiar mode of address than thou, which 54 GRAMMAR, passed from use except in very familiar conversation, and in very solemn or antiquated forms of speech. In the present day ye is not used as the object- ive, and while the plural you is used also instead of the singular thou in speaking to a person, ye is always nominative and always plural. Of the pronoun of the third person the older feminine was written heo, which has been driven out by she, the feminine of a demonstrative pronoun s€, but it survives in the provincial nominative her. The plural forms have been borrowed from the demonstrative pronoun adjective the, that. An earlier form of it was hit, making the neuter of the possessive case his and sometimes it: the form its is of late date, and does not occur in the Authorised Version of the Bible, l6li, and is seldom found in Shakespeare or Milton. 2. Reflexive: — • (i) Simple; the objective cases of the personal pro- nouns. Sing, me, thee, him, her, it. Plur, us, you, them. (2) Compound; cases of the personal pronouns com- pounded with the word self, selves. Sing, myself, thyself, himself, herself, itself. Plur, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. These forms appear as self, sel'ves, compounded with the pos- sessive case of the first and second persons, and with the ob- jective case of the third person. In the earlier language self was an adjective, and was joined to any case of these pronouns, even to the nominative, as / self; but now some uses only re- main, others have become obsolete. Practically the construction is that of a substantive with an adjective pronoun in agreement, my self, or, of a substantive in apposition to a substantive pro- noun, bim self: accordingly self forms a plural selves like a sub- stantive, oursel'veSf themsel'ves, 3. Relative: — That. The relative pronoun that was originally demonstrative ; it is not inflected, is never joined with a substantive, and never fol- lows a preposition ; thus we say. He is the man of tivhom I spoke ; but. He is the man that I spoke of It is more definite and limiting than the other relatives ^ho, cwhich, as though it kept some of its demonstrative force. In some sentences the word that has the combined force of demonstrative and relative, antecedent and relative having coalesced — PRONOUNS. 55 We speak tbat we do know. To do always tbat is righteous in thy sight. § 38. ii. The Adjective Pronouns are — i. Possessive, 2. Demonstrative, 3. Interrogative, 4. Relative, 5. In- definite, 6. Distributive. I. Possessive: — mine, my, thine, thy. his. ours, our, yours, your. hers, her. its. theirs, their. Whose may be reckoned a possessive pronoun. The possessive pronouns are the possessive case-forms of the personal pronouns, and cannot now be distinguished from them, although it is usually more convenient to treat them as real possessive pronouns, that is, as adjectives qualifying their sub- stantives. Ours, yours y hers, theirs are predicative forms only, and are never used as attributes. They were originally mere dialectic variations of the Northern dialect, as ouren, youren were of the Midland. Mine, thine are also predicative forms, but were commonly, and are still sometimes, used also in preference to the weaker forms as attributes before words beginning with a vowel or H, as — Open thou mine eyes. I will wash mine hands in innocency. 2. Demonstrative: — Sing, the, this, that, yon. Plur, the, these, those, yon. The is now the definite article; see § 39. The demonstrative pronouns have no inflexion to mark gender or case. They show or point out the persons about whom the speaker is speaking, Tlhe defines the person without reference to his position ; this points to the person near me as I speak ; that to the person near you or near some one else away from the speaker ; yon points to a person at a distance. In Early English the plural nominative of this was (jhds) those, and of that was (tha) they, still used in Dorset as an adjective pronoun, as * they sticks'; later they became the plural of he, she, it, and those was used as the plural of that, and for this a new plural (thise,) these was formed. ^6 GRAMMAR, 3. Interrogative: — (l) SINGULAR AND PLURAL. Masc. Fern. Neut. Norn, who, who, what. Obj, whom, whom, what. Foss, whose, whose, whose. (2) Which. (3) Whether. Who, j\ one. Pojs, one's. These are rather pronouns used with an indefinite sense: thus cw/jo is the relative, used indefinitely, in the phrase * as w^o should say,' which is seldom used now. j^rif a, are forms of the first numeral ««, or one ; any is a deriv- ative of it. They is the demonstrative pronoun used without reference to any particular persons, as * They say.' One is the French word on, from Latin homo, a man {homo, hominem, French homme, hom, om, on), used in the sense of they, indefinite : it is not the same word as the English numeral one, though in some phrases it appears to have been confounded with it. 6, Distributive: — Each, every, either, neither. Distributive pronouns are singular, and always imply the pre- vious mention or knowledge of a noun of the plural number: thus either and neither (jie, not, either) imply the mention or knowledge of a noun referring to two persons or things. Each (ech, cbIc) distributes two or more. E'very {enjer-each, ceuer-cElc) distributes more than two, and has also a sense of collection or plurality ; and if we say * Every one of them was there,' our meaning is almost the same as if we had said *They were all there.' While in the expression ^ all and e'very,^ e'very implies the separate individuality of the persons, in ^ each and e'very,^ each implies the separate individu- ality of the persons, and e-very implies the inclusion of the whole number. Hence Shakespeare sometimes uses every with a plural verb; as — Smooth every passion That in the nature of their lord rebel. And every one to rest themselves betake. 58 GRAMMAR, lH Articles. § 39. The demonstrative pronoun the, and the indefinite an, a, are called the Definite Article, and the Indefinite Article. The was at one time the masculine demonstrative, that being neuter, but now the definite article the is of all genders and numbers alike. The indefinite article an, a, is a weakened use of the numeral an, the older form of one. A is used before a consonant or aspirate ; an before all vowels except u, and before mute h. Some persons use an before words beginning with 11, The Definite Article — ( 1 ) Individualises or specifies ; that is, marks off the noun to which it is joined as the name of something which both speaker and hearer can in their minds separate from others of the same class. The boy is not here ; i. e. the boy whom we know, who has been mentioned, of whom you inquire, &c. Thou art the man; i. e. of whom we have been speaking. The O'Donoghue ; i. e. the chief who alone can be specified of the whole clan of that name. In like manner it marks the subject of a sentence; for both speaker and hearer are supposed to know enough of the subject to individuahse it in their minds. The beggar became king. (2) Sometimes it generaHses; that is, uses the individual for the whole class. The Hon is carnivorous. PRONOUNS. 59 (3) In some" ordinary phrases the definite article is omitted, as it would be too emphatic, or would wrongly imply the existence of a class of objects when there is no such class. Is the Prime Minister zn town ? The boy is off to sea. The fox has run to earth. The Indefinite Article — (i) Specifies an individual of a class, but not any one in particular, as — A man called on me to day. (2) It sometimes generalises, as — A man should bear himself bravely in misfortune ; i.e. any man you like to mention, therefore all men. In some sentences it would appear as if an indefinite article is used to distribute, as — Three times an hour. Fifteen shillings a week ; But an^ a, in such phrases, are not really the indefinite article but a corruption of the preposition on (see § 59, i.) used with a dative case without any article ; Ic faeste tuwa on I am killed. English verbs have one tense-form only belonging to the passive voice, the past participle ; but they supply others by combining auxiliary verbs with this participle. Intransitive verbs have no passive voice. § 43. Verb-forms are divided into two parts — i. Finite, ii. Infinite. i. The Verb Finite, which is limited by mood and per- son as well as tense, has three moods, or manners (modes) of expressing its action or being : — Indicative, for a direct statement, or a direct question ; as — I seek him. What do mine eyes with grief behold ? Subjunctive, for an indirect statement, or an indirect question, expressing uncertainty, depending upon some state- ment or question expressed by another verb ; as — Advise if this be worth attempting. He asked if that were worth attempting. An indirect statement, or an indirect question, speaking of a thing not as a fact, but as a purpose or consequence, as possible, desirable, supposable, &c., in principal construction and not 64 GRAMMAR. dependent on another verb, which is sometimes called the Con- junctive mood, is not expressed in English by a mood-form formed by inflexion, but by the help of auxiliary verbs ; as — I eivould go, I may go. May I go. Could I go. Imperative, for a command or entreaty ; as — Go home. Give us this day our daily bread. The verb finite is also called personal, because its forms define the person of the subject of which it speaks. ii. The Verb Infinite has no limitation of mood or of person. It has two divisions — Infinitive, a verbal substantive which, as a verb, may require a noun for an object; and, as a substantive, may stand for the subject, or complement, or object, in a sent- ence ; as — Men are accustomed to kill animals. To kill is to take away life. Participles, verbal adjective^, which as verbs may re- quire an object, and as adjectives may qualify substantives ; as — Trees darkening the water on each side. Man is a cooking animal. A burnt child dreads the fire. Each of these forms has, in some constructions, the force of a gerund, having assimilated to itself what was a distinct gerund form in older English: — the infinitive from when it expresses a purpose ; as — What went ye out into the wilderness /or to see ? Is this good to eat ? The house is to let. the form which has grown to resemble the participial form when it has the force of a substantive with a preposition ; as — Apples are good for eating. And oft in dying called upon your name, (Compare § 48, 2.) VERBS, 65 It Tenses. § 44. Tenses are forms expressing the time of the state, or action, of the verb. Time is Present, Past, Future. Action in time is conceived as — (i) Finished, Perfect. (2) Unfinished, Imperfect. (3) Undefined, not finished, not 1 a q • 4. unfinished, J In order therefore to express perfectly each kind of action in every time, a verb would require 3x3 = 9 tense-forms \ English has two only of these nine forms, the present aorist and the past aorist, as inflected tenses, but supplies the others by the use of auxiliary verbs combined with forms of the verb infinite. i. Time Present. Finished Unfinished Undefined / have waited I am waiting I wait ii. Time Past. Present perfect Present imperfect Present aorist. Finished Unfinished Undefined / had waited I was waiting I waited Past perfect Past imperfect Past aorist. iii. Time Future. Finished Unfinished Undefined / shall have waited I shall be waiting I shall wait Future perfect Future imperfect Future aorist. Eight verbs are used as auxiliaries for supplying tense- forms — be, have, shall, will, may, can, must, do ; and to these may be added some forms of the verbs go (I am going), owe (I ought), let. ^ Compare Harper, Powers of the Greek Tenses, p. 7. 66 GRAMMAR. -m Numbers. Y%^' Tenses have two Numbers — Singular and Plural ; and each number has three Persons. These correspond to the numbers and persons of the subject of which the verb speaks, according as the subject stands for one or more than one, speaking, or spoken to, or spoken of. Usually, but not always, the personal pronouns are expressed with verb-forms; as — I wait We wait Thou waitest Ye wait He waits They wait. Conjugations. § 46. Verbs are divided into Two Conjugations or Classes, according to their mode of forming the inflexions which mark the past tense of the indicative mood and the past participle. ^Ik i. The Strong ConjugatiSJPKlled also Old and Ir- regular), which forms the past tense by a change in the force of the vowel of the stem, as shown in the present tense ; and forms the past participle by adding the syllable -en, with or without change of the vowel of the stem ; as — fall, /ell, fallen, drink, drank,. drunken. The pronunciation and spelling of English words have become so much changed that rules for the modification of the stem- vowels of strong verbs, which would explain the oldest forms, are useless for modern forms, in which almost any vowel appears able to be modified into any other. The syllable -en in many verbs has coalesced with the termination, and ceased to be a distinct syllable, and from some verbs the inflexion has quite disappeared j as — VERBS, 6y know, knew, known, run, ran, run. sing, sang, sung. The verbs of the Strong Conjugation fall into three di- visions : — (i) Verbs in which the vowel of the participle is the same as the stem-vowel ; as — fall, fell, fallen. (2) Verbs in which the vowel of the participle is the modi- fied vowel of the past tense indicative ; as — hang, hung, hung. (3) Verbs in which the vowel of the participle differs from both the other forms ; as — drink, drank, drunken. ii. The Weak Conjugation (called also New, and Regular), which forms the past tense of the indicative mood, and the past participle alike by adding the syllable -ed to the stem ; as — wait, waited, waited. In many verbs the syllable -ed coalesces with the termination, ceasing to be a distinct syllable, and appears as d or t ; or changes d into t ; or is merged in a final 1 1 and in some verbs it modifies the consonants or vowels of the final syllable ; as — breathe. breathed. learn {learned), learnt. lend. lent. quit {quitted). quit. feel. felt. pay {payed). paid. leave ^ left. lose. lost. have. . had.r make. made. F 2 68 GRAMMAR, sell, sold, clothe (clothed)^ clad, A few verbs whose stem has, or had in earlier English, a final guttural, form the past tense irregularly, both modifying the stem-vowel into au or ou, and taking the inflexion -t of the Weak conjugation ; as — catch, caught. reach, raught. teach, taught. bring, brought. buy, bought. may. might [moughte]. owe, ought. seek {beseech). sought. think. thought. work, wrought. Some verbs ending in d or t appear to have no inflexion for the past tense or past participle, and therefore not to fall under either conjugation. They may be regarded as belonging to the Weak conjugation, the syllable -od having coalesced with their final d or t ; as — shred, shred, shred, hit, hit, hit. Of these verbs the stem-vowel, if long in the present, is shortened; as — lead, led, led. read, read, read. and of some both the uncontracted and the contracted forms are found; as — The floods have lifted up their voice. (Authorised Version.) and — The floods have lift up their voice. (Prayer-book Version, Psalm xciii.) ^-^ ^ VERBS. 69 There is in English a general tendency to discard Strong forms and to adopt Weak forms for verbs, as may be seen thus : — //(i) Many verbs have tense-forms of both conjugations; in some instances haviftg originally belonged to the ' Strong conjugation alone, but having been adapted to the (seemingly) more regular formations of the Weak; as — cleave, clo've and cleft. clo'ven and cleft. help, holp „ helped. holpen „ helped. hang, hung „ hanged. hung „ hanged. (2) Many, which were once of the Strong conjugation, having formed new tenses according to the Weak, have in part or entirely lost their Strong forms ^; as — gra've, grwved, graven and graved, melt, melted, molten „ melted, cro^w, creciv and crowed, crofwed, heave, hove „ heaved, heaved, leap, [/^] „ leaped, leaped, sno dreary, dreamy. Eng. -en, -em, wood^w, gold EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS. , ' i§ 7^' ! '< ^* Nothing is new. Subject nothing: Predicate (copula and complement) is new. 2. Thou knowest my ways. Subject thou Predicate knowest Expansion. Direct object. my ways. 3. Still onward winds the dreary way. Subject way Expansions. Attributes the, dreary Predicate winds Expansions. Ad'verbs of time and place still, onward. 4. I vex my heart with fancies dim. Subject I Predicate vex Expansions. Direct object - my heart Prepositional-phrase of manner with fancies dim. 5. I hear thee where the waters run» Subject I Predicate hear Expansions. Direct object thee Subordinate ad'verbial clause of place where the waters run. Subject the waters Predicate run. EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS, 103 6. Their Unwillingly this rest superstition yields me. Subject Expansion. Attribute superstition their Predicate Expansions, Direct object Indirect object Ad'verb of manner yields this rest me unwillingly. 7. She is, and is not; hence the pain to me. Subject she Predicate^ compound is,-and-is-iiot ; Linky coupling clauses hence Subject the pain [Predicate understood] [is] Expansion. Indirect object to me. 8. Thou layest down a law the rich would like. Subject thou Predicate layest Expansions. Direct object a law Adverb of place down [Link, understood, coupling sub- Ir^i^^tl ordinate clause] JV Subject the rich Predicate would like, 9. This day a solemn feast the people hold To Dagon their sea-idol, and forbid Laborious works. Subject people Expansion. Attribute the : 104 GRAMMAR. Predicate hold Expansions. Direct object (with attributes) a solemn feast Indirect object (with attributes) to Dagon, their sea-idol, Objective case of time this day Link, coupling coordinate clause and Predicate forbid Expansion. Direct object (with attribute) laborious works. EXAMPLE OF A FORM OF PARSING. § yi* O, there, perchance, when all our wars are done, The brand Excalibur will be cast away. O interjection. there adverb of place, qualifying cast, perchance adverb of manner. when adverb introducing a subordinate clause. all adjective, attribute of «u;tfrj. our possessive pronoun, attribute of ^ars, wars substantive common, neuter gender, plural number, nominative case, subject of are. Sing, fivar. are auxiliary verb, from be', active voice, indicative mood, present tense, plural number, third person, agreeing with the subject ^ars. Parts — am, fivas, being, been ; tense — am, art, is, are, are, are. done transitive verb, from do\ passive voice, past parti- ciple ; complement agreeing with nvars. . Parts — do, did, doing, done. the definite article, attribute of brand. EXAMPLE OF A FORM OF PARSING. 105 brand substantive common, neuter gender, singular numb- er, nominative case, subject of w/7/. Plur. brands, ExCalibur substantive proper, neuter gender, singular number, nominative case, attribute of brand, will auxiliary verb, from «iw7/; active voice, indicative mood, present tense, singular number, third person, agreeing with the subject brand. Parts — luiU, fivould, — , — ; tense — ^iilj ivilt, wil/, will, will, nvill : forming with be and cast a, compound tense -form of the passive future - imperfect tense. be auxiliary verb from be', active voice, infinitive mood, present tense, depending on (will. Parts — am, was, being, been] forming, with will and cast, a passive future-imperfect tense-form. cast transitive verb, from east; weak conjugation, passive voice, past participle; complement agreeing with brand. Parts — cast, cast, casting, cast: forming, with (the auxiliaries of time and voice) will and be, a passive future-imperfect tense-form* away abverb of place, qualifying cast. EXTRACTS. I walk. Thou livest. He is. Water flows. Light flashes. He liveth. Snow falls. You slept. We declare. She cries. She carried. Birds sing. Who comes ? Rememberest thou ? All laughed. We fought. He loved the commons. The king asked counsel. He vows revenge. We repaired the boat. The wolf left them. They died. He said. Winds blew. Kneel. He hath. The men ran. A bird flew. The bell rang. It happened. Remember. The children swam. An owl hooted. Both escaped. Which fell? The boys played. He spoke. She saw the children. Mars beheld the virgin. He drank the wine. They forgave us. The winds prevented you. Io8 EXTRACTS. They saved themselves. You called me. * A man entered the house. He bore the wrong. The people seized him. The boys failed. All welcomed me. He bought them. 2. All good men praised him. Duke William, the Norman, conquered England. His personal strength was immense. The story of these troubles is well known. This Tarquinius was a great and mighty king. What men are you .? Myself, well-mounted, hardly have escaped. Here with Columbus were beings of a new world. This monument is a colossal figure. The characters of the two commanders were entirely dissimilar. Sharp things were said. He was weary of his crown. He would return to his native country. A single Englishwoman it was necessary to trust. None of these things moved him. One great error he committed. The character of this man is a curious study. His position was now most perilous. And he drank of the cup and died. This is William's Story. EXTRACTS, 109 Many of these smaller enterprises were eminently un- successful. In brief, acquit thee bravely. Four hundred were already lost. And King Offa reigned thirty-nine winters. Good fortune come to thee. They went and found the mariner to be right. Here they endeavoured to make an entrance into the country. We '11 lay before this town our bones. Of him we must now speak a little. So weary bees in little cells repose. The first of April died your noble mother.* Their fortunes grew old and feeble with themselves. The House divided several times. He himself put the crown on his head. Ho ! gunners, fire a loud salute ; ho ! gallants, draw your blades. He hoped that the queen would be more successful. If they do see thee they will murder thee. Thou shalt not stir one foot to seek a foe. If love be blind, love cannot hit the mark. Thou shouldst have it, man, wert thou a born Turk. He were no lion were not Romans hinds. The swallow follows not summer more willingly than we your lordship. no EXTRACTS, Wherefore then didst not thou give mine -enemy into mine hands when he was in thy power ? Now art thou no true soldier, for that thou servest not thy lord the king faith- fully. If thou do ill, the joy fades, not the pains, If well, the pain doth fade, the joy remains. I '11 catch it ere it come to ground. And creep time ne'er so slow. Yet it shall come for me to do thee good. O, sir, when he shall hear of your approach, If that young Arthur be not gone already, Even at that news he dies. What he hath won, that hath he fortified. What shall \\e have that killed the deer ? The man that hath done this thing shall surely die. Will ye not tremble at My presence, which have placed the sand for the bound of the sea by a perpetual decree that it cannot pass it ? I pray, can you read anything you see ? It was not he that achieved it ; it was those that went before him, who had gradually got it. Amber, science declares, is a kind of petrified resin, di- stilled by pines, that were dead before the days of Adam; which is now thrown up, in stormy weather, on that remote coast. The love of variety or curiosity of seeing new things, which is the same, or at least a sister passion to it, seems woven into the frame of every son and daughter of Adam. EXTRACTS, III All animals that bite the grass or browse the shrub, whether wild or tame, wandered in this extensive circuit, secured from beasts of prey by the mountains which con- fined them. The adverse winds. Whose leisure I have stayed, have given him time To land his legions all as soon as I. The notions of the earth, which were held at that period, were so wild, so vague, so tempting. He was a courtly person, of good birth, a good speaker, a good musician. He, as the richer personage, had the larger fleet and more men. That he hoped for a reward was perfectly true. Publius is a lover of the people, and seeks their good. Flee, English ! flee, English ! dead is Edmund. The end of government is the good of mankind. Never did men more joyfully obey. A tight house, warm apparel, and wholesome food, are sufficient motives to labour. Having finished the fort, he commenced his attacks upon the Indians. Home, sirrah, and take to some work. Will you obey the heavenly voice, or will you not .? That he had resolved to take the command of his army in Ireland was soon rumoured all over London. They refused Truth when she came; and now Truth knows nothinf? of them. 112 EXTRACTS. The houses, the furniture, the clothing of the rich, in a little time become useful to the inferior and middling ranks of people. The two men shall give judgment on the shedder of blood. If he shall appeal from their judgment, let the appeal be tried. If their judgment be confirmed, cover his head. Hang him with a halter on the accursed tree ; Scourge him either within the sacred limit of the city or without. Hail, king ! to-morrow thou shalt pass away. Farewell ! there is an isle of rest for thee. Arise, go forth, and conquer as of old. And whiter than the mist that all day long Had held the field of battle was the king. Then spake the king : My house hath been my doom. But call not thou this traitor of my house, Who hath but dwelt beneath one roof with me. My house are rather they who sware my vows, * Yea, even while they brake them, own'd me king. I heard the ripple washing in the reeds, And the wild water lapping on the crag. Doubt not, go forward ; if thou doubt, the beasts Will tear thee piecemeal. A doubtful throne is ice on summer seas. EXTRACTS, 113 3. And this our life, exempt from public haunt, Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks. Sermons in stones and good in everything. And He that doth the ravens feed, Yea, providently caters for the sparrow. Be comfort to my age ! Blow, blow, thou winter wind, Thou art not so unkind As man's ingratitude. When shall we three meet again, In thunder, lightning, or in rain ? What thou wouldst highly, That wouldst thou holily ; wouldst not play false, And yet wouldst wrongly win. Why, let the stricken deer go weep. The hart ungalled play ; For some must watch, while some must sleep : Thus runs the world away. Who overcomes By force, hath overcome but half his foe. Was I deceived, or did a sable cloud Turn forth her silver lining on the night ? They also serve who only stand and wait. I am as free as nature first made man, Ere the base laws of servitude began. When wild in woods the noble savage ran. 114 EXTRACTS. Yon sun that sets upon the sea We follow in his flight ; Farewell awhile to him and thee, My native land, good night ! Britannia needs no bulwarks, No towers along the steep ; Her march is o'er the mountain-waves, Her home is on the deep. She walks the waters like a thing of life, And seems to dare the elements to strife. Who would not brave the battle fire, the wreck, To move the monarch of her peopled deck ? 4. Milton. Three poets, in three distant ages born, Greece, Italy, and England did adorn. The first in. loftiness of thought surpassed, The next in majesty, in both the last. The force of nature could no farther go ; To make a third she joined the other two. Dryden. 5. The Destruction o/ Sennacherib. The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold, And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold, And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. Like the leaves of the forest when summer is green. That host with their banners at sunset were seen ; Like the leaves of the forest when autumn hath blown, That host on the morrow lay withered and strown. Byron. EXTRACTS. I.I 5 6. The Wolf and the Lion, One day a wolf had taken a sheep from a fold, and was carrying it home to his own den, when he met a lion, who straightway laid hold of the sheep and bore it away. The wolf cried out that it was a great shame, and that the lion had robbed him. The lion laughed, and said, 'I suppose, then, that it was your good friend the shepherd who gave it to you.' 7. Sir John Moore, Slowly and sadly we laid him down, From the field of his fame fresh and gory ; We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone, But we left him alone with his glory. C. Wolfe. 8. The Snail, To grass, or leaf, or fruit, or wall. The snail sticks close, nor fears to fall, As if he grew there house and all Together. Within that house secure he hides. When danger imminent betides Of storm, or other harm besides Of weather. V. Bourne. 9. When it was winter, and the snow lay all around, white and sparkling, a hare would often come jumping along and spring right over the little fir-tree. Oh ! this made him so angry. But two winters went by, and when the third came the little tree had grown so tall that the hare was obliged to run round it. '12 Il6 EXTRACTS, 10. He went like one that hath been stunned, And is of sense forlorn ; A sadder and a wiser man He rose the morrow morn. S. T. Coleridge. 11. Oh ! ever thus from childhood's hour Fve seen my fondest hopes decay ] I never loved a tree or flower, But 'twas the first to fade away. I never nursed a dear gazelle, To glad me with its soft black eye, But when it came to know me well And love me, it was sure to die. MoORE. 12. The merry merry lark was up and singing, And the hare was out and feeding on the lea ; And the merry merry bells below were ringing. When my child's laugh rang through me. KiNGSLEY. 13. The merry brown hares came leaping Over the crest of the hill. Where the clover and corn lay sleeping Under the moonlight still. KiNGSLEY. * 14. A lion and some other beasts went out hunting together. When they had caught a fine stag, the lion divided the spoil into three parts, and said : ' The first I shall take as king; the second I shall take because I am the strongest; and as for the third part, let him take it who dares.' EXTRACTS. 117 15. T/ie Three Fishers. Three wives sat up in the lighthouse tower, And they trimm'd the lamps as the sun went down ; They look'd at the squall, and they look'd at the shower, And the night-rack came rolling up ragged and brown. But men must work, and women must weep. Though storms be sudden, and waters deep, And the harbour bar be moaning. KiNGSLEY. 16. The Ancient Mariner, Farewell, farewell ! but this I tell To thee, thou Wedding-Guest ! He prayeth well, who loveth well Both man and bird and beast. He prayeth best who loveth best All things both great and small ; For the dear God who loveth us, He made and loveth all. S. T. Coleridge. 17. A fir-tree was one day boasting itself to a bramble. * You are of no use at all ; but how could barns and houses be built without me ?' ' Good sir,' said the bramble, ^ when the woodmen come here with their axes and saws, what would you give to be a bramble and not a fir V 18. The Inchcape Rock, No stir in the air, no stir in the sea, The ship was as still as she could be. Her sails from heaven received no motion, Her keel was steady in the ocean. Il8 EXTRACTS, Without either sign or sound of their shock The waves flowed over the Inchcape Rock ; So Httle they rose, so litde they fell, They did not move the Inchcape Bell. SOUTHEY. 19. A wolf, seeing a goat feeding on the brow of a high- rock, where he could not come at her, besought her to come down lower, for fear she should miss her footing at that height; ^and moreover,' said he, Hhe grass is far sweeter and more abundant here below/ But the goat replied, 'Excuse me; it is not for my dinner that you invite me, but your own/ 20. The Mouse. *When I went out into the wide world,' said the first mouse, 'I thought, as many think at my age, that I had already learned everything; but that was not the case. Years must pass before one gets so far. I went to sea once. I went in a ship that steered towards the north. They told me that the ship's cook must know how to manage things at sea; but it is easy enough to manage things when one has plenty of sides of bacon, and whole tubs of salt pork, and mouldy flour. One has delicate living on board. When at last we reached the port to which we were bound, I left the ship, and it was high up in the far north. I saw great pathless forests of pine and birch that smelt so strong that I sneezed, and thought of sausages.' '- 1 was born in the palace library,' said the second mouse. * I and several members of our family never knew the happiness of getting into the dining-room, much less into the store-room; on my journey, and here to-day, are the EXTRACTS. 119 only times I have seen a kitchen. We have indeed often been compelled to suffer hunger in the library, but we get a good deal of knowledge/ — Andersen. 21. The floor, moreover, of the place was laid With coloured stones, wrought like a flowery mead ; And ready to the hand for every need, Midmost the hall, two fair streams trickled down O'er wondrous gem-like pebbles, green and brown. Betwixt smooth banks of marble, and therein Bright-coloured fish shone through the water thin. But now be ready, for I long full sore To hear the merry dashing of the oar, And feel the freshness of the following breeze That sets me free, and sniff the rough salt seas. Therefore they gat them ready now for war, With joyful hearts, for sharp they sniffed the sea, And saw the great waves tumbling green and free Outside the bar upon the way to Greece, The rough green way to glory and sweet peace. Morris, Jason. 