CALIFORNIA 
 AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE 
 
 CIRCULAR 15 
 
 March, 1928 
 
 PORK PRODUCTION 
 IN CALIFORNIA 
 
 E. H. HUGHES AND L. W. FELDMILLER 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 Cooperative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agriculture, 
 University of California, and United States Department of Agriculture cooperating. Dis- 
 tributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30, 1914. B. H. Crocheron, 
 Director, California Agricultural Extension Service. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRINTING OFFICE 
 
 BERKELEY. CALIFORNIA 
 
 1928 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2011 with funding from 
 
 University of California, Davis Libraries 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/porkproductionin15hugh 
 
PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 
 
 E. H. HUGHESi and L. W. FELDMILLER2 
 
 5lA/IN^ D/3Tf?IBUTI0N 
 in 
 I CALIFORNIA 
 
 Fig. 1. — Outline map, showing production areas. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The demand for pork products in California exceeds the supply, 
 and because of the rapidly increasing population it will probably 
 continue to do so. For this reason live hogs bring one or two cents 
 more a pound on the San Francisco, Oakland, and Los Angeles 
 markets than on the mid-western markets. 
 
 In the Great Valley and the adjacent foothills, large crops of 
 barley, grain sorghums, and alfalfa are raised annually. That these 
 feeds will produce pork of excellent quality has long been know^n. 
 
 1 Associate Professor of Animal Husbandry and Associate Animal Husband- 
 man in the Experiment Station. 
 
 2 Herdsman, Branch of the College of Agriculture, Davis, California. 
 
4 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE [CiRC. 15 
 
 Barley and rice stubble, surplus by-products from the packing plant 
 and the dairy, damaged and cull fruits and vegetables, and kitchen 
 waste can be utilized economically by the pig in the production of 
 fresh and cured meats for the home and for the commercial trade. 
 
 Climatic conditions are excellent. Since green feed is always 
 available during the winter months, it is possible to pasture all year. 
 During the summer months, if there is no natural shade, artificial 
 shade should be provided. A shelter sufficient to keep the pigs dry 
 is advisable during the winter season. 
 
 Two litters a year are produced by most growers. The fall pigs 
 often develop as well as the spring litters. 
 
 gg i w y'iii i iiii 
 
 ^ p- 
 
 Fig. 2.- — The tinislied prodiu-t, bied and fed on a California farm'. 
 
 Swine raising is logically an integral part of a diversified agricul- 
 ture. A few pigs on most farms would increase the net returns. With 
 few exceptions there is enough feed wasted on every farm to supply 
 the pork consumed on that farm. Pork production may be carried 
 on profitably with a small amount of capital invested in foundation 
 stock, labor, and equipment. 
 
 LOCATION OF FARM AND EQUIPMENT 
 
 The ideal location of a hog ranch is one where alfalfa can be 
 produced cheaply, where barley or other grain feeds can be grown 
 economically, and where shade and water are plentiful. Pork pro- 
 duction in conjunction with the dairy, where skim milk, buttermilk, 
 or whey is available has long been recognized as good practice. 
 
1928] 
 
 PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 
 
 If the swine barn and lots can be located where natural shade is 
 provided and where drainage is good or where the soil is light or 
 sandy, it is much easier to keep the hogs cool during the summer 
 and clean during the winter. Nearness to market, good shipping 
 facilities, productive soil, adequate water supply, and natural shade 
 are all factors which make for success in profitable pork production. 
 
 Central or Farrowing House. — Two types of central or farrowing 
 houses are in use, one consisting of two rows of farrowing pens with 
 an alley through the center and storage space at one end (fig. 3), and 
 the other being simply a series of farrowing pens covered with a 
 shed roof. In both types the partitions should be at least 30 inches 
 
 Fig. 3. — Central farrowing house in use at the University of California, 
 with Sudan grass pasture in the foreground. 
 
 high and may be of wood, woven-wire, or gas-pipe construction. A 
 door in each pen should lead to an outside pen where the sow and pigs 
 may have access to the direct rays of the sun and where exercise will 
 be taken naturally. The floor should be of concrete or board because 
 it is practically impossible to keep a dirt floor clean and free from 
 infection. The farrowing pen should be at least 6 feet wide and 8 feet 
 long, with a guard rail about 8 inches above the floor to afford pro- 
 tection for the small pigs. 
 
 Movahle Houses. — There are many types of movable houses. The 
 most desirable for California conditions, however, is one that affords 
 protection against rain in the winter and provides shade during the 
 summer. Satisfactory dimensions are 8 feet wide by 14 feet long, 
 with sides at least 3 feet high. A gable roof and a board floor are 
 desirable (fig. 4). Built on 4 by 6-inch runners or skids, such a house 
 may be moved from one lot to another. 
 
CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE 
 
 [CiRC. 15 
 
 Fencing. — Fences are an important part of the equipment. Wood, 
 concrete, or steel posts are satisfactory. The posts should be not 
 farther than 8 or 10 feet apart. Several types of fencing are in use. 
 For small lots, a fence built of 1 by 6-inch unsurfaced boards, four 
 boards high, with about a 3-inch space between the bottom boards is 
 a very good one. Woven-wire fencing, however, is very popular. An 
 excellent woven-wire fence has a diamond mesh, 32 inches in height, 
 with a barbed wire at the bottom and at the top. 
 
 Fig. 4. — Movable house that affords protection in winter and shade during 
 the summer months. A partition may be placed in the middle, affording farrow- 
 ing quarters for two sows. 
 
 Hog Wallows. — Concrete hog Avallows 8 or 10 feet wide and 14 
 to 16 feet long are desirable equipment. They should be so constructed 
 as to be easily accessible and should be supplied with a drain to 
 facilitate cleaning. Only 4 to 6 inches of water need be kept in the 
 wallow, and this should be frequentl}^ removed and the wallow 
 thoroughly cleaned. A film of crude or crank-case oil on the water is 
 a valuable preventive of lice and mange, and aids in keeping the hair 
 of the pig in good condition. 
 
 TYPES AND BREEDS 
 
 Both lard and bacon types of hogs are found in the state. Of the 
 former, the most common are the Berkshire, Hampshire, Chester 
 White, Duroc-Jersey, and Poland-China, the last two named being 
 more numerous than the other breeds. Of the bacon type, the Tam- 
 
1928] PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 7 
 
 worth is most common, although a few large Yorkshires are found, 
 principally in the northern part of the state. 
 
 During recent years a gradual change in the lard type of hogs 
 has been brought about by changing demands of the consuming public 
 and by the realization of the producer that a longer-legged and more 
 upstanding hog is grown more rapidly and is a better rustler than the 
 wide, shorter-legged animal (figs. 5 and 6). This change in type has, 
 perhaps, been partially responsible for an increase in the prolificacy 
 of the average sow. Probably the added length and depth have given 
 the brood sow more capacity, which, in turn, has resulted in an 
 increase in milk production. 
 
 SELECTION OF THE BREEDING HERD 
 
 In selecting animals for breeding purposes, it is good practice to 
 purchase from a reputable individual or firm. 
 
 There are three ways of determining the value of an animal as a 
 breeder : first, by individuality ; second, by pedigree ; and third, by 
 progeny. Most hogs selected for the production of pork are chosen 
 on their individuality and pedigree. Animals two years old or over 
 are seldom purchased for this purpose. Wherever possible, purebred 
 animals should be used in founding a herd. A purebred sire should 
 always be used. If it is not possible or feasible to begin with purebred 
 sows, high-grade animals of good conformation and constitution may 
 logically be substituted. 
 
 To select breeding animals requires an appreciation of the essential 
 functions which the different classes of hogs have to perform. A 
 finished barrow is one which has been a good feeder, which will dress 
 out profitably as a killer, and which will meet the demand of the 
 consumer. 
 
 Selecting the Brood Sow. — Uniformity of type, color markings, 
 and similarity in bloodlines, should be considered when choosing the 
 sow herd. It is advisable that each one be a prolific and regular 
 breeder. For this reason, a knowledge of the prolificacy of the sire 
 and dam is of value. It is often advantageous and as cheap to buy 
 sows already bred to a good boar. One should keep in mind that the 
 sow should produce pigs that will make good feeders, gain rapidly, 
 be finished at a marketable weight, and be of a type that will produce 
 maximum returns when slaughtered. 
 
 The good brood sow should be large, show femininity and refine- 
 ment about the head, have large, clear eyes, ears medium in size, be 
 
8 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE [CiRC. 15 
 
 neat in the jowl, and have desirable width between the eyes and a 
 strong muzzle. Her back and loin should be strong and slightly 
 arched; she should be smooth about the shoulders, and have long, 
 deep, smooth sides. Her hams should be deep, full, and not flabby. 
 The udder should be well developed with from ten to fourteen teats. 
 She should have straight, strong legs, not too close together, with bone 
 of good quality, and short pasterns. Her chest should be deep and 
 not pinched, showing a strong constitution. Fine hair, smoothness 
 of outline, and refinement indicate quality. 
 
 The ideal brood sow will show indications of an even temperament. 
 She should be docile, and not display an irritable disposition. The 
 nervous, excitable sow does not raise as large a percentage of pigs 
 farrowed as the one with an even temperament. 
 
 When the pigs are weaned, it is good practice to check up the 
 records and to sort out for fattening those sows which, for some reason 
 or another, did not raise large litters or which raised pigs of poor 
 type and quality. 
 
 Selecting the Boar. — Inasmuch as a large part of the improvement 
 in the herd comes through the use of a good sire, the selection of the 
 boar is extremely important. The boar should be purebred. There 
 is no excuse for the use of a grade or scrub boar. The boar should 
 not be purchased when too young. The selection should be deferred 
 until he is about six months of age, when any serious defects may be 
 detected. It is practically impossible to foresee at weaning time the 
 pig's development. He should be from a prolific family to insure in 
 his offspring the ability to produce large litters. 
 
 The temperament of the boar is as important as that of the sow. 
 A cross, irritable boar is hard to handle and should not be selected 
 unless he has some extraordinary qualities needed in the herd. 
 
 The boar should be large and rugged, showing masculinity and 
 strength. Masculinity is shown in a strong muzzle, large, clear eyes, 
 ears that are somewhat larger than those of the sow, a strong neck, and 
 well developed shoulders. He should possess straight, strong legs, with 
 plenty of bone. The pasterns should be short and straight. The body 
 of the boar should be thicker than that of the sow, with more width 
 of back ; the back and loin should be strong and slightly arched ; the 
 sides, deep and smooth, with full hams. 
 
 The boar does not show quite so much refinement as the sow; 
 however, coarseness, especially wrinkles and creases about the 
 shoulder, are objectionable. The sex organs should be well developed. 
 
1028 
 
 *ORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 
 
 Fig. 5. — A contrast in types. This excellent sow, in proper breeding con- 
 dition, Avas nine years old in February and is still a producer. She has already 
 farrowed 142 pigs. 
 
 Fig. 6. — An old type of brood sow, too heavy in the shoulder and jowl, 
 lacking in udder development, and too fat for best results. 
 
10 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE [CiRC. 15 
 
 Selecting the Young Boar or Gilt, — If it is necessary to purchase 
 a young boar or gilt, care should be taken not to select one that seems 
 too mature for its age. Choose rather the boar or gilt that has straight, 
 strong legs and back, with plenty of length, is slightly upstanding, 
 showing smoothness and quality throughout. 
 
 FEEDS 
 
 While the pig requires less dry matter for a pound of gain than 
 a cow or sheep, the capacity of the stomach and the intestinal tract 
 is such that he is able to make small use of fiber. A greater amount 
 of concentrates and a relatively smaller amount of roughages are 
 required in producing pork than in producing beef or mutton. The 
 fact that concentrates, particularly the cereal grains, carry relatively 
 small amounts of calcium probably accounts for the prevalence of 
 rickets in swine-producing sections. 
 
 Hogs are kept to market raw materials to advantage. The pur- 
 chase of feeds is usually confined to supplementing such common 
 home-grown feeds as barley, the grain sorghums, corn, rice stubble, 
 and cull fruits. A discussion of feed stuffs is given to enable the 
 producer to determine the materials that should be provided that a 
 maximum profit be obtained. Hog feeds may be divided into four 
 classes : 
 
 First, carbonaceous concentrates, which are primarily the cereal 
 grains and other feeds containing large quantities of starches and 
 sugars and relatively small quantities of protein. The starches and 
 sugars produce energy, which is either used up from day to day in 
 the ordinary metabolism processes, or stored in the animal body in the 
 form of fat. 
 
 Second, nitrogenous concentrates, or proteins, which are growth- 
 producing elements and are found in large quantities in by-products 
 of the dairy and packing houses, in linseed-oil meal, and in certain 
 forages and hays, particularly the legumes. 
 
 Third, forages and hays, particularly from the legume plants, 
 which provide variety in the ration and also contain minerals, 
 proteins, and vitamins. 
 
 Fourth, minerals or mineral mixtures which seem necessary for 
 the proper growth and development of the skeleton, where the normal 
 ration fails to provide enough calcium, phosphorus, sodium, and 
 magnesium. 
 
1928 J PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 11 
 
 PREPAKATION OF FEEDS 
 
 Cooking either grains or forage does not increase the digestibility 
 or value, but probably decreases the digestibility of the proteins. 
 Experiments conducted at this and other stations show that cooking 
 corn, barley, wheat, oats, and the grain sorghums decreases their 
 value about 10 per cent. 
 
