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 PREFACE. 
 
 Some apology may seem necessary for presenting a 
 life of Mahomet at the present day, when no new fact 
 can be added to those already known concerning him. 
 Many years ago, during a residence in Madrid, the au- 
 thor projected a series of writings illustrative of the do- 
 mination of the Arabs in Spain. These were to be 
 introduced by a sketch of the life of the founder of the 
 Islam Faith, and the first mover of Arabian conquest. 
 Most of the particulars for this were drawn from 
 Spanish sources, and from Gagnier's translation of the 
 Arabian historian Abulfeda, a copy of which the 
 author found in the Jesuits' Library of the Convent of 
 St. Isidro, at Madrid. 
 
 Not having followed out, in its extent, the literary 
 plan devised, the manuscript life lay neglected among 
 the author's papers until the year 1831, when he revised 
 and enlarged it for the Family Library of Mr. John 
 Murray. Circumstances prevented its publication at 
 that time, and it again was thrown aside for years. 
 
 During his last residence in Spain, the author beguiled 
 the tediousness of a lingering indisposition, by again 
 revising the manuscript, profiting in so doing by recent 
 lights thrown on the subject by different writers, and 
 particularly by Dr. Gustav Weil, the very intelligent 
 
 2093477
 
 vi PREFACE. 
 
 and learned librarian of the University of Heidelberg, 
 to whose industrious researches and able disquisitions 
 he acknowledges himself greatly indebted. ' 
 
 Such is the origin of the work now given to the pub- 
 lic ; on which the author lays no claim to novelty of 
 fact, nor profundity of research. It still bears the type 
 of a work intended for a Family Library ; in constructing 
 which the whole aim of the writer has been to digest 
 into an easy, perspicuous, and flowing narrative, the 
 admitted facts concerning Mahomet, together with such 
 legends and traditions as have been wrought into the 
 whole system of oriental literature ; and at the same 
 time to give such a summary of his faith as might be 
 sufficient for the general reader. Under such circum- 
 stances he has not thought it worth while to encumber 
 his pages with a scaffolding of references and citations, 
 nor to depart from the old English nomenclature of 
 oriental names. 
 
 W. I. 
 
 SCNNTSIDE, 1849. 
 
 i Mohammed der Prophet, sein Leben und seine Lehre. Stuttgart. 1843.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 LIFE OF MAHOMET. 
 
 % 
 
 CHAPTER 1. Preliminary notice of Arabia and the Arabs I 
 
 CHAP. II. Birth and parentage of Mahomet. His infancy and childhood 8 
 
 CHAP. HI. Traditions concerning Mecca and the Caaba 12 
 
 CHAP. IV. First journey of Mahomel with the caravan to Syria 14 
 
 CHAP. V. Commercial occupations of Mahomet. His marriage with Cadijah. . . 17 
 CHAP. VI. Conduct of Mahomet after his marriage. Becomes anxious for reli- 
 gious reform. His habits of solitary abstraction. The vision of the cave. 
 
 His annunciation as a prophet 19 
 
 CHAP. VII. Mahomet inculcates his doctrines secretly and slowly. Receives 
 further revelations and commands. Announces it to his kindred. Manner in 
 which it was received. Enthusiastic devotion of AH. -Christian portents. . . 23 
 
 CHAP. VIII. Outlines of the Mahometan Faith 27 
 
 CHAP. IX. Ridicule cast on Mahomet and his doctrines. Demand for miracles. 
 Conduct of Abu Taleb. Violence of the Koreishites. Mahomet's daughter 
 Rokaia, with her uncle Othman, and a number of disciples take refuge in Abys- 
 sinia. Mahomet in the house of Orkham. Hostility of Abu Jalil ; his punishment. 3? 
 CHAP. X. Omar Ibn al Khatlab, nephew of Abu Jahl, undertakes to revenge his 
 uncle by slaying Mahomet. His wonderful conversion to the faith. Mahomet 
 takes refuge in a castle of Abu Taleb. Abu SoOan, at the head of the rival branch 
 of Koreishites, persecutes Mahomet and his followers. Obtains a decree of non- 
 intercourse with them. Mahomet leaves his retreat and makes converts during 
 lha month of pilgrimage. Legend of the conversion of Habib the Wise. ... 36 
 CHAP. XI. The ban of non- intercourse mysteriously destroyed. Mahomet enabled 
 to return to Mecca. Death of Abu Taleb; of Cadijah. Mahomet belroths himself 
 to Ayesha. Marries Sawda. TheKoreishiles renew their persecution. Mahomet 
 seeks an asylum in Tayef. His expulsion thence. Visited by genii in the desert 
 
 ofNaklah 41 
 
 CHAP. XII. Night journey of the prophet from Mecca to Jerusalem ; and thence to 
 
 the seventh heaven 45 
 
 CHAP. XIII. Mahomet makes converts of pilgrims from Medina. Determines to fly 
 to that city. A plot to slay him. His miraculous escape. His Hegira, or flight. 
 
 His reception at Medina 52 
 
 CHAP. XIV. Moslems in Medina, Mohadjerins and Ansarians. The party of Abdallah 
 1 Ibn Obba and the Hypocrites. Mahomet builds a mosque; preaches ;' makes
 
 viii CONTENTS. 
 
 converts among the Christians. The Jews slow to believe. Brotherhood esta- 
 blished between fugitives and allies 58 
 
 CHAP. XV. Marriage of Mahomet with Ayesha. Of his daughter Fatima with Ali. 
 Their household arrangements 62 
 
 CHAP. XVI. The sword announced as the instrument of faith. First foray against 
 the Koreishites. Surprisal of a caravan 63 
 
 CHAP. XVII. The Battle of Beder 67 
 
 CHAP. XVIII. Death of the prophet's daughter Rokaia. Restoration of his daughter 
 Zeinab. Effect of the prophet's malediction on Abu Lahab and his family. 
 Frantic rage of Henda, the wife of Abu Sofian. Mahomet narrowly escapes 
 assassination. Embassy of the Koreishites. The King of Abyssinia 72 
 
 CHAP. XIX. Growing power of Mahomet. His resentment against the Jews. 
 Insult to an Arab damsel by the Jewish tribe of Kainoka. A tumult. The Beni 
 Kainoka take refuge in their castle. Subdued and punished by confiscation and 
 banishment. Marriage of Othman to the prophet's daughter Omm Kallhum, and 
 of the prophet to Hafza 74 
 
 CHAP. XX. Henda incites Abu Sofian and the Koreishites to revenge the death of 
 her relations slain in the battle of Beder. The Koreishites sally forth, followed 
 by Henda and her female companions. Battle of Ohod. Ferocious triumph of 
 Henda. Mahomet consoles himself by marrying Hend, the daughter of Omeya. 75 
 
 CHAP. XXI. Treachery of certain Jewish tribes; their punishment. Devotion of the 
 prophet's freedman Zeid; divorces his beautiful wife Zeinab, that she may become 
 the wife of the prophet 80 
 
 CHAP. XXII. Expedition of Mahomet against the Beni Mostalek. He espouses 
 Barra, a captive. Treachery of Abdallah Ibn Obba. Ayesha slandered. Her 
 vindication. Her innocence proved by a revelation 83 
 
 CHAP. XXIII. The battle of the Moat. Bravery of Saad Ibn Moad. Defeat of the 
 Koreishiles. Capture of the Jewish castle of Koraida. Saad decides as to the 
 punishment of the Jews. Mahomet espouses Rehana, a Jewish captive. His life 
 endangered by sorcery: saved by a revelation of the angel Gabriel 86 
 
 CHAP. XXIV. Mahomet undertakes a pilgrimage to Mecca. Evades Khaled and a 
 troop of horse sent against him. Encamps near Mecca. Negotiates with the 
 Koreishiles for permission to enter and complete his pilgrimage. Treaty for ten 
 years, by which he is permitted to make a yearly visit of three days. He returns 
 to Medina 91 
 
 CHAP. XXV. Expedition against the city of Khaibar; siege. Exploits of Mahomet's 
 captains. Battle of Ali and Marhab. Storming of the citadel. Ali makes a 
 buckler of the gale. Capture of the place. Mahomet poisoned ; he marries 
 Saflya, a captive; also Omm Habiba, a widow 93 
 
 CHAP. XXVI. Missions to various Princes; to Heraclius; to Khosru II; to the Prefect 
 of Egypt. Their result 97 
 
 CHAP. XXVII. Mahomet's pilgrimage to Mecca ; his marriage with Maimuna. 
 
 Khaled Ibn al Waled and Araru Ibn al Aass become proselytes 99 
 
 *v% ^ 
 CHAP. XXVIII. A Moslem envoy slain in Syria. Expedition to avenge his death. 
 
 Battle of Mula. Its results too 
 
 CHAP. XXIX. Designs upon Mecca. Mission of Abu Sofian. Its result 102 
 
 CHAP. XXX. Surprise and Capture of Mecca 103 
 
 CHAP. XXXI. Hostilities in the Mountains. Enemy's camp in the valley of Aulas. 
 Battle at the pass of Honein. Capture of the enemy's camp. Interview of 
 Mahomet with the nurse of his childhood. Division of spoil. Mahomet at his 
 mother's grave in 
 
 CHAP. XXXII. Death of the prophet's daughter Zeinab. -Birth of his son Ibrahim. 
 Deputations from distant tribes. Poetical contest in presence of the prophet-
 
 CONTENTS. ix 
 
 His susceptibility to the charms of poetry. Reduction of the city ofTayef; 
 destruction of its idols. Negotiation with Amir lbnTafiel,a proud Bedouin chief; 
 independent spirit of the latter. Interview of Adi, another chi'ef, with Mahomet. 117 
 CHAP. XXXIII. Preparations for an expedition against Syria. Intrigues of Ab- 
 dallah Ibn Obba. Contributions of the faithful. March of the army. The 
 accursed region of Hajar. Encampment at Tabuc. Subjugation of the neigh- 
 bouring provinces. Khaled surprises Okaidor and his castle. Return of the 
 army to Medina ... 121 
 
 CHAP. XXXIV. Triumphal entry into Medina. Punishment of those who had 
 refused to join the campaign. Effects of excommunication. Death of Abdallah 
 Ibn Obba. -Dissensions in the prophet's harem 135 
 
 CHAP. XXXV. Abu Beker conducts the yearly pilgrimage to Mecca. Mission of 
 Ali to announce a revelation 128 
 
 CHAP. XXXVI. Mahomet sends bis captains on distant enterprises. Appoints 
 lieutenants to govern in Arabia Felix. -Sends Ali to suppress an insurrection in 
 that province. Deaih of the prophet's only son Ibrahim. His conduct at the 
 death-bed and the grave. His growing infirmities. His valedictory pilgrimage 
 to Mecca, and his conduct and preaching while there 129 
 
 CHAP. XXXVII. Of the two false prophets Al Aswad and MoseTlma 133 
 
 CHAP. XXXVHI. An army prepared to march against Syria. -Command given to 
 Osama The prophet's farewell address to the troops.- His last illness. His 
 sermons in the mosque.- His death and the attending circumstances 135 
 
 CHAP. XXXIX. Person and character of Mahomet, and speculations on his prophetic 
 career Hi 
 
 APPENDIX. Of the Islam Faith 148 
 
 LIVES :OF THE SUCCESSORS OF MAHOMET. 
 
 CHAPTER I. Election of Abu Beker, first Caliph, Hegira nth, A. D. 632 1ST 
 
 CHAP. II. Moderation of Abu Beker. Traits of his character. Rebellion of Arab 
 tribes. Defeat and death of Malec Ibn Nowirah. Harsh measures of Khaled 
 condemned by Omar, but excused by Abu Beker. Khaled defeats Moseilma the 
 false prophet. Compilation of the Koran 170 
 
 CHAP. 111. Campaign against Syria. Army sent under Yezed Ibn Abu Soflan. 174 
 Successes. Another army under Amru Ibn al Aass. Brilliant achievements of 
 Khaled in Irak 174 
 
 CHAP. IV. Incompelency of Abu Obeidah to the general command in Syria. 
 Khaled sent to supersede him. Peril of the Moslem army before Bosra. Timely 
 arrival of Khaled His exploits during the siege. Capture of Bosra 178 
 
 CHf? V. Khaled lays siege to Damascus 182 
 
 CHAP. VI. Siege of Damascus continued. Exploits of Derar. Defeat of the imperial 
 army 185 
 
 CHAP. VII. Siege of Damascus continued. Sally of the garrison. Heroism of the 
 Moslem women , 187 
 
 CHAP. VUI. Battle of Aiznadin 190 
 
 CHAP. IX. Occurrences before Damascus. Exploits of Thomas. Aban Ibn Zeid 
 and his Amazonian wife .' 13* 
 
 CHAP. X. Surrender of Damascus. Disputes of the Saracen generals. Departure 
 of Thomas and the exiles. . <* s
 
 x CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. XI. Story of Jonas and Eudocea. Pursuit of the exiles. Death of the Caliph 
 Abu Beker 201 
 
 CHAP. XII. Election o'f Omar, second Caliph. Khaled superseded in command 
 by Obeidah. Magnanimous conduct of those generals. Expedition to the 
 convent of Abyla 207 
 
 CHAP. XIII. Moderate measures of Abu Obeidah. Reproved by the Caliph for his 
 slowness 212 
 
 CHAP. XIV. Siege and capture of Baalbec 216 
 
 CHAP. XV. Siege of Emessa. Stratagems of the Moslems. Fanatic devotion of 
 
 Ikremah. Surrender of the city 219 
 
 CHAP. XVI. Advance of a powerful Imperial army. Skirmishes of Khaled. 
 
 Capture of Derar. Interview of Khaled and Manuel 222 
 
 CHAP. XVII. The Battle of Yermouk 226 
 
 CHAP. XV1I1. Siege and capture of Jerusalem 227 
 
 CHAP. XIX. Progress of the Moslem arms in Syria. Siege of Aleppo. Obstinate 
 
 defence by Youkenna. Exploit of Damas. Capture of the castle. Conversion of 
 
 Youkenna 232 
 
 CHAP. XX. Perfidy of Yonkenna to his former friends. Attempts the castle of 
 
 Aazaz by treachery Capture of the castle 238 
 
 CHAP. XXI. Intrigues of Youkenna at Antioch. Siege of that city by the Moslems. 
 
 Flight of the emperor to Constantinople. Surrender of Antioch 240 
 
 CHAP. XXII. Expedition into the mountains of Syria. Story of a miraculous cap. 244 
 CHAP. XX11I. Expedition of Amru Ibn al Aass against Prince Conslantine in Syria. 
 
 Their conference. Capture of Tripoli and Tyre. Flight of Constantine. Death 
 
 of Khaled 247 
 
 CHAP. XXIV. Invasion of Egypt by Amru. Capture of Memphis. Siege and 
 
 surrender of Alexandria. Burning of the Alexandrian library 253 
 
 CHAP. XXV. Enterprises of the Moslems in Persia. Defence of the kingdom by 
 
 Queen Arzemia.- Battle of the Bridge 259 
 
 CHAP. XXVI. Mosenna Ibn Haris ravages the country along the Euphrates. 
 
 Death of Arzemia. Yezdegird 111. raised to the throne. Saad Ibn Abu Wakkas 
 
 given the general command. Death of Mosenna. Embassy to Yezdegird. Its 
 
 reception 262 
 
 CHAP. XXVII. The Battle of Kadesia 266 
 
 CHAP. XXV11I. Founding of Bassora. Capture of the Persian capital.-Flight 
 
 of Yezdegird to Holwan 26i> 
 
 CHAP. XXIX. Capture of Jalula. Flight of Yezdegird to Rei. Founding of Cufa. 
 
 Saad receives a severe rebuke from the Caliph for his magnificence- ... 272 
 CHAP. XXX. War withHormuzan, the Satrap ofAhwaz. His conquest and conver- 
 sion 274 
 
 CHAP. XXXI. Saad suspended from the command. A Persian army assembled at 
 
 Nehavend. Council at the mosque of Medina. -Battle of Nebavend 277 
 
 CHAP. XXXII. Capture of Hamadan ; of Rei. Subjugation of Tabaristan ; of Azer- 
 
 btjan.- Campaign among the Caucasian mountains 380 
 
 CHAP. XXXIII. The Caliph Omar assassinated by a fire- worshipper .His character. 
 
 Olhman elected Caliph 384 
 
 CHAP. XXXIV. Conclusion of the Persian conquest. Flight and death of Yez- 
 degird 288 
 
 CHAP. XXXV. Amru displaced from the government of Egypt. Revolt of the 
 inhabitants. Alexandria taken again by the imperialists. Amru reinstated in 
 command. Retakes Alexandria, and tranquillizes Egypt. Is again displaced. 
 Abdallah Ibn Saad invades the north of Africa. 29i
 
 CONTENTS. xi 
 
 CHAP. XXXVI. Moawyah, Emir of Syria. His naval victories. Othman loses the 
 prophet's ring. Suppresses erroneous copies of the Koran. Conspiracies against 
 him. His death , 295 
 
 CHAP. XXXVII. Candidates for the Caliphat. Inauguration of Ali, fourth Caliph. 
 He undertakes measures of reform. Their consequences. Conspiracy of Ayesba. 
 
 She gets possession of Bassora . 300 
 
 CHAP. XXXVIII. Alt defeats the rebels under Ayesha. His treatment of her. . . 307 
 CUAP. XXXIX. Battles between Ali and Moawyah. Their claims to the Caliphat 
 
 left to arbitration; the result. Decline of the power of Ali. Loss of Egypt. . 312 
 CHAP. XL. Preparations of Ali for the invasion of Syria. His assassination. . . 316 
 CUAP. XLI. Succession of Hassan, fifth Caliph. He abdicates in favour of Moawyah. 319 
 CHAP. XL1I. Reign of Moawyab I., sixth Caliph. Account of his illegitimate bro- 
 ther Zeyad. Death of Amru 321 
 
 CHAP. XL11I. Siege of Constantinople. -Truce with the emperor. -Murder of Has- 
 san. Death of Ayesha 324 
 
 CIIAP. XLIV. Conquests of the Moslems in Northern Africa. Achievements of 
 Acbah ; his death 327 
 
 CHAP. XLV. Moawyah names his successor. His last acts and death. Traits of his 
 character ... 330 
 
 CHAP. XLVI. Succession of Yezid, seventh Caliph. Final fortunes of Hosein, the 
 son of Ali 333 
 
 CHAP. XLVII. Insurrection of Abdallah Ibn Zobeir. Medina taken and sacked. 
 Mecca besiged. Death of Yezid 341 
 
 CHAP. XLVI1I. Inauguration of Moawyah II., eighth Caliph. His abdication and 
 death. Menvan Ibn Hakem and Abdallah Ibn Zobeir, rival Caliphs. Civil wars 
 in Syria 344 
 
 CHAP. XL1X. State off affairs in Khorassan Conspiracy at Cufa. Faction of the 
 Penitents; their fortunes. Death of the Caliph Merwan 346 
 
 CHAP. L. Inauguration of Abd'almalec, the eleventh Caliph. Story of Al Moktar 
 the Avenger 340 
 
 CHAP. LI. Musab Ibn Zobeir takes possession of Babylonia. Usurpation of Amru 
 Ibn Saad ; his death. -Expedition of Abd'almalec against Musab. The result. 
 Omens; their effect upon Abd'almalec. Exploits of AlMohalleb 354 
 
 CHAP. LII. Abd'almalec makes war upon bis rival Caliph in Mecca. Siege of the 
 sacred city. Death of Abdallah.- Demolition and reconstruction of the Caaba. 358 
 
 CHAP. L1II. Administration of AI Hejagi as emir of Babylonia 362 
 
 CHAP. L1V. Renunciation of tribute to the emperor Battles in Northern Africa. 
 The prophet queen Cahina ; her achievements and fate 868 
 
 CHAP. LV. Musa Ibn Nosseyr made emir of Northern Africa. His campaigns 
 against the Berbers 371 
 
 CHAP. LVI. Naval enterprises of Musa. Cruisings of his son Abdolola. Death of 
 Abd'almalec 375 
 
 CHAP. LV1I. Inauguration of Waled, twelfth Caliph. Revival of the arts under his 
 reign. His taste for architecture. Erection of mosques. Conquests of his 
 generals 378 
 
 CHAP. LVIII. Further triumphs of Musa Ibn Nosseyr. Naval enterprises. Descents 
 in Sicily, Sardinia, and Ma'.lorca Invasion of Tingitania. Projects for the 
 invasion of Spain. Conclusion 381
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Preliminary notice of Arabia and the Arabs. 
 
 During a long succession of ages, extending from the earliest 
 period of recorded history down to the seventh century of the 
 Christian era, that great chersonese or peninsula formed by the 
 Red Sea, the Euphrates, the Gulf of Persia, and the Indian Ocean, 
 and known by the name of Arabia, remained unchanged and almost 
 unaffected by the events which convulsed the rest of Asia, and shook 
 Europe and Africa to their centre. While kingdoms and empires 
 rose and fell; while ancient dynasties passed away; while the 
 boundaries and names of countries were changed, and their inha- 
 bitants were exterminated or carried into captivity, Arabia, though 
 its frontier provinces experienced some vicissitudes, preserved in 
 the depths of its deserts its primitive character and independence, 
 nor had its nomadic tribes ever bent their haughty necks to ser- 
 vitude. 
 
 The Arabs carry back the traditions of their country to the high- 
 est antiquity. It was peopled, they say, soon after the deluge, by 
 the progeny of Shem the son of Noah, who gradually formed them- 
 selves into several tribes, the most noted of which are the Adites 
 and Thamudites. All these primitive tribes are said to have been 
 either swept from the earth in punishment of their iniquities, or 
 obliterated in subsequent modifications of the races, so that little 
 remains concerning them but shadowy traditions and a few passages 
 in the Koran. They are occasionally mentioned in oriental history 
 as the "old primitive Arabians," the "lost tribes." 
 
 The permanent population of the peninsula is ascribed, by the 
 same authorities, to Kahtan or Joctan, a descendant in the fourth 
 generation from Shem. His posterity spread over the southern 
 part of the peninsula and along the Red Sea. Yarab, one of his 
 sous, founded the kingdom of Yemen, where the territory of Araba 
 was called after him; whence the Arabs derive the names of them- 
 selves and their country. Jurham, another son, founded the king- 
 dom of Hedjaz, over which his descendants bore sway for many
 
 J MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS, 
 
 generations. Among these people Hagar and her son Ishmael were 
 kindly received, when exiled from their home by the patriarch 
 Abraham. In the process of time Ishmael married the daughter 
 of Modad, a reigning prince of the line of Jurham; and thus a 
 stranger and a Hebrew became grafted on the original Arabian 
 stock. It proved a vigorous graft. Ishniael's wife bore him twelve 
 sons, who acquired dominion over the country, and whose prolific 
 race, divided into twelve tribes, expelled or overran and obliterated 
 the primitive stock of Joctan. 
 
 Such is the account given by the peninsular Arabs of their ori- 
 gin ; J and Christian writers cite it as containing the fulfilment of 
 the covenant of God with Abraham, as recorded in Holy "Writ. 
 "And Abraham said unto God, O that Ishmael might live before 
 thee! And God said, As for Ishmael, I have heard thee Behold, 
 I have blessed him, and will make him fruitful, and will multiply 
 him exceedingly : twelve princes shall he beget, and I will make 
 him a great nation." (Genesis xvii. 18, 20.) 
 
 These twelve princes with their tribes are further spoken of in 
 the Scriptures (Genesis xxv. 18) as occupying the country "from 
 Havilah unto Shur, that is before Egypt, as thou goest towards 
 Assyria ;" a region identified by sacred geographers with part of 
 Arabia. The description of them agrees with that of the Arabs of 
 the present day. Some are mentioned as holding towns and castles, 
 others as dwelling in tents, or having villages in the wilderness. 
 Nebaioth and Kcdar, the two first-born of Ishmael, are most noted 
 among the princes for their wealth in flocks and herds, and for the 
 fine wool of their sheep. From Nebaioth came the Nabathai who 
 inhabited Stony Arabia; while the name of Kedar'is occasionally 
 given in Holy Writ to designate the whole Arabian nation. "Woe 
 is me, 1 ' says the Psalmist, " that I sojourn in Mesech, that I dwell 
 in the tents of Kedar." Both appear to have been the progenitors 
 of the wandering or pastoral Arabs ; the free rovers of the desert. 
 " The wealthy nation," says the prophet Jeremiah, "that dwelleth 
 without care ; which have neilhergates nor bars, which dwell alone." 
 
 A strong distinction grew up in the earliest times between the 
 Arabs who "held towns and castles," and those who "dwelt in 
 tents " Some of the former occupied the fertile wadies, or valleys, 
 scattered here and there among the mountains, where these towns 
 and castles were surrounded by vineyards and orchards, groves of 
 palm-trees, fields of grain, and well-stocked pastures. They were 
 settled in their habits, devoting themselves to the cultivation of the 
 soil and the breeding of cattle. 
 
 Others of this class gave themselves up to commerce, having 
 ports and cities along the Red Sea; the southern shores of the pe- 
 
 i Beside the Arabs of the peninsula, who were all of the Shemilic race, there were 
 others called Cushiles, being descended from Cusli the son of Ham. They inhabited (he 
 banks of the* Euphrates and the Persian Gulf. The name of Gush is often given in 
 Scripture to the Arabs generally as well as to their country. It must be the Arabs of 
 tbis race who at present roam the deserted regions of ancient Assyria, and have been 
 employed recently in disinterring the long-buried ruins of Nineveh. They are some- 
 times distinguished as the Syro-Arabians. The present work relates only to the Arab* 
 f the peninsula, or Arabia Proper.
 
 NATIONAL CHARACTER OF THE ARABS. S 
 
 ninsula and the Gulph of Persia, and carrying on foreign trade by 
 means of ships and caravans Such especially were the people of 
 Yemen, or Arabia the Happy, that land of spices, perfumes and 
 frankincense; the Sabaea of the poets; the Sheba of the sacred 
 Scriptures. They were among the most active mercantile navi- 
 gators of the eastern seas. Their ships brought to their shores the 
 myrrh and balsams of the opposite coast of Berbera, with the gold, 
 the spices, and other rich commodities of India and tropical Africa. 
 Those, with the products of their own country, w r ere transported 
 by caravans across the deserts to the semi-Arabian states of Am- 
 raon, Moab, and Edom or Idumea, to the Phrenician ports of the 
 Mediterranean, and thence distributed to the western world. 
 
 The camel has been termed the ship of the desert, the caravan 
 may be termed its fleet. The caravans of Yemen were generally 
 fitted out, manned, conducted and guarded by the nomadic Arabs, 
 the dwellers in tents, who, in this respect, might be called the na- 
 vigators of the desert. They furnished the innumerable camels 
 required, and also contributed to the freight by the fine fleeces of 
 their countless flocks. The writings of the prophets show the im- 
 portance, in scriptural times, of this inland chain of commerce by 
 which the rich countries of the south, India, Ethiopia, and Arabia 
 the Happy, were linked with ancient Syria. 
 
 Ezekiel, in his lamentations for Tyre, exclaims, "Arabia, and 
 all the princes of Kedar, they occupied with thee in lambs, 
 and rams, and goats; in these were they thy merchants. The 
 merchants of Sheba and Raamah occupied in thy fairs with chief 
 of all spices, and with all precious stones and gold Haran, and 
 Canneh, and Eden, * the merchants of Sheba, Asshur, and Chel- 
 mad, were thy merchants." And Isaiah, speaking to Jerusalem, 
 says" The multitude of camels shall cover thee ; the dromedaries 
 of Midian and Ephah ; all they from Sheba shall come ; they shall 
 bring gold and incense.**** All the flocks of Kedar shall be 
 gathered together unto thee ; the rams of Nebaioth shall minister 
 unto thee." .Isaiah Ix. 6, 7.) 
 
 The agricultural and trading Arabs, however, the dwellers in 
 towns and cities, have never been considered the true type of the 
 race. They became softened by settled and peaceful occupations, 
 and lost much of their original stamp by an intercourse with stran- 
 gers. Yemen, too, being more accessible than the other parts of 
 Arabia, and offering greater temptation to the spoiler, had been 
 repeatedly invaded and subdued. 
 
 It was among the other class of Arabs, the rovers of the desert, 
 the" dwellers in tents," by far the most numerous of the two, that 
 the national character was preserved in all its primitive force and 
 freshness. Nomadic in their habits, pastoral in their occupations, 
 and acquainted by experience and tradition with all the hidden 
 resources of the desert, they led a wandering life, roaming from 
 place to place in quest of those wells and springs which had been 
 the resort of their forefathers since the days of the patriarchs; 
 encamping wherever they could find date-trees for shade, and 
 
 i Haran, Canna, and Aden, ports on the Indian Sea.
 
 4 MAfcOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 sustenance and pasturage for their flocks, and herds, and camels; 
 and shifting their abode whenever the temporary supply was 
 exhausted. 
 