22. The Oracle's Answer to Croesus, I can count the sands, and I can measure the ocean ; I have ears for the silent, and know what the dumb man meaneth ; Lo ! on my sense there striketh the smell of a shell-covered tortoise, Boiling now on a fire with the flesh of a lamb in a cauldron, Brass is the vessel below, and brass the cover above it. 3 20 EXTRACTS, 23. A//er Blenheim. My father lived at Blenheim then, Yon little stream hard by ; They burnt his dwelHng to the ground, And he was forced to fly : So with his wife and child he fled, Nor had he where to rest his head. With fire and sword the country round Was wasted far and wide, And many a childing mother then And new-born baby died : But things like that, you know, must be At every famous victory. They say it was a shocking sight After the field was won ; For many thousand bodies here Lay rotting in the sun ; But things like that, you know, must be After a famous victory. And everybody praised the Duke Who this great fight did win. But what good came of it at last ? Quoth little Peterkin. Why that I cannot tell, said he, But 't was a famous victory. SOUTHEY. 24. Farewell, then, and be joyful, for I go Unto the people, many a thing to show, And set them longing for forgotten things, Whose rash hands toss about the crowns of kings. EXTRACTS. I2T But when he stood within that busy stead, Taller he showed than any by a head, Great limbed, broad shouldered, mightier far than all. But soft of speech, though unto him did fall Full many a scorn upon that day to get. O Jove, by thy hand may all these be led To name and wealth ! and yet, indeed, for me, What happy ending shall I ask from thee ? What helpful friends ? what length of quiet years ? What freedom from ill care and deadly fears ? Do what thou wilt, but none the less believe That all these things and more thou shouldst receive, If thou wert Jason, I were Jove to-day. Morris, Jason. 25. From our old books I know That Joseph came of old to Glastonbury, And there the heathen Prince, Arviragus, Gave him an isle of marsh whereon to build ; And there he built with wattles from the marsh A little lonely church in days of yore. For so they say, these books of ours, b'ut seem Mute of this miracle, far as I have read. Tennyson, The Holy Grail. 26. Moses. We see the great Lawgiver looking round from his lonely elevation on an infinite expanse; behind him a wilderness of dreary sands and bitter w^aters, in which successive generations have sojourned, always moving, yet never advancing, reaping no harvest and building no abiding 122 EXTRACTS. city ; before him a goodly land, a land of promise, a land flowing with milk and honey. While the multitude below saw only the flat sterile desert in which they had so long wandered, bounded on every side by a near horizon, or diversified only by some deceitful mirage, he was gazing from a far higher stand, on a far lovelier country, following with his eye the long course of fertilizing rivers, through ample pastures, and under the bridges of great capitals, measuring the distances of marts and harbours, and por- tioning out all those wealthy regions from Dan to Beer- sheba. — Macaulay, Bacon. 27. MilaniorHs Prayer, O fairest, hear me now who do thy will, Plead for thy rebel that he be not slain, But live and love and be thy servant still ; Ah, give her joy and take away my pain, And thus two long enduring servants gain An easy thing this is to do for me. What need of my vain words to weary thee ! But none the less, this place will I not leave Until I n^eds must go my death to meet. Or at my hands some happy sign receive That in great joy we twain may one day greet Thy presence here and kiss thy silver feet, Such as we deem thee, fair beyond all words. Victorious o'er our servants and our lords. Morris, Atalania's Race. EXTRACTS, 123 28. Tke Passover, Night falls; the stars come out; the bright moon is in the sky. The household gathers round, and then takes place the hasty meal, of which every part is marked by the almost • frantic haste of the first celebration, when Pharaoh's mess- engers were expected every instant to break in with the command, ' Get you forth from among my people ! Go ! Begone !' The guests of each household at the moment of the meal rose from their sitting and recumbent posture, and stood round the table on their feet. Their feet, usually bare within the house, were shod as if for a journey. Each member of the household, even the women, had staffs in their hands, as if for an immediate departure ; the long Eastern garments of the men were girt up, for the same reason, round their loins. The roasted lamb was torn to pieces, each snatching and grasping in his eager fingers the morsel which he might not else have time to eat. Not a fragment is left for the morning, which will find them gone and far away. The cakes of bread which they broke and ate were tasteless from the want of leaven^ which there had been no leisure to prepare. — Stanley, /ewzsk Church, 29. My eyes are dim with childish tears, My heart is idly stirred ; For the same sound is in my ears Which in those days I heard. Thus fares it still in our decay ; And yet the wiser mind Mourns less for what age takes away Than what it leaves behind. 124 EXTRACTS. 30. You ask me, why, tho' ill at ease, Within this region I subsist. Whose spirits falter in the mist, And languish for the purple seas ? It is the land that freemen till, That sober-suited Freedom chose. The land, where girt with friends or foes A man may speak the thing he will. Tennyson. 31. Toleration, When Abraham sat at his tent-door, according to his custom, waiting to entertain strangers ; he espied an old man stooping ajid leaning on his staff, weary with age and travel, coming towards him, who was a hundred years of age. He received him kindly, washed his feet, provided supper, caused him to sit down; but observing that the old man eat and prayed not, nor begged for a blessing on his meat, he asked him why he did not worship the God of heaven; the old man told him that he worshipped the fire only, and acknow- ledged no other god; at which answer Abraham grew so zealously angry that he thrust the old man out of his tent, and exposed him to all the evils of the night and an unguarded condition. When the old man was gone, God called to Abraham, and asked him where the stranger was ; he replied, ' I thrust him away because he did not worship Thee.' God answered him, ^I have suffered him these hundred years, although he dishonoured Me, and couldst^ not thou endure him one night when he gave thee no trouble T Upon this, saith the story, Abraham fetched him back again and gave him hospitable entertainment and wise instruction. Go thou and do likewise, and thy charity will be rewarded by the God of Abraham. — ^Jeremy Taylor. EXTRACTS. 125 32. I Then rode Geraint into the castle court, His charger trampling many a prickly star Of sprouted thistle on the broken stones. He look'd and saw that all was ruinous. Here stood a shattered archway plumed with fern; . And here had fall'n a great part of a tower, Whole, like a crag that tumbles from the cliff, And like a crag was gay with wilding flowers : And high above a piece of turret stair. Worn by the feet that now were silent, wound Bare to the sun, and monstrous ivy- stems Claspt the gray walls with hairy-fibred arms. And suck'd the joining of the stones, and look'd A knot, beneath, of snakes, aloft, a grove. Tennyson, Hm'd. 33. To5y. With all this inbred vulgar air, he was a dog of great moral excellence — affectionate, faithful, honest up to his light, with an odd humour as peculiar and as strong as his tail. My father, in his reserved way, was very fond of him, and there must have been very funny scenes with them, for we heard bursts of laughter issuing from his study when they two were by themselves ; there was something in him that took that grave, beautiful, melancholy face. One can fancy him in the midst of his books, and sacred work and thoughts, pausing and looking at the secular Toby, who was looking out for a smile to begin his rough fun, and about to end by coursing and gurriri round the room, upsetting my father's books, laid out on the floor for consultation, and himself nearly at times, as he stood watching him — and off his guard and shaking with laughter. Toby had always a 126 EXTRACTS. great desire to accompany my father up to town; this my father's good taste and sense of dignity, besides his fear of losing his friend (a vain fear !), forbade, and as the decision of character of each was great and nearly equal, it was often a drawn game. Toby, ultimately, by making it his entire object, triumphed. He usually was nowhere to be seen on my father leaving ; he however saw him, and lay in wait at the head of the street, and up Leith Walk he kept him in view^ from the opposite side like a detective, and then, when he knew it was hopeless to hound him home, he crossed unblushingly over, and joined company, excessively rejoiced of course. — Horce SuhsecivcB. ' 34. Wasp. Once when she had three pups, one of them died. For two days and nights she gave herself up to trying to bring it to life — licking it, and turning it over and over, growling over it, and all but worrying it to awake it. She paid no attention to the living two, gave them no milk, flung them away with her teeth, and would have killed them, had they been allowed to remain with her. She was as one possessed, and neither ate, nor drank, nor slept, was heavy and miserable with her milk, and in such a state of excitement that no one could remove the dead pup. Early on the third day she was seen to take the pup in her mouth, and start across the fields towards the Tweed, striding like a race-horse — she plunged in, holding up her burden, and at the middle of the stream dropped it, and swam swiftly ashore; then she stood and watched the litde dark lump floating away, bobbing up and down with the current, and losing it at last far down, she made her way home, sought out the living two, devoured them with her love, carried them one by one to her lair, and i EXTRACTS, 127 gave herself up wholly to nurse them : you can fancy her mental and bodily happiness and relief when they were pulling away — and theirs. — Horce Subsecivce, 35. The City 0/ the PhcBacians, When we the city reach — a castled crown Of wall encircles it from end to end, And a fair haven, on each side the town. Framed with fine entrance, doth our barks defend, Which, where the terrace by the shore doth wend, Line the long co'ast ; to all and each large space, Docks, and deep shelter, doth that haven lend ; There, paved with marble, our great market-place Doth with its arms Poseidon's beauteous fane embrace. WoRSLEY, Odyssey, 36. My worthy friend, Sir Roger, when we are talking of the malice of parties, very frequently tells us an accident that happened to him when he was a school-boy, which was at a time when the feuds ran high between the Roundheads and Cavaliers. This worthy knight, being then but a stripling, had occasion to enquire which was the way to St. Anne's Lane, upon which the person whom he spoke to, instead of answering his question, called him a young popish cur, and asked him who had made Anne a Saint.? The boy, being in some confusion, enquired of the next he met, which was the way to Anne's Lane ; but was called a prick-eared cur for his pains, and instead of being shewn the way, was told that she had been a Saint before he was born, and would be one after he was hanged. Upon this, says Sir Roger, I did not think fit to repeat the former questions, but going into every lane of the neighbourhood, asked what they called the name of that lane. — Spectator, 128 EXTRACTS, 37. Genoa. Some of you, I doubt not, remember Genoa; you have seen that queenly city with its streets of palaces, rising tier above tier from the water, girdling with the long lines of its bright white houses the vast sweep of its harbour, the mouth of which is marked by a huge natural mole of rock, crowned by its magnificent light-house tower. You remember how its white houses rose out of a mass of fig and olive and orange trees, the glory of its old patrician luxury ; you may have observed the mountains behind the town spotted at intervals by small circular low towers, one of which is dis- tinctly conspicuous where the ridge of the hills rises to its summit, and hides from view all the country behind it. ' Those towers are the forts of the famous lines, which, curiously resembling in shape the later Syracusan walls enclosing Epipolae, converge inland from the eastern and western extremities of the city, looking down, the western line on the valley of the Polcevefa, the eastern on that of the Bisagno, till they meet, as I have said, on the summit of the mountains, where the hills cease to rise from the sea, and become more or less of a table-land running off towards the interior, at the distance, as well as I remember, of between two and three miles from the outside of the city. Thus a very large open space is enclosed within the lines, and Genoa is capable, therefore, of becoming a vast entrenched camp, holding not so much a garrison as an army. — ■ Pr. Arnold, Lectures on Modern His lory, 38. Calypso's Cave, Thither the long-winged birds retired to sleep, Falcon and owl and sea-crow loud of tongue, Who plies her business in the watery deep ; EXTRACTS, 1^9 And round the hollow cave her tendrils flung A healthy vine, with purpling clusters hung ; And fountains four, in even order set, Near one ranother, from the stone out-sprung, Streaming four ways their crystal-showery jet Through meads of parsley soft and breathing violet. WoRSLEY, Odyssey, 39. The Hand, Have you noticed that when you want to take hold of anything (a bit of bread, we will say), have you noticed that it is always the thumb who puts himself forward, and that he is always on one side by himself, whilst the rest of the fingers are on the other? If the thumb is not helping, nothing stops in your hand, and you don't know what to do with it. Try, by way of experiment, to carry your spoon to your mouth without putting your thumb to it, and you will see what a long time it will take you to get through a poor little plateful of broth. The thumb is placed in such a manner on your hand that it can face each of the other fingers, one after another, or all together, as you please; and by this ^ve are enabled to grasp, as if with a pair of pincers, all objects, whether large or small. Our hands owe their perfection of usefulness to this happy arrangement, which has been bestowed on no other animal, except the monkey, our nearest neighbour. I may even add, while we are about it, that it is this which distinguishes the hand from a paw or a foot. My foot, which has other things to do than to pick up apples or lay hold of a fork, has also five fingers, but the largest cannot face "the others; it is not a thumb, therefore, and it is because of this that my foot is not a hand. — Jean MAci:. 130 EXTRACTS, 40. The Brook. I slip, I slide, I gloom, I glance, Among my skimming swallows ; I make the netted sunbeam dance Against my sandy shallows. I murmur under moon and stars In brambly wildernesses ; I linger by my shingly bars ; I loiter round my cresses ; And out again I curve and flow To join the brimming river, For men may come, and men may go, But I go on for ever. Tennyson. 41. Calypso to Odysseus, Weep no more, luckless hero, weep no more, Nor always thus consume thy life with pain. Now will I send thee from this island- shore Back to thy country o'er the watery plain. Come thou and fall unto thy task amain. Fell trees ; with iron a broad craft prepare, Made strongly to withstand the billows' strain, And fix thwart timbers for the deck with care. Which o'er the cloud-dark billows may thee safely bear. WoRSLEY, Odyssey. 42. The Bee-eater, We had in this village, more than twenty years ago, an idiot boy, whom I well remember, who from a child showed a strong propensity to bees ; they were his food, his EXTRACTS. 131 amusement, his sole object. And as people of this cast have seldom more than one point in view, so this lad exerted all his few faculties on this one pursuit. In the winter he dozed away his time, within his father's house, by the fireside, in a kind of torpid state, seldom departing from the chimney corner; but in the summer he was all alert, and in quest of his game in the fields and on sunny banks. Honey-bees, humble-bees, and wasps were his prey wherever he found them : he had no apprehensions from their stings, but would seize them with naked hands, and at once disarm them of their weapons, and suck their bodies for the sake of their honey-bags. Sometimes he would fill his bosom, between his shirt and his skin, with a number of these captives; and sometimes would confine them in bottles. He was a very merops apiasier, or bee-bird, and, very injurious to men that kept bees; for he would shde into their bee-gardens, and sitting down before the stools, would rap with his finger on the hives, and so take the bees as they came out. He has been known to overturn hives for the sake of honey, of which he was passionately fond. Where metheglin was making, he would linger round the tubs and vessels, begging a draught of what he called bee- wine. As he ran about, he used to make a humming noise with his lips, resembling the buzzing of bees.— White's Selhorne, 43. JothanCs Parable, The trees went forth on a time to anoint a king over them; and they said unto the olive tree, Reign thou over us. But the olive tree said unto them, Should I leave my fatness, wherewith by me they honour God and man, and go to be promoted over the other trees ? And the trees said to the fig tree, Come thou, and reign over us. But the fig K 2 13^ EXTRACTS, tree said unto them, Should I forsake my sweetness, and my good fruit, and go to be promoted over the trees? Then said the trees unto the vine, Come thou, and reign over us. And the vine said unto them. Should I leave my wine, which cheereth God and man, and go to be promoted over the trees? Then said all the trees unto the bramble, Come thou, and reign over us. And the bramble said unto the trees. If in truth ye anoint me king over you, then come and put your trust in my shadow ; and if not, let fire come out of the bramble, and devour the cedars of Lebanon. — Judges ix. 8-15. 44. The Choice. When gentle winds but ruffle the calm sea, My breast courageous grows, and earth to me Dear as enticing ocean cannot be ; But when the great main roars, and white with foam Huge waves tower up from it, and bellowing come To burst on land, I wistful seek a home In groves retired, where, when the storm descends, It brings but music to the pine it bends. Unblest whose house the wandering billows bear With them, who strives with sea for fishy fare. But I beneath the broad-leaved plane will lie, Where some bright fountain, breaking forth hard by, Delights, but not disturbs, with bubbling melody. MoscHUS, Garnett. 45. This Indian lived here alone above three years; and although he was several times sought after by the Span- iards, who knew he was left on the island, yet they could never find him. He was in the woods hunting for goats, EXTRACTS, 133 when Captain Watlin drew off his men, and the ship was under sail before he came back to shore. He had with him his gun, and a knife, with a small horn of powder, .and a few shot; which being spent, he contrived a way, by notching his knife, to saw the barrel of his gun into small pieces, wherewith he made harpoons, lances, hooks, and a long knife; heating the pieces first in the fire, which he struck with his gun flint, and a piece of the barrel of his gun, which he hardened, having learnt to do that among the English. The hot pieces of iron he would hammer out and bend as he pleased with stones, and saw them with his jagged knife, or grind them to an edge by long labour, and harden them to a good temper as there was occasion. With such instru- ments as he made in that manner, he got such provisions as the island afforded, either goats or fish. He told us that at first he was forced to eat seal, which is very ordinary meat, before he had made hooks; but afterwards he never killed any seals but to make lines, cutting, their skins into thongs. He had a little house, or hut, half a mile from the sea, which was lined with goatskin; his couch, or barbecu of sticks, lying along about two feet distance from the ground, was spread with the same, and was all his bedding. He had no clothes left, having worn out those he brought from Watlin's ship, but only a skin about his waist. He saw our ship the day before we came to an anchor, and did believe we were English; and therefore killed three goats in the morning, before we came to an anchor, and dressed them with cab- bage, to treat us when w^e came ashore. — Captain Dampier, in Knight's Knowledge is Power. 46. Then another of the King's Thanes arose and said, * Truly the life of a man in this world, compared with that 134 EXTRACTS, life whereof we wot not, is on this wise. It is as when thou, O King, art sitting at supper with thine Aldermen and thy Thanes in the time of winter, when the hearth is lighted in the midst and the hall is warm, but without the rains and the snow are faUing, and the winds are howling ; then cometh a sparrow and flieth through the house ; she cometh in by one door and goeth out by another. Whiles she is in the house she feeleth not the storm of winter, but yet, when a little moment of rest is passed, she flieth again into the storm, and passeth aw^ay from our eyes. So is it with the life of man ; it is but for a moment ; what goeth afore it and what cometh after it, wot we not at all. Wherefore if these strangers can tell us aught, that we may know whence man cometh and whither he goeth, let us hearken to them and follow their law.' — Freeman, Old English History for Children. 47. Alas ! the meanest fierb that scents the gale. The lowhest flower that blossoms in the vale Even where it dies, at spring's sweet call renews To second life its odours and its hues. But we, but man, the great, the brave, the wise. When once in death he seals his failing eyes, In the mute earth imprisoned, dark and deep. Sleeps the long, endless, unawakening sleep. MoscHus, Dean Milman. 48. I began to consider about putting the few rags I had, which I called clothes, into some order. I had worn out all the waistcoats I had, and my business was now to try if I could not make jackets out of the great watch-coats which I had by me, and with such other materials as I had ; EXTRACTS. 135 SO I set to work a tailoring, or rather a botching, for I made most piteous work of it. However, I made shift to make two or three new waistcoats, which I hoped would serve me a great while ; as for breeches or drawers, I made but a very sorry shift indeed, till afterward. I have mentioned that I saved the skins of all the creatures that I killed, I mean fourfooted ones, and I had hung them up stretched out with sticks in the sun, by which means some of them were so dry and hard that they were fit for little, but others it seems were very useful. The first thing I made of these was a great cap for my head, with the hair on the outside to shoot off the rain; and this I performed so well, that after this I made me a suit of clothes wholly of these skins, that is to say, a waistcoat, and breeches open at the knees, and both loose, for they were rather wanting to keep me cool than to keep me warm. I must not omit to acknowledge that they were wretchedly made ; for if I was a bad carpenter, I was a worse tailor. After this I spent a great deal of time and pains to make me an umbrella ; I was indeed in great want of one, and had a great mind to make one. I had seen them made in the Brazils, where they are very useful in the great heats which are there. And I felt the heats every jot as great here, and greater too, being nearer the Equinox; besides, as I was obliged to be much abroad, it was a most useful thing to me, as well for the rains as the heats. I took a world of pains at it, and was a great while before I could make anything likely to hold; nay, after I thought I had hit the way, I spoiled two or three before I made one to my mind; but at last I made one that answered indifferently well. The main difficulty I found was to make it let down. I could make it to spread, but if it did not let down too, and draw in, it was not portable for me any way but just over my head, which would not do. However, at last, as I said, 136 EXTRACTS. I made one to answer, and covered it with skins, the hair upwards, so that it cast oflf the rains like a penthouse, and kept off the sun so effectually that I could walk out in the hottest of the weather with greater advantage than I could before in the coolest, and when I had no need of it, could close it and carry it under my arm. — Defoe, Robins 071 Crusoe. 49. Sandams^ Counsel to Croesus, Thou art about, oh, king, to make war against men who wear leathern trousers, and have all their other gar- ments of leather ; who feed not on what they like, but on what they can get from a soil that is sterile and unkindly ; who do not indulge in wine, but drink water; who possess no figs nor anything else that is good to eat. If, then, thou conquerest them, what canst thou get from them, seeing that they have nothing at all ? But if they conquer thee, consider how much that is precious thou wilt lose ; if they once get a taste of our pleasant things, they will keep such hold of them that we shall never be able to make them loose their grasp. — Rawlinson, Herodotus. 50. Cleohis and Bito. There was a great festival in honour of the goddess Here at Argos, to which their mother must needs be taken in a car. Now the oxen did not come home from the field in time ; so the youths, fearful of being too late, put the yoke on their own necks, and themselves drew the car in which their mother rode. Five and forty furlongs did they draw her, and stopped before the temple. This deed of theirs was witnessed by the whole assembly of worshippers, and then their life closed in the best possible way. Herein, too, God showed forth most evidently how much better a thing EXTRACTS, 137 for man death is than life. For the Argive men stood thick around the car and extolled the vast strength of the youths ; and the Argive women extolled the mother who was blessed with such a pair of sons ; and the mother herself, overjoyed at the deed and at the praises it had won, standing straight before the image, besought the goddess to bestow upon Cleobis and Bito, the sons who had so mightily honoured her, the highest blessing to which mortals can attain. Her prayer ended, they offered sacrifice, and partook of the holy banquet, after which the two youths fell asleep in the temple. They never woke more, but so passed from the earth. — JIawlinson, Herodotus, 51. Life. Time fleets, youth fades, life is an empty dream. It is the echo of time ; and he whose heart Beat first beneath a human heart, whose speech Was copied from a human tongue, can never Recall when he was living yet knew not this. Nevertheless long seasons pass o'er him Till some one hour's experience shows what nothing, It seemed, could clearer show ; and ever after, An altered brow and eye and gait and speech Attest that now he knows the adage true Time fleets, youth fades, Hfe is an empty dream. Browning, Paracelsus. 62. It is related that a man of the pilgrims slept a long sleep, and then awoke, and saw no trace of the other pilgrims. So he arose and walked on; but he wandered from the way, and he proceeded until he saw a tent, and an old woman at its door, and he found by her a dog asleep. He approached the tent, saluted the old woman, and begged 138 EXTRACTS. of her some food ; whereupon she said to him, ' Go to yon valley, and catch as many serpents as will suffice thee, that I may broil some of them for thee/ The man replied, * I dare not catch serpents, and I never ate them/ The old woman therefore said, ' I will go with thee, and catch some of them, and fear thou not/ Then she went with him, and the dog followed her, and she caught as many of the serpents as would suffice, and proceeded to broil some of them. The pilgrim could not refrain from eating, for he feared hunger and emaciation ; so he ate of those serpents. And after this, being thirsty, he demanded of the old woman some water to drink ; and she said to him, * Go to the spring, and drink of it/ Accordingly he went to the spring; but he found its water bitter ; yet he could not refrain from drinking of it, notwithstanding^ its exceeding bitterness, on account of the violence of his thirst. He therefore drank, and then returned to the old woman, and said to her, ' I wonder at thee, O thou old woman, and at thy residing in this place, and thy feeding thyself with this food, and thy drinking of this water/ * How then,' said the old woman, ' is your country ? ' He answered her, ' Verily, in our country are spacious and ample houses, and ripe and delicious fruits, and abundant sweet waters, and excellent viands, and fat meats, and numerous sheep, and everything good, and blessings of which the like exist not save in the Paradise that God (whose name be exalted!) hath described to his just servants.' ' All this,' replied the old woman, * I have heard; but tell me, have you any Sultan who ruleth over you, and oppresseth in his rule while ye are under his authority; and who, if any one of you committeth an offence, taketh his wealth, and destroyeth him, and who, if he desire, turneth you out from your houses?' The man answered her, * That doth sometimes happen/ And the old EXTRACTS. 139 woman rejoined, ' If so, by Allah, that dainty food and ele- gant life, and those delightful comforts, with oppression and tyranny, are penetrating poison; and our food, with safety, is a salutary antidote. — Lane's Arabian Nights. 53. Cyrus. When the boy was in his tenth year, an accident, which I will now relate, caused it to be discovered w^ho he was. He was at play one day in the village where the folds of the cattle were, along with the boys of his own age, in the street. The other boys who were playing with him chose the cowherd's son, as he was called, to be their king. He then proceeded to order them about ; some he set to build him houses, others he made his guards, one of them was to be the king's eye, another had the office of carrying his messages, all had some task or other. Among the boys there was one, the son of Artembares, a Mede of distinction, who refused to do what Cyrus had set him. Cyrus told the other boys to take him into custody, and when his orders were obeyed, he chastised him most severely with the whip. The son of Artembares, as soon as he was let go, full of rage at treatment so little befitting his rank, hastened to the city and complained bitterly to his father of what had been done to him by the son of the king's cowherd. Artembares, in the heat of his passion, went to the king, accompanied by his son, and made complaint of the gross injury which had been done him. Pointing to the boy's shoulders, he ex- claimed, * Thus, oh ! king, has thy slave, the son of a cow- herd, heaped insult upon us.' At this sight and these words the king, wishing to avenge the son of Artembares for his father's sake, sent for the cowherd and his boy. When they came together into his presence, fixing his eyes on Cyrus, the king said, ' Hast thou then, the son of so mean a fellow 140 EXTRACTS. as that, dared to behave thus rudely to the son of yonder noble, one of the first in my court ?' ^ My lord,' replied the boy, * I only treated him as he deserved. I was chosen king in play by the boys of our village, because they thought me the best for it. He himself was one of the boys who chose me. All the others did according to my orders; but he refused, and made light of them, until at last he got his due reward. If for this I deserve to suffer punishment, here I am ready to submit to it.' — Rawlinson, Herodotus. 64. JephihaKs Daughter. Single I grew, like some green plant, whose root Creeps to the garden water-pipes beneath. Feeding the flower ; but ere my flower to fruit Changed, I was ripe for death. My God, my land, my father — these did move Me from my bUss of life, that nature gave, Lower'd softly with a threefold cord of love Down to a silent grave. And I went mourning, ' No fair Hebrew boy Shall smile away my maiden blame among The Hebrew mothers' — emptied of all joy, Leaving the dance and song, Leaving the olive-gardens far below, Leaving the promise of my bridal bower, The valleys of grape-loaded vines that glow Beneath the battled tower. The light white cloud swam over us. Anon We heard the lion roaring from his den ; We saw the large white stars rise one by one, Or, from the darkened glen, EXTRACTS, 141 Saw God divide the night with flying flame, And thunder on the everlasting hills. I heard Him, for He spake, and grief became A solemn scorn of ills. When the next moon was rolFd into the sky, Strength came to me that equalFd my desire. How beautiful a thing it was to die For God and for my sire ! It comforts me in this one thought to dwell, That I subdued me to my father's will ; Because the kiss he gave me, ere I fell, Sweetens the spirit still. Moreover it is written that my race Hew'd Ammon, hip and thigh, from Aroer On Arnon unto Minneth. . Tennyson, A dream of Fair Women. 55. Round great part of our coast we find terraces, from twenty to fifty feet above the level of the sea, and in some places the terrace runs with great persistence for a number of miles. Round the Firth of Forth, for example, on both shores, there is an old sea-clifF of solid rock, overlooking a raised beach or terrace, now often cultivated in cornfields and meadows, and then you come to the present sea beach. This terrace usually consists of gravel and sea-shells in great quantities, of the same species with those that lie upon the present beach, where the tide rises and falls every day. The some kind of terrace is found on the shores of the Firth of Clyde, and in almost all the other estuaries of Scotland, and in places round the west highlands on the coast of Scotland. 