THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES t LIFE AND TIMES OF GIROLAMO SAVONAROLA. SAVONAROLA. (From a Painting by Fra Bartolonimeo.) Hife an* Cime0 OF PROFESSOR PASQUALE VILLARI TRANSLATED BY LINDA VILLARI VOLUME I. Hontion : T. FISHER UNWIN 26 PATERNOSTER MDCCCLXXXVin. Library RIGHT HON. WILLIAM EWART GLADSTONE, CHAMPION OF ITALIAN FREEDOM, MASTER OF ITALIAN LEARNING, AUTHOR AND TRANSLATOR fP^Mcate tlji* $&Qk IN TOKEN OF FRIENDSHIP AND RESPECT. Florence, 1888. 1302137 CONTENTS. BOOK I. CHAPTER I. 1452-1475. PAGE From the birth of Savonarola to his becoming a monk . . i CHAPTER II. 1475-1481. From his entering the cloister to his first arrival in Florence . 22 CHAPTER III. Lorenzo the Magnificent, and the Florentines of his day . . 38 CHAPTER IV. Marsilio Ficino and the Platonic Academy . " 50 CHAPTER V. 1481-1490. His first residence in Tuscany, travels in Lombardy, and return to Florence 70 CHAPTER VI. Savonarola's philosophy .. . . '.-. (. '. . , _. .. . 93 viii CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. PAGE Savonarola's first religious pamphlets and his interpretations of the Scriptures IO 9 CHAPTER VIII. 1491. Savonarola preaches on the Gospels in the Cathedral. He shows his aversion to Lorenzo the Magnificent. He preaches on the First Epistle of St. John 124 CHAPTER IX. 1492-1493. Death of Lorenzo de' Medici and of Pope Innocent VIII. Elec- tion of Alexander VI. Savonarola's journey to Bologna. Separation of the Convent of St. Mark from the Lombard Congregation. Reforms in the Convent . . . .146 CHAPTER X. 1493-1494. Savonarola expounds the chief points of his doctrines during Advent, 1493. He predicts the coming of the French during the Lent of 1494 173 BOOK II. CHAPTER I. 1494. The coming of the French into Italy 193. CHAPTER II. NOVEMBER, 1494. The Medici are expelled from Florence. Savonarola is sent on an embassy to the French camp . . . . . .212 CONTENTS. ix CHAPTER III. NOVEMBER, 1494. PAGE The revolt of Pisa. The entry of Charles VIII. into Florence ; his treaty with the republic, and his departure . . . 228 CHAPTER IV. DECEMBER, 1494. Political condition of Florence, after the departure of the French. Savonarola proposes a new form of government . . . 246 CHAPTER V. 1494-1495. Constitution of the new government through Savonarola's efforts. The Greater Council and the Council of Eighty. A new scheme of taxation, based on the " Decima," or tax of ten per cent, on real property. Discussion on the law for a general pacification and the repeal of the law "Dalle Sei Fave," which repeal is carried. The establishment of the tribunal of merchandise or commerce. Resignation of the Accoppiatori. The abolition of " Parlamenti." Foundation of the Monte Di Pieta. Verdict of Italian politicians on the reforms intro- duced by Savonarola 269 CHAPTER VI. Savonarola's prophecies and prophetical writings. . ... 306 CHAPTER VII. 1495. Various factions are formed in Florence. Savonarola takes his texts from the Psalms on feast days ; and in Lent, by means of sermons on Job, inaugurates a general reformation of manners with signal success. Conversion of Fra Bene- detto 325 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. SAVONAROLA. (From a Painting by Fra Sartolommeo.) Frontispiece MEDAL IN COMMEMORATION OF THE PAZZI CON- SPIRACY . . . . . . . To face page 28 ST. MARK'S CONVENT To face page 34 LORENZO THE MAGNIFICENT .... To face page 44 CHURCH OF SAN FRANCESCO, RIMINI . . To face page 56 TOMB OF GEMISTOS PLETHO, RIMINI . . . To face page 56 LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI . 57 MARSILIO FICINO 63 PICO BELLA MIRANDOLA To face page 76 SAVONAROLA MEDAL. ("GLADIUS DOMINI SUPER TERRAM CITO ET VELOCITER.") ..... To face page 154 TOMB OF SAN DOMENICO IN BOLOGNA . . To face page 156 FRA GIOVANNI DA FIESOLE . . . . . . 164 CHARLES vin. OF FRANCE .... To face page 193 THE MEDICI PALACE NOW PALAZZO RICCARDI WHERE THE TREATY WITH FLORENCE WAS SIGNED . . To face page 2$$ SAVONAROLA PREACHING 307 TRANSLATOR'S FOREWORD. IHILE translating this " Life of Fra Girolamo Savonarola " as faithfully as possible, the author has sanctioned occa- sional liberties with the text and arrange- ment of sentences, in order to meet the requirements of English historical prose. Other slight variations have been introduced as the fruit of fresh researches undertaken by the author ; while the publication of new documents in the second edition of Signor Gherardi's " Nuovi Document! e Studi intorno a G. Savonarola" (Florence, 1888) has enabled me to give some additional notes. Several notes unlikely to interest the general reader have been abridged under the author's direction. The documents given in Appendix to the original work are purposely excluded, since all students capable of reading old Italian must, necessarily, be too well versed in modern Tuscan to consult the book in its English dress. The well-known translation by the late Mr. Leonard Homer of the first edition of " Savonarola and his Times " has been long out of print, and the present edition being so greatly altered and enlarged as to form almost a new work, an entirely fresh version was found to be required. LINDA VILLARI. FLORENCE, September, 1888. PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. >ANY reprints of this work have appeared since its first publication more than twenty-five years ago. During this period much fresh light has been thrown on the history of the Italian Renaissance, and many of my own ideas concerning it have been changed. Were I now studying Savonarola's life for the first time, my work would be undoubtedly different in kind, although my views as to the Friar's character and historic value have remained substantially un- changed. But I have no intention of offering the reader a new book ; I merely reproduce an old one, and while adding necessary corrections and supplements have preserved its original form and physiognomy. During this long interval I have naturally detected errors which demanded revision. Also, many fresh documents have been discovered and made known to the world. The late Count Carlo Capponi, a de- voted and reverent admirer of Savonarola's memory, continued to publish the results of his protracted xvi PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. research. The Archivio Storico Italiano, and other societies in Florence, Ferrara, Modena, and else- where, have likewise brought out many new docu- ments. It is needless to enumerate them here, as they are all quoted in the notes, and my valued pupil, Professor A. Cosci, has given a most minute and accurate account of them. 1 I will only mention two publications of very special importance, namely: "The Despatches of the Modenese Ambassador in Florence," comprising new letters of Savonarola and his friend Duke Ercole L, collected at Modena by Signor A. Cappelli in 1869,2 and furnished with a learned introduction; and the noteworthy collection of "Nuovi Document!," published in 1876, at the request of Father Ceslao Bayonne, of the Dominican Friars, by Cavaliere A. Gherardi of the Florence Archives. In both these works the value of the documents is enhanced by their editors' critical skill and unerring judgment.3 And, although, as Professor Cosci has justly remarked, these new documents make no essential change in our previous concep- tion of Savonarola's life and character, they furnish fresh details requiring consideration, and modify others which were hitherto imperfectly under- stood. 1 "Archivio Storico Italiano," series iv. vol. iv. 1879. 2 " Frh, Girolamo Savonarola e notizie intorno il suo tempo," by A. Cappelli, Modena, 1869. This work is extracted from vol. iv. of the "Atti e Memorie della R. Deputazione di Storia Patria per le pro- vincie Modenesi e Parmensi." 