 It pays to grind, roll, or crush barley, wheat, and the grain 
 sorghums. If such grains cannot be ground or rolled, it is advisable 
 to feed them soaked. 
 
 CARBONACEOUS CONCENTRATES 
 
 Barley. — Barley, which is more widely used as a hog feed in this 
 state than any other cereal, contains more protein and requires a 
 smaller amount of protein supplements than corn. Like corn, its 
 proteins are unbalanced in composition. It is also low in calcium 
 content. Pigs fed barley or barley and wheat middlings in dry lot 
 need additional protein, either of an animal origin or from some such 
 legume as green alfalfa or alfalfa hay. 
 
 Barley contains somewhat less total digestible nutrients than corn 
 and is also higher in fiber content, thus being somewhat less valuable 
 pound for pound than corn. Bacon and hams produced from barley, 
 however, are of prime quality. Barley is the principal feed used in 
 Europe and in Canada for the production of the bacon which has such 
 an excellent reputation on the English market. 
 
 Henry and Morrison^ report the average results of eight trials at 
 northern experiment stations with pigs weighing an average of 109 
 pounds. Hogs fed barley and tankage gained 1.44 pounds per head 
 daily, while those fed corn and tankage gained 1.64 pounds. The 
 former consumed 439 pounds of barley and 30 pounds of tankage 
 for 100 pounds of gain. They required 50 pounds more grain and 
 9 pounds less tankage for 100 pounds of gain than the hogs fed corn. 
 Both groups were self -fed. 
 
 At the California Agricultural Experiment Station,'* the average 
 of five trials with pigs weighing from 60 to 120 pounds shows a gain 
 of 1.54 pounds daily; the average feed consumed for 100 pounds of 
 gain was 420 pounds of barley and 42 pounds of tankage. 
 
 3 Henry, W. A., and F. B. Morrison. Feeds and feeding, a handbook for the 
 student and stockman, p. 632. The Henry-Morrison Co., Madison, Wis. 1923. 
 
 4 Hughes, E. H. Rice and rice by-products as feeds for fattening swine. 
 California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 420:1-24. 1927. 
 
12 
 
 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE 
 
 [CiRC. 15 
 
 TABLE 1 
 
 Digestible Nutrients in Carbonaceous Concentrates* 
 
 Feed 
 
 Barley 
 
 Corn 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Oats 
 
 Rye 
 
 Kafir 
 
 Milo 
 
 Sorghum 
 
 Feterita 
 
 Kaoliang 
 
 Rice (rough) 
 
 Rice bran 
 
 Rice polish 
 
 Molasses (cane or blackstrap) 
 
 Raisins 
 
 Artichokes 
 
 Beets (common) 
 
 Potato 
 
 Sweet potato 
 
 Pumpkin 
 
 Total 
 dry- 
 matter 
 in 100 
 pounds 
 
 pounds 
 
 90.7 
 89.5 
 89.8 
 90.8 
 90.6 
 88.2 
 89.3 
 87.3 
 88.9 
 90.1 
 90.4 
 89.9 
 90.0 
 74.3 
 87.0 
 20.7 
 13.0 
 21.2 
 31.2 
 8.3 
 
 Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds 
 
 Crude 
 protein 
 
 pounds 
 
 9.0 
 7.5 
 9.2 
 9.7 
 9.9 
 9.0 
 8.7 
 7.5 
 10.1 
 8.5 
 4.7 
 7.9 
 8.0 
 1.0 
 2.8 
 1.0 
 0.9 
 1.1 
 0.9 
 1.1 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates 
 
 pounds 
 
 66.8 
 67.8 
 67.5 
 52.1 
 68.4 
 65.8 
 66.2 
 66.2 
 65.4 
 67.0 
 64.6 
 38.1 
 47.2 
 58.5 
 70.0 
 14.6 
 
 9.1 
 15.8 
 24.2 
 
 4.5 
 
 Fat 
 
 pounds 
 
 1.6 
 4.6 
 1.5 
 3.8 
 1.2 
 2.3 
 2.2 
 2.6 
 2.4 
 3.3 
 1.7 
 8.8 
 7.5 
 
 1.0 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.3 
 0.5 
 
 Total 
 
 pounds 
 
 79.4 
 
 85.7 
 80.1 
 70.4 
 81.0 
 80.0 
 79.9 
 79.5 
 80.9 
 82.9 
 73.1 
 65.8 
 82.1 
 59.5 
 73.8 
 15.8 
 10.2 
 17.1 
 25.8 
 6.7 
 
 Nutritive 
 ratio 
 
 1: 7.8 
 1:10.4 
 1: 7.7 
 1: 6.3 
 1: 7.2 
 1: 7.9 
 1: 8.2 
 1: 9.6 
 1: 7.0 
 1: 8.8 
 1:14.6 
 1: 7.3 
 1: 9.3 
 1:58.5 
 1:25.8 
 1:14.8 
 1:10.3 
 1:14.5 
 1:27.7 
 1: 5.1 
 
 Ash 
 in 100 
 pounds 
 
 pounds 
 
 2.7 
 1.5 
 1.9 
 3.5 
 2.0 
 1.7 
 2.8 
 1.9 
 1.5 
 1.9 
 4.9 
 9.7 
 4.8 
 6.1 
 2.2 
 1.7 
 1.5 
 1.1 
 1.1 
 0.9 
 
 Corn. — Corn is the most important pork-producing crop in the 
 United States. In total digestibile nutrients, it exceeds all other 
 important carbonaceous feeds. Because of its relatively low content 
 of proteins and its high percentage of carbohydrates and fats, it is 
 better for fattening than for producing growth. Corn supplemented 
 with skim milk, buttermilk, tankage, or fish meal, however, produces 
 rapid and economical gains. Yellow corn, when fed alone, has been 
 found to be superior to white corn. 
 
 Wheat. — Wheat, when ground and fed alone or with protein 
 supplements, produces more rapid and economical gains than does 
 corn, although because of its value for human consumption, very little 
 is available for livestock feeding. 
 
 ■•• Henry, W. A,, and P. B. Morrison. Feeds and feeding, a handbook for the 
 student and stockman. Appendix tables I and III, pp. 709-743. The Henry- 
 Morrison Co., Madison, Wis. 1923. 
 
1^^-^J POKK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 13 
 
 Oais. — Oats, when fed in conjunction with barley and other feeds, 
 are an excellent concentrate for brood sows, boars, and young gilts 
 which are to be retained in the breeding herd. The high fiber content 
 and the relatively low percentage of total digestible nutrients are 
 factors which prevent the universal use of oats in fattening young 
 pigs. 
 
 Rye. — While rye contains as high a percentage of total digestible 
 nutrients as barley, its limited production accounts for its restricted 
 use for pork production in the state. 
 
 The Grain Sorghums. — The grain sorghums, particularly kafir and 
 milo, are very popular swine feeds in the southwestern states, as well 
 as in California. The total digestible nutrients are about equal in all 
 of the grain sorghums and the ratio between the protein content and 
 the carbohydrates and fats varies only slightly. Because of their 
 extreme hardness, these feeds, like barley, should be ground or rolled. 
 The proteins in them, as in barley and corn, are unbalanced, a factor 
 which necessitates the feeding of some animal protein when the young 
 growing pigs, fattening pigs, or brood sows have no access to alfalfa 
 or other legume pasture. These grain sorghums are also low in 
 calcium. 
 
 Kafir and milo are considered by producers in the southwestern 
 states to have a value slightly lower than that of corn for growing 
 and fattening pigs. Thompson and Voorhies^ found ground milo to be 
 less efficient in fattening pigs in the dry lot than barley when supple- 
 mented with tankage in self-feeders. 
 
 Bice {Rough or Paddy). — Rough or paddy rice does not make a 
 satisfactory hog feed when fed w^hole or cooked in dry lot, even when 
 supplemented with a nitrogenous supplement like tankage. It has 
 been found satisfactory, however, when ground fine and self -fed with 
 tankage. With this preparation it compares favorably with barley 
 in daily gain and amount required for 100 pounds of gain. Hogs 
 weighing 100 pounds or more do well in rice stubble. 
 
 Rice Bran. — This by-product of the rice-milling industry should 
 not be fed alone to young growing or fattening pigs. Although the 
 total digestible nutrients are somewhat lower than those of barley, 
 it is a desirable feed when fed with a protein supplement and barley 
 or corn. There are two defects in this feed : first, the amount of fiber 
 is relatively higher than in most concentrates ; and second, it contains 
 certain unsaturated fatty acids which, if fed alone over a long period 
 
 5 Thompson, J. I., and Edwin C Voorhies. Hog feeding experiments. Cali- 
 fornia Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 342:373-396. 1922. 
 
14 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE [CiRC. 15 
 
 of time, will produce soft or oily pork. If it constitutes not more than 
 40 per cent of the ration, the pork produced is not soft. Pigs self-fed 
 rice bran and tankage in dry lot will consume about twice as much 
 tankage for 100 pounds of gain as when fed a ration of barley and 
 tankage. 
 
 Rice Polish. — Rice polish, like rice bran, is a by-product of the 
 rice-milling industry. It is a more efficient feed than rice bran and 
 has not the same tendency to produce soft pork. Because its fiber 
 content is very low, it contains more total digestible nutrients than 
 barley. This feed should always be fed with a protein supplement 
 and some other carbonaceous feed because of the laxative effect it 
 produces. Two lots of pigs at this station,^ self-fed rice polish and 
 tankage, gained as rapidly as did the check lots fed rolled barley and 
 tankage. For 100 pounds of gain they consumed 121.17 pounds less 
 rice polish and 12.34 pounds more tankage than did the barley lots. 
 
 Molasses. — When molasses is cheaper than barley, this feed may 
 be substituted for a part of the grain ration. Molasses is used less 
 frequently in feeding swine than other classes of livestock. 
 
 Raisins. — Low-grade and cull raisins are sometimes available for 
 swine feeding. Raisins are a carbonaceous feed, as is shown by the fact 
 that the sugar content usually exceeds 60 per cent. At the California 
 station'' it has been found that raisins are a desirable feed for grow- 
 ing and fattening swine when fed in conjunction with barley and some 
 protein supplement. Pigs fed raisins alone or with a protein supple- 
 ment in dry lot or on pasture often scour severely. Pound for pound, 
 they are not so valuable as barley for fattening pigs. 
 
 Tubers and Vegetables. — Such products as artichokes, beets, pota- 
 toes, sweet potatoes, and pumpkins are relished by hogs and supply 
 a certain amount of nutrients and variety when fed in conjunction 
 wdth other feeds. The small amount of total digestible nutrients and 
 the large amount of water in such feeds suggest their limitations. 
 
 NITEOGENOUS CONCENTRATES, OR PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS 
 
 Dairy By-Products. — Skim milk and buttermilk are the most 
 valuable supplements that may be used to balance the protein 
 deficiencies in the cereal grains. The amino acids which are necessary 
 for growth and which are found in these protein feeds are not usually 
 
 6 Hughes, E. H. Rice and rice by-products as feeds for fattening swine. 
 California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 420:1-24. 1927. 
 
 7 Hughes, E. H. The feeding value of raisins and dairy by-products for 
 growing and fattening swine. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 440:1-12. 1927. 
 
1928] 
 
 PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 
 
 15 
 
 found in large quantities in the grains. Calcium and phosphorus, 
 which are necessary for the development of the skeleton and which 
 help balance the lime deficiency of the carbonaceous part of the ration, 
 are also found in skim milk and buttermilk. These supplements 
 are excellent feeds for the brood sow, because proteins, phosphorus, 
 and lime are very necessary for the development of the fetus during 
 the gestation period and for the production of milk for the growing 
 litter during lactation. Skim milk and buttermilk should always be 
 pasteurized before being fed to swine, in order that tuberculosis and 
 other diseases may not be contracted from this source. 
 
 Skim milk, buttermilk, or whey may be fed separately or with 
 barley or a mixture of grain feeds in the form of a slop. The ratio 
 of 1 pound of rolled barley to 3 pounds of one of these by-products 
 gives excellent results and provides a slop of about the right 
 consistency. 
 
 TABLE 2 
 Digestible Nutrients in" Protein Supplements* 
 
 Feed 
 
 Skim milk 
 
 Buttermilk 
 
 Dried skim milk 
 
 Dried buttermilk 
 
 Whey 
 
 Tankage 
 
 Fish meal 
 
 Wheat bran 
 
 Wheat middlings 
 
 Linseed oil meal (old process). 
 