14^ EXTRACTS. Similar or analogous raised beaches occur on the borders of Wales and in the south of England. In Devon and Corn- wall there are the remains of old consolidated beaches clinging to the cliffs from twenty to thirty feet above the level of the sea. It is clear, therefore, that an elevation of the land has occurred in places to the extent of about forty feet, at a very recent period, long after all the living species of shell-fish inhabited our shores. Further, in the alluvial plains that border the Forth, and on the Clyde in the neigh- bourhood of Glasgow, at various times, in cutting trenches, canals, and other works, the bones of whales, seals, and por- poises have been found at a height of from twenty to thirty feet above the level of high-water mark. Now it is evident that whales did not crawl twenty or thirty feet above high- water mark to die, and therefore they must have either died upon the spot where their skeletons were found or been floated there after death. That part of the country therefore must have been covered with salt water, which is now oc- cupied simply by common alluvial detritus. But the story does not stop there ; for in the very same beds in which the remains of these marine mammalia have been discovered on the Clyde, canoes have been found in a state of preservation so perfect, that all their form and structure could be well made out. Some of them were simply scooped in the trunks of large trees, but others were built of planks nailed together, square-sterned boats indeed, built of well-dressed planks ; and the inference has been drawn, that this last elevation took place at a time that is historical, and even since the Roman occupation of our island. — Ramsay, Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain, EXTRACTS, 143 56. Of all the land far famed for goodly steeds, Thou com'st, O stranger, to the noblest spot, Colonos, glistening bright. Where evermore, in thickets freshly green, The clear-voiced nightingale Still haunts and pours her song, By purpling ivy hid. And the thick leafage sacred to the God, With all its myriad fruits. By mortal's foot untouched, By sun's hot ray unscathed. Sheltered from every blast ; There wanders Dionysos evermore. In full, wild revelry. And waits upon the nymphs who nursed his youth. And yet another praise is mine to sing, Gift of the mighty God To this our city, mother of us all, Her greatest, noblest boast, Famed for her goodly steeds, Famed for her bounding colts, Famed for her sparkling sea. Poseidon, son of Kronos, Lord and King, To Thee this boast we owe. For first in these our streets Thou to the untamed horse ^ Didst use the conquering bit ; And here the well-shaped oar, By skilled hands deftly plied. 144 EXTRACTS. Still leapeth through the sea, Following in wondrous guise, The fair Nereids with their hundred feet. ViAjMPTKKyCEdipus at Colonos. bl. The Porteoiis Riot at Edinburgh, The passive resistance of the Tolbooth gate promised to do more to baffle the purpose of the mob than the active interference of the magistrates. The heavy sledge-hammers continued to din against it without intermission, and with a noise which, echoed from the lofty buildings around the spot, seemed enough to have alarmed the garrison in the Castle. It was circulated among the riotei-s, that the troops would march down to disperse them, unless they could execute their purpose without loss of time ; or that, even without quitting the fortress, the garrison might obtain the same end by throwing a bomb or two upon the street. Urged by such motives for apprehension, they eagerly re- lieved each other at the labour of assailing the Tolbooth door; yet such was its strength that it still defied their efforts. At length, a voice was heard to pronounce the words, * Try it with fire.' The rioters, with an unanimous shout, called for combustibles, and as all their wishes seemed to be instantly supplied, they were soon in posses- sion of two or three empty tar-barrels. A huge red glaring bonfire speedily arose close to the door of the prison, sending up a tall column of smoke and flame against its antique turrets and strongly-grated windows, and illumin- ating the ferocious and wild gestures of the rioters who surrounded the place, as well as the pale and anxious groups of those who, from windows in the vicinage, watched the progress of this alarming scene. The mob fed the fire EXTRACTS. 145 with whatever they could find fit for the purpose. The flames roared and crackled among the heaps of nourish- ment piled on the fire, and a terrible shout soon announced that the door had kindled, and was in the act of being destroyed. The fire was suffered to decay, but, long ere it was quite extinguished, the most forward of the rioters rushed, in their impatience, one after another, over its yet smouldering remains. Thick showers of sparkles rose high in the air, as man after man bounded over the glowing embers, and disturbed them in their passage. — Scott, Heart of Mid Lothian, 58. The ancestor of Gyges the Lydian was a shepherd, so the story runs, in the service of the reigning sovereign of Lydia, when one day a violent storm of rain fell, the ground was rent asunder by an earthquake, and a yawning gulf appeared on the spot where he was feeding his flocks. Seeing what had happened, and wondering at it, he went down into the gulf, and among other marvellous objects he saw, as the legend relates, a hollow brazen horse, with windows in its sides, through which he looked, and beheld in the interior a corpse, apparently of superhuman size ; from which he took nothing but a golden ring off the hand, and therewith made his way out. Now when the usual meeting of the shepherds occurred, for the purpose of sending to the king their monthly report of the state of his flocks, this shepherd came with the rest, wearing the ring. And, as he was seated with the company, he happened to turn the hoop of the ring round towards himself, till it came to the inside of his hand. Whereupon he became invisible to his neighbours, who fell to talking about him as if he were gone away. While he was marvelling at this, he again began playing with the ring, L 14^ EXTRACTS, and turned the hoop to the outside, upon which he became once more visible. Having noticed this effect, he made experiments with the ring, to see whether it possessed this virtue ; and so it was, that when he turned the hoop inwards he became invisible, and when he turned it outwards he was again visible. After this discovery, he immediately contrived to be appointed one of the messengers to carry the report to the king ; and upon his arrival he slew the king, and took possession of the throne. — Plato, Republic^ (Davies and Vaughan). 59. Now these men, Though brown indeed through dint of that hot sun, Were comely and well-knit, as any one I saw in Greece, and fit for deeds of war. Though as I said of all men gentlest far ; Their arms were axe and spear, and shield and bow, But nought of iron did they seem to know, For all their cutting tools were edged with flint. Or with soft copper, that soon turned and bent ; With cloths of cotton were their bodies clad, But other raiment for delight they had Most fairly woven of some unknown thing; And all of them from Httle child to king Had many ornaments of beaten gold : Certes, we might have gathered wealth untold Amongst them, had that then been in our thought. But none the glittering evil valued aught. Morris, Earthly Paradise. EXTRACTS, 147 60. The Old Margate Hoy. All this time sat upon the edge of the deck quite a different character. It was a lad, apparently very poor, very infirm, and very patient. His eye was ever on the sea, with a smile ; and, if he caught now and then some snatches of these wild legends, it was by accident, and they seemed not to concern him. The waves to him whispered more pleasant stories. He was as one, being with us, but not of us. He heard the bell of dinner ring without stirring; and when some of us pulled out our private stores, our cold meat and our salads, he produced none, and seemed to want none. Only a solitary biscuit he had laid in ; provision for the one or two days and nights, to which these vessels were often- times obliged to prolong their voyage. Upon a nearer acquaintance with him, which he seemed neither to court nor decline, we learned that he was going to Margate, with the hope of being admitted into the Infirmary there for sea- bathing. His disease was a scrofula, which appeared to have eaten all over him. He expressed great hopes of a cure ; and when we asked him, whether he had any friends where he was going, he replied 'he had no friends.' — Charles Lamb. 61. Come, Antony, and young Octavius, come, Revenge yourselves alone on Cassius, For Cassius is a-weary of the world ; Hated by one he loves ; braved by his brother ; Checked like a bondman ; all his faults observed. Set in a note-book, learned and conned by rote, To cast into my teeth. O, I could weep My spirit from mine eyes ! There is my dagger, 148 EXTRACTS. And here my naked breast ; within, a heart Dearer than Plutus' mine, richer than gold ; If that thou be'st a Roman, take it forth ; I, that denied thee gold, will give my heart : Strike, as thou didst at Caesar; for I know. When thou didst hate him worst, thou lovedst him better Than ever thou lovedst Cassius. Shakespeare, Julius CcEsar. 62. As I am one, who, by my profession, am obliged to look into all kinds of men, there are none whom I consider with so much pleasure, as those who have anything new or ex- traordinary in their characters, or ways of living. For this reason I have often amused myself with speculations on the race of people called Jews, many of whom I have met with in most of the considerable towns which I have passed through in the course of my travels. They are, indeed, so disseminated through all the trading parts of the world, that they are become the instruments by which the most distant nations converse with one another, and by which mankind are knit together in a general correspondence. They are like the pegs and nails in a great building, which, though they are but litde valued in themselves, are absolutely neces- sary to keep the whole frame together. — Spectator, 63. The mountain wooded to the peak, the lawns And winding glades high up like ways to Heaven, The slender coco's drooping crown of plumes. The lightning flash of insect and of bird. The lustre of the long convolvuluses That coil'd around the stately stems, and ran EXTRACTS. 149 Ev'n to the limit of the land, the glows And glories of the broad belt of the world, All these he saw ; but what he fain had seen He could not see, the kindly human face, Nor ever hear a kindly voice, but heard The myriad shriek of wheeling ocean-fowl, The league-long roller thundering on the reef, The moving whisper of huge trees that branched And blossom'd in the zenith, or the sweep Of some precipitous rivulet to the wave. As down the shore he ranged, or all day long Sat often in the seaward-gazing gorge, A shipwrecked sailor, waiting for a sail ; No sail from day to day, but every day The sunrise broken into scarlet shafts Among the palms and ferns and precipices ; The blaze upon the waters to the east; The blaze upon his island overhead ; The blaze upon the waters to the west ; Then the great stars that globed themselves in Heaven, The hollo wer-bello wing ocean, and again The scarlet shafts of sunrise — but no sail. Tennyson, Enoch Arden. 64. Of Gardens, And because the breath of flowers is far sweeter in the air (where it comes and goes like the warbling of music) than in the hand, therefore nothing is more fit for that delight than to know, what be the flowers and plants that do best perfume the air. Roses damask and red are fast flowers of their smells, so that you may walk by a whole row of them^ ancj find nothing of their sweetness, yea, 150 EXTRACTS, though it be in a morning's dew. Bays likewise yield no smell, as they grow; rosemary little, nor sweet-marjoram. That which, above all others, yields the sweetest smell in the air, is the violet ; specially the white double violet which comes twice a-year, about the middle of April and about Bartholomew-tide. Next to that is the musk-rose Then sweet-briar. Then wall-flowers, which are very de- lightful to be set under a parlour, or lower chamber window. Then pinks and gilly-flowers, specially the matted pink and the clove gilly-flower. Then the flowers of the lime tree. Then the honeysuckles, so they be somewhat afar off. Of bean-flowers I speak not, because they are field flowers. But those which perfume the air most delightfully, not passed by as the rest, but being trodden upon and crushed, are three ; that is burnet, wild thyme, and water-mints. Therefore you are to set whole alleys of them, to have the pleasure, when you walk or tread. — Bacon. 65. Never stoops the soaring vulture On his quarry in the desert. On the sick and wounded bison. But another vulture, watching From his high aerial look-out, Sees the downward plunge, and follows ; And a third pursues the second. Coming from the invisible ether. First a speck, and then a vulture. Till the air is dark with pinions. So disasters come not singly ; But as if they watched and waited, Scanning one another's motions. EXTRACTS, 151 When the first descends, the others Follow, follow, gathering flock-wise Round their victim, sick and wounded, First a shadow, then a sorrow. Till the air is dark with anguish. Longfellow, Hiawatha, QQ. Alexander. Alexander was bred and taught under Aristotle, the great philosopher, who dedicated divers of his books of philosophy unto him : he was attended with Callisthenes and divers other learned persons, that followed him in camp, throughout his journeys and conquests. What price and estimation he had learning in doth notably appear in these three particulars : first, in the envy he used to express that he bare towards Achilles, in this, that he had so good a trumpet of his praises as Homer's verses; secondly, in the judgement or solution he gave touching that precious cabinet of Darius, which was found among his jewels; whereof question was made what thing was worthy to be put into it ; and he gave his opinion for Homer's works ; thirdly, in his letter to Aristotle, after he had set forth his books of nature, wherein he expostulateth with him for publishing the secrets or mysteries of philosophy ; and gave him to understand that himself esteemed it more to excel other men in learning and knowledge than in power and empire. And what use he had of learning doth appear, or rather shine, in all his speeches and answers, being full of science and use of science, and that in all variety. — Bacon, Advancement of Learning, 152 EXTRACTS. 67. Therefore, O friends, if ye are of my mind, When we are passed the French and English strait Let us seek news of that desired gate To immortality and blessed rest Within the landless waters of the west, But still a little to the southward steer. Certes no Greenland winter waits us there, No year-long night, but rather we shall find Spice-trees set waving by the western wind, And gentle folk who know no guile at least, And many a bright-winged bird and soft-skinned beast, For gently must the year upon them fall. Morris, Earthly Paradise. 68. A Thunderstorm. The thunder muttered far off, but there was neither rain nor visible lightning. But on the opposite horizon appeared a mass of dark blue cloud, which rose rapidly, and advanced in the direct line of the tower. Before it rolled a lighter but still lurid volume of vapour, which curled and wreathed like eddying smoke before the denser blackness of the un- broken cloud. Then followed the flashing of lightning, the rolling of thunder, and a deluge of rain like the bursting of a waterspout. They sate some time in silence, watching the storm as it swept along, with wind, and driving rain, and whirling hail, bringing for a time almost the darkness of night, through which the forked lightning poured a scarcely interrupted blaze. Suddenly came a long dazzling flash, that seemed to irradiate the entire circumference of the sky, followed instantaneously by one of those crashing peals of thunder, which always indicate that something very near has EXTRACTS. 153 been struck by the lightning One of two horses in a gentleman's carriage had been struck dead, and a young lady in the carriage had been stunned by the passing flash, though how far she was injured by it could not be immediately known. The other horse, it appeared, had been prancing in terror, and had nearly overthrown the carriage ; but he had been restrained by the vigorous arm of a young farmer, who had subsequently carried the young lady into the house. — Gryll Grange, 69. My children ! on this day ye cease to have A father. All my days are spent and gone ; And ye no more shall lead your wretched Hfe, Caring for me. Hard was it, that I know, My children ! yet one word is strong to loose, Although alone, the burden of these toils. For love in larger store ye could not have From any than from him who standeth here. Of whom bereaved ye now shall live your life. Plumptre, CEdipus at Colonos, 70. That the British infantry soldier is more robust than the soldier of any other nation, can scarcely be doubted by those who, in 1855, observed his powerful frame distinguished amidst the united armies of Europe; and notwithstanding his habitual excess in drinking, he sustains fatigue and wet, and the extremes of cold and heat, with incredible vigour ; when completely disciplined, and three years are required to accomplish this, his port is lofty and his movements free, the whole world cannot produce a nobler specimen of military bearing, nor is the mind unworthy of the outward man. He 154 EXTRACTS. does not indeed possess that presumptuous vivacity which would lead him to dictate to his commanders, or even to censure real errors although he may perceive them ; but he is observant and quick to comprehend his orders, full of resources under difBculties, calm and resolute in danger, and more than usually obedient and careful of his officers in moments of imminent peril. — Sir W. Napier. 71. The time when we first begin really to know anything about Britain is between fifty and sixty years before the birth of our Lord Jesus Christ. You know, I suppose, that this is the way in which Christian nations reckon time ; such a thing happened so many years before, or so many years after, the birth of Christ. At that time the greatest people in the world were the Romans. These were originally the people of the city of Rome in Italy. They were not so bold at sea as the Phoenicians, nor were they so clever and learned a people as the Greeks. They could not build such fine temples, or carve such beautiful statues, or make such eloquent speeches and poems as the Greeks could ; but they were the best soldiers and the wisest law-makers that the world ever saw. At Rome, in the best days of Rome, every man knew both how to command and how to obey. The Romai\^ chose their own rulers ; but when they had chosen them, they submitted to all their lawful commands. They made their own laws ; but they did not think that, because they made the laws, they might therefore break them. Thus they were able gradually to conquer, first all Italy, and then nearly all the world that they knew of, that is, all the countries round about the Mediterranean Sea. The people of Italy itself they gradually admitted to the same rights as themselves, so that at the time of which I am speaking. EXTRACTS. 155 every Italian was reckoned as a Roman ; but the lands out of Italy they made into Provinces, and the people of those lands were their subjects. There was no King at Rome, but the people of the Provinces had to obey the laws made by the Senate and People of Rome, and to be governed by the magistrates whom the Romans sent to rule over them. The Romans were very proud of their freedom in having no King or master of any kind, and for a long time they were worthy of their freedom, and used it well. — Freeman, Old English History for Children. 72. 'Friends,' said the captain, *the state of the weather ad- vises each one of us to commend himself to God, and to prepare for death.' He was asked by some who knew a little about seamanship, for how many hours he thought he could keep the ship together. He said he could promise nothing, but certainly not more than three hours. What were the folks on board doing meanwhile } Not a few of them fell flat on the deck, and began to worship the sea, pouring all the oil they could get hold of upon the waves, soothing it, just as we are wont to do to an irritated prince. O most merciful sea, most noble sea, most wealthy sea ! O most beautiful sea ! grow calm and save us. Many prayers of this kind they kept chanting to the deaf sea. Some were only seasick, most of them kept making vows. One Englishman was there, who kept promising mountains of gold to our Lady of Walsingham, if ever he set foot on land alive. Some made many promises to the wood of the Cross in one place, and others to it in another. A few promised to turn Carthusians. One there was who bound himself to go to St. James of Compostella, with bare feet and head, his body covered only with a shirt of iron mail, 1^6 EXTRACTS, and begging his bread along the road. I could not but laugh, as I heard one vowing as loud as he could bellow, lest he should not be attended to, a wax figure as big as the saint, to the St. Christopher who stands on the top of the church in Paris, more like a mountain than a statue. While he was thus vociferating at his best, an acquaintance that happened to be standing next to him, gave him a nudge, and added a hint. ' Mind what you promise,' he says, ' even if you sell by auction everything you possess, you could not pay this.* The other replied in a more subdued tone, so that Christopher should not hear forsooth, ' Hold your tongue, you idiot. Do you think I am speaking my real mind ? If only once I set my foot ashore, I shall not give him as much as a tallow candle/ — Erasmus, Colloquia (Lowe). 73. The Ugly Duck, Towards evening the Duck came to a miserable peasant's hut. Here lived a woman with her Tom Cat and her Hen. And the Tom Cat could arch his back and purr, he could even give out sparks; but for that one had to stroke his fur the wrong way. In the morning the strange Duckling was at once noticed, and the Tom Cat began to purr, and the Hen to cluck. What is this .? said the woman, and looked all round : but she could not see well, and therefore she thought the Duckling was a fat duck that had strayed. ' This is a rare prize,' she said. * Now I shall have duck's eggs. I hope it is not a drake.' And so the Duckling was admitted on trial for three weeks ; but no eggs came. And the Tom Cat was master of the house, and the Hen was the lady, and always said * We and the world,' for she thought they were half the world, and by far the better half. ' Can you lay eggs ?' she asked. * No.' ' Then you will have the EXTRACTS. 157 goodness to hold your tongue/ And the Tom Cat said, ' Can you curve your back, and purr, and give out sparks ?' ' No/ * Then you cannot have any opinion of your own when sensible people are speaking/ And the Duckling sat in a corner and was melancholy ; then the fresh air and the sunshine streamed in ; and it was seized with such a strange longing to swim on the water, that it could not help telling the Hen of it. ' What are you thinking of?' said the Hen. ' You have nothing to do, that is why you have these fancies. Purr or lay eggs, and they will pass over/ * But it is so charifting to swim on the water,' said the Duckling, 'so refreshing to let it close over one's head, and to dive down to the bottom.' *Yes, that must be a mighty pleasure, truly,' quoth the Hen, * ask the Cat about it, he is the cleverest animal I know, ask him if he likes to swim on the water, or to dive down. Ask our mistress, the old woman ; no one in the world is cleverer than she. Do you think she has any desire to swim or to let the water close over her head?' *You doii't understand me,' said the Duckling. * We don't understand you 1 Then pray who is to under- stand you ? You surely don't pretend to be cleverer than the Tom Cat and the woman, I won't say anything of myself. Don't be conceited, child. You may believe me, I speak for your good. I tell you disagreeable things, and by that one may always know one's true friends. Only take care that you learn to lay eggs, or to purr and give out sparks.'—- Andersen. 74. The Centaur, But louder still the noise he hearkened grew, Until at last in sight the Centaur drew, A mighty grey horse, trotting down the glade. Over whose back the long grey locks were laid, 158 EXTRACTS. That from his reverend head abroad did flow : For to the waist was man, but all below A mighty horse, once roan, now well-nigh white With lapse of years ; with oak- wreaths was he dight Where man joined unto horse, and on his head He wore a gold crown, set with rubies red, And in his hand he bare a mighty bow. No man could bend of those that battle now. Morris, Jason. 75. But slow as moves a lion from the fold, Which dogs and youths with ceaseless toil hath worn, Who all night long have kept their watch, to guard From his assault the choicest of the herd ; He, hunger-pinched, hath oft the attempt renewed, But nought prevailed ; by spears on every side. And javelins met, wielded by stalwart hands, And blazing torches, which his courage daunt ; Till with the morn he sullenly withdraws. Lord Derby, Homer. 76. The Sedge-warbler. It mattered not to the Sedge-warbler whether it were night or day ! She built her nest down among the willows and reeds and long thick herbage that bordered the great river's side, and in her sheltered covert she sang songs of mirth and rejoicing both by day and night. * Where does the great river go to V asked the little ones, as they peered out of their nest one lovely summer night and saw the moon- beams dancing on the waters, as they hurried along. Now the Sedge-warbler could not tell her children where the great river went to ; so she laughed, and said they must ask the EXTRACTS. 159 Sparrow who chattered so fast, or the Swallow who travelled s6 far, next time one or other came to perch on the willow- tree to rest. . . . The mother-bird would sometimes leave the little ones below, and go up into the willow branches to sing alone ; and as the season advanced she did this oftener and oftener; and her song was plaintive and tender then, for she used to sing to the tide of the river as it swept along, she knew not whither, and think that some day she and her husband and children should all be hurrying to the Unknown Land whence she had come. ... At first she used to sing these ditties only when alone, but by degrees she began to let her little ones hear them now and then, for were not they going to accompany her? . . . Then the little ones asked her where the Unknown Land was. But she smiled, and said she could not tell them, for she did not know. . . . ' Why should we leave the reed-beds and the willow-trees ? Cannot we all build nests here, and live here always .? Mother, do not let us go away anywhere else. I want no other land, and no other home but this. There are all the other aits in the great river to choose from, where we shall each settle; there can be nothing in the Unknown Land more pleasant than the reed-beds and willow-trees here. . . . Think of the red glow in the morning sky, mother, and the soft haze, and the beautiful rays of warm light across the waters ! Think of the grand noonday glare, when the broad flags and reeds are all burnished over with heat. Think of these evenings, mother, when we can sit about in the branches, here, there, anywhere, and watch the great sun go down behind the sky; or fly to the aits of the great river, and sing in the long green herbage there, and then come home by moonlight, and sing till we fall asleep ; and wake singing again, if any noise disturb us, if a boat chance to paddle by, or some of those strange bright lights shoot I.6o EXTRACTS. up with a noise into the sky from distant gardens. . . . Sing those dreadful songs about another land no more?' And the Sedge-warbler changed her note, and sang ... of her own young days, . . . and how a voice seemed to rise within her that said, ' This is not your rest/ And how at last they had left their home together, and came and settled down among the reed-beds of the great river. ' And where is the place you came from, mother ?'...' My child, it is the Unknown Land. Far, far away, I know, but where, I do not know. Only the voice that called me thence is begin- ning to call again.' . . . Long before the sunbeams could pierce the heavy haze one autumn morning, the young Sedge-warblers rose for the last time over their much loved reed-beds, and took flight, they knew not whither. — Parables from Nature, 77. The Canadian Boat Song, Faintly as tolls the evening chime. Our voices keep tune and our oars keep time. Soon as the woods on the shore look dim, We '11 sing at St. Anne*s our parting hymn. Row, brothers, row, the stream runs fast. The Rapids are near and the daylight is past. Why should we yet our sail unfurl ? There is not a breath the blue wave to curl ; But when the wind blows off the shore, Oh ! sweetly we '11 rest our weary oar. Blow, breezes, blow, the stream runs fast. The Rapids are near and the daylight is past. MooRE. EXTRACTS. 161 78. T/ie Rooks Parliament. The origin of these creatures, these men, whom we equally fear and dislike, is decidedly the most useful of all subjects of study. How can it be otherwise ? Their treatment of us, and our feelings to them, can never be placed on a proper foot- ing, until we know something of the nature of the people themselves. . . . How came this creature in the land, and whence.^ Why is he here at all.-^ . . . He comes near us and we fly : he pursues us again, and again we retire before him. Old solitudes and woodland homes are invaded, and made public ; and we seek fresh retreats, only to be driven out afresh. . . . Now the why of our yielding our place to man is fear. We can none of us deny it. . . . But the why of this fear ? What is that ? Well 1 I am told on all sides that it is our sense of man's superiority to ourselves. . . . So it was said, at least ; but of this, what proofs ? was my next demand; and no one could give me an answer. . . . I shouted for proofs till I was hoarse, but every one turned away silent. Who can wonder, then, that my next enquiry was a doubt. Is man superior to ourselves after all .f* . . . Now all common observation is against the superiority of man. While we fly swifdy through the sky, behold him creeping slowly along the ground. While we soar to the very clouds, a brief jump and come down again is all his utmost efforts can accomplish, though I have seen him practising to get higher and higher, in his leaps, as if at a game. And at all times, if one of his legs is up, the other is obliged to be down, or the superior creature would be apt to tumble on his nose. . . . Again, while we are clothed in a natural glossy plumage, available equally for summer or winter, behold man, not possessing in himself the means of protection against any sort of weather whatever ! Neither l6% EXTRACTS. the warmth of summer nor the cold of winter suits his uncomfortable skin. In all seasons he must wear clothes. Clumsy incumbrances, with which he is driven by a sad necessity to supply the place of the feathers or fur with which every other creature on earth but himself is blessed. What sort of superiority is this ? One more instance out of many, and I shall have said enough for the present. . . . While we are satisfied with ourselves and all around us, man is ever discontented and uneasy, seeking rest in everlasting change, but neither finding it himself, nor allowing it to others, as we know to our bitter cost. Ah, my friends, if restless dissatisfaction be a proof of superiority, who would not be glad to be an inferior animal ? . . . One objection remains to be answered. . . . While standing under our roosting-trees, these creatures, men, will occasionally level at us sticks, of the most contemptible size, but which, owing to some contrivance which I have not at present had the time to investigate, make suddenly an abominable banging noise and a very unpleasant smoke. And no sooner do our youngsters see and hear all this, than some of them are pretty sure to fall down upon the ground, as if crouching at the very feet of our foe. . . . The prostrate young ones are carried away unresisting, and are never heard of more. Now this has actually been brought forward as a proof of the superiority of man; though in what way wanton cruelty proves superiority, I confess I am unable to see. My friends, man is not our superior, was never so, for he is neither more nor less than a degenerated brother of our own race. — Parables from Nature^ Third Series. i EXTRACTS. 