3 "Nuovi Documenti e Studi intorno a Girolamo Savonarola." Florence : Carnesecchi, 1876. PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. xvii Meanwhile I too had collected a considerable stock of fresh documents and of Savonarola's in- edited writings. I had caused an exact copy to be made of his marginal notes in the Bible in the Florence National Library, and on the sheets he had added to it, and these were found to comprise several unpublished tractates and sermons. A precious autograph codex, now in the Museum of St. Mark in Florence, supplied me with several summaries of other unknown discourses, throwing much light on Savonarola's first years in Florence, during the reign of Lorenzo the Magnificent. Numerous un- published ambassadorial despatches add to our know- ledge of the iniquitous plots organized against him in various quarters. In a similar way much was gleaned from other unpublished documents and compositions of Savonarola which will be quoted in due course. But during this quarter of a century few works have appeared on Savonarola of any real historic merit. The most celebrated of these has been a novel, George Eliot's " Romola " ; but although admirable as a work of art, it has contributed no new facts to history, since, as was only natural, its illustrious author accepted established conclusions without dispute. A biography of Savonarola, by Mr. W. R. Clarke, published some years ago, is, as the author allows, a mere compilation. 1 Father Bayonne, on the con- 1 Rev. William R. Clarke, " Savonarola and his Life and Times." London: S.P.C.K., 1878. xviii PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. trary, undertook a new biography, based on long- preliminary studies. He collected, translated, and edited three volumes of Savonarola's religious works. 1 But, with the fixed idea of writing the life of a saint and prophet, he accorded so much time and attention to the miracles and prophecies, that his " Studio su G. Savonarola " is of scanty historic value. He even failed to extract any real profit from the "Nuovi Documenti," 2 and died without writing the complete biography on which his thoughts had so long been engaged. The biographical essay, published in 1877, by the illustrious Professor Ranke of Berlin, calls for a very different verdict. The writer's keenly critical spirit was swift to grasp and define the historic, moral and religious importance of Savonarola. His terse, clear and rapid narrative is based on previous works, published documents, and some of the old chronicles, and cannot be said to comprise any ele- ment of novelty, save that naturally imparted to it by the noble intellect of its writer. It is an histori- cal essay, rather than a biography, for not one of Savonarola's works is passed in review.3 Yet, after 1 " Oeuvres Spirituelles Choisies de Jerome Savonarola, Collation- ne"es et Traduites," par le Rev. P. Emmanuel. Ceslao Bayonne du meme ordre. 3 vols. Paris: Librarie Poussielgue Freres, 1879. 2 " Etude sur Jerome Savonarola d'apres de nouveaux documents," par le Rev. P. Emmanuel. Ceslao Bayonne, Paris : Librarie Poussielgue Freres, 1879. 3 L. von Ranke, "Savonarola und die Florentinische Republik gegen Ende des funfzehnten Jahrhunderts," in the volume of " His- torisch-Biografische Studien," pp. 181-357. Leipzig : Duncker und Humblot, 1877. PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. xix the fashion of all great men, Professor Ranke con- trived, even within these brief limits, to moot a new point, and one of high importance to any biographer of Savonarola. Having treated the question in detail elsewhere, 1 it is only requisite to briefly allude to it here. Long ago, it was suggested by an Italian writer that the two ancient biographies attributed to Burla- macchi and Pico were both forgeries. No one echoed the doubt at the time, but Professor Ranke has given it serious attention. In his opinion the biography undoubtedly written by Giovan Francesco Pico was composed in 1530, the date of the preface, and during the siege of Florence, of which mention is made in chapter xxiv. At that period, he remarks, the Piagnoni were again ascendant in Florence, had revived the memory of Savonarola, and certain heated imaginations had invented new legends about him. These Pico had collected, and accordingly his book, written so long after Savonarola's time, and in the midst of popular enthu- siasm, can have no genuine historic value. On the other hand, the biography attributed to Burlamacchi cannot possibly have proceeded from his pen. Bur- lamacchi died in 1519, and his chronicle not only records posterior events, but makes two allusions to the year i$66. 2 Hence Professor Ranke holds it to be a compilation of Pico's work, which is not 1 " Rivista Storica Italiana," Fasc. i. Turin : Fratelli Bocca, 1884. 2 Vide pp. 165 and 209 in the Lucca edition of 1764. VOL. i. la xx PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. only quoted in it, but from which certain passages are literally translated. Thus the two chief sources of the life-history of Savonarola are reduced to one that has neither a critical nor historical basis. The illustrious German accordingly relied almost exclusively upon printed documents and the old chronicles, giving great and, perhaps, undue impor- tance to the unpublished records of Cerretani and Parenti, and turning to account certain fragments from those writers which he had copied in his youth. But although this course was allowable in an histori- cal essay, it would have been highly detrimental to a work on a larger scale. How could he have written a Life without referring to the works of previous biographers ? Nor would the well-known chronicles of Cerretani and Parenti have sufficed to fill the gap. Their numerous details concerning Savonarola are merely scattered through a vaster narrative, and are not altogether impartial. Neither are they more valuable, historically, than many of our printed chronicles. We made frequent reference to them in the first edition of this work; but, treating of times when political passions were fierce, and party spirit ran high, we could only arrive at the truth by constantly collating them with other authorities. In any case, exclusive reliance on the chroniclers and printed documents would deprive us of nume- rous particulars and anecdotes, serving to give colour and vitality to the person and character of Savonarola, his kindred, companions, and friends. A dry and PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. xxi unattractive string of facts would be all that we could achieve. Consequently the question raised by Professor Ranke was of capital importance to every biographer of the Friar. We hold that had Ranke written his work in Florence, with the numerous MSS. of the period before his eyes, he would have arrived at a very different conclusion concerning the two biographers, and would have been less prompt to reject them. Pico states in his proem that having been Savona- rola's friend for six years, it was immediately after the Friar's martyrdom that he resolved to write his life ; and Pico's letters prove that the task was certainly completed in 1520. He afterwards cor- rected, improved, and amplified it, and consequently delayed its publication to 1530, as he mentions in the proem, ad hoc usque tempus distuli editionem}- The Italian biography conventionally attributed to Fra Pacifico Burlamacchi was certainly written by another, for although he died in 1519, pos- terior dates and events are recorded in the work. First published in 1761 in Baluzio's "Addi- zioni alia Miscellanea," it was transcribed from a codex incorrectly copied from another of older date. In fact many older and more trustworthy codices are to be found in the Florence libraries. Nearly all these are of the sixteenth century, and mostly anonymous, excepting where Burlamacchi's name has been added by a later hand. This name first 1 Vide our before quoted essay in the " Rivista Storica Italiana." xxii PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. appears, no one knows why, towards the close of that century. 