 Cottonseed meal (good) 
 
 Coconut meal (new process) 
 
 Beans, navy 
 
 Pea, field 
 
 Cow pea seed 
 
 Soybean meal 
 
 Alfalfa hay 
 
 Alfalfa meal 
 
 Alfalfa leaves 
 
 Green alfalfa 
 
 Green rape 
 
 Total 
 dry 
 matter 
 in 100 
 pounds 
 
 pounds 
 
 9.9 
 9.4 
 95.5 
 88.3 
 6.6 
 92.1 
 89.5 
 89.9 
 89.5 
 90.9 
 92.1 
 90.0 
 86.6 
 90.8 
 88.4 
 90.1 
 91.4 
 91.2 
 93.4 
 25.3 
 16.7 
 
 Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds 
 
 Crude 
 protein 
 
 pounds 
 
 3.6 
 3.4 
 32.5 
 29.3 
 0.8 
 56.2 
 40.1 
 12.5 
 13.4 
 30.2 
 31.6 
 19.9 
 18.8 
 19.0 
 19.4 
 33.2 
 10.6 
 10.2 
 17.3 
 3.3 
 2.6 
 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates 
 
 pounds 
 
 5.1 
 
 4.9 
 
 49.9 
 
 41.0 
 
 4.7 
 
 41.6 
 46.2 
 32.6 
 25.6 
 44.2 
 51.3 
 55.8 
 54.5 
 24.7 
 39.0 
 38.7 
 35.9 
 10.4 
 10.0 
 
 Fat 
 
 pounds 
 
 0.2 
 0.1 
 1.9 
 6.2 
 0.3 
 7.2 
 8.3 
 3.0 
 4.3 
 6.7 
 7.8 
 3.0 
 0.8 
 0.6 
 1.1 
 16.1 
 0.9 
 0.8 
 3.0 
 0.4 
 0.3 
 
 Total 
 
 pounds 
 
 9.1 
 8.4 
 86.7 
 84.2 
 6.2 
 71.4 
 58.8 
 60.9 
 69.3 
 77.9 
 74.8 
 70.8 
 71.9 
 76.2 
 76.4 
 94.1 
 51.6 
 50.7 
 60.0 
 14.6 
 13.3 
 
 Nutritive 
 ratio 
 
 1:1.5 
 1:1.5 
 1:1.7 
 1:1.9 
 1:6.8 
 1:0.3 
 1:0.5 
 1:3.9 
 1:4.2 
 1:1.6 
 1:1.4 
 1:2.6 
 1:2.8 
 1:3.0 
 1:2.9 
 1:1.8 
 1:3.9 
 1:4.0 
 1:2.5 
 1:3.4 
 1:4.1 
 
 Ash 
 in 100 
 pounds 
 
 pounds 
 
 0.7 
 0.7 
 
 25.1 
 8.1 
 0.7 
 
 15.3 
 
 28.1 
 6.3 
 4.4 
 5.4 
 6.4 
 6.0 
 3.6 
 3.4 
 3.4 
 5.3 
 8.6 
 9.0 
 
 13.6 
 2.4 
 2.2 
 
 * Henry, W. A., and F. B. Morrison. Feeds and feeding, a handbook for the 
 student and stockman. Appendix tables I and III, pp. 709-743. The Henry- 
 Morrison Co., Madison, Wis. 1923. 
 
16 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE [ClRG. 15 
 
 Taukage fed with barley is the most satisfactory substitute for 
 skim milk. Thompson and Voorhies,^ reporting an average of two 
 trials, found that pigs fed barley and skim milk made an average 
 daily gain of 1.56 pounds per head, consuming 455 pounds of barley 
 and 666 pounds of skim milk for each 100 pounds of gain ; that those 
 fed barley and tankage made an average daily gain of 1.43 pounds, 
 consuming 498 pounds of barley and 19 pounds of tankage for each 
 100 pounds of gain. 
 
 Hughes^ fed two lots of pigs in dry lot, the average initial w^eight 
 of the first group being 54.IJ3 pounds, and of the second group 77.10 
 pounds. An average daily gain of 1.73 pounds was obtained for both 
 groups; and for every 100 pounds of gain, 281.31 pounds of barley, 
 712.18 pounds of skim milk, and 3.92 pounds of tankage were required. 
 
 Buttermilk which has not been diluted has about the same chemical 
 composition and total digestible nutrients as skim milk, and while the 
 results of one trial at California indicate it to be slightly inferior to 
 skim milk when fed with barley, those reported by Wilson at the 
 South Dakota station^^ show it to have an equal value when fed with 
 corn. 
 
 Concerning dried skim milk and buttermilk, there is not much 
 available information. They contain about one-half as much protein 
 as does tankage, and the price is relatively higher. Feeding tests are 
 being conducted at this station to obtain information on these feeds. 
 
 Whey contains about 6.2 pounds of total digestible nutrients in 
 100 pounds. Of this amount, only 0.8 pound is protein, the remainder 
 having been removed in the form of casein during the cheese-making 
 process. Because of the low protein content, whey was formerly 
 thought to have little value as a supplement to the grains. A feeding 
 trial at this station, however, showed that although more whey and 
 grain are required for 100 pounds of gain than when skim milk was 
 fed, and the daily gain was somewhat less, it is of considerable value. 
 
 Surprising results were obtained by Morrison and KusselP^ at 
 the Wisconsin station when two lots of pigs self-fed barley and all 
 the whey they would consume gained 2.22 pounds per head daily. 
 
 8 Thompson, J. 1., and Edwin C. Voorhies. Hog feeding experiments. Cali- 
 fornia Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 342:373-396. 1922. 
 
 9 Hughes, E. H., The feeding value of raisins and dairy by-products for 
 growing and fattening swane. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 440:1-12. 1927. 
 
 10 Wilson, James W. Fattening pigs. South Dakota Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 
 319:70-71. 1912. 
 
 11 Morrison, F. B., and H. L. Russell. Experiments in farming. Wisconsin 
 Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 319:70-71. 1920; also New farm facts. Wisconsin Agr. 
 Exp. Sta. Bui. 323:8-10. 1920. 
 
1928] PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 17 
 
 They required 353 pounds of barley and 854 pounds of whey for 
 100 pounds of gain. The pigs used in these trials were well grown 
 and weighed from 125 to 150 pounds when placed on feed. It is hard 
 to explain these results because of the low protein content of whey. 
 The protein must be of excellent quality. 
 
 Tankage. — Tankage, or meat meal, is a by-product of the packing 
 house, extremely rich in digestible protein. Calcium and phosphorus 
 are present in appreciable amounts. The proteins of this feed combine 
 w^ell with those of the cereal grains to produce rapid growth. This 
 product is being fed by pork producers in all sections of the United 
 States. Being cooked under high pressure and thoroughly dried, it 
 is a safe feed to use. Excepting the by-products of the dairy, no other 
 protein feed has met with such favor among hog producers. Because 
 of its high protein content, it takes a relatively small amount of this 
 feed to balance a corn or barley ration for the growing or fattening 
 pig, the boar, or the brood sow. A ration of ten parts of barley or 
 corn to one part of tankage, by weight, has become a standard ration 
 for hogs in dry lot. Where alfalfa or other green pasture is available, 
 the amount of tankage can be reduced. Very young pigs wall do 
 better if such a feed as wheat middlings or linseed-oil meal is added 
 to a barley and tankage ration. A standard 60 per cent protein 
 tankage is recommended. 
 
 The results of several experiments at the California station show- 
 that a ration of rolled barley and tankage self -fed in dry lot produced 
 gains of 1.54 pounds per head daily on pigs weighing 60 to 120 pounds 
 and that 420 pounds of rolled barley and 42 pounds of tankage 
 were required for 100 pounds of gain. Excellent results are usually 
 obtained by feeding barley and tankage in separate self-feeders; how- 
 ever, these feeds can be mixed and then placed in the feeder. For 
 young pigs, a mixture of rolled barley, wheat middlings, and tankage 
 put in a self-feeder produces excellent results, especially if a little 
 skim milk is fed in addition. 
 
 Fish Meal. — While this product contains less digestible protein 
 than tankage and has less total digestible nutrients, surprisingly good 
 results have been obtained from its use. It contains more than 25 per 
 cent ash or mineral matter, much of which is calcium and phosphorus. 
 Henry and Morrison^^ report in a summary of experiments conducted 
 in various experiment stations, that pigs fed a carbonaceous concen- 
 trate with fish meal gained more rapidly and required slightly less feed 
 
 12 Henry, W. A., and F. B. Morrison. Feeds and feeding, a handbook for the 
 student and stockman, p. 653. The Henry-Morrison Co., Madison, Wis. 1923. 
 
18 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE [CiRC. 15 
 
 for their gains than did pigs fed a carbonaceous concentrate and 
 tankage. Thompson and Voorhies,^^ on the other hand, found that 
 barley and tankage were superior to barley and fish meal. 
 
 Wheat Bran. — Wheat bran is an excellent addition to the ration of 
 a brood sow, both before and after farrowing. It is a bulky, slightly 
 laxative feed. Because of its bulky nature, it is not a good feed for 
 fattening pigs. 
 
 Wheat Middlings. — Wheat middlings or shorts is a very popular 
 feed among pork producers. Although the protein content is not high 
 and the proteins do not balance those of the cereals, a mixture of 
 wheat middlings, rolled barley, and either skim milk or tankage pro- 
 duces excellent results if fed to the young growing pigs before and, 
 particularly, after weaning. 
 
 Linseed-Oil Meal. — Linseed-oil meal is not used so extensively in 
 this state as in other sections of the country. Because the proteins 
 in this feed are similar to those of barley and other grains, the feeder 
 should not expect maximum results by feeding barley and linseed-oil 
 meal alone. A ration of barley, linseed-oil meal, and tankage or skim 
 milk, however, will give excellent returns. This feed is used exten- 
 sively by purebred hog men fitting hogs for the shows. 
 
 Coconut Meal. — Coconut meal, when not rancid, can be fed with 
 barley in the proportion of one part to three or four parts of barley, 
 by weight, on alfalfa pasturage. Coconut meal and barley should 
 not be fed in dry lot without the addition of some animal protein such 
 as skim milk, tankage, or fish meal. 
 
 Cottonseed Meal. — As cottonseed meal is poisonous to swine, its 
 use as a swine feed is not recommended. It contains about half as 
 much protein as tankage does. 
 
 Beans. — Navy beans should always be cooked and fed with barley 
 or corn. Salt added to the water when cooking adds palatability to 
 this mixture. Pigs fed beans alone produce soft, watery carcasses. 
 
 Field Peas. — Peas are not commonly thrashed and fed to hogs; 
 however, in some sections, particularly in the northern and north- 
 western states, they are grown and then hogged down. Where field 
 peas can be grown successfully, they make, with oats or barley, an 
 excellent crop for hogging-down purposes. 
 
 Cow Peas and 8oy-Bean Meal. — Though these feeds are not grown 
 extensively in this state, soy beans are being fed in large quantities 
 in some corn-belt areas. Soy-bean meal has a high protein and fat 
 
 13 Thompson, J. I., and Edwin C. Vooihies. Hog feeding experiments. Cali- 
 fornia Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 342:373-396. 1922. 
 
1928] PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 19 
 
 content. Pigs do well when fed this meal with barley or corn and 
 some animal protein, such as tankage. Soy-bean meal, like peanut 
 meal or rice bran, when fed in too large quantities, produces soft pork. 
 
 Alfalfa Hay, Alfalfa Meal, and Alfalfa Leaves. — While these feeds 
 are too bulky to feed young growing pigs in large quantities, they 
 carry an excellent variety of proteins and are high in lime and fat- 
 soluble vitamins. When mixed with barley or barley and some supple- 
 ment, 5 or 10 per cent by weight is sufficient alfalfa to include. The 
 addition of alfalfa hay (chopped) or alfalfa meal to a ration of barley 
 and some plant protein supplement, such as wheat middlings or 
 linseed-oil meal, gives excellent results because of the character of 
 proteins in alfalfa and the ash that it contains. 
 
 During the wet winter months wlien brood sows cannot be pastured 
 on alfalfa, alfalfa hay should constitute a regular part of their rations. 
 
 rORAGE CROPS 
 
 Forage crops are recognized as a necessary adjunct to any well- 
 organized pork-producing plant. Brood sows, boars, and growing 
 and fattening pigs, when pastured on alfalfa or other forage, exercise 
 naturally, receive the direct rays of the sun, and are more healthy 
 than those kept in small, cramped quarters. Experiments have shown 
 that pigs fed on forage crops gain more rapidly and that the tonic 
 effects of the succulence, the laxative properties of the green feed, and 
 the variety of proteins, the vitamins, and the minerals supplied are 
 responsible for the thrift, health, and growth of pigs produced in this 
 manner. 
 
 When grains are high in price or are not available, pigs can be 
 maintained and grown w^ith a minimum amount of concentrates if 
 forage crops are used. The latter, especially the legumes, reduce 
 the amount of commercial protein supplements necessary to balance 
 the ration and reduce the feed necessary to produce 100 pounds of 
 gain in growing or fattening pigs. 
 
 Alfalfa. — Alfalfa pasture is recognized as the best forage crop for 
 pigs because it may be grazed for a long period of time and is pala- 
 table, its proteins balance those of grains fed, and it has a high calcium 
 content. This crop also produces a larger tonnage per acre than any 
 other common forage. During the few short periods in the winter 
 when the ground is too soft for pasture, the brood sows and pigs 
 should be removed to dry lot and good, clean, leafy alfalfa hay 
 substituted for the forage. 
 
20 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE [CiRC. 15 
 
 Excellent gains can be secured by feeding a ration of fifteen parts 
 rolled barley and one part tankage, by weight, to pigs weighing from 
 50 to 200 pounds, on alfalfa pasturage. No forage lias been found 
 to equal alfalfa for brood sows, during either the gestation or the 
 lactation period. 
 
 Barley and Rape. — Where alfalfa pasture is not available, a mix- 
 ture of barley and rape may be substituted satisfactorily. If sown in 
 September or October, this forage provides an excellent winter pas- 
 ture during the time when alfalfa does not grow rapidly. For early 
 spring pasture it can be sown either in January or February. The 
 barley should be sown at the rate of about fifty pounds to the acre 
 and the rape (Dwarf Essex) at about eight pounds. They can be 
 either drilled or sown broadcast. For the best results this crop should 
 be 8 or 12 inches in height before pigs or brood sows are turned in 
 on it (fig. 7). 
 