163 79. But swifter the next day the river ran With higher banks, and now the woods began To be of trees that in their land they knew, And into clumps of close-set beeches grew. And oak-trees thinly spread, and there-between Fair upland hillocks well beset with green ; And 'neath the trees great herds of deer and neat, And sheep and swine, fed on the herbage sweet. Seeming all wild as though they knew not man, For quite untented here and there they ran. And while two great bucks raised the armed brow Each against each (since time of fight was now) About them would the swine squeal, and the sheep In close-drawn flock the faint republic keep, With none to watch ; nor saw they fence or fold Nor any husbandry did they behold. Morris, /ason, 80. The resistance offered by the native chiefs of Ireland was feeble compared with that which was offered by the Saxons to the Norman conquerors of England. The most stubborn stand was made by the inhabitants of the Danish towns. There was no protracted and wavering battle like that of Hastings. The loose Irish armies more than once flung their naked bodies, their feeble targets, and their clumsy swords on the mailed and disciplined Norman ranks ; but the issue of the struggle was scarcely more doubtful than that of the struggle between the Spaniards and the Mexi- cans. Superiority in war, produced by better weapons and tactics, and by a greater aptitude both for obedience and of M 2 164 EXTRACTS, command, is in early times a high test of comparative civil- ization : and thus, in early times, conquest in some degree justifies itself as the ascendancy of a civilizing power. — GoLDwiN Smith, Irish History and Irish Character. 81. But through the town few eyes were sealed with sleep When the sun rose ; yea, and the upland sheep Must guard themselves for that one morn at least, Against the wolf; and wary doves may feast Unscared that morning on the ripening corn. Nor did the whetstone touch the scythe that morn ; And all unheeded did the mackerel shoal Make green the blue waves, or the porpoise roll Through changing hills and valleys of the sea. For 'twixt the thronging people solemnly The heroes went afoot along the way That led unto the haven of the bay, And as they went the roses rained on them From windows glorious with the well-wrought hem Of many a purple cloth ; and all their spears Were twined with flowers that the fair earth bears ; And round their ladies' tokens were there set About their helmets, flowery wreaths, still wet With beaded dew of the scarce vanished night. Morris, Jason. 82. ^ Supposing half a dozen or a dozen men were cast ashore from a wreck on an uninhabited island, and left to their own resources, one, of course, according to his capacity, would be set to one business and one to another, the strongest to dig and to cut wood, and to build huts for the rest; the most EXTRACTS. 165 dexterous to make shoes out of bark and coats out of skins ; the best educated to look for iron or lead in the rocks, and to plan the channels for the irrigation of the fields. But though their labours were thus naturally severed, that small group of shipwrecked men would understand well enough that the speediest progress was to be made by helping each other, not by opposing each other : and they would know that this help could only be properly given so long as they were frank and open in their relations, and the difficulties which each lay under properly explained to the rest. So that any ap- pearance of secresy or separateness in the actions of any of them would instantly, and justly, be looked upon with sus- picion by the rest, as the sign of some selfish or foolish proceeding on the part of the individual. If, for instance, the scientific man were found to have gone out at night, unknown to the rest, to alter the sluices, the others would think, and in all probability rightly think, that he wanted to get the best supply of water to his own field ; and if the shoemaker refused to show them where the bark grew which he made the sandals of, they would naturally think, and in all probability rightly think, that he didn't want them to see how much there was of it, and that he meant to ask from them more corn and potatoes in exchange for his sandals than the trouble of making them deserved. — Ruskin, Political Economy of Art. 83. O child, I pray the Gods to spare thine head The burden of a crown ; were it not good That thou shouldst live and die within this wood That clothes the feet of Pelion, knowing nought Of all the things by foolish men so sought ; 1 66 EXTRACTS. For there, no doubt, is everything man needs, — The quiver, with the iron-pointed reeds, The cornel bow, the wood-knife at the side, The garments of the spotted leopard's hide. The bed of bear-skin in the hollow hill, The bath within the pool of some green rill ; There shall the quick-eyed centaurs be thy friends, Unto whose hearts such wisdom great Jove sends They know the past and future, and fear nought That by the fates upon them may be brought. And when the spring brings love, then mayst thou find. In some fair grassy place, the wood-nymphs kind. And choose thy mate, and with her, hand in hand, » Go wandering through the blossoming sweet land; And nought of evil there shall come to thee. But like the golden age shall all things be ; And when upon thee falls the fated day. Fearless and painless shalt thou pass away. Morris, Jason. 84. It happened at Athens, during a public representation of some play exhibited in honor of the Commonwealth, that an old gentleman came too late for a place suitable to his age and quality. Many of the young gentlemen who observed the difficulty and confusion he was in, made signs to him that they would accommodate him if he came where they sate. The good man busded through the crowd accord- ingly; but when he came to the seats to which he was invited, the jest was to sit close, and expose him, as he stood out of countenance, to the whole audience. The frolic went round all the Athenian benches. But on those occasions there were also particular places assigned for foreigners. EXTRACTS, 167 When the good man skulked towards the boxes appointed for the Lacedemonians, that honest people, more virtuous than polite, rose up all to a man, and with the greatest respect received him among them. The Athenians being suddenly touched with a sense of the Spartan virtue, and their own degeneracy, gave a thunder of applause ; and the old man cried out, ' The Athenians understand what is good, but the Lacedemonians pi2iCtisQiC —Spedafor, 85. Avion and the Dolphin, In Periander's days there lived a minstrel of Lesbos, Arion by name, who was second to none as a player on the lute. This Arion, who spent most of his time with Periander, sailed to Italy and Sicily, and having earned by his min- strelsy great store of treasure, hired a Corinthian ship to go back to Corinth, for whom should he trust rather than the Corinthians, whom he knew so well ? When the crew were out at sea, they took counsel together to throw Arion over- board, and keep his treasure. But he divined their intent, and besought them to take his money, but spare his life. But the ship-men refused, and bade him either straightway kill himself on board, so that he might be buried on shore, or leap into the sea of his own freewill. Then Arion, being in a sore strait, begged, since it must be so, that he might don his vestments, and sing one strain standing on the quarter-deck ; and when he had ended his song he promised to despatch himself. The seamen consented, well pleased once more to hear the master of all singers, and made space to hear him, withdrawing into the midship ; and he chanted a lively air, and then plunged overboard, all as he was. So they sailed away to Corinth, and thought no more of Arion. But, lo ! a dolphin took the minstrel up on his back, and 1 68 EXTRACTS, landed him safely at the promontory Taenarus in Laconia, whence he made his way to Corinth, all in his sacred robes, and told there all that had befallen him. But Periander did not believe him, and kept him under guard. At last the ship-men came, and when Periander asked them what had become of Arion, they said they had left him safe and sound at Tarentuni, in Italy. Then Periander produced Arion in his vestments, just as he was when he leapt overboard, and they were struck dumb, and could deny their guilt no more. And Arion set up, as a thank-offering to the god, an effigy of a man riding on a dolphin. — Herodotus, Ancient Classics for English Readers. 86. So, with the wind behind them, and the oars Still hard at work, they went betwixt the shores Against the ebb, and now full oft espied Trim homesteads here and there on either side. And fair kine grazing, and much woolly sheep. And skin-clad shepherds, roused from mid-day sleep. Gazing upon them with scared wondering eyes. So now they deemed they might be near their prize ; And at the least knew that some town was nigh. And thought to hear new tidings presently ; Which happed indeed, for on the turn of tide, At ending of a long reach, they espied A city wondrous fair, which seemed indeed To bar the river's course ; but, taking heed And drawing nigher, soon found out the case, That on an island builded was the place The more part of it ; but four bridges fair Set thick with goodly houses everywhere. Crossed two and two on each side to the land, EXTRACTS^ 169 Whereon was built, with walls on either hand, A towered outwork, lest that war should fall Upon the land, and midmost of each wall A noble gate ; moreover did they note About the wharves full many a ship and boat. And they beheld the sunlight glistering On arms of men and many a warlike thing. As nigher to the city they were borne. And heard at last some huge deep booming horn Sound from a tower o'er the watery way. Whose last loud note was taken up straightway By other watchers further and more near. Morris, Jason, 87. Of Studies. Read not to contradict, and confute ; nor to believe and take for granted \ nor to find talk and discourse ; but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested. That is, some books are to be read only in parts ; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention. Some books also may be read by deputy, and extracts made of them by others. But that would be only in the less important arguments, and the meaner sort of books ; else distilled books are, like common distilled waters, flashy things. Reading maketh a full man ; conference, a ready man ; and writing an exact man. And therefore, if a man write little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer little, he had need have a present wit ; and if he reads little, he had need have much cunning, to seem to know that he doth not. Histories make men wise; poets witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philo- sophy deep ; moral grave ; logic and rhetoric able to contend. ^^0 EXTRACTS. Nay, there is no stond or impediment in the wit, but may- be wrought out by fit studies ; like as diseases of the body may have appropriate exercises. ... So if a man's wit be wandering, let him study the mathematics; for in demon- strations, if his wit be called away never so little, he must begin again. — Bacon, Essays, 88. Samson. At length for intermission sake they led him Between the pillars ; he his guide requested, (For so from such as nearer stood w^e heard,) As overtired, to let him lean awhile With both his arms on those two massy pillars That to the arched roof gave main support. He unsuspicious led him ; which when Samson Felt in his arms, with head awhile inclined, And eyes fast fix't he stood, as one who pray'd. Or some great matter in his mind resolv'd. At last with head erect thus cri'd aloud. Hitherto, lords, what your commands imposed I have performed, as reason was, obeying, Not without wonder or delight beheld. Now of my own accord such other trial I mean to show you of my strength, yet greater ; As with amaze shall strike all who behold. This uttered, straining all his nerves he bowed ; !\s with the force of winds and waters pent, When mountains tremble, those two massy pillars, With horrible convulsion to and fro He tugged, he shook, till down they came and drew The whole roof after them, with burst of thunder Upon the heads of all who sat beneath, EXTRACTS. lyi Lords, ladies, captains, counsellors, or priests. Their choice nobility and flower, not only Of this, but each Philistian city round, Met from all parts to solemnize this feast. Samson with these immixt inevitably Pulled down the same destruction on himself; The vulgar only scaped who stood without. Milton, Samson Agonistes, 89. How they brought the good news from Ghent unto Aix. I sprang to the stirrup, and Joris, and he ; I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped all three ; ' Good speed !' cried the watch, as the gate-bolts undrew : ' Speed '/ echoed the wall to us galloping through ; Behind shut the postern, the lights sank to rest, And into the midnight we galloped abreast. Not a word to each other ; we kept the great pace Neck by neck, stride by stride, never changing our place ; I turned in my saddle, and made its girths tight. Then shortened each stirrup, and set the pique right, Rebuckled the cheek-strap, chained slacker the bit. Nor galloped less steadily Roland a whit. 'Twas moonset at starting ; but, while we drew near Lokeren, the cocks crew and twilight dawned clear ; At Boom, a great yellow star came out to see ; At Diiffeld, 'twas morning as plain as could be; And from Mecheln church-steeple we heard the half-chime, So Joris broke silence with, ^ Yet there is time.' IT% EXTRACTS, At Aerschot, up leaped of a sudden the sun, And against him the cattle stood black every one, To stare through the mist at us galloping past, And I saw my stout galloper, Roland, at last, With resolute shoulders each butting away The haze, as some bluff river headland its spray ;' And his low head and crest, just one sharp ear bent back For my voice, and the other pricked out on his track ; And one eye's black intelligence, — ever that glance O'er its white edge at me, his own master, askance ! And the thick heavy spume-flakes which aye and anon His fierce lips shook upwards in galloping on. By Hasselt, Dirck groaned ; and cried Joris, ' Stay spur ! Your Roos galloped bravely, the fault 's not in her, We '11 remember at Aix' — for one heard the quick wheeze Of her chest, saw the stretched neck, and staggering knees, And sunk tail, and horrible heave of the flank. As down on her haunches she shuddered and sank. So we were left galloping, Joris and I, Past Loos and past Tongres, no cloud in the sky ; The broad sun above laughed a pitiless laugh, 'Neath our feet broke the brittle bright stubble like chaff"; Till over by Dalhem a dome-tower sprang white, And ' Gallop,' cried Joris, ' for Aix is in sight ! ' * How they'll greet us 1 ' and all in a moment his roan Rolled neck and croup over, lay dead as a stone ; And there was my Roland to bear the whole weight Of the news which alone could save Aix from her fate, With his nostrils like pits full of blood to the brim, And with circles of red for his eye-sockets' rim. EXTRACTS, 173 Then I cast my loose buff-coat, each holster let fall, Shook off both my jack-boots, let go belt and all, Stood up in the stirrup, leaned, patted his ear. Called my Roland his pet name, my horse without peer; Clapped my hands, laughed and sang, any noise, bad or good, Till at length into Aix Roland galloped and stood. And all I remember is friends flocking round As I sate with his head 'twixt my knees on the ground. And no voice but was praising this Roland of mine. As I poured down his throat our last measure of wine, Which (the burgesses voted by common consent) Was no more than his due who brought good news from Ghent. Browning. 90. Stronghow. Giraldus has given us a minute account of the personal appearance and the character of Strongbow. The counten- ance of the renowned adventurer was feminine, and his voice was thin; 'he was gentle and courteous in his manners; what he could not gain by force he gained by address ; in peace he was more ready to obey than command; when not in battle was more a soldier than a general, in battle more a general than a soldier; always took his companions into counsel and undertook no enterprise without their ad- vice; in action was the sure rallying-point of his troops; and of unshaken constancy in either fortune of war, neither to be disturbed by adversity nor to be thrown off his balance by success.' Strongbow's Irish ally, Dermot, is described by the same writer as * tall and huge ; warlike and daring, with a voice hoarse from shouting in battle ; desiring to be feared rather than loved ; an oppressor of the noble, a raiser up of the low; tyrannical to his own people and detested 174 EXTRACTS, by strangers; one who had his hand against every man and every man's hand against him/ His followers, after a victory, having thrown a heap of heads at his feet, the savage clapped his hands with delight, yelled forth his thanks to God, and seizing by the hair and ears a head which he recognised as that of a hated enemy, he tore off part of the nose and lips with his teeth. Without insisting on the details of the two portraits, we have no difficulty in recognising the first as typical of a conquering race, the second as typical of a race destined to be conquered. — GoLDwiN Smith, Irish History and Irish Character, 91. (Enone, mother Ida, many-fountained Ida, Dear mother Ida, harken ere I die. 1 waited underneath the dawning hills, Aloft the mountain lawn was dewy-dark, And dewy-dark aloft the mountain pine ; Beautiful Paris, evil-hearted Paris, Leading a jet-black goat white-horned, white-hooved, Came up from reedy Simois all alone. mother Ida, harken ere I die. Far off the torrent called me from the cleft : Far up the solitary morning smote The streaks of virgin snow. With down-dropt eyes 1 sat alone ; white-breasted like a star Fronting the dawn he moved ; a leopard skin Drooped from his shoulder, but his sunny hair Clustered about his temples like a God's ; And his cheek brightened as the foam-bow brightens When the wind blows the foam, and all my heart Went forth to embrace him comino^ ere he came. EXTRACTS. 175 O mother, hear me yet before I die. They came, they cut away my tallest pines, My dark tall pines, that plumed the craggy ledge High over the blue gorge, and all between The snowy peak and snow-white cataract Fostered the callow eaglet — from beneath Whose thick mysterious boughs in the dark morn The panther's roar came muffled, while I sat Low in the valley. Never, never more Shall low (Enone see the morning mist Sweep thro' them ; never see them overlaid With narrow moonlit slips of silver cloud, Between the loud stream and the trembling stars. Tennyson. 92. The Mediterranean Sea with its various branches, pene- trating far into the great Continent, forms the largest gulf of the ocean, and, alternately narrowed by islands or projections of the land, and expanding to a considerable breadth, at once separates and connects the three divisions of the Old World. The shores of this inland sea were in ancient times peopled by various nations, belonging in an ethnographical and phi- lological point of view to different races, but constituting in their historical aspect one whole. This historic whole has been usually, but not very appropriately, entitled the history of the ancient world. It is in reality the history of civiliz- ation among the Mediterranean nations; and as it passes before us in its successive stages, it presents four great phases of development, the history of the Coptic or Egyptian stock dwelling on the southern shore, the history of the Aramsean or Syrian nation, which occupied the east coast and extended into the interior of Asia as far as the Euphrates 176 EXTRACTS, and Tigris, and the histories of the twin peoples, the Hellenes and Italians, who received as their heritage the countries bordering on its European shores. Each of these histories was in its earlier stages connected with other regions and with other cycles of historical evolution, but each soon entered on its own peculiar career. The sur- rounding nations of alien or even of kindred extraction, the Berbers, and Negroes of Africa, the Arabs, Persians, and Indians of Asia, the Celts and Germans of Europe, came into manifold contact with the peoples inhabiting the borders of the Mediterranean, but they neither imparted unto them nor received from them any influences of really decisive effect upon their respective destinies. — Mommsen, History of Rome, 93. Mercy, The quality of mercy is not strained, ' It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven Upon the place beneath ; it is twice blest ; It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes : 'Tis mightiest in the mightiest ; it becomes The throned monarch better than his crown ; His sceptre shows the force of temporal power, The attribute to awe and majesty. Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings ; But mercy is above the sceptred sway ; It is enthroned in the hearts of kings, It is an attribute to God himself; And earthly power doth then show likest God's When mercy seasons justice. Therefore, Jew, Though justice be thy plea, consider this, That, in the course of justice, none of us Should see salvation ; we do pray for mercy ; EXTRACTS. 177 And that same prayer doth teach us all to render The deeds of mercy. I have spoke thus much To mitigate the justice of thy plea ; Which if thou follow, this strict court of Venice Must needs give sentence 'gainst the merchant here. Shakespeare, Merchant of Venice. 94. Friedrich Wilhelm /, King of Prussia, He was not tall of stature, this arbitrary King: a florid- complexioned stout-built man; of serious, sincere, authori- tative face. Man of short firm stature ; stands at his ease, and yet like a tower. Most solid ; eyes steadfastly awake ; cheeks slightly compressed, too, which fling the mouth rather forward. . . . Face, figure and bearing, all in him is expressive of robust insight, and direct determination; of healthy energy and authority, a certain air of royalty reduced to its simplest form. The face, in pictures, is not beautiful or agreeable ; yet it may have been originally handsome. High enough arched brow, rather copious cheeks and jaws ; nose smallish, inclining to be stumpy: large gray eyes, bright with steady fire and life ; often enough gloomy and severe, but capable of jolly laughter too. Eyes naturally with a kind of laugh in them, which laugh can blaze out into fearful thunderous rage, if you give him provocation. Especially if you lie to him ; for that he hates above all things. . . . For the rest, a handsome man of his inches; conspicuously well- built in limbs and body, and delicately finished off to the very extremities. His feet and legs were very fine. The hands, if he would have taken care of them, were beautifully white ; fingers long and thin : a hand at once nimble to grasp, delicate to feel, and strong to clutch and hold ; what may be called a beautiful hand, because it is the usefullest. — Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great. N 178 EXTRACTS, 95. As when a falcon bird of swiftest flight, From some high mountain-top, on tim'rous dove Swoops fiercely down ; she, from beneath, in fear. Evades the stroke : he, dashing through the brake. Shrill-shrieking, pounces on his destined prey ; So, wing'd with desperate hate, Achilles flew. So Hector, flying from his keen pursuit. Beneath the walls his active sinews plied. They by the watch-tow'r, and beneath the wall Where stood the wind-beat fig-tree, rac'd amain Along the public road, until they reached The fairly-flowing fount whence issued forth, From double source, Scamander's eddying streams. Lord Derby, Homer. 96. Queen Mary. Queen Mary, the daughter of Henry VHI and of his queen Catharine, daughter of Ferdinand the Catholic, king of Aragon, is a princess of great worth. In her youth she was rendered unhappy by the events of her mother's divorce; by the ignominy and threats to which she was exposed after the change of religion in England, she being unwilling to bend to the new one*; and by the dangers to which she was exposed by the Duke of Northumberland, and the riots among the people when she ascended the throne. She is of short stature, well made, thin and delicate, and moderately pretty; her eyes are so lively that she inspires reverence and respect, and even fear, wherever she turns them; nevertheless, she is very short-sighted. Her voice is deep, almost like that of a man. She understands five languages, English, Latin, French, Spanish, and Italian, in which last, EXTRACTS, 179 however, she does not venture to discourse. She is also much skilled in ladies' work, such as producing all sorts of embroidery with the needle. She has a knowledge of music, chiefly on the lute, on which she plays exceedingly well. As to the qualities of her mind, it may be said of her that she is rash, disdainful, and parsimonious rather than liberal. She is endowed with great humility and patience, but withal high- spirited, courageous, and resolute, having during the whole course of her adversity been guildess of any the least ap- proach to meanness of comportment; she is, moreover, devout and staunch in the defence of her religion. . , . The cabals she has been exposed to, the evil disposition of the people towards her, the present poverty and the debt of the crown, and her passion for King Philip, from whom she is doomed to live separate, are so many other causes of the grief by which she is overwhelmed. She is, moreover, a prey to the hatred which she bears to my Lady Elizabeth, and which has its source in the recollection of the wrongs she experienced on account of her mother, and in the fact that all eyes and hearts are turned towards my Lady Elizabeth as successor to the throne. — Michele. 97. There rac'd they, one in flight, and one pursuing ; Good he who fled, but better who pursued. With fiery speed ; for on that race was staked No common victim, no ignoble ox : The prize at stake was mighty Hector's life. Meanwhile on Hector, with untiring hate, The swift Achilles press'd; as when a hound, Through glen and tangled brake, pursues a fawn, Roused from its lair upon the mountain side ; N 2 l8o EXTRACTS. And if awhile it should evade pursuit, Low crouching in the copse, yet quests he back, Searching unwearied, till he find the trace ; So Hector sought to baffle, but in vain. The keen pursuit of Peleus' active son. Oft as he sought the shelter of the gates Beneath the well-built tow'rs, if haply thence His comrades' weapons might some aid afford ; So oft his foeman, with superior speed, Would cut him off, and turn him to the plain. He tow'rd the city still essay' d his flight ; And as in dreams, when one pursues in vain. One seeks in vain to fly, the other seeks As vainly to pursue ; so could not now Achilles reach, nor Hector quit, his foe. Lord Derby, Homer. 98. Edward I. His head spherical, his eyes round, and gentle and dove- like when he was pleased, but fierce as a lion's and sparkling with fire when he was disturbed ; his hair black and crisp ; his nose prominent and rather raised in the middle. His chest was broad ; his arms were agile ; his thighs long ; his feet arched ; his body was firm and fleshy, but not fat. He was so strong and active that with his hand he could leap into his saddle. Passionately fond of hunting, whenever he was not engaged in war, he amused his leisure with his dogs and falcons. He was rarely unwell, and did not lose either his teeth or sight by age. Temperate by habit, he never devoted himself to the luxuries of his palace. He never wore his crown after the day of his coronation, thinking it rather a burden than an honor. He declined the royal gar- ments of purple and went about in the plain and common EXTRACTS. l8l dress of a plebeian. Being once asked why he did not wear richer apparel, he answered with the consciousness of true greatness, that it was absurd to suppose that he could be more estimable in fine than in simple clothing. No man was more acute in counsel, more fervid in eloquence, more self-possessed in danger, more cautious in prosperity, more firm in adversity. Those whom he once loved he scarcely ever forsook ; but he rarely admitted into his favour any that had excited his dislike. His liberalities were magnificent. He was considerably above the average height, and very majestic in his bearing. — John of London, Commemoratio, 99. For Arthur when none knew from whence he came, Long ere the people chose him for their king, Roving the trackless realms of Lyonnesse, Had found a glen, gray boulder and black tarn. A horror lived about the tarn, and clave Like its own mists to all the mountain side : For here two brothers, one a king, had met And fought together ; but their names were lost. And each had slain his brother at a blow, And down they fell and made the glen abhorred : And there they lay till all their bones were bleach'd. And lichen'd into colour with the crags : And he, that once was king, had on a crown Of diamonds, one in front, and four aside. And Arthur came, and labouring up the pass All in a misty moonshine, unawares Had trodden that crown'd skeleton, and the skull Brake from the nape, and from the skull the crown Roll'd into light, and turning on its rims Fled like a glittering rivulet to the tarn : 1 8a EXTRACTS. And down the shingly scaur he plunged and caught, And set it on his head, and in his heart Heard murmurs ' lo, thou likewise shalt be king/ Tennyson, Elaine, 100. On Plantations. Planting of countries is like planting of woods ; for you must make account to lose almost twenty years profit, and expect your recompence in the end. For the principal thing, that hath been the destruction of most plantations, hath been the base and hasty drawing of profit in the first years. It is true, speedy profit is not to be neglected as far as may stand, with the good of the plantation, but no further. It is a shameful and unblessed thing to take the scum of people, and wicked condemned men, to be the people with whom you plant; and not only so, but it spoileth the plantation. For they will ever live like rogues, and not fall to work, but be lazy and do mischief and spend victuals and be quickly weary, and then certify over to their country to the discredit of the plantation. The people wherewith you plant ought to be gardeners, ploughmen, labourers, smiths, carpenters, joiners, fishermen, fowlers, with some few apo- thecaries, surgeons, cooks, and bakers. In a country of plantation first look about what kind of victual the country yields of itself to hand; as chestnuts, walnuts, pineapples, olives, dates, plums, cherries, wild honey, and the Hke ; and make use of them. Then consider what victual or esculent things there are which grow speedily and within the year ; as parsnips, carrots, turnips, onions, radish, artichokes of Jerusalem, maize, and the like. For wheat, barley, and oats, they ask too much labour ; but with pease and beans you may begin, both because they ask less labour, and because EXTRACTS, ,183 they serve for meat, as well as for bread. And of rice like- wise cometh a great increase, and it is a kind of meat. Above all, there ought to be brought store of biscuit, oat- meal, flour, meal, and the like, in the beginning till bread may be had. For beasts or birds take chiefly such as are least subject to diseases, and multiply fastest ; as swine, goats, cocks, hens, turkeys, geese, house-doves, and the like. The victual in plantations ought to be expended almost as in a besieged town, that is, with certain allowance. . . . Consider likewise what commodities the soil where the plantation is doth naturally yield, that they may some way help to defray the charge of the plantation ; so it be not, as was said, to the untimely prejudice of the main business, as it hath fared with tobacco in Virginia. Wood commonly aboundeth but too much ; and therefore timber is fit to be one. If there be iron ore, and streams whereupon to set the mills, iron is a brave commodity where wood aboundeth. Making of bay salt, if the climate be proper for it, would be put in experience. Growing silk likewise, if any be, is a likely commodity. Pitch and tar, where store of firs and pines are, will not fail. So drugs and sweet woods, where they are, cannot but yield great profit. But moil not too much under ground; for the hope of mines is very un- certain, and useth to make the planters lazy in other things. — Bacon, Ussqys. 101. A, The virtues of sovereigns are such as tend to the maintenance of peace at home, and to the resistance of foreign enemies. Fortitude is a royal virtue ; and though it be necessary in such private men as shall be soldiers, yet, for other men, the less they dare, the better it is both for the commonwealth and for themselves. Frugality (though 184. EXTRACTS. perhaps you will think it strange) is also a royal virtue ; for it increases the public stock, which cannot be too great for the public use, nor any man too sparing of what he has in trust for the good of others. Liberality also is a royal virtue ; for the commonwealth cannot be well served without extraordinary diligence and service of ministers, and great fidelity to their Sovereign; who ought therefore to be en- couraged, and especially those that do him service in the wars. In sum, all actions and habits are to be esteemed good or evil by their causes and usefulness in reference to the commonwealth, and not by their mediocrity, nor by their being commended. For several men praise several customs, and that which is virtue with one, is blamed by others ; and, contrarily, what one calls vice, another calls virtue, as their present affections lead them. JS. Methinks you should have placed among the virtues that, which, in my opinion, is the greatest of all virtues, religion. y4. So 1 have, though, it seems, you did not observe it. — HOBBES. 102. O kind hosts and dear, Hearken a little unto such a tale As folk with us will tell in every vale About the yule-tide fire, when the snow Deep in the passes, letteth men to go From place to place : now there few great folk be, Although we upland men have memory Of ills kings did us ; yet as now indeed Few have much wealth, few are in utter need. Like the wise ants a kingless, happy folk We long have been, not galled by any yoke, EXTRACTS. 