 These nomadic Arabs were divided and subdivided into innume- 
 rable petty tribes or families, each with its Sheikh or Emir, the 
 representative of the patriarch of yore, whose spear, planted beside 
 his tent, was the ensign of command. His office, however, though 
 continued for many generations in the same family, was not strictly 
 hereditary; but depended upon the good-will of the tribe. He 
 might be deposed, and another of a different line elected in his 
 place. His power, too, was limited, and depended upon his perso- 
 nal merit and the confidence reposed in him. His prerogative 
 consisted in conducting negotiations of peace and war ; in leading 
 his tribe against the enemy; in choosing the place of encampment 
 and in receiving and entertaining strangers of note. Yet, even in 
 these and similar privileges, he was controlled by the opinions and 
 inclinations of his people J 
 
 However numerous and minute might be the divisions of a tribe, 
 the links of affinity were carefully kept in mind by the several 
 sections. All the Sheikhs of the same tribe acknowledge a common 
 chief called the Sheikh of Sheikhs, who, whether ensconced in 
 a rock-built castle, or encamped amid his flocks and herds in 
 the desert, might assemble under his standard all the scattered 
 branches on any emergency affecting the common weal. 
 
 The multiplicity of these wandering tribes, each with its petty 
 prince and petty territory, but without a national head, produced 
 frequent collisions. Revenge, too, was .almost a religious principle 
 among them. To avenge a relative slain was the duty of his fa- 
 
 i In summer the wandering Arabs, saysBurckhardt, seldom remain above three or 
 four days on the same spot; as soon as their cattle have consumed the herbage near a 
 watering place, the tribe removes in search of pasture, and the grass again springing up, 
 serves for a succeeding camp. The encampments vary in the number of tents, from six 
 to eight hundred ; when the tents are but few, they are pitched in a circle; but more 
 considerable numbers in a straight line, or a row of single tents, especially along a 
 rivulet, sometimes three or four behind as many others. In winter, when water and 
 pasture never fail, the whole tribe spreads itself over the plain in parties of three or four 
 tents each, with an interval of half an hour's distance between each paily. 'Ihe Sheikh's 
 tent is always on the side on which enemies or guests may be expected. To oppose the 
 former, and to honour the latter, is the Sheikh's principal business. Every father of a 
 family sticks his lance into the ground by (he side of his lent, and ties his horse in front. 
 There also his camels repose at night Burckhardt, Notes on Bedouins, vol. i. p. 33. 
 The following is descriptive of the Arabs of Assyria, though it is applicable, in a great 
 degree, to the whole race. 
 
 "It would be <l i [lieu li to describe the appearance of a large tribe when migrating to 
 new pastures. We soon found ourselves in the midst of wide-spreading flocks of sheep 
 and camels. As far as the eye could reach, to the right, to the left, and in front, still the 
 same moving crowd. Long lines of asses and bullocks, laden with black tents, huge 
 caldrons, and variegated carpels ; aged women and men, no longer able to walk, lied on 
 the heap of domestic furniture; infants crammed into saddlebags, (heir tiny heads 
 thrust through tin: narrow opening, balanced on the animal's hai.'k by kids or lambs lied 
 on the opposite side; young girls clothed only in the close-filling Arab shirt, which dis- 
 played rather than concealed their graceful forms; mothers with their children on iheir 
 shoulders; boys driving flocks of lambs; horsemen armed with iheir long tufted spears, 
 scouring the plain on iheir fleet mares; riders urging their dromedaries wild their 
 short-hooked slicks, and leading their high-bred steeds by the halter; colts galloping 
 among the throng; such was the motley crowd through which we had to wend our 
 way."-I<H/ard' Nineveh, \. 4.
 
 RELIGION OF THE AKABS. & 
 
 mily, and often involved the honour of his tribe ; and these debts of 
 blood sometimes remained unsettled for generations, producing 
 deadly feuds. 
 
 The necessity of being always on the alert to defend his flocks 
 and herds, made the Arab of the desert familiar from his infancy 
 with the exercise of arms. None could excel him in the use of the 
 bow, the lance and the scimitar, and the adroit and graceful manage- 
 ment of the horse. He was a predatory warrior also ; for though 
 at times he was engaged in the service of the merchant, furnishing 
 him with camels and guides and drivers for the transportation of 
 his merchandise, he was more apt to lay contributions on the ca- 
 ravan or plunder it outright in its toilful progress through the desert. 
 All this he regarded as a legitimate exercise of arms; looking down 
 upon the gainful sons of traffic as an inferior race, debased by sordid 
 habits and pursuits. 
 
 Such was the Arab of the desert, the dweller in tents, in whom 
 was fulfilled the prophetic destiny of his ancestor Ishmael. " He 
 will be a wild man; his hand will be against every man, and every 
 man's hand against him." 1 Nature had fitted him for his destiny. 
 His form was light and meagre, but sinewy and active, and capable 
 of sustaining great fatigue and hardship. He was temperate and 
 even abstemious, requiring but little food, and that of the simplest 
 kind. His mind like his body was light and agile. He eminently 
 possessed the intellectual attributes of the Shemitic race, penetrating 
 sagacity, subtle wit, a ready conception, and a brilliant imagination. 
 His sensibilities were quick and acute, though not lasting; a proud 
 and daring spirit was stamped on his sallow visage and flashed from 
 his dark and kindling eye. He was easily aroused by the appeals 
 of eloquence, and charmed by the graces of poetry. Speaking a lan- 
 guage copious in the extreme, the words of which have been com- 
 pared to gems and flowers ^ he was naturally an orator; but he de- 
 lighted in proverbs and apothegms, rather than in sustained flights 
 of declamation, and was prone to convey his ideas in the oriental style 
 by apologue and parable. 
 
 Though a restless and predatory warrior, he was generous and 
 hospitable. He delighted in giving gifts; his door was always open 
 to the wayfarer, with whom he was ready to share his last morsel ; 
 and his deadliest foe, having once broken bread with him, might 
 repose securely beneath the inviolable sanctity of his tent. 
 
 In religion the Arabs, in what they term the Days of Ignorance, 
 partook largely of the two faiths, the Sabean and the Magian, 
 which at that time prevailed over the eastern world. The Sabean, 
 however, was the one to which they most adhered. They pretended 
 to derive it from Sabi the son of Seth, who, with his father and his 
 brother Enoch, they suppose to be buried in the pyramids. Others 
 derive the name from the Hebrew word, Saba, or the Stars, and 
 trace the origin of the faith to the Assyrian shepherds, who as they 
 watched their flocks by night on their level plains, and beneath their 
 cloudless skies, noted the aspects and movements of the heavenly 
 bodies, and formed theories of their good and evil influences on 
 
 i Generis xvi. is.
 
 6 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 human affairs ; vague notions which the Chaldean philosophers and 
 priests reduced to a system, supposed to be more ancient even than 
 that of the Egyptians. 
 
 By others it is derived from still higher authority, and claimed to 
 be the religion of the antediluvian world. It survived, say they, the 
 deluge, and was continued among the patriarchs. It was taught by 
 Abraham, adopted by his descendants, the children of Israel, and 
 sanctified and confirmed in the tablets of the law delivered unto 
 Moses, amid the thunder and lightning of Mount Sinai. 
 
 In its original stale the Sabean faith was pure and spiritual ; 
 inculcating a belief in the unity of God, the doctrine of a future 
 state of rewards and punishments, and the necessity of a virtuous 
 and holy life to obtain a happy immortality. So profound was the 
 reverence of the Sabeans for the Supreme Being, that they never 
 mentioned his name, nor did they venture to approach him, but 
 through intermediate intelligences or angels. These were supposed 
 to inhabit and animate the heavenly bodies, in the same way as the 
 human body is inhabited and animated by a soul. They were placed 
 in their respective spheres to supervise and govern the universe in 
 subserviency to the Most High. In addressing themselves to the stars 
 and other celestial luminaries, therefore, the Sabeans did not 
 worship them as deities, but sought only to propitiate their angelic 
 occupants as intercessors with the Supreme Being ; looking up 
 through these created things to God the great creator. 
 
 By degrees this religion lost its original simplicity and purity, and 
 became obscured by mysteries, and degraded by idolatries. The 
 Sabeans, instead of regarding the heavenly bodies as the habitations 
 of intermediate agents, worshipped them as deities ; set up graven 
 images in honour of them, in sacred groves and in the gloom of 
 forests; and at length enshrined these idols in temples, and 
 worshipped them as if instinct with divinity. The Sabean faith too 
 underwent changes and modifications in the various countries 
 through which it was diffused. Egypt has long been accused of 
 reducing it to the most abject state of degradation; the statues, 
 hieroglyphics, and painted sepulchres of that mysterious country, 
 being considered records of the worship, not merely of celestial 
 intelligences, but of the lowest order of created beings, and even 
 of inanimate objects. Modern investigation and research, however, 
 are gradually rescuing the most intellectual nation of antiquity from 
 this aspersion, and as they slowly lift the veil of mystery which 
 hangs over the tombs of Egypt, are discovering that all these appa- 
 rent objects of adoration were but symbols of the varied attributes 
 of the one Supreme Being, whose name was too sacred to be pro- 
 nounced by mortals. Among the Arabs the Sabean faith became 
 mingled with wild superstitions, and degraded by gross idolatry. 
 Each tribe worshipped its particular star or planet, or set up its 
 particular idol. Infanticide mingled its horrors with their religious 
 rites. Among the nomadic tribes the birth of a daughter was 
 considered a misfortune, her sex rendering her of little service in 
 a wandering and predatory life, while she might bring disgrace 
 upon her family by misconduct or captivity. Motives of unnatural 
 policy, therefore, may have mingled with their religious feelings.
 
 THE SABEANS AND MAGIANS. 
 
 in offering up female infants as sacrifices to their idols, or in burying 
 them alive. 
 
 The rival sect of Magians or Guebres (fire worshippers), which 
 as we have said, divided the religious empire of the East, took its 
 rise in Persia, where, after a while, its oral doctrines were reduced 
 to writing If] ils great prophet and teacher Zoroaster, in his volume 
 of the Zendavesta. The creed, Ike that of the Sabeaus, was ori- 
 ginally simple and spiritual, inculcating a belief in one supreme 
 and eternal God, in whom and by whom the universe exists : that 
 he produced, through his creating word, two active principles, 
 Ormusd, the principle or angel of light or good, and Ahriman, the 
 principle or angel of darkness or evil : that these formed the world 
 out of a mixture of their opposite elements, and were engaged in 
 a perpetual contest in the regulation of its affairs. Hence the 
 vicissitudes of good and evil, accordingly as the angel of light or 
 darkness has the upper hand : this contest would continue until the 
 end of the world, when there would be a general resurrection and 
 a day of judgment; the angel of darkness and his disciples would 
 then be banished to an abode of woful gloom, and their opponents 
 would enter the blissful realms of ever during light. 
 
 The primitive rites of this religion were extremely simple. The 
 JMagians had neither temples, altars, nor religious symbols of any 
 kind, but addressed their prayers and hymns directly to the Deity, 
 in what they conceived to be his residence, the sun. They rever- 
 enced this luminary as 1 , being his abode, and as the source of the 
 light and heat of which all the other heavenly bodies were com- 
 posed; and they kindled fires upon the mountain tops to supply 
 light during its absence. Zoroaster first introduced tfje use of 
 temples, wherein sacred fire, pretended to be derived from heaven, 
 was kept perpetually alive through the guardianship of priests, who 
 maintained a watch over it night and day. 
 
 In process of time this sect, like that of the Sabeans, lost sight 
 of the divine principle in the symbol, and came to worship light or 
 fire, as the real Deity, and to abhor darkness as Satan or the devil. 
 In their fanatic zeal the Magians would seize upon unbelievers and 
 offer them up in the flames to propitiate their fiery deity. 
 
 To the tenets of these two sects reference is made in that beau- 
 tiful text of the wisdom of Solomon : " Surely vain are all men by 
 nature who are ignorant of God, and could not, by considering 
 the work, acknowledge the work master; but deemed either fire, 
 or wind, or the swift air, or the circle of the stars, or the violent 
 water, or the lights of heaven, to be gods, which govern the 
 world." 
 
 Of these two faiths the Sabean, as we have before observed, was 
 much the most prevalent among the Arabs ; but in an extremely 
 degraded form, mingled with all kinds of abuses, and varying 
 among the various tribes. The Magian faith prevailed among 
 thoses tribes which, from their frontier position, had frequent in- 
 tercourse with Persia; while other tribos partook of the supersti- 
 tions and idolatries of the nations on which they bordered. 
 
 Judaism had made its way into Arabia at an early period, but 
 very vaguely and imperfectly. Still many of its rites and cere-
 
 
 8 MAHOMET AND HIS SLCCESSORS. 
 
 monies, and fanciful traditions, became implanted in the country. 
 At a later day, however, when Palestine was ravaged by the Ro- 
 mans, and the city of Jerusalem taken and sacked, many of the Jews 
 took refuge among the Arabs; became incorporated with Ihe native 
 tribes; formed themselves into communities; acquired possession 
 of fertile tracts; built castles and strongholds, and rose to consider- 
 able power and influence. 
 
 The Christian religion had likewise its adherents among the 
 Arabs. St. Paul himself declares in -his epistle to the Galatians, 
 that soon after he had been called to preach Christianity among 
 the heathens, he " went into Arabia." The dissensions, also, 
 which rose in the Eastern church, in the early part of the third 
 century, breaking it up into sects, each persecuting the others 
 as it gained the ascendency, drove many into exile into remote 
 parts of the East; filled the deserts of Arabia with anchorites, and 
 planted the Christian faith among some of the principal tribes. 
 
 The foregoing circumstances, physical and moral, may give an 
 idea of the causes which maintained the Arabs for ages in an 
 unchanged condition. "While their isolated position and their vast 
 deserts protected them from conquest, their internal feuds, and 
 their want of a common tie, political or religious, kept them from 
 being formidable as conquerors. They were a vast aggregation 
 of distinct parts ; full of individual vigour, but wanting coherent 
 strength. Although their nomadic life rendered them hardy and 
 active; although the greater part of them were warriors from 
 infancy, yet their arms were only wielded against each other, 
 excepting some of the frontier tribes, which occasionally engaged 
 as mercenaries in external wars. While, therefore, the other no- 
 madic races of Central Asia, possessing no greater aptness for 
 warfare, had, during a course of ages, successively overrun and 
 conquered the civilized world, this warrior race, unconscious of its 
 power, remained disjointed and harmless in the depths of its native 
 deserts. 
 
 The time atlength arrived when its discordant tribes were to be 
 united in one creed, and animated by one common cause ; when a 
 mighty genius was to arise, who should bring together these scat- 
 tered limbs, animate them with his own enthusiastic and daring 
 spirit, and le?d them forth, a giant of the desert, to shake and 
 overturn the empires of the earth. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Birth and parentage of Mahomet -His infancy and childhood. 
 
 Mahomet, the great founder of the faith of Islam, was born in 
 Mecca, in April, in the year 569 of the Christian era. He was of 
 the valiant and illustrious tribe of Koreish, of which there were 
 two branches, descended from two brothers, Haschem and Abd
 
 BIRTH OF MAHOMET. 9 
 
 Scliems. Hascliem, the progenitor of Mahomet, was a great 
 benefactor of Mecca. This city is situated in the midst of a bar- 
 ren and stony country, and in former times was often subject to 
 scarcity of provisions. At the beginning of the sixth century 
 Haschem established two yearly caravans, one in the winter to 
 South Arabia or Yemen; the other in the summer to Syria. By 
 these means abundant supplies were brought to Mecca, as well as 
 a great variety of merchandise. The city became a commercial 
 mart, and the tribe of Koreish, which engaged largely in these 
 expeditions, became wealthy and powerful. Haschem, at this 
 time, was the guardian of the Caaba, the great shrine of Arabian 
 pilgrimage and worship, the custody of which was confided to none 
 but the most honourable tribes and families, in the same manner as in 
 old limes, the temple of Jerusalem was intrusted only to the care of 
 the Levites. In fact the guardianship of the Caaba was connected 
 with civil dignities and privileges, and gave the holder of it the 
 control of the sacred city. 
 
 On the death of Haschem, his son, Abd al Motdlleb, succeeded 
 to his honours, and inherited his patriotism. He delivered the holy 
 city from an invading army of troops and elephants, sent by the 
 Christian princes of Abyssinia, who at that time held Yemen in sub- 
 jection. These signal services rendered by father and son, con- 
 firmed the guardianship of the Caaba in the line of Haschem; to the 
 great discontent and envy of the line of Abd Schems. 
 
 Abd al Motalleb had several sons and daughters. Those of his 
 sons who figure in history were, Abu Taleb, Abu Lahab, Abbas, 
 Hamza, and Abdallah. The last named was the youngest and best 
 beloved. He married Amina, a maiden of a distant branch of the 
 same illustrious stock of Koreish, So remarkable was Abdallah 
 for personal beauty and those qualities which win the affections of 
 women, that, if Moslem traditions are to be credited, on the night 
 of his marriage with Amina, two hundred virgins of the tribe of 
 Koreish died of broken hearts. 
 
 Mahomet was the first and only fruit of the marriage thus sadly 
 celebrated. His birth, according to similar traditions with the one 
 just cited, was accompanied by signs and portents announcing a 
 child of wonder. His mother suffered none of the pangs of travail. 
 At the moment of his coming into the world, a celestial light illu- 
 mined the surrounding country, and the new-born child, raising 
 his eyes to heaven, exclaimed : " God is great! There is no God 
 but God, and I am his prophet." 
 
 Heaven and earth, we are assured, were agitated at his advent. 
 The Lake Sawa shrank back to its secret springs, leaving its borders 
 dry; while the Tigris, bursting its bounds, overflowed the neigh- 
 bouring lands. The palace of Khosru the king of Persia shook to its 
 foundations, and several of its towers were toppled to the earth. 
 In that troubled night the Kadhi, or Judge of Persia, beheld, in a 
 dream, a ferocious camel conquered by an Arabian courser. He 
 related his dream in the morning to the Persian monarch, and inter 
 preted it to portend danger from the quarter of Arabia. 
 
 In the same eventful night the sacred fire of Zoroaster, which, 
 guarded by the Magi, had burned without interruption for upwards
 
 10 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 of a thousand years, was suddenly extinguished, and all the idols 
 in the world fell down. The demons, or evil genii, which lurk in 
 the stars and the signs of the zodiac, and exert a malignant in- 
 fluence over the children of men, were cast forth by the pure 
 angels, and hurled, with their arch leader, Eblis, or Lucifer, into 
 the depths of the sea. 
 
 The relatives of the new-born child, say the like authorities, 
 were filled with awe and wonder. His mother's brother, an as- 
 trologer, cast his nativity, and predicted that he would rise 
 to vast power, found an empire, and establish a new faith among 
 men. His grandfather, Abd al Motalleb, gave a feast to the prin- 
 cipal Koreishites, the seventh day after his birth, at which he 
 presented this child, as the dawning glory of their race, and gave 
 him the name of Mahomet (or Muhamed), indicative of his future 
 renown. 
 
 Such are the marvellous accounts given by Moslem writers of the 
 infancy of Mahomet, and we have little else than similar fables about 
 his early years. He was scarce two months old when his father 
 died, leaving him no other inheritance than five camels, a few 
 sheep, and a female slave of Ethiopia, named Barakat. His mother, 
 Amina, had hitherto nurtured him, but care and sorrow dried the 
 fountains of her breast, and the air of Mecca being unhealthy for 
 children, she sought a nurse for him among the females of the 
 neighbouring Bedouin tribes. These were accustomed to come to 
 Mecca twice a year, in spring and autumn, to foster the children 
 of its inhabitants; but they looked for the offspring of the rich, 
 where they were sure of ample recompense, and turned with con- 
 tempt from this heir of poverty. At length Halema, the wife of a 
 Saadite shepherd, was moved to compassion, and took the helpless 
 infant to her home. It was in one of the pastoral valleys of the 
 mountains. J 
 
 Many were the wonders related by Hale'ma of her infant charge. 
 On the journey from Mecca, the mule which bore him became 
 miraculously endowed with speech, and proclaimed aloud that he 
 bore on his back the greatest of prophets, the chief of ambassadors, 
 the favourite of the Almighty. The sheep bowed to him as he passed; 
 as he lay in his cradle and gazed at the moon, it stooped to him in 
 reverence. 
 
 The blessing of heaven, say the Arabian writers, rewarded the 
 charity of Halema. "While the child remained under her roof, every 
 thing around her prospered. The wells and springs were never 
 dried up; the pastures were always green; her flocks and herds 
 increased tenfold ; a marvellous abundance reigned over her fields, 
 and peace prevailed in her dwelling. 
 
 The arabian legends go on to extol the almost supernatural 
 powers, bodily and mental, manifested by this wouderfuld child at 
 a very early age. He could stand alone when three months old ; 
 run abroad when he was seven, and at ten could join other children 
 
 i The Beni Sad (or children of Sad) date from the most remote antiquity, and, with 
 tin' Kul.iii Arabs, are the only remnants of the primitive tribes of Arabia. Their valley 
 is among the mountains which range southwardly from the Tayef. Burckhardl on the 
 Bedouim, vol. ii. p. 47.
 
 PURIFICATION OF THE CHILD MAHOMET. 1 1 
 
 in their sports with bows and arrows. At eight months he could 
 speak so as to be understood; and in the course of another month 
 could converse with fluency, displaying a wisdom astonishing to all 
 who heard him. 
 
 At the age of three years, while playing in the fields with his 
 foster brother, Masroud, two angels in shining apparel, appeared 
 before them. They laid Mahomet gently upon the ground, and 
 Gabriel, one of the angels, opened his breast, but without inflicting any 
 pain. Then taking forth his heart, he cleansed it from all impurity, 
 wringing from it those black and bitter drops of original sin, 
 inherited from our forefather Adam, and which lurk in the hearts 
 of the best of his descendants, inciting them to crime. AVhen he 
 had thoroughly purified it, he filled it with faith and knowledge 
 and prophetic light, and replaced it in the bosom of the child. 
 Now, we are assured by the same authorities, began to emanate 
 from his countenance that mysterious light which had continued 
 down from Adam, through the sacred line of prophets, until the 
 time of Isaac and Ishmael; but which had lain dormant in the 
 descendants of the latter, until it thus shone forth with renewed 
 radiance from the features of Mahomet. 
 
 At this supernatural visitation, it is added, was impressed between 
 the shoulders of the child the seal of prophecy, which continued 
 throughout life the symbol and credential of his divine mission ; 
 though unbelievers saw nothing in it but a large mole, the size of 
 a pigeons egg. 
 
 When the marvellous visitation of the angel was related to Hal6ma 
 and her husband, they were alarmed lest some misfortune should be 
 impending over the child, or that his supernatural visitors might be 
 of the race of evil spirits or genii, which haunt the solitudes of the 
 desert, wreaking mischief on the children of men. His Saadite 
 nurse, therefore, carried him back to Mecca, and delivered him to 
 his mother Amina. 
 
 He remained with his parent until his sixth year, when she took 
 him with her to Medina, on a visit to her relatives of the tribe of 
 Adij, but on her journey homeward she died, and was buried at 
 Abwa, a village between Medina and Mecca. Her grave it will be 
 found, was a place of pious resort and tender recollection to her 
 son, at the latest period of his life. 
 
 The faithful Abyssinian slave Barakat, now acted as a mother to 
 the orphan child, and conducted him to his grand-father Abd al 
 Motalleb, in whose household he remained for two years, treated 
 with care and tenderness. Abd al Motdlleb was now well stricken 
 in years; having outlived the ordinary term of human existence. 
 Finding his end approaching, he called" to him his eldest son Abu 
 Taleb, and bequeathed Mahomet to his especial protection. The 
 good Abu Taleb took his nephew to his bosom, and ever afterwards 
 was to him as a parent. As the former succeeded to the guard- 
 ianship of the Caaba at the death of his father, Mahomet continued 
 for several years in a kind of sacerdotal household, where the rites 
 and ceremonies of the sacred house were rigidly observed. And 
 here we deem it necessary to give a more especial notice of the 
 alleged origin of the Caaba, and of the rites and traditions and
 
 12 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 superstitions connected with it, closely interwoven as they are with 
 the faitli of Islam and the storv of its founder. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Traditions concerning Mecca and the Caaba. 
 
 "When Adam and Eve were cast forth from Paradise, say Arabian 
 traditions, they fell in different parts of the earth ; Adam on a moun- 
 tain of the island of Serendib, or Ceylon ; Eve in Arabia on the bor- 
 ders of the Red Sea, where the port of Joddah is situated. For two 
 hundred years they wandered separate and lonely about the earth, 
 until, in consideration of their penitence and wretchedness, they 
 were permitted to come together again on Mount Arafat, not far 
 from the present city of Mecca. In the depth of his sorrow and 
 repentance, Adam, it is said, raised his hands and eyes to heaven, 
 and implored the clemency of God ; entreating that a shrine might 
 be vouchsafed to him similar to that at which he had worshipped 
 when in Paradise, and round which the angels used to move in 
 adoring processions. 
 
 The supplication of Adam was effectual. A tabernacle or temple 
 formed of radiant clouds was lowered down by the hands of angels, 
 and placed immediately below its prototype in the celestial para- 
 dise. Towards this heaven-descended shrine, Adam thenceforth 
 turned when in prayer, and round it he daily made seven circuits in 
 imitation of the rites of the adoring angels 
 
 At the death of Adam, say the same traditions, the tabernacle of 
 clouds passed away, or was again drawn up to heaven ; but an- 
 other, of the same form and in the same place, was built of stone and 
 clay by Seth, the son of Adam. This was swept away by the 
 deluge. Many generations afterwards, in the time of the patriarchs, 
 when Hagar and her child Ishmael were near perishing with thirst 
 in the desert, an angel revealed to them a spring or well of water, 
 near to the ancient site of the tabernacle. This was the well of 
 Zem Zem, held sacred by the progeny of Ishmael to the present 
 day. Shortly afterwards two individuals of the gigantic race of the 
 Amalekites, in quest of a camel which had strayed from their camp, 
 discovered this well, and, having slaked their thirst, brought their 
 companions to the place. Here they founded the city of Mecca, 
 taking Ishmael and his mother under their protection. They were 
 soon expelled by the proper inhabitants of the country, among 
 whom Ishmael remained. When grown to man's estate, he married 
 the daughter of the ruling prince, by whom he had a numerous 
 progeny, the ancestors of the Arabian people. In process of time, 
 by God's command he undertook to rebuild the Caaba, on the pre- 
 cise site of the original tabernacle of clouds. In this pious work 
 he was assisted by his father Abraham. A miraculous stone served 
 Abraham as a scaffold, rising and sinking with him as he built the 
 walls of the sacred edifice. It still remains there an inestimable
 
 EARLY RELIGIOUS BIAS. IS 
 
 relie, and the print of the patriarch's foot is clearly to be perceived 
 on it by all true believers. 
 
 While Abraham and Ishmael were thus occupied, the angel Ga- 
 briel brought them a stone, about which traditional accounts are 
 a little at variance ; by some His said to have been one of the precious 
 stones of Paradise, which fell to the earth with Adam, and was 
 afterwards lost in the slime of the deluge, until retrieved by the 
 angel Gabriel. The more received tradition is, that it was origi- 
 nally the guardian angel appointed to watch over Adam in Paradise, 
 but changed into a stone and ejected thence with him at his fall, 
 as a punishment for not having been more vigilant. This stone 
 Abraham and Ishmael received with proper reverence, and inserted 
 it in a corner of the exterior wall of the Caaba, where it remains 
 to the present day, devoutly kissed by worshippers each lime they 
 make a circuit of the temple. When first inserted in the wall it 
 was, we are told, a single jacinth of dazzling whiteness, but became 
 gradually blackened by the kisses of sinful mortals. At the resur- 
 rection it will recover its angelic form, and stand forth a testimony 
 before God in favour of those who have faithfully performed the rites 
 of pilgrimage. 
 
 Such are the Arabian traditions, which rendered the Caaba and 
 the well of Zem Zem, objects of extraordinary veneration from 
 the remotest antiquity among the people of the East, and especially 
 the descendants of Ishmael. Mecca, which incloses these sacred 
 objects within its walls, was a holy city many ages before the rise 
 of Mahomctanism. and was the resort of pilgrims from all parts of 
 Arabia. So universal and profound was the religious feeling re- 
 specting this observance, that four months in every year were de- 
 voted to the rites of pilgrimage, and held sacred from all violence 
 and warfare. Hostile tribes then laid aside their arms; took the 
 heads from their spears; traversed the late dangerous deserts in 
 security; thronged the gates of Mecca clad in the pilgrim's garb; 
 made their seven circuits round the Caaba in imitation of the angelic 
 host; touched" and kissed the mysterious black stone; drank and 
 made ablutions at the well Zem Zem in memory of their ancestor 
 Ishmael; and having performed all the other primitive rites of pil- 
 grimage returned home in safety, again to resume their weapons 
 and their wars. 
 
 Among the religious observances of the Arabs in these their 
 " days of ignorance ;" that is to say, before the promulgation of the 
 Moslem doctrines, fasting and prayer had a foremost place. They 
 had three principal fasts within the year; one of seven, one of nine, 
 and one of thirty days. They prayed three times each day: about sun- 
 rise, at noon, and about sunset; turning their faces in the direction 
 of the Caaba, which was their kebla, or point of adoration. They 
 had many religious traditions, some of them acquired in early times 
 from the Jews, and they are said to have nurtured their devotional 
 feelings with the book of Psalms, and with a book said to be by Scth, 
 and filled with moral discourses. 
 