1 Both the older codices, as well as the later, which are still more numerous, show many points of difference, and are essentially diver- gent as regards the prophecies and miracles, which were increased and modified by devout copyists, according to existing traditions in St. Mark's and other convents of the Order. But the biographical narrative remains substantially the same, with certain slight variations in form and arrangement. All these different patchworks of the so-called Burlamacchi are derived, and more or less freely translated, from a Latin biography, in the collection of MSS. from suppressed convents, in the National Library of Florence. 2 The calligraphy of this MS. is of the first half of the sixteenth century; its numerous alterations and corrections make us believe it an autograph ; while the frequent repeti- tions and a greater disorder than in other compila- tions serve to prove that this biography is the original source from which later writers derived or rather translated their materials. It is anonymous, 1 In the Casanatense Library in Rome we recently found a seven- teenth century codex attributing this biography to P. Fra Vincenzo di Bernardo dell' Ordine de' Predicatori, who in the " Annali di San Marco" (a. c. 174) is mentioned as the Superior of the Convent in 1566. Ate. 125 there is his signature dated 1569. A later hand than that of the copyist of the biography attributes it, as usual, to Burlamacchi, with the remark that it is already printed; another hand adds, " Revised by P. Maestro Fra Timoteo Bottonio," and this was also inscribed on the printed version. 2 It is marked I. vii. 28. We referred to it in our first edition, and refer to it still more frequently in the present one. PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. xxiii but the author was certainly a brother of St. Mark's, a contemporary of Savonarola, and his faithful follower. This we know by his own words, and he also tells us that in 1524 he continued writing his book, and that he only narrates facts which he had witnessed himself, or learnt from other trustworthy eyewitnesses. He had made use of Placido Cinozzi's biographical epistle, Pico's biography, which he styles admirable, and other works. Of his great diligence we have a striking proof in the fact that he continually refers his readers to a volume now in the Riccardian Library (cod. 2053), written in the same hand, and which, together with the works of Cinozzi and Pico, contains a most precious series of authentic docu- ments. This Latin Life, or Biography, as we will call it to distinguish it from the others, is therefore not only the real source of the so-called Burla- macchi, but the work of an eyewitness, founded on the writings of other contemporaries, and upon important documents collected by the author and copied in his own hand. Also, while praising and often referring to Pico's biography, he is by no means content to give an imitation, reproduction, or summary of it. His own is a work of greater extent, contains many more facts, and has an independent historical value. Indeed it is not improbable that Pico himself may have referred to this Latin Biography, for the corrections and additions he mentions in his proem. Certainly xxiv PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. the manuscript copy of the first compilation of his work, in the Riccardi Codex, 2053, contains few of the facts posterior to 1520, which are comprised in the Latin Biography, and were added to its printed version of 1530. All this plainly proves that the two old bio- graphies cannot be reduced, as Professor Ranke thought, to one alone, since, in spite of the con- nection between them, each has an independent and indisputable historic value of its own. As to Burlamacchi, or the Latin Biography on which his work is founded, we can assure the reader that we have documentary proof of its historical accuracy. We shall therefore continue to quote from it under the conventional title (which in default of a better is even accepted by Professor Ranke), always, however, verifying it by the original Latin and by Pico, whose authority has been less often disputed. Besides, it may be clearly seen from what we have said that even were Pico and Burlamacchi put aside, it would be quite possible to dispense with their aid. Nearly all the facts they narrate might be gleaned, not only from other documents, chronicles, and the works of Savonarola, but from the contemporary writings, chiefly in manuscript, of Fra Benedetto, Lorenzo Violi, Domenico, and Girolamo Benivieni, and Placido Cinozzi, whose " Epistola," frequently quoted by us, is perhaps the oldest source of the various biographies. It was impossible for Professor Ranke to know this in Berlin, where he could not PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. xxv consult the numerous codices contained in the Floren- tine libraries, and thus ascertain on how solid a basis the two ancient biographies are grounded. It is natural that the doubts of the modern reader should be aroused by the strange prophecies and miracles so minutely described by Pico and Burla- macchi, in which we can have no belief. But at that time every follower of Savonarola spoke of ano 1 believed in these things, and chroniclers as well as biographers deemed them deserving of record. It would be a mistake, however, to accept this as a reason for doubting all that contemporary writers relate of the Friar of St. Mark's. We have not to deal here with the myths and legends of a primi- tive and uncultured society incapable of analysis, criticism, or historical accuracy. On the contrary, these Savonarola-legends were the natural outcome of an age often lapsing into the ultra- credulity consequent upon exaggerated scepticism. Without miracles there could be no belief in the supernatural ; accordingly miracles were imagined. Thus, men who jeered at all things, denied all things, ended by having the blindest faith in the occult sciences, in prodigies, prophecies, and spirits of the air. And even such men as Guicciardini and Machiavelli shared the latter belief. This is one of the problems that the historian of Savonarola must specially keep in view and specially try to solve. By examining it we may learn not only the explanation of the catas- trophe that led him to the scaffold, but the nascent xxvi PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. germ of the malady still afflicting our countrymen, and by which they are incapacitated from giving due importance to religious questions whether in abstract studies or in the realities of life. This conviction first stirred us, more than twenty-five years ago, to write Savonarola's life ; this conviction gave us strength and patience to re- explore original sources, seek out fresh authorities, and revise and correct our first work with unwearying care. We now re-publish the book, holding the same opinions with which we originally began it, and confirmed in our previous judgment on the Friar of St. Mark's and his executioners. The protests of those who would reduce the Italian Renaissance to a mere revival of Paganism leave us totally unmoved. From their point of view Chris- tianity would have then almost disappeared, whereas, on the contrary, it gained new force with Luther's Reformation and the counter-reformation of the Roman Church. In our opinion Savonarola's his- toric grandeur consists in his having dared to believe amid general doubt, in having upheld, against the scandals of the Borgia and the sceptical cynicism of the philosophers, the forgotten and derided rights of Christianity, liberty, and reason. He devoted his energies to the moral renovation of mankind, when others thought solely of man's intellectual renovation ; he held virtue to be the assured basis of religion, and the source of true liberty, when all seemed convinced that political and Christian virtue, PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. xxvii patriotism, and religion were unavoidably and irre- concilably opposed. It was this that won him the admiration of the very scholars whose excesses he so sternly combated, for although apparently satisfied with Paganism, these men felt that it left a painful void in their souls. For the same reason he was admired by many cold and keen-witted politicians, who, while recognizing the fact that there was no room for conscience as States were then guided, admitted that this fact bewildered their judgment, and seriously disturbed their minds. Thus, in at- tacking philosophers and statesmen, the Friar of St. Mark's seemed to reveal to both their most secret thoughts, and to restore their lost peace. Hence the great admiration and devotion felt for him by many. Only those without any intimate knowledge of Savonarola can regard him as one who desired to revive the Middle Ages, and again sacrifice earth to heaven, the world to the Church. To all familiar with his life and writings, he appears, on the contrary, in his true light, as a soul yearning for the Christian ideal he proclaimed to his contemporaries ; /.