1H5 But the white leaguer of the winter tide Whereby all men at home are bound to bide. Alas, my folly ! how I talk of it, As though from this place where to-day we sit The way thereto was short — Ah, would to God Upon the snow-freed herbage now I trod 1 Morris, Earthly Paradise, 103. The sources of the noblest rivers which spread fertility over continents, and bear richly laden fleets to the sea, are to be sought in wild and barren mountain tracts, incorrectly laid down in maps, and rarely explored by travellers. To such a tract the history of our country during the thirteenth century may not unaptly be compared. Sterile and obscure as is that portion of our annals, it is there that we must seek for the origin of our freedom, our prosperity, and our glory. Then it was that the great English people was formed, that the national character began to exhibit those peculiarities which it has ever since retained, and that our fathers became emphatically islanders, islanders not merely in geographical position, but in their politics, their feelings, and their man- • ners. Then first appeared with distinctness that constitution which has ever since, through all changes, preserved its identity; that constitution of which all the other free con- stitutions in the world are copies, and which, in spite of some defects, deserves to be regarded as the best under which any great society has ever yet existed during many ages. . . . Then it was that the courage of those sailors who manned the rude barks of the Cinque Ports first made the flag of England terrible on the seas. Then it was that the most ancient colleges which still exist at both the great national seats of learning were founded. Then was formed l86 EXTRACTS. that language, less musical indeed than the languages of the south, but in force, in richness, in aptitude for all the highest purposes of the poet, the philosopher, and the orator, in- ferior to the tongue of Greece alone. Then too appeared, the first faint dawn of that noble literature, the most splendid and the most durable of the many glories of England. — Macau LAY, History of England. 104. Queen Elizabeth, But for a tablet or picture of smaller volume (not pre- suming to speak of your majesty that liveth), in my judge- ment the most excellent is that of Queen Elizabeth, your immediate predecessor in this part of Britain ; a prince that, if Plutarch were now alive to write lives by parallels, would trouble him I think to find for her a parallel amongst women. This lady was endued with learning in her sex singular, and rare even amongst masculine princes ; whether we speak of learning, of language, or of science, modern or ancient, divinity or humanity ; and unto the very last year of her life she accustomed to appoint set hours for reading, scarcely any young student in an university more daily or more duly. As for her government, I assure myself, I shall not exceed, if I do affirm that this part of the island never had forty-five years of better times ; and yet not through the calmness of the season, but through the wisdom of her regiment. For if there be considered of the one side, the truth of religion established, the constant peace and security, the good administration of justice, the temperate use of the prerogative, not slackened, nor much strained, the flourishing state of learning, sortable to so excellent a patroness, the convenient state of wealth and means, both of crown and subject, the habit of obedience, and the moderation of dis- EXTRACTS. 187 contents; and there be considered on the other side the differences of religion, the troubles of neighbour countries, the ambition of Spain, and opposition of Rome ; and then that she was solitary and of herself: these things, I say, considered, as I could not have chosen an instance so recent and so proper, so I suppose I could not have chosen one more remarkable or eminent to the purpose now in hand, which is concerning the conjunction of learning in the prince with felicity in the people. — Bacon, Advancement of Learning, 105. Pride. But pride begets the mood Of wanton, tyrant power ; Pride filled with many thoughts, yet filled in vain, Untimely, ill-advised. Scaling the topmost height, Falls to the abyss of woe. Where step that profiteth It seeks in vain to take. I ask our God to stay The labours never more That work our country's good ; I will not cease to call on God for aid. Plumptre, (Edipus the King. 106. If we consider our own country in its natural prospect, without any of the benefits and advantages of commerce, what a barren uncomfortable spot of earth falls to our share ! Natural historians tell us, that no fruity grows ori- ginally among us, besides hips and haws, acorns and pig- nuts, with other delicates of the like nature ; that our climate 1 88 EXTRACTS. of itself, and without the assistances of art, can make no further advances towards a plum than to a sloe, and' carries an apple to no greater perfection than a crab: that our melons, our peaches, our figs, our apricots, and cherries, are strangers among us, imported in different ages, and natural- ized in our English gardens; and that they would all degenerate and fall away into the trash of our own country, if they were wholly neglected by the planter, and left to the mercy of our sun and soil. Nor has traffick more enriched our vegetable world, than it has improved the whole face of nature among us. Our ships are laden with the harvest of every climate ; our tables are stored with spices and oils and wines ; our rooms are filled with pyramids of China, and adorned with the workmanship of Japan; our morning's draught comes to us from the remotest corners of the earth. We repair our bodies by the drugs of America, and repose ourselves under Indian canopies. . . . Nature indeed fur- nishes us with the bare necessaries of life, but traflick gives us greater variety of what is useful, and at the same time supplies us with everything that is convenient and orna- mental. Nor is it the least part of this our happiness, that whilst we enjoy the remotest products of the north and south, we are free from those extremities of weather which give them birth ; that our eyes are refreshed with the green fields of Britain, at the same time that our palates are feasted with fruits that rise between the tropics. — Spectator, 107. Wolsey, So farewell to the litde good you bear me. Farewell ! a long farewell, to all my greatness ! This is the state of man ; to-day he puts forth The tender leaves of hopes ; to-morrow blossoms, EXTRACTS. 189 And bears his blushing honours thick upon him ; The third day comes a frost, a kilHng frost, And, when he thinks, good easy man, full surely His greatness is a-ripening, nips his root, And then he falls, as I do. I have ventured, Like little wanton boys that swim on bladders, This many summers in a sea of glory. But far beyond my depth ; my high-blown pride At length broke under me and now has left me, Weary and old with service, to the mercy Of a rude stream, that must for ever hide me. Vain pomp and glory of this world, I hate ye ; I feel my heart new open d. O, how wretched Is that poor man that hangs on princes' favours ! There is, betwixt that smile we would aspire to, That sweet aspect of princes, and their ruin. More pangs and fears than wars or women have ; And when he falls, he falls Hke Lucifer, Never to hope again. Shakespeare, Henry VIII. 108. She then an axe of huge dimensions gave. On both sides bladed, steel of temper fine, Into the strong clasp of Odysseus brave. Beautiful, helved with olive, work divine. And well-curved hatchet, whose metallic shine Lightened afar. Anon the way she led To the isle's margin, where the soaring pine, Alder, and poplar black, were thickly spread, Fitted to float with ease, — sapless long since and dead. 190 EXTRACTS. So having shown him where the wood grew tall Calypso, nymph divine, returning went Homeward. But he the forest-trees made fall, Eager to reap his work's accomplishment. Nor did his vigour from the task relent Till twenty he had felled, and each with care Meted and planed. Then nymph Calypso lent Augers, and he the pierced planks fitted fair And with firm bolts and joints the good ship did prepare. As is the wide-walled compass which a man Makes for a merchant-craft which he doth build. Such for his broad bark did Odysseus plan. And set the upright ribs, and sockets drilled For thwart deck-timbers, and the space unfilled With horizontal planks did overlay, And planted the tall mast with art well skilled, And to its place the sail-yard did convey. And shaped the rudder well to rule her onward way. Also an osier bulwark woven deep To breast the dashings of the angry tide. That he securely through the waves might sweep. He wrought ; and ballast for the ship supplied. Divine Calypso linen did provide For sails, which he contriving not in vain Well fashioned, and each rope and cable tied. Bound down the strong sheets, fit for every strain, And launched the ship with levers on the noble main. Twas the fourth day, and all his task was o'er. Him on the fifth Calypso, nymph divine, Robed in sweet raiment, culled from her own store, And bathed, and to his good bark did consign. EXTRACTS. 191 Two skins, one filled with water, one with wine, She gave him, and a wallet stored with meat, And in his wake along the rippling brine Breathed a warm wind, exceeding soft and sweet, Which with spread sails Odysseus did right gladly greet. WoRSLEY, Odyssey, 109. Frozen Words, We were separated by a storm in the latitude of 73, inso- much that only the ship which I was in, with a Dutch and a French vessel, got safe into a creek of Nova Zembla. We landed in order to refit our vessels, and store ourselves with provisions. The crew of each vessel made themselves a cabin of turf and wood, at some distance from each other, to fence themselves against the inclemencies of the weather, which was severe beyond imagination. We soon observed, that in talking to one another we lost several of our words, and could not hear one another at above two yards distance, and that too when we sat very near the fire. After much perplexity, I found that our words froze in the air before they could reach the ears of the person to whom they were spoken. I was soon confirmed in this conjecture, when, upon the increase of the cold, the whole company grew dumb, or rather deaf; for every man was sensible, as we afterwards found, that he spoke as well as ever; but the sounds no sooner took air, than they were condensed and lost. It was now a miserable spectacle to see us nodding and gaping at one another, every man talking, and no man heard. One might observe a seaman, that could hail a ship at a league distance, beckoning with his hands, straining with his lungs, and tearing his throat, but all in vain. We continued here three weeks in this dismal plight. At length, ig2 EXTRACTS. upon a turn of wind, the air about us began to thaw. Our cabin was immediately filled with a dry clattering sound, which I afterwards found to be the crackling of consonants that broke above our heads, and were often mixed with a gentle hissing which I imputed to the letter S, that occurs so frequently in the English tongue. I soon after felt a breeze of whispers rushing by my ear ; for those being of a soft and gende substance, immediately liquefied in the warm wind that blew across our cabin. These were soon followed by syllables and short words, and at length by entire sentences, that melted sooner or later, as they were more or less con- gealed; so that we now heard everything that had been spoken during the whole three weeks that we had been silent, if I may use that expression. . . . When this confusion of voices was pretty well over, though I was afraid to offer at speaking, as fearing I should not be heard, I proposed a visit to the Dutch cabin which lay about a mile farther up into the country. At about half a mile's distance from our cabin, we heard the groanings of a bear, which at first startled us : but upon enquiry we were informed by some of our company that he was dead, and now lay in salt, having been killed upon that very spot about a fortnight before, in the time of the frost. Not far from the same place we were likewise entertained with some posthumous snarls and bark- ings of a fox. We at length arrived at the little Dutch setdement, and upon entering the room, found it filled with sighs that smelt of brandy, and several other unsavoury sounds that were altogether inarticulate. My valet, who was an Irishman, fell into so great a rage at what he heard, that he drew his sword ; but not knowing where to lay the blame, he put it up again. We were stunned with these confused noises, but did not hear a single word till about half an hour after ; which I ascribed to the harsh and obdurate EXTRACTS. 193 sounds of that language, which wanted more time than ours to melt and become audible. After having here met with a very hearty welcome, we went to the French cabin, who, to make amends for their three weeks' silence, were talking and disputing with greater rapidity and confusion than ever I heard in an assembly even of that nation. Their language, as I found, upon the first giving of the weather, fell asunder and dissolved. — Addison. 110. The Battle of Setdac. All this was bravely and cleverly done ; but it could not recover the battle, now that King Harold's wise orders had once been disobeyed. The English line was now broken; the hill was defenceless at many points; so the Normans could now ride up, and the battle was now fought on the hill. The fight was by no means over yet ; the English had lost their great advantage of the ground ; but King Harold and all his mighty men were still there ; so they still formed their shield-wall and fought with their great axes. . . . The English seem to have gradually lost their close array, so that the battle changed into a series of single combats ; here one or two Frenchmen cutting down an Englishman, here one or two Englishmen cutting down a Frenchman. Very valiant deeds of this sort were done by many men in both armies. They had now been fighting ever since nine in the morning, and twilight was now coming on. Luck had no doubt now turned against the English; still they were by no means beaten yet, and it is by no means clear that they would have been beaten after all, if King Harold had only lived till night- fall. Here, as always in these times, everything depended on one man. Harold still lived and fought by his Standard, and it was against that point that all the efforts and all the o 194 EXTRACTS, devices of the Normans were now aimed. The Norman archers had begun the fight and the Norman archers were now to end it. Duke William now bade them shoot up in the air that the arrows might fall like bolts from heaven. This device proved the most successful of all; some men were pierced right through their helmets; others had their eyes put out; others lifted up their shields to guard their heads, and so could not wield their axes so well as before. King Harold still stood close by the Golden Dragon, with his axe in his hand, and his shield pierced with several arrows. But now the hour of our great King was come. Every foe who had come near him had felt the might of that terrible axe, but his axe could not guard him against this awful shower of arrows. One shaft, falling, as I said, from heaven, pierced his right eye ; he clutched at it and broke off the shaft; his axe dropped from his hand, and he fell, all dis- abled by pain, in his own place as King between the two royal ensigns. Twenty Norman knights now swore to take the Standard, now that the King no longer defended it ; they rushed on; most of them were killed by the English who still fought around their wounded King; but those who escaped succeeded in beating down the Standard of the Fighting Man and in bearing off the Golden Dragon. That ancient ensign, which had shone over so many battle-fields, was never again carried before a true English King. Then four knights, one of whom was Count Eustace, rushed upon King Harold as he lay dying ; they killed him with several wounds, and mangled his body. Such was the end of the last native King of the English, Harold the son of Godmne. He fell by the most glorious of deaths, fighting for the land and the people which he had loved so well. — Freeman, Old English History for Children, EXTRACTS. . 195 HI. The Coming of Guinevere. Yea, but I know : the land was full of signs And wonders ere the coming of the Queen. So said my father, and himself was knight Of the great Table — at the founding of it ; And rode thereto from Lyonnesse, and he said That as he rode, an hour or maybe twain After the sunset, down the coast, he heard Strange music, and he paused and turning — there All down the lonely coast of Lyonnesse, Each with a beacon-star upon his head^ And with a wild sea-light about his feet. He saw them — headland after headland flame Far on into the rich heart of the west : And in the light the white mermaiden swam. And strong man-breasted things stood from the sea, And sent a deep sea-voice thro' all the land, To which the little elves of chasm and cleft Made answer, sounding like a distant horn. So said my father — ^yea, and furthermore. Next morning, while he past the dim-lit woods, Himself beheld three spirits mad with joy Come dashing down on a tall wayside flower. That shook beneath them, as the thistle shakes When three gray linnets wrangle for the seed : And still at evenings on before his horse The flickering fairy-circle wheeled and broke Flying, and link'd again, and wheel' d and broke Flying, for all the land was full of life. And when at last he came to Camelot, A wreath of airy dancers hand-in-hand Swung round the lighted lantern of the hall \ 2 1^6 EXTRACTS. And in the hall itself was such a feast As never man had dream'd ; for every knight Had whatsoever meat he long'd for served By hands unseen ; and even as he said Down in the cellars merry bloated things Shoulder'd the spigot, straddling on the butts While the wine ran ; so glad were spirits and men Before the coming of the sinful Queen. Tennyson. 112. Achilles. The character of Achilles differs from that of all other heroes of poetry and romance in these respects : it is more intense ; it is more colossal in scale ; it ranges over a wider compass, from the borders of savagery to the most tender emotions and the most delicate refinements. Yet all its parts are so accurately graduated, and so nicely interwoven, that the whole tissue is perfectly consistent with itself. The self-government of such a character is indeed very partial. But any degree of self-government is a wonder, when we consider over what volcanic forces it is exercised. It is a constantly recurring effort at rule over a constantly recurring rebellion; and there is a noble contrast between the strain put upon his strength, in order to suppress his own passion, and the masterful ease with which he prostrates all his enemies in the field. The command, always in danger, is never wholly lost. It is commonly re-established by a supreme and desperate struggle; and sometimes, as in the first Assembly after the intervention of Athene, we see the tide of passion flowing to a point at which it resembles a horse that has gained its utmost speed, yet remains under the full control of its rider* Ferocity is an element in his character, but is not its base. It is always grounded in, and EXTRACTS. 197 springing from some deeper sentiment, of which it is the manifestation. His ferocity towards the Greeks grows out of the intensity of his indignation at the foul wrong done, with every heightening circumstance of outward insult, not merely to him, but in his person to every principle of honour, right, and justice, in the manner of Briseis ; as well as to the real attachment he felt for her. His ferocity towards Hector is the counterpart and recoil of the intensity of his passionate love for the dead Patroclos. Magnitude, grandeur, majesty, form the framework on which Homer has projected the character of Achilles. And these are in their truest forms ; those forms which contract to touch the smaller, as they expand to grasp the greater things. The scope of this character is like the sweep of an organ over the whole gamut, from the lowest bass to the highest treble, with all its diversities of tone and force as well as pitch. From the fury of the first Assembly, he calms down to receive with courtesy the pursuivants who demand Briseis. From the gentle pleasure of the lyre, he kindles into the stern excitement of the magnificent Debate of the Ninth Book. From his terrible vengeance against the torn limbs of Hector he melts into tears, at the view and the discourse of Priam. The sea, that home of marvels, presents no wider, no grander contrasts, nor offers us an image more perfect according to its kind in each of its varying moods. Foils, too, are employed with skill to exalt the hero. The half-animated bulk and strength of Ajax (who was also greatly beautiful) exhibit to us the mere clay of Achilles^ without the vivifying fire. The beauty of Nireus, wedded to effeminacy, sets off the transcendant, and yet manful and heroic, beauty of Achilles ; and the very ornaments of gold, which in Nastes the Carian only suggest Asiatic luxury and relaxation, when they are borne on the person of the great 198 EXTRACTS. ^ Achaian hero, seem but a new form of tribute to his glorious manhood. — Gladstone, Juventus Mundt, 113« Hannibal, Then Hannibal called his soldiers together, and told them openly that he was going to lead them into Italy. *The Romans,' said he, ' have demanded that I and my principal officers should be delivered up to them as malefactors. Soldiers, will you suffer such an indignity ? The Gauls are holding out their arms to us, inviting us to come to them, and to assist them in revenging their manifold injuries. And the country which we shall invade, so rich in corn and wine and oil, so full of flocks and herds, so covered with flourishing cities, will be the richest prize that could be offered by the gods to reward your valour/ One common shout from the soldiers assured him of their readiness to follow him. He thanked them, fixed the day on which they were to be ready to march, and then dismissed them. — Dr. Arnold, History 0/ Rome, 114. And here the fulness of his mind, and his strong sense of being the devoted instrument of his country's gods to destroy their enemies, haunted him by night as they pos- sessed him by day. In his sleep, so he told Silenus, he fancied that the supreme god of his fathers had called him into the presence of all the gods of Carthage, who were sitting on their thrones in council. There he received a solemn charge to invade Italy; and one of the heavenly council went with him and with his army, to guide him on his way. He went on, and his divine guide commanded him, i See that thou look not behind thee.' But after a while. EXTRACTS, 199 impatient of the restraint, he turned to look back ; and there he beheld a huge and monstrous form, thick set all over with serpents ; wherever it moved, orchards and woods and houses fell crashing before it. He asked his guide in wonder, what that monster form was ? The god answered, ' Thou seest the desolation of Italy ; go on thy way, straight forwards, and cast no look behind/ Thus, with no divided heart, and with an entire resignation of all personal and domestic enjoyments for ever, Hannibal went forth, at the age of twenty-seven, to do the work of his country's gods, and to redeem his early vow. — Dr. Arnold, History of Rome. 115. They, lifting in their arms the corpse, Upraised it high in air ; then from behind Loud yelled the Trojans, as they saw the Greeks Retiring with their dead ; and on they rushed, As dogs that in advance of hunter youths Pursue a wounded boar : awhile they run, Eager for blood ; but when, in pride of strength, He turns upon them, backward they recoil. This way and that in fear of death dispersed : So onward pressed awhile the Trojan crowd, With thrust of swords, and double-pointed spears. But ever as the A j aces turned to bay, Their colour changed to pale, not one so bold As, dashing on, to battle for the corpse. Thus, they with anxious care, from off the field Bore towards the ships their dead ; but on their track Came sweeping on the storm of battle, fierce, As, on a sudden breaking forth, the fire Seizes some populous city, and devours 200 EXTRACTS. House after house amid the glare and blaze, While roar the flames before the gusty wind ; So fiercely pressed upon the Greeks' retreat The clattering tramp of steeds and armed men. But as the mules, with stubborn strength endued, That down the mountain through the trackless waste Drag some huge log, or timber for the ships, And spent with toil and sweat, still labour on Unflinching ; so the Greeks with patient toil Bore on their dead ; the Ajaces in their rear Stemming the war, as stems the torrent's force Some wooded cM, far stretching o'er the plain ; Checking the mighty river's rushing stream, And flinging it aside upon the plain. Itself unbroken by the strength of flood : So firmly, in the rear, the Ajaces stemmed The Trojan force ; yet these still onward pressed. And 'mid their comrades proudly eminent, Two chiefs, ^neas, old Anchises' son. And glorious Hector, in the van were seen. Then, as a cloud of starlings or of daws Fly screaming, as they see the hawk approach, To lesser birds the messenger of death ; So before Hector and ^neas fled. Screaming, forgetful of their warlike fame, The sons of Greece ; and scattered here and there Around the ditch lay store of goodly arms, By Greeks abandoned in their hasty flight. Lord Derby, Homer, EXTRACTS, 201 116. He that goeth about to persuade a multitude, that they are not so well governed as they ought to be, shall never want attentive and favourable hearers ; because they know the manifold defects whereunto every kind of regiment is subject ; but the secret lets and difficulties, which in public proceedings are innumerable and inevitable, they have not ordinarily the judgment to consider. And because such as openly reprove supposed disorders of state are taken for principal friends to the common benefit of all, and for men that carry singular freedom of mind; under this fair and plausible colour whatsoever they utter passeth for good and current. That which wanteth in the weight of their speech, is supplied by the aptness of men's minds to accept and believe it. Whereas on the other side, if we maintain things that are established, we have not only to strive with a number of heavy prejudices deeply rooted in the hearts of men, who think that herein we serve the time, and speak in favour of the present state, because thereby we either hold or seek preferment; but also to bear such exceptions as minds so averted beforehand usually take against that which they are loth should be poured into them. — Hooker, Ecclesiastical Polity. 117. HannihaTs Passage of the Rhone, Here Hannibal obtained from the natives on the right bank, by paying a fixed price, all their boats and vessels of every description with which they were accustomed to traffic down the river ; they allowed him also to cut timber for the construction of others ; and thus in two days he was pro- vided with the means of transporting his army. But finding that the Gauls were assembled on the eastern bank to 202 EXTRACTS, oppose his passage, he sent off a detachment of his army by night with native guides, to ascend the right bank, for about two and twenty miles, and there to cross as they could, where there was no enemy to stop them. The woods which then lined the river, supplied this detachment with the means of constructing barks and rafts enough for the pas- sage ; they took advantage of one of the many islands in this part of the Rhone, to cross where the stream was divided; and thus they all reached the left bank in safety. There they took up a strong position, probably one of those strange masses of rock which rise here and there with steep cliffy sides like islands out of the vast plain, and rested for four and twenty hours after their exertions in the march and the passage of the river. Hannibal allowed eight and forty hours to pass from the time when the detachment left his camp ; and then, on the morning of the fifth day after his arrival on the Rhone, he made his preparations for the passage of his main army. The mighty stream of the river, fed by the snows of the high Alps, is swelled rather than diminished by the heats of summer ; so that, although the season was that when the southern rivers are generally at their lowest, it was rolling the vast mass of its waters along with a startling fulness and rapidity. The heaviest vessels were therefore placed on the left, highest up the stream, to form something of a breakwater for the smaller craft crossing below ; the small boats held the flower of the light armed foot, while the cavalry were in the larger vessels ; most of the horses being towed astern swimming, and a single soldier holding three or four together by their bridles. Everything was ready, and the Gauls on the opposite side had poured out of their camp, and lined the bank in scattered groups at the most accessible points, thinking that their task of stopping the enemy's landing would be easily EXTRACTS. a03 accomplished. At length Hannibars eye observed a column of smoke rising on the farther shore, above or on the right of the barbarians. This was the concerted signal which assured him of the arrival of his detachment; and he in- stantly ordered his men to embark, and to push across with all possible speed. They pulled vigorously against the rapid stream, cheering each other to the work ; while behind them were their friends, cheering them also from the bank : and before them were the Gauls singing their war songs, and calling them to come on with tones and gestures of defiance. But on a sudden a mass of fire was seen on the rear of the barbarians ; the Gauls on the bank looked behind, and began to turn away from the river ; and presently the bright arms and white linen coats of the African and Spanish soldiers appeared above the bank, breaking in upon the disorderly line of the Gauls. Hannibal himself, who was with the party crossing the river, leaped on shore amongst the first, and forming his men as fast as they landed, led them instantly to the charge. But the Gauls, confused and bewildered, made litde resistance ; they fled in utter rout ; whilst Hannibal, not losing a moment, sent back his vessels and boats for a fresh detachment of his army ; and before night his whole force, with the exception of his elephants, was safely established on the eastern side of the Rhone. — Dr. Arnold, History of Rome. 118. Moses. The end was at last come. It might still have seemed that a triumphant close was in store for the aged Prophet. His eye was not dim nor his natural force abated. He had led his people to victory against the Amorite kings; he might still be expected to lead them over into the land of 304 EXTRACTS. Canaan. But so it was not to be. From the desert plains of Moab he went up to the same lofty range whence Balaam had looked over the same prospect. The same, but seen with eyes how different ! The view of Balaam has been long forgotten ; but the view of Moses has become the proverbial view of all time. It was the peak dedicated to Nebo on which he stood, He lifted up his eyes westward, and northward, and southward, and eastward. Beneath him lay the tents of Israel ready for the march ; and over against them, distinctly visible in its grove of palm trees, the stately Jericho, key of the Land of Promise. Beyond was spread out the whole range of the mountains of Palestine, in its fourfold masses ; all Gilead, with Hermon and Lebanon in the east and north; the hills of Galilee, overhanging the Lake of Gennesareth ; the wide opening where lay the plain of Esdraelon, the future battle-field of the nations; the rounded summits of Ebal and Gerizim ; immediately in front of him the hills of Judaea, and, amidst them, seen distinctly through the rents in their rocky walls, Bethlehem on its narrow ridge, and the invincible fortress of Jebus. To him, so far as we know, the charm of that view lay in the assurance that this was the land promised to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, and to their seed, the inheritance — with all its varied features of rock and pasture, and forest and desert—for the sake of which he had borne so many years of toil and danger, in the midst of which the fortunes of his people would be unfolded worthily of that great beginning. To us, as we place ourselves by his side, the view swells into colossal proportions, as we think how the proud city of palm-trees is to fall before the hosts of Israel; how the spear of Joshua is to be planted on height after height of those hostile mountains. ... All this he saw. He saw it with his eyes, but he was not to go over thither. It was his EXTRACTS. 305 last view. From that height he came down no more. . . . No man knoweth of his sepulchre unto this day. — Stanley, Jewish Church, 119. But toward the south a little now they bent, And for awhile o'er landless sea, they went. But on the third day made another land At dawn of day, and thitherward did stand ; And since the wind blew lightly from the shore, Somewhat abeam, they feared not with the oar To push across the shallowing sea and green. That washed a land the fairest they had seen. Whose shell-strewn beach at highest of the tide 'Twixt sea and flowery shore was nowise wide, ♦ And drawn a little backward from the sea There stood a marble wall wrought cunningly, Rosy and white, set thick with images, And overtopped with heavy-fruited trees. Which by the shore ran, as the bay did bend, And to their eyes had neither gap nor end ; Nor any gate ; and looking over this, They saw a place not made for earthly bliss. Or eyes of dying men, for growing there The yellow apple and the painted pear, And well-filled golden cups of oranges Hung amid groves of pointed Cyprus trees ; On grassy slopes the twining vine-bough grew, And hoary olives 'twixt far mountains blue, And many-coloured flowers, like as a cloud The rugged southern cliffs did softly shroud ; And many a green-necked bird sung to his mate Within the slim-leaved, thorny pomegranate. 