 Brought up, as Mahomet was, in the house of the guardian of the 
 Caaba , the ceremonies and devotions connected with the sacred 
 edifice may have given an early bias to his mind, and inclined it to
 
 U MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 those speculations in matters of religion by which it eventually be- 
 came engrossed. Though his Moslem biographers would fain per- 
 suade us his high destiny was clearly foretold in his childhood by 
 signs and prodigies, yet his education appears to have been as much 
 neglected as that of ordinary Arab children ; for we find that he 
 was not taught either to read or write. He was a thoughtful child, 
 however; quick to observe, prone to meditate on all that he ob- 
 served, and possessed of an imagination fertile, daring, and expan- 
 sive. The yearly influx of pilgrims from distant parts made Mecca 
 a receptacle for all kinds of floating knowledge, which he appears 
 to have imbibed with eagerness and retained in a tenacious me- 
 mory ; and as he increased in years, a more extended sphere of 
 observation was gradually opened to him. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 First journey of Mahomel with the caravan to Syria. 
 
 Mahomet was now twelve years of age, but, as we have shown, 
 he had an intelligence far beyond his years. The spirit of inquiry 
 was awake within him, quickened by intercourse with pilgrims from 
 all parts of Arabia. His uncle Abu Taleb, too, beside his sacerdotal 
 character as guardian of the Caaba, was one of the most enter- 
 prising merchants of the tribe of Koreish, and had much to do 
 with those caravans set on foot by his ancestor Haschem, which 
 traded to Syria and Yemen. The arrival and departure of those 
 caravans, which thronged the gates of Mecca and filled its streets 
 with pleasing tumult, were exciting events to a youth like Mahomet, 
 and carried his imagination to foreign parts. He could no longer 
 repress the ardent curiosity thus aroused; but once, when his 
 uncle was about to mount his camel to depart with the caravan for 
 Syria, clung to him, and entreated to be permitted to accompany 
 him : " For who, oh my uncle," said he, "will take care of me 
 when thou art away?" 
 
 The appeal was not lost upon the kind-hearted Abu Taleb. He 
 bethought him, too, that the youth was of an age to enter upon the 
 active scenes of Arab life, and of a capacity to render essential ser- 
 vice in the duties of the caravan ; he readily, therefore, granted his 
 prayer, and took him with him on the journey to Syria. 
 
 The route lay through regions fertile in fables and traditions, 
 which it is the delight of the Arabs to recount in the evening halts 
 of the caravan The vast solitudes of the desert, in which that 
 wandering people pass so much of their lives, are prone to en- 
 gender superstitious fancies; they have accordingly peopled them 
 with good and evil genii, and clothed them with tales of enchant- 
 ment, mingled up with wonderful events which happened in days 
 of old. In these evening halts of the caravan, the youthful mind of 
 Mahomet doubtless imbibed many of those superstitions of the de- 
 sert which ever afterwards dwelt in his memory, and had a power- 

 
 SUPERSTITIONS OF THE DESERT. 15 
 
 ful Influence over his imagination. AVe may especially note two 
 traditions which he must have heard at this time, and which we 
 find recorded by him in after years in the Koran. One related to 
 the mountainous district of Hedjar. Here, as the caravan wound 
 its way through silent and deserted valleys, .caves were pointed out 
 in the sides of the mountains once inhabited by the Beni Thamud, 
 or children of Thamud, one of the "lost tribes" of Arabia; and this 
 was the tradition concerning them. 
 
 They were a proud and gigantic race, existing before the time of 
 the patriarch Abraham. Having fallen into blind idolatry, God sent 
 a prophet of the name of Saleh, to restore them to the right way. 
 They refused, however, to listen to him, unless he should prove the 
 divinity of his mission by causing a camel, big with young, to issue 
 from the entrails of a mountain. Saleh accordingly prayed, and 
 lo ! a rock opened, and a female camel came forth, which soon 
 produced a foal. Some of the Thamudites were convinced by the 
 miracle, and were converted by the prophet from their idolatry ; 
 the greater part , however, remained in unbelief. Saleh left the 
 camel among them as a sign, warning them that a judgment from 
 heaven would fall on them, should they do her any harm. For a 
 time the camel was suffered to feed quietly in their pastures, going 
 forth in the morning, and returning in the evening. It is true, that 
 when she bowed her head to drink from a brook or well, she never 
 raised it until she had drained the last drop of water; but then in 
 return she yielded milk enough to supply- the whole tribe. As, 
 however, she frightened the other camels from the pasture, she 
 became an object of offence to the Thamudites, who hamstrung and 
 slew her. Upon this there was a fearful cry from heaven, and 
 great claps of thunder, and in the morning all the offenders were 
 found lying on their faces, dead. Thus the whole race was swept 
 from the earth, and their country was laid for ever afterward under 
 the ban of heaven. 
 
 This story made a powerful impression on the mind of Mahomet, 
 insomuch that, in after years, he refused to let his people encamp 
 in the neighbourhood, but hurried them away from it as an ac- 
 cursed region. 
 
 Another tradition, gathered on this journey, related to the city 
 of Eyla, situated near the Red Sea. This place, he was told, had 
 been inhabited in old times by a tribe of Jews, who lapsed into 
 idolatry and profaned the Sabbath, by fishing on that sacred day ; 
 whereupon the old men were transformed into swine, and the 
 young men into monkeys. 
 
 We have noted these two traditions especially because they are 
 both cited by Mahomet as instances of divine judgment on the crime 
 of idolatry , and evince the bias his youthful mind was already taking 
 on that important subject. 
 
 Moslem writers tell us, as usual, of wonderful circumstances 
 which attended the youlh throughout this journey, giving evidence 
 of the continual guardianship of heaven. At one lime, as he tra- 
 versed the burning sands of the desert, an angel hovered over him 
 unseen, sheltering him with his wings ; a miracle, however, which 
 evidently does not rest on the evidence of an eye-witness ; at an-
 
 16 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 other time he was protected by a cloud which hung ever his head 
 during the noontide heat ; and on another occasion, as he sought 
 the scanty shade of a withered tree, it suddenly put forth leaves 
 and blossoms. 
 
 After skirting the ancient domains of the Moabites and the Am- 
 monites, often mentioned in the sacred Scriptures, the caravan ar- 
 rived at Bosra, or Bostra, on the confines of Syria, in the country 
 of the tribe of Manasseh, beyond the Jordan. In Scripture days 
 it had been a city of the Levites, but now was inhabited by Nesto- 
 rian Christians. It was a great mart, annually visited by the cara- 
 vans ; and here our wayfarers came to a halt, and encamped near 
 a convent of Nestorian monks. 
 
 By this fraternity Abu Taleb and his nephew were entertained 
 with great hospitality. One of the monks, by some called Ser- 
 gius, by others Bahira, ! on conversing with Mahomet, was sur- 
 prised at the precocity of his intellect, and interested by his eager 
 desire for information, wliich appears to have had reference, prin- 
 cipally, to matters of religion. They had frequent conversations 
 together on such subjects, in the course of which the efforts of the 
 monk must have been mainly directed against that idolatry in which 
 the youthful Mahomet had hitherto been educated ; for the Nesto- 
 rian Christians were strenuous in condemning not merely the 
 worship of images, but even the casual exhibition of them; indeed, 
 so far did they carry their scruples on this point, that even the 
 cross, that general emblem of Christianity, was in a great degree 
 included in this prohibition. 
 
 Many have ascribed that knowledge of the principles and tradi- 
 tions of the Christian faith displayed by Mahomet in after life, to 
 those early conversations with this monk; it is probable, however, 
 that he had further intercourse with the latter in the course of sub- 
 sequent visits which he made to Syria. 
 
 Moslem writers pretend that the interest taken by the monk in 
 the youthful stranger, arose from his having accidentally perceived 
 between his shoulders the seal of prophecy. He warned Abu Taleb, 
 say they, when about to set out on his return to Mecca, to take 
 care that his nephew did not fall into the hands of the Jews; 
 foreseeing with the eye of prophecy the trouble and opposition he 
 was to encounter from that people. 
 
 It required no miraculous sign, however, to interest a sectarian 
 monk anxious to make proselytes, in an intelligent and inquiring 
 youth, nephew of the guardian of the Caaba, who might carry 
 back with him to Mecca the seeds of Christianity sown in his tender 
 mind: and it was natural that the monk should be eager to' 
 prevent his hoped-for convert, in the present unsettled state of 
 his religious opinions, from being beguiled into the Jewish faith. 
 
 Mahomet returned to Mecca, his imagination teeming with the 
 wild tales and traditions picked up in the desert, and his mind 
 deeply impressed with the doctrines imparted to him in the Nesto- 
 rian convent. He seems ever afterwards to have entertained a 
 
 i Some assert that these two names indicate two monks, who held conversations with 
 Mahomet.
 
 ACTIVE OCCUPATIONS. 17 
 
 mysterious reverence for Syria, probably from the religious im- 
 pressions received there. It was the land whither Abraham the 
 patriarch had repaired from Chaldea, taking with him the primitive 
 worship of the one true God. "Verily," he used to say in after 
 years, " God has ever maintained guardians of his word in Syria; 
 forty in number ; when one dies another is sent in his room ; and 
 through them the land is blessed." And again "Joy be to the 
 people of Syria, for the angels of the kind God spread their wings 
 over them." 1 
 
 NOTE. The conversion of Abraham from the idolatry into which the world 
 had fallen after the deluge, is related in the Sixth Chapter of the Koran. Abraham's 
 father, Azer, or Zerah, as his name is given in the Scriptures, was a statuary and 
 an idolater. 
 
 " And Abraham said unto his father Azer, ' Why dost thou take graven images 
 for gods? Verily, thou and thy people are in error.' 
 
 "Then was the firmament of heaven displayed unto Abraham, that he might 
 see how the. world was governed. 
 
 "When night came, and darkness overshadowed the earth, he beheld a bright 
 star shining in the firmament, and cried out to his people who were astrologers : 
 ' This, according to your assertions, is the Lord.' 
 
 " But the star set: and Abraham said, ' I have no faith in gods that set.' 
 
 "He beheld the moon rising, and exclaimed, 'Assuredly, this is the Lord." 
 But the moon likewise set, and he was confounded, and prayed unto God, saying, 
 ' Direct me, lest 1 become as one of these people, who go astray.' 
 
 " When he saw the sun rising, he cried out, 'This is the most glorious of all ; 
 this of a certainty is the Lord.' But the sun also set. Then said Abraham, l 1 be- 
 lieve not, oh my people, in those things which ye call gods. Verily, I turn my 
 face unto Him, the Creator, who hath formed both the heavens and the earth.' " 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Commercial occupations of Mahomet. His marriage with Cadijah 
 
 Mahomet was now completely launched in active life, accom- 
 panying his uncles in various expeditions. At one time, when 
 about sixteen years of age, we find him with his uncle Zobier, 
 journeying with the caravan to Yemen ; at another time acting as 
 armour-bearer to the same uncle, who led a warlike expedition of 
 Koreishites in aid of the Kenanites against the tribe of Hawazan. 
 This is cited as Mahomet's first essay in arms, though he did little 
 else than supply his uncle with arrows in the heat of the action, 
 and shield him from the darts of the enemy. It is stigmatized 
 among Arabian writers as al Fadjar, or the impious war, having 
 been carried on during the sacred months of pilgrimage. 
 
 As Mahomet advanced in years, he was employed by different 
 persons as commercial agent or factor in caravan journeys to 
 Syria, Yemen, and elsewhere ; all which tended to enlarge the 
 
 i MishrAt-ul-Masabih, vol. ii, p. 812.
 
 1* MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 sphere of his observation, and to give him a quick insight Into cha- 
 racter and a knowledge of human affairs. 
 
 He was a frequent attender of fairs also, which, in Arabia, were 
 not always mere resorts of traffic, but occasionally scenes of 
 poetical contests between different tribes, where prizes were 
 adjudged to the victors, and their prize pooms treasured up in 
 the archives of princes. Such, especially, was the case with the 
 fair of Ocadh; and seven of the prize poems adjudged there, were 
 hung up as trophies in the Caaba. At these fairs, also, were recited 
 the popular traditions of the Arabs, and inculcated the various 
 religious faiths which were afloat in Arabia. From oral sources of 
 this kind, Mahomet gradually accumulated much of that varied 
 information as to creeds and doctrines which he afterwards 
 displayed. 
 
 There was at this time residing in Mecca a widow, named 
 Cadijah (or Khadijah), of the tribe of Koreish. She had been twice 
 married. Her last husband, a wealthy merchant, had recently 
 died, and the extensive concerns of the house were in need of a 
 conductor. A nephew of the widow, named Chuzima, had become 
 acquainted with Mahomet in the course of his commercial expedi- 
 tions, and had noticed the ability and integrity with which he ac- 
 quitted himself on all occasions. He pointed him out to his aunt 
 as a person well qualified to be her factor. The personal appear- 
 ance of Mahomet may have strongly seconded this recommenda- 
 tion ; for he was now about, twenty-five years of age, and extolled 
 by Arabian writers for his manly beauty and engaging manners. 
 So desirous was Cadijah of securing his services, that she offered 
 him double wages to conduct a caravan which she was on the point 
 of sending off to Syria. Mahomet consulted his uncle Abu Taleb, 
 and by his advice, accepted the offer. He was accompanied and 
 aided in the expedition by the nephew of the widow, and by her 
 slave Malsara, and so highly satisfied was Cadijah with the way in 
 which he discharged his duties, that, on his return, she paid him 
 double the amount of his stipulated wages. She afterwards sent 
 him to the southern parts of Arabia on similar expeditions, in all 
 which he gave like satisfaction. 
 
 Cadijah was now in her fortieth year, a woman of judgment and 
 experience. The mental qualities of Mahomet rose more and 
 more in her estimation, and her heart began to yearn toward the 
 fresh and comely youth. According to Arabian legends, a miracle 
 occurred most opportunely to confirm and sanctify the bias of her 
 inclinations. She was one day with her handmaids, at the hour 
 of noon, on the terraced roof of her dwelling, watching the arrival 
 of a caravan conducted by Mahomet As it approached, she 
 beheld, with astonishment, two angels overshadowing him with 
 their wings to protect him from the sun. Turning, with emotion, 
 to her handmaids, "Behold!" said she, "the beloved of Allah, 
 who sends two angels to watch over him ! " 
 
 "Whether or not the handmaidens looked forth with the same 
 eyes of devotion as their mistress, and likewise discerned the angels, 
 the legend does not mention. Suffice it to say, the widow was 
 filled with a lively faith in the superhuman merits of her youthful
 
 CONDUCT AFTER MARRIAGE. 19 
 
 steward, and forthwith commissioned her trusty slave, Matsara, to 
 offer him her hand. The negotiation is recorded with simple bre- 
 vity. " Mahomet," demanded Maisara, "why dostthou not marry?" 
 v! i have not the means," replied Mahomet. "Well, Lut if a 
 wealthy dame should offer thee her hand : one also who is hand- 
 some and of high birth?" "And who is she?" "Cadijah!" fi How 
 is that possible?" "Let me manage it." Maisara returned to his 
 mistress and reported what had passed. An hour was appointed 
 for an interview, and the affair was brought to a satisfactory arrange- 
 ment with that promptness and sagacity which had distinguished 
 Mahomet in all his dealings with the widow. The father of Ca- 
 dijah made some opposition to the match, on account of the poverty 
 of Mahomet, following the common notion that wealth should be 
 added to wealth : but the widow wisely considered her riches only 
 as the means of enabling her to follow the dictates of her heart. 
 She gave a great feast, to which were invited her father and the 
 rest of her relatives, and Mahomet's uncles Abu Taleb and Hamza, 
 together with several other of the Koreishites. At this banquet 
 wine was served in abundance, and soon diffused good humour 
 round the board. The objections to Mahomet's poverty were for- 
 gotten; speeches were made by Abu Taleb on the one side, and 
 by Waraka, a kinsman of Cadijah. on the other, in praise of the 
 proposed nuptials; the dowry was arranged, and the marriage 
 formally concluded 
 
 Mahomet then caused a camel to be killed before his door, and 
 the flesh distributed among the poor. The house was thrown 
 open to all comers; the female slaves of Cadijah danced to the 
 sound of timbrels, and all was revelry and rejoicing. Abu Taleb, 
 forgetting his age and his habitual melancholy, made merry on the 
 occasion. He had paid down from his purse a dower of twelve- 
 and-a-half okks of gold, equivalent to twenty young camels. Ha- 
 lema, who had nursed Mahomet in his infancy, was summoned to 
 rejoice at his nuptials, and was presented with a flock of forty 
 sheep, with which she returned, enriched and contented, to her 
 native valley, in the desert of the Saadites. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Conduct of Mahomet after his marriage. Becomes anxious for religious reform. Hi* 
 habits of solitary abstraction. The vision of the cave. His annunciation as a 
 prophet. 
 
 The marriage with Cadijah placed Mahomet among the most 
 wealthy of his native city. His moral worth also gave him great 
 influence in the community. Allah, says the historian Abulfeda, 
 had endowed him with every gift necessary to accomplish and adorn 
 an honest man; he was so pure and sincere; so free from every evil 
 thought, that he was commonly known by the name of Al Almic, 
 or the Faithful.
 
 20 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 The great confidence reposed in his judgment and probity, caused 
 him to be frequently referred to ns arbiter in disputes between his 
 townsmen. An anecdote is 'given as illustrative of his sagacity on 
 such occasions. The Caaba having been injured by fire, was under- 
 going repairs, in the course of which the sacred black stone was 
 to be replaced. A dispute arose among the chiefs of the various 
 tribes, as to which was entitled to perform so august an office, and 
 they agreed to abide by the decision of the first person who should 
 enter by the gate al Haram. That person happened to be Maho- 
 met. Upon .hearing their different claims, he directed that a great 
 cloth should be spread upon the ground, and the stone laid thereon ; 
 and that a man from each tribe should take hold of the border of 
 the cloth. In this way the sacred stone was raised equally and at 
 the same time by them all to a level with its allotted place, in which 
 Mahomet fixed it with his own hands. 
 
 Four daughters and one son, were the fruit of the marriage 
 with Gadijah. The son was named Kasim, whence Mahomet was 
 occasionally called Abu Kasim, or the father of Kasim, ac- 
 cording to Arabian nomenclature. This son, however, died in his 
 infancy. 
 
 For several years after his mariage he continued in commerce, 
 visiting the great Arabian fairs, and making distant journeys with 
 the caravans. His expeditions were not as profitable as in the 
 days of his stewardship, and the wealth acquired with his wife 
 diminished, rather than increased in the course of his operations. 
 That wealth, in fact, had raised him above the necessity of toiling 
 for subsistence, and given him leisure to indulge the original bias 
 of his mind.; a turn for reverie and religious speculation, which he 
 had evinced from his earliest years. This had been fostered in the 
 course of his journeyings, by his intercourse with Jews and Chris- 
 tians, originally fugitives from persecution, but now gathered into 
 tribes, or forming part of the population of cities. The Arabian 
 deserts too, rife as we have shown them with fanciful superstitions, 
 had furnished aliment for his enthusiastic reveries. Since his 
 marriage with Cadijah, also, he had a household oracle to influence 
 him in his religious opinions. This was his wife's cousin \Varaka, 
 a man of speculative mind and flexible faith ; originally a Jew ; 
 subsequently a Christian ; and withal a pretender to astrology. 
 He is worthy of note as being the first on record to translate parts 
 of the Old and New Testament into Arabic. From him Mahomet 
 is supposed to have derived much of his information respecting 
 those writings, and many of the Mishnu and the Talmud, on which 
 he draws so copiously in his Koran. 
 
 The knowledge thus variously acquired and treasured up in an 
 uncommonly retentive memory, was in direct hostility to the gross 
 idolatry prevalent in Arabia, and practised at the Caaba. That 
 sacred edifice had gradually become filled and surrounded by 
 idols, to the number of three hundred and sixty, being one for 
 every day of the Arab year. Hither had been brought idols from 
 various parts, the deities of other nations, the chief of which, 
 Hobal, was from Syria, and supposed to have the power of giving 
 rain. Among these idols too, were Abraham and Ishmael, once
 
 FIXED UEL1GIOOSJ0E*. 21 
 
 revered as prophets and progenitors, now represented with di- 
 vining arrows in their hands, symbols of magic. 
 
 Mahomet became more and more sensible of the grossness and 
 absurdity of this idolatry, in proportion as his intelligent mind 
 contrasted it with the spiritual religions, which had been the subjects 
 of his inquiries. Various passages in the Koran show the ruling 
 idea which gradually sprang up in his mind, until it engrossed his 
 thoughts and influenced all his actions. That idea was a religious 
 reform. It had become his fixed belief, deduced from all that he 
 had learnt and meditated, that the only true religion had been 
 revealed to Adam at his creation, and been promulgated and 
 practised in the days of innocence. That religion inculcated the 
 direct and spiritual worship of one true and only God, the creator 
 of the universe. 
 
 It was his belief, furthermore, that this religion, so elevated and 
 simple, had repeatedly been corrupted and debased by man, and 
 especially outraged by idolatry ; wherefore a succession of prophets 
 each inspired by a revelation from the Most High, had been sent from 
 time to time, and at distant periods, to restore it to its original purity. 
 Such was Noah, such was Abraham, such was Moses, and such was 
 Jesus Christ. By each of these, the true religion had been rein- 
 stated upon earth, but had again been vitiated by their followers. 
 The faith as taught and practised by Abraham when he came out 
 of the land of Chaldea, seems especially to have formed a religious 
 standard in his mind, from his veneration for the patriarch as the 
 father of Ishmael, the progenitor of his race. 
 
 It appeared to Mahomet that the time for another reform was 
 again arrived. The world had once more lapsed into blind ido- 
 latry. It needed the advent of another prophet, authorized by a 
 mandate from on high, to restore the erring children of men to the 
 right path, and to bring back the worship of the Caaba to what it 
 had been in the days of Abraham and the patriarchs. The proba- 
 bility of such an advent, with its attendant reforms, seems to have 
 taken possession of his mind, and produced habits of reverie and 
 meditation, incompatible with the ordinary concerns of life and the 
 bustle of the world. We are told that he gradually absented him- 
 self from society, and sought the solitude of a cavern on Mount 
 Kara, about three leagues north of Mecca, where, in emulation 
 of the Christian anchorites of the desert, he would remain days and 
 nights together, engaged in prayer and meditation. In this way 
 he always passed the month of Ramadhan, the holy month of the 
 Arabs. Such intense occupation of the mind on one subject, ac- 
 companied by fervent enthusiasm of spirit, could not but have a 
 powerful effect upon his frame. He became subject to dreams, to 
 ectasies and trances. For six months successively, according to 
 one of his historians, he had constant dreams bearing on the sub- 
 ject of his waking thoughts. Often he would lose all cousciousness 
 of surrounding objects, and lie upon the ground as if insensible. 
 Cadijah, who was sometimes the faithful companion of his solitude, 
 beheld these paroxyms with anxious solicitude, and entreated to 
 know the cause ; but he evaded her inquiries, or answered them 
 mysteriously. Some of his adversaries have attributed them to
 
 22 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 epilepsy, but devout Moslems declare them to have been the 
 workings of prophecy; for already, say they, the intimations of the 
 Most High began to dawn, though vaguely, on his spirit ; and his 
 mind laboured with conceptions too great for mortal thought. At 
 length, say they, what had hitherto been shadowed out in dreams, 
 was made apparent and distinct by an angelic apparition and a 
 divine annunciation. 
 
 It was in the fortieth year of his age, when this famous revela- 
 tion took place. Accounts are given of it by Moslem writers 
 as if received from his own lips, and it is alluded to in certain 
 passages of the Koran. He was passing, as was his wont, the 
 month of Ramadhan in the cavern of Mount Hara, endeavouring 
 by fasting, prayer, and solitary meditation, to elevate his thoughts 
 to the contemplation of divine truth. It was on the night called 
 by Arabs Al Kader, or the Divine Decree ; a night in which, ac- 
 cording to the Koran, angels descend to earth, and Gabriel 
 brings down the decrees of God. During that night there is peace 
 on earth, and a holy quiet reigns over all nature until the rising 
 of the morn. 
 
 As Mahomet, in the silent watches of the night, lay wrapped in 
 his mantle, he heard a voice calling upon him ; uncovering his 
 head, a flood of light broke upon him of such intolerable splendour 
 that he swooned away. On regaining his senses, he beheld an 
 angel in a human form, which, approaching from a distance, dis- 
 played a silken cloth covered with written characters. " Read!" 
 said the angel. 
 
 " I know not how to read ! " replied Mahomet. 
 
 "Read!" repeated the angel, "in the name of the Lord, who 
 has created all things; who created man from a clot of blood. Read 
 in the name of the Most High, who taught man the use of the pen ; 
 who sheds on his soul the ray of knowledge, and teaches him what 
 before he knew not." 
 
 Upon this Mahomet instantly felt his understanding illumined with 
 celestial light, and read what was written on the cloth, which 
 contained the decrees of God, as afterwards promulgated in the 
 Koran. When he had finished the perusal, the heavenly messenger 
 announced, " Oh Mahomet, of a verity, thou art the prophet of 
 God ! and I am his angel Gabriel." 
 
 Mahomet, we are told, came trembling and agitated to Cadijah 
 in the morning, not knowing whether what he had heard and seen 
 was indeed true, and that he was a prophet decreed to effect that 
 reform so long the object of his meditations; or whether it might 
 not be a mere vision, a delusion of the senses, or worse than all, the 
 apparition of an evil spirit. 
 
 Cadijah, however, saw every thing with the eye of faith, and the 
 credulity of an affectionate woman. She saw in it the fruition of her 
 husband's wishes, and the end of his paroxyms and privations. 
 "Joyful tidings dost thou bring!" exclaimed she. "By him, in 
 whose hand is the soul of Cadijah, I will henceforth regard thee as 
 the prophet of our nation. Rejoice," added she, seeing him still 
 cast down ; " Allah will not suffer thee to fall to shame. Hast thou 
 not been loving to thy kinsfolk, kind to thy neighbours, charitable
 
 CONVERSION OF ZE1D. 25 
 
 to the poor, hospitable to the stranger, faithful to thy word, audever 
 a defender of the truth?" 
 
 Cadijah hastened to communicate what she had heard to her 
 cousin Waraka, the translator of the Scriptures; who, as we have 
 shown, had been a household oracle of Mahomet in matters of re- 
 ligion. He caught at once, and with eagerness, at this miraculous 
 annunciation. " By him in whose hand is the soul of Waraka," ex- 
 claimed he ; " thou speakest true, oh Cadijah ! The angel who has 
 appeared to thy husband is the same who, in days of old, was sent 
 to Moses the son of Amram. His annunciation is true. Thy hus- 
 band is indeed a prophet!" 
 
 The zealous concurrence of the learned Waraka, is said to have 
 had a powerful effect in fortifying the dubious mind of Mahomet. 
 
 NOTE. Dr. Gustav Weil, in a note to Mohammed der Prophet, discusses the 
 question of Mahomet's being subject to attacks of epilepsy; which has generally 
 been represented as a slander of his enemies and of Christian writers. It appears, 
 however, to have been asserted by some of the oldest Moslem biographers, and 
 given on the authority of persons about him. He would be seized, they said, 
 with violent trembling, followed by a kind of swoon, or rather convulsion, during 
 which perspiration would stream from his forehead in the coldest weather; he 
 would lie with his eyes closed, foaming at the mouth and bellowing like a young 
 camel. Ayesha one of his wives, and Zeid one <>f his disciples, are among the 
 persons cited as testifying to that effect. They considered him at such times as 
 under the influence of a revelation. He had such attacks, however, in Mecca , 
 before the Koran was revealed to him. Cadijah feared that he was possessed by 
 evil spirits, and would have called in the aid of a conjurer to exorcise them, but 
 he forbade her. He did not like that any one should see him during these pa- 
 roxysms. His visions, however, were not always preceded by such attacks. 
 Harcth Ibn Haschem, it is said, once asked him in what manner the revelations 
 were made. "Often," replied he, "the angel appears to me in a human form, 
 and speak to me. Sometimes I hear sounds like the tinkling of a bell, but see 
 nothing. [A ringing in the ears is a svrnptom of epilepsy.] When the invisible 
 angel has departed, I am possessed of what he has revealed." Some of his re- 
 velations he professed to receive direct from God, others in dreams; for the dreams 
 of prophets, he used to say, are revelations. 
 
 The reader will find this note of service in throwing some degree of light upon 
 the enigmatical career of this extraordinary man. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Mahomet inculcates his doctrines secretly and slowly. Receives further revelations 
 and commands. Announces it to his kindred. Manner in which it was received. 
 Enthusiastic devotion of AH. Christian portents. 
 
 For a time Mahomet confided his revelations merely to his own 
 household. One of the first to avow himself a believer, was his 
 servant Zeid, an Arab of the tribe of Kalb. This youth had been 
 captured in childhood by a freebooting party of Koreishites, and 
 had come by purchase or lot into the possession of Mahomet. 
 Several years afterwards his father, hearing of his being in Mecca,
 
 24 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 repaired thither and offered a considerable sum for his ransom. 
 '* If he chooses to go with thee," said Mahomet, " he shall go 
 without ransom : but if he chooses to remain with me, why should 
 I not keep him ? " Zeid preferred to remain, having ever, he said, 
 been treated more as a son than as a slave. Upon this, Mahomet 
 publicly adopted him and he had ever since remained with him 
 in affectionate servitude. Now, on embracing the new faith he 
 was set entirely free, but it will be found that he continued through 
 life that devoted attachment which Mahomet seems to have had 
 the gift of inspiring in his followers and dependents. 
 