 Sudan Grass. — Sudan grass sown at the rate of from eighteen to 
 twenty pounds to the acre about the first of May, when the soil has 
 become warm, is becoming popular as a summer pasture. Sudan 
 yields a heavy tonnage if a good stand is secured. It does not provide 
 so great a variety of proteins nor so large an amount of calcium or 
 phosphorus as alfalfa pasture. 
 
 Barley, Field Peas, and Vetch. — A mixture of barley, field peas, 
 and vetch has been reported by some producers in this state to be 
 bringing excellent results. Such a mixture provides carbohydrates 
 and a variety of proteins and minerals, but will not stand severe 
 pasturing. 
 
 MINEEALS 
 
 During the domestication of the pig, the development of breeds, 
 and the improvement of swine, the producer has selected a type of 
 hog that grows more rapidly and develops early. The value of a 
 balance between the carbohydrates, fats, and proteins necessary for 
 growth was found long before a knowledge of the requirements of 
 minerals in the diet was obtained. The prevalence of stiffness and 
 posterior paralysis (rickets) has brought about an effort among 
 experiment station workers in animal husbandry to obtain information 
 and to understand more clearly the various mineral requirements 
 necessary for the proper development of the skeleton. 
 
 The common grains fed to hogs are deficient in calcium or lime, 
 and the nitrogenous supplements necessary to balance the deficiency 
 of protein in such feeds, unless they be dairy by-products, tankage, 
 
1928] 
 
 PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 
 
 21 
 
 fish meal, or alfalfa, do not j^rovide enough calcium for the proper 
 development of the skeleton. Even though the animal feeds men- 
 tioned — dairy by-products, tankage, fish meal — be fed, alfalfa pasture 
 should also be provided to avoid a possible lime deficiency. 
 
 Experiments have shown that the feeding of a straight grain ration 
 or a grain ration supplemented with such a protein feed as linseed- 
 oil meal during the gestation period results in small, weak pigs at 
 birth. This condition is brought about by a calcium and a protein 
 deficiency in the ration, which results in an improper development 
 of the fetus. A continued deficiency in the diet of the brood sow. 
 
 Fig. 7. — Young gilts, weighing about TH pounds, on barley and rape 
 forage; some concentrates were fed in addition. 
 
 if two litters are produced annually, usually results in sterility or 
 posterior paralysis. The addition of alfalfa hay to such a ration has 
 been found to be very beneficial. Young pigs fed a straight grain 
 ration without access to alfalfa pasture or mineral mixture grow very 
 slowly, become nervous, stiffened in their legs, and finally break down 
 with severe rickets. Hughes^^ at this station, by feeding rolled barley 
 (all the pigs would consume) or rolled barley and salt, produced 
 rickets, both in the presence and in the absence of direct sunlight. 
 However, those fed in the absence of sunlight always developed 
 symptoms .of rickets before those that had access to direct sunlight. 
 Sunlight probably has a beneficial effect on calcium metabolism. 
 
 Mineral mixtures, where rations deficient in calcium or calcium 
 and phosphorus are being fed, can be mixed with the feed or fed 
 
 14 Unpublished data. 
 
22 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE [CiRC. 15 
 
 separately in small boxes in the lots, to which the brood sows and pigs 
 have free access. The addition of one-half pound of air-slacked lime 
 or finely ground limestone to 100 pounds of concentrate feeds will be 
 found beneficial to practically all rations fed to swine in this state. 
 While complex mineral mixtures are not recommended, a mixture of 
 common salt, air-slacked lime (not quicklime) and finely ground bone 
 meal, equal parts, has been used very successfully at the University 
 Farm, for brood sows, boars, and growing and fattening pigs. Other 
 mixtures, such as equal parts of air-slacked lime or ground limestone 
 and salt, or equal parts of wood ashes and salt, may be used. 
 
 Recent investigations have shown that common salt adds to the 
 palatability of the ration and that its presence stimulates the digestive 
 glands. The addition of 1 per cent of salt to the grain ration has 
 become a universal recommendation. Cereal grains supplemented 
 with a protein rich feed supply enough phosphorus for normal growth 
 and development. Both the grains (especially barley, corn, and the 
 sorghums) and the supplements contain phosphorus. 
 
 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE BREEDING HERD 
 
 THE BOAR 
 
 The boar holds a very important and prominent position in the 
 breeding herd. Care should be exercised in his feeding and manage- 
 ment, particularly during the breeding season. At this time he should 
 be fed a ration that will maintain his condition during a season of 
 heavy service. Such a ration must be well supplied with energy and 
 carry a high protein and mineral content. Rolled barley or rolled 
 barley and wheat middlings, equal parts, with the addition of 10 per 
 cent of tankage by weight, mixed with enough skim milk to form a 
 thick slop will meet his requirements. 
 
 A mineral mixture should be self -fed or added to the ration at the 
 rate of 2 per cent. The boar should have access to some pasture, 
 preferably alfalfa, if possible. If not, a little alfalfa hay is a good 
 substitute. The amount to feed will depend on his condition and on 
 the intensity of the breeding season. If working to full capacity, all 
 the feed he will clean up twice daily is not too much. 
 
 After the breeding season is over, his daily ration can be reduced 
 in quantity and slowly changed to one containing more carbohydrates 
 and less protein. If, during the season of heavy service, he has lost 
 weight, the ration should not be reduced until medium condition has 
 been regained. 
 
1^28] PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 23 
 
 The boar lot is usually located apart from the rest of the herd. A 
 quiet place, accessible to forage, and of a size large enough to insure 
 sufficient exercise is desirable. Clean, dry, well-ventilated quarters, 
 with shade in summer, are necessary. 
 
 Boars often become nervous, restless, and irritable and refuse to 
 eat. This condition may be overcome in most instances by placing 
 a barrow or bred sow with him for company. 
 
 Two methods of breeding may be followed, one known as hand 
 mating, the other as promiscuous mating, where the boar is allowed 
 to run with the sows. The system of hand mating is preferable. 
 When such a system is followed, a mature boar in vigorous condition 
 can be mated to about thirty sows during the active breeding season. 
 The breeding of one sow a day is a most desirable practice, but a boar 
 may be mated to two sows a day with satisfactory results, if one is 
 bred in the morning and the other at night, provided he has a day 
 of rest occasionally. 
 
 The sow, when in heat, may be brought to the boar or the boar 
 may be driven to the sow's pen. Only one service should be permitted, 
 as this is enough to insure pregnancy if the sow and boar are normal. 
 After being bred, it is good practice to separate her from the open 
 sows. Her number should be taken and a record of the time of mating 
 made on the breeding record. 
 
 Where it is necessary to breed large sows to young boars or young 
 gilts to mature boars, the use of a breeding crate may be found 
 advantageous. 
 
 The feeding and management of the young boar is similar to "that 
 of the mature animal. A growing ration containing a high protein 
 content, with plenty of calcium and phosphorus, is essential for maxi- 
 mum growth. Rolled barley, or rolled barley and wheat middlings, 
 supplemented with skim milk, buttermilk, tankage, or fish meal, 
 provides energy and growth-forming elements. Access to alfalfa 
 forage, where exercise is taken naturally, and free access to a mineral 
 mixture should provide the young growing boar with all the essential 
 nutrients. The lot where the young boar or boars are kept should 
 be away from the sow herd, particularly during the breeding season. 
 The young boar at eight or nine months of age may be used on a 
 limited number of sows without checking his growth. A day or two 
 of rest between services is advisable. 
 
24 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE [ClRC. 15 
 
 THE BROOD SOW 
 
 Under California conditions, with proper management, the sow 
 should produce two litters a year, one in the spring and one in the 
 fall. It is advisable to have spring litters farrowed on or after 
 March 1. Plowever, pigs farrowed during February do very well in 
 most sections of the state, provided weather conditions are normal. 
 Sows should not be bred to farrow much later than May 1, as the hot 
 weather and flies often retard the normal growth of young pigs. Fall 
 litters should be farrowed on or after September 1. It is undesirable 
 to have sows farrow during the winter months, for the mortality due 
 to cold, wet weather is high in very young pigs. Moreover, it is 
 difficult to keep small suckling pigs in a thrifty, vigorous condition 
 during the winter. 
 
 Breeding for spring litters should start about November 10, and 
 for fall litters about May 10. 
 
 Age to Breed. — The age to breed a gilt depends to a great extent 
 upon the development of the individual rather than upon the age. A 
 stage of growth should be reached where the demands of the develop- 
 ing litter and subsequent suckling period will not materially affect 
 her own development. In general, the practice of breeding gilts to 
 farrow at twelve months is satisfactory. When size is desired in the 
 mature sow, the gilt is allowed to rest one season after she farrows 
 her first litter. Another method practiced to secure size is to breed 
 gilts to farrow at the age of eighteen months. By this system, a gilt 
 has practically reached her maximum growth and development when 
 she farrows her first litter, and should produce regularly every six 
 months thereafter. 
 
 As a general rule, gilts farrow fewer and smaller pigs than mature 
 sows. The Illinois station^^ reported 7.5 pigs averaging 2.44 pounds 
 as the average litter farrowed by gilts from one to one and one-half 
 years old. Sows two years of age or older farrowed an average of 
 8.6 pigs weighing 2.61 pounds. 
 
 Since mature sows farrow larger litters and have larger pigs at 
 birth than do gilts, it is poor policy to put too much dependence on 
 gilts for the pig crop. 
 
 Sows at the California station during a period of six years far- 
 rowed 280 litters averaging 8.38 pigs farrowed and 6.37 pigs raised. 
 
 ^5 OaiTnichael, W. J., and John B. Rice. VaiiationvS in farrow; Avith special 
 reference to the birth weight of pigs. Illinois Agr. Exp. 8ta. Bui. 226:67-95. 
 1920. 
 
I'^-^J PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIP^ORNIA 25 
 
 Breedmg Season. — The condition of the sow at the time of service 
 is largely responsible for the size of the litter and vigor of the pigs 
 at birth. A sow that is excessively fat or very thin may not come in 
 heat. If the boar is accepted under these conditions, very often the 
 litters will be small or she may even fail to conceive. 
 
 At breeding time she should be in active breeding condition ; that 
 is, in medium flesh, and gaining from one-half to one pound daily. 
 Best results will be obtained if the sows are on good pasture, prefer- 
 ably alfalfa, with enough concentrates to give the desired gain. A 
 ration of rolled barley and tankage fed at the rate of 12 pounds of 
 barley to 1 pound of tankage, with a suitable mineral mixture, will 
 furnish the necessary nutrients. 
 
 Fig. 8. — Purebred brood sows taking advantage of clean young 
 alfalfa pasturage. 
 
 Sows usually come in heat three to five days after weaning the 
 pigs. The period of heat lasts about three days and occurs every 
 twenty to twenty-one days in open sows. It is only during this period 
 of heat that the normal sow will accept the boar. 
 
 The gestation period varies from 112 to 116 days, with 114 as the 
 average. By keeping an accurate breeding record, the farrowing date 
 may be calculated easily. This record is of considerable importance 
 from the standpoint of the care of the sow during the week before 
 farrowing. 
 
 Feeding the Pregnant Sows. — Sows on good pasture (fig. 8) in the 
 summer months with an ample supply of fresh, clean water, and 
 shade, will need but little grain during the first seventy-five days of 
 the gestation period. A liberal grain ration should be fed during the 
 
26 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE [CiRC. 15 
 
 last month of pregnancy, as 75 per cent of the development of the 
 fetus takes place during this period. Since the developing litter 
 consists largely of protein and ash, a liberal supply of these materials 
 in the ration will satisfy the demands of the developing fetus. If the 
 necessary nutrients are not supplied, they will be drawn from the 
 body of the dam. Consequently, the sow will farrow and begin her 
 lactation period in a relatively weakened condition. Under these 
 circumstances, the litter will be improperly nourished and a large 
 percentage of weak, unthrifty pigs and a high mortality will result. 
 It is also important to regulate feeding so that the sow will not be 
 overly fat at farrowing time, for this condition also results in poorly 
 developed pigs and difficult farrowing. 
 
 For short periods of time during the winter months, when pasture 
 is not available, concentrates such as barley, milo, or corn, supple- 
 mented with skim milk or tankage, should make up the major part 
 of the ration. Leafy alfalfa hay, fed in racks, scattered on feeding 
 platforms, or chopped and mixed with the grain is the best substitute 
 for alfalfa pasture. Alfalfa hay is bulky and should constitute not 
 more than 10 to 12 per cent of the ration when mixed with grain. 
 Roots and tubers are of value from the standpoint of succulence. 
 
 Housing presents more of a problem in the winter than in the 
 summer. Too often sows about to farrow have inadequate shelter or 
 are turned into barns or sheds with other livestock. This is poor 
 practice. Clean, warm, well-bedded sleeping quarters with sufficient 
 ventilation and plenty of room outside for exercise are desirable. 
 
 Management at Farrowing Time. — Careless, improper manage- 
 ment at farrowing time may easily represent the difference between 
 profit and loss. A sow raising four pigs requires as much care and 
 nearly as much feed as one raising eight, thus making the initial cost 
 of each pig in the former case almost double that in the latter. Losses 
 due to a high death rate and to weak, unthrifty pigs may be largely 
 overcome by proper feeding and management. 
 