206 EXTRACTS, That flung its unstrung rubies on the grass, And slowly o'er the place the wind did pass Heavy with many odours that it bore From thymy hills down to the sea-beat shore, Because no flower there is, that all the year, From spring to autumn, beareth otherwhere. But there it flourished ; nor the fruit alone From 'twixt the green leaves and the boughs outshone, For there each tree was ever flowering. Nor was there lacking many a living thing Changed of its nature, for the roe-deer there Walked fearless with the tiger, and the bear Rolled sleepily upon the fruit-strawn grass, ^ Letting the coneys o'er his rough hide pass. With blinking eyes, that meant no treachery. Careless the partridge passed the red fox by ; Untouched the serpent left the thrushes brown. And as a picture was the lion's frown. But in the midst there was a grassy space Raised somewhat over all the flowery place. On marble terrace- walls wrought like a dream ; And round about it ran a clear blue stream. Bridged o'er with marble steps, and midmost there Grew a green tree, whose smooth grey boughs did bear Such fruit as never man elsewhere had seen. For 'twixt the sunlight and the shadow green Shone out fair apples of red gleaming gold. Moreover round the tree, in many a fold, Lay coiled a dragon, glittering little less Than that which his eternal watchfulness Was set to guard. Morris, /ason. EXTRACTS. 207 123. Vesuvius. A. D. 79. My uncle was at that time with the fleet under his com- mand at Misenum. On the 24th of August, about one in the afternoon, my mother desired him to observe a cloud which appeared of a very unusual size and shape. . . . He immediately arose, and went out upon an eminence, from whence he might more distinctly view this very uncommon appearance. It was not at that distance discernible from what mountain this cloud issued, but it was found after- wards to ascend from Mount Vesuvius. I cannot give a more exact description of its figure than by likening it to that of a pine-tree, for it shot up to a great height in the form of a trunk, which extended itself at the top into a sort of branches : it appeared sometimes bright, and sometimes dark and spotted, as it was more or less impregnated with earth and cinders. . . . My uncle ordered the galleys to put to sea, and went himself on board with an intention of assisting not only Retina but many other places, for the population is thick on that beautiful coast. When hastening to the place from whence others fled with the utmost terror, he steered his direct course to the point of danger, and with so much calmness and presence of mind, as to be able to make and dictate his observations upon the motion and figure of that dreadful scene. He was now so nigh the mountain, that the cinders, which grew thicker and hotter the nearer he approached, fell into the ships, together with pumice stones, and black pieces of burning rock ; they were likewise in danger, not only of being aground by the sudden retreat of the sea, but also from the vast fragments which rolled down from the mountain, and obstructed all the shore. . . . [After he had landed,] the eruption from Mount Vesuvius flamed out in several places with much violence, 208 EXTRACTS, which the darkness of the night contributed to render still more visible and dreadful. But my uncle, in order to soothe the apprehensions of his friend, assured him it was only the burning of the villages, which the country people had abandoned to the flames ; after this he retired to rest, and it is most certain he was so little discomposed as to fall into a deep sleep ; for being pretty fat, and breathing hard, those who attended without actually heard him snore. The court which led to his apartment being now almost filled with stones and ashes, if he had continued there any time longer, it would have been impossible for him to have made his way out ; it was thought proper, therefore, to awaken him. He got up and went to Pomponianus and the rest of his com- pany, who were not unconcerned enough to think of going to bed. They consulted together whether it would be most prudent to trust to the houses, which now shook from side to side with frequent and violent concussions ; or to fly to the open fields, where the calcined stones and cinders, though light indeed, yet fell in large showers and threatened destruction. In this distress they resolved for the fields as the less dangerous situation of the two. . . . They went out, then, having pillows tied upon their heads with napkins; and this was their whole defence against the storm of stones that fell around them. It was now day everywhere else, but there a deeper darkness prevailed than in the most obscure night; which, however, was in some degree dissipated by torches and other lights of various kinds. They thought proper to go down further upon the shore, to observe if they might safely put out to sea ; but they found the waves still run extremely high and boisterous. There my uncle, having drunk a draught or two of cold water, threw himself down upon a cloth which was spread for him, when immediately the flames, and a strong smell of sulphur which was the EXTRACTS. 209 forerunner of them, dispersed the rest of the company, and obliged him to rise. He raised himself up with the assist- ance of two of his servants, and instantly fell down dead, suffocated, as I conjecture, by some gross and noxious vapour, having always had weak lungs, and being frequently subject to a difficulty of breathing. As soon as it was light again, which was not till the third day after this melancholy accident, his body was found entire, and without any marks of violence upon it, exactly in the same posture that he fell, and looking more like a man asleep than dead. — Pliny, Letters. 121. Vesuvius^ a.d. 79. There had been, for many days before, some shocks of an earthquake, which the less surprised us as they are extremely frequent in Campania ; but they were so particularly violent that night, that they not only shook everything about us, but seemed indeed to threaten total destruction. My mother flew to my chamber, where she found me rising in order to awaken her. We went out into a small court belonging to the house, which separated the sea from the buildings. . . . Though it was now morning, the light was exceedingly faint and languid; the buildings all around us tottered; and though we stood upon open ground, yet, as the place was narrow and confined, there was no remaining there without certain and great danger ; we therefore resolved to quit the town. The people followed us in the utmost consternation ; and as to a mind distracted with terror every suggestion seems more prudent than its own, pressed in great crowds about us in our way out. At a convenient distance from the houses, we stood still, in the midst of a most dangerous and dreadful scene. The chariots which we had ordered to be drawn out were so agitated backwards and forwards, p rjIO EXTRACTS. though upon the most level ground, that we could not keep them steady, even by supporting them with large stones. The sea seemed to roll back upon itself, and to be driven from its banks by the convulsive motion of the earth ; it is certain at least the shore was considerably enlarged, and many sea animals were left upon it. On the other side a black and dreadful cloud, bursting with an igneous ser- pentine vapour, darted out a long train of fire, resembling flashes of lightning, but much larger. . . . Soon afterward, the cloud seemed to descend, and cover the whole ocean, as it certainly did the island of Capreas and the promontory of Misenum. . . . The ashes now began to fall upon us, though in no great quantity. I turned my head, and observed behind us a thick smoke, which came rolling after us like a torrent. I proposed, while we yet had any light, to turn out of the high road, lest she should be pressed to death in the dark by the crowd that followed us. We had scarce stepped out of the path, when darkness overspread us; not like that of a cloudy night, or when there is no moon, but of a room when it is shut up and all the lights extinguished. Nothing then was to be heard Iput the shrieks of women, the screams of children, and the cries of men ; some calling for their children, others for their parents, others for their husbands, and only distinguishing each other by their voices ; one lamenting his own fate, another that of his family ; some wishing to die from the very fear of dying ; some lifting their hands to the gods ; . but the greater part imagining that the last and eternal night was come, which was to destroy the gods and the world together. At length a glimmering light appeared, which we imagined to be rather the forerunner of an approaching burst of flames, as in truth it was, than the return of day. However, the fire fell at a distance from us ; then again we were immersed in EXTRACTS. 211 thick darkness, and a heavy shower of ashes rained upon us, which we were obliged every now and then to shake off, otherwise we should have been crushed and buried in the heap. ... At last this dreadful darkness was dissipated by degrees, like a cloud of smoke ; the real day returned, and soon the sun appeared, though very faintly, and as when an eclipse is coming on. Every object that presented itself to our eyes (which were extremely weakened) seemed changed, being covered over with white ashes, as with a deep snow. We returned to Misenum, where we refreshed ourselves as well as we could, and passed an anxious night between hope and fear, though indeed with a much larger share of the latter; for the earthquake still continued. — Pliny, Letters. 122. The eastward rocks of Almeria's bay Answer long farewells of the travelling sun With softest glow as from an inward pulse Changing and flushing ; all the Moorish ships Seem conscious too, and shoot out sudden shadows ; Their black hulls snatch a glory, and their sails Show variegated radiance, gently stirred Like broad wings poised. Two galleys moored apart Show decks as busy as a home of ants Storing new forage ; from their sides the boats. Slowly pushed off, anon with flashing oar Make transit to the quay's smooth-quarried edge, Where thronging Gypsies are in haste to lade Each as it comes with grandames, babes, and wives. Or with dust-tinted goods, the company Of wandering years. Nought seems to lie unmoved. For 'mid the throng the lights and shadows play. 212 . EXTRACTS, And make all surface eager, while the boats Sway restless as a horse that heard the shouts And surging hum incessant. Naked limbs With beauteous ease bend, lift, and throw, or raise High signalling hands. The black-haired mother steps Athwart the boat's edge, and with opened arms, A wandering Isis outcast from the gods. Leans towards her lifted Httle one. The boat Full-laden cuts the waves, and dirge-like cries Rise and then fall within it as it moves From high to lower and from bright to dark. Hither and thither, grave white-turbaned Moors Move helpfully, and some bring welcome gifts, Bright stuffs and cutlery, and bags of seed To make new waving crops in Africa. The younger heads were busy with the tale Of that great Chief whose exploits helped the Moor. And, talking still, they shouldered past their friends. Following some lure which held their distant gaze To eastward of the quay, where yet remained A low black tent close guarded all around By armed Zincali. Fronting it above, Raised by stone steps that sought a jutting strand, Fedalma stood and marked with anxious watch Each laden boat the remnant lessening Of cargo on the shore, or traced the course Of Nadar to and fro in hard command Of noisy tumult ; imaging oft anew How much of labour still deferred the hour When they must lift the boat and bear away Her father's coffin, and her feet must quit This shore for ever. Motionless she stood, EXTRACTS. 0,1^ Black-crowned with wreaths of many-shadowed hair ; Black-robed, but wearing wide upon her breast Her father's golden necklace and his badge. Her limbs were motionless, but in her eyes And in her breathing lip's soft tremulous curve Was intense motion asK)f prisoned fire Escaping subtly in outleaping thought. George Eliot, The Spanish Gypsy, 123. The Teeth. I told you before that it was their business to dress and prepare what was presented to them. And in order to do their work in the best way possible, they divide their labour ; some cut up, others tear, and others pound. First, there are those flat teeth in front of the two jaws, just below the nose. Touch yours with the tip of your finger ; you will find that they terminate in sharp-edged plates, like knives. These are called incisors^ from the Latin word incidere, which means to cut, and it is with them that we bite bread and apples, where the first business is to cut. The next sort are those little pointed teeth, which come after the incisors, on each side of both jaws. You will easily find them ; and if you press against them a little, you will feel their points. If we call the first set the knives of the mouth, we may call these its forks. They serve to pierce whatever requires to be torn, and they are called canine teeth, from the Latin word caniSy a dog, because dogs make great use of them in tearing their food. They place their paws upon it, and plunging the canine teeth into it, pull off pieces by a jerk of the head. The last set, which are placed at the back of the jaw, are called molars, from the Latin word mola, which means a mill-stone. They perform the same office as a JJ14 EXTRACTS, miller's mill-stone ; that is to say, they grind everything that comes in their way. This set have flat square tops, with little inequalities on the surface, which you can feel the moment you lay your finger on them. These are the largest and strongest of the three sets, and with them we even crack nuts, when we prefer ^he risk of breaking our teeth to the trouble of fetching the nut-crackers. Now, I will answer for it that you cannot explain to me why we always place what is hard to break between the molars^ and never employ the incisors in the work ? I will tell you the reason, however, if you will first tell me why, when you are going to snip off the tip of your thread (which offers very little resist- ance), you do it with the point of your scissors; whereas you put any tough thing which is likely to resist strongly, a match, for instance, close up to their hinge. Now take your scissors in your left hand ; hold the lower ring of the handle firmly between your thumb and closed hand, so that its blade shall remain straight and immoveable; then with your other hand cause the upper ring to go up and down, and watch its blade as it moves. Now, you have before you the pattern of the two jaws on one side of your face, from the ear to the nose; the upper one, which never moves, and the lower one^ which goes up and down. The incisors are at the points, they gallop up and down, and are worthless for doing hard work ; the molars are at the hinges, and move slowly; and if anything tough has to be dealt with, it comes to them as a matter of course ; hence they are the nut-crackers. But, besides this power of moving up and down, the lower jaw possesses another less obvious one,, by means of which it goes from right to left. It is chiefly by this second action of the jaw that the food is pounded. Try to chew a bit of bread by only moving your jaw up and down^ and you will soon tire of the attempt. One EXTRACTS. ^J^ word more to complete my description of the teeth; that portion of them which is in the jaw is called the root ; and the incisors, which cannot work hard because they have but little resisting power, possess only small and short roots ; whereas the canines, whose duty it is to tear the food side- ways, would run the risk of being dragged out and left sticking in the substances they are at work upon, if they were not well secured ; these, therefore, have roots which go much deeper into the jaw, and in consequence of this they give us more pain than the others when we have to go to the dentist; those famous eye-teeth, which so terrify people on such occasions, are the canines of the upper jaw, and He, in fact, just below the eye. The molars meanwhile would be in danger of being shaken in the sideway movement, while chewing ; so they do as you would do if you were pushed aside. Now you would throw out your feet right and left in order to steady yourself, arid thus the molars, % which have always two roots, throw them out right and left for the same purpose ; and some have three, some four, and they require no less for the business they have to do. — Jean Mac£ 124. Indoors, warm by the wide-mouthed fire-place, idly the farmer Sat in his elbow-chair, and watched how the flames and the smoke-wreaths Struggled together like foes in a burning city. Behind him. Nodding and mocking along the wall, with gestures fan- tastic, Darted his own huge shadow, and vanished away into dark- ness. Faces, clumsily carved in oak, on the back of his armchair 2l6 EXTRACTS. Laughed in the flickering light, and the pewter plates on the dresser Caught and reflected the flame, as shields of armies the sunshine. Fragments of song the old man sang, and carols of Christ- mas, Such as at home, in the olden time, his fathers before him Sang in their Norman orchards and bright Burgundian vine- yards. Close at her father's side was the gentle Evangeline seated, Spinning flax for the loom, that stood in the corner behind her. Silent awhile were its treadles, at rest was its diligent shuttle, While the monotonous drone of the wheel, like the drone of a bagpipe, Followed the old man's song, and united the fragments together. As in a church, when the chant of the choir at intervals ceases. Footfalls are heard in the aisles, or words of the priest at the altar. So, in each pause of the song, with measured motion the clock clicked. Longfellow, Evangeline. 126. Once in an ancient city, whose name I no longer remember, Raised aloft on a column, a brazen statue of Justice Stood in the public square, upholding the scales in its left hand. And in its right a sword, as an emblem that justice presided Over the laws of the land, and the hearts and homes of the people. EXTRACTS. 217 Even the birds had built their nests in the scales of the balance, Having no fear of the sword that flashed in the sunshine above them. But in the course of time the laws of the land were cor- rupted ; Might took the place of right, and the weak were oppressed, and the mighty Ruled with an iron rod. Then it chanced in a nobleman's palace That a necklace of pearls was lost, and ere long a suspicion Fell on an orphan girl who lived as maid in the household. She, after form of trial condemned to die on the scaffold, Patiently met her doom at the foot of the statue of Justice. As to her Father in heaven her innocent spirit ascended, Lo ! o'er the city a tempest rose ; and the bolts of the thunder Smote the statue of bronze, and hurled in wrath from its left hand Down on the pavement below the clattering scales of the balance. And in the hollow thereof was found the nest of a magpie. Into whose clay-built walls the necklace of pearls was in- woven. Longfellow, Evangeline. 126. The Siege of Genoa. . It is not at once that the inhabitants of a great city, accustomed to the daily sight of well-stored shops and an abundant market, begin to realize the idea of scarcity; or that the wealthy classes of society, who have never known any other state than one of abundance and luxury, begin seriously to conceive of famine. But the shops were emptied, 2l8 EXTRACTS. and the store-houses began to be drawn upon ; and no fresh supply or hope of supply appeared. Winter passed away, and spring returned, so early and so beautiful on that garden-like coast, sheltered as it is from the north winds by its belt of mountains, and open to the full rays of the southern sun. Spring returned and clothed the hill sides within the lines with its fresh verdure. But that verdure was no longer the mere delight of the careless eye of luxury, refreshing the citizens by its liveliness and softness when they rode or walked up thither from the city to enjoy the surpassing beauty of the prospect. The green hill sides were now visited for a very different object ; ladies of the highest rank might be seen cutting up every plant which, it was possible to turn to food, and bearing home the common weeds of our roadsides as a most precious treasure. The French general pitied the distress of the people, but the lives and strength of his garrison seemed to him more important than the lives] of the Genoese, and such provisions as re- mained were reserved in the first place for the French army. Scarcity became utter want, and want became famine. In the most gorgeous palaces of that gorgeous city, no less than in the humblest tenements of its humblest poor, death was busy ; not the momentary death of battle or massacre, nor the speedy death of pestilence, but the lingering and most miserable death of famine. Infants died before their parents' eyes, husbands and wives lay down to expire together. A man whom I saw at Genoa in 1825, told me that his father and two of his brothers had been starved to death in this fatal siege. So it went on, till, in the month of June, when Napoleon had already descended from the Alps into the plain of Lombardy, the misery became unendurable, and Massena surrendered. But before he did so, twenty thousand innocent persons, old and young, women and EXTRACTS. 219 children, had died by the most horrible of deaths which humanity can endure. . . . Now is it right that such a tragedy as this should take place, and that the laws of war should be supposed to justify the authors of it? . . . For the thing was done deliberately; the helplessness of the Genoese was known; their distress was known; it was known that they could not force Massena to surrender ; it was known that they were dying daily by hundreds. . . . Now on which side the law of nations should throw the guilt of most atrocious murder, is of little comparative con- sequence, or whether it should attach it to both sides equally : but that the deliberate starving to death of twenty thousand helpless persons should be regarded as a crime in one or both of the parties concerned in it, seems to me self-evident. — -Arnold, Lectures on Modern History. 127. The Trial of the Seven Bishops, . At ten the Court again met. The crowd was greater than ever. The jury appeared in their box; and there was a breathless stillness. Sir Samuel Astry spoke. ' Do you find the defendants, or any of them, guilty of the misdemeanour whereof they are impeached, or not guilty V Sir Roger Langley answered, ' Not Guilty/ As the words were uttered, Halifax sprang up and waved his hat. At that signal, benches and galleries raised a shout. In a moment ten thousand persons, who crowded the great hall, replied with a still louder shout, which made the old oaken roof crack ; and in another moment the innumerable throng without set up a third huzza, which was heard at Temple Bar. The boats which covered the Thames gave an answering cheer. A peal of gunpowder was heard on the water, and another, and another; and so, in a few moments, the glad tidings 2,2,0 EXTRACTS. went flying past the Savoy and the Friars to London Bridge, and to the forest of masts below. As the news spread, streets and squares, marketplaces and coffeehouses, broke forth into acclamations. Yet were the acclamations less strange than the weeping. For the feelings of men had been wound up to such a point that at length the stern English nature, so little used to outward signs of emotion, gave way, and thousands sobbed aloud for very joy. Meanwhile, from the outskirts of the multitude, horse- men were spurring off to bear along all the great roads intelligence of the victory of our Church and nation. . . . The acquitted prelates took refuge in the nearest chapel from the crowd which implored their blessing. Many churches were open on that morning throughout the capital ; and many pious persons repaired thither. The bells of all the parishes of the City and liberties were ringing. The jury meanwhile could scarcely make their way out of the hall. They* were forced to shake hands with hundreds. 'God bless you!' cried the people; 'God prosper your families ! you have done like honest good-natured gentle- men; you have saved us all to-day.' As the noblemen who had attended to support the good cause drove off, they flung from their carriage windows handfuls of money, and bade the crowd drink to the health of the King, the Bishops, and the jury. . . . The King had that morning visited the camp on Hounslow Heath, . . . and was in Lord Feversham's tent when the express arrived. He was greatly disturbed, and exclaimed in French, 'So much the worse for them.' He soon set out for London. While he was present, respect prevented the soldiers from giving a loose to their feelings ; but he had scarcely quitted the camp when he heard a great shouting behind him. He was sur- prised, and asked what that uproar meant. ' Nothing,' was EXTRACTS. 221 the answer; 'the soldiers are glad that the Bishops are acquitted.' 'Do you call that nothing?' said James. And then he repeated, ' So much the worse for them/ . . . That joyful day was followed by a not less joyful evening. . . . Never within the memory of the oldest, not even on that night on which it was known through London that the army of Scotland had declared for a free Parliament, had the streets been in such a glare with bonfires. Round every bonfire crowds were drinking good health to the Bishops and confusion to the Papists. The windows were lighted with rows of candles. Each row consisted of seven; and the taper in the centre, which was taller than the rest, repre- sented the Primate. The noise of rockets, squibs, and firearms, was incessant. One huge pile of faggots blazed right in front of the great gate of Whitehall. — Macaulay, History of England, 128. The Shield of Achilles, And first a shield he fashioned, vast and strong, With rich adornment ; circled with a rim. Threefold, bright-gleaming, whence a silver belt Depended ; of five folds the shield was formed ; And on its surface many a rare design Of curious art his practised skill had wrought. Thereon were figured earth, and sky, and sea, The ever-circling sun, and full-orbed moon, And all the signs that crown the vault of Heaven ; Pleiads and Hyads, and Orion's might. And Arctos, called the Wain, who wheels on high His circling course, and on Orion waits ; Sole star that never bathes in the ocean wave. And two fair populous towns were sculptured there : In one were marriage pomp and revelry. 221 EXTRACTS. And brides, in gay procession, through the streets With blazing torches from their chambers borne, While frequent rose the hymeneal song. Youths whirled around in joyous dance, with sound Of flute and harp ; and, standing at their doors. Admiring women on the pageant gazed. Meanwhile a busy throng the forum filled : There between two a fierce contention rose, About a death-fine ; to the public one Appealed, asserting to have paid the whole ; While one denied that he had aught received. Both were desirous that before the Judge ^ The issue should be tried ; with noisy shouts Their several partisans encouraged each. The heralds stilled the tumult of the crowd : On polished chairs, in solemn circle, sat The reverend Elders ; in their hands they held The loud-voiced heralds' sceptres ; waving these, They heard the alternate pleadings ; in the midst Two talents lay of gold, which he should take Who should before them prove his righteous cause. Before the second town two armies lay, In arms refulgent ; to destroy the town \ The assailants threatened, or among themselves Of all the wealth within the city stored An equal half, as ransom, to divide. The terms rejecting, the defenders manned A secret ambush ; on the walls they placed Women and children mustered for defence, And men by age enfeebled ; forth they went, By Mars and Pallas led ; these, wrought in gold, In golden arms arrayed, above the crowd For beauty and stature, as befitting Gods, EXTRACTS. 223 Conspicuous shone; of lesser height the rest. But when the destined ambuscade was reached, Beside the river, where the shepherds drove Their flocks and herds to water, down they lay, In glittering arms accoutred ; and apart They placed two spies, to notify betimes The approach of flocks of sheep and lowing herds. These, in two shepherds' charge, ere long appeared, Who, unsuspecting as they moved along, Enjoyed the music of their pastoral pipes. They on the booty, from afar discerned. Sprang from their ambuscade ; and cutting off* The herds, and fleecy flocks, their guatdians slew. Their comrades heard the tumult where they sat Before their sacred altars, and forthwith Sprang on their cars, and with fast-stepping steeds Pursued the plunderers, and o'ertook them soon. There on the river's bank they met in arms, And each at other hurled their brazen spears. And there were figured Strife, and Tumult wild, And deadly Fate, who in her iron grasp One newly wounded, one unwounded bore. While by the feet from out the press she dragged Another slain : about her shoulders hung A garment crimsoned with the blood of men. Like living men they seemed to move, to fight. To drag away the bodies of the slain. And there was graven a wide-extended plain Of fallow land, rich, fertile, mellow soil. Thrice ploughed ; where many ploughmen up and down Their teams were driving ; and as each attained The limit of the field, would one advance. And tender him a cup of generous wine : 224 EXTRACTS, Then would he turn, and to the end again Along the furrow cheerly drive his plough. And still behind them darker showed the soil, The true presentment of a new-ploughed field, Though wrought in gold ; a miracle of art. There too was graven a corn-field, rich in grain, Where with sharp sickles reapers plied their task, And thick, in even swathe, the trusses fell ; The binders, following close, the bundles tied : Three were the binders ; and behind them boys In close attendance waiting, in their arms Gathered the bundles, and in order piled. Amid them; staff in hand, in silence stood The King, rejoicing in the plenteous swathe. A little way removed, the heralds slew A sturdy ox, and now beneath an oak Prepared the feast ; while women mixed, hard by, White barley porridge for the labourers' meal. And, with rich clusters laden, there was graven A vineyard fair, all gold ; of glossy black The bunches were, on silver poles sustained ; Around, a darksome trench ; beyond, a fence Was wrought, of shining tin ; and through it led One only path, by which the bearers passed. Who gathered in the vineyard's bounteous store. There maids and youths, in joyous spirits bright, In woven baskets bore the luscious fruit. A boy, amid them, from a clear-toned harp Drew lovely music ; well his liquid voice The strings accompanied ; they all with dance And song harmonious joined, and joyous shouts, As the gay bevy lightly tripped along. Of straight-horned cattle too a herd was graven; EXTRACTS, 22^ ^. Of gold and tin the heifers all were wrought : They to the pasture, from the cattle-yard, With gentle lowings, by a babbling stream. Where quivering reed-beds rustled, slowly moved. Four golden shepherds walked beside the herd, By nine swift dogs attended; then amid The foremost heifers sprang two lions fierce Upon the lordly bull : he, bellowing loud, Was dragged along, by dogs and youths pursued. The tough bull's-hide they tore, and gorging lapped The intestines and dark blood; with vain attempt The herdsmen following closely, to the attack Cheered their swift dogs ; these shunned the lions' jaws, And close around them baying, held aloof. And there the skilful artist's hand had traced A pasture broad, with fleecy flocks o'erspread. In a fair glade, with fold, and tents, and pens. There, too, the skilful artist's hand had wrought, With curious workmanship, a mazy dance, Like that which Daedalus in Cnossus erst At fair-haired Ariadne's bidding framed. There, laying each on other's wrists their hand, Bright youths and many-suitored maidens danced : In fair white linen these ; in tunics those. Well woven, shining soft with fragrant oils ; These with fair coronets were crowned, while those With golden swords from silver belts were girt. Now whirled they round with nimble practised feet, Easy, as when a potter, seated, turns A wheel, new fashioned by his skilful hand, And spins it round, to prove if true it run : Now featly moved in well-beseeming ranks. A numerous crowd, around, the lovely dance Q 226 EXTRACTS, Surveyed, delighted ; while an honoured Bard Sang, as he struck the lyre, and to the strain Two tumblers, in the midst, were whirling round. About the margin of the massive shield Was wrought the mighty strength of the ocean stream. LoKD Derby, Homer, GLOSSARY. ABBREVIATIONS. D. = Danish. L, = Latin. Du. = Dutch. L. L. = Late Latin. E. = English. O.Fr. = 01d French. Fr. = French. Port. = Portuguese. G. = German. Scand. . = Scandinavian. Gael. = Gaelic. Sp. = Spanish. Gr. = Greek. Sw. = Swedish. Hebr. = Hebrew. Teut. = Teutonic. It. = Italian. W. = Welsh. Adj. = adjective, adv. = adverb, conj, = conjunction, contr. = contracted or contraction, dim. = diminutive, freq. = frequentative, interj. = inter- jection, pp. = past participle, prep. = preposition, pron. = pronoun, s. or subs. = substantive, v. = verb. Abandon, v. [Fr. ahandonner, to place at a person's command ; bandon, L. L, handum, D. hand^ It. bandOf proclamation, com- mand] to give up, forsake. Abate, V. [Fr. abattre,L.L. a6,from, battere] to beat down, lessen. Abated. Abeam, adv. [E. oru, beam, a tree] the part of the vessel where the breadth is greatest, because the chief supports, beams, are there. Abhor, V. [L. ab, horrere, dread, shrink from] to dread, loathe, detest, hate. Abhorred. Abide, v. [E. at, bidan, to wait] to wait for, endure ; wait, live, dwell. Abode. Able, adj. [Fr. habile, L. habilis, habere, to have] having power, powerful, skilful. Abominable, adj. [L. ab, from, ominalis, omeri] from which one would turn away as from a bad omen ; hateful, horrible. Abound, v. [L. abundare, to overflow; ab, tinda, a wave] to overflow, to be plentiful. Abounded. About, adv. prep. [E. on, be, utan~\ near by the outside, round, near, concerning, nearl)^ Above, adv. prep. [E. on, be, vfan\ near by the up side, higher, more than, superior to. Abraham, s., a patriarch of the Hebrew race, who migrated from the land of Chaldaea into Canaan. Abreast, adv. [E. on, breost, breast] with breasts in a line, side by side. Abroad, adv. [E. on, brad, broad] in Q^ 228 GLOSSARF, a broad, open, space ; at large, out of the country. Absolutely, adv. [L. ahsohitus; abt solutus, loosed from] like one loosed from control ; freely, in an unlimited manner. Absurd, adj. [L. absurdus ; ab, from, surdus, a deaf man] like an answer from a deaf man ; not to the point, unreasonable, foolish. Abundance, s. [L. abundantia, overflow] abounding, plenty. Abundant, adj. [L. abundantem, overflowing] abounding plentiful. Abyss, s. [Gr. abyssos ; a, not, byssos, depth, bottom] a bottom- less depth, a depth which cannot be measured. Accept, V. [L. acceptum, accipere; ad, to, capere, to take] to take to oneself, to receive. Accepted. Accessible, adj. [L. accessibilis, accessus, accedere ; ad, cedere, to approach] able to be approached or come at. Accident, s. [L. accidentem, acci- dens, accidere ; ad, cadere, to fall to] that which falls to one, a thing unexpected, chance. Acclamation, s. [L. acclamatio- nem, acclamare ; ad, clamare, to cry to] a shout, applause. A^ccommodate, v. [L. accommo- datus; ad, comjnodare, com, modus, to suit with measure] to suit, fit, adapt, supply. Accommodated. Accompany, v. [Fr. accompagner, compagne, L. companio ; con, cum, panis, bread] to go with, associate with. Accompanied. Accomplish, v. [Fr. accomplir, L. . complere, to fill] to complete, fulfil, finish. Accomplished. Accomplishment, s. [E. accom- plish] fulfi]^lent, completion, end. Accord, y. [Fr. accorder, L. ad, to, L. L. cordare, cor, the heart] to agree, harmonize. Accorded. Accord, s., agreement, harmony. Account, s. [Fr. acconter, compter, L. ad, computare] reckoning, value, statement, relation. Accoutre, v. [Fr. accoutrer, O. Fr. accoustrer, cousteur, L. ad, cus to- dire, to keep the sacred vest- ments] to dress, put on arms, equip. Accoutred. > Accurate, adj. [L. accuratus; ad, to, curare, cura, care] cared for, done with care, correct, exact. Adv. accjirately. Accursed, adj. [E. occur se; at, cur- sian, to curse] under a curse, cursed, doomed. Accustom, V. [O. Fx. accoustumer, L. ad, to, consuetudinem, habit] to make a habit, to practise, to become used. Accustomed. Achieve, v. [Fr. achever, chef, L. ad, to, caput, head] to bring to a head, finish, accomplish, attain to, gain. Acknowledge, v. [E. a, know- ledge'] to own a knowledge of, to admit, confess. Achnow- Acorn, s. [E. cbc, oc, an oak, cecern, adj., of the oak, oaken, corrupted as if from oali^corn] the fruit of the oak. Acquaintance, s. [E. acquaint, Fr. accointer, L. ad -cognitare, cogniius] knowledge, a person known. Acquit, V. [Fr. acquitter, L. ad- quietare, ad, to, quietem, quies, rest] to give rest, to set free. Acquitted. Cf., Quit, Quiet, Quite. Across, adv. prep. [E. at, cross] from one side to another, on the other side, over. Act, s. [L. actum, agere, to do] a thing done, deed. Action, s. [L. actionem, agere] a doing, a thing done. Active, adj. [Fr. active, L. aetivus, agere] doing, working, busy, quick. GLOSSARF. 