 The early steps of Mahomet in his prophetic career, were peril- 
 ous and doubtful, and taken in secrecy. He had hostility to ap- 
 prehend on every side ; from his immediate kindred, the Koreishites 
 of the line of Haschem, whose power and prosperity were iden- 
 tified with idolatry; and still more from the rival line of Abd 
 Schems, who had long looked with envy and jealousy on the 
 Haschemites, and would eagerly raise the cry of heresy and im- 
 piety to dispossess them of the guardianship of the Caaba. At the 
 head of this rival branch of Koreish was Abu Sofian, the son of 
 Harb, grandson of Omeya, and great grandson of Abd Schems. 
 He was an able and ambitious man, of great wealth and influence, 
 and will be found one of the most persevering and powerful op- 
 ponents of Mahomet. 1 
 
 Under these adverse circumstances the new faith was propagated 
 secretly and slowly, insomuch that for the first three years the 
 number of converts did not exceed forty ; these, too, for the most 
 part, were young persons, strangers, and slaves. Their meetings 
 for prayer were held in private, either at the house of one of the 
 initiated, or in a cave near Mecca. Their secrecy, however, did 
 not protect them from outrage. Their meetings were discovered ; 
 a rabble broke into their cavern and a scuffle ensued. One of the 
 assailants was wounded in the head by Saad, an armourer, thence- 
 forth renowned among the faithful, as the first of their number 
 who shed blood in the cause of Islam. 
 
 One of the bitterest opponents of Mahomet, was his uncle Abu 
 Lahab, a wealthy man, of proud spirit and irritable temper. His 
 son Otha had married Mahomet's third daughter, Uokaia, so that 
 they were doubly allied. Abu Lahab, however, was also allied to 
 the rival line of Koreish, having married Omm Jemil, sister of Abu 
 Sofian, and he was greatly under the control of his wife and his 
 brother-in-law. He reprobated what he termed the heresies of 
 his nephew, as calculated to bring disgrace upon their immediate 
 line, and to draw upon it the hostilities of the rest of the tribe of 
 Koreish. Mahomet was keenly sensible of the rancorous opposi- 
 tion of this uncle, which he attributed to the instigations of his 
 wife, Omm Jemil. He especially deplored it, as he saw that it 
 affected the happiness of his daughter Rokaia, whose inclination 
 
 * Niebuhr (Travels, vol. ii.) speaks of the tribe of Harb, which possessed several 
 cities and a number of villages in the highlands of Hedjas, a mountainous range between 
 Mecca and Medina. They have castles on precipitous rocks, and harass and lay under 
 contribution the caravans. It is presumed that this tribe takes its name from the father 
 of Abu Sofian ; as did (he great line of the Omejades from his grandfather.
 
 SECOND ASSEMBLAGE OF THE HASCIIEM1TES. ?o 
 
 to his doctrines brought oil her the reproaches of her husband 
 and his family. 
 
 These and other causes of solicitude preyed upon his spirits, 
 and increased the perturbation of his mind. He became worn and 
 haggard, and subject more and more to fits of abstraction. Those 
 of his relatives who were attached to him, noticed his altered 
 mien, and dreaded an attack of illness ; others scofiingly accused 
 him of mental hallucination ; and the foremost among these scoffers 
 was his uncle's wife, Omm Jemil, the sister of Abu Sofian. 
 
 The result of this disordered state of mind and body was an- 
 other vision, or revelation, commanding him to " arise, preach, 
 and magnify the Lord." He was now to announce, publicly and 
 boldly, his doctrines, beginning with his kindred and tribe. Ac- 
 cordingly, in the fourth year of what is called his mission, he 
 summoned all the Koreishites of the line of Haschem to meet him 
 on the hill of Safa, in the vicinity of Mecca, when he would unfold 
 matters important to their welfare. They assembled there, ac- 
 cordingly, and among them came Mahomet's hostile uncle Abu 
 Lahab, and with him his scoffing wife, Omm Jemil. Scarce had 
 the prophet begun to discourse of his mission, and to impart his 
 revelations, when Abu Lahab. started up in a rage, reviled him for 
 calling them together on so idle an errand, and catching up a 
 stone, would have hurled it at him. Mahomet turned upon him a 
 withering look; cursed the hand thus raised in menace, and pre- 
 dicted his doom to the fire of Jehennam ; with the assurance that 
 his wife, Omm Jemil, would bear the bundle of thorns with which 
 the fire would be kindled. 
 
 The assembly broke up in confusion. Abu Lahab and his wife, 
 exasperated at the curse dealt out to them, compelled their son, 
 Otha, to repudiate his wife, Rokaia, and sent her back weeping to 
 Mahomet. She was soon indemnified, however, by having a 
 husband of the true faith, being eagerly taken to wife by Maho- 
 met's zealous disciple, Othman Ibn Affan. 
 
 Nothing discouraged by the failure of his first attempt, Mahomet 
 called a second meeting of the Haschemites at his own house, 
 where, having regaled them with the flesh of a lamb, and given 
 them milk to drink, he stood forth and announced, at full length, 
 his revelations received from heaven, and the divine command to 
 impart them to those of his immediate line. 
 
 "Ql\ children of Abd al Motalleb," cried he, with enthusiasm, 
 "to you, of all men, has Allah vouchsafed these most precious 
 gifts. In his name I offer you the blessings of this world, and 
 endless joys hereafter. "Who among you will share the burden of 
 my offer. Who will be my brother : my lieutenant, my vizier?" 
 
 All remained silent; some wondering; others smiling with in- 
 credulity and derision. At length Ali, starting up with youthful 
 zeal, offered himself to the service of the prophet, though mo- 
 destly acknowledging his youth and physical weakness '. Mahomet 
 threw his arms round the generous youth, and pressed him to his 
 
 i By an error of translators, Alt is made to accompany his offer of adhesion by an 
 extravagant threat against all who should oppose Mahomet.
 
 26 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 bosom. " Behold my brother, my vizier, my vicegerent," ex- 
 claimed he ; " let all listen to his words, and obey him." 
 
 The outbreak of such a stripling as Ali, however, was answered 
 by a scornful burst of laughter of the Koreishites ; who taunted 
 Abu Taleb, the father of the youthful proselyte, with having to 
 bow down before his son, and yield him obedience. 
 
 But though the doctrines of Mahomet were thus ungraciously 
 received by his kindred and friends, they found favour among the 
 people at large, especially among the women, who are ever prone 
 to befriend a persecuted cause. Many of the Jews, also, followed 
 him for a time, but when they found that he permitted his disciples 
 to eat the flesh of the camel, and of other animals forbidden by 
 their law, they drew back and rejected his religion as unclean. 
 
 Mahomet now threw off all reserve, or rather was inspired with 
 increasing enthusiasm, and went about openly and earnestly pro- 
 claiming his doctrines, and giving himself out as a prophet, sent by 
 God to put an end to idolatry, and to mitigate the rigour of the 
 Jewish and the Christian law. The hills of Safa and Kubeis, 
 sanctified by traditions concerning Hagar and Ishmael, were his 
 favourite places of preaching, and Mount Hara was his Sinai, 
 whither he retired occasionally, in fits of excitement and en- 
 thusiasm, to return from its solitary cave with fresh revelations of 
 the Koran. 
 
 The good old Christian writers, on treating of the advent of one 
 whom they denounce as the Arab enemy of the church, make su- 
 perstitious record of divers prodigies which occurred, about this 
 time, awful forerunners of the troubles about to agitate the world. 
 In Constantinople, at that lime the seat of Christian empire, were 
 several monslrous birlhs and prodigious apparitions, which struck 
 dismay into the hearts of all beholders. In certain religious pro - 
 cessions in that neighbourhood, the crosses on a sudden moved of 
 themselves, and were violently agitated, causing astonishment and 
 terror. The Nile, too, that ancient mother of wonders, gave birth 
 to two hideous forms, seemingly man and woman, which rose out 
 of its waters, gazed about them for a time with terrific aspect, and 
 sank again beneath the waves. For a whole day the sun appeared 
 to be diminished to one-third of its usual size, shedding pale and 
 baleful rays. During a moonless night a furnace light glowed 
 throughout the heavens, and bloody lances glittered in the sky. 
 
 All these, and sundry other like marvels, were interpreted into 
 signs of coming troubles. The ancient servants of God shook their 
 heads mournfully, predicting the reign of anti-Christ at hand ; with 
 vehement persecution of the Christian faith, and great desolation 
 of the churches ; and to such holy men who have passed through 
 the trials and troubles of the faith, adds the venerable Padre 
 Jayme Bleda, it is given to understand and explain these myste- 
 rious portents, which forerun disasters of the church ; even as it 
 is given to ancient mariners to read in the signs of the air, the 
 heavens and the deep, the coming tempest which is to overwhelm 
 their bark. 
 
 Many of these sainted men were gathered to glory before the 
 completion of their prophecies. There, seated securely in the
 
 OUTLINES OF MAHOMETANlSM. 37 
 
 empyreal heavens, they may have looked down with compassion 
 upon the troubles of the Christian world ; as men on the serene 
 heights of mountains look down upon the tempests which sweep 
 the earth and sea, wrecking tall ships, and rending lofty towers. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Outlines of the Mahometan Faith. 
 
 Though it is not intended in this place to go fully into the doc- 
 trines promulgated by Mahomet, yet it is important to the right 
 appreciation of his character and conduct, and of the events and 
 circumstances set forth in the following narrative, to give their 
 main features. 
 
 It must be particularly borne in mind, that Mahomet did not 
 profess to set up a new religion ; but to restore that derived in the 
 earliest times, from God himself. " We follow," says the Koran, 
 " the religion of Abraham the orthodox, who was no idolater. 
 We believe in Cod and that which hath been sent down to us, 
 and that which hath been sent down unto Abraham and Ishmael, 
 and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and that which was delivered 
 unto Moses and Jesus, and that which was delivered unto the pro- 
 phets from the Lord : we make no distinction between any of them, 
 and to God we are resigned." * 
 
 The Koran, 2 which was the great book of his faith, was delivered 
 in portions from time to time, according to the excitement of his 
 feelings, or the exigency of circumstances. It was not given as his 
 own work, but as a divine revelation ; as the very words of God. 
 The Deity is supposed to speak in every instance. " We have sent 
 thee down the book of truth, confirming the scripture which was 
 revealed before it, and preserving the same in its purity." 3 
 
 The law of Moses, it was said, had for a time been the guide and 
 rule of human conduct. At the coming of Jesus Christ it was 
 superseded by the Gospel ; both were now to give place to the 
 Koran, which was more full and explicit than the preceding 
 codes, and intended to reform the abuses which had crept into 
 them through the negligence or the corruptions of their profes- 
 sors. It was the completion of the law ; after it there would be 
 no more divine revelations. Mahomet was the last, as he was the 
 greatest, of the line of prophets sent to make known the will of God. 
 
 The unity of God was the corner stone of this reformed religion. 
 " There is no God but God," was its leading dogma. Hence, it 
 received the name of- the religion of Islam, * an Arabian word, 
 
 1 Koran, chap. ii. 
 
 2 Derived from the Arabic word Kora, to read or leach. 
 
 3 Koran, chap. v. 
 
 i Some Etymologists derive Islam from Salem or Aslama, which signifies salvation-
 
 28 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 implying submission to God. To this leading dogma, was added, 
 "Mahomet is the prophet of God;" an addition authorized, as it was 
 maintained., by the divine annunciation, and important to procure a 
 ready acceptation of his revelations. 
 
 Beside the unity of God, a belief was incalculated in his angels 
 or ministering spirits; in his prophets; in the resurrection of the 
 body; in the last judgment and a future state of rewards and punish- 
 ments, and in predestination. Much of the Koran may be traced 
 to the Bible, the Mishnu and the Talmud of the Jews, 1 especially 
 its wild though often beautiful traditions concerning the angels, the 
 prophets, the patriarchs, and the good and evil genii. He had at 
 an early age imbibed a reverence for the Jewish faith, his mother, 
 it is suggested, having been of that religion. 
 
 The system laid down in the Koran, however, was essentially 
 founded on the Christian doctrines inculcated in the New Testament ; 
 as they had been expounded to him by the Christian sectarians of 
 Arabia. Our Saviour was to be held in the highest reverence as 
 an inspired prophet, the greatest that had been sent before the 
 time of Mahomet, to reform the law; but all idea of his divinity 
 was rejected as impious, and the doctrine of the Trinity was de- 
 nounced as an outrage on the unity of God. Both were pronounced 
 errors and interpolations of the expounders; and this, it will be 
 observed, was the opinion of some of the Arabian sects of Chris- 
 tians. 
 
 The worship of saints and the introduction of images and paintings 
 representing them, were condemned as idolatrous lapses from the 
 pure faith of Christ, and such, we have already observed, were the 
 tenets of the Nestorians with whom Mahomet is known to have had 
 much communication. 
 
 All pictures representing living things were prohibited. Mahomet 
 used to say, that the angels would not enter a house in which there 
 were such pictures, and that those who made them would be sen- 
 tenced in the next world, to find souls for them, or be punished. 
 
 Most of the benignant precepts of our Saviour were incor- 
 porated in the Koran. Frequent alms-giving was enjoined as an 
 imperative duty, and the immutable law of right and wrong, ' ' Do 
 
 The Christians form from it the term Islamism, and the Jews have varied it into 
 Ismailism, which they intend as a reproach, and an allusion to the origin of the Arabs 
 as descendants of Ishmael. 
 
 From Islam the Arabians drew the terms Moslem or Muslem, and Musulman, a pro- 
 fessor of the faith of Islam. These terms are in the singular number and make 
 Musliman in the dual, and Muslimen in the plural. The French and some other nations 
 follow the idioms of Iheir own languages in adopting or translating the Arabic terms, 
 and form the plural by the addition of the letter s; writing Musulman and Musulmans. 
 A few English wrilters, of whom Gibbon is the chief, have imitated them, imagining that 
 they were following the Arabian usage. Most English authors, however, follow the 
 idiom of their own language, writing Moslem and Moslems, Musulman and Musulmen ; 
 this usage is also the more harmonious. 
 
 1 The Mi$hnu of the Jews like the Sonna of the Mahometans, is a collection of tradi- 
 tions forming the Oral law. Jt was compiled in the second century by Judah Hakkodish, 
 a learned Jewish Rabbi, during the reign of Antonius Pius, the Roman Emperor. 
 
 The Jerusalem Talmud and the Babylonish Talmud, are both commentaries on the 
 Mishnu. The former was compiled at Jerusalem, about three hundred years after 
 Christ, and the latter in Babylonia, about two centuries later. The Mishnu is the IIH>M 
 ancient recort possessed by the Jews except the Bible.
 
 OUTLINES OF MAHOMETANISM. 29 
 
 uoto another, as tliou wouldst he should do unto thee," was given 
 for the moral conduct of the faithful. 
 
 " Deal not unjustly with others," says the Koran, "and ye shall 
 not be dealt with unjustly. If there be any debtor under a difficulty 
 of paying his debt, let his creditor wait until it be easy for him to 
 do it ; but if he remit it in alms, it will be better for him." 
 
 Mahomet inculcated a noble fairness and sincerity in dealing. 
 "Oh merchants ! " would he say, "falsehood and deception are apt 
 to prevail in traffic, purify it therefore with alms; give somelhingin 
 charity as an atonement; for God is incensed by deceit in dealing, 
 but charity appeases his anger. He who sells a defective thing, 
 concealing its defect, will provoke the anger of God and the curses 
 of the angels. 
 
 " Take not advantage of the necessities of another to buy things 
 at a sacrifice ; rather relieve, his indigence. 
 
 "Feed the hungry; visit the sick, and free the captive if confined 
 unjustly. 
 
 " Look not scornfully upon thy fellow man; neither walk the earth 
 with insolence ; for God loveth not the arrogant and vainglorious. 
 Be moderate in thy pace, and speak with a moderate tone ; for the 
 most ungrateful of all voices, is the voice of asses." 1 
 
 Idolatry of all kinds was strictly forbidden ; indeed it was what 
 Mahomet held in most abhorrence. Many of the religious usages, 
 however, prevalent since time immemorial among the Arabs, to 
 which he had been accustomed from infancy, and which were not 
 incompatible with the doctrine of the unity of God, were still re- 
 tained. Such was the pilgrimage to Mecca, including all the rites 
 connected with the Caaba, the well of Zem Zem, and other sacred 
 places in the vicinity; apart from any worship of the idols by which 
 they had been profaned. 
 
 The old Arabian rite of prayer, accompanied or rather preceded 
 by ablution, was still continued. Prayers indeed were enjoined at 
 certain hours of the day and night ; they were simple in form and 
 phrase addressed directly to the Deity with certain inflexions, or at 
 times a total prostration of the body, and with the face turned 
 towards the Kebla, or point of adoration. 
 
 At the end of each prayer, the following verse from the second 
 chapter of the Koran was recited. It is said to have great beauty 
 
 i The following words of Mahomet, treasured up by one of his disciples, appear to 
 have been suggested by a passage in Matthew xxv. 35-45 : 
 
 " Verily, God will say at the day of resurrection,'' Oh sons of Adam ! I was sick, and 
 ye did not visit rne.' Then they will say, 'How could we visit thee? for thou art the 
 Lord of the universe, and art free from sickness.' And God will reply, 'Knew ye not 
 that such a one of my servants was sick, and ye did not visit him/ Had you visited 
 that servant, it would have been counted to you as righteousness.' And God will say, 
 'Oh sons of Adam! I asked you for food, and ye gave it me not." And the sons of 
 Adam will say, 'How could we give thce food, seeing ihou art the sustainer of the uni- 
 verse, and art free fcom hunger?' And God will say, 'Such a one of my servants 
 asked you for bread, and ye refused it. Had you given him to eat, ye would have 
 received your reward from me.' And God will say, 'Oh sons of Adam, 1 asked you for 
 water, and ye gave it me not.' They will reply, 'Oh, our supporter! How could we 
 give thee water, seeing thou art the sustainer of the universe, and not subject to thirst?' 
 And God will say, 'Such a one of my servants asked you for water, and ye did not give 
 it to him. Had ye done to, ye would have received your reward from me.'"
 
 30 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 in the original Arabic, and is engraved on gold and silver ornaments, 
 and on precious stones worn as amulets. " God ! There is no God 
 but He, the living, the ever living ; he sleepelh not, neither doth he 
 slumber. To him belongeth the heavens, and the earth, and all 
 that they contain. Who shall intercede with him unless by his 
 permission? He knoweth the past and the future, but. no one can 
 comprehend any thing of his knowledge but that which he revealeth. 
 His sway extendeth over the heavens and the earth, and to sustain 
 them both is no burthen to him. He is the High, the Mighty ! " 
 
 Mahomet was strenuous in enforcing the importance and efficacy 
 of prayer. " Angels," said he, come among you both by night and 
 day ; after which those of the night ascend to heaven, and God asks 
 them how they left his creatures. We found them, say they, at 
 their prayers, and we left them at their prayers." 
 
 The doctrines in the Koran respecting the resurrection and final 
 judgment, were in some respects similar to those of the Christian 
 religion, but were mixed up with wild notions derived from other 
 sources; while the joys of the Moslem heaven, though partly spiri- 
 tual, were clogged and debased by the sensualities of earth, and 
 infinitely below the ineffable purity and spiritual blessedness of the 
 heaven promised by our Saviour. 
 
 Nevertheless, the description of the last day, as contained in the 
 eighty-first chapter of the Koran, and which must have been given 
 by Mahomet at the outset of his mission at Mecca, as one of tlie first 
 of his revelations, partakes of sublimity. 
 
 " In the name of the all merciful God ! a day shall come when the 
 sun will be shrouded, and the stars will fall from the heavens. 
 
 "When the camels about to foal will be neglected, and wild 
 beasts will herd together through fear. 
 
 "When the waves of the ocean will boil, and the souls of the 
 dead again bo united to the bodies. 
 
 "When the female infant that has been buried alive will demand, 
 for what crime was I sacrificed ? and the eternal books will be laid 
 open. 
 
 "When the heavens will pass away like a scroll, and hell will 
 burn fiercely; and the joys of paradise will be made manifest. 
 
 " On that day shall every soul make known that which it hath 
 performed. 
 
 " Verily, I swear to you by the stars which move swiftly and are 
 lost in the brightness of the sun, and by the darkness of the night, 
 and by the dawning of the day, these are not the words of an evil 
 spirit, but of an angel of dignity and power, who possesses the 
 confidence of Allah, and is revered by the angels under his com- 
 mand. Neither is your companion, Mahomet, distracted. He 
 beheld the celestial messenger in the light of the clear horizon, 
 and the words revealed to him are intended as an admonition unto 
 all creatures." 
 
 NOTE. To exhibit the perplexed maze of controversial doctrines from which 
 Mahomet had to acquire his notions of the Christian faith, \ve subjoin the leading 
 points of the jarring sects of oriental Christians alluded to in the foregoing article ; 
 all of which have been pronounced heretical or schismatic.
 
 OUTLINES OF MAHOMETANISM. 31 
 
 The Sabellians, so called from Sabcllius, a I.ybian priest of the third century, 
 believed in the unity of God, and that the Trinity expressed but three different 
 states or relations, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, all forming but one substance, 
 as a man consists of body and soul. 
 
 The Arians, from Arius, an ecclesiastic of Alexandria in the fourth century, 
 affirmed Christ to be the Son of God, but distinct from hhn and inferior to him, 
 and denied the Holy Ghost to be God. 
 
 The Nestorians, from Nestorius, Bishop of Constantinople in the fifth century, 
 maintained that Christ had two distinct natures, divine and human ; that Mary 
 was only his mother, and Jesus a man, and that it was an abomination to style 
 l:er, as was the custom of the church, the Mother of God. 
 
 The Monophysites maintained the single nature of Christ, as their name betokens. 
 They affirmed that he was combined of God and man, so mingled and united as 
 to form but one nature. 
 
 The Eutychians, from Eutyches, abbot of a convent in Constantinople in the 
 fifth century, were a branch of the Monophysites, expressly opposed to the Nes- 
 torian?. They denied the double nature of Christ, declaring that he was entirely 
 God previous to the incarnation, and entirely man during the incarnation. 
 
 The Jacobites, from Jacobus, Bishop of Edessa, in Syria, in the sixth century, 
 were a very numerous branch of the Monophysites, varying but little from the 
 Eutychians. Most of the Christian tribes of Arabs were Jacobites. 
 
 The Mariamites, or worshippers of Mary, regarded the Trinity as consisting of 
 God the Father, God the Son, and God the Virgin Mary. 
 
 The Collyridians were a sect of Arabian Christians, composed chiefly of 
 females. They worshipped the. Virgin Mary as possessed of divinity, and made 
 offerings to her of a twisted cake, called collyris, whence they derived their 
 name. 
 
 The Nazaraeans, or Nazarenes, were a sect of Jewish Christians who considered 
 Christ as the Massiah, as born of a Virgin by the Holy Ghost, and as possessing 
 something of a divine nature; but they conformed in all other respects to the 
 rites and ceremonies of the Mosaic law. 
 
 The Ebionites, from Ebion, a converted Jew, who lived in the first century, 
 were also a sect of judaizing Christians, little differing from the Nazaraean?. They 
 believed Christ to be a pure man, the greatest of the prophets, but denied that he 
 had any existence previous to being born of the Virgin Mary. This sect, as well 
 as that of the Nazaraeans, had many adherents in Arabia. 
 
 Many other sects might be enumerated, such as the Corinthians, Maronites, 
 and Marcionites, who took their names from learned and zealous leaders; and 
 the Docetes and Gnostics, who were subdivided into various sects of subtle en- 
 thusiasts. Some of these asserted the immaculate purity of the Virgin Mary, 
 aliirming that her conception and delivery were effected like the transmission 
 of the rays of light through a pane of glass, without impairing her virginity; an 
 opinion still maintained strenuously in substance by Spanish Catholics. 
 
 Most of the Docetes asserted that Jesus Christ was of a nature entirely divine; 
 that a phantom, a mere form without substance, was crucified by the deluded 
 Jews, and that the crucifixion and resurrection were deceptive mystical exhi- 
 bitions at Jerusalem for the benefit of the human race. 
 
 The Carpocratians, Basilidians, and Valentinians, named after three Egyptian 
 controversialists, contented that Jesus Christ was merely a wise and virtuous 
 mortal, the son of Joseph and Mary, selected by God to reform and instruct 
 mankind ; but that a divine nature was imparted to him at the maturity of his 
 age, and period of his baptism, by St. John. The former part of this creed, 
 which is that of the Ebionites, has been revived, and is professed by some of the 
 Unitarian Christians, a numerous and increasing sect of Protestants of the pre- 
 sent day. 
 
 It is sufficient to glance at these dissensions, which we have not arranged in 
 chronological order, but which convulsed the early Christian church, and con- 
 tinued to prevail at the era of Mahomet, to acquit him of any charge of conscioui
 
 3? MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 blasphemy in the opinions he inculcated concerning the nature and mission of 
 our Saviour. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Ridicule cast on Mahomet and his doctrines. Demand for miracles. Conduct of Abu 
 Taleb. Violence of the Koreishites. Mahomet's daughter Rokaia, wilh her uncle 
 Othman, and a number of disciples take refuge in Abyssinia. Mahomet in the house 
 of Orkham. Hostility of Abu Jahl; his punishment. 
 
 The greatest difficulty with which Mahomet had to contend at the 
 outset of his prophetic career, was the ridicule of his opponents. 
 Those who had known him from his infancy who had seen him a 
 boy about the streets of Mecca ; and afterwards occupied in all the 
 ordinary concerns of life, scoffed at his assumption of the apo- 
 stolic character. They pointed with a sneer at him as he passed, 
 exclaiming. "Behold the grandson of Abd al Motalleb, who pretends 
 to know what is going on in heaven! " Some who had witnessed 
 his fits of mental excitement and ecstasy, considered him insane ; 
 others declared that he was possessed with a devil, and some charged 
 him with sorcery and magic. 
 
 AVhen he walked the streets he was subject to those jeers, and 
 taunts, and insults which the vulgar are apt to vent upon men of 
 eccentric conduct and unsettled mind. If he attempted to preach, 
 his voice was drowned by discordant noises and ribald songs : nay, 
 dirt was thrown upon him when he was praying in the Caaba. 
 
 Nor was it the vulgar and ignorant alone who thus insulted him. 
 One of his most redoubtable assailants was a youth named Amru ; 
 and as he subsequently made a distinguished figure in Mahometan 
 history, we would impress the circumstances of this, his first 
 appearance, upon the mind of the reader. He was the son of a 
 courtezan of Mecca; who seems to have rivalled in fascination the 
 Phrynes and Aspasias of Greece, and to have numbered some of 
 the noblest of the land among her lovers. When she gave birth 
 to this child, she mentioned several of the tribe of Koreish who 
 had equal claims to the paternity. The infant was declared to 
 have most resemblance to A ass, the oldest of her admirers, whence, 
 in addition to his name of Amru, he received the designation of Ibn 
 al Aass,the son of Aass. 
 
 Nature had lavished her choicest gifts upon this natural child, as 
 if to atone for the blemish of his birth. Though young, he was 
 already one of the most popular poets of Arabia, and equally 
 distinguished for the pungency of his satirical effusions and the 
 captivating sweetness of his serious lays. 
 
 "When Mahomet first announced his mission, this youth assailed 
 him with lampoons and humorous madrigals; which, falling in with 
 the poetic taste of the Arabs, were widely circulated, and proved 
 greater impediments to the growth of Islamism than the bitterest 
 persecution.
 
 A DEMAND FOR MIRACLES. 33 
 
 Those who were more serious in their opposition demanded of 
 Mahomet supernatural proofs of what he asserted. " Moses and 
 Jesus, and the rest of the prophets," said they, " wrought miracles 
 to prove the divinity of their missions. If thou art indeed a prophet, 
 greater than they work the like miracles." 
 
 The reply of Mahomet may be gathered from his own words in 
 the Koran. " "What greater miracle could they have than the 
 Koran itself: a book revealed by means of an unlettered man; so 
 elevated in language, so incontrovertible in argument, that the 
 united skill of men and devils could compose nothing comparable. 
 What greater proof could there be that it came from none but God 
 himself? The Koran itself is a miracle." 
 
 They demanded, however, more palpable evidence ; miracles 
 addressed to the senses; that he should cause the dumb to speak, 
 the deaf to hear, the blind to see-, the dead to rise; or that he 
 should work changes in the face of nature ; cause fountains to gush 
 forth ; change a sterile place into a garden, with palm-trees, and 
 vines, and running streams; cause a palace of gold to rise, decked 
 with jewels and precious stones; or ascend by a ladder into 
 heaven in their presence. Or, if the Koran did indeed, as he 
 affirmed, come down from heaven ; that they might see it as it 
 descended, or behold the angel who brought it; and then they 
 would believe. 
 
 Mahomet replied sometimes by arguments, sometimes by denun- 
 ciations. He claimed to be nothing more than a man sent by God 
 as an apostle. Had angels, said he, walked familiarly on earth, 
 an angel had assuredly been sent on this mission ; but woful had been 
 the case of those who ,as in the present instance, doubted his word. 
 They would not have been able, as with me, to argue, and dispute, 
 and take time to be convinced ; their perdition would have been 
 instantaneous. " God," added he, "needs no angel to enforce my 
 mission. He is a sufficient witness between you and me. Those 
 whom he shall dispose to be convinced, will truly believe ; those 
 whom he shall permit to remain in errour, will find none to help 
 their unbelief. On the day of resurrection they will appear blind, 
 and deaf, and dumb, and grovelling on their faces. Their abode 
 will be in the eternal flames of Jehcnnam. Such will be the reward 
 of their unbelief. 
 