 Placing the sow in the farrowing pen from four to seven days 
 before she is expected to farrow will accustom her to the new sur- 
 roundings and to the presence of the herdsman. Before being placed 
 in the pen, she should be thoroughly washed with soap and water 
 (fig. 9) and disinfected with a mild germicide. This may be accom- 
 plished by the use of a pressure spray or of a common sprinkling can. 
 
 Scrubbing the floor and walls of the farrowing pen with a scalding 
 lye solution and thoroughly disinfecting it are highly recommended. 
 Pens that are dry, airy, well-lighted, and free from drafts result m 
 an increase in the number of pigs raised. 
 
1928] 
 
 PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 
 
 27 
 
 The bedding used should be clean and free from dust. Straw, cut 
 hay (not too long), wood shavings, and rice hulls are satisfactory 
 materials. Too much bedding is to be avoided, as the small pigs may 
 become entangled and crushed by the mother. Enough bedding to 
 insure cleanliness and warmth will give the best results. All bedding 
 should be removed at least once a week and replaced with clean 
 material. That which becomes soiled or wet should be removed daily. 
 
 Reducing the ration 30 to 50 per cent at this time will prove 
 beneficial. The addition of 30 per cent of wheat bran to the ration 
 during the week preceding farrowing tones up the system, prevents 
 constipation, and makes for a normal parturition. 
 
 ^ ..^: ^ 
 
 ^*- '' — 
 
 
 
 
 W^ 
 
 Fig. y. — Washing the sow's udder before placing her in a clean 
 farrowing pen. 
 
 The sow becomes restless as the time for farrowing approaches. 
 She will be seen gathering bedding and making a nest for her litter. 
 The vagina usually becomes swollen, and the milk is found in the 
 udder twelve to twenty-four hours before farrowing. One light feed 
 of bran mixed in the form of a thin slop, together with a supply of 
 fresh, clean water, will be sufficient during the twenty-four hours 
 preceding parturition. 
 
 Sows that have raised one or more litters successfully and have 
 been handled properly during the gestation period will ordinarily 
 have little difficulty in farrowing. Gilts giving birth to their first 
 
28 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE [CiRC. 15 
 
 litter will sometimes have trouble. These demand the closest atten- 
 tion. If continued labor seems of no avail, aid should be given as 
 quickly as possible. The unskilled use of forceps is usually fatal to 
 the pig and often results in injury to the generative organs of the 
 sow. A well-greased hand and arm, clean and disinfected, are 
 generally the best instruments. Pigs that are not presented properly 
 should be forced back and turned in such a position as to make 
 delivery possible. If the young gilt or mature sow is having extreme 
 difficulty in delivering a pig or litter, the services of a competent 
 veterinarian are desirable. 
 
 The value of watching the sows closely during the farrowing 
 season cannot be over-emphasized. Inspection every two or three 
 hours will save many pigs, as some in the new-born litters may wander 
 away, become chilled, and be unable to obtain their first nourishment. 
 
 The mucus should be removed from the nose and mouth, and the 
 body wiped dry as tlie pigs are born. As soon as they have gained a 
 little strength, they should be allowed to suckle. Weak pigs and 
 those unable to nurse may be induced to do so by stripping a little 
 milk into the mouth ; if they can be made to swallow, they will soon 
 gain strength and be able to manage for themselves. If pigs become 
 chilled, they may generally be revived in a warm box or in the direct 
 rays of the sun, or by rubbing vigorously between the hands. If the 
 sow is nervous or irritable during parturition, the pigs should be 
 allowed to suckle and then be placed in a warm farrowing box (fig. 
 10) lined with straw and lightly covered to keep in the heat. During 
 extremely cold weather, warm bricks or a jug of warm water placed 
 in the box will add warmth. When farrowing is prolonged, it is 
 considered good policy to return the pigs to the sow every one or two 
 hours and allow them to suckle. 
 
 In case two or three small, rather weak pigs are farrow^ed in a 
 litter of strong pigs, the stronger ones may be removed now and then 
 to give the less vigorous ones a chance. 
 
 The afterbirth should be removed and buried or burned when it 
 appears. If left in the pen, the sow Avill generally eat it. This, many 
 think, encourages the pig-eating habit. A long-handled shovel or 
 manure fork is useful for removing afterbirth from the farrowing pen. 
 
 The sow should be disturbed as little as possible while farrowing, 
 no one except the attendant being allowed in the pen at this time. 
 Quite often a pig will be farrowed apparently lifeless. In such cases, 
 breathing may sometimes be started by removing the mucous covering 
 over the mouth and nose and gently slapping along the side. 
 
1928] 
 
 PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 
 
 29 
 
 ..... 
 
 
 
 ■f 'PiPHHHI^ 
 
 I 
 
 g^g 
 
 
 mm r - ^ - O^^H^ 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 la^H^^^^^^^^H 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 H....... 
 
 
 Fig. 10. — A practical type of farrowing box in use at tlie University of 
 California. This box is 26 inches long, 18 inches wide, and 18 inches deep. 
 
 Fig. 11. — Removing needle-teeth from the suckling pi 
 
30 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE [CiRC. 15 
 
 Occasionally a sow will farrow more pigs than she can properly 
 nourish. Some of these pigs should be transferred to another sow 
 that has recently farrowed a small litter. When sows do not provide 
 milk at farrowing time, the milk floAv may often be stimulated by 
 applying hot packs to the udder and by vigorous massage. 
 
 About a day after farrowing, the eight needle-like teeth present 
 in the upper and lower jaws of the young pigs should be removed by 
 carefully cutting with wire snippers, as shown in figure 11. These 
 teeth, which are also known as wolf or black teeth, are of no apparent 
 value. If not removed, they are likely to prove a menace to the 
 health and safety of the pigs, because biting each other while nursing 
 often results in lacerated mouths that become infected. The pigs also 
 bite the sow, causing her to jump suddenly, sometimes injuring or 
 killing some of the litter. 
 
 The practice of marking the pigs in some way, with either an 
 individual or litter number when they are a few days old is recom- 
 mended. The most convenient and satisfactory method is the ear- 
 notch system of identification. 
 
 Pig-Eating Sows. — Normal brood sows, fed properly during the 
 gestation period, will not eat their pigs. It is commonly believed that 
 the rations fed during the last two months of pregnancy, if deficient 
 in protein and mineral matter, are contributing causes to this vice. 
 The practice of feeding tankage or meat meal after farrowing may 
 in some cases remedy the situation. Sows that have formed the pig- 
 eating habit should be discarded for breeding purposes, fattened, and 
 marketed. 
 
 Feeding the Sow after Farrowing. — Sows should receive no feed 
 during the first twenty-four hours after farrowing and then only 
 small amounts for the next three or four days. It is a good rule to 
 feed one pound of a suitable concentrate mixture, such as rolled 
 barley and wheat bran, equal parts by weight, on the second day, two 
 pounds the third day, and increasing amounts daily until four or five 
 pounds are being fed at the end of the first week. Under normal 
 conditions, the sow can be on full feed in from ten to fourteen days 
 after farrowing. The attendant should constantly watch for any 
 digestive disturbances that become evident in the suckling pigs and 
 should regulate the sow's feed accordingly. Over-feeding the sow, 
 constipation, and lack of exercise may cause scours in pigs. 
 
 The feed requirements of the sow suckling a litter are much the 
 same as those of the high-producing dairy cow. Nutrients are needed 
 for the maintenance of the body and for the production of large 
 
1928] 
 
 PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 
 
 31 
 
 quantities of milk for the litter. A ration supplying liberal amounts 
 of proteins and mineral matter, particularly calcium and phosphorus, 
 will satisfy these demands. These materials may be supplied by 
 home-grown grains, supplemented with such feeds as wheat middlings 
 and tankage, which are rich in protein. 
 
 Proper feeding of the lactating sow is important. Over-feeding 
 generally causes scours in pigs, while under-feeding often results in 
 an excessive drain on the system of the sow. 
 
 12. — Sow and litter 10 days of age, after having been moved from 
 the farrowing house to clean pasture. 
 
 In from ten to fourteen days after farrowing, weather conditions 
 permitting, the sows and pigs should be placed on clean pasture 
 (fig. 12). Forage, preferably of the leguminous type, growing in 
 recently plowed lots is a valuable addition to the ration because of 
 its milk-producing properties, and also its liberal supply of proteins, 
 minerals, and vitamins. Pasture also gives pigs ample opportunity 
 for exercise in the sunlight. 
 
 When sows and their litters are being moved to the pasture, the 
 pigs should be carried in a box, thus eliminating chances of picking 
 up eggs of intestinal parasites. 
 
 Tightly fenced pastures, large enough to accommodate from two 
 to four sows and their litters, are recommended. Adequate shelter 
 should be provided ; clean, warm, well-bedded houses are essential. 
 If small pastures are not available, a greater number of sows and 
 
32 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE [CiRC. 15 
 
 litters may be plaeed on a large pasture, provided the pigs are of 
 relatively uniform size. Too often sows with litters two or three 
 weeks old are turned out with sows whose pigs are ready to wean. 
 This usually results in a large number of small, unthrifty pigs. The 
 best results will be obtained, however, by running a few sows together. 
 More individual attention can be given in feeding the smaller pigs 
 and they will have a better chance to grow and develop normally. 
 
 The feeding at this stage is important. Sows with normal-sized 
 litters should be on full feed. Even so, heavy-milking sows will lose 
 from 25 to 40 pounds during the lactation period. Sows that begin 
 to take on flesh three or four weeks after farrowing should not be 
 given all they will eat. 
 
 The number of pounds for a full feed varies with the individual 
 and with the size and number of pigs in the litter. If a sow is fed 
 slightly less than she will readily clean up twice a day, she may be 
 considered on full feed. The appetite is a good guide in feeding. 
 
 At the United States Experiment Farm, Beltsville, Maryland, 
 sows suckling their pigs were self -fed a ration consisting of shelled 
 corn, wheat middlings, and a mineral mixture for a period of three 
 years. The results were equal to and in some cases better than those 
 obtained by hand-feeding. This method, however, is not the general 
 practice in this state. 
 
 Feeding the Suckling Pigs. — When the pigs are from two to three 
 weeks old, they will eat a little grain. A self-feeder placed in a small 
 inclosure, known as a 'creep,' should be provided for the pigs. The 
 common farm grains will meet the demands of the pigs at this age. 
 As they grow older and their consumption of grain increases, they 
 should have some protein supplement such as skim milk, middlings, 
 tankage, or linseed-oil meal. 
 
 Skim milk fed with suitable concentrates is one of the best feeds 
 known for young growing pigs, and should be given if available. It is 
 advisable to feed small amounts at first, care being taken to increase 
 the amount gradually, never to put out more than they will clean up. 
 
 Weaning the Pigs. — Where the system of farrowing two litters a 
 year is practiced, as it is in most sections, pigs are weaned at from 
 seven to nine weeks of age. At this time the pigs will be consuming 
 considerable quantities of feed daily. 
 
 About a week before weaning, the sow should have her ration 
 gradually reduced, thus causing a decrease in the flow of milk and 
 indirectly helping to eliminate the possibility of caked or inflamed 
 udders. 
 
li^28] PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 33 
 
 The best practice is to remove the sows from the pigs, leaving the 
 latter on the same pasture which they have occupied during the 
 suckling period. 
 
 If the sow 's udder becomes hard or caked a day or so after weaning, 
 place her with the pigs again and allow them to suckle. She should 
 be removed when they have finished. This procedure should not be 
 necessary more than once. 
 
 If the pigs are receiving skim milk at weaning time, it should be 
 gradually increased, never allowing more than they will readily clean 
 up in a short time. 
 
 The grain ration should not be changed at this time. However, if 
 a change in feed is necessary, it should not be sudden, but extended 
 over a period of from three to five days. Any sudden change in feed 
 is likely to be harmful, and in some cases fatal, to pigs at any age. 
 
 Feeding the Sow after Weamng. — After weaning, the sow should 
 be placed in a separate pasture and fed lightly until the secretion 
 of milk ceases. The feed is then increased, the amount necessary 
 depending upon the condition of the sow. Feeding heavily so that 
 she will gain from one-half to one pound a day at breeding time is 
 recommended. 
 
 THE YOUNG PIGS 
 
 After Weamng. — Soon after the pigs are weaned, the gilts and 
 boars that are to be saved for breeding stock should be selected and 
 separated from those to be fattened. A system of identification is 
 valuable in making the selections. As a rule, only gilts and boars 
 out of the best sows should be retained. When a large number of 
 hogs are raised, this is difficult unless the practice of marking the 
 litters or individual pigs is being followed. 
 
 The question of feeding and managing the pigs that are to be 
 fattened for market is discussed on pages 34-40. 
 
 Feeding the Orphan Pig. — Evvard and Glatfelter,^^ of the Iowa 
 station, recommend, after five years of experimentation, a ration of 
 cow 's whole milk, about one quart for each pig, plus a ration of mixed 
 shelled corn or rolled barley and tankage, which can be self -fed. The 
 addition of green alfalfa or alfalfa leaves is also helpful. For best 
 results, the young pig should be fed five or six times daily for a time, 
 this number gradually being cut to three. 
 
 ]fi Evvard, John M., and G. B. Glatfelter. Saving the orphan pigs. Iowa 
 Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 80:1-11. 1922. 
 