229 Actually, adv. [L. crc/wa/Zs] really. Acute, adj. [L. acutus, acuere, to sharpen] sharp, discernmg, sens- ible, clever. Adage, s, [L. adagiuiri] a saying, proverb, maxim. Add, v. [L. adder e, dare] to put to, increase, sum up. Added. Address, s. [Fr. adresser, L. di- rictiare, directus, regere] speech, manner. Administration, s. £L. admini- strationem ; ad, minister) the managing, conducting, doing ; the body of persons managing. Admit, V. [Fr. admettre, L. ad, mit- tere, send to] to let in, allow, confess. Admitted. Adorn, v. [L. ad, ornare'] to deck, decorate. Adorned. Advance, v. [Fr. avancer, avant, L. ab, ante, from before] to go forward, bring forward, promote. A dvanced. Advance, s. a movement forward. Advantage, s. [Fr. avantage, avant, L. ab, ante] a state of advance, benefit, gain. Adventurer, s. [E. adventure, Fr. aventurej L. ad venticrus, venire, come to] one who seeks adven- tures, tries what is to come, one who goes about seeking his for- tune. Adverse, adj. [L. ad, versus, oppos- ite] turned against, opposite, hostile. Adversity, s. [Fr. adversite, L. ad- versitatem, ad, versus] opposing fortune, misfortune, distress. Advice, s. [Fr. avis, L. ad, L. L. visum, an opinion] notice, in- struction, warning, counsel. Advise, v. [Fr. aviser, L. ad, vi- sere, to sec to] to couns.el. Ad- vised. Aerial, adj. [L. aerialis, aerius, aer] of, or, in the air ; lofty. Afar, adv. [E. at, far] away, at a distance. Affection, s. [Fr. affection, L. a/- fectionem, affectus; ad, facere] a state of feeling towards, kindly feeling, love. Adj. affectionate. Affirm, V. [Fr. affirmer, L. affirm- are; ad,Jirmare] to say strongly, assert, declare, maintain. Af- jirmed, AfPord, V, [E. forthian, to help, assist] to be able to buy or sell, to grant, to yield. Afforded. Afoot, adv. [E. on foot] walking. Afore, adv. [E. on fore] before. Afraid, adj. affrayed, pp. of verb affray [Fr. effrayer, L. ex 'frigi- dare, to freeze with fright, /n^z- dus, cold] scared, terrified, fright- ened. Afresh, adv. [Fr. frais, fraiche^ It. fresco, Kj.fresc] again, anew. Africa, s., a name given to the continent which lies south of the Mediterranean Sea. Adj. Afric- an. After, adv. prep. [E. ceft, behind, comp. cefter] comparative oi aft; more behind, later. Afternoon, s., the time after the noon or midday. Afterwards, adv., at a later time. Again, adv. [E. on, gen, opposite] another time. Against, prep, [corruption of E. againes, again] opposite to, close to, until. Age, s. [Fr. age, aage, edage, L. ] of the air, open to the air, light. Aisle, s. [L. axilla, a wing] the wing or side of a church, a side- passage of a church. Ait, s. [E. eyotj dim. of ey, island] a small island. Alarm, v. [Fr. alarmer. It. alV arme, L. ad ilia arma, to arms] to call to arms, to warn of dan- ger, to frighten. Alarmed. Alas, interj. [Fr. helas, O. Fr. he I las I L. ah, lassus, wearied] an exclamation of sorrow. Alder, s. [E. air"] the water-tree. Alderman, s. [E. ealdor, eald, man] an elder man ; formerly the title of the chief magistrate of a shire, now of the officer next below the mayor in a city or borough. Alert, adj. [Fr. alerte, O. Fr. a Verte, It. alV erta, L. erectus, erigere, to set up] on one's guard, brisk, active. Alien, adj. [L. alienus, of another] of another country, foreign, apart from. Alive, adj. [E. on, lif] having life, lively. All, adj., the whole. Allah, s. [Arabic] God. Alley, s. [Fr. allee, aller, to walk] a narrow passage, a walk in a garden. PI. alleys. Allow, V. [Fr. allouer, L. allaud- are ; ad, laudare, to praise] to approve, permit, grant. Allowed. Allowance, s. [E. allovj] permis- sion, that which is allowed, a grant. Alluvial, adj. [L. alluvialis, alluv- ium ; ad, luere, to wash to] washed from higher land upon lower. Ally, s. [Fr. alliCj L. alligare; ad, ligare, to bind to] one bound by treaty or by friendship ; a con- federate, friend. PI. allies. Almighty, adj. [E. ealmihtig, all, might] having all power. Almost, adv. [E. all, mosf] mostly all, nearly. Aloft, adv. [E. on, loft, lyft, the air] in the air, on high. Alone, adv. [E. all one'] by one's self, singly. Along, adv. [E. andlang] by the length, lengthwise, onward. Aloof, adv. [E. on, luff, lyft, the air] to windward, out of reach, away. Aloud, adv. [E. on, loud, hind, a sound] with a sound. Alp, s. [Gael.] a mountain ; Alps, the mountains of Switzerland. Already, adv. [E. all, reed, rathe, early] prepared, now, so soon. Also, adv. [E. all so] in such man- ner, likewise, too. Altar, s. [L. altare] a high place for sacrifices, a table. Alter, V. [L. alter are; alter, an- other] to make otherwise, change. Altered. Alternate, adj. [L. alternatus, ^ alter] by turns, one after another. Adv. alternately. Although, adv. [E. all, though] granting ail that, notwithstand- ing. Altogether, adv. [E. all, to, ga- thered] all collected into one place, united, wholly. Always, adv. [E. all ways] through all ways, at all times. Amain, adv. [E, on, maegen, may] with main, with strength, strongly, mightily. Amaze, v. [E. on, maze] to make confused, to astonish. Amazed. GLOSSARF. 231 Amber, s. [Fr. amhre, Arab. anhar\ yellow fossil resin. Ambition, s. [L. ambitionem (can- vassing for votes), ambitus, ambire, to go round] desire of place, power, honour, fame. Ambuscade, s. [Fr. embtiscade, It. imboscata, bosco, a wood] a hiding in a wood, lying in wait. Ambush, s. [Fr. embuscher, It. imboscare, bosco] a lying in wait, shelter. Amends, s. pi. [Fr. amender, L. a, from, menda, a fault] atonement, recompense. Amid, Amidst, prep. [E. on, mid- dan, middes, middle] in the middle, among. Among, Amongst, prep. [E. on, mang, mcengan^ to mingle] mingled with. Ample, adv. [Fr. ample, L. ampins'] large, large enough, abundant. Amuse, v. [Fr. amuser, O. Fr. muser] to delight, entertain. A mused. Amusement, s. [Fr. amusement] pastime, pleasure. Analogous, adj. [Gr. analogia ; ana, logos, relation to] bearing analogy to, having proportion to. Ancestor, s. [Fr. ancestre, L. ante- cessor; ante, before, cesser, cedere, to go] those who have gone be- fore, forefathers. Anchor, s. [L. ancora, Gr. agliura, agkos, a bend] a bent instrument for holding a vessel. Anchor, v., to hold a vessel by an anchor. Anchored. Ancient, adj. [Fr. ancien, L. an- tianus, ante, before] that which has been before, remote in time, old. And, conj., also. Anew, adv. [E. on, new] in a new time, way, form ; over again. Angry, adj. [E. anger, L. angor, vexation] with anger, subject to anger, vexed. Anguish, s. [Fr. angoisse, L. an- gusticE,a. strait, an^ere, to strangle] difficulty, pain, misery. Animal, s. [L. animal, anima, life, breath] a thing that breathes, a living creature. Animate, v. [L. animatus, animare, anima] to give breath or life to, to encourage. Animated, made full of life, spirited. Annals, s. pi. [L. an?iales, annus, a year] history with events arranged under their several years, chron- icles. Announce, v. [Fr. annoncer, L. annuntiare ; ad, nuntiare, to re- port to] to report, publish, tell. Anfiounced. Anoint, v. [Fr. oindre, L. in, upon, ungere] to smear with oil, to pour oil upon. Anointed. Anon, adv. [E. on, in, an, one] in one minute, at once, after a short time. Another, adj. [E. an, other] one more. Answer, v. [E, and, again, swerian, to swear] to swear in turn, reply, succeed. Answered. Answer, s., a reply, response. Ant, s. [E. contr. of cemet] an insect, emmet. Antidote, s. [Gr. anti, against, doton, given] a thing given against, i. e. as a remedy for, or preventive of, another ; a remedy for poison. Antique, adj. [Fr. antique, h. anti- quum, ante, before] of time be- fore, ancient, old. Anxious, adj. [L. anxius, anger e, to strangle] in difficulty, troubled, disturbed about the future. Any, indef. pr. adj. [E. cenig, ane] an, one, used indefinitely. Apart, adj. [Fr. a, part, L. ad, par- tem, pars,] aside, not with all, separate. Apartment, s. [apart] a place di- vided from the rest of the house, a room. 232 GLOSSARV, Apothecary, s. [L. apotkecarlus, Gr. apo, away, theke, a storehouse] one who keeps drugs, a dispenser of drugs. Fl. apothecaries. Apparel, s. [Fr. appareil, L. ad, L. L. pariculus, par] putting like to like, a suit of clothing, clothes, dress. Apparent, adj. [L. apparentem, ap- parere; ad, parere] appearing, present, evident, plain. Adv. ap- parently. Appeal, V. [Fr. appeler, L. appel- lare, to call to] to call to, to refer to. Appealed. Appear, v. [Fr. apparoir, L. ap- parere ; ad, parere, to come forth to] to become visible to, to seem. Appeared. Appearance, s. [appear'] a be- coming visible, seeming, show, form. Applause, s. [L. applausus ; ad, plaudere, to clap the hands for] clapping of the hands, praise. Apple, s. [E. able measure, advantage. GLOSSARr. 247 Common, adj. [Fr. cotnmun, L. communis\ shared by several, usual, general, of small value, poor. Adv. commonly. Commonwealth, s. [E. common, wealth] the well-being of the state, the government, a republic. Companion, s. [Fr. compagnon, L. companionem, cum, panis, bread] a sharer of food, a comrade, fellow- traveller, partner. Company, s. [Fr. compagnie, L. cu7n, panis] association, a number of partners. Comparative, adj. [L. compara- tivus, comparare] in relation to something else. Compare, v. [Fr. comparer, L. comparare] to bring together, to match. Compared. Compass, s. [Fr. compas^ L. cum, passus, a step] a circuit, circle, range. PI. compasses, an instru- ment for making a circle. Compel, V. [L. compellere, to drive together] to drive, force, insist. Compelled. Complain, v. [Fr. complaindre, L. cum, plangere, to beat the breast] to wail, lament, murmur. Com- plained. Complaint, s. [Fr. complainte] an expression of pain or sorrow. Complete, v. [L. cum, pletus, plere, to fill] to fulfil, to finish. Com- pleted. Complexion, s. [Fr. complexion, L. complexionem, complecti, to en- fold] a combination, appearance, disposition, colour of the skin. Comport, V. [Fr. comporter, L. cum, portare, to carry] to behave, con- duct. Comported. Comportment, s. [Fr. comport- ment, comporter] bearing, behav- iour, carriage, conduct. Compostella, s., a town in Galicia in Spain, where was a famous shrine of Santiago, or Saint James. Comprehend, v. [L. comprehen- dere] to take hold of, understand. Comprehended. Compress, v. [L. compressus; cum, premere] to press together. Com- pressed. Comrade, s. [Fr. camarade, Sp. camarada, L. camera, a chamber] a chamber-companion, a com- panion in a journey, partner. Con, V. [E. cunnan] to know, to study, pore over. Conned, Conceited, adj. [conceit. It. concetto, a fancy, L. conceptum, concipere, to think] imagining self of great importance, vain. Conceive, v. [Fr. concevoir, L. con- cipere, capere] to take in, to take into the mind, to think, imagine. Conceived. Concern, v. [Fr. fioncerner, L. cum, cernere, to see] to have relation to, to affect. Coticerned. Concert, v. [Fr. concerter, L. cum, certare, to strive] to plan, con- trive, arrange. Concerted. Concussion, s. [Fr. concussion, L. concussionem, concutere, cum, quatere, to shake] a shaking, a shock. Condemn, v, [Fr. condemner, L. cum, damnare] to declare guilty, to blame. Condemned. Condense, y. [Fr. condenser, L. cum, densare] to thicken, com- press. Condensed. Condition, s. [Fr. condition, L. con- ditionem ; cum, datum, dare] state, quality, manner. Coney, s. [L. cuniculus] a rabbit. Confer, v. [Fr. confer er, L. cum, ferre] to bring together, to hold a conversation, to give. Conferred. Conference, s. [Fr. conference, L. CMm,/erre] a meeting, conversation. Confess, v. [Fr. confesser, L. con- fessari, freq. of L./a^m] to avow, admit, acknowledge. Confessed. Confine, v. [Fr. confiner, L. cum, jinire] to limit, enclose, shut up, restrain. Confined. 248 GLOSSARF. Confirm, v. [Fr. confirmer, L. cum, jirmare] to make firm, strengthen, establish, ratify. Confirmed. Confuse, v. [Fr. confus, L. con- fusus ; fundere] to mix, perplex, disorder, confound. Confused. Confusion, s. [Fr. confusion, L. confusionem; fundere'] mixture, disorder. Confute, V. [L. confutare, to check] to disprove, to prove to be wrong. Confuted. Congeal, v. [Fr. congeler, L. con- gelare ; gelu, frost] to freeze hard, become stiif. Congealed. Conjecture, s. [L. conjectura, jac- tura, jacere] a cast, guess, opinion. Conjecture, v., to make a cast, to guess. Conjectured. Conjunction, s.* [L. conjunctionem ; junctio, jungere, to join] a join- ing, union, a word which joins. Connect, v. [L. connectere ; neetere] to link together, join. Connected. Conquer, v. [Fr. conquerir, L. con- quirere ; quaerere, to seek] to over- come, vanquish. Conqiiered. Conqueror, s. [E. conquer] one who conquers. Conquest, s. [O. Fr. conqueste, L. conquisitus ; quaerere] victory. Conscious, adj. [L. conscius ; scire, to know] knowing, aware. Consciousness, s. [E. conscious] knowledge. Consent, v. [Fr. consentir, L, con- sentire, to think with] to agree. Consented. Consent, s., agreement. Consequence, s. [Fr. consequence, L. consequents a; sequi, to follow] that which follows, result, effect, importance. Consider, v. [Fr. consider er, L. considerare] to look closely into, to attend to, contemplate. Con- sidered. Considerable, adj. [Fr. consider- able, considerer] worth regard," important, large. Consign, v. [Fr. consigner, L. con, signare, signum, a seal] to give under seal, to intrust. Co7isigned. Consist, V. [Fr. consister, L. cum, sister e, stare, to stand] to stand in agreement with, to be made of. Consisted. Consistent, adj. [L. consistentem, sistere] agreeing. Consolidate, v. [L. consolidatus, solidus] to make solid, strengthen. Consolidated. Consonant, s. [Lv consonantem; sonare, to sound] a letter that needs a vowel to be sounded with it. Conspicuous, adj. [L. conspicuus] easily seen, prominent. Constant, s. [Fr. constant, L. con- stantem ; stare] standing firm, un- changing. Subs, constancy. Consternation, s. [Fr. consterna- tion, L. consternationem ; sternere, to lay low] a throwing into con- fusion, fright, fear. Constitute, v. [L. constitutus ; sta- tuere, stare] to appoint, fix, settle. Constituted. Constitution, s. [L. constitutionem ; statuere] settlement, usage by which a country is governed. Construct, v. [L. constructus ; stru- ere, to build] to put together, build. Constructed. Construction, s. [L. constructio- nem ; struere] building, making, a thing built. Consult, V. [L. consultus; consul- ere] to talk together, to ask for advice. Consulted. Consultation, s. [L. consultation nem ; consulere] the act of con- sulting. Consume, v. [Fr. consumer, L. con- sumere; sumere, to take] to de- stroy, waste, spend. Consumed. Contact, s. [Fr. contact, L. con- tactus, tangere] touch, union, meeting. Contemptible, adj, [Fr. contempt GLOSSARK 249 eible, L. contemptus, temnere, to despise] fit to be despised, mean. Contend, v. [L. contendere] to strive against, to fight. Con- tended. Continent, s. [Fr. continent, L. continentem, touching, tenere'] an expanse of land containing several countries which touch one an- other. Continue, v. [Fr. continuer, L. contirtuus, tenere'] to remain, per- sist, carry on, extend. Continued. Contract, v. [L. contractus, trahere^ to draw together, lessen, shorten. Contracted. Contradict, v, [L. contra, dictus, dicere] to oppose in words, deny. Contradicted. Contrary, adj. [L. contrarius, con- tra] opposite, opposed. Contribute, v. [L. contributus, tribuere] to give with others, to give a share. Contributed. Contrive, v. £Fr. controuver, It. trovare, L. tiirbare] to seek out, invent, devise, manage. Con- trived. Contrivance, s. [E.<;o«/r/i/e] apian, invention, scheme. Control, s. [Fr. controle, contre- role, L. contra, rotula, 2l roll] a check-roll, check, restraint, autho- rity, power. Convenient, adj. [L. convenientem, veniens, venire] becoming, fit, suitable. Converge, v. [Fr. converger, L. convergere] to turn towards, in- cline together. Converged. Converse, v. [Fr. converser, L. conversari, vertere, to turn] to dis- course, to talk. Conversed. Convey, v. [O.Fr. convoier, L.L. conviare, L. via] to take on the way, send on the way, carry. Conveyed. Convolvulus, s. [L. cum, volvere, to roll] a creeping plant, which rolls its tendrils round other ihings for support. Convulsion, s. [L. convulsionem ; vulsus, vellere, to tear] agitation, disturbance, spasm. Convulsive, adj. [Fr. convulsif, L. cum, vulsus, vellere] spasmodic, agitated. Cook, s. [E. coc, L. coguus] one who prepares food by means of fire. Cool, adj., not warm, calm, impud- ent. Copious, adj. [L. copiosus, copia, plenty] plentiful, abundant. Copper, s. [Germ, kupfer, ;L. cu- ' prum, cyprium, Gr. kupros, the is- land of Cyprus, from which' copper came] a reddish metal. Copse, s. [E. coppice, O. Fr. eopeiz, couper, to cut] a small wood that may be cut for firewood. Coptic, adj., belonging to Copts, Egyptian. Copy, s. [Fr. copie, L. copia, plenty] an imitation. PI. copies. Copy, v., to make a transcript, imitate. Copied. Cord, s. [Fr. chorde, L. chorda, Gr. chorde] string, a small rope. Corinth, s., a city of Greece, on the isthmus which joins the Pelopon- nesus, or Morea, to the main- land. Corinthian, adj. [L. Corinthianus, Corinthus] a dweller in Corinth, belonging to Corinth. Com, s., the seed of various species of grasses, grain. Cornel, s. [Fi.cornille, L. corniculus, cornus] the cornel-tree, cherry. Corner, s. [Fr. corne, L. cornua, cornu, a horn] the horn where two lines meet, an angle. Coronation, s. [L. coronationem, corona, a crown] the act of crowning. Coronet, s. [L. corona"} a small crown. Corpse, s. [Fr. corps, L. corpus, a body] a dead body. Correspondence, s. [Fr. correspon- dance, L. cum, respondere, to 250 GLOSSARY, answer] relation, fitness, inter- course by letters. Corrupt, adj. [L. corruptus, cum^ rumpere, to break] impure, defiled, erroneous. Cost, s. [O. Fr. const, couster, L. con, stare, to stand] the price in which a thing stands a person, value. Cotton, s. [Fr. coton, Arab, qoton] a soft fibrous down obtained from the seed-pod of a plant growing in tropical countries. Couch, s. [Fr. couche, coucher, L. colloiare, locus] a place for rest, a bed, lounge, sofa. Council, s. [Fr. concile, L. con- cilium] an assembly for consulta- tion, a meeting. Counsel, s. [Fr. conseil, L. con- silium] advice, deliberation. Counsellor, s. [E. counsel] an ad- viser, a barrister. Count, V. [Fr. compter, L. compu- tare] to sum, add together, reckon. Counted. Count, s., reckoning, number. Countenance, s. [Fr. contenance, contenant, L. cum, tenere, to hold together] protection, support, ap- pearance, the face. Counterpaxt, s. [Fr. contrepart, L. contra, partem] opposite part, hke- ness. Country, s. [Fr. contree, L. contra, against] that which is over against the town, rural district, native land. Courage, s. [Fr, courage, L. cor, the heart] spirit, heartiness, bravery. Courageous, adj. [Fr. courageux, courage] full of courage, brave. Course, s. [Fr. cours, L. cursus, currere, to run] a running, way, career. Course, v., to run, go quickly, pursue, run dogs after a hare. Coursed. Court, s. [O. Fr. court, L. cohortem] an enclosed place, the dwelling of, the sovereign. Court, v., to pay attention to, to make love to. Courted. Courteous, adj. [Fr. courtois, j court] with the manners of the a court, polished. % Courtesy, s. [Fr. courtoisie, court] courtly manners, politeness. Courtly, adj. [E. courtA^ well-man- nered, polished, respectful. Cover, s. [Fr. couvert, couvrir, L. co-operire] a screen, protection. Cover, v., to clothe, screen, protect. Covered. Covert, s. [Fr. couvert] a covered place, shelter, thicket. Cow, s., the female of the bull ; pL cows and kine, which latter is pro- perly a genitive formed thus: sing. cw,pl. cy{kye), genitive cuna (kine). Cowherd, s. [E. cow-herd] a keeper of cows. Crab, s., an animal of the order Crustacea, usually called a shell- fish, having ten legs, breathing through gills, living either in the sea or on land. Crack, v. [from the sound] to split with a noise, to burst. Cracked. Crackle, v. [freq. of E. crack] to crack often. Crackled. Crackling, s., roasted skin of pork. Craft, s. [E. crceft] strength, power, power of taking in, ability, art, cunning. Crag, s. [W. craeg] a rock, a rough rock, a cliff. Crash, v. [from the sound] to break with a noise. Crashed. Crawl, v., to draw on by the claws, move slowly, creep. Crawled. Creature, s. [Fr. creature, L. crea* tura, creare, to make] a thing created, an animal. Creek, s. [E. crecca] a bend in the shore, an inlet. Creep, v. [E. creopan] to move by bending the body, move slowly* crawl. Creeped or crept. Cress, s. [E. cerse] a pungent plant eaten raw and used in salad» GLOSSARV. 251 Crest, s. [Fr. creste, L. crista'] a tuft of hair or feathers, a plume. Crew, s. [a form of E. crowd] a mass of people, a company, a ship's company. Crime, s. [Fr. cri7ne, L. crimen, a charge] a fault, offence against law. Crimson, adj. [It. cremesino, Turkish kermes, a worm from which the dye was got] dark red. Crisp, adj. [O. Fr. crespe, L. crispus] curled, wavy, frizzled. Crop, s. [E. crop, top] produce, yield of land. Cross, s. [Fr. croix, L. crucem, crux] two lines athwart. Cross, v., to mark with a cross, thwart, pass over. Crossed. Crouch, V. [softened from E. crook] to bend down, lie close to the ground, cringe. Crouched. Croup, s. [from the sound] inflam- mation of the throat producing a cough. Croup, s. [Fr. croupe, Norse hroppr] a horse's rump. Crow, V. [from the sound] to croak, to make a noise like a cock, to boast. Crew or crowed, crowed. Crowd, s. [E. crud, W. crwd, a lump] a lump, mass, collection of people. Crown, s. [G. krone, L. corona] a ring, circle, diadem. Cruelty, s. [O. Fr. cruelte, L. crudelitatem, crudelis] brutality, unkindness. Crush, V. [from the sound] to break with a noise, bruise, ruin. Crushed. Cry, V. [Fr. crier, It. gridare, L, quiritare] to make a loud sound, wail, lament, weep. Cried. Cry, s., a shrill sound. PI. cries. Cull, V. [Fr. cueillir, L. colligere, cum, legere] to gather, collect pick. Culled. Ciiltivate, v. [L. cultivatus, cultus. colere] to till, to attend to. Cul- tivated. Cunning, adj . [E. cunnan, to know] knowing, skilful, wise, crafty. Adv. cujiningly. Cup, s. [Fr. coupe, L. cuppa] a round hollow vessel. Cupid, s. [L. cupido, cupere, to desire] the God of love among the Romans, son of Venus the goddess of love. Cur, s., a poor dog, a small dog, a surly fellow. Cure, s. [Fr. cure, L. cura] care, healing, a remedy. Curiosity, s. [Fr. curiosite, L. curiositatem, curiosus, cura] anxiety to know, inquisitiveness. Curious, adj. [Fr. curieux, L, curiosus, cura] inquisitive, full of care, rare. Curl, V. [E. crull, by metathesis] to coil, wreathe, twist. Curled. Current, adj. [L.currentem,currere, to run] running, passing, flowing. Cifrrent, s. a stream. Curve, s. [L. curvus] a bend, anarch. Curve, v., to bend round, to arch. Curved. Custody, s. [L. custodia, custos, a. guard] keeping, imprisonment. Custom, s. [O. Fr. coustume, L. L. costuma, L. consuetudinem] habit, use. Cut, v., to take oflf a piece, cleave, divide. Cut, cut. Cutlery, s. [E. cutler, Fr. cou- telier, L. cultellus, culter, a knife] the stock of a cutler, knives. Cycle, s. [Fr. cycle, Gr. kuklos] a circle, a round of years, a series. Cypress, s. [Fr. cypres,!^, cupressus, Gr. kuparissos] an evergreen tree. Daedalus, s., a famous artist of Athens, who visited Crete and made a labyrinth for King Minos. The legend related that he made himself wings and flew from Crete to Sicily, •252 GLOSSARY. Dagger, s. [E. dag, dig, Fr. dague] a knife or sword for stabbing. Daily, adj. [E.day] happening day by day, every day. Dainty, adj. '[W. dantaidd, dant, tooth] toothsome, delicate, nice. Damask, s. \pamascus\ cloth from Damascus, silk, variegated stuff. Damson, s. [corruption of Damas- cene, Damascus] a plum from Damascus, a small black plum. Dan, s., a son of the patriarch Jacob; the tribe called from him ; a town, formerly Laish, in the northern part of Palestine, occupied by a colony of Danites, and afterwards counted as the limit of the land towards the north. Dance, v. [Fr. danser] to stamp with the feet, to move in measure. Danced. Dancer, s. [E. dance, Teut. danson"] one who dances. Danger, s. [Fr. danger, L. domini- arium, domimis, a lord] the power of a lord, penalty, peril, risk, hazard. Adj. dangerous. Danish, adj. [Dane^ belonging to the Danes, the people of Denmark. Dare, v. to be bold, to endure, venture. Dared or durst, dared. Daring, s. bravery, courage. Darius, s., the King of Persia, whose power was overthrown by Alexander of Macedon in the battle of Arbela on the plains near the Tigris, B.C. 331. He was murdered in Bactria by Bessus, one of his satraps, b.c. 330. Dark, adj. [E. dearc'] without light, obscure. Subs, darkness; adj. darksome. Dart, v., to throw violently, hurl rapidly, shoot, dash. Darted. Dash, V. [from the sound] to throw with a rushing sound. Dashed. Date, s. [L. datum, dare, to give] a given time, a fixed time, time. Daughter, s. [E. dohter'] a female child. Daunt, V. [O. Fr. danfer {dompter), L. domitare, domare, to tame] to frighten, dishearten. Daunted. Daw, s. [from the cry] a chattering bird of the crow family, Corvus Monedula. Dawn, V. [E. dagian, to become day ; dceg] to become day, to brighten, to grow light. Dawned. Dawn, s., early morning. Day, s. [E. dcBg] light, from morn- ing till night, twelve hours, the time of one revolution of the earth, twenty-four hours. Dazzle, s. [freq. of E. daze'] to stupefy with excess of light, to astonish. Dazzled. Dead, adj. [E. die] having died, dulled, overwhelmed, without life. Adj. deadly, like death, causing death. Deaf, adj., dull, stopped, unable to hear. Deal, V. [E. deal, a part] to portion, divide, allot. Dealed or dealt. Deal, s., the wood of the fir-tree, which is easily parted, or split into planks, or boards. Dear, adj. [E. deore] of high price, valuable, beloved. Death, s. [E. dead] condition, of being dead, end of life. Debate, s. [Fr. dehattre] a dispute, discussion. Debt, s. [Fr. debit, L. dehitum, debere, to owe] a thing owed, a payment due. Decay, v. [O. Fr. dechoir, decaier, L. decadere, cadere, to fall] to fall away, to fall to pieces, waste away. Decayed. Decay, s., wasting, ruin. Deceitful, adj. [E. deceit] full of deceit, lying, false. Deceive, v. [Fr. decevoir, L. deci- pere, capere, to take] to take in, mislead, cheat. Deceived. Decidedly, adv. [E. decide] cert- ainly, surely, in a determined way. GLOSSARr. 253 Decision, s. [Fr. decision^ L. deci- sionem, deciders, caedere, to cut] settlement, determination. Decisive, adj. [Fr. decisif, L. de- cidere~\ positive, determined. Deck, s. [E. decan, to cover] a covering, the covering of a vessel. Declare, v. [Fr. declarer, L. declarare, de, clams, clear] to make clear, to proclaim, show. Declared. Decline, v. [Fr. decliner, L. de^ dinar e'\ to slope downwards, fail, decay, refuse. Declined. Decree, s. [Fr. decret, L. decretuniy cernere, to decide] a decision, law, command. Dedicate, v. [L. dedicatus, dicare'] to give as sacred, consecrate, assign. Dedicated. Deed, s. [E. do] a thing done, act, fact. Deem, v. [E. demon, to distin- guish] to judge, decide, think. Deemed. Deep, adj. [E. deop, dip, dib"] stretching down, hidden, crafty. Adv. deeply. Deer, s. [E. deor, a wild animal] an animal of the cervine family, a stag, hind, roe. Defect, s. [L. defectus, deficere, facere\ a fault, blemish. Defence, s. [Fr. defense, L. de- fensus^ defendere, to ward off] safeguard, protection. Adj. de- fenceless. Defend, v. [Fr. defendre, L. defen- dere] to ward off, to protect, guard. Defended. Defendant, s. [Fr. defendant, L. defendere] a defender, the person who defends a lawsuit. Defer, v. [L. deferre] to put off, delay, give way to. Deferred. Defiance, s. [Fr. defiance, defier, L. dis, fides] disowning of allegi- ance, a challenge. Defray, v. [Fr. defrayer, L. L. fredum, a fine to buy peace, G, friede, peace] to pay a fine, pay expenses, pay. Defrayed. Deftly, adv. [E. deft, dcefe, fit] fitly, cleverly, in a handy manner. Defy, V. [Fr. defier. It. disfidare, L. dis, fides] to renounce allegiance, challenge, offer combat. Defied. Degenerate, adj. [L. degeneratns, de, genus, a race] degraded, sunk into a low condition. Subs, de- generacy. Degenerate, v., to fall into a de- graded state, to become worse. Degenerated. Degree, s. [Fr. degre, L. de, gradus, a step] grade, order, rank, a step, small portion. Deliberate, adj. [L. deliberatus, librare, libra, a balance] weighing carefully in the mind, cautious, thoughtful. Delicate, adj. [Fr. delicat, L. deli- catus, deliciae] pleasing, tender, refined, gentle, in 'weak health. PI. delicates, rarities, delicacies. Delicious, adj. [L. deliciosus, deli- ciae] full of delight, charming, very pleasing. Delight, V. [O. Fr. delit, L. de- lectare] to please, charm. De- lighted. Delight, s., pleasure, joy, rapture. Adj. delightful. Deliver, v. [Fr. delivrer, L. delibe- rare, liber] to set free, to set free from oneself and give to another, hand over. Delivered. Deluge, s. [Fr. deluge, L. diluvium^ lucre, to wash] an overflowing of water, a flood. Demand, v. [Fr. demander, L. de^ matidare, to order] to send for from, to require from, insist, claim. Demanded. Demand, s., a claim, requisition. Demonstration, s. [L. demons tr a- tionem, de, monstrare, to show] showing, proof. Den, s. [E. dene, a valley] a narrow valley, a beast's lair. ^54 GLOSSARF. Dense, adj. [L. densus"] close, thick. Dentist, s. [Fr. dentiste, L. dentem, dens] one who repairs teeth. Deny, v. [Fr. denier, L. denegare, negare] to say no to, gainsay, contradict, disown. Denied. Depart, v. [Fr. departir^ L. dis^ parliri, to sever] to go away, leave. Departed. Departure, s. [E. depart] going away, leaving. Depend, v. [L. dependere] to hang upon, to rely on. Depended. Depth, s. [E. deep] deepness, a deep place. Deputy, s. [Fr. depute, deputer, L. deputare, to send] a substitute, an officer in another's place. Dermot, s., chieftain, or king, of Leinster, who when driven from his dominions offered to become the vassal of Henry II of England, and so led' to the earliest English conquest of Ireland. He was reinstated by Richard (Strongbow) of Chepstow, 1169, and died 1 1 70. Descend, v. [L. descendere, scand- ere, to climb] to go down. Descended. Describe, v. [L. descrihere, scribere, to write] to write an account of, represent. Described. Description, s. [Fr. description, L. descriptionem, de, scriptus, scribere] an account, representation. Desert, s. [Fr. desert, L. desertum, deserere, to leave] desolate, for- saken, a wild, wilderness. Deserve, v. [L. deservire] to earn, merit, to be worthy. Deserved. Desire, s. [Fr. desir, L. desiderium, desiderare, to long for] aim, wish, anxiety, longing. Adj. de- sirous. Desire, v., to long for, wish ear- nestly. Desired. Desolation, s. [L. desolationem, de solus, alone] destruction, waste. Despatch, v. [O. Fr. despescher, L. dis, impactare, pangere, to fasten] to send away quickly, to finish, to kill. Despatched. Desperate, adj. [L. desperatiis, de, sperare, to hope] hopeless, rash. Destine, v. [Fr. destiner, L. des- tinare, to fix] intend, appoint. Destined. Destiny, s. [Fr. destinee, L. des- tiner e] end, appointment, fate. Destroy, v. [Fr. destruire, L. de, struere, to build] to pull down, undo, demolish, overthrow. De- stroyed. Destruction, s. [L. destructionem, struere] pulling down, ruin, over- throw. Detachment, s. [Fr. detacher, de, attacher] a body of troops sepa- rated from the main force. Detail, v. [Fr. detailler, tailler, L.L. taliare, to cut] to set out in every part, to enumerate. Detailed. Detective, s. [Fr. detectif, L. de- tectus, detegere, to uncover] one who detects. Determination, s. [L. de, termina- tionem, terminus, a bound] fixing an end, end, resolution, purpose. Detest, V. [Fr. detester, L. de, testari, to witness] to abhor, hate. Detested. Detritus, s. [L. detritus, de, terere, to rub] stuff worn down from rocks. Development, s. [Fr. developpe- ment] opening, unrolling, unfold- ing, growth. Device, s. [Fr. Reviser, L. divisus, dividere] a contrivance, scheme, plan, design, emblem. Devon, s., the land of the Damnonii, a county in the west of England. Devote, v. [L. devotus, devovere^ to vow] to set apart by vow, dedicate, doom. Devoted. Devour, v. [Fr. devorer, L. devo- rare] to swallow, consume. De- voured. . GLOSSARY. 