*., that without virtue, self-sacrifice, and moral grandeur, both mankind and society must fall to ruin. Sur- rounded by scholars, philosophers, poets, and artists, who were among the most ardent of his followers, he was no enemy to the Italian Renaissance, but he saw and felt the inherent defects which were lead- ing to its decay. With the eloquence and ardour xxviii PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. of inspiration he proclaimed this from the pulpit, and was a true precursor and prophet of the future. To his faith in virtue virtue sanctified by religion and sanctifying freedom, he dedicated his whole life and died in its cause. Superstitions, blunders, hallu- cinations, and weaknesses notwithstanding, he there- fore stands out from the Italian Renaissance, of which he is an essential part, in heroic proportions and irradiated with the halo of martyrdom. And so long as men have faith in virtue, so long will their admiration for him endure. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 'URING the lifetime of Fra Girolamo Savonarola all Europe rang with his fame, and for more than two centuries afterwards he engaged the attention of our greatest writers. But in the eighteenth century his name was either completely forgotten, or mentioned with quasi-contempt. Such was the common fate, in that age, of all religious men, all religious works. Bayle, in his dictionary, merely expressed the general opinion in making the poor Friar the butt of keen, biting sarcasm, and designating him as a base and ridiculous impostor who had well merited the martyrdom inflicted on him. In 1782 an anonymous life of Savonarola appeared, 1 written in Italian, and falsely dated from Geneva. It was the work of a Florentine, one Modesto Rastrelli, an historian of some note in his day. He shared Bayle's ideas in the main, but repeated in wrathful earnest all that the former had said in jest. The venomous sneers of Bayle were penned with the coldness of a sceptic, those of Rastrelli with exaggerated fury and zeal. This too evident animus robbed the book of its merit, for other- wise it gave proof of careful research, and possessed a certain incorrect and lawless charm often to be noted in our last century writers. 1 "Vita del Padre Girolamo Savonarola." Geneva, 1781. * xxx PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. A year after the publication of this work a new tc Storia di P. G. Savonarola " l appeared at Leghorn, also without the author's -name. It was written by the Do- minican, Vincenzo Barsanti, who, in answer to the other anonymous biographer, warmly defended his brother in the faith. Barsanti stood alone, in that century, as an ad- mirer of Savonarola's sermons ; he had studied the old biographies, and the precious manuscripts, afterwards long believed to have perished, of Lorenzo Violi's " Giornate," and amassed much minute information on a subject that, however disregarded by his contem- poraries, was very dear to his heart. Uninfluenced by the current of the age, he adopted the tone of more primitive times, and seemed destined to rank with the ancient biographers. For the spirit of the old chroniclers is revived in his work : it is stamped by the same de- votion, the same errors, the same fanaticism, although devoid of the ingenuous originality which in their pages so vividly reproduces the colour of the times. Besides, Barsanti is so lavish of quotation, so minute in confuting all Rastrelli's assertions, that his book is difficult to read, and unlikely to tempt any one to closer knowledge of Savonarola. In fact, for fifty years after its appearance none followed up the theme, and the name of the Friar of St. Mark's seemed completely forgotten. The nineteenth century inaugurated a very different order of ideas, and gave a new direction to historical studies. The Middle Ages, so despised in Voltaire's day, were again raised to honour ; the examination of religious questions was no longer deemed beneath the notice of serious minds, and it was now possible to praise a monk without exciting universal scorn. Germany turned to these new researches with an almost feverish zeal, and 1 " Delia Storia del Padre Girolamo Savonarola : libri quattro, dedicati e S. A. Pietro Leopoldo." Leghorn, 1782. P. RE FACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xxxi that country has the honour of being the first to call the real attention of the literary world to the character and doctrines of Savonarola. In 1835 Rudelbach brought out a biography 1 in which, without dwelling much on Savonarola's character, without giving new facts, or fresh explanations of those already known, he chiefly sought to analyze and deter- mine the value of his hero's doctrines. He was certainly the first to deduce a system of theology from Savon- arola's works, the first who had the courage to assure modern Europe that those works, upon which such violent abuse had been poured, deserved the attention of the learned, and were the product of a lofty, specu- lative intellect. He declared his views with the genuine enthusiasm of a discoverer of new truths, and his book met with great success in Germany. This perhaps was less owing to its intrinsic merit than to the author's purpose, inasmuch as he accepted Savonarola as a pre- cursor of the Reformation. Luther himself had canonized the Friar as a Protestant martyr, but in the eighteenth century this verdict had been entirely forgotten. Now, however, it was again revived by the efforts of Rudelbach, supported and fortified by his thorough examination of all Savonarola's works. Hence the great applause accorded to his book in Germany and England, and the steadfast sympathy subsequently evinced by writers of those countries for the Friar of St. Mark's. Nevertheless, on impartial review, many grave errors are to be detected in Rudelbach's work. As a life history of the man it tells us nothing new, and as an examination of his doctrines it is very imperfect. With much wrest- 1 " Hieronymus Savonarola und seine Zeit. Aus den quellen darges- tellt," von A. G. Rudelbach. Hamburgh, 1835. The reader will find several of these quotations repeated in the notes, but it seemed indis- pensable to collect here all necessary information on the biographers. xxxii PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. ling and labour the author stretches these doctrines on a Procrustean couch, changing and distorting them in such wise that we should often be tempted to doubt his good faith did we not know to what extent a man may be blinded by party spirit ; and he leaves unmentioned such of the writings as are too plainly opposed to his ideas. An in- stance of this may be seen in his minute exposition of the " Triumph of the Cross." This work was actually re- printed by the press of the Propaganda Fide, and its first three books treat of those articles of the Christian faith on which Protestants and Catholics are almost agreed. These Rudelbach carefully expounds, for the sole purpose of discovering in them some hidden Protes- tant meaning. But on reaching the fourth book, where Savonarola speaks of the Sacraments in a manner that puts his Catholicism beyond doubt, his German biographer abandons all attempt at analysis and hastens to quit the subject. And he recurs to this method again and again. The analysis of " Savonarola's prophetic character," as the author calls it, should have been by rights the best part of this biography. It was a new and important theme, for no one had really studied it before. Neverthe- less, instead of carefully collecting all facts, and impartially determining their value, Rudelbach set to work to explain theories solely evolved from his own imagination. First of all he defines what we are to understand by evangelical prophecy, and then marshals before us in an unbroken line all the prophets of the Reformation, inclusive of the Abbot Joachim, St. Bridget, and Savonarola. Plainly this is neither history nor criticism, but a mere flight of fancy in search of support to a foregone conclusion. In 1 836 a second German biography appeared in Berlin, 1 from the pen of Karl Meier, who has chiefly studied the 1 " Girolamo Savonarola, aus grossen Theils handschriftlichen Ouellen dargestellt," von Karl Meier. Berlin, 1836. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xxxiii part of the subject most neglected by Rudelbach namely, the life and character of Girolamo Savonarola. By long and persevering researches in the libraries and archives of Florence and Venice he had gleaned a precious harvest of documents, and armed with these returned to Germany to write his book. Nearly every codex declared by later writers to have been unearthed by themselves, nearly all the documents afterwards published as new, had been already discovered by Meier, and either quoted or repro- duced in his pages. 1 But, incredible as it may seem, the author was incapable of turning his materials to account. His work shows the strangest mixture of mar- vellous patience and industry with unpardonable negli- gence and inexactitude. He sometimes deplores the loss of certain documents, which are actually contained in the very codices discovered and frequently quoted by him. In collating the documents he has published we often meet with errors and gaps such as would be unpardonable in the most negligent of writers, and are inexplicable in one who, at other times, is really careful and scrupulous. Meier writes the biography of an illustrious man, and enriches it with many new and most interesting particulars ; but, with- out ceaseless reference to the notes, the reader would never perceive that the book was the fruit of original research. Throughout the work Savonarola remains a lifeless puppet, or rather an empty abstraction ; the new details of his life neither diminish nor add to the vague and confused con- ception of him afforded us by previous biographers. Meier's book is a clear and eloquent proof of the worth- lessness of the most precious documents in the hands of one who is unable to deal with them. Almost the same verdict must be passed on the portion of the work devoted to Savonarola's doctrines. It is true 1 Proofs of this will be adduced in the course of this book and in the Appendix to the Italian edition. xxxiv PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. that Meier tries to modify the exaggerated conclusions of Rudelbach, and fails to find in the writings so complete and absolute a system of Protestant theology ; nevertheless he strives to include him, at all costs, among the martyrs of the Reformation. Nor are his arguments to this effect very different from those of Rudelbach. The latter had> at least, the excuse of being led astray by the force of his unbridled imagination, whereas Meier, who is all modera- tion, and picks his way with timid steps, is altogether inexcusable. What, too, can be said, when we find him pausing to remark that Savonarola hardly ever mentioned Purgatory, and that his enemies accused him of seldom alluding to the Virgin Mary ? Meier would deduce from this that the Friar already shadowed forth the ideas of the Reformation, but apparently lacks courage to rely on such feeble arguments, since he is frequently obliged to record sermons full of almost superstitious utterances concerning the Virgin, and others in which the faithful are openly exhorted to pray for the dead. Another serious blunder is to be noted in Meier's work. While moving cautiously forward, and minutely explaining such of the Friar's doctrines as are merely copied from St. Thomas and the scholiasts, he fails to observe all that is special to Savonarola, and serving to prove the originality of his mind. He pauses now and then to dwell on pas- sages which seem to him to contain germs of the Reforma- tion, but appears so slenderly convinced by his own words that he naturally fails to convince his readers. And when he treats of the prophecies it is very difficult to ascertain his meaning. He is disposed to condemn Rudelbach's verdict, to demonstrate that, if Savonarola were no prophet, neither did he believe himself to be one, nor desire to be esteemed as such by others. But then again he shrinks from roundly pronouncing a judgment that is so manifestly contradicted by facts, and, as usual, halts half-way, in a state of puzzled uncertainty. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xxxv On comparing the two German biographies with each other, we are bound to conclude that Rudelbach's fantastic dissertation, in spite of its numerous errors, gives a truer idea of what may be called Savonarola's uncouth origin- ality than that to be gained from the researches, docu- ments, and pretended accuracy of Karl Meier's work. Rudelbach's mistakes were too lightly condoned, the merits of Meier too unjustly forgotten ; but in either case the public verdict was really more just than it seemed at first sight. These German works, and more especially the weight of Luther's authority, served to diffuse the notion that Savonarola was really a precursor of the Reformation ;. hence increased sympathy was aroused for him in England and Germany, and the attention of Europe directed,, with a somewhat anxious curiosity, to the history of his life. It was then that an eloquent voice was heard from the Convent of St. Mark's, claiming Savonarola as the champion of Catholicism and liberty. Father Vincenzo Marchese, of the Preaching Order, was already known in Italy by his " Storia dei PittoriDomenicani." An elegant writer, a sincere Catholic, and an ardent lover of truth and liberty, his residence in St. Mark's had fired him with a passionate admiration for Savonarola. With a respect and reverence almost amounting to worship, he collected every memorial of the Friar to be found in the convent, ran- sacked the Florentine libraries and archives, and on several occasions produced the results of his studies in the pages of the " Archivio Storico Italiano " in the shape of unpub- lished letters of Savonarola or writings illustrative of his life. And although these documents were not always of much intrinsic worth, the care and acumen with which they were edited and brought to bear upon history gave them a certain importance. The author's name, and the nature of his subject, won them a kind reception, and at VOL. i. \b xxxvi PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. last Padre Marchese, encouraged by the public favour, published his " Storia del Convento di San Marco." l The principal and most noteworthy part of the work was almost a complete biography of Savonarola. The author represented him as a reformer of morals, politics, and religion : described his life and manners, and commented O ' * on his writings and discourses. By dwelling upon a part of the Friar's history that had been hitherto neglected, he made us understand the intensity of Savonarola's love of liberty, and how this had first led to his persecution, and then to his death. Admiration for this martyred brother of his Order wrought Padre Marchese to genuine elo- quence, and endued his book with a vivid force and reality which are totally wanting in the German biogra- phies. It met with deserved success, and the public mind in Italy was roused to an ardent and enthusiastic interest in the republican Friar who had so daringly defied the Borgia and the Medici, had sought to strengthen the old bond between liberty and religion by re-establishing both on their true basis, and who had suffered martyrdom for his country and his God. But Padre Marchese's work, although admirably fitted to arouse public curiosity, could not entirely satisfy it. His researches were too partial and fragmentary to enable him to write a complete biography. Only acquainted with a por- tion of the Friar's works and sermons, he could contribute an eloquent chapter to the history of his convent, but no finished study of Savonarola. This, indeed, was forbidden by the nature of his work. Besides, he was too great an admirer of the hero, whom he venerated almost as a saint, to be his truly impartial historian. Consequently fresh studies and researches were needed for the task. 1 First published in the " San Marco Illustrate " (Prato, Passigli, 1850-53"), and afterwards in the "Scritti Varii" of Padre Vincenzo Mar- chese. Florence : Le Monnier, 1855. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xxxvii But in 1853 a biography of Savonarola appeared in France. 1 Its author, M. Pen-ens, had made accurate re- searches in Florence ; he had procured in Piedmont, from the learned Abbe Bernardi, copies of many documents con- tained in the Marcian Library of Venice, several of which, although made known to Germany by Meier's work, were quite ignored in Italy and France. Enriched by these precious materials, his book, although here and there bear- ing too evident marks of haste, was nevertheless the most complete work that had appeared on Savonarola, and obtained great and deserved success. The first volume, giving a narrative of facts, is delightful reading. The author has little eloquence, but he was the first to give us a clear, well-ordered, arid ample account of all the events of Savonarola's life. The stirring, tumultuous drama of this life has a certain fascination and eloquence of its own which keep the reader's attention on the alert, and compensate for the author's defects. But un- fortunately there is a radical fault in the book. Mons. Perrens has no clear grasp of his theme, no definite view of the personage he tries to describe, and this serves to keep the reader's mind in a very painful state of uncer- tainty, which the author seems almost wishful to increase. When we are on the point of admiring Savonarola's courage, he hastens to assure us that the Friar sometimes showed exaggerated timidity ; when about to express our admiration for his steadfast opposition to the Medici, we find him accused of being their eulogist. It would almost appear as though Mons. Perrens feared to commit himself to any decided opinion of his hero, since no sooner does one escape him than he endeavours to attenuate its force. In the last and most terrible hours of Savonarola's life he turns from the persecuted man with words of condemna- 1 " Jerome Savonarole, sa vie, ses predications, ses Merits," par F. T Perrens. Two Vols. Paris, 1853. xxxviii PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. tion, not only without having discovered any proofs to justify the harshness of his verdict, but even without any real examination of already known documents. Thus the reader is left discouraged, confused and uncertain whether Savonarola or his biographer be most deserving of blame. A somewhat serious defect is also to be found in the second volume. This treats of the Friar's works, but only gives mere summaries of them, and occasional extracts, without any decided verdict or criticism. Mons. Perrens frequently alleges his incapacity to judge religious doc- trines, but falls into errors, for which even his modesty is no sufficient excuse. After having invariably repre- sented Savonarola as a sincere Catholic, he refers us to an authority he considers weightier than his own, and gives in his Appendix a long chapter from Rudelbach, in which the German biographer has endeavoured to prove- that Savonarola was a precursor of Luther. In this way the French author demolishes his own edifice. It is true that he entrusted the translation of this chapter to another hand, and we may therefore suppose that he was too hurried even to read it with attention, but how can such negligence be excused in so earnest a writer as Mons. Perrens ? Nevertheless, this French biography being the most complete to which the Italian public had access at the time, its author has a distinct claim on our gratitude. Other works had appeared and were appearing on the same theme, but all of far slighter merit. In France Rio's "Art Chretien" l comprised some very eloquent pages upon Savonarola. In Germany Hase published a short popular biographical sketch of the Friar, and Lenau a little poem full of force and imagination. 2 In England 1 "Art Chretien," par Rio. Paris, 1836. 2 "Neue Propheten, Drei historisch-politische Kirchenbilder," von D. Karl Hase. Leipzig, 1851. These are three essays on Joan of Arc, Savonarola, and the Anabaptists. " Savonarola, ein Gedicht," von Nicolaus Lenau. Vierte Auflage : Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1853. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xxxix many biographies of Savonarola have appeared, but are all mere compilations, written without any real know- ledge of the facts, and with the sole purpose of claiming the Prior of St. Mark's as one of the martyrs of the Reformation. The last English work, published in 1853, in two stout volumes, has somewhat more merit. 1 The author, Mr. Madden, professes moderate Catholic opinions, but is over-anxious to attribute his own views to Savonarola, and while assuring us that he has most care- fully studied the subject, shows so slight an acquaintance with its time and place, that his book is brimful of mis- takes. To cite one of many instances, he tells us, as a proof of Savonarola's great and untiring activity, that, after preaching in Santa Maria del Fiore, he also preached in the Duomo (the identical church) on the same day ! Thus the book is quite useless to Italians, and conveys most inexact ideas to foreigners. England, the country of great historians, has produced no work on Savonarola worthy of its fame. 2 Having been engaged for many years upon a biography of Savonarola, the appearance of the above-mentioned works by no means discouraged me from the task, but rather served as an incitement to higher efforts, by reminding me of the duty of carrying it out with un- sparing labour and research.3 For the accomplishment of my purpose, I made it a rule to read all modern works upon the subject, but to rely upon no authority but that of contemporary writers, Savonarola's own works, and 1 " The Life and Martyrdom of Girolamo Savonarola, illustrative of the History of Church and State Connexion," by R. R. Madden. London, 1854. 2 The works of Perrens and Madden were reviewed by me at greater length in the " Archivio Storico Italiano," N.S., vol. iii. 1856. 