 "You insist on miracles. God gave to Moses the power of 
 working miracles. What was the consequence ? Pharaoh dis- 
 regarded his miracles, accused him of sorcery, and sought to 
 drive him and his people from the land; but Pharaoh was drowned, 
 and with him all his host. Would ye tempt God to miracles, and risk 
 the punishment of Pharaoh? " 
 
 It is recorded by Al Maalem, an Arabian writer, that some of 
 Mahomet's disciples at one time joined with the multitude in this 
 cry for miracles, and besought him to prove, at once, the divinity 
 of his mission, by turning the hill of Safa into gold. Being thus 
 closely urged, he betook himself to prayer ; and having finished, 
 assured his followers that the angel Gabriel had appeared to him, 
 and informed him that, should God grant his prayer, and work the 
 desired miracle, all who disbelieved it would be extenninatert. In
 
 *4 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 pity to the multitude, therefore, who appeared to be a stiff-necked 
 generation, he would not expose them to destruction : so the hill of 
 Safa was permitted to remain in its pristine state. 
 
 Other Moslem writers assert that Mahomet departed from his 
 self-prescribed rule, and wrought occasional miracles, when he 
 found his hearers Unusually slow of belief. Thus we are told that, 
 at one time, in presence of a multitude, he called to him a bull, 
 and took from his horns a scroll containing a chapter of the Koran, 
 just sent down from heaven. At another time, while discoursing 
 in public, a white clove hovered over him, and, alighting on his 
 shoulder, appeared to whisper in his ear ; being, as he said, a 
 messenger from the Deity, On another occasion he ordered the 
 earth before him to be opened, when two jars were found, one 
 filled with honey, the other with milk, which he pronounced em- 
 blems of the abundance promised by heaven to all who should obey 
 his law. 
 
 Christian writers have scoffed at these miracles ; suggesting that 
 the dove had been tutored to its task, and sought grains of wheat 
 which it had been accustomed to find in the ear of Mahomet ; that 
 the scroll had previously been tied to the horns of the bull, and the 
 vessels of milk and honey deposited in the ground. The truer course 
 would be to discard these miraculous stories altogether, as fables 
 devised by mistaken zealots ; and such they have been pronounced 
 by the ablest of the Moslem commentators. 
 
 There is no proof that Mahomet descended to any artifices of the 
 kind to enforce his doctrines or establish his apostolic claims. He 
 appears to have relied entirely on reason and eloquence, and to 
 have been supported by religious enthusiasm in this early and 
 dubious stage of his career. His earnest attacks upon the idolatry 
 which had vitiated and superseded the primitive worship of the 
 Caaba, began to have a sensible effect, and alarmed the Koreishites. 
 They urged Abu Taleb to silence his nephew or to send him away; 
 but linding their entreaties unavailing, they informed the old man 
 that if this pretended prophet and his followers persisted in their 
 heresies, they should pay for them with their lives. 
 
 Abu faleb hastened to inform Mahomet of these menaces, implor- 
 ing him not to provoke against himself and family such numerous 
 and powerful foes. 
 
 The enthusiastic spirit of Mahomet kindled at the words. " Oh 
 my uncle ! " exclaimed he, " though they should array the sun against 
 me on my right hand, and the moon on my left, yet, until God should 
 command me, or should take me hence, would I not depart from my 
 purpose." 
 
 He was retiring with dejected countenance, when Abu Taleb 
 called him back. The old man was as yet unconverted, but he 
 was struck with admiration of the undaunted firmness of his nephew, 
 and declared that, preach what he might, he would never abandon 
 him to his enemies. Feeling that of himself he could not yield 
 sufficient protection, he called upon the other descendants of 
 Haschem and Abd al Motaileb to aid in shielding their kinsman 
 from the persecution of the rest of the tribe of Koreish; and so 
 strong is the family tie among the Arabs, that though it was pro-
 
 SOLICITUDE OF ABU TALEB. S& 
 
 tecting him in what they considered a dangerous heresy, they all 
 consented excepting his uncle Abu Lahab. 
 
 The animosity of the Koreishites became more and more virulent, 
 and proceeded to personal violence. Mahomet was assailed and 
 nearly strangled in the Caaba, and was rescued with difficulty by 
 Abu Beker, who himself suffered personal injury in the affray. His 
 immediate family became objects of hatred, especially his daughter 
 Rokaia and her husband Otlmian Ibn A (Tan. Such of his disciples 
 as had no powerful friends to protect them were in peril of their 
 lives. Full of anxiety for their safety, Mahomed advised them to 
 leave his dangerous companionship for the present, and take 
 refuge in Abyssinia. The narrowness of the Red Sea made it easy 
 to reach the African shore. The Abyssinians were Nestorian Chris- 
 tians, elevated by their religion above their barbarous neighbours. 
 Their najashee or king was reputed to be tolerant and just. With 
 him Mahomet trusted his daughter and his fugitive disciples would 
 find refuge. 
 
 Othmanu Ibn Affan was the leader of this little band of Moslems, 
 consisting of eleven men and four women. They look the way by 
 the sea-coast to Jodda, a port about two days' journey to the east 
 of Mecca, where they found two Abyssinian vessels at anchor, in 
 which they embarked, and sailed for the land of refuge. 
 
 This event, which happened in the fifth year of the mission of 
 Mahomet, is called the first Hegira or Flight, to distinguish it from 
 the second Hegira, the flight of the prophet himself from Mecca to 
 Medina. The kind treatment experienced by the fugitives induced 
 others of the same faith to follow their example, until the number 
 of Moslem refugees in Abyssinia amounted to eighty-three men 
 and eighteen women, besides children. 
 
 The Koreishites finding that Mahomet was not to be silenced, 
 and was daily making converts, passed a law banishing all who 
 should embrace his faith. Mahomet retired before the storm, 
 and took refuge in the house of a disciple named Orkham, situated 
 on the hill of Safa. This hill, as has already been mentioned, was 
 renowned in Arabian tradition as the one on which Adam and Eve 
 were permitted to come once more together, after the long soli- 
 tary wandering about the earth which followed their expulsion from 
 paradise. It was likewise connected in tradition with the fortunes 
 of Hagar and Ishmael. 
 
 Mahomet remained for a month in the house of Orkham, conti- 
 nuing his revelations and drawing to him sectaries from various 
 parts of Arabia. The hostility of the Koreishites followed him to 
 his retreat. Abu Jahl, an Arab of that tribe, sought him out, 
 insulted him with opprobrious language, and even personally 
 maltreated him. The outrage was reported to Hamza an uncle of 
 Mahomet, as he returned to Mecca from hunting. Hamza was no 
 proselyte to Islamism, but he was pledged to protect his nephew. 
 Marching with his bow unstrung in his hand to an assemblage of 
 the Koreishites, where Abu Jahl was vaunting his recent triumph, 
 he dealt the boaster a blow over the head, that inflicted a grievous 
 wound. The kinsfolk of Abu Jahl rushed to his assistance, but 
 the brawler stood in awe of the vigorous arm and fiery spirit of
 
 ;36 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Hamza, and sought to pacify him. "Let him alone," said he to 
 his kinsfolk; "in truth I have treated his nephew very roughly." 
 He alleged in palliation of his outrage the apostasy of Mahomet; 
 but Hamza was not to be appeased. ""Well!" cried he, fiercely 
 and scornfully, " I also do not believe in your gods of stone ; can 
 you compel me?" Anger produced in his bosom what reasoning 
 might have attempted in vain. He forthwith declared himself a 
 convert ; took the oath of adhesion to the prophet, and became 
 one of the most zealous and valiant champions of the new faith. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Omar Ibn al Khattab, nephew of Abu Jalil, undertakes to revenge his uncle by slaying 
 Mahomet. His wonderful conversion to the faith. Mahomet lakes refuge in a castle 
 of Abu Taleb. Abu SoQan, at the head of the rival branch of Koreishites, persecutes 
 Mahomet and his followers. Obtains a decree of non-intercourse with them. Maho- 
 met leaves his retreat and makes converts during the month of pilgrimage. Legend 
 oi' the conversion of Habib the Wise. 
 
 The hatred of Abu Jahl to the prophet was increased by the 
 severe punishment received at the hands of Hamza. He had a 
 nephew named Omar Ibn al Khattab ; twenty-six years of age ; of 
 gigantic stature, prodigious strength, and great courage. His 
 savage aspect appalled the bold, and his very walking-staff struck 
 more terror into beholders than another man's sword. Such are 
 the words of the Arabian historian, Abu Abdallah Mohamed Ibn 
 Oinal Alwakedi, and the subsequent feats of this warrior prove 
 that they were scarce chargeable with exaggeration. 
 
 Instigated by his uncle Abu Jahl, this fierce Arab undertook to 
 penetrate to the retreat of Mahomet, who was slill in the house of 
 Orkham, and to strike a poniard to his heart. The Koreishites are 
 accused of having promised him one hundred camels and one 
 thousand ounces of gold for this deed of blood ; but this is impro- 
 bable, nor did the vengeful nephew of Abu Jahl need a bribe. 
 
 As he was on his way to the house of Orkham he met a Ko- 
 reishite, to whom he imparted his design. The Koreishite was a 
 secret convert to Islamism, and sought to turn him from his bloody 
 errand. "Before you slay Mahomet," said he, "and draw upon 
 yourself the vengeance of his relatives, see that your own are free 
 from heresy." "Are any of mine guilty of backsliding ?" de- 
 manded Omar with astonishment. "Even so/' was the reply; 
 "thy sister Amina and her husband Seid." 
 
 Omar hastened to the dwelling of his sister, and, entering it 
 abruptly, found her and her husband reading the Koran. Seid 
 attempted to conceal it, but his confusion convinced Omar of the 
 truth of the accusation, and heightened his fury. In his rage he 
 struck Seid to the earth ; placed his foot upon his breast, and would 
 have plunged his sword into it, had not his sister interposed. A 
 blow on the face bathed her visage in blood. " Enemy of Allah !"
 
 CONVERSION OF OMAR. 37 
 
 sobbed Amina, " dost thou strike me thus for believing in the only 
 true God ? In despite of thee and thy violence, I will persevere 
 in the true faith. Yes," added she with fervour, " 'There is no 
 God but God, and Mahomet is his prophet:' And now, Omar, 
 finish thy Avork !" 
 
 Omar paused ; repented of his violence, and took his foot from 
 the bosom of Seid. 
 
 " Show me the writing," said he. Amina, however, refused to 
 let him touch the sacred scroll until he had washed his hands. The 
 passage which he read, is said to have been the twentieth chapter 
 of the Koran, which thus begins : 
 
 " In the name of the most merciful God ! "We have not sent 
 down the Koran to inflict misery on mankind, but as a monitor, to 
 teach him to believe in the true God, the creator of the earth and 
 the lofty heavens. 
 
 " The all merciful is enthroned on high, to him belongeth what- 
 soever is in the heavens above, and in the earth beneath, and in 
 the regions under the earth. 
 
 " Dost thou utter thy prayers with a loud voice? know that there 
 is no need. God knoweth the secrets of thy heart ; yea, that which 
 is most hidden. 
 
 *' Verily, I am God; there is none beside me. Serve me 
 serve none other. Offer up thy prayer to none but me." 
 
 The words of the Koran sank deep into the heart of Omar. He 
 read farther, and was more and more moved ; but when he came 
 to the parts treating of the resurrection and of judgment, his con- 
 version was complete. 
 
 He pursued his way to the house of Orkham, but with an altered 
 heart. Knocking humbly at the door, he craved admission. "Come 
 in, son of al Khattab," exclaimed Mahomet. " What brings thee 
 hither?" 
 
 " I come to enroll my name among the believers of God and his 
 prophet. " So saying, he made the Moslem profession of faith. 
 
 He was not content until his conversion was publicly known. At 
 his request, Mahomet accompanied him instantly to the Caaba, to 
 perform openly the rites of Islamism. Omar walked on the left 
 hand of the prophet, and Hamza on the right, to protect him from 
 injury and insult, and they were followed by upwards of forty dis- 
 ciples. They passed in open day through the streets of Mecca, to 
 the astonishment of the inhabitants. Seven times did they make 
 the circuit of the Caaba, touching each time the sacred black stone, 
 and complying with all the other ceremonials. The Koreishites 
 regarded this procession with dismay, but dared not approach nor 
 molest the prophet, being deterred by the looks of those terrible 
 men of battle Hamza and Omar ; who, it is said, glared upon them 
 like two lions that had been robbed of their young. 
 
 Fearless and "resolute in every thing, Omar went by himself the 
 next day to pray as a Moslem in the Caaba, in open defiance of the 
 Koreishites. Another Moslem, who entered the temple, was inter- 
 rupted in his worship, and rudely treated ; but no one molested 
 Omar, because he was the nephew of Abu Jahl. Omar repaired to 
 his uncle. " I renounce thy protection," said he. I will not b
 
 38 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 better off than my fellow-believers." From that time he cast his 
 lot with the followers of Mahomet, and was one of his most stre- 
 nuous defenders. 
 
 Such was the wonderful conversion of Omar, afterwards the most 
 famous champion of the Islam faith. So exasperated were the 
 Koreishites by this new triumph of Mahomet, lhat his uncle Abu 
 Taleb feared they might attempt the life of his nephew, either by 
 treachery, or open violence. At his earnest entreaties, therefore, 
 the latter, accompanied by some of his principal disciples, with- 
 drew to a kind of castle, or stronghold, belonging to Abu Taleb, in 
 the neighbourhood of the city. 
 
 The protection thus given by Abu Taleb, the headoftheHaschera- 
 ites, and by others of his line, to Mahomet and his followers, 
 although differing from them in faith, drew on them the wrath of 
 the rival branch of the Koreishiles, and produced a schism in the 
 tribe. Abu Sofian, the head of lhat branch, availed himself of the 
 heresies of the prophet to throw discredit, not merely upon such 
 of his kindred as had embraced his faith, but upon the whole line 
 of Haschem, which, though dissenting from his doctrines, had, 
 through mere clannish feelings, protected him. It is evident the 
 hostility of Abu Sofian arose, not merely from personal hatred or 
 religious scruples, but from family feud. He was ambitious of 
 transferring to his own line the honours of the city so long en- 
 grossed by the Haschemites. The last measure of the kind-hearted 
 Abu Taleb, in placing Mahomet beyond the reach of persecution, 
 and giving him a castle as a refuge, was seized upon by Abu Sofian 
 and his adherents, as a pretext for a general ban of the rival line. 
 They accordingly issued a decree, forbidding the rest of the tribe 
 of Koreish from intermarrying, or holding any intercourse, even 
 of bargain or sale, with the Haschemites, until they should deliver 
 up their kinsman, Mahomet, for punishment. This decree, which 
 took place in the seventh year of what is called the mission of the 
 prophet, was written on parchment, and hung up in the Caaba. It 
 reduced Mahomet and his disciples to great straits, being almost 
 famished at times in the stronghold in which they had taken refuge. 
 The fortress was also beleaguered occasionally by the Koreishites, 
 to enforce the ban in all its rigour, and to prevent the possibility 
 of supplies. 
 
 The annual season of pilgrimage, however, when hosts of pil- 
 grims repair from all parts of Arabia to Mecca, brought transient 
 relief to the persecuted Moslems. During lhat sacred season, ac- 
 cording to immemorial law and usage among Ihe Arabs, all hosti- 
 lities were suspended, and warring tribes met in temporary peace 
 to worship at the Caaba. At such times Mahomet and his disciples 
 would venture from their stronghold and return to Mecca. Pro- 
 tected also by the immunity of the holy month, Mahomet would 
 mingle among the pilgrims and preach and pray; propound his 
 doctrines, and proclaim his revelations. In this way he made many 
 converls, who, on their return to their several homes, carried with 
 them the seeds of the new faith to distant regions. Among these 
 converts were occasionally the princes or heads of tribes, whose 
 example had an influence on their adherents. Arabian legends
 
 LEGEND OF HABIB THE WISE. J$ 
 
 give a pompous and extravagant account of the conversion of one 
 of these princes; which, as it was attended by some of the most 
 noted miracles recorded of Mahomet, may not be unworthy of an 
 abbreviated insertion. 
 
 The prince in question was Habib Ibn Malec, surnamed the "NVise 
 on account of his vast knowledge and erudition ; for he is repre- 
 sented as deeply versed in magic and the sciences, and acquainted 
 with all religious, to their very foundations, having read all that 
 had been written concerning them, and also acquired practical in- 
 formation, for he had belonged to them all by turns, having been 
 Jew, Christian, and one of the Magi. It is true, he had had more 
 than usual time for his studies and experience, having, according 
 to Arabian legend, attained to the age of one hundred and forty 
 years. He now came to Mecca at the head of a powerful host of 
 twenty thousand men, bringing with him a youthful daughter, Sa- 
 tiha, whom he must have begotten in a ripe old age ; and for whom 
 he was putting up prayers at the Caaba, she having been struck 
 dumb, and deaf, and blind, and deprived of the use of her limbs. 
 
 Abu Sofian and Abu Jam, according to the legend, thought the 
 presence of this very powerful, very idolatrous, and very wise old 
 prince, at the head of so formidable a host, a favourable opportu- 
 nity to effect the ruin of Mahomet. They accordingly informed 
 Habib the Wise of the heresies of the pretended prophet; and pre- 
 vailed upon the venerable prince to summon him into his presence, 
 at his encampment in the Valley of Flints, there to defend his doc- 
 trines; in the hope that his obstinacy in errour would draw upon 
 him banishment or death. 
 
 The legend gives a magnificent account of the issuing forth of 
 the idolatrous Koreishites, in proud array, on horseback and on 
 foot, led by Abu Sofian and Abu Jahl, to attend the grand inqui- 
 sition in the Valley of Flints; and of the oriental state in which they 
 were received by Habib the Wise, seated under a tent of crimson, 
 on a throne of ebony, inlaid with ivory and sandal-wood, and 
 covered with plates of gold. 
 
 Mahomet was in the dwelling of Cadijah when he received a 
 summons to this formidable tribunal. Cadijah was loud in her ex- 
 pressions of alarm ; and his daughters hung about his neck, weeping 
 and lamenting, for they thought him going to certain death ; but 
 he gently rebuked their fears, and bade them trust in Allah. 
 
 Unlike the ostentatious state of his enemies, Abu Sofian and Abu 
 Jahl, he approached the scene of trial in simple guise, clad in a white 
 garment with a black turban, and a mantle which had belonged to 
 his grandfather Abd al Motalleb, and was made of the stuff of Aden. 
 His hair floated below his shoulders, the mysterious light of pro- 
 phecy beamed from his countenance; and though he had not 
 anointed his beard, nor used any perfumes, excepting a little musk 
 and camphor for the hair of his upper lip, yet wherever he passed 
 a bland odour diffused itself around, being, say the Arabian writers, 
 the fragrant emanations from his person. 
 
 He was preceded by the zealous Abu Beker, clad in a scarlet 
 vest and a white turban; with his mantle gathered up under his 
 arms, so as to display his scarlet slippers.
 
 40 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 A silent awe, continues the legend, fell upon the vast assemblage 
 as the prophet approached. INot a murmur, not a whisper was to 
 be heard. The very brute animals were charmed to silence ; and 
 the neighing of the steed, the bellowing of the camel, and the 
 braying of the ass were mute. 
 
 The venerable Habib received him graciously : his first question 
 was to the point. " They tell thou dost pretend to be a prophet 
 sent from God? Is it so?" 
 
 " Even so," replied Mahomet. " Allah has sent me to proclaim 
 the veritable failh." 
 
 tf Good," rejoined the wary sage, "but every prophet has given 
 proof of his mission by signs and miracles. Noah had his rainbow : 
 Solomon his mysterious ring : Abraham the fire of the furnace, 
 which became cool at his command : Isaac the ram, which was sa- 
 crificed in his stead : Moses his wonder-working rod, and Jesus 
 brought the dead to life, and appeased tempests with a word. If, 
 then, thou art really a prophet, give us a miracle in proof." 
 
 The adherents of Mahomet trembled for him when they heard this 
 request, and Abu Jahl clapped his hands and extolled the sagacity 
 of Habib the Wise. But the prophet rebuked him with scorn. 
 "Peace! dog of thy race!" exclaimed he; "disgrace of thy 
 kindred, and of thy tribe." He then calmly proceeded to execute 
 the wishes of Habib. 
 
 The first miracle demanded of Mahomet was to reveal what 
 Habib had within his tent, and why he had brought it to Mecca. 
 
 Upon this, says the legend, Mahomet bent toward the earth and 
 traced figures upon the sand. Then raising his head, he replied, 
 "Oh Habib! thou hast brought hither thy daughter, Satiha, deaf 
 and dumb, and lame and blind, in the hope of obtaining relief 
 of Heaven. Go Jo thy tent; speak to her, and hear her reply, and 
 know that God is all powerful." 
 
 The aged prince hastened to his tent. His daughter met him 
 with light step and extended arms, perfect in all her faculties, her eyes 
 beaming with joy, her face clothed with smiles, and more beautous 
 than the moon in an unclouded night. 
 
 The second miracle demanded by Habib was still more difficult. 
 It was that Mahomet should cover the noontide heaven with super- 
 natural darkness, and cause the moon to descend and rest upon 
 the top of the Caaba. 
 
 The prophet performed this miracle as easily as the first. , At his 
 summons, a darkness blotted out the whole light of day. The 
 moon was then seen straying from her course and wandering about 
 the firmament By the irresistible power of the prophet, she was 
 drawn from the heavens and rested on the top of the Caaba. She 
 then performed seven circuits about it, after the manner of the 
 pilgrims, and having made a profound reverence to Mahomet, stood 
 before him with lambent wavering motion, like a flaming sword; 
 giving him the salutation of peace, and hailing him as a prophet 
 
 Not content with this miracle, pursues the legend, Mahomet 
 compelled the obedient luminary to enter by the right sleeve of 
 his mantle, and go out by the left ; then to divide into two parts, 
 one of which went towards the east, and the other towards the west.
 
 THE BAN ANNULLED. 41 
 
 and meeting in the centre of the firmament reunited themselves 
 into a round and glorious orb. 
 
 It is needless to say that Habid the Wise was convinced, and 
 converted by these miracles, as were also four hundred and seventy 
 of the inhabitants of Mecca. Abu Jahl, however, was hardened in 
 unbelief, exclaiming that all was illusion and enchantement produced 
 by the magic of Mahomet. 
 
 NOTE. The miracles here recorded are not to be found in the pages of the ac- 
 curate Abulfeda, nor are they maintained by any of the graver of the Moslem 
 writers; but they exist in tradition, and are set forth with great prolixity by 
 apocryphal authors, who insist that they are alluded to in the fifty-fourth chapter 
 of the Koran. They are probably as true as many other of the wonders related 
 of the prophet It will be remembered that he himself claimed but one miracle, 
 " the Koran." 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 The ban of non- intercourse mysteriously destroyed. Mahomet enabled to return to 
 Mecca. Death of Abu Taleb; of Cadijah. Mahomet betroths himself to Ayesha. 
 Marries Sawda. The Koreishites renew llieir persecution. Mahomet seeks an asylum 
 in Tayef. His expulsion thence. Visiled by genii in the deseri of Naklah. 
 
 Three years had elapsed since Mahomet and his disciples took 
 refuge in the castle of Abu Taleb. The ban or decree still existed 
 in the Caaba, cutting them off from all intercourse with the rest of 
 their tribe. The sect, as usual, increased under persecution. Many 
 joined it in Mecca; murmurs arose against the unnatural feud 
 engendered among the Koreishites, and Abu Sofian was made to 
 blush for the lengths to which he had carried his hostility against 
 some of his kindred. 
 
 All at once it was discovered that the parchment in the Caaba, 
 on which the decree had been written, was so substantially 
 destroyed, that nothing of the writing remained but the initial 
 words, "In thy name, Oh Almighty God!" The decree was, 
 therefore, declared to be annulled, and Mahomet and his followers 
 were permitted to return to Mecca unmolested. The mysterious 
 removal of this legal obstacle has been considered by pious Moslems, 
 another miracle wrought by supernatural agency in favour of the 
 prophet; though unbelievers have surmised that the document, 
 which was becoming embarrassing in its effects to Abu Sofian 
 himself, was secretly destroyed by mortal hands. 
 
 The return of Mahomet and his disciples to Mecca, was followed 
 by important conversions, both of inhabitants of the city and of 
 pilgrims from afar. The chagrin experienced by the Koreishites 
 from the growth of this new 7 sect., was soothed by tidings of victories 
 of the Persians over the Greeks, by which they conquered Syria 
 and a part of Egypt. The idolatrous Koreishites exulted in the 
 defeat of the Christian Greeks, whose faith, being opposed to the
 
 HAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 worship of idols, they assimilated to that preached by Mahomet. 
 The latter replied to their taunts and exultations, by producing 
 the thirtieth chapter of the Koran, opening with these words : "The 
 Greeks have been overcome by the Persians, but they shall overcome 
 the latter in the course of a few years." 
 
 The zealous and believing Abu Beker,made a wager often camels, 
 that this prediction would be accomplished withen three years. 
 " Increase the wager, but lengthen the time," whispered Mahomet. 
 Abu Beker staked one hundred camels, but made the time nine 
 years. The prediction was verified and the wager won, This 
 anecdote is confidently cited by Moslem doctors, as a proof that 
 the Koran came down from heaven, and that Mahomet possessed 
 the gift of prophecy. The whole, if true, was no doubt a shrewd 
 guess into futurity, suggested by a knowledge of the actual state of 
 the warring powers. 
 
 Not long after his return to Mecca, Mahomet was summoned to 
 close the eyes of his uncle Abu Taleb, then upwards of fourscore 
 years of age, and venerable in character as in person. As the hour 
 of death drew nigh, Mahomet exhorted his uncle to make the pro- 
 fession of faith necessary, according to the Islam creed, to secure a 
 blissful resurrection. 
 
 A spark of earthly pride lingered in the breast of the dying 
 patriarch. " Oh son of my brother ! " replied he, " should I repeat 
 those words, the Koreishites would say, I did so through fear of 
 death." 
 
 Abulfeda, the historian, insists that Abu Taleb actually died in 
 the faith. Al Abbas, he says, hung over the bed of his expiring 
 brother, and perceiving his lips to move, approached his ear to 
 catch his dying words. They were the wlshed-for confession. 
 Others affirm that his last words were, " I die in the faith of Abd 
 al Motaileb." Commentators have sought to reconcile the two 
 accounts, by asserting that Abd al Motalleb, in his latter days 
 renounced the worship of idols, and believed in the unity of God. 
 
 Scarce three days had elapsed from the death of the venerable 
 Abu Taleb, when Cadijah, the faithful and devoted wife of Mahomet, 
 likewise sank into the grave. She was sixty-five years of age. 
 Mahomet wept bitterly at her tomb, and clothed himself in mourning 
 for her, and for Abu Taleb, so that this year was called the year 
 of mourning. He was comforted in his affliction, says the Arabian 
 author, Abu Horaira, by an assurance from the angel Gabriel, that 
 a silver palace was allotted to Cadijah in Paradise, as a reward for 
 her great faith and her early services to the cause. 
 
 Though Cadijah had- been much older than Mahomet at the time 
 of their marriage, and past the bloom of years when women are 
 desirable in the East, and though the prophet was noted for an 
 amorous temperament, yet he is said to have remained true to her 
 to the last; nor ever availed himself of the Arabian law, permitting 
 a plurality of wives, to give her a rival in his house. "When, 
 however, she was laid in the grave, and the first transport of his 
 grief had subsided, he sought to console himself for her loss, by 
 entering anew into wedlock; and henceforth indulged in a plurality 
 of wives. He permitted, by his law, four wives to each of his
 
 SEEKS REFUGE AT TAYEF. 45 
 
 followers; but did not limit himself to that number; for he 
 observed that a prophet, being peculiarly gifted and privileged, 
 was not bound to restrict himself to the same laws as ordinary 
 mortals. 
 
 His first choice was made within a month after the death of 
 Cadijah, and fell upon a beautiful child named Ayesha, the daughter 
 of his faithful adherent, Abu Beker. Perhaps he sought, by this 
 alliance, to grapple Abu Beker still more strongly to his side; he 
 being one of Ihe bravest and most popular of his tribe. Ayesha, 
 however, was but seven years of age, and, though females soon 
 bloom and ripen in those eastern climes, she was yet too young to 
 enter into the married state. He was merely betrothed to her, 
 therefore, and postponed their nuptials for two years, during 
 which time he caused her to be carefully instructed in the accom- 
 plishments proper to an Arabian maiden of distinguished rank. 
 
 Upon this wife, thus chosen in the very blossom of her years, the 
 prophet doted more passionately than upon any of those whom he 
 subsequently married. All these had been previously experienced 
 in wedlock; Ayesha, he said, was the only oue who came a pure 
 unspotted virgin to his arms. 
 
 Still, that he might not be without due solace while Ayesha was 
 attaining the marriageable age, he took, as a wife, Sawda, the 
 widow of Sokran,one of his followers. She had been nurse to his 
 daughter Fatima, and was one of the faithful who fled into Abyssinia 
 from the early persecutions of the people of Mecca. It is pretended 
 that, while in exile, she had a mysterious intimation of the future 
 honour which awaited her; for she dreamt that Mahomet laid his 
 head upon her bosom. She recounted the dream to her husband 
 Sokran, who interpreted it as a prediction of his speedy death, and 
 of her marriage, with the prophet. 
 