255 Devout, adj. [Fr. devot, L. devotus^ vovere] religious, pious. "Devf, s. [E. deaw^ moist] moisture on substances exposed in the open air when no rain or visible wet is falling. Adj. dewy. Dexterous, adj. [L. dexier,ihe right hand] handy, clever, ready, expert. Diamond, s. [Fr. diamant. It. dia- mante, Gr. adamanta, adamas] a very hard precious stone. Dictate, v. [L. dictatus, dictare, dicere, to say] to tell with author- ity, to tell another what to write. Dictated. Die, v., to lose life, perish, wither. Died^ died or dead. Differ, V. [L. differre, dis, ferre, to carry] to be unlike, disagree. Dif- fered. Difference, s. [Fr. difference, L. differentia, ferre'] unlikeness, dis- agreement. Different, adj. [Fr. different, L. differ entem, ferre] unlike. Difficulty, adv. [E. difficult] with difficulty, hardly. Difficulty, s. [Fr. difficulte, L. difficultatem, dis, facilis, easy] per- plexity, embarrassment, obstacle. Dig, v., to pierce, stab, turn up the • earth. Dug or digged. Digest, V, [L. digestus, dis, gerere, to bear] to get rid of (as food), dissolve, classify, think over. Digested. Dight, V. [E. dihtan, L. dictare] to prepare, compose, arrange, dress. Dight. Dignity, s. [Fr, dignite, L. digni- tatem, dignus, worthy] worth, honour, grandeur, high position. Diligence, s. [Fr. diligence, L. diligentia, diligere, to be careful] industry, carefulness, attention. Diligent, adj. [Fr. diligent, L. diligentem, diligere] attentive, in- dustrious, careful. Dim, adj., dull, somewhat dark, obscure. Dimension, s. [Fr. dimension, L, dimensionem, mensus, metiri, to measure] a measurement, extent. Diminish, v. [Fr. diminuer, L. di, minuere, minus, less] to lessen, decrease. Diminished. Din, s. [from the sound] noise, a continuous sound. Dinner, s. [Fr. diner, O. Fr. disner, L. L, disnare, L. de,caenare, caena] the midday meal, the chief meal. Dint, s. [from the sound] a blow, marks of a blow, force. Dionysos, s. [Gr. Dionusos] the god of wine among the Greeks. Direct, adj. [L. directus, dirigere^ to straighten] straight, open, plain. Dirge, s. [L. dirige, the first word of an old Latin funeral anthem. Psalm V. 8] a funeral service, a mournful song. Dis : di, a Latin prefix, in composition implies separation, and so obtains the force of negation, not, or of opposition as c?mgreeable, not agreeable, or the reverse of agree- able ; the derivation of such com- pounded words is to be found under the simple forms. Disable, v. [dis, able] to make un- able, to maim, weaken. Disabled. Disarm, v. [dis, arm] to take arms from. Disarmed. Disaster, s. [Fr. desastre, L. astrum, a star] ill-fortune, evil chance. Discern, v. [Fr. discerner, L. dis, cernere, to see] to see clearly, to perceive. Discerned. Discipline, v. [Fr. discipline, L. dis- ciplina, discere, to learn] to train, correct, order. Disciplined. Discompose, v. [dis, compose, L. L. compausare] to disorder. Dis- composed. Discontent, s. [dis, content] want of content, uneasiness. Discontent, v., to dissatisfy. Dis- contented. Discourse, s. [Fr. discours, L. dis, cursus^ currere, to run] a speech 256 GLOSSARV. running over several subjects, con- versation, a sermon. Discourse, v., to talk, hold a con- versation, make a speech. Dis- coursed. Discover, v. [dis, cover] to uncover, show, find out, invent. Discovered. Discovery, s. [E. discover'] disclos- ure, finding, revelation, invention. Discredit, s. [Fr. discredit, credit. L. creditus, credere] want of credit, ill-repute. Discredit, v., to disbelieve, disgrace. Discredited. Disdainful, adj. [E. disdain, O. Fr. desdaigner, L. dis, dignari, dignus^ worthy] full of disdain, scornful, contemptuous. Dislike, s. \_dis, like] aversion, hate. Dismal, adj. [E. dizzy, daze] dull, dark, uncheerful. Dismiss, v. [L. dimissus, dimittere'] to send away, allow to go. Dis- missed. Disperse, v. [Fr. disperser, L. di- spersus, spargere, to scatter] to scatter, separate. Dispersed. Disposition, s. [L. dispositionem, positus, ponere] arrangement, ten- dency, temperament. Dispute, V. [Fr. disputer, L. dis, putare, to think] to disagree, con- trovert, quarrel. Disputed. Dissatisfaction, s. [dis, satisfaction, satisfy] displeasure, dislike. Disseminate, v. [L. dis, seminatus, semitiare, semen, a seed] to spread, to sow. Disseminated. Dissipate, v. [L. dissipatus, dissi- pare] to scatter, waste. Dissipated. Dissolve, v. [Fr. dissolver, L. dis, solvere] to loosen, melt. Dis- solved. Distance, s. [Fr. distance, L. di- stantia, dis, stare, to stand] space, interval. Distant, adj. [Fr. distant, L. dis, stantem, stare] remote, separate, indistinct. Distil, V. [Fr. distiller, L. dis, stillare] to drop, flow in drops, extract spirit from. Distilled. Distinct, adj. [L. dis,- tine tus, ting- ere, to dye] clearly marked off, clear, plain. Adv. distinctly ; subs. distinctness. Distinction, s. [L. distinctionem, dis, tingere] a mark, difference. Distinguish, v. [Fr. distinguis- sant, distinguer L. dis, tingere] to, mark as different, to make famous. Distinguished. Distracted, adj. [E. distract, L. dis, tractus, trdhere, to draw] torn by- emotions, wild. Distress, s. [O. Fr. destresse, L. dis, stringere] pain, grief. Disturb, v. [L. dis, turhare, turba, a crowd] to confuse, confound. Disturbed. Ditch, s. [soft form of E. dyke, dig] a trench. Ditty, s. [O. Fr. ditte, dicte, L. dictum, dicere to tell] a story, poem, song. Dive, V. [E. deofan] to plunge into water. Dived. Divers, adj. [Fr. divers,h. di, versus, vertere, to turn] differing, various, many. Diversify, v. [Fr. diver sifier, L. diver sum, facer e] to make diverse, to vary. Diversified. Diversity, s. \Yx. diver site, h.divers- itatem, vertere] variety. Divide, v. [L. dividere] to separate into two, separate. Divided. Divine, adj. [L. divinus, divus, a God] belonging to theGods, sacred. Divine, v. [L. divinus, a sooth- sayer] to foretell, guess. Divined. Divinity, s. [Fr. divinite, L. divini- tatem, divinus] matters belonging to God, the deity. Division, s. [Fr. division, L. divi- sionem, divisus, dividere] separat- ing, parting, a part. Divorce, s. [Fr. divorce, L. divort- ium, vertere^ dissolution of mar- riage, separation. GLOSSARy. 457 Do, see pages 75, 77. Dock, s., a hollowed place for shipbuilding, an inclosed basin for vessels. Dolphin, s. [L. delphin, Gr. del- phiri] a large fish. Dome, s. [Fr. dome. It. duomo, Gr. doma, a building] a vaulted roof, cupola. Domestic, adj. [Fr. domestique, L. domesticus, domus, a house] be- longing to the house, fond of home. Don, V. [E. do, o«] to put on, assume. Donned. Doom, s. [E. dom, deeni] judgment, sentence. Doom, v., to sentence, condemn. Doomed. Door, s. [E. dor, duru] an opening, the gate of a house, an entrance. Double, adj. [Fr. double, L. duplus, duplex ; duo, two, plica, a fold] twofold. Doubt, V. [O. Fr. doubter, L. dubitare, dubius, duo'] to incline two ways, hesitate, distrust. Doubted. Doubt, s., suspense, hesitation, dis- trust. Adj. doubtful. Dove, s. [E. diiva, dujian, to dive] the bird that dives swiftly through the air, a pigeon. Down, adv. prep. [E. adown, of, dune, from the hill] to a lower place, on the ground. Doze, v., to fall to sleep, to sleep lightly. Dozed. Dozen, adj. [Fr. douzaine, douze, L. duodecim] twelve, a set of twelve. Drag, v., to haul, pull, draw forcibly. Dragged. Dragon, s. [Fr. dragon, L. dra- conem, Gr. drakon, derkomai, I see] a serpent, a fabulous creature (so called from its bright eyes). Drake, s. [E. ened, duck, rick, rule] the male duck. Draught, s. [E. drag] the act of drawing, that which is drawn, a current of air. Draw, v. [softened form of E. drag"] to pull, haul gently, entice. Drew, drawn. Subs, drawer. Dread, s. [E. drcedan] awe, fear, terror. Adj. dreadful. Dream, s., an appearance in sleep, a vision. Dream, v., to see in sleep, to think in sleep, to behave as a person asleep. Dreamed or dreamt. Dreary, adj. [E. drearig, dreosajt, to fall] troubled, dejected, gloomy. Dress, v. [Fr. dresser, L. directus, dirigere] to arrange, prepare, clothe, trim. Dressed or drest. Dress, s., clothing. Dresser, s. [Fr. dressoir, dresser] a kitchen table for preparing meat. Drill, V. [E. thirlian, by metathesis] to shake, pierce, exercise, exercisfe soldiers. Drilled. Drink, v. [E. drincati] to take in liquid, suck in, imbibe. Drank, drunken or drunk. Drive, v. [E. drifan] to urge, push violently, hurry on, guide. Drave or drove, driven. Drone, s. [from the sound] the male non-working bee, an idler. Dronish, adj. [E. drone] like a drone, idle, lazy. Droop, V. [E. drop] to hang, to be sad. Drooped. Drop, v., to fall in drops, to let fall. Dropped or dropt. Drug, s. [Fr. drogue] aromatic herbs, medicines. Dry, adj. [E. drig] free from mois- ture, thirsty, severe, uninteresting. Duck, s. [E. duck, to dip] the bird that dips its head in the water. Duckling, s. [dim. of E. duck] a young duck. Due, adj. [Fr. dii, devoir, L. debere] owed, proper, fit, a debt. Adv. duly. Duke, s. [Fr. due, L. ducem, dux] a leader, nobleman of the highest rank in England. Dumb, adj., dull, silent, unable to speak. ^58 GLOSSARV. Durable, adj. [L. durahilis, durare^ to last] able to endure, lasting, strong. During, prep. [pres. part. E. dure] lasting through. Dust, s., powder, fine particles of earth. Dutch, adj. [G. deutsch, deut, the people] a name by which the Germans call themselves, but which the English have confined to the branch of the German race which lives in Holland; belonging to the Hollanders. Duty, s. [O. Fr. deute, devoir, L. debere] what is due, obligation. Dwell, v., to delay, linger, stay, Hve. Dwelt. Dwelling, s. [E. dwell] z house. Each, distr. pr. [E. cbIc, cb^ ever ; lie, like] one by one, every one separately. Eager, adj. [Fr. aigre, L. acrem, acer] sharp, ardent, vehement. Eaglet, s. [E. eagle, Fr. aigle, L. aqvila] a young eagle. Ear, s., the organ of hearing. Early, adj. [E. cer, ere, lie] before- hand, in time, soon. Earn, v. [E. earnian, ear, to plough] to gain by labour, to get, to deserve. Earned. Earth, s. [E. eor^e, ear, to plough] ploughland, land, the world. Adj. earthly. Earthquake, s. [E. earth, quake] a shaking of the earth, a con- vulsion of the earth. Ease, s. [Fr. aise] quiet, rest. Adj. easy ; Adv. easily. East, s., the rising, the place of sunrise, the countries east of Eu- rope. Adj. eastern ; Adv. eastward. Eat, V. [E. etan] to consume food, to devour, consume. Ate or eat, eaten. Ebal, s., a mountain on the north side of the town of Shechem, or Samaria, in Palestine, from which part of the Law of Moses was proclaimed. Ebb, V. [E. ehha, the going away of the tide] to fall, decline. Ebbed. Echo, s. [L. and Gr. echo] a re- peated sound, sound driven back. PI. echoes. Echo, v., to send back a sound, to repeat. Echoed. Eclipse, s. [L. eclipsis, Gr. ekleipsis, leipein, to fail] a failing of light, hiding. Eddy, s. [E. ythian, to boil, yth, a wave] a whirlpool, a whirling rush of water. Edge, s. [E. ecg, a point] a border, sharp side. Adj. edged, having an edge. Educate, v. [L. educatus, educare] to train, cultivate, teach. Edu- cated. Effect, s. [L. effectum, e, facer e] result, consequence. Effectually, adv. [E. effectual, L. effectualis, effectum] thoroughly, to some purpose. Effeminacy, s. [E. effeminate, L. effeminatus, femina, a woman] womanishness, weakness of char- acter. Effigy, s. [Fr. effigie, L. effigiem, e, fingere, to form] a figure, like- ness, representation of a person. Effort, s. [Fr. effort, L. e, fortis, strong] a strong attempt, struggle. Egyptian, adj. [Egypt] belonging to Egypt, a native of Egypt. Eight, num. adj. [E. eahta] twice four, the cardinal next after seven. Either, pr. [E. cegther] one of two, see page 57. Elbow, s. [E. ell, arm, boga, a bow] the bend of the arm. Elegant, adj. [Fr. elegant, L. ele- gantem, elegans] graceful, refined, tasteful. Element, s. [Fr. element, L. elemen- tum] a first principle, ingredient. Elephant, s. [Fr. elephant, L. GLOSSARr. 259 elephantem, perhaps from Hebrew, Aleph, hifidi, Indian bull] a large thick-skinned quadruped with trunk and two ivory tusks. Elevation, s. [L. elevationem, e, levare, to lift] lifting up, height. Elf, s. [E. celf] a little spirit sup- posed to haunt woods, a fairy. Elizabeth, s., Queen of England, daughter of Henry VHI and Anne Boleyn, born 1533, reigned 1558-1603. Eloquence, s. [Fr. eloquence, L. eloquentia^ e, loqui, to speak] fluent speech, oratory. Eloquent, adj. [Fr. eloquent, L. eloquentem, e, loqui] speaking with ease and fluency. Else, adj. [E. elles, otherwise; el, other] other, besides. Elsewhere, adv. [E. else] in another place. * Em-. See En-. Emaciation, s. [L. emaciationem, e, macere, to waste] wasting, thinness. Embank, v. [E. banli] to enclose with a mound, bank up. Em- hanked. Embark, v. [E. hark] to put on board a bark or ship, go on board, commence. Embarked. Embers, s. [E. cemyrian'] burning ashes. Emblem, s. [Fr. embleme, Gr. em- blema, en, in, ballein, to lay] an inlaid ornament, a picture, type, symbol. Embrace, v. [O. Fr. embracer, brace, L. brachium] to fold in the arms. Embraced. Embroidery, s. [E. broider, bre- dan, bregdan, to weave] woven work, ornamental needlework. Eminence, s. [Fr. eminence, L. eminentia, e, minere, to threaten] elevation, height, greatness. Eminent, adj. [Fr. eminent, L. eminentem, e, minere] high, stand- ing out, illustrious. Emotion, s. [L. emotionem, e, motus, movere, to move] move- ment of the feelings, agitation. Emphatical, adj. [E. emphatic ^ Fr. emphatique, L. and Gr. em- phasis, emphainein, to show] im- pressive, forcible. Empire, s. [Fr. empire, L. impe- rium] dominion, the dominion of an absolute monarch. Employ, V. [Fr. employer, L. m, plicare, to fold] to turn to one's purpose, to use. Employed. Empty, 2id].\E.tn, satire, to trample] affront. Intelligence, s. [Fr. intelligence, L. intelligentia, intelligere] under- standing, sense, information. Intense, adj. [L, intensus, in, tend- er e, to stretch] strained, vehe- ment, eager. Subs, intensity. Intent, adj. [L. intentus, in, tender e] eager, attentive. Subs, the thing intended, purpose. Interference, s. [L. interferentia, interferre] coming between, inter- position, meddling. Interior, adj. [L. interior, inter, inside] inner, inland. Intermission, s. [L. intermisUonem, missus, mittere, to send] interval, rest, interruption. Interrupt, v. [L. interruptus, rum" pere, to break] to break in upon, divide. Interrupted, Interval, s. [L. inter, vallum, space between the ramparts] a space, rest, remission. Intervention, s. [L. interventionem, ventus, venire] coming between, interference. Interweave, v. [L. inter, E. weave] to weave together, mingle. In- terwove or interweaved, inter- woven or interweaved. Into, prep., expressing entrance. Invade, v. [L. invader e, to enter] to enter with hostile purpose. Invaded. Investigate, v. [L. investigatus, vestigare, track] to trace, search into, examine. Investigated. 278 GLOSSARY. Invincible, adj. [Fr. invincible, L. t/mc£re, to conquer J unconquerable. Invisible, adj. [Fr. invisible, L. visibiliSf videre] unable to be seen, out of sight. Invite, V. [Fr. inviter, L. invitare] to call, summon, attract, tempt. Invited. Ireland, s,, an island off the west- ern coast of Britain. Adj. Irish. Iron, s. [E. iren, isen'\ metal, a hard dark-coloured metal. Adj. iron, made of iron, hard, strong, lasting. Irradiate, v. [L. in, radiatus, radiare, radius, a ray] to cast rays upon, to light. Irradiated. Irrigation, s. [L. irrigationem, irri- gatus, rigarey to water] watering of land. Irritate, v. [L. irritatus, irritare'] to anger, excite. Irritated. Isaac, s., son of Abraham and Sarah, a patriarch of the Hebrews. Isis, s., a goddess of the ancient Egyptians. Island, s. [E. igland, eoland, ea, water, the s having arisen from confusion with isle, insula] water- land, land surrounded by water. Subs, islander. Isle, s. [O. Fr. isle, L. insula] an island. Israel, s. [Hebrew Isar, el, prince of God] a name of Jacob, son of Isaac and Rebekah ; the nation descended from Israel. Issue, s. [Fr. issue, issu, O. Fr. issir, L. exire, to go forth] outlet, off- spring, children. Issue, v., to come forth. Issued. Italy, s., the southernmost peninsula of Europe, projecting into the middle of the Mediterranean Sea. Adj. Italian. Ivy, s. [E. i/ig] an evergreen creeping plant which clothes walls and trees. Jack-boots, s. [jack, a rough coat of mail] boots protecting the up- per part of the leg. Jacket, s. [E. jack, Fr. jaquette, jaque, a coat worn by the French peasants in the 14th cent.] a small coat. Jacob, s,, son of Isaac and Rebekah, a patriarch of the Hebrews. Jag, v., to notch, cut into teeth, roughen. Jagged. James, s. [O.Fr. Jaquemes,!,. Jaco- bus] King of England, James II of England and VI [ of Scotland, son of Charles I, reigned 1685-1688, died at St. Germains in France, 1701. Japan, s., a large island off the eastern coast of Asia. Jason, s., a Greek hero, son of ^son, leader of the Argonauts, who sailed from lolkos in Thes- saly, in the ship Argo, to fetch the golden fleece from iEa, or Colchis, in the far East, ruled by .ffiaetes, son of the Sun-God. Javelin, s. [Fr. javeline] a small spear, a dart. Jaw, s. [E. chaw, chew] the bones which hold the teeth, mouth. Jebus, s., the ancient name of Jerusalem. Jericho, s., a town of Canaan near the western bank of the Jordan. Jerk, s., a sudden stroke. Jerusalem-artichoke, s. [It. gira- sole,girare, to turn, al sole, to the sun] the sun-flower artichoke, a vegetable whose root tastes like ; the artichoke. Jest, s. [E. gest, Fr. geste, a story, L. gestum, a deed, gerere] a story, laughable story, joke. Jesus, s. [Gr. lesous, Heb. Joshua] a saviour, the Saviour of man. Jet, s. [O.Fr. jaiet, L.gagates, Gagas in Lycia] a black mineral, origin- ally obtained from a river in Lycia. Jew, s. [Fr.jmf, L. Judaeus] a man of Judaea, Hebrew. Jewel, s. [O. Yx.jouel, L.jocale] a precious stone, treasure. GLOSSARV. 379 Join, V. [Fr. joindre, L. jungere] to unite, annex. Joined. Joiner, s., one who joins, a car- penter. Joint, V. {Ft. joint, O.Yi.joinct, L. junctum, jungere] a joining, seam, hinge. Jolly, adj. [Ft. jolt, Scand. 70/ = yule, the winter feast] festive, happy, joyous. Joshua, s., son of Nun, the great leader of Israel into Canaan, the successor of Moses. Journey, s. [Fr. journee, jour, L. diurnus, dies, a day] a day's march, travel. Jove, s. [L. Joveni] Jupiter, the god of day, the chief god of the Romans. Joy, s. [Fr. joie. It. gioia, L gau- diuni] delight, happiness. Adj. joyful, joyous. Judeea, s., the land of Judah, the southern part of Canaan. Judgment, s. [Ft. jugement, juge, L.judicem, judex, a judge] act of judging, decision, doom. Jump, s., a leap, spring. June, s. [Fr. juin, L. Junius] the sixth month. Jury, s. [FT.jure,jurer, L.jurata, jurare, to swear] a body of men sworn to give judgment justly. Just, adj. [Fr. juste, L. Justus, jus, law] upright, honest, fair, exact. Adv. just, exactly, almost exactly, very nearly. Justice, s. [Fr. justice, L. justitia, jus] lawfulness, right, a magistrate. Justify, V. [Fr. justifier, L. justi- ficare, justum, facere] to make just, excuse, vindicate. Justified. Jutting, adj. [E. jut, jet, FT.jeter, O. FT.jecter, h.jactare, to throw] projecting, shooting out. Keel, s. [E. ceol, Scand. kidlr, a ship] a vessel, the bottom of a vessel, the great timber on which a ship's ribs are supported. Keen, adj. [E. cene] sharp, eager, acute. Keep, V. [E. cepan, to watch] to observe, take care of, hold. Kept. Key, s. [E. caeg] an instrument for shutting and opening locks. Kill, V. [E. cwellan] to smother, slay, put to death. Killed. Kind, s. [E. kin, cyn, cennan, to beget] family, race, sort. Elind, adj. behaving like one of the same family, loving, gentle. Adv. kindly. Kindle, v. [E. candle, L. candela, candere, to shine] to light up, set on fire. Kindled. Kindred, s. [E. kinrede^ cyn, rcedan, state] kinship, relationship, re- lations. Kine, see Cow. King, s. [E. cyning, father] the fa- ther of a people, ruler, monarch. Kiss, v., to touch with the lips Kissed. Kitchen, s. [E. cycene, L. coquina, coquere, to cook] a cooking-place, room for cooking. Knee, s. [E. cneovJ] the chief joint of the leg, an angle like a bent leg. Kneel, v. [E. knee] to fall upon the knees. Kneeled or knelt. Knife, s. [E. cnif] a nipping, cut- ting, instrument. Knight, s. [E, cniht, a servant] the king's servant, a gentleman rank- ing below a noble. Knit, V. [E. cnittan] to unite, tie together. Knitted or knit. Knot, s. [E. c7iotta, knii\ a thing knitted, a lump. Know, V. [E. cndwari] to hold in the mind, apprehend, perceive clearly, understand. Knew, known. Knowledge,- s. [E. knowleche, know, lece, lac, sport, condition] state of knowing, information, learning. Kronos, s,, an ancient god among the Greeks; in later days the name was explained to mean Time, and 28o GLOSS A Ry. he was accounted the father of Zeus the supreme god. Labour, s. [L.laboreni] toil, work. Labour, v., to toil, work, to be in difficulty. Laboured. Labourer, s., one who labours, a workman. Lacedemonian, s., an inhabitant of Lacedaemon, a city of Laconia. Lack, v., to be in want, to want, fail. Lacked. Laconia, s., a district in the south of the Peloponnesus, in Greece. Xiad, s., a boy, youth. Lade, v. [E. hladan] to heap upon, weigh, oppress, load. Laded, laden or laded. Lady, s. [E. hlcpfdige = hldfweard- ige, fern, of hldfweard, the loaf keeper, lord] mistress of a house, wife, gentlewoman. Lair, s. [E. layer, lay] the lying place of a wild beast, a den. Lake, s. [Fr. lac, L. lacus\ a small inland sea. Lamb, s., a young sheep. Lament, v. [Fr. lamenter, L. /a^ mentart] to cry, wail, mourn. Lamented. Lamp, s. [Fr. lampe, L. and Gr. lampas, a torch] a vessel contain- ing a light, a light. Lance, s. [Fr. lance, L. lancea] a spear, a long pointed weapon used by some horse soldiers. Land, s., earth, ground, a country. Adj. landless. Land, v., to come to land, to come to shore, to disembark. Landed. Lane, s. [variation of E. lawn'] an open space between hedges. Language, s. [Fr. langage, langue, L. lingua, a tongue] speech, tongue. Languid, adj. [L. languidus] weak, feeble, listless. Languish, v. [Fr. languissant, lan->- guir, L. languere] to grow weak, to be weak, to fail. Languished. Lantern, s. [Fr. lanterne, L. lan- terna, a lamp] a case containing a light, portable lamp. Lap, v., to lick, drink like a dog. Lapped. Lapse, s., [Fx. lapse, L. lapsus, labi, to glide] a passing, slip. Large, adj. [Fr. large, L. largus] big, great. Lark, s. [E. laverock, laferc] the little singer, a bird noted for singing in the open sky. Last, adj., see page 51. Late, adj., slow, behind the time, past, see page 51. Latin, adj. [L. Latinus] belonging to the people of Latium, Roman. Latitude, s. [Fr. latitude, L. latitu- dinem, latus, broad] breadth, ^ liberty, distance irom the equator. Laugh, V. [E. hlihan, from the sound] to make a noise expressing mirth, or joy. Laughed. Laugher, s. [E. laugh] one who laughs. Laughter, s. [E. laugh] the sound of laughing. Launch, v. [Fr. lancer, lance] to throw as a lance, let slip. Launched. La-w, s. [E. lag, lecgan, to lay down] rule, statute, order. Adj. lawful. Lawn, s. [W. llan] an open space, an open piece of grass. Lay, V. [E. lecgan] to cause to Jic, place, put down. Laid, laid. Lazy, adj. [E. leas, loose; or Fr. J las, L. lassus] idle, sluggish. 1 Lea, s. [E. leag, pasture] land laid in grass, pasture, meadow. Lead, s., a metal of dull bluish colour. Lead, v. [E. Icedan, lad, a way] to guide upon the way, direct, help. Led, led. Leaf, s., the flat part of a plant, a page, part of a table. Leafage, s. [E. leaf] leaves, foliage. League, s. [L. L. leuga, Gael. 1 GLOSSARY, 281 leag^ a stone] a measure of distance, three miles ; Xieague- long, stretching three miles. Leaguer, s. [E. league, Fr. ligiie, L. iigare, to bind] one who joins a league, an ally. Lean, v. [E. hlyniari] to bend, incline, slope. Leaned or leant. Leap, V. [E. hledpaii] to spring, jump, bound. Leaped or leapt. Leap, s., a spring, jump. Learn, v. [E. leomian, Iceran, to teach] to teach, gain knowledge. Learned or learnt. Least, see page 51. Leather, s. [E. lether'] dressed skin, tanned hide. Leave, v. [E. Icefan'] to go away from, forsake. Left. Leave, s. [E. leaf, lyfan, to allow] permission, liberty. Leaven, s. [Fr. levain, lever, L. levare, to raise] yeast which makes dough ri$e. Lebanon, s., a range of mountains in the north of Canaan. Ledge, s. [E. lecgan, to lay] a flat strip, shelf, rim. Xieft, adj. [E. lift, from same root as light'] the lighter or weaker hand, opposite to right. Leg, s., the limb on which animals stand. Legend, s. [Fr. legende, L. legenda, legere, to read] a story to be read, a story, an unlikely story, an old story resting on little foundation. Legion, s. [Fr. legion, L. legionem, legere, to enrol] a body of Roman soldiers, a body of soldiers, a very large number. Leisure, s. [Fr. loisir, L. licere, to be allowed] permission, liberty, freedom from work, rest. Lend, v. [E. Icenan"] to let for hire, give on condition of repayment. Lent. Len'gth, s. [E. longl extent long- wise. Leopard, s. [Fr. leopard, Gr, leon, pardos] the llon-pard, a spotted animal of the tiger family. Lesbos, s., an island intheiEgean sea, off the coast of uEolis in Asia Minor. Less, see page 51. Lessen, v. [E. less] to make less, make smaller, diminish. Lessened. Lest, conj. [E. less, least] that the less, that not. Let, V. [E. Icetan] to loose, leave alone, allow, permit. Let, lei. Let, V. [E. lettan] to put a stop to, hinder, prevent. Let, let. Let, s., a hindrance. Letter, s. [L. liter a] a mark repre- senting a sound, an epistle. Level, s. [E. Idfel, L. libella, libra, a balance] a plummet, line, rule. Level, adj., smoothed by a level, even, horizontal. Level, v., to make even, smooth. Levelled. Lever, s. [Fr. levier, lever, L. levare, to raise] a lifter, an instru- ment for raising weights. Liberal, adj. [L. liber alis, liber, free] free-handed, generous, open. Liberality, s. [Fr. liber alite, L. liberalitatem, liber'] generosity, bounty, largeness of mind. Liberty, s. [Fr. liberie, L. liberta- tem, liber] freedom. Library, s. [L. librarium, liber, a book] a place for books, a col- lection of books. Lichen, s. [L. lichen, Gr. leichen] cryptogamic, or flowerless, vege- tation growing on trees or stones. Lick, V. \lc>. liccian] to touch with the tongue, lap. Licked. Lie, V. [E. leogan, lyge, a lie] to say what is untrue, tell a falsehood. Lied. Life, s., being, existence. Lift, V. [E. hlifian] to raise, elevate, carry away. Lifted or lift. Light, s. [E. leoht, lig] a thin shining fluid, day, brightness. Light, adj., not heavy, lively, active. , Adv. lightly. 282 GLOSSARV. Xiight, v., to give light to, kindle, set fire to. Lighted or ///. Xigbten, v., to make light, illumi- nate; free from trouble. Lightened. Ijighthouse, s., a tower with light to direct sailors at sea. Lightning, s. [E. lighten] a flash of light after thunder. Like, adj. [E. lie, a body] of same form, similar. Adv. likely. Like, v., to compare, approve, be pleased with. Liked. Liken, v. [E. like] to make like, compare. Likened. Likewise, adv., in like wise, in similar manner, also. Limb, s. [E. lim] a joint, branch. Lime, s. [E. lim] sticky matter, viscous juice of young twigs, cal- careous earth used as cement in building. Limit, s. [Fr. limite, L. limitem^ limes, a path] a boundary, end. Line, s. [L. linea, linum, flax] a thin cord, a long stroke, a row. Line, v., to place a row alongside of, cover the inside of. Lined. Linen, s. [Fr. linon, lin, L. linum, flax] cloth made of flax. Linger, v. [E. long] to stay long, delay, dawdle. Lingered. Linnet, s. [Fr. linotte, L. linum] the flax-finch, a finch which feeds much on flaxseed. Lion, s. [Fr. lion, L. leonem, leo] a large quadruped closely allied to the cat. Lip, s. [E. lippe, lap] that which laps, the border of the naouth, edge. Liquefy, v. [Fr. liquefier, L. lique- facere] to make fluid, melt. Liquefied. Liquid, adj. [L. liquidus] flowing, fluid. Literature, s. [L. literatura, litera, a letter, linere] the science of letters, books, writings. Little, adj., small. Seepage 51. Live, V. [E. lybhan, lif] to be, exist, have life, dwell. Lived. Live, adj. [E. life] having life, alive, active. Lively, adj., like a person alive, active, vigorous. Subs, liveliness. Living, s., means of keeping life, income. Lo, interj., oh, ah, see, behold [a combination of la, and loc, see.] Load, v., [E. hlad, a load] to heap on, pile, lade. Loaded, loaded or loaden. Lock, s. [E. locan, to fasten] a fastening, a place shut in. Lofty, adj. [E. loft, lift, the air] airy, high, haughty. Subs, loftiness. Log, s., a lumpy piece of wood, anything heavy and unshapen. Logic, s. [L. logica, Gr. logike, logos, reason] the science of rea- soning, reason. Loin, s. [Fr. longe, L. lumbea, lumhus] a band of flesh along the back; Loins, the lower part of the back. Loiter, v., to idle, go slowly, dawdle. Loitered. Lombardy, s., the land of the Lon^o-hardi, or longbeards ; a district in the north of Italy, under the southern slopes of the Alps. London, s., a city on the river Thames, capital of England. Lonely, adj. [E. alone] alone, un- frequented, solitary. Long, adj., extended, outspread, not short. Xiong, v., to desire earnestly. Longed. Look, V. [E. locian] to fix the eye, spy, seem. Looked. Loom, s. [E. loma] a tool, instru- ment ; instrument for weaving. Loose, adj, [E. leas, weak] slack, free, untied, immoral. Loose, v., to set free, untie. Loosed. Lord, s. [E. hldf, loaf, w'eard, warder] master, employer, a noble- man. Adj. lordly. GLOSSARr. 283 Lordship, s. [E. lord, ship] state of being a lord, a lord's land, a lord. Lose, V. [E. leas] to let go free, miss, waste. Lost. Loss, s. [E. los, leas] losing, thing lost, waste, injury, harm. Loth, adj. [E. loath, lath, hateful] sorry, reluctant, disliking. Loud, adj. [E, hhid, a sound] sounding, noisy. Love, s. [E. Inf] fondness, affection. Love, V. [E. Ivjian, luf] to be pleased with, desire, be fond of. Loved. Lovely, adj. [E.love] fit to be loved, beautiful. Lover, s., one who loves. Lo"W, adj. [E. lecgan, to lay] laid, far down, mean, common. Lower, v. [E. low] to put down, de- grade, sink, let down. Lowered. Lowly, adj. [E. low] humble, meek, unassuming. Lucifer, s. [L. lucent, lux, light, ferre, to bring] the morning star, a name given to Satan. Luck, s. [G. glucli] fortune, chance, good fortune. Adj. luckless, un- fortunate. Lump, s., an unshapen piece, mass, heap. Lung, s,, the organ of breathing. Lurid, adj.[L. luridus] pale,gloomy, stormy. Luscious, adj. [E. lushious, lush] rich, very sweet. Lustre, s. [Fr. lustre, L. lustrare, lucere, to shine] light, brightness, splendour. Lute, s. \0.'Fx.luth,leut,kx2ih.elud] a stringed musical instrument, like a small harp. Luxury, s. [L. luxuria, rankness] excess, extravagance, self-indulg- ence. Lydia, s., a district in the centre of the west coast of A«ia, a wo- man's name. Adj. Lydian. Lyonnesse, s., a district famous in the romances as the scene of many of King Arthur's deeds, repre- sented as west of Cornwall, now submerged by the sea. Lyre, s. [Fr. lyre, L. and Gr. lyra] a harp. Mackerel, s. [O. Fr. maquerel, It. maccarello, L. macula, a spot] a fish marked with blotches of dark colour. Mad, adj., excited, furious, insane. Magistrate, s. [L. magistratus, magister] a public officer, an in- ferior judge. Magnificent,adj. [L.ma^«/;?c