3 Among more recent works, we must mention the ''Vita di Fra Jeronimo Savonarola," by Bartolommeo Aquarone. Two Vols. Alessan- dria, 1857 and 1858. As the work of a friend, and published almost simultaneously with my own, I refrain from passing any judgment upon it. xl PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. original documents ; and, warned by frequent experience of the danger of quoting second-hand, to read and verify everything with my own eyes. The earlier biographies had, of course, to be studied as well as the modern, and among the former the best were those of Father Pacifico Burlamacchi and Count Giovan Francesco Pico della Mirandola. Burlamacchi, a Lucchese of high birth, had been one of the most constant of Savonarola's hearers, and was moved by his discourses to assume the Dominican frock. He entered the monastery of San Romano in Lucca in 1499 i.e., the year after Savonarola's martyrdom, and died in 1519 in the odour of sanctity. He had enjoyed intercourse with Savonarola and known his most intimate friends ; he had discoursed with eyewitnesses of the chief events of the Friar's life, and had seen many of them himself. His work, without being that of a trained historian, has much of the simple force of an old chronicle, is carefully written, and shows an intimate knowledge of facts. After remaining long unknown, the Manuscript began to circulate in monas- teries, and served as a model for numerous other biogra- phies of no special value, compiled by devout fanatics. It was finally published in 1761 among Mansi's "Addizioni alia Miscellanea del Baluzio," 1 and besides the miracles narrated by Burlamacchi, others were added in the words of Father Timoteo Bottonio, who cannot be regarded as a trustworthy authority. Count Giovan Francesco Pico della Mirandola, nephew of the famous Giovanni Pico, had personally known Savonarola and conceived the deepest admiration for him. He had lived in Florence during the most eventful years of the career he sought to describe ; he had witnessed the 1 It was afterwards published separately, and reprinted later with the addition of a " Lettera Apologetica ; Vita del P. F. Girolamo Savonarola," by P. F. Pacifico Burlamacchi, of Lucca. New Edition. Lucca, 1764. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xli martyrdom of his hero, and devoutly cherished his relics. He was a philosopher, an elegant Latinist, and one of' the most learned and purest men of his time ; he collected facts with incredible diligence ; wrote and rewrote his book many times, and made numerous changes in its construction ; submitted it to the judgment of numerous friends of Savonarola, and finally gave it to the world in 1530.' The great resemblance between these two biographies gave rise to the idea that the one was copied or modelled from the other. But the evidence of contemporary writers and the examination of ancient codices prove that, in the main, each is independent of the other. And in the course of my studies I acquired great confidence in both authors, and found them far more deserving of belief than might be supposed from the fanatic and superstitious tone so often to be noted in their pages. It would be a superfluous task to cite all the un- edited biographies of which I made use. I need only mention those of Fra Marco della Casa, 2 Fra Placido Cinozzi,3 and a third and more important one, of un- known authorship 4 in the Magliabecchiana Library of Florence. All three are by contemporaries and fellow- brethren of Savonarola. There is another and better known biography by P. Serafino Razzi, also a Friar of St, Mark. His work is only a compilation from Pico and Burlamacchi ; for he was not a contemporary of Savona- rola, and had little aptitude for original research. But he had conversed with certain old Florentines who had 1 " Vita R. P. Fr. Hieronymi Savonarolae," auctore 111. D.Joan. Franc. Pico. Parisiis, 1674. This edition, revived by Quetif, is in two volumes ', the second and half of the first contain additions by Quetif, who also published a third volume, containing Savonarola's letters. - In the Monastery of St. Mark. 3 Written in the form of letters, and contained in Codex 2053, of the Riccardian Library. 4 Convent MSS., I., VII., 28. xlii PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. known the Friar, including the octogenarian, Lorenzo Violi, of whose manuscript diaries " Giornate," he made an abridgment. He also collected and transcribed a large number of Apologies and other works on the life and doctrines of his hero. 1 After studying the biographies I began to search for new documents, particularly for all relating to the trial, which had always excited my keen curiosity. The printed report of the trial was generally known ; but Savonarola underwent three examinations, and I succeeded in finding the manuscript records of the second and third, and also of the trial of his fellow-martyrs, Fra Silvestro and Fra Domenico. Although containing important informa- tion, these documents need very cautious examination, for they were much changed and falsified by the notary of the Florence Signory. The examinations or depositions of many other persons, either implicated in Savonarola's case, or simply interrogated as witnesses, are in a codex of the Florence archives, first discovered, but only cursorily examined, by Meier. This codex was extremely useful on account of the light thrown by it on Savonarola's last days ; and help was also derived from other documents found, but not studied by Meier. Fresh research brought to light a copy of Fra Domenico's genuine and unaltered statements written in his own hand. But, as to Savonarola's avowals, there was no hope of obtaining them. He had not been allowed to write his own confession ; his replies had been falsified by the notary who transcribed them, and, with added alterations, had been used for the printed report of the first examination and the manuscript version of the two others. The first notes taken by the scribe might have contained some germ of truth ; but these documents 1 Razzi's works exist, in manuscript, in the Magliabecchian, Riccardian, and Laurentian Libraries. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xliii had been kept hidden for some time and then destroyed. Nevertheless I discovered the manuscripts of two writers who had seen the original notes, and, comparing them with the falsified reports, had pointed out their essential diver- gences. 1 One of these two MSS. consisted of the third part of the " Vulnera Diligentis " of Fra Benedetto, the devoted friend and follower of Savonarola. I shall have occasion elsewhere to speak of this work and its author, and need only say here that the third part, relating almost exclusively, to the trial, was unknown to all. The other manuscript was the "Apologia " or " Giornate " of Lorenzo Violi, long believed to be lost, and which I had the good luck to dis- inter. Violi had taken down nearly all Savonarola's sermons as they fell from his lips ; in this work he recorded every- thing that he had seen or heard of the Friar's life, in the form of a long " Apologia," and continued his task until loss of sight at the age of eighty compelled him to re- linquish his pen. From these documents I gleaned the fullest account of Savonarola's trial down to the minutest particulars. Even the obscure and much contested 1 So much curiosity was roused by my discovery of these documents, particularly of the reports of the trials, that others hastened to profit by it and to forestall me in the publication of some of the papers. I was powerless to prevent this, much time being still needed for the due com- pletion of my work. Meanwhile Professor Paolo Emiliani-Giudici published in the Appendix to his " Storia dei Comuni Italiani" not only the printed report of Savonarola's first trial, but the MSS. of the two others discovered by myself. The learned compilers of the " Giornale Storico degli Archivi Toscani " (vol. ii.) published the trials of Fra Domenico and Fra Silvestro, also unearthed by me ; together with the examinations of other prisoners and witnesses. The latter documents had been first mentioned by Herr Meier, and, as Father Marchese had announced in 1855 ("Scritti Vari," p. 246, note 2), I had collected them for my work. I accordingly reproduced all these documents, not only because, in a literary sense, they were mine, but because they had been hastily and not always correctly printed, without notes or comments of any kind. All this, however, is a story of the past. Since then I have received much courtesy and assistance from the Florence archives, and owe special thanks to Comm. Guasti, Professor Paoli, and Cav. Gherardi. xliv PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. incident of the Ordeal by Fire was now seen in its true light. Having arrived at a precise and accurate knowledge of the main facts of Savonarola's life, I next undertook an accurate study of his writings. This soon taught me to marvel at the incredible and unpardonable negligence of his biographers ; for I found that they could not have read the works they so frequently quoted. No other ex- planation can account for their blundering statements, their imperfect acquaintance with Savonarola's doctrines, and their absolute ignorance of his philosophical system. They never discovered that they were dealing with a great thinker ; for while dwelling upon some utterly insignificant composition, they pass without notice all those revealing the originality of the author's mind. Although professedly eager to ascertain the nature of Savonarola's meditations in prison, and the state of his mind, they barely glance at the writings composed during his confinement. Consequently I resolved to leave no line of his works unread, and devoted years of patient study to this arduous but in- dispensable task. Without it no authentic biography could have been achieved. 