 The marriage, whether predicted or not, was one of mere 
 expediency. Mahomet never loved Sawda with the affection he 
 manifested for his other wives. He would even have put her away 
 in after years, but she implored to be allowed the honour of still 
 calling herself his wife ; proffering that, whenever it should come 
 to her turn to share the marriage bed, she would relinquish her 
 right to Ayesha. Mahomet consented to an arrangement which 
 favoured his love for the latter, and Sawda continued, as long as she 
 lived, to be nominally his wife. 
 
 Mahomet soon became sensible of the loss he had sustained in 
 the death of Abu Taleb ; who had been not merely an affectionate 
 relative, but a steadfast and powerful protector, from his great in- 
 fluence in Mecca. At his death there was no one to check and 
 counteract the hostilities of Abu Sofian and Abu Jahl; who soon 
 raised up such a spirit of persecution among the Koreishites, that 
 Mahomet found it unsafe to continue in his native place. He set 
 out, therefore, accompanied by his freedman Zeid, to seek a re- 
 fuge at Tayef, a small walled town, about seventy miles from 
 Mecca, inhabited by the Thakifites, or Arabs of the tribe of 
 Thakeef. It was one of the favoured places of Arabia, situated 
 among vineyards and gardens. Here grew peaches and plums, 
 melons and pomegranates ; figs, blue and green, the nebeck-tree
 
 44 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 producing the lotus, and palm-trees with their clusters of green 
 and golden fruit. So fresh were its pastures and fruitful its fields, 
 contrasted with the sterility of the neighbouring deserts, that the 
 Arabs fabled it to have originally been a part of Syria, broken off 
 and floated hither at the lime of the deluge. 
 
 Mahomet entered the gales of Tayef with some degree of confi- 
 dence, trusting for proteclion lo the influence of his uncle Al Abbas, 
 who had possessions there. He could not have chosen a worse 
 place of refuge. Tayef was one of the strongholds of idolatry. 
 Here was maintained in all its force the worship of El Lat, one of 
 the female idols already mentioned. Her image of stone was 
 covered with jewels and precious stones, the offerings of her vo- 
 taries ; it was believed to be inspired with life, and the intercession 
 of El Lat was implored as one of the daughters of God. 
 
 Mahomet remained about a month in Tayef, seeking in vain to 
 make proselytes among its inhabitants. When he attempted to 
 preach his doctrines, his voice was drowned by clamours. More 
 than once he was wounded by stones thrown at him, and which 
 the faithful Zeid endeavoured in vain to ward -off So violent did 
 the popular fury become at last, that he was driven from the city, 
 and even pursued for some distance beyond the walls by an in- 
 sulting rabble of slaves and children. 
 
 Thus driven ignominiously from his hoped-for place of refuge, 
 and not daring to return openly to his native city, he remained in 
 the desert until Zeid should procure a secret asylum for him 
 among his friends in Mecca. In this extremity, he had one of 
 those visions or supernatural visitations which appear always to 
 have occurred in lonely or agitated moments, when we may sup- 
 pose him to have been in a state of mental excitement. It was 
 after the evening prayer, he says, in a solitary place in the valley 
 of Naklah, between Mecca and Tayef. He was reading the Koran, 
 when he was overheard by a passing company of Gins or Genii. 
 These are spiritual beings, some good, others bad, and liable like 
 man to future rewards and punishments. "Hark! give ear!" 
 said the Genii one to the other. They paused and listened as 3Ia- 
 homet continued to read. "Verily," said they at the end, "we 
 have heard an admirable discourse, which directeth unto the right 
 institution; wherefore we believe therein." 
 
 This spiritual visitation consoled Mahomet for his expulsion 
 from Tayef, showing that though he and his doctrines might be 
 rejected by men, they were held in reverence by spiritual intelli- 
 gences. At least so we may infer from the mention he rmikes of 
 it in the forty-sixth and seventy-second chapters of the Koran. 
 Thenceforward, he declared himself sent for the conversion of 
 these genii as well as of the human race. 
 
 NOTE. The belief in genii was prevalent throughout the East, long before the 
 time of Mahomet. They were supposed to haunt solitary places, particularly 
 toward nightfall ; a superstition congenial to the habits and notions of the inhabi- 
 tants of lonely and desert countries. The Arabs supposed every valley and 
 barren waste to have its tribe of genii, who were subject to a dominant spirit, and 
 roamed forth at night to beset the pilgrim and the traveller. Whenever, there- 
 fore, they entered a lonely valley toward the eloe of evening, they used to sup-
 
 THE NOCTURNAL JOURNRY. 45 
 
 plicate the presiding spirit or lord of the place, to protect them from the evil genii 
 under his command. 
 
 Those columns of dust raised by whirling eddies of wind, and which sweep 
 across the desert, are supposed to be caused by some evil genius or sprite of gigantic 
 size. 
 
 The serpents which occasionally infest houses were thought to be often genii, 
 some infidels and some believers. Mahomet cautioned his followers to be slow 
 to kill a house serpent. " Warn him to depart; if he do not obey, then kill him, 
 for it is a sign that he is a mere reptile or an infidel genius." 
 
 It is fabled that in earlier times, the genii had admission to heaven, but were 
 expelled on account of their meddling propensities. They have ever since been 
 of a curious and prying nature, often attempting to clamber up to the constella- 
 tions ; thence to peep into heaven, and see and overhear what is going on there. 
 They are, however, driven thence by angels with flaming swords; and those me- 
 teors called shooting stars are supposed by Mahometans to be darted by the guar- 
 dian angels at these intrusive genii. 
 
 Other legends pretend that the earth was originally peopled by these genii, but 
 they rebelled against the Most High, and usurped terrestrial dominion, which 
 they maintained for two thousand years. At length, Azazil, or Lucifer, was sent 
 against them and defeated them, overthrowing their mighty king Gian ben Gian, 
 the founder of the pyramids; whose magic buckler of talismanic virtue fell subse- 
 quently into the hands of king Solomon the Wise, giving him power over the spells 
 and charms of magicians and evil genii. The rebel spirits, defeated and humiliated, 
 were driven into an obscure corner of the earth. Then it was that God created 
 man, with less dangerous faculties and powers, and gave him the world for a 
 habitation. 
 
 The angels according to Moslem notions were created from bright gems ; the 
 genii from fire without smoke, and Adam from clay. 
 
 Mahomet, when in the seventy-second chapter of the Koran, he alludes to the 
 visitation of the genii in the valley of Naklah, makes them give the following 
 frank account of themselves : 
 
 " We formerly attempted to pry into what was transacting in heaven, but we 
 found the same guarded by angels with flaming darts; and \ve sat on some of the 
 seats thereof to hear the discourse of its inhabitants ; but whoso listeneth now 
 finds a flame prepared to guard the celestial confines. There are some among us 
 who are Moslems, and there are others who swerve from righteousness. Whoso 
 embraceth Islamism seeketh the true direction ; but those who swerve from right- 
 eousness shall be fuel for the fire of Jehennam." 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Night journey of the prophet from Mecca to Jerusalem ; and thence to the seventh 
 
 heaven. 
 
 An asylum being provided for Mahomet in the house of Mutem 
 Ibn Adi, one of his disciples, he ventured to return to Mecca. 
 The supernatural visitation of genii in the valley of Naklah, was 
 soon followed by a vision or revelation far more extraordinary, 
 and which has ever since remained a theme of comment and con- 
 jecture among devout Mahometans. We allude to the famous 
 night journey to Jerusalem, and thence to the seventh heaven. 
 The particulars of it, though given as if in the very words of Ma-
 
 46 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 hornet, rest merely on tradition ; some, however, cite texts corro- 
 borative of it, scattered here and there in the Koran. 
 
 \Ve do not pretend to give this vision or revelation in its ampli- 
 tude and wild extravagance, but will endeavour to seize upon its 
 most essential features. 
 
 The night on which it occurred, is described as one of the 
 darkest and most awfully silent that had ever been known. There 
 was no crowing of cocks nor barking of dogs ; no howling of wild 
 beasts nor hooting of owls. The very waters ceased to murmur, 
 and the winds to whistle ; all nature seemed motionless and dead. 
 In the mid watches of the night, Mahomet was roused by a voice 
 crying, "Awake, thou sleeper! " The angel Gabriel stood before 
 him. His forehead was clear and serene, his complexion white as 
 snow, his hair floated on his shoulders ; he had wings of many 
 dazzling hues, and his robes were sown with pearls and em- 
 broidered with gold. 
 
 He brought Mahomet a white steed of wonderful form and quali- 
 ties, unlike any animal he had ever seen; and in truth, it differs 
 from any animal ever before described. It had a human face, but 
 the cheeks of a horse : its eyes were as jacinths and radiant as stars. 
 It had eagle's wings all glittering with rays of light ; and its whole 
 form was resplendent with gems and precious stones. It was a 
 female, and from its dazzling splendour and incredible velocity was 
 called AlBorak, or Ligluning. 
 
 Mahomet prepared to mount this supernatural steed, but as he 
 extended his hand, it drew back and reared. 
 
 "Be still, Oh Borak!" said Gabriel; ''respect the prophet of 
 God. Never wert thou mounted by mortal man more honoured of 
 Allah." 
 
 "Oh Gabriel! " replied Al Borak, w r ho at this time was miracu- 
 lously endowed with speech; "did not Abraham of old, the friend 
 of God, bestride me when he visited his son Ishmael? Oh Gabriel ! 
 is not this the mediator, the intercessor, the author of the profession 
 of faith?" 
 
 "Even so, Oh Borak, this is Mahomet Ibn Abdallah, of one of 
 the tribes of Arabia the Happy, and of the true faith. He is chief 
 of the sons of Adam, the greatest of the divine legates, the seal of 
 the prophets. All creatures must have his intercession before they 
 can enter paradise. Heaven is on his right hand, to be the reward 
 of those who believe in him ; the fire of Jehennarn is on his left hand, 
 into which all shall be thrust who oppose his doctrines." 
 
 "Oh Gabriel!" entreated Al Borak; "by the faith existing 
 between thee and him, prevail on him to intercede for me at the 
 day of the resurrection " 
 
 "Be assured, Oh Borak!" exclaimed Mahomet, "that through 
 my intercession thou shall enter paradise." 
 
 No sooner had he uttered these words, than the animal ap-. 
 preached and submitted to be mounted, then rising with Mahomet 
 on its back, it soared aloft far above the mountains of Mecca. 
 
 As they passed like lightning between heaven and earth, Gabriel 
 cried aloud, " Stop, Oh Mahomet! descend to the earth, and make 
 the prayer with two inflections of the body."
 
 THE NOCTURNAL JOURNEY. 47 
 
 They alighted on the earth, and having made the prayer 
 
 "Oh friend and well beloved of my soul!" said Mahomet; "why 
 dost thou command me to pray in this place?" 
 
 " Because it is Mount Sinai, on which God communed with Moses." 
 
 Mounting aloft, they again passed rapidly between heaven 
 and earlh, until Gabriel called out a second time, "Stop, Oh 
 Mahomet! descend, and make the prayer with two inflections. " 
 
 They descended, Mahomet prayed, and again demanded, " Why 
 didsl Ihou command me to pray in this place?" 
 
 " Because it is Bethlehem, where Jesus the Son of Mary was 
 born." 
 
 They resumed their course through the air, until a voice was 
 heard on the right, exclaiming, "Oh Mahomet, tarry a moment, 
 that I may speak to thee; of all created beings I am most devoted 
 to thee/'* 
 
 But Borak pressed forward, and Mahomet forbore to tarry, for 
 he felt that it was not with him to stay his course, but with God the 
 all-powerful and glorious. 
 
 Another voice was now heard on the left, calling on Mahomet in 
 like words to tarry; but Borak still pressed forward, and Mahomet 
 tarried not. He now beheld before him a damsel of ravishing 
 beauty, adorned with all the luxury and riches of the earlh. She 
 beckoned him with alluring smiles: "Tarry a moment, Oh Mahomet, 
 that I may talk with thee. I, who, of all beings, am the most 
 devoted to thee." But still Borak pressed on, and Mahomet tarried 
 not; considering that it was not with him to stay his course, but 
 with God the all-powerful and glorious. 
 
 Addressing himself, however, to Gabriel, " What voices are those 
 I have heard? "said he; "and what damsel is this who has beckoned 
 to me?" 
 
 " The first, Oh Mahomet, was the voice of a Jew; hadst thou 
 listened to him, all thy nation would have been won to Judaism. 
 
 "The second was the voice of a Christian : hadst Ihou listened to 
 him, thy people would have inclined to Christianity. 
 
 " The damsel was the world, with all its riches, its vanities, 
 and allurements ; hadst Ihou listened to her, thy nation would have 
 chosen the pleasures of this life, rather than the bliss of eternity, 
 and all would have been doomed to perdition." 
 
 Continuing their aerial course, they arrived at the gate of the holy 
 temple at Jerusalem, where, alighting from Al Borak, Mahomet 
 fastened her to the rings where the prophets before him had fastened 
 her. Then entering the temple, he found there Abraham, and 
 Moses, and Isa (Jesus), and many more of the prophets. After he 
 had prayed in company with them for a time, a ladder of light was 
 let down from heaven, until the lower end rested on the Shakra, or 
 foundation-stone of the sacred house, being the stone of Jacob. 
 Aided by the angel Gabriel, Mahomet ascended this ladder with the 
 rapidity of lightning. 
 
 Being arrived at the first heaven, Gabriel knocked at the gate. 
 Who is there? was demanded from within. Gabriel. Who is with 
 thee? Mahomet. Has he received his mission? He has. Then he 
 is welcome I and the gate was opened.
 
 48 MA.HOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 This first heaven was of pure silver, and in its resplendent vault 
 the stars are suspended by chains of gold. In each star an angel is 
 placed sentinel, to prevent the demons from scaling the sacred 
 abodes. As Mahomet entered, an ancient man approached him, 
 and Gabriel said, " Here is thy father Adam, pay him reverence." 
 Mahomet did so, and Adam embraced him, calling him the greatest 
 among his children, and the first among the prophets. 
 
 In this heaven were innumerable animals of all kinds, which Ga- 
 briel said were angels, who, under these forms, interceded with 
 Allah for the various races of animals upon earth. Among these 
 was a cock of dazzling whiteness, and of such marvellous height, 
 that his crest touched the second heaven, though five hundred 
 years' journey above the first. This wonderful bird saluted the 
 ear of Allah each morning with his melodious chant. All creatures 
 on earth, save man, are awakened by his voice, and all the fowls 
 of his kind chant hallelujahs in emulation of his note. * 
 
 They now ascended to the second heaven. Gabriel, as before, 
 knocked at the gate; the same questions and replies were ex- 
 changed ; the door opened and they entered. 
 
 This heaven was all of polished steel, and dazzling splendour. 
 Here they found Noah ; who, embracing Mahomet, hailed him as 
 the greatest among the prophets. 
 
 Arrived at the third heaven, they entered with the same cere- 
 monies. It was all studded with precious stones, and too brilliant 
 for mortal eyes. Here was seated an angel of immeasurable height, 
 whose eyes were seventy thousand days' journey apart. He had at 
 his command a hundred thousand battalions of armed men. Be- 
 fore him was spread a vast book, in which he was continually writ- 
 ing and blotting out. 
 
 "This, Oh Mahomet," said Gabriel, "is Asrael, the angel of 
 death, who is in the confidence of Allah. In the book before him 
 he is coniinually writing the names of those who are to be born, 
 and blotting out the names of those who have lived their allotted 
 time, and who, therefore, instantly die." 
 
 They now mounted to the fourth heaven, formed of the finest 
 silver. Among the angels who inhabited it was one five hundred 
 days' journey in height. His countenance was troubled, and rivers 
 of tears ran from his eyes. "This," said Gabriel, "is the angel of 
 tears, appointed to weep over the sins of the children of men, and 
 to predict the evils which await them." 
 
 * There are three to which, say the Moslem doctors, God always lends a willing ear : 
 the voice of him who reads the Koran ; of him who prays for pardon ; and of this cock 
 who crows to the glory of the Most High. When the last day is near, they add, Allah 
 will bid this bird to close his wings and chant no more. Then all the cocks on earth 
 will cease to crow, and their silence will be a sign that the great day of judgment is 
 impending. 
 
 The Reverend Doctor Humphrey Prideaut, Dean or Norwich, in his life of Mahomet, 
 accuses him of having stolen this wonderful cock from the tract Bava Bariha of ihe 
 Babylonish Talmud, "wherein," says he, "we have a story of such a prodigious bird, 
 called Zig, which, standing with his feet on the earth, reacheth up to the heavens with 
 bis head, and with the spreading of his wings, darketicth the whole orb of the sun, and 
 causeth a total eclipse thereof. This bird the Chalilee paraphraslon the Psalms says is 
 a cock, and that he crows before the Lord; and the Chaldee paraphrast on Job tell us of 
 his crowing every morning before the Lord, and that God givetb him wisdom for that 
 purpose."
 
 THE NOCTURNAL JOURNEY. 49 
 
 The fifth heaven was of the finest gold. Here Mahomet was 
 received by Aaron with embraces and congratulations. The 
 avenging angel dwells in this heaven, and presides over the element 
 of fire. Of all the angels seen by Mahomet, he was the most hideous 
 and terrific. His visage seemed of copper, and was covered with 
 wens and warts. His eyes flashed lightning, and he grasped a 
 flaming lance. He sat on a throne surrounded by flames, and be- 
 fore him was a heap of red-hot chains. Were he to alight upon 
 earth in his true form, the mountains would be consumed, the seas 
 dried up, and all the inhabitants would die with terror. To him, 
 and the angels his ministers, is intrusted the execution of divine 
 vengeance on infidels and sinners. 
 
 Leaving this awful abode, they mounted to the sixth heaven, 
 composed of a transparent stone, called Hasala, which may be ren- 
 dered carbuncle. Here was a great angel, composed half of snow 
 and half of fire ; yet the snow melted not, nor was the fire extin- 
 guished. Around him a choir of lesser angels continually ex- 
 claimed, " Oh Allah ! who hast united snow and fire, unite all thy 
 faithful servants in obedience to thy law. " 
 
 "This," said Gabriel, "is the guardian angel of heaven and 
 earth. It is he who despatches angels unto individuals of thy na- 
 tion, to incline them in favour of thy mission, and call them to the 
 service of God; and he vill continue to do so until the day of re- 
 surrection." 
 
 Here was the prophet Musa (Moses), who,-however, instead of 
 welcoming Mahomet with joy, as the other prophets had done, shed 
 tears at sight of him. 
 
 " Wherefore dost thou weep ? " inquired Mahomet. " Because 
 I behold a successor, who is destined to conduct more of his nation 
 into paradise than ever I could of the backsliding children of 
 Israel." 
 
 Mounting hence to the seventh heaven, Mahomet was received 
 by the patriarch Abraham. This blissful abode is formed of divine 
 light, and of such transcendent glory that the tongue of man cannot 
 describe it. One of its celestial inhabitants will suffice to give an 
 idea of the rest. He surpassed the whole earth in magnitude, and 
 had seventy thousand heads; each head seventy thousand mouths; 
 each mouth seventy thousand tongues ; each tongue spoke seventy 
 thousand different languages, and all these were incessantly em- 
 ployed in chanting the praises of the Most High. 
 
 While contemplating this wonderful being, Mahomet was sud- 
 denly transported aloft to the lotus tree, called Sedrat, which 
 flourishes on the right hand of the invisible throne of Allah. The 
 branches of this tree extend wider than the distance between the sun 
 and the earth. Angels more numerous than the sands of the sea- 
 shore, or of the beds of all the streams and rivers, rejoice beneath 
 its shade. The leaves resemble the cars of an elephant; thousands 
 of immortal birds sport among its branches, repeating the sublime 
 verses of the Koran. Its fruits are milder than milk and sweeter 
 than honey. If all the creatures of God were assembled, one of 
 these fruits would be sufficient for their sustenance. Each seed in- 
 closes a houri, or celestial virgin, provided for the felicity of true
 
 50 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 believers. From this tree issue four rivers; two flow into the inte- 
 rior of paradise, two issue beyond it, and become the Nile and 
 Euphrates. 
 
 Mahomet and his celestial guide now proceeded to Al Mamour, 
 or the House of Adoration ; formed of red jacinths or rubies, and 
 surrounded by innumerable lamps, perpetually burning. As Maho- 
 met entered the portal, three vases were offered him, one containing 
 wine, another milk, and the third, honey. He took and drank of 
 the vase containing milk. 
 
 "Well hast thou done; auspicious is thy choice," exclaimed 
 Gabriel. " Hadst thou drunk of the wine, thy people had all gone 
 astray." 
 
 The sacred house resembles in form the Caaba at Mecca, and is 
 perpendicularly above it in the seventh heaven. It is visited every 
 day by seventy thousand angels of the highest order. They were 
 at this very time making their holy circuit, and Mahomet, joining 
 with them, walked round it seven times. 
 
 Gabriel could go no further. Mahomet now traversed, quicker 
 than thought, an immense space : passing through two regions of 
 dazzling light, and one of profound darkness. Emerging from this 
 utter gloom, he was filled with awe and terror at finding himself in 
 the presence of Allah, and but two bow-shots from his throne. 
 The face of the Deity was covered with twenty thousand veils, for 
 it would have annihilated man to look upon its glory. He put 
 forth his hands, and placed one upon the breast and the other upon 
 the shoulder of Mahomet, who felt a freezing chill penetrate to his 
 heart and to the very marrow of his bones. It was followed by a 
 feeling of estatic bliss, while a sweetness and fragrance prevailed 
 around, which none can understand, but those who have been in 
 the divine presence< 
 
 Mahomet now received from the Deity himself, many of the doc- 
 trines contained in the Koran ; and fifty prayers were prescribed 
 as the daily duty of all true believers. 
 
 When he descended from the divine presence and again met with 
 Moses, the latter demanded what Allah had required " That I should 
 make fifty prayers every day." 
 
 "And thinkest thou to accomplish such a task? I have made 
 the experiment before thee. I tried it with the children of Israel, 
 but in vain ; return, then, and beg a diminution of the task." 
 
 Mahomet returned accordingly, and obtained a diminution of 
 ten prayers; but when he related his success to Moses, the latter 
 made the same objection to the daily amount of forty. By his 
 advice Mahomet returned repeatedly, until the number was reduced 
 to five. 
 
 Moses still objected. " Thinkest thou to exact five prayers daily 
 from thy pe&ple ? By Allah! I have had experience with the children 
 oflsrael, and such a demand is vain; return, therefore, and entreat 
 still further mitigation of the task." 
 
 "No," replied Mahomet, "I have already asked indulgence 
 until I am ashamed." With these words he saluted Moses and 
 departed. 
 
 By the ladder of light he descended to the temple of Jerusalem,
 
 THE NOCTURNAL JOURNEY. 51 
 
 where he found Borak fastened as he had left her, and mounting, 
 was borne back in an instant to the place whence he had first been 
 taken. 
 
 This account of the vision, or nocturnal journey, is chiefly ac- 
 cording to the words of the historians Abulfeda, Al Bokhari, and 
 Abu Horeira, and is given more at large in the Life of Mahomet, by 
 Gagnier. The journey itself has given rise to endless commentaries 
 and disputes among the doctors. Some affirm that it was no more than 
 a dream or vision of the night; anclsupport their assertion by atra- 
 clition derived from Ayesha, the- wife of Mahomet, who declared 
 that, on the night in question, his body remained perfectly still, 
 and it was only in spirit that he made his nocturnal journey. In 
 giving this tradition, however, they did not consider that at the 
 time the journey was said to have taken place, Ayesha was still a 
 child, and, though espoused, had not become the wife of Mahomet. 
 
 Others insist that he made the celestial journey bodily, and that 
 the whole was miraculously effected in so short a space of time , 
 that, on his return, he was able to prevent the complete overturn 
 of a vase of water, which the angel Gabriel had struck with his wing 
 on his departure. 
 
 Others say that Mahomet only pretended to have made the noc- 
 turnal journey to the temple of Jerusalem, and that the subsequent 
 ascent to heaven was a vision. According to Ahmed ben Joseph, 
 the nocturnal visit to the temple was testified by the patriarch of 
 Jerusalem himself. "At the time," says he, "that Mahomet sent 
 an envoy to the emperor Heraclius, ai Constantinople, inviting him 
 to embrace Islamism, the patriarch was in the presence of the em- 
 peror. The envoy having related the nocturnal journey of the 
 prophet, the patriarch was seized with astonishment, and informed 
 the emperor of a circumstance coinciding with the narrative of the 
 envoy. 'It is my custom,' said he, 'never to retire to rest at 
 night until I have fastened every door of the temple. On the night 
 here mentioned, I closed them according to my custom, but there 
 was one which it \vas impossible to move. Upon this, I sent for 
 the carpenters, who, having inspected the door, declared that the 
 lintel over the portal, and the edifice itself, had settled to such a 
 degree, that it was out of their power to close the door. I was 
 obliged, therefore, to leave it open. Early in the morning, at 
 the break of day, I repaired thither, and behold, the stone placed 
 at the corner of the temple was perforated, and there were vestiges 
 of the place where Al Borak had been fastened. Then, said I, to 
 those present, this portal would not have remained fixed unless 
 some prophet had been here to pray,'" 
 
 Traditions go on to say, that when Mahomet narrated his noc- 
 turnal journey to a large assembly in Mecca, many marvelled yet 
 believed, some were perplexed with doubt, but the Koreishites 
 laughed it to scorn. " Thou sayest that thou hast been to the 
 temple of Jerusalem," said Abu Jahl; "prove the truth of thy 
 words, by giving a description of it " 
 
 For a moment Mahomet was embarrassed by the demand, for he 
 had visited the temple in the night, when its form was not dis- 
 cernible ; suddenly, however, the angel Gabriel stood by his side,
 
 52 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 and placed before his eyes an exact type of the sacred edifice, 
 so that lie was enabled instantly to answer the most minute 
 questions. 
 
 The story still transcended the belief even of some of his dis- 
 ciples, until Abu Beker, seeing them wavering in their faith, and in 
 danger of backsliding, roundly vouched for the truth of it; in reward 
 for which support, Mahomet gave him the title of Al Seddek. or 
 the Testifier to the Truth, by which he was thenceforth distin- 
 guished. 
 
 As we have already observed, this nocturnal journey rests al- 
 most entirely upon tradition, though some of its circumstances 
 are vaguely alluded to in the Koran. The whole may be a fan- 
 ciful superstructure of Moslem fanatics on one of these visions 
 or ecstasies to which Mahomet was prone, and the relation of 
 which caused him to be stigmatized by the Koreishites as a madman. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Mahomet makes converts of pilgrims from Medina. Determines to fly to that city. A 
 plot to slay him. His miraculous escape. His Hegira, or flight. His reception at 
 Medina. 
 
 The fortunes of Mahomet were becoming darker nnd darker in 
 his native place. Cadijah, his original benefactress, the devoted 
 companion of his solitude and seclusion, the zealous believer in his 
 doctrines, was in her grave : so also was Abu Taleb, once his faith- 
 ful and efficient protector. Deprived of the sheltering influence 
 of the latter, Mahomet had become, in a manner, an outlaw in 
 Mecca; obliged to conceal himself, and remain a burthen on the 
 hospitality of those whom his own doctrines had involved in per- 
 secution. If wordly advantage had been his object, how had it been 
 attained ? Upwards of ten years had elapsed since first he announced 
 his prophetic mission ; ten long years of enmity, trouble, and mis- 
 fortune. Still he persevered, and now, at a period of life when 
 men seek to enjoy in repose the fruition of the past, rather than 
 risk all in new schemes for the future, we find him, after having 
 sacrificed ease, fortune, and friends, prepared to give up home and 
 country also, rather than his religious creed. 
 
 As soon as the privileged time of pilgrimage arrived, he emerged 
 once more from his concealment, and mingled with the multitude 
 assembled from all parts of Arabia. His earnest desire was to find 
 some powerful tribe, or the inhabitants of some important city, 
 capable and willing to receive him as a guest, and protect him in 
 the enjoyment and propagation of his faith. 
 
 His quest was for a time unsuccessful. Those who had come to 
 worship at the Caaba, drew back from a man stigmatized as an 
 apostate; and the worldly-minded were unwilling to befriend one 
 proscribed by the powerful of his native place. 
 
 At length, as he was one day preaching on the hill Al Akaba, a
 
 PROSELYTES IN MEDINA. a3 
 
 little to the north of Mecca, he drew the attention of certain pil- 
 grims from the city of Yalhreb. This city, since called Medina, 
 was about two hundred and seventy miles north of Mecca. Many 
 of its inhabitants were Jews and heretical Christians. The pilgrims 
 in question were pure Arabs of live ancient and powerful tribe of 
 Khazraditcs, and in habits of friendly intercourse with the Ke- 
 needites and Naderites, two Jewish tribes inhabiting Mecca, who 
 claimed to be of the sacerdotal line of Aaron. The pilgrims had 
 often heard their Jewish friends explain the mysteries of their faith, 
 and talk of an expected Messiah. They were moved by the elo- 
 quence of Mahomet, and struck with the resemblance of his doc- 
 trines to those of the Jewish law 7 ; insomuch lhat when they heard 
 him proclaim himself a prophet, sent by heaven to restore the an- 
 cient faith, they said, one lo another, " Surely this must be the 
 promised Messiah of which we have been told." The most they 
 listened, the stronger became their persuasion of the fact, until in 
 Ihe end they avowed their conviction, and made a final profession 
 of the faith. 
 