34 ■ CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE [CiRC. 15 
 
 Gilts and Boars Retained for Breeding Purposes. — The selection,'^ 
 feeding, and care of the gilts retained for breeding purposes is 
 important, because the future sow herd is dependent upon the gilts 
 selected from each crop of pigs. Since it is desirable to obtain as 
 much growth as possible, the gilts should be placed in a pasture. 
 Hand feeding will, in most cases, prove the most successful, especially 
 after a weight of about 100 pounds is reached. The ration should be 
 of a type to promote growth rather than fat production. Liberal 
 amounts of proteins and minerals should be provided. 
 
 Skim milk or buttermilk fed at the rate of three parts to one part 
 of grain concentrates, by weight, is a satisfactory combination, with 
 alfalfa pasture to promote proper growth and development in the 
 young animal. The guide to be followed by the feeder is the pro- 
 duction of thrifty growth rather than fat. The results obtained 
 depend largely upon the common sense and judgment of the man 
 doing the feeding. 
 
 The young boars saved for breeding purposes should be separated 
 from the gilts soon after weaning. Their feeding and management 
 are similar to those recommended for the developing gilt. 
 
 FATTENING PIGS FOR MARKET 
 
 The most common methods of fattening pigs for market are : 
 {a) full feeding on alfalfa or other forage; {])) feeding a limited 
 ration on forage, (c) full feeding in dry lot; {d) hogging down crops; 
 {e) using barley and rice stubble, orchard and vineyard wastes. 
 
 The two methods in most general use in the state are full feeding 
 of grain on alfalfa pasture or other forage from weaning time until 
 the desired market weight is attained, and feeding a restricted or 
 medium grain ration with available forage or pasture and finishing 
 in dry lot. 
 
 Fidl Feeding on Forage. — The first method is the quicker way to 
 attain market weight; the feasibility and economy of this method, 
 however, are dependent upon local conditions. 
 
 Thompson and Voorhies^' have reported several experiments where 
 various rations were fed on alfalfa pasture. Some of these data are 
 presented in table 3. 
 
 Other data obtained by Hughes^ ^ at this station, where various 
 rations were fed with alfalfa pasture, are presented in table 4. 
 
 17 Thompson, J. I., and Edwin C. Voorhies. Hog feeding experiments. Cali- 
 fornia Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 342:373-396. 1922. 
 
 18 Hughes, E. H. The feeding value of raisins and dairy by-products for 
 growing and fattening swine. California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 440:1-12. 1927. 
 
1928] 
 
 PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 
 
 35 
 
 TABLE 3 
 
 Full Feeding on Alfalfa Pasture 
 
 Ration 
 
 Average 
 initial 
 weight 
 
 Average 
 daily 
 gain 
 
 Feed consumed for 
 100 pounds of gain 
 
 Rolled barley, self-fed 
 
 pounds 
 
 89.90 
 
 pounds 
 
 1.27 
 
 pounds 
 
 434 barley 
 
 
 Rolled barlej^ and tankage, .self-fed 
 
 89.73 
 
 1.34 
 
 421 barley 
 18 tankage 
 
 Rolled barley and cocoanut meal... 
 
 88.0 
 
 1.04 
 
 299 barley 
 
 111 coconut meal 
 
 Rolled barley and wheat middlings 
 
 103.3 
 
 1.27 
 
 360 barley 
 
 110 wheat middlings 
 
 Ground milo and tankage, self-fed... 
 
 102.8 
 
 1.54 
 
 400 ground milo 
 10 tankage 
 
 TABLE 4 
 Full Feeding on Alfalfa Pasture 
 
 Ration 
 
 Average 
 initial 
 weight 
 
 Average 
 daily 
 gain 
 
 Feed consumed for 
 100 pounds of gain 
 
 Rolled barley, 15 parts \ By weight, 
 
 „ , ^ " , ( mixed and 
 
 lankage, 1 part J self-fed. 
 
 pounds 
 
 82.95 
 
 pounds 
 
 1.66 
 
 pounds 
 
 361.11 barley 
 24.07 tankage 
 
 Rolled barley, 5 parts.. | 
 
 Raisins , 5 parts 1 By weight 
 
 _. . , ^ , ; mixed and 
 
 Rice bran, 5 parts self-fed. 
 
 Tankage, 1 part J 
 
 82.28 
 
 1.76 
 
 136.34 barley 
 136.34 raisins 
 136.34 rice bran 
 27.27 tankage 
 
 Raisins, 7\4 oarts t^ ■ ux 
 
 81.39 
 
 1.48 
 
 220 31 raisins 
 
 xvdioinD , 1 /I pa,i LD -gy weight, 
 
 Rice bran, IVo parts \ mixed and 
 
 r,^ , , ^ self-fed. 
 
 Tankage, 1 part 
 
 220.31 rice bran 
 29.38 tankage 
 
 
 The results obtained from pigs fed barley and tankage and from 
 those fed ground milo and tankage indicate relatively small consump- 
 tion of tankage if good alfalfa is available. 
 
 The group fed rolled barley and tankage on pasture (fig. 13) did 
 not gain so rapidly as those receiving barley, raisins, rice bran, and 
 tankage ; they did, however, produce gains on less feed than either 
 of the other groups. This would be expected, because in a given 
 
36 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE [CiRC. 15 
 
 amount of barley there are more total digestible nutrients than in 
 raisins or rice bran. 
 
 Restricted Ration on Forage. — In following the second plan, that 
 of feeding a restricted grain ration on pasture, it is considered good 
 practice to feed a concentrate ration of one or two pounds for each 
 100 pounds of live weight. Waste from vegetable gardens, vineyards, 
 and orchards may be utilized under this scheme. 
 
 During the summer and fall of 1926, thirtj^-one pigs were fed 
 on an acre of alfalfa pasture at this station. The pasture was divided 
 into two half -acre lots, the pigs being pastured in one while the other 
 was being irrigated. They were fed a limited ration of one part of 
 rolled barley to three parts of skim milk by weight. It was planned 
 that they should be fed such a quantity of barley and skim milk that 
 they would consume a maximum quantity of alfalfa and yet gain at 
 the rate of about one pound per head daily. The pigs fed from June 
 until November gained 0.92 pounds per head daily and required 275 
 pounds of barley and 822 pounds of skim milk for 100 pounds of gain. 
 
 hi Dry Lot.- — Where only a limited amount of forage is available, 
 pigs may be fattened in dry lot, placing them in the fattening pen 
 soon after w^eaning, when they weigh from 45 to 75 pounds each. 
 Pigs fattened in dry lot require more feeds rich in protein than 
 those fattened on forage. Where pigs are fattened in this manner, 
 occasional feeding of roots, tubers, pumpkins, or alfalfa hay adds 
 nutrients, succulence, and variety to the ration. 
 
 Almost all of the demands of the young pig are for growth ; there- 
 fore, rations rich in muscle and bone-building materials are necessary, 
 in addition to the carbohydrates or energy-producing elements. Since 
 the common farm-grown grains do not supply these materials in 
 sufficient quantities for rapid growth, they must be supplemented 
 with protein-rich feeds, such as the dairy by-products, tankage, fish 
 meal, linseed-oil meal, and wheat middlings. 
 
 Protein-rich pasture for pigs during the growing period cannot 
 be recommended too highly. It is an excellent and economical source 
 of protein, mineral matter, particularly calcium, phosphorus, and 
 iodine, and vitamins. Pigs on pasture seem more healthy and thrifty 
 than those in small, cramped quarters. Pigs fed on legume pasture 
 need less protein-rich supplements than those in dry lot. As they 
 become older and heavier and the aim is one of fat production rather 
 than growth, the amount of protein supplements in the ration may 
 be gradually reduced, rations containing larger proportions of 
 carbonaceous feeds being used. 
 
1928] 
 
 PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 
 
 37 
 
 It is not intended to present in this circular all the available 
 information on dry-lot feeding, but rather to give the average results 
 of experimentation with the more common rations used. Pigs being 
 fattened in dry lot should have plenty of shade and clean water and 
 a suitable mineral mixture. Their quarters should be kept clean. 
 
 Table 5 is a summary of trials of pigs fattened in dry lot. 
 
 The rapid gains made by the fattening pigs and the reduction of 
 the amount of feed necessary for 100 pounds of gain show clearly 
 the advantages of adding a protein supplement to barley and to corn. 
 
 Fig. 13. — Fattening pigs fed a ration of rolled bailey and tankage 
 self-fed in separate feeders, and alfalfa pasture. 
 
 Excellent and economical gains were made by pigs fed barley and 
 tankage or barley and skim milk. A ration of ground milo and skim 
 milk produced about the same results as rolled barley and skim milk. 
 
 The average results indicate that the feeding of such rations as 
 barley and tankage or barley and skim milk produces about the same 
 results as rations of corn and tankage or corn and skim milk. 
 
 Hogging Doivn Crops. — Experiments conducted in the Corn Belt 
 states have demonstrated that hogs do as well and often better when 
 allowed to harvest their own corn than when it is hauled to them in 
 the feed lot. Experience has proved that allowing the pigs a supple- 
 ment, either in the form of some nitrogenous concentrate such as 
 tankage or fish meal or in the form of some legume forage such as 
 alfalfa pasture, produces more rapid and economical gains than when 
 no supplement is provided. 
 
38 
 
 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE 
 
 [CiRC. 15 
 
 TABLE 5 
 Fattening Pigs in Dry Lot 
 
 Ration 
 
 Average 
 initial 
 weight 
 
 Average 
 daily 
 gain 
 
 Feed consumed for 
 100 pounds of gain 
 
 Rolled barley, self-fed . . . 
 
 pounds 
 
 73.93 
 
 pounds 
 
 0.73 
 
 pounds 
 
 546 44 barlev 
 
 (Average of 3 trials) 
 
 
 Rolled barley \ Self-fed. 
 
 „, , /(Average of 5 
 
 lankage J trials.) 
 
 86.27 
 
 1.54 
 
 420.00 barley 
 41 . 73 tankage 
 
 Rolled barley 
 
 87.50 
 
 0.93 
 
 465.00 barley 
 
 Alfalfa hay (in racks) 
 
 38. 00 alfalfa hay 
 
 Rolled barlev 1 t^ i , 
 
 56.75 
 
 1.07 
 
 161 . 033 barley 
 
 -^ Equal parts, 
 
 Raisins } mixed and 
 
 ,^. , self-fed. 
 
 Rice bran J 
 
 Tankage, self-fed in separate feeder 
 
 161.033 raisins 
 161.033 rice bran 
 30.67 tankage 
 
 Rolled barlev c i^ f i 
 
 65.25 
 
 1.24 
 
 252. 17 barley 
 
 Raisins > (Average of 2 
 
 Tankage j 
 
 166.37 raisins 
 75.31 tankage* 
 
 Rolled barley, 1 part.) _ . , 
 
 oi • Ml o : { By weight. 
 
 Skim milk, 3 parts J 
 
 54.33 
 
 1.61 
 
 280.48 barley 
 841.45 skim milk 
 
 Rolled barley, 1 part. .1 _ . , 
 
 Airu 1 / By weight. 
 
 Whey, 1 part J 
 
 53.53 
 
 1.40 
 
 331.40 barley 
 994. 19 whey 
 
 Rolled barley, 1 part....] 
 
 Raisins, 1 part \ By weight. 
 
 54.53 
 
 1.47 
 
 156.08 barley 
 156.08 raisins 
 
 Skim milk, 6 parts J 
 
 936. 46 skim milk 
 
 Rolled barley, 1 part....] 
 
 Raisins, 1 part \ By weight. 
 
 54.07 
 
 1.04 
 
 195. 24 barley 
 195. 24 raisins 
 
 Whey, 6 parts J 
 
 1171.42 whey 
 
 Ground milo 
 
 Skim milk 
 
 73.10 
 
 1.55 
 
 289.00 milo 
 896.00 skim milk 
 
 Ground milo 
 
 Whey 
 
 72.80 
 
 1.32 
 
 349.00 milo 
 1346.00 whey 
 
 Rolled barley. . ] g^i^.^^^ -^ ^^^^^^^^ 
 
 Rice polish } feeders. 
 
 „ , (Averageof 2 trials.) 
 
 lankage J 
 
 109.70 
 
 1.88 
 
 269.86 barley 
 121.14 rice polish 
 25.39 tankage 
 
 * In one trial a 45-per-cent-protein tankage was fed, which partially accounts for the amount of 
 tankage consumed. 
 
1928] 
 
 PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 
 
 39 
 
 TABLE 5— (Continued) 
 
 Ration 
 
 Average 
 initial 
 weight 
 
 Average 
 daily 
 gain 
 
 Feed consumed for 
 100 pounds of gain 
 
 Rolled barley \ Equal parts 
 
 pounds 
 
 57.00 
 
 pounds 
 
 1.41 
 
 pounds 
 
 183. 14 barley 
 
 Rice polish / ««if-^«d. ' 
 
 Tankage, self-fed in separate feeder 
 
 183. 14 rice polish 
 33.27 tankage 
 
 Rolled barley....] Self-fed in separate 
 Rice bran > feeders. 
 
 97.76 
 
 1.81 
 
 323.35 barley 
 89.72 rice bran 
 
 Tankage (Average of 2 trials.) 
 
 25.21 tankage 
 
 Rolled barlev 1 Eoual narts 
 
 56.10 
 
 1.30 
 
 202.095 barlev 
 
 Rice bran / ^^l^-^^^- 
 
 Tankage, self-fed in separate feeder 
 
 202.095 rice bran 
 53.60 tankage 
 
 Rough rice, finely ground \ Self-fed in 
 
 „ ° f separate 
 
 Tankage J feeders. 
 