1 Without limiting my inquiries to Savonarola's printed works, I also searched for his letters and unpublished writings, and succeeded in finding a few. In order to penetrate, as it were, to the inmost recesses of his mind, I 1 It is a duty to record that it was chiefly by the kindness of Count Carlo Capponi that I was enabled to thoroughly carry out this inves- tigation. His collection of the works, pamphlets, and letters of Savona- rola, and of all materials for the Friar's life, is so complete and well arranged, that no other private collection in Italy or elsewhere can, I think, be compared with it. The kindness with which Count Capponi placed his treasures at my disposal calls for a public expression of gratitude. I would also tender my thanks to many others for their generous assistance, and above all to Father Marchese, who has always encouraged me with paternal affection. Dr. Danzi, of Milan, was another true friend, for, without being a personal acquaintance, he en- trusted me with all the documents in his collection. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xlv examined his marginal notes to his own copies of the Bible, written in his. microscopic and almost undecipher- able hand. I was the first, and perhaps the only student of these notes, and they enable me to state that Savonarola was always true to himself; that in the solitude of his cell, in his most private manuscripts, he repeated exactly what he preached from the pulpit to the mass of his- hearers. His letters chiefly serve to show us on what terms he stood with friends and kinsmen, and throw light on his dispute with Rome, which is further illustrated by some Borgian Briefs that were hitherto unknown. Savonarola's political career and the vicissitudes of the Florentine Republic also demanded fresh examination. For this purpose neither the splendid narratives of Nardi, Machiavelli, and Guicciardini, nor the more recent re- searches of Meier and Marchese, could suffice. By means of the decrees (prowisioni\ or rather laws of the Republic, I was enabled to form an accurate idea of its constitution ; by means of the deliberations (pratiche}, or, as they may be called, drafts of the speeches delivered in the Councils,, I gained intimacy with the men and passions that had re-moulded and breathed new life into the Republic. I am not aware that any other modern writer has made use of these Florentine praticbe, but I believe them to con- tain unexplored treasures of the wisdom and eloquence of Italian politicians of the past. Finally, by collating all these documents with Savonarola's sermons I ascertained that the Friar of St. Mark was beyond all doubt the leading spirit of the great political drama before me. It will now be easily understood why it was impossible in this biography to keep the narrative portion separate from the examination of my hero's works, and why I should be so frequently obliged to quote his own words. The books, precepts, and sermons of Savonarola are not to be solely judged from a literary point of view ; they were his xlvi PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. chief and almost only mode of action, the instruments he used for the reconstitution of the Republic, and by which he paved the way for the moral and religious re- generation of the whole nation. Accordingly his written and spoken words are one with his actions, and often constitute in themselves some of the most important events of his life. Besides, in these eighteen or twenty volumes of ser- mons and ascetic works, in these numerous letters and pamphlets, flashes of lofty genius and marvellous bursts of eloquence are frequently hidden in a thicket of scholastic and even puerile conceits. Thus, without a biographer to act as pioneer, and clear the way by hard strokes, there was great danger that the genius of Savonarola might still remain partially buried and unknown. 1 It is needless to enumerate all the other chronicles and manuscripts I have collated or read. The unpublished letters of private individuals, secret reports of the am- bassadors and spies of Italian governments, a large number of religious and political pamphlets, popular poems, both manuscript and in print all were ransacked. Nothing, in short, was neglected that might aid to the production of a faithful portrait of the men and the passions of the time. In bringing this too lengthy preface to an end, I must first confess that, although assisted by research and docu- 1 I may repeat here what was mentioned elsewhere in the first edition. Extracts from documents and printed works are frequently given in our text. Wherever a faithful and extended summary is given the extracts have quotation marks at the beginning and end ; but ver- batim extracts are indicated by continued quotation marks in the margin. In quoting from Savonarola's works, I have generally moder- nized the orthography and corrected the more glaring grammatical mistakes. This was necessary to avoid too sudden changes of form and language in the text. But in the Appendix, to the Italian edition, I give the original words, blunders and all. I should add that Count Capponi's collection of Savonarola's works has been recently purchased by the Italian Government, and, together with a no less precious store presented by Count Guicciardini, is now in the National Library of Florence. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xlvii mentary evidence, my best aid in the accomplishment of my work was the fact of having undertaken it un- hampered by preconceived ideas. The subject was chosen because it seemed to me that the part played by Savon- arola in the events of the century closing the Middle Ages and initiating the dawn of modern civilization was as great as it was unrecognized. And precisely for that reason I saw that this fifteenth century Friar must not be converted into an advocate of the ideas and passions of the present age. This history of Savonarola is free from all political bias, and aims at neither the attack nor the defence of Rome. Had I found any proof that he was a heretic or an unbeliever I should have certainly represented him as such. But, on the contrary, I have found him to be essentially Catholic, and therefore presented him to the reader in that light. To use history as an engine of party feelings and opinions no matter of how pure and noble a kind is to go on a false system. For whoever under- takes a narrative of past events stands on sacred and inviolable ground. There is no need for the author to come forward as the advocate of virtue and freedom ; on the contrary, he should feel convinced that the history of mankind is a living drama in itself, leading man on to liberty, elevating his moral tone, and developing his civilization. Therefore, in venturing on even the slightest change, he attempts to correct the ways of Providence, and only succeeds in destroying their sublime harmony. In writing the history of Girolamo Savonarola and his times, I have adhered to these rules, and should I succeed in proving that his name is one of the most glorious on Italy's noble list of thinkers, heroes, and martyrs, my end will be achieved and my labour abundantly rewarded. BOOK I. CHAPTERS I.X. (1452-1494.) CHAPTER I. FROZM THE