 As the Khazradites belonged to one of the most powerful tribes 
 of Yathreb, Mahomet sought to secure their protection, and pro- 
 posed to accompany them on their return ; but they informed him 
 that they were at deadly feud with Ihe Awsites, another powerful 
 tribe of that city, and advised him lo defer his coining until they 
 should be at peace. He consented; but on the return home of the 
 pilgrims, he sent with them Musab Ibn Omeir, one of the most 
 learned and able of his disciples, with[instructions to strengthen them 
 in the faith, and lo preach it lo Iheir lownsmen. Thus were Ihe 
 seeds of Islamisni first sown in the city of Medina. For a lime 
 they Ihrived but slowly. Musab was opposed by Ihe idolalers, and 
 his life threatened; but he persisted in his exertions, and gradually 
 made converts among the principal inhabitant. Among these were 
 Saad Ibn Maads, a prince or chief of Ihe Awsiles ; and Osaid Ibn 
 Hodheir, a man of greal authority in the city. Numbers of the 
 Moslems of Mecca also, driven away by persecution, took refuge in 
 Medina, and aided in propagating Ihe new failh among its inha- 
 bitants, until it found its way into almost every household. 
 
 Feeling now assured of being able to give Mahomet an asylum 
 in the city, upwards of seventy of the converts of Medina, led by 
 Musab Ibn Omeir, repaired to Mecca with the pilgrims in the holy 
 month of the thirteenth year of " the mission," to invite him lo 
 lake up his abode in Iheir city. Mahomet gave Ihem a midnight 
 meeting on Ihe hill Al Akaba. His uncle Al Abbas, who like Ihe 
 deceased Abu Taleb, look an affectionate interest in his welfare, 
 though no converl lo his doclrines, accompanied him lo Ihis secrel 
 conference, which he feared mighi lead him inlo danger. He en- 
 Irealed the pilgrims from Medina not to entice his nephew to their 
 city until more able to protect him : warning Ihem lhal Iheir open 
 adoption of the new failh would bring all Arabia in arms against 
 Ihem. His warnings and entreaties were in vain : a solemn com- 
 pact was made between the parties. Mahomet demanded thai they 
 should abjure idolatry, and worship the one true God openly and 
 fearlessly. For himself he exacted obedience in weal and woe ; and
 
 54 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 for the disciples who might accompany him, protection ; even such as 
 they would render to their own wives and children. On these terms 
 he offered to bind himself to remain among them, to be the friend 
 of their friends, the enemy of their enemies. " But, should we 
 perish in your cause," asked they, " what will be our reward ? " 
 " Paradise! " replied the prophet. 
 
 The terms were accepted ; the emissaries from Medina placed 
 their hands in the the hands of Mahomet, and swore to abide by 
 the compact. The latter then singled out twelve from among 
 them , whom he designated as his apostles ; in imitation, it is 
 supposed, of the example of our Saviour. Just then a voice was 
 heard from the summit of the hill, denouncing them as apostates, 
 and menacing them with punishment. The sound of this voice, 
 heard in the darkness of the night, inspired temporary dismay. 
 " It is the voice of the fiend Iblis," said Mahomet, scornfully; 
 " he is the foe of God : fear him not." It was probably the voice 
 of some spy or evesdropper of the Koreishites; for the very next 
 morning they manifested a knowledge of what had taken place in 
 the night ; and treated the new confederates with great harshness 
 as they were departing from the city. 
 
 It was this early accession to the faith, and this timely aid prof- 
 fered and subsequently afforded to Mahomet and his disciples, 
 which procured for the Moslems of Medina the appellation of 
 Ansarians, or auxiliaries, by which they were afterwards distin- 
 guished. 
 
 After the departure of the Ansarians, and the expiration of the 
 holy month, the persecutions of the Moslems were resumed with 
 increased virulence, insomuch that Mahomet, seeing a crisis was 
 at hand, and being resolved to leave the city, advised his adherents 
 generally to provide for their safety. For himself, he still lingered 
 in Mecca with a few devoted followers. 
 
 Abu Sofian, his implacable foe, was at this time governor of the 
 city. He was both incensed and alarmed at the spreading growth 
 of the new faith, and held a meeting of the chief of the Koreishites 
 to devise some means of effectually putting a stop to it. Some 
 advised that Mahomet should be banished the city ; but it was 
 objected that he might gain other tribes to his interest, or perhaps 
 the people of Medina, and return at their head to^take his revenge. 
 Others proposed to wall him up in a dungeon, and supply him with 
 food until he died ; but it was surmised that his friends might effect 
 his escape. All these objections were raised by a violent and 
 pragmatical old man, a stranger from the province of Nedja, who, 
 say the Moslem writers, was no other than the devil in disguise, 
 breathing his malignant spirit into those present. At length it was 
 declared by Abu JahJ, that the only effectual check on the growing 
 evil was to put Mahomet to death. To this all agreed, and as a 
 means of sharing the odium of the deed, and withstanding the ven- 
 geance it might awaken among the relatives of the victim, it was 
 arranged that a member of each family should plunge his sword 
 into the body of Mahomet. 
 
 It is to this conspiracy that allusion is made in the eighth chapter 
 of the Koran. " And call to mind how the unbelievers plotted
 
 THE HEGIRA. 55 
 
 against thee, that they might either detain thce in bonds, or put 
 thee to death, or expel thee the city; but God laid a plot against 
 them ; and God is the best layer of plots." 
 
 In fact, by the lime the murderers arrived before the dwelling 
 of Mahomet, he was apprised of the impending danger. As usual, 
 the warning is attributed to the angel Gabriel, but it is probable it 
 was given by some Koreishite, less bloody-minded than his con- 
 federates. It came just in time to save Mahomet from the hands 
 of his enemies. They paused at his door, but hesitated to enter. 
 Looking through a crevice they beheld, as they thought, Mahomet 
 wrapped in his green mantle, and lying asleep on his couch. They 
 waited for a while, consulting whether to fall on him while sleep- 
 ing, or wait until he should go forth. At length they burst open 
 the door and rushed toward the couch. The sleeper started up ; 
 but, instead of Mahomet, All stood before them. Amazed and 
 confounded, they demanded, " Where is Mahomet ? " "I know 
 not," replied All, sternly, and walked forth; nor did any one 
 venture to molest him. Enraged at the escape of their victim, 
 however, the Koreishites proclaimed a reward of a hundred camels 
 to any one who should bring them Mahomet alive or dead. 
 
 Divers accounts are given of the mode in which Mahomet made 
 his escape from the house afer the faithful Ali had wrapped himself 
 in his mantle and taken his place upon the couch. The most mi- 
 raculous account is, that he opened the door silently, as the Ko- 
 reishites stood before it, and, scattering a handful of dust in the 
 air, cast such blindness upon them, that he walked through the 
 midst of them without being perceived. This, it is added, is con- 
 firmed by the verse of the 30th chapter of the Koran : " We have 
 thrown blindness upon them, that they shall not see." 
 
 The most probable account is, that he clambered over the wall 
 in the rear of the house, by the help of a servant, who bent his back 
 for him to step upon it. 
 
 He repaired immediately to the house of Abu Beker, and they 
 arranged for instant flight. It w r as agreed that they should take 
 refuge in a cave in Mount Thor, about an hour's distance from 
 Mecca, and wait there until they could proceed safely to Medina : 
 and in the meantime the children of Abu Beker should secretly 
 bring them food. They left Mecca while it was yet dark, making 
 their way on foot by the light of the stars, and the day dawned as 
 they found themselves at the foot of Mount Thor. Scarce were 
 they within the cave, when they heard the sound of pursuit. Abu 
 Beker, though a brave man, quaked with fear. " Our pursuers," 
 said he, " are many, and we are but two." " Nay," replied 
 Mahomet, " there is a third ; God is with us ! " And here the 
 Moslem writers relate a miracle, dear to the minds of all true 
 believers. By the time, say they, that the Koreishites reached the 
 mouth of the cavern, an acacia tree had sprung up before it, in the 
 spreading branches of which a pigeon had made its nest, and laid 
 its eggs, and over the whole a spider had woven its web. When 
 the Koreishites beheld these signs of undisturbed quiet, they con- 
 cluded that no one could recently have entered the cavern ; so they 
 turned away, and pursued their search in another direction.
 
 56 MAHOMET AND MIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 "Whether protected by miracle or not, the fugitives remained 
 for three days undiscovered in the cave, and Asama, the daughter 
 of Abu Beker, brought them food in the dusk of the evenings. 
 
 On the fourth day, when they presumed the ardour of pursuit 
 had abated, the fugitives ventured forth, and set out for Medina, 
 on camels which a servant of Abu Beker had brought in the night 
 for them. Avoiding the main road usually taken by the caravans, 
 they bent their course nearer to the coast of the Red Sea. They 
 had not proceeded far, however, before they were overtaken by a 
 troop of horse, headed by Soraka Ibn Malec. Abu Beker was 
 again dismayed by the number of their pursuers; but Mahomet 
 repeated the assurance, "Be not troubled; Allah is with us." 
 Soraka was a grim warrior, with shagged iron-gray locks, and naked 
 sinewy arms rough with hair. As he overtook Mahomet, his horse 
 reared and fell with him. His superstitious mind was struck with 
 it as an evil sign. Mahomet perceived the state of his feelings, and 
 by an eloquent appeal wrought upon him to such a degree, that 
 Soraka, filled with awe, entreated his forgiveness; and turning 
 back with his troop, suffered him to proceed on his way unmo- 
 lested. 
 
 The fugitives continued their journey without further interrup- 
 tion, until they arrived at Koba, a hill about two miles from Me- 
 dina. It was a favourite resort of the inhabitants of the city, and 
 a place to which they sent their sick and infirm, for the air was 
 pure and salubrious. Hence, too, the city was supplied with 
 fruit ; the hill and its environs being covered with vineyards, and 
 with groves of the date and lotus; with gardens producing citrons, 
 oranges, pomegranates, figs, peaches, and apricots; and being 
 irrigated with limpid streams. 
 
 On arriving at this fruitful spot, Al Kaswa, the camel of Mahomet, 
 crouched on her knees, and would go no further. The prophet 
 interpreted it as a favourable sign, and determined to remain at 
 Koba, and prepare for entering the city. The place where his 
 camel knelt is still pointed out by pious Moslems, a mosque named 
 Al Takwa having been built there to commemorate the circumstance. 
 Some affirm that it was actually founded by the prophet A deep 
 well is also shown in the vicinity, beside which Mahomet reposed 
 under the shade of the trees, and into which he dropped his seal 
 ring. It is believed still to remain there, and has given sanctity 
 to the well ; the waters of which are conducted by subterraneous 
 conduits to Medina. At Koba he remained four days, residing 
 in the house of an Awsite named Colthum Ibn Hadem. "While at 
 this village he was joined by a distinguished chief, Boreida Ibn 
 Hoseib, with seventy followers, all of the tribe of Saham. These 
 made profession of faith between the hands of Mahomet. 
 
 Another renowned proselyte who repaired to the prophet at this 
 village, was Salman al Parsi (or the Persian). He is said to have 
 been a native of a small place near Ispahan, and that, on passing 
 one day by a Christian church, he was so much struck by the devo- 
 tion of the people, and the solemnity of the worship, that he 
 became digusted with the idolatrous faith in which he had been 
 brought up. He afterwards wandered about the east, from city
 
 ENTRANCE IN MEDINA. 57 
 
 to city, and convent to convent, in quest of a religion, until an 
 ancient monk, full of years and infirmities, told him of a prophet 
 who had arisen in Arabia to restore the pure faith of Abraham. 
 
 This Salman rose to power in after years, and was reputed by 
 the unbelievers of Mecca to have assisted Mahomet in compiling 
 his doctrine. This is alluded to in the sixteenth chapter of the 
 Koran. " Verily, the idolaters say, that a certain man assisted to 
 compose the Koran; but the language of this man is Ajami (or Per- 
 sian), and the Koran is indited in the pure Arabian tongue." i 
 
 The Moslems of Mecca, who had taken refuge some time before 
 in Medina, hearing that Mahomet was at hand, came forth to meet 
 him at Koba ; among these was the early convert Talha, and 
 Zobeir, the nephew of Cadijah. These, seing the travel-stained 
 garments of Mahomet and Abu Beker, gave them white mantles, 
 with which to make their entrance into Medina. Numbers of the 
 Ansarians, or auxiliaries, of Medina, who had made their compact 
 with Mahomet in the preceding year, now hastened to renew their 
 vow of fidelity. 
 
 Learning from them that the number of proselytes in the city was 
 rapidly augmenting, and that there was a general disposition to 
 receive him favourably, he appointed Friday, the Moslem sabbath, 
 the sixteenth day of the month Rabi, for his public entrance. 
 
 Accordingly, on the morning of that day he assembled all his 
 
 followers to prayer ; and after a sermon, in which he expounded 
 
 the main principles of his faith, he mounted his camel Al Kaswa, 
 
 ^and set forth for that city which was to become renowned in after 
 
 ages as his city of refuge. 
 
 Boreida Ibn al Hoseib, with his seventy horsemen of the tribe 
 of Saham, accompanied him as a guard. Some of the disciples 
 took turns to hold a canopy of palm-leaves over his head, and by 
 his side rode Abu Beker. " Oh apostle of God ! " cried Boreida, 
 " thou shall not enter Medina without a standard," so saying, he 
 unfolded his turban, and tying one end of it to the point of his 
 lance, bore it aloft before the prophet. 
 
 The city of Medina was fair to approach, being extolled for 
 beauty of situation, salubrity of climate, and fertility of soil ; for 
 the luxuriance of its palm-trees, and the fragrance of its shrubs 
 and flowers. At a short distance from the city a crown of new 
 proselytes to the faith, came forth in sun and dust to meet the 
 cavalcade. Most of them had never seen Mahomet, and paid re- 
 verence to Abu Beker through mistake ; but the latter put aside the 
 screen of palm-leaves, and pointed out the real object of homage, 
 who was greeted with loud acclamations. 
 
 In this way did Mahomet, so recently a fugitive from his native 
 city, with a price upon his head, enter Medina, more as a conqueror 
 in triumph than an exile seeking an asylum. He alighted at the 
 house of a Khazradite, named Abu Ayub, a devout Moslem, to 
 
 i The renowned and learned Humphrey Prideaux, Doctor of Divinity and Dean of 
 Norwich, in his Life of Mahomet, confounds this Salman the Persian with Abdallah Ibn 
 Salam, a learned Jew; by some called Abdias Ben Salan in the Hebrew dialect, and by 
 others Abdallah Salen; who is accused by Christian writers of assisting Mahomet in 
 fabricating his revelations.
 
 58 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 whom moreover he was distantly related ; here he was hospitably 
 received, and took up his abode in the basement story. 
 
 Shortly after his arrival he was joined by the faithful Ali, who 
 had fled from Mecca, and journeyed on foot, hiding himself in the 
 day and travelling only at night, lest he should fall into the hands 
 of the Koreishites. He arrived weary and wayworn, his feet bleed- 
 ing with the roughness of the journey. 
 
 Within a few days more came Ayesha, and the rest of Abu Beker's 
 household, together with the family of Mahomet, conducted by his 
 faithful freedman Zeid, and by Abu Beker's servant Abdallah. 
 
 Such is the story of the memorable Hegira, or " Flight of the 
 prophet ; " the era of the Arabian kalendar from which time is cal- 
 culated by all true Moslems : it corresponds to the 622d year of 
 the Christian era. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Moslems in Medina, Mohadjerins and Ansarians. The parly of Abdallah Ibn Obba and 
 the Hypocrites. Mahomet builds a mosque; preaches; makes converts among the 
 Christians. The Jews slow to believe. Brotherhood established between fugitives 
 and allies. 
 
 Mahomet soon found himself at the head of a numerous and 
 powerful sect in Medina ; partly made up of those of his disciples 
 who had fled from Mecca, and were thence called Mohadjerins or 
 Fugitives, and partly of inhabitants of the place, who on joining 
 the faith were called Ansarians or Auxiliaries. Most of these latter 
 were of the powerful tribes of the Awsites and Khazradites, which, 
 though descended from two brothers, Al Aws and Al Khazraj, had 
 for a hundred and twenty years distracted Medina by their invete- 
 rate and mortal feuds, but had now become united in the bonds of 
 faith. AVith such of these tribes as did not immediately adopt his 
 doctrines he made a covenant. 
 
 The Khazradites were very much under the sway of a prince or 
 chief, named Abdallah Ibn Obba; who, it is said, was on the point 
 of being made king, when the arrival of Mahomet and the excite- 
 ment caused by his doctrines gave the popular feeling a new direc- 
 tion Abdallah was stately in person, of a graceful demeanour, 
 and ready and eloquent tongue ; he professed great friendship for 
 Mahomet, and with several companions of his own type and cha- 
 racter, used to attend the meetings of the Moslems. Mahomet was 
 captivated at first by their personal appearance, their plausible 
 conversation, and their apparent deference ; but he found in the 
 end that Abdallah was jealous of his popularity and cherished se- 
 cret animosity against him, and that his companions were equally 
 false in their pretended friendship ; hence, he stamped them with 
 the name of "The Hypocrites." Abdallah Ibn Obba long conti- 
 nued his political rival in Medina. 
 
 Being now enabled publicly to exercise his faith and preach his 
 doctrines, Mahomet proceeded to erect a mosque. The place
 
 ERECTS A MOSQUE. 59 
 
 chosen was a graveyard or burying ground, shaded by date-trees. 
 He is said to have been guided in his choice by what he considered 
 a favourable omen ; his camel having knelt opposite to this place on 
 his public entry into the city. The dead were removed, and the 
 trees cut down to make way for the intended edifice. It w ? as simple 
 in form and structure, suited to the unostentatious religion which 
 he professed, and to the scanty and precarious means of its vota- 
 ries. The walls were of earth and brick ; the trunks of the palm- 
 trees recently felled, served as pillars to support the roof, which 
 was framed of their branches and thatched with their leaves. It 
 was about a hundred ells square, and had three doors ; one to the 
 south, where the Kebla was afterwards established, another called 
 the gate of Gabriel, and the third the gate of Mercy. A part of the 
 edifice, called Soffat, was assigned as a habitation to such of the 
 believers as were without a home. 
 
 Mahomet assisted with his own hands in the construction of this 
 mosque. "With all his foreknowledge, he little thought that he was 
 building his own tomb and monument ; for in that edifice his re- 
 mains are deposited. It has in after times been repeatedly enlarged 
 and beautified, but still bears the name Mesjed alNebi (the Mosque 
 of the Prophet), from having been founded by his hands. He was 
 for some time at a loss in what manner his followers should be sum- 
 moned to their devotions; whether with the sound of trumpets, as 
 among the Jews, or by lighting fires on high places, or by the strik- 
 ing of timbrels. "While in this perplexity, a form of words to be 
 cried aloud, was suggested by Abdallah, the son of Zeid, who de- 
 clared that it was revealed to him in a vision. It was instantly 
 adopted by Mahomet, and such is given as the origin of the follow- 
 ing summons, which is to this day heard from the lofty minarets 
 throughout the East, calling the Moslems to the place of worship : 
 " God is great ! God is great ! There is no God but God. Mahomet 
 is the apostle erf God. Come to prayers ! come to prayers ! God is 
 great ! God is great. There is no God but God. " To which at dawn 
 of day is added the exhortation, " Prayer is better than sleep ! 
 Prayer is better than sleep ! " 
 
 Every thing in this humble mosque was at first conducted with 
 great simplicity. At night it was lighted up by splinters of the date- 
 tree ; and it was some time before lamps and oil were introduced. 
 The prophet stood on the ground and preached, leaning with his 
 back against the trunk of one of the date-trees, which served as 
 pillars. He afterwards had a pulpit or tribune erected, to which 
 he ascended by three steps, so as to be elevated above the congre- 
 gation. Tradition asserts, that when he first ascended this pulpit, 
 the deserted date-tree uttered a groan; whereupon, as a consola- 
 tion, he gave it the choice either to be transplanted to a garden 
 again to flourish, or to be transferred to paradise, there to yield 
 fruit, in after life , to true believers. The date-tree wisely chose the 
 latter, and was subsequently buried beneath the pulpit,there to await 
 its blissful resurrection 
 
 Mahomet preached and prayed in the pulpit, sometimes sitting, 
 sometimes standing and leaning on a staff. His precepts as yet 
 were all peaceful and benignant, inculcating devotion to God and
 
 60 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 humanity to man. He seems to have emulated for a time the 
 benignity of the Christian faith. " He who is not affectionate to 
 God's creatures, and to his own children," \vould he say, "God 
 will not he affectionate to him. Every Moslem who clothes the 
 naked of his faith, will be clothed by Allah in the green robes of 
 paradise." 
 
 In one of his traditional sermons transmitted by his disciples, is 
 the following apologue on the subject of charity : " "When God 
 created the earth it shook and trembled, until he put mountains 
 upon it, to make it firm. Then the angels asked, ' Oh God, is there 
 anything of thy creation stronger than these mountains?' And 
 God replied, 'Iron is stronger than the mountains; for it breaks 
 them.' 'And is there any thing of thy creation stronger than 
 iron ?' ' Yes; fire is stronger than iron, for it melts it.' ' Is there 
 any thing of thy creation stronger than fire?' ' Yes; water, for it 
 quenches fire.' ' Oh Lord, is there any thing of thy creation strong- 
 er than water?' ' Yes, wind; for it overcomes water and puts it 
 in motion.' ' Oh, our Sustainer ! is there any thing of thy crea- 
 tion stronger than wind?' ' Yes, a good man giving alms; if he 
 give with his right hand and conceal it from his left, he overcomes 
 all things.' " 
 
 His definition of charity embraced the wide circle of kindness. 
 Every good act, he \vould say, is charity. Your smiling in your 
 brother's face is charity; an exhortation of your fellow man to vir- 
 tuous deed is equal to alms-giving; your putting a wanderer in the 
 right road is charity ; your assisting the blind is charity ; your re- 
 moving stones and thorns and other obstructions from the road is 
 charity; your giving water to the thirsty.is charity. 
 
 A man's true wealth hereafter is the good he does in this world 
 to his fellow man. When he dies, people will say, "What property 
 has he left behind him? But the angels, who examine him in the 
 grave, will ask, ' What good deeds hast thou sent before thee?" 
 
 "Oh prophet!" said one of his disciples, "my mother, Omm- 
 Sad, is dead; what is the best alms I can send for the good of her 
 soul?" "Water!" replied Mahomet, bethinking himself of the 
 panting heats of the desert. " Dig a well for her, and give water 
 to the thirsty." The man digged a well in his mother's name, and 
 said, " This well is for my mother, that its rewards may reach her 
 soul." 
 
 Charity of the tongue, also, that most important and least culti- 
 vated of charities, was likewise earnestly inculcated by Mahomet. 
 Abu Jaraiya, an inhabitant of Basrah, coming to Medina, and being 
 persuaded of the apostolical office of Mahomet, entreated him some 
 great rule of conduct. ff Speak evil of no one," answered the pro- 
 phet. " From that time," says Abu Jaraiya, " I never did abuse 
 any one, whether freeman or slave." 
 
 The rules of Islamism extended to the courtesies of life. Make a 
 salam (or salutation) to a house on entering and leaving it. Return 
 the salute of friends and acquaintances, and wayfarers on the road. 
 He who rides must be the first to make the salute to him who walks ; 
 he who walks to him who is silting; a small party to a large party, 
 and the young to the old.
 
 THE LIGUE OF BROTHERHOOD. 61 
 
 On the arrival of Mahomet at Medina, some of the Christians of 
 the city promptly enrolled themselves among his followers ; they 
 were probably of those sectarians who held to the human nature 
 of Christ, and found nothing repugnant in Islamism; which vene- 
 rated Christ as the greatest among the prophets. The rest of the 
 Christians resident there showed but little hostility to the new faith, 
 considering it far better than the old idolatry. Indeed, the schims 
 and bitter dissensions among the Christians of the East had im- 
 paired their orthodoxy, weakened their zeal, and disposed them 
 easily to be led away by new doctrines. 
 
 The Jews, of which there were rich and powerful families in 
 Medina and its vicinity, showed a less favourable disposition. With 
 some of them Mahomet made covenants of peace, and trusted to 
 gain them in time to accept him as their promised Messiah or pro- 
 phet. Biased, perhaps unconsciously, by such views, he had mo- 
 delled many of his doctrines on the dogmas of their religion, and 
 observed certain of their fasts and ordinances. He allowed such as 
 embraced Islamism, to continue in the observance of their Sab- 
 bath, and of several of the Mosaic laws and ceremonies. It was 
 the custom of the different religions of the East, to have each a 
 Kebla or sacred point towards which they turned their faces in the 
 act of adoration; the Sabeans toward the North Star; the Persian 
 fire-worshipper towards the east, the place of the rising sun ; the 
 Jews toward their holy city of Jerusalem. Hitherto Mahomet had 
 prescribed nothing of the kind ; but now, out of deference to the 
 Jews, he made Jerusalem the Kebla, toward which all Moslems were 
 to turn their faces when in prayer. 
 
 While new converts were daily made among the inhabitants of 
 Medina, sickness and discontent began to prevail among the fugitives 
 from Mecca. They were not accustomed to the climate ; many suf- 
 fered from fevers, and in their sickness and debility languished after 
 the home whence they were exiled. 
 
 To give them a new home, and link them closely with their new 
 friends and allies, Mahomet established a brotherhood between fifty- 
 four of them and as many of the inhabitants of Medina. Two persons 
 thus linked together, were pledged to stand by each other in weal 
 and woe ; it was a tie which knit their interests more closely even than 
 that of kindred, for they were to be heirs to each other in preference 
 to blood relations. 
 
 This institution was one of expediency, and lasted only until the 
 newcomers had taken firm root in Medina; extended merely to 
 those of the people of Mecca who had fled from persecution ; and 
 is alluded to in the following verse of the eighth chapter of the 
 Koran : " They who have believed and have fled their country, 
 and employed their substance Imd their persons in fighting for the 
 faith, and they who have given the prophet a refuge among them, 
 and have assisted him, these shall be deemed the one nearest of kin 
 to the other." 
 
 In this shrewd, but simple way, were laid the foundations of that 
 power which was soon to attain stupendous strength, and to shake 
 the mightiest empires of the world.
 
 62 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Marriage of Mahomet with Ayesha. Of his daughter Falima with Ali. Their household 
 
 arrangements. 
 
 The family relations of Mahomet had been much broken up by 
 the hostility brought upon him by his religious zeal. His daughter 
 Rokaia was still an exile with her husband., Othman Ibn Aftan, 
 in Abyssinia ; his daughter Zeinab had remained in Mecca with 
 her husband, Abul A ass, who was a stubborn opposer of the 
 new faith. The family with Mahomet in Medina consisted of his 
 recently wedded wife Sawda, and Falima and Urn Colthum, 
 daughters of his late wife Cadijah. He had a heart prone to 
 affection, and subject to female influence, but he had never enter- 
 tained much love for Sawda ; and though he always treated her 
 with kindness, he felt the want of some one to supply the place of 
 his deceased wife Cadijah. 
 
 " Oh Omar," said he one day, " the best of man's treasures is 
 a virtuous woman, who acts by God's orders, and is obedient and 
 pleasing to her husband : he regards her personal and mental 
 beauties with delight; when he orders her to do any thing she 
 obeys him ; and when he is absent she guards his right in property 
 and honour." 
 
 He now turned his eyes upon his betrothed spouse Ayesha, the 
 beautiful daughter of Abu Beker. Two years had elapsed since 
 they were betrothed, and she had now attained her ninth year ; 
 an infantine age it would seem, though the female form is 
 wonderfully precocious in the quickening climates of the East. 
 Their nuptials took place a few months after their arrival in 
 Medina, and were celebrated with great simplicity ; the wedding 
 supper was of milk, and the dowry of the bride was twelve okk 
 of silver. 
 
 The betrothing of Falima, his youngest daughter, with his loyal 
 disciple Ali, followed shortly after, and their marriage at a somewhat 
 later period. Falima was between fifteen and sixteen years of age, 
 of great beauty, and extolled by Arabian writers as one of the four 
 perfect women with whom Allah has deigned to bless the earth. 
 The age of Ali was about twenty-lwo. 
 
 Heaven and earth, say the Moslem writers, joined in paying honour 
 to these happy espousals. Medina resounded with festivily, and 
 blazed with illuminations, and the atmosphere was laden with aro- 
 matic odours. As Mahomet, on the nuptial night, conducted his 
 daughter to her bridegroom, heaven sent down a celestial pomp to 
 attend her : on her right hand was the archangel Gabriel , on her 
 left was Michael, and she was followed by a train of seventy thousand 
 angels, who all night kept watch round the mansion of the youthful 
 pair.
 
 RELIGION OF THE SWORD. 6S 
 
 Such are the vaunting exaggerations with which Moslem writers 
 are prone to overlay every event in the history of the prophet, and 
 destroy the real grandeur of his career, which consists in its simpli- 
 city. A more reliable account states that the wedding feast was of 
 dates and olives; that the nuptial couch was a sheep-skin ; that the 
 portion of the bride consisted of two skirts, one head-tire, two 
 silver armlets, one leathern pillow stuffed with palm-leaves, one 
 beaker or drinking cup, onehandmill, two large jars for water, and 
 one pitcher. All this was in unison with the simplicity of Arab house- 
 keeping, and with the circumstances of the married couple; and to 
 raise the dowry required of him, All, it is said, had to sell several 
 camels and some shirts of mail. 
 