 (Average of two trials) 
 
 80.45 
 
 1.39 
 
 461 . 07 rice 
 55.84 tankage 
 
 Corn alonef 
 
 136.70 
 
 1.12 
 
 545.90 corn 
 
 Cornt 
 
 Tankage 
 
 138.70 
 
 1.74 
 
 380.20 corn 
 40.20 tankage 
 
 Cornt 
 
 Skim milk 
 
 108.38 
 
 1.66 
 
 302.07 corn 
 799.40 skim milk 
 
 tAverage of several experiments reported in: Smith, W. W. Pork Production, pp. 241 and 256. 
 The Macmillan Co., New York. 1920. 
 
 Note. — All the information presented in this table is found in California Agr. 
 Exp. Sta. Buls. 342, 420, and 440, except that concerning corn. 
 
 While there is no experimental evidence concerning the hogging- 
 down of barley, it is practiced in some localities. Producers have 
 found that relatively small areas should be hogged down at one time, 
 that it is necessary to have water close at hand, and that where natural 
 shade is lacking temporary shade must be supplied. 
 
 Hogs on Stuhhle Fields. — The gleaning of barley, wheat, and rice- 
 stubble fields is an important factor in economical pork production 
 in this state. Two systems of management are practiced. The more 
 common is to turn sows and pigs into the stubble fields and keep them 
 there until they are fat or until the fields have been cleaned. Water 
 and shade are provided, but no effort is made to provide additional 
 protein, either in the form of pasture or commercial supplement. 
 Some producers, however, are allowing either sows, or sows with pigs. 
 
40 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE [CiRC. 15 
 
 the run of barley or rice-stubble and, in addition, are providing 
 alfalfa pasture and in some cases, when pasture is not to be had, are 
 supplying tankage in a self-feeder. Pigs over 75 pounds in weight 
 do better on stubble than lighter pigs. A clean, dry bed should be 
 provided in the rice-stubble fields. 
 
 MARKETING 
 
 The most desirable market weight from the standpoint of both the 
 producer and the consumer is from 175 to 200 pounds. 
 
 Hogs are sold to local butchers, shipped directly to the packers, 
 marketed through cooperative farm-bureau associations, or consigned 
 to commission firms to be sold at union stock yards. The cooperative 
 farm-bureau hog-auction association of the lower San Joaquin Valley 
 has been a very successful one. 
 
 It is good business to produce the kind of hogs the public demands 
 and to sell them to the highest bidder, whether he be the local butcher 
 or some other agency. 
 
 SANITATION AND CONTROL OF PARASITES 
 
 Clean premises and clean, well-lighted, ventilated barns and sheds 
 are good insurance against various types of infection. Plowing the 
 lots close to the barn once or twice a year and seeding them to 
 some annual crop such as barley and rape, keeping the manure away 
 from the barns and lots, scattering air-slacked lime in the pens and 
 on the feeding floors occasionally, and keeping the troughs and feed- 
 ing utensils clean, all are factors in keeping down infection and in 
 providing wholesome surroundings for the growing pigs. 
 
 Control of the Bound Worm. — The McLean County System has 
 produced some excellent results in preventing round-worm infestation. 
 Before the farrowing season begins, the farrowing house and par- 
 ticularly the walls, partitions, and floor of the farrowing pens are 
 thoroughly washed and scrubbed with scalding water and lye. The 
 pen is then thoroughly disinfected with any standard disinfectant, 
 and fresh, clean straw is put in. 
 
 Before the sows that are due to farrow are put into the pens, they 
 are washed thoroughly, particularly the udder and underline, as a 
 protection against carrying round-worm eggs into the clean pen. The 
 sow is kept in the pen until she has farrowed and her pigs are strong 
 enough to be removed from the barn to a clean, non-infested pasture. 
 
1928] 
 
 PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 
 
 41 
 
 Control of Lice. — Where hog wallows are a part of the equipment, 
 the control of lice is simple. Keeping a film of about one-half inch of 
 crude or any other cheap oil on the water to which the sows and pigs 
 have access is a very effective measure. If there are no wallows, it is 
 necessary to dip the whole herd in a dipping vat if lice are found. 
 To the w^ater in the dipping vat should be added crude oil in such 
 amounts that each animal receives a thin covering of oil. The water 
 should be slightly warm if it is found necessary to dip in the late fall, 
 winter, or early spring. 
 
 Another system for oiling pigs is to crowd them into a small area 
 and spray them with oil, using a power or hand spray outfit or, if the 
 number of hogs to be sprayed is small, an ordinary garden sprinkling 
 can. Pigs should be dipped or sprayed a second time in from ten days 
 to two weeks to remove the lice that have hatched in the meantime. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS: RECORDS AND METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION, 
 CASTRATION, RINGING, GESTATION TABLE 
 
 Records and MetJiods of Identification. — The keeping of records 
 is essential for the proper management of any herd. A record of the 
 breeding date, date of farrow, the number and sex of pigs farrowed, 
 and the number and sex of pigs raised is of vital importance to the 
 producer raising purebred hogs (fig. 14). 
 
 BREEDING RECORD 
 
 ^nw. 
 
 Date of 
 
 MEMORANDUM OF PRODUCE. (For preceding Utt.r. .ee page , 
 
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 rarrou»a 
 
 
 
 
 
 .«« 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 Jfam 
 
 
 
 
 *«rf*r 
 
 
 
 
 
 P n 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 aom U bT^'w.* 
 
 s 
 
 'S 
 
 His'^r 
 
 y^ 
 
 
 Publl.h.a by 
 
 J. III. 
 
 (For next litter, see page....) 
 
 Fig. 14. — One type of breeding and farrowing record. 
 
 A system of identification for the litter, or preferably for each 
 individual pig, is almost indispensable. The ear-notching system is 
 the one most commonly used and is recommended, as the pigs may be 
 
42 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE [CiRC. 15 
 
 marked without injury soon after birth, thus reducing the possibility 
 of mistaken identity. The producer of purebreds should be thoroughly 
 conversant with breed association rules. Blank forms and information 
 may be secured from the secretary of the breed association. A simple 
 system of bookkeeping is of value in placing any business on a sound 
 basis. 
 
 Information on the breeding operations is important in the grade 
 herd. A record of the breeding date, the boar used, the farrowing 
 date, the number of pigs farrowed and raised, is valuable, and a 
 system of litter identification is essential. Here again, the ear-notch 
 method is in common use. It is important to know the number of 
 pigs raised by each sow, so that one proving unproductive may be 
 recognized and placed in the fattening pen. The litter identification 
 also affords an opportunity to select breeding stock of known 
 parentage. 
 
 Metal tags bearing a number are sometimes inserted in the ear as 
 a means of identification. These are placed close to the head to prevent 
 tearing out. Even with this precaution, however, they are often lost. 
 A tag placed in each ear will, in a measure, overcome this difficulty, 
 and if one tag is lost it should be replaced immediately by another. 
 As tags are not satisfactory for small pigs, some other means of 
 identification must be employed until the pigs are large enough for 
 the tags to be inserted. The tag system of marking is not recom- 
 mended because it is difficult to read the numbers and the tags are 
 too often lost. 
 
 The system of ear notching is the most common method of marking 
 little pigs or mature hogs. Pigs a day or two old may be marked, the 
 notches being retained throughout life. Each notch should be large 
 enough to facilitate ease in reading, yet not too large to disfigure the 
 ear. The system shown in figure 16 is in use at the California station. 
 
 The position of the notch or notches in the ear determines the 
 number of the pig. A notch placed in the low^er side of the left ear, 
 close to the head, is No. 1 ; in the lower side, midway between the tip 
 and the head, is No. 2 ; in the lower side, close to the tip, is No. 3 ; 
 and so on up to No. 5. 
 
 By placing two notches in the ear and adding together the figures 
 for which they stand, the numbers 6, 7, 8, and 9 can be obtained. For 
 instance, if a notch were placed in the upper side of the left ear, close 
 to the tip, and one in the lower side, midway between the tip and 
 the head, the number would total 4 plus 2, or 6. To make the number 
 7, notches in the positions of 5 and 2 should be used, as 4 and 3 both 
 occupy positions at the tip of the ear, and ears so notched tear easily. 
 
1928] 
 
 PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 
 
 43 
 
 
 Fig. 15. — An effective means of identification: ear notching the 
 suckling pig. 
 
 30 ^ ^ /^^ V-3 
 
 ZO 
 
 P°':^i 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 16. — One method of ear notching. 
 
44 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE [CiRC. 15 
 
 The corresponding five notches on the right ear, starting on the 
 lower side and going around, represent 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 respec- 
 tively. By placing two notches in the right ear and adding together 
 the figures they represent, the numbers 60, 70, 80, and 90 are obtained. 
 
 Suppose, for example, a pig is to be numbered 98. This would be 
 done by placing a notch in the upper side, near the tip (40) and a 
 notch in the upper side, midway between the tip and the head (50), 
 in the right ear; a notch in the upper side of the left ear, midway 
 between the tip and the head (5), and in the lower side, close to the 
 tip (3), would total (50 plus 40) 90, on the right ear, and (5 plus 3) 
 8, on the left ear. 
 
 In grade herds, each pig in a litter may be given the same number ; 
 in purebred herds each pig should have an individual number. 
 
 Castration. — Castration of small pigs can be performed with 
 efficiency and without much danger if proper precautions are taken. 
 
 The best time to castrate is from six to eight weeks of age, while 
 the pigs are still suckling. It is a good plan to give no feed except 
 the mother's milk the day before and the day after castration. The 
 operation performed at this age does not materially retard growth, 
 as the shock to the pig is almost negligible. Moreover, a pig of this 
 size is small enough to be handled easily, making the operation simple. 
 If the pigs are castrated with clean, disinfected hands, and knife, and 
 if the incisions are made large enough to insure good drainage, there 
 is less danger from infection. The sows and pigs should be placed in 
 clean pastures or in clean lots after castration so that the possibility 
 of infection will be reduced to a minimum. 
 
 Ringing. — Rooting is a habit practiced by most hogs. The most 
 common method of prevention is to place a small ring in the cartilage 
 at the end of the snout. This can be accomplished by one man holding 
 the small pig and another man inserting the ring with the ringer. 
 Older and larger hogs can be snubbed to a post by the use of a small 
 rope attached to the upper jaw, the ring being inserted as in the case 
 of smaller pigs. Rings and a ringer can be purchased at most hard- 
 ware stores. The practice of cutting the snout to prevent rooting is 
 not a good one. 
 
 Gestation Table. — Table 6 is figured on a gestation period of 114 
 days, figuring in the breeding and farrowing dates. The gestation 
 period of sows varies somewhat, 114 days being an average. To be 
 safe, it is always good practice to put the sow in the farrowing pen 
 a few days before she is due to farrow. 
 
1928] 
 
 PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 
 
 45 
 
 TABLE 6 
 Gestation Table 
 
 Breeding 
 
 Farrowing 
 
 Breeding 
 
 Farrowing 
 
 Breeding 
 
 Farrowing 
 
 date 
 
 date 
 
 date 
 
 date 
 
 date 
 
 date 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 Apr. 24 
 
 May 6 
 
 Aug. 27 
 
 Sept. 8 
 
 Dec. 30 
 
 Jan. 6 
 
 Apr. 29 
 
 May 11 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. 13 
 
 Jan. 4 
 
 Jan. 11 
 
 May 4 
 
 May 16 
 
 Sept. 6 
 
 Sept. 18 
 
 Jan. 9 
 
 Jan. 16 
 
 May 9 
 
 May 21 
 
 Sept. 11 
 
 Sept. 23 
 
 Jan. 14 
 
 Jan. 21 
 
 May 14 
 
 May 26 
 
 Sept. 16 
 
 Sept. 28 
 
 Jan. 19 
 
 Jan. 26 
 
 May 19 
 
 May 31 
 
 Sept. 21 
 
 Oct. 3 
 
 Jan. 24 
 
 Jan. 31 
 
 May 24 
 
 June 5 
 
 Sept. 26 
 
 Oct. 8 
 
 Jan. 29 
 
 Feb. 5 
 
 May 29 
 
 June 10 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 13 
 
 Feb. 3 
 
 Feb. 10 
 
 June 3 
 
 June 15 
 
 Oct. 6 
 
 Oct. 18 
 
 Feb. 8 
 
 Feb. 15 
 
 June 8 
 
 June 20 
 
 Oct. 11 
 
 Oct. 23 
 
 Feb. 13 
 
 Feb. 20 
 
 June 13 
 
 June 25 
 
 Oct. 16 
 
 Oct. 28 
 
 Feb. 18 
 
 Feb. 25 
 
 June 18 
 
 June 30 
 
 Oct. 21 
 
 Nov. 2 
 
 Feb. 23 
 
 Mar. 2 
 
 June 23 
 
 July 5 
 
 Oct. 26 
 
 Nov. 7 
 
 Feb. 28 
 
 Mar. 7 
 
 June 28 
 
 July 10 
 
 Oct. 31 
 
 Nov. 12 
 
 Mar. 5 
 
 Mar. 12 
 
 July 3 
 
 July 15 
 
 Nov. 5 
 
 Nov. 17 
 
 Mar. 10 
 
 Mar. 17 
 
 July 8 
 
 July 20 
 
 Nov. 10 
 
 Nov. 22 
 
 Mar. 15 
 
 Mar. 22 
 
 July 13 
 
 July 25 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 Nov. 27 
 
 Mar. 20 
 
 Mar. 27 
 
 July 18 
 
 July 30 
 
 Nov. 20 
 
 Dec. 2 
 
 Mar. 25 
 
 Apr. 1 
 
 July 23 
 
 Aug. 4 
 
 Nov. 25 
 
 Dec. 7 
 
 Mar. 30 
 
 Apr. 6 
 
 July 28 
 
 Aug. 9 
 
 Nov. 30 
 
 Dec. 12 
 
 Apr. 4 
 
 Apr. 11 
 
 Aug. 2 
 
 Aug. 14 
 
 Dec. 5 
 
 Dec. 17 
 
 Apr. 9 
 
 Apr. 16 
 
 Aug. 7 
 
 Aug. 19 
 
 Dec. 10 
 
 Dec. 22 
 
 Apr. 14 
 
 Apr. 21 
 
 Aug. 12 
 
 Aug. 24 
 
 Dec. 15 
 
 Dec. 27 
 
 Apr. 19 
 
 Apr. 26 
 May 1 
 
 Aug. 17 
 Aug. 22 
 
 Aug. 29 
 Sept. 3 
 
 Dec. 20 
 
 
 
 Dec. 25 
 
 
 
 
 
PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION 
 
 No. 
 
 253. Irrigation and Soil Conditions in th« 
 Sierra Nevada Foothills, California. 
 
 262. Citrus Diseases of Florida and Cuba 
 
 Compared with those of California. 
 
 263. Size Grades for Ripe Olives. 
 
 268. Growing and Grafting Olive Seedlings. 
 
 273. -Preliminary Report on Kearney Vine- 
 yard Experimental Drain, Fresno 
 County, California. 
 
 276. The Pomegranate. 
 
 277. Sudan Grass. 
 
 278. Grain Sorghums. 
 
 279. Irrigation of Rice in California. 
 283. The Olive Insects of California. 
 294. Bean Culture in California. 
 
 304. A Study of the Effects of Freezes on 
 
 Citrus in California. 
 310. Plum Pollination. 
 312. Mariout Barley. 
 813, Pruning Young Deciduous Fruit 
 
 Trees, 
 319, Caprifigs and Caprification, 
 
 324, Storage of Perishable Fruit at Freez- 
 
 ing Temperatures. 
 
 325. Rice Irrigation Measurements and 
 
 Experiments in Sacramento Valley, 
 
 1914-1919. 
 328. Prune Growing in California. 
 331. Phylloxera-Resistant Stocks. 
 335. Cocoanut Meal as a Feed for Dairy 
 
 Cows and Other Livestock. 
 
 339. The Relative Cost of Making Logs 
 
 from Small and Large Timber. 
 
 340. Control of the Pocket Gopher in 
 
 California. 
 
 343. Cheese Pests and Their Control. 
 
 344. Cold Storage as an Aid to the Mar- 
 
 keting of Plums. 
 
 346. Almond Pollination. 
 
 347. The Control of Red Spiders in Decid- 
 
 uous Orchards, 
 
 348. Pruning Young Olive Trees. 
 
 849. A Study of Sidedraft and Tractor 
 
 Hitches. 
 
 850, Agriculture in Cut-over Redwood 
 
 Lands. 
 
 353. Bovine Infectious Abortion, 
 
 354. Results of Rice Experiments in 1922, 
 
 357, A Self-mixing Dusting Machine for 
 
 Applying Dry Insecticides and 
 Fungicides. 
 
 358. Black Measles, Water Berries, and 
 
 Related Vine Troubles. 
 
 361. Preliminary Yield Tables for Second 
 
 Growth Redwood. 
 
 362. Dust and the Tractor Engine. 
 
 363. The Pruning of Citrus Trees in Cali- 
 
 fornia. 
 
 364. Fungicidal Dusts for the Control of 
 
 Bunt. 
 
 365. Avocado Culture in California. 
 
 366. Turkish Tobacco Culture, Curing and 
 
 Marketing. 
 
 367. Methods of Harvesting and Irrigation 
 
 in Relation of Mouldy Walnuts. 
 
 368. Bacterial Decomposition of Olives dur- 
 
 ing Pickling. 
 869. Comparison of Woods for Butter 
 Boxes. 
 
 370. Browning of Yellow Newtown Apples. 
 
 371. The Relative Cost of Yarding Small 
 
 and Large Timber. 
 
 373. Pear Pollination. 
 
 374. A Survey of Orchard Practices in the 
 
 Citrus Industry of Southern Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 375. Results of Rice Experiments at Cor- 
 
 tena, 1923. 
 
 376. Sun-Drying and Dehydration of Wal- 
 
 nuts, 
 
 377. The Cold Storage of Pears. 
 379. Walnut Culture in California. 
 
 BULLETINS 
 
 No. 
 
 380. 
 
 382. 
 
 385. 
 386. 
 
 387. 
 388. 
 
 389. 
 390. 
 
 391. 
 
 392. 
 393. 
 394. 
 
 395. 
 896. 
 
 397. 
 
 398. 
 399. 
 
 400. 
 401. 
 
 402. 
 404. 
 405. 
 406. 
 407. 
 
 408. 
 409. 
 
 410. 
 
 411. 
 412. 
 
 414. 
 
 415. 
 416. 
 
 417. 
 418. 
 
 419. 
 420. 
 
 421. 
 422. 
 
 423. 
 424. 
 
 425. 
 426. 
 
 427. 
 428. 
 
 Growth of Eucalyptus in California 
 Plantations. 
 
 Pumping for Drainage in the San 
 Joaquin Valley, California. 
 
 Pollination of the Sweet Cherry. 
 
 Pruning Bearing Deciduous Fruit 
 Trees, 
 
 Fig Smut. 
 
 The Principles and Practice of Sun- 
 drying Fruit. 
 
 Berseem or Egyptian Clover. 
 
 Harvesting and Packing Grapes in 
 California. 
 
 Machines for Coating Seed Wheat with 
 Copper Carbonate Dust. 
 
 Fruit Juice Concentrates. 
 
 Crop Sequences at Davis. 
 
 Cereal Hay Production in California. 
 Feeding Trials with Cereal Hay. 
 
 Bark Diseases of Citrus Trees. 
 
 The Mat Bean (Phaseolus aconitifo- 
 lius). 
 
 Manufacture of Roquefort Type Cheese 
 from Goat's Milk. 
 
 Orchard Heating in California. 
 
 The Blackberry Mite, the Cause of 
 Redberry Disease of the Himalaya 
 Blackberry, and its Control. 
 
 The Utilization of Surplus Plums, 
 
 Cost of Work Horses on California 
 Farms, 
 
 The Codling Moth in Walnuts, 
 
 The Dehydration of Prunes, 
 
 Citrus Culture in Central California, 
 
 Stationary Spray Plants in California. 
 
 Yield, Stand and Volume Tables for 
 White Fir in the California Pine 
 Region, 
 
 Alternaria Rot of Lemons. 
 
 The Digestibility of Certain Fruit By- 
 products as Determined for Rumi- 
 nants. 
 
 Factors Affecting the Quality of Fresh 
 Asparagus after it is Harvested. 
 
 Paradichlorobenzene as a Soil Fumi- 
 gant. 
 
 A Study of the Relative Values of Cer- 
 tain Root Crops and Salmon Oil as 
 Sources of Vitamin A for Poultry. 
 
 Planting and Thinning Distances for 
 Deciduous Fruit Trees. 
 
 The Tractor on California Farms. 
 
 Culture of the Oriental Persimmon 
 in California, 
 
 Poultry Feeding: Principles and 
 Practice. 
 
 A Study of Various Rations for 
 Finishing Range Calves as Baby 
 Beeves. 
 
 Economic Aspects of the Cantaloupe 
 Industry. 
 
 Rice and Rice By-products as Feeds 
 for Fattening Swine. 
 
 Beef Cattle Feeding Trials, 1921-24. 
 
 Cost of Producing Almonds in Cali- 
 fornia ; a Progress Report, 
 
 Apricots (Series on California Crops 
 and Prices), 
 
 The Relation of Rate of Maturity to 
 Egg Production, 
 
 Apple Growing in California. 
 
 Apple Pollination Studies in Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 The Value of Orange Pulp for Milk 
 Production. 
 
 The Relation of Maturity of Cali- 
 fornia Plums to Shipping and 
 Dessert Quality. 
 
 Economic Status of the Grape Industry. 
 
CIRCULARS 
 
 No. No. 
 
 87. Alfalfa. 259. 
 
 117. The Selection and Cost of a Small 261. 
 
 Pumping Plant. 262. 
 
 127. House Fumigation. 263. 
 
 129. The Control of Citrus Insects. 264. 
 136. Melilotus indica as a Green-Manure 
 
 Crop for California. 265. 
 
 144. Oidium or Powdery Mildew of the 266. 
 
 Vine. 
 
 157. Control of the Pear Scab. 267. 
 164. Small Fruit Culture in California. 
 
 166. The County Farm Bureau. 269. 
 
 170. Fertilizing California Soils for the 270. 
 
 1918 Crop. 272. 
 173. The Construction of the Wood-Hoop 
 
 Silo. 273. 
 
 178. The Packing of Apples in California. 276. 
 
 179. Factors of Importance in Producing 277. 
 
 Milk of Low Bacterial Count. 
 
 202. County Organizations for Rural Fire 278. 
 
 Control. 
 
 203. Peat as a Manure Substitute. 279. 
 209. The Function of the Farm Bureau. 
 
 212. Salvaging Rain-Damaged Prunes. 281. 
 215. Feeding Dairy Cows in California. 
 217. Methods for Marketing Vegetables in 
 
 California. 282. 
 
 230. Testing Milk, Cream, and Skim Milk 
 
 for Butterfat. 283. 
 
 231. The Home Vineyard. 284. 
 
 232. Harvesting and Handling California 285. 
 
 Cherries for Eastern Shipment. 286. 
 
 234. Winter Injury to Young Walnut Trees 287. 
 
 during 1921-22. 288. 
 
 238. The Apricot in California. 289. 
 
 239. Harvesting and Handling Apricots 290. 
 
 and Plums for Eastern Shipment. 291. 
 
 240. Harvesting and Handling Pears for 
 
 Eastern Shipment. 292. 
 
 241. Harvesting and Handling Peaches for 293. 
 
 Eastern Shipment. 294. 
 
 243. Marmalade Juice and Jelly Juice from 295. 
 
 Citrus Fruits. 
 
 244. Central Wire Bracing for Fruit Trees. 296. 
 
 245. Vine Pruning Systems. 
 
 248. Some Common Errors in Vine Prun- 298. 
 
 mg and Their Remedies. 
 
 249. Replacing Missing Vines. 300. 
 
 250. Measurement of Irrigation Water on 301, 
 
 the Farm. 302. 
 
 252. Supports for Vines. 303. 
 
 253. Vineyard Plans, 
 
 254. The Use of Artificial Light to Increase 304. 
 
 Winter Egg Production. 305, 
 
 255. Leguminous Plants as Organic Fertil- 30,6, 
 
 izer in California Agriculture. 
 
 256. The Control of Wild Morning Glory. 307. 
 
 257. The Small-Seeded Horse Bean. 308. 
 
 258. Thinning Deciduous Fruits 309. 
 
 Pear By-products. 
 
 Sewing Gfrain Sacks. 
 
 Cabbage Growing in California. 
 
 Tomato Production in California. 
 
 Preliminary Essentials to Bovine 
 
 Tuberculosis Control. 
 Plant Disease and Pest Control. 
 Analyzing the Citrus Orchard by 
 
 Means of Simple Tree Records. 
 The Tendency of Tractors to Rise in 
 
 Front; Causes and Remedies. " 
 An Orchard Brush Burner. 
 A Farm Septic Tank. 
 California Farm Tenancy and Methods 
 
 of Leasing, 
 Saving the Gophered Citrus Tree, 
 Home Canning, 
 Head, Cane, and Cordon Pruning of 
 
 Vines. 
 Olive Pickling in Mediterranean Coun- 
 tries, 
 The Preparation and Refining of Olive 
 
 Oil in Southern Europe. 
 The Results of a Survey to Determine 
 
 the Cost of Producing Beef in Cali- 
 fornia. 
 Prevention of Insect Attack on Stored 
 
 Grain. 
 Fertilizing Citrus Trees in California. 
 The Almond in California. 
 Sweet Potato Production in California. 
 Milk Houses for California Dairies. 
 Potato Production in California. 
 Phylloxera Resistant Vineyards. 
 Oak Fungus in Orchard Trees. 
 The Tangier Pea. 
 Blackhead and Other Causes of Loss 
 
 of Turkeys in California. 
 Alkali Soils. 
 
 The Basis of Grape Standardization. 
 Propagation of Deciduous Fruits. 
 The Growing and Handling of Head 
 
 Lettuce in California. 
 Control of the California Ground 
 
 Squirrel. 
 The Possibilities and Limitations of 
 
 Cooperative Marketing. 
 Coccidiosis of Chickens. 
 Buckeye Poisoning of the Honey Bee. 
 The Sugar Beet in California. 
 A Promising Remedy for Black Measles 
 
 of the Vine. 
 Drainage on the Farm. 
 Liming the Soil. 
 A General Purpose Soil Auger and its 
 
 Use on the Farm. 
 American Foulbrood and its Control. 
 Cantaloupe Production in California. 
 Fruit Tree and Orchard Judging. 
 
 The publications listed above may be had by addressing 
 
 College of Agriculture, 
 
 University of California, 
 
 Berkeley, California, 
 
 15m-3,'2{