 The style of living of the prophet himself was not superior to that 
 of his disciple. Ayesha, speaking of it in after years, observed : "For 
 a whole month together we did not light a fire to dress victuals; our 
 food was nothing but dates and water, unless any one sent us meat. 
 The people of the prophet's household never got wheat-bread two 
 successive days." 
 
 His food, in general, was dates and barley-bread, with milk and 
 honey. He swept his chamber, lit his fire, mended his clothes, 
 and was, in fact, his own servant. For each of his two wives he 
 provided a separate house adjoining the inosque. He resided with 
 them by turns, but Ayesha ever remained his favourite. 
 
 Mahomet has been extolled by Moslem writers for the chastity 
 of his early life ; and it is remarkable that, with all the plurality of 
 wives indulged in by the Arabs, and which he permitted himself in 
 subsequent years, and with all that constitutional fondness which 
 he evinced for the sex, he remained single in his devotion to Cadijah 
 to her dying day, never giving her a rival in his house, nor in his 
 heart. Even the fresh and budding charms of Ayesha, which soon 
 assumed such empire over him, could not obliterate the deep and 
 mingled feeling of tenderness and gratitude for his early benefac- 
 tress. Ayesha was piqued one day at hearing him indulge in these 
 fond recollections : "Oh, apostle of God," demanded the youthful 
 beauty, " was not Cadijah stricken in years ? Has not Allah given thee 
 a better wife in her stead?" 
 
 " Never! " exclaimed Mahomet, with an honest burst of feeling 
 fl never did God give me a better! When I was poor, she en- 
 riched me; when I was pronounced a liar, she believed in me; 
 when I was opposed by all the world, she remained true to me ! " 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 The sword announced as the instrument of faith. First foray against the Koreishiles. 
 Surprisal of a caravan. 
 
 We come now to an important era in the career of Mahomet. 
 Hitherto he had relied on argument and persuasion to make pro-
 
 64 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 selytes; enjoining the same on his disciples. His exhortations to 
 them to bear with patience and long-suffering the violence of their 
 enemies, almost emulated the meek precept of our Saviour, "if 
 they smite thee on the one cheek, turn to them the other also." 
 He now arrived at a point where he completely diverged from the 
 celestial spirit of the Christian doctrines, and stamped his religion 
 with the alloy of fallible mortality. His human nature was not 
 capable of maintaining the sublime forbearance he had hitherto 
 inculcated. Thirteen years of meek endurance had been rewarded 
 by nothing but aggravated injury and insult. His greatest perse- 
 cutors had been those of his own tribe, the Koreishites, especially 
 those of the rival line of Abd Schems; whose vindictive chief, Abu 
 Sofian, had now the sway at Mecca. By their virulent hostility 
 his fortunes had been blasted ; his family degraded, impoverished, 
 and dispersed, and he himself driven into exile. All this he might 
 have continued to bear with involuntary meekness, had not the 
 means of retaliation unexpectedly sprung up within his reach. He 
 had come to Medina a fugitive seeking an asylum, and craving 
 merely a quiet home. In a little while, and probably to his own 
 surprise, he found an army at his command : for among the many 
 converts daily made in Medina; the fugitives flocking to him from 
 Mecca, and proselytes from the tribes of the desert ; were men of 
 resolute spirit, skilled in the use of arms, and fond of partisan 
 warfare. Human passions and mortal resentments were awa- 
 kened by this sudden accession of power. They mingled with 
 that zeal for religious reform, which was still his predominant 
 motive. In the exaltations of his enthusiastic spirit he endeavoured 
 to persuade himself, and perhaps did so effectually, that the power 
 thus placed within his reach was intended as a means of effecting 
 his great purpose, and that he was called upon by divine command 
 to use it Such, at least, is the purport of the memorable mani- 
 festo which he issued at this epoch, and which changed the whole 
 tone and fortunes of his faith. 
 
 "Different prophets," said lie, "have been sent by God to 
 illustrate his different attributes : Moses his clemency and provi- 
 dence; Solomon his wisdom, majesty, and glory; Jesus Christ his 
 righteousness, omniscience, and power; his righteousness by 
 purity of conduct ; his omniscience by the knowledge he displayed 
 of the secrets of all hearts; his power by the miracles he wrought. 
 None of these attributes, however, have been sufficient to enforce 
 conviction, and even the miracles of Moses and Jesus have been 
 treated with unbelief. I, therefore, the last of the prophets, am 
 sent with the sword ! Let those who promulgate my faith enter 
 into no argument nor discussion; but slay all who refuse obedience 
 to the law. "Whoever fights for the true faith, whether he fall or 
 conquer, will assuredly receive a glorious reward." 
 
 " The sword," added he, " is the key of heaven and hell ; all 
 who draw it in the cause of the faith will be rewarded with tem- 
 poral advantages ; every drop shed of their blood, every peril and 
 hardship endured by them, will be registered on high as more me- 
 ritorious than even fasting or praying. If they fall in battle, their 
 sins will at once be blotted out, and they will be transported to
 
 F1KST WARLIKE ENTERPRISE. 65 
 
 paradise, there to revel in eternal pleasures in the arms of black- 
 eyed houris." 
 
 Predestination was brought to aid these belligerent doctrines. 
 Every event, according to the Koran, was predestined from eter- 
 nity, and could not be avoided. No man could die sooner or later 
 than his allotted hour, and when it arrived, it would be the same, 
 whether the angel of death should find him in the quiet of his bed, 
 or amid the storm of battle. 
 
 Such were the doctrines and revelations which converted Isla- 
 rnism of a sudden from a religion of meekness and philanthropy, 
 to one of violence and the sword. They were peculiarly ac- 
 ceptable to the Arabs, harmonizing with their habits, and en- 
 couraging their predatory propensities. Virtually pirates of the 
 desert, it is not to be wondered at that, after this open promulga- 
 tion of the Religion of the Sword, they should flock in crowds to 
 the standard of the prophet. Still no violence was authorized by 
 Mahomet against those who should persist in unbelief, provided 
 they should readily submit to his temporal sway, and agree to pay 
 tribute ; and here we see the first indication of worldly ambition 
 and a desire for temporal dominion dawning upon his mind Still 
 it will be found, that the tribute thus exacted was subsidiary to his 
 ruling passion, and mainly expended by him in the extension of the 
 faith. 
 
 The first warlike enterprises of Mahomet betray the lurking 
 resentment we have noted. They were directed against the caravans 
 of Mecca, belonging to his implacable enemies the Koreishites. 
 The three first were headed by Mahomet in person, but without any 
 material result. The fourth was confided to a Moslem, named 
 Abdallah Ibn Jasch ; who was sent out with eight or ten resolute 
 followers on the road toward South Arabia. As it was now the 
 holy month of Radjab, sacred from violence and rapine, Abdallah 
 had sealed orders, not to be opened until the third day. These 
 orders were vaguely yet significantly worded. Abdallah was to 
 repair to the valley of Naklah, between Mecca and Tayef (the same 
 in which Mahomet had the revelation of the Genii), where he was 
 to watch for an expected caravan of the Koreishites. "Perhaps," 
 added the letter of instructions shrewdly, "perhaps thou mayest 
 be able to bring us some tidings of it." 
 
 Abdallah understood the true meaning of the letter, and acted 
 up to it. Arriving in the valley of Naklah, he descried the cara- 
 van, consisting of several camels laden with merchandise, and 
 conducted by four men. Following it at a distance, he sent one 
 of his men, disguised as a pilgrim, to overtake it. From the words 
 of the latter the Koreishites supposed his companions to be like 
 himself, pilgrims bound to Mecca. Beside, it was the month of Rad- 
 jab, when the desert might be travelled in security. Scarce had 
 they come to a halt, however, when Abdallah and his comrades fell 
 on them; killed one and took two prisoners; the fourlh escaped. 
 The victors then returned to Medina with their prisoners and 
 booty. 
 
 All Medina was scandalized at this breach of the holy month. 
 Mahomet, finding that he had ventured too far, pretended to be
 
 66 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 angry with Abdallah, and refused to take the share of the booty 
 offered to him. Confiding in the vagueness of his instructions, he 
 insisted that he had not commanded Abdallah to shed blood, or 
 commit any violence during the holy month. 
 
 The clamour still continuing, and being echoed by the Koreishites 
 of Mecca, produced the following passage of the Koran : 
 
 "They will ask thee concerning the sacred month, whether they 
 may make war therein. Answer : To war therein is grievous; but 
 to deny God, to bar the path of God against his people, to drive 
 true believers from his holy temple, and to worship idols, are sins 
 far more grievous than to kill in the holy months." 
 
 Having thus proclaimed divine sanction for the deed, Mahomet 
 no longer hesitated to take his share of the booty. He delivered 
 one of the prisoners on ransom; the other embraced Islamism. 
 
 The above passage of the Koran, however satisfactory it may 
 have been to devout Moslems, will scarcely serve to exculpate their 
 prophet in the eyes of the profane. The expedition of Abdallah 
 Ibn Jasch was a sad practical illustration of the new religion of 
 the sword. It contemplated not merely an act of plunder and 
 revenge, a venial act in the eyes of Arabs, and justified by the 
 new doctrines by being exercised against the enemies of the faith, 
 but an outrage also on the holy month, that period sacred from 
 time immemorial against violence and bloodshed, and which Ma- 
 homet himself professed to hold in reverence. The craft and se- 
 crecy also with which the whole was devised and conducted, the 
 sealed letter of instructions to Abdallah, to be opened only at the 
 end of three days, at the scene of projected outrage, and couched 
 in language vague, equivocal, yet sufficiently significant to the 
 agent ; all were in direct opposition to the conduct of Mahomet 
 in the earlier part of his career, when he dared openly to pursue 
 the path of duty, '< though the sun should be arrayed against him 
 on the right hand, and the moon on the left;" all showed that he 
 was conscious of the turpitude of the act he was authorizing. His 
 disavowal of the violence committed by Abdallah, yet his bringing 
 the Koran to his aid to enable him to profit by it with impunity, 
 give still darker shades to this transaction ; which altogether shows 
 how immediately and widely he went wrong the moment he de- 
 parted from the benevolent spirit of Christianity, which he at first 
 endeavoured to emulate. Worldly passions and worldly interests 
 were fast getting the ascendency over that religious enlhusiasm 
 which first inspired him. As has well been observed, "the first 
 drop of blood shed in his name in the Holy Week, displayed him 
 a man, in whom the slime of earth had quenched the holy flame 
 of prophecy."
 
 BATTLE OF BEDER. 7 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 The Battle of Beder. 
 
 In the second year of the Hegira Mahomet received intelligence 
 that his arch foe, Abu Sofian, with a troop of thirty horsemen, was 
 conducting back to Mecca a caravan of a thousand camels, laden 
 with the merchandise of Syria. Their route lay through the country 
 of Medina, between the range of mountains and the sea. Mahomet 
 determined to intercept them. About the middle of the month 
 Ramadhan, therefore, he sallied forth with three hundred and 
 fourteen men, of whom eighty-three were Mohadjerins, or exiles from 
 Mecca ; sixty-one Awsites, and a hundred and seventy Khazradites. 
 Each troop had its own banner. There were but two horses in 
 this lille army, 1 but there were seventy fleet camels, which the 
 troop mounted by turns, so as to make a rapid march without much 
 fatigue. 
 
 Othmanlbn Affan, the son-in-law of Mahomet, was now returned 
 with his wife Rokaia from their exile in Abyssinia, and would have 
 joined the enterprise, but his wife was ill almost unto death, so 
 that he was obliged reluctantly to remain in Medina. 
 
 Mahomet for a while took the main road to Mecca, then leaving 
 it to the left, turned toward the Red Sea and entered a fertile 
 valley, watered by the brook Beder. Here he laid in wait near a 
 ford, over which the caravans were accustomed to pass. He caused 
 his men to dig a deep trench, and to divert the water therein, so 
 that they might resort thither to slake their thirst out of reach of 
 the enemy. 
 
 In the meantime, Abu Sofian having received early intelligence 
 that Mahomet had sallied forth to waylay him with a superior force, 
 despatched a messenger named Omair, on a fleet dromedary, to 
 summon instant relief from Mecca. The messenger arrived at the 
 Caaba haggard and breathless. Abu Jahl mounted the roof and 
 sounded the alarm. All Mecca was in confusion and consterna- 
 tion. Henda, the wife of Abu Sofian, a woman of a fierce and 
 intrepid nature, called upon her father Otha, her brother Al Walid, 
 her uncle Shaiba, and all the warriors of her kindred, to arm and 
 hasten to the relief of her husband. The brothers, too, of the 
 Koreishite slain by Abdallah Ibn Jasch, in the valley of Naklah, 
 seized their weapons to avenge his death. Motives of interest were 
 
 i " The Arabs of the desert," says Burckhardt, " are not rich in horses. Among ihe 
 great tribes on the Red Sea, between Akaba and Mecca, and to the south and southeast 
 of Mecca, as far as Yemen, horses are very scarce, especially among those of the 
 mountainous districts. The settled inhabitants of Hedjaz and Yemen are not much in 
 the habit of keeping horses. The tribes most rich in horses are those who dwell in the 
 comparatively fertile plains of Mesopotamia, on the banks of the river Euphrates, and 
 on the Syrian plains." Burckhardt, 11. 50.
 
 68 MAHOMET- AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 mingled with eagerness for vengeance, for most of the Koreishkes 
 had property embarked in the caravan. In a little while a force 
 of one hundred horse and seven hundred camels hurried forward on 
 the road toward Syria. It was led by Abu Jahl, now threescore 
 and ten years of age, a veteran warrior of the desert, who still 
 retained the fire, and almost the vigour and activity of youth, com- 
 bined with the rancour of old age. 
 
 While Abu Jahl, with his forces, was hurrying on in one direc- 
 tion, Abu Sofian was approaching in another. On arriving at the 
 region of danger, he preceded his caravan a considerable distance, 
 carefully regarding every track and footprint. At length he came 
 upon the track of the little army of Mahomet. He knew it from the 
 size of the kernels of the dates, which the troops had thrown by the 
 wayside as they marched, those of Medina being remarkable for 
 their smallness. On such minute signs do the Arabs depend in 
 tracking their foes through the deserts. 
 
 Observing the course Mahomet had taken, Abu Sofian changed 
 his route, and passed along the coast of the Red Sea until he 
 considered himself out of danger. He then sent another messenger 
 to meet any Koreishites that might have sallied forth, and to let 
 them know that the caravan was safe, and they might return to 
 Mecca. 
 
 The messenger met the Koreishites when in full march. On 
 hearing that the caravan was safe, they came to a halt and held 
 council. Some were for pushing forward and inflicting a signal 
 punishment on Mahomet and his followers; others were for turning 
 back. In this dilemma, they sent a scout to reconnoitre the enemy. 
 He brought back word that they were about three hundred strong; 
 this increased the desire of those who were for battle. Others 
 remonstrated. " Consider," said they, " these are men who have 
 nothing to lose; they have nothing but their swords; not one of 
 them will fall without slaying his man. Beside, we have relatives 
 among them ; if we conquer, we will not be able to look each other 
 in the face, having slain each other's relatives." These words 
 were producing their effect, but the brothers of the Koreishite 
 who had been slain in the valley of Naklah, were instigated by Abu 
 Jahl to cry for revenge. That fiery old Arab seconded their appeal. 
 "Forward ! " cried he ; " let us get water from the brook Beder 
 for the feast with which we shall make merry over the escape of 
 ^our caravan." The main body of the troops, therefore, elevated 
 their standards and resumed their march, though a considerable 
 number turned back to Mecca. 
 
 The scouts of Mahomet brought him notice of the approach of 
 this force. The hearts of some of his followers failed them ; they 
 had come forth in the expectation of little fighting and much 
 plunder, and were dismayed at the thoughts of such an over- 
 whelming host; but Mahomet bade them be of good cheer, for 
 Allah had promised him an easy victory. 
 
 The Moslems posted themselves on a rising ground, with water 
 at the foot of it. A hut, or shelter of the branches of trees, had 
 been hastily erected on the summit for Mahomet, and a dromedary 
 stood before it, on which he might fly to Medina in case of defeat.
 
 UATTLK 01- BLUER. 69 
 
 The vanguard of the enemy entered the valley panting with thirst* 
 and hastened to the stream to drink-; but Hauiza, the uncle of Ma- 
 homet, set upon them with a number of his men, and slew the 
 leader with his own hand. Only one of the vanguard escaped, who 
 was afterwards converted to the faith. 
 
 The main body of the enemy now approached with sound of 
 trumpet. Three Koreishite warriors advancing in front, defied the 
 bravest of the Moslems to equal combat. Two of these challengers 
 were Otha, the father-in-law of Abu Sofian, and Al Walid, his 
 brother-in-law. The third challenger was Shaiba, the brother of 
 Otha. These it will be recollected had been instigated to sally 
 forth from Mecca, by Henda, the wife of Abu Sofian. They were 
 all men of rank in their tribe. 
 
 Three warriors of .Medina stepped forward and accepted their 
 challenge ; but they cried, " No ! Let the renegades of our own 
 city of Mecca, advance, if they dare." Upon this Hamza and Ali, 
 the uncle and cousin of Mahomet, and Obeidah Ibn al Hareth, un- 
 dertook the fight. After a fierce and obstinate contest, Hamza and 
 Ali each slew his antagonist. They then went to the aid of Obeidah, 
 who was severely wounded and nearly overcome by Otha. They 
 slew the Koreishite and bore away their associate, but he pre- 
 sently died of his wounds. 
 
 The battle now became general. The Moslems, aware of the 
 inferiority of their number, at first merely stood on the defensive, 
 maintaining their position on the rising ground, and galling the 
 enemy with flights of arrows whenever they sought to slake their 
 intolerable thirst at the stream below. Mahomet remained in his 
 hut on the hill, accompanied by Abu Beker, and earnestly engaged 
 in prayer. In the course of the battle he had a paroxysm, or fell 
 into a kind of trance. Coining to himself, he declared that God in 
 a vision had promised him the victory. Rushing out of the hut, he 
 caught up a handful of dust and cast it into the air toward 
 the Koreishites, exclaiming, " May confusion light upon their 
 faces." Then ordering his followers to charge down upon the 
 enemy : " Fight, and fear not," cried he , " the gates of paradise are 
 under the-shade of swords. He will assuredly find instant admis- 
 sion, who falls fighting for the faith." 
 
 In the shock of battle which ensued, Abu Jahl, who was urging 
 his horse into the thickest of the conflict, received a blow of a 
 scimetar in the thigh, which brought him to the ground. Abdallah 
 Ibn Masoud put his foot upon his breast, and while the fiery veteran 
 was still uttering imprecations and curses on Mahomet, severed his 
 head from his body. 
 
 The Koreishites now gave way and fled. Seventy remained 
 dead on the field, and nearly the same number were taken pri- 
 soners. Fourteen Moslems were slain, whose names remain on 
 record as martyrs to the faith. 
 
 This signal victory was easily to be accounted for on natural prin- 
 ciples ; the Moslems being fresh and unwearied, and having the ad- 
 vantage of a rising ground, and a supply of water; while the 
 Koreishites were fatigued by a hasty march, parched with thirst, 
 and diminished in force, by the loss of numbers who had turned
 
 70 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 back to Mecca. Moslem writers, however, attribute this early 
 triumph of the faith to supernatural agency. When Mahomet scat- 
 tered dust in the air, say they, three thousand angelic warriors in 
 white and yellow turbans, and long dazzling robes, and mounted on 
 black and white steeds, came rushing like a blast, and swept the 
 Koreishites before them. Nor is this affirmed on Moslem testimony 
 alone, but given on the word of an idolater, a peasant who was at- 
 tending sheep on an adjacent hill. " I was with a companion, my 
 cousin," said the peasant, " upon the fold of the mountain watch- 
 ing the conflict, and waiting to join with the conquerors and share 
 the spoil. Suddenly, we beheld a great cloud sailing toward us, 
 and within it were the neighing of steeds and braying of trumpets. 
 As it approached, squadrons of angels sallied forth, and we heard 
 the terrific voice of the archangel as he urged his mare Haizum, 
 ' Speed ! speed ! Oh Haizum ! " At which awful sound the heart of 
 my companion burst with terror, and he died on the spot ; and I 
 had well nigh shared his fate." ' 
 
 When the conflict was over Abdallah Ibn Masoud brought the 
 head of Abu Jahl to Mahomet, who eyed the grisly trophy with 
 exultation, exclaiming, " This man was the Pharaoh of our na- 
 tion." The true name of this veteran warrior was Amru Ibn 
 Hasham. The Koreishites had given him the surname of Abu 'Ihoem, 
 or Father of Wisdom, on account" of his sagacity. The Moslems had 
 changed it to Abu Jahl, Father of Folly. The latter appellation 
 has adhered to him in history, and he is never mentioned by true 
 believers without the ejaculation, "may he be accursed of God." 
 
 The Moslems who had fallen in battle were honourably interred ; 
 as to the bodies of the Koreishites, Ihey were contemptuously 
 thrown -into a pit which had been digged for them. The question 
 was how to dispose of the prisoners. Ojnar was for striking off 
 their heads; but Abu Beker advised that they should be given up on 
 ransom. Mahomet observed that Omar was like Noah, who prayed 
 for the destruction of the guilty by the deluge; but Abu Beker was 
 like Abraham, who interceded for the guilty. He decided on the 
 side of mercy. But two of the prisoners were put to death ; one, 
 named Nadhar, for having ridiculed the Koran as a collection of 
 Persian tales and fables ; the other, named Okba, for the attempt 
 upon the life of Mahomet when he first preached in the Caaba, and 
 when he was rescued by Abu Beker. Several of the prisoners who 
 were poor, were liberated on merely making oath never again to 
 take up arms against Mahomet or his followers. The rest were 
 detained until ransoms should be sent by their friends. 
 
 Among the most important of the prisoners, was Al Abbas, the 
 
 i This miraculous aid is repeatedly mentioned in the Koran, e. g. : 
 "God had already given you the victory at Beder, when ye were inferior in number. 
 When thou saidst unto the faithful, Is it not enough for you that your Lord should 
 assist you with three thousand angels, sent down from heaven ? Verily, if ye persevere, 
 and fear God, and your enemies come upon you suddenly, your Lord will assist you 
 with five thousand angels, distinguished by their horses and attire 
 
 "0 true believers, ye slew not those who were slain at Beder yourselves, but God 
 slew them. Neither didst thou, Mahomet, cast the gravel into their eyes, when thou 
 didst seem to cast it; but God cast it." Sale'* Koran, chap. iii.
 
 BATTLE OF BEDER. 71 
 
 uncle of Mahomet. He had been captured by Abu Yaser, a man 
 of small stature. As the bystanders scoffed at the disparity of 
 size, Al Abbas pretended that he really had surrendered to a horse- 
 man of gigantic size, mounted on a steed the like of which he had 
 never seen before. Abu Yaser would have steadily maintained the 
 truth of his capture, but Mahomet, willing to spare the humiliation 
 of his uncle, intimated that the captor had been aided by the -angel 
 Gabriel. 
 
 Al Abbas would have excused himself from paying ransom^ al- 
 leging that he was a Moslem in heart, and had only taken part in 
 the battle on compulsion; bdt his excuse did not avail. It is 
 thought by many that he really had a secret understanding with 
 his nephew, and was employed by him as a spy in Mecca, both 
 before and after th6 battle of Beder. 
 
 Anoth'er prisoner of great importance to Mahomet was Abul 
 Aass, the husband of his daughter Zeinab. The prophet would 
 fain have drawn his son-in-law to him and enrolled him among 
 his disciples, but Abul Aass remained stubborn in unbelief. Ma- 
 homet then offered to set him at liberty on condition of his re- 
 turning to him his daughter. To this the infidel agreed; and 
 Zeid, the faithful freedman of the prophet, was sent, with several 
 companions to Mecca, to bring Zeinab to Medina; in the mean- 
 time, her husband Abul Aass, remained a hostage for the fulfilment 
 of the compact. 
 
 Before the army returned to Medina there was a division of the 
 spoil ; for, though the caravan of Abu Sofian had escaped, yet con- 
 siderable booty of weapons and camels had been taken in the 
 battle, and a large sum of money would accrue from the ransom 
 of the prisoners. On this occasion, Mahomet ordered that the 
 whole should be equally divided among all the Moslems engaged 
 in the enterprise; and though it was a long -established custom among 
 the Arabs to give a fourth part of the booty to the chief, yet he con- 
 tented himself with the same share as the rest. Among the spoil 
 which fell to his lot was a famous sword of admirable temper, 
 called Dhul Fakar, or the Piercer. He ever afterwards bore it when 
 in battle ; and his son-in-law Ali inherited it at his death. 
 
 This equal distribution of the booty caused great murmurs 
 among the troops. Those who had borne the brunt of the fight, 
 and had been most active in taking the spoil, complained that they 
 had to share alike with those who had stood aloof from the affray, 
 and with the old men who had remained to guard the camp. The 
 dispute, observes Sale, resembles that of the soldiers of David in 
 relation to spoils taken from the Amalekites; those who had been 
 in the action insisting that they who tarried by the stuff should have 
 no share of the spoil. The decision was the same that they should 
 share alike. (1 Samuel, ch. xxx. 21-25.) Mahomet, from his 
 knowledge of bible history, may have been guided by this deci- 
 sion. The division of the spoils was an important point to settle, 
 for a leader about to enter on a career of predatory warfare. For- 
 tunately, he had timely revelation shortly alter his return to Mecca, 
 regulating for the future the division of all booty gained in fighting 
 for the faith.
 
 72 MAHOMET AMD HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Such are the particulars of the famous battle of Beder, the first 
 victory of the Saracens under the standard of Mahomet; inconsi- 
 derable, perhaps in itself, but stupendous in its results ; being the 
 commencement of a career of victories which changed the destinies 
 of the world. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Death of the prophet's daughter Rokaia. Restoration of his daughter Zeinab. Effect of 
 the prophet's malediction on Abu Lahab and his family. Frantic rage of Henda, the 
 wife of Abu Sofian. Mahomet narrowly escapes assassination. Embassy of the 
 Koreishites. The King of Abyssinia. 
 
 Mahomet returned in triumph to Medina with the spoils and pri- 
 soners taken in his first battle. His exultation, however, was 
 checked by domestic grief. Rokaia, his beloved daughter, so re- 
 cently restored from exile, was no more. The messenger who 
 preceded Mahomet with tidings of his victory, met the funeral train 
 at the gate of the city, bearing her body to the tomb. 
 
 The affliction of the prophet was soothed shortly afterward by 
 the arrival from Mecca of his daughter Zeinab, conducted by the 
 faithful Zeid. The mission of Zeid had been attended with diffi- 
 culties. The people of Mecca were exasperated by the late defeat, 
 and the necessity of ransoming the prisoners. Zeid remained, 
 therefore, without the walls, and sent in a message to Kenanah, 
 the brother of Abul Aass, informing him of the compact, and ap- 
 pointing a place where Zeinab should be delivered into his hands. 
 Kenanah set out to conduct her thither in a litter. On the way he 
 was beset by a throng of Koreishites, determined to prevent the 
 daughter of Mahomet from being restored to him. In the confu- 
 sion one Habbar Ibn Aswad made a thrust at the littler with a lance, 
 which, had not Kenanah parried it with his bow, might have 
 proved fatal to Zeinab. Abu Sofian was attracted to the place by 
 the noise and tumult, and rebuked Kenanah for restoring Maho- 
 met's daughter thus publicly, as it might be construed into a weak 
 concession ; Zeinab was taken back, therefore, to her home, and 
 Kenanah delivered her up secretly to Zeid in the course of the fol- 
 lowing night. 
 
 Mahomet was so exasperated at hearing of the attack on his 
 daughter, that he ordered whoever should take Habbar, to burn 
 him alive. When his rage had subsided he modified this command. 
 " It is for God alone," said he, " to punish man with fire. If taken 
 let Habbar be put to death with the sword." 
 
 The recent triumph of the Moslems at Beder struck the Ko- 
 reishites of Mecca with astonishment and mortification. The man 
 so recently driven a fugitive from their walls, had suddenly started 
 up a powerful foe. Several of their bravest and most important 
 men had fallen beneath his sword ; others were his captives, and 
 awaited a humiliating ransom. Abu Lahab, the uncle of Mahomet,
 
 ESCAPE FllOM ASSASSINATION. 73 
 
 and always bis vehement opposer, had been unable, from illness, 
 to take the field. Tie died a few days afer hearing of the victory, 
 his death being hastened' by the exasperation of his spirits. Pious 
 Moslems, however, attribute it to the curse pronounced by Mahomet 
 aforetime on him and his family, when he raised his hand to hurl a 
 stone at the prophet on the hill of Safa. That curse, say they, fell 
 heavily also on his son Olho, who had repudiated the prophet's 
 daughter Rokaia ; he was torn to pieces by a lion, in the presence of 
 a whole caravan, when on a journey to Syria. 
 
 By no one was the recent defeat at Beder felt so severely as by 
 Abu Sofian. He reached Mecca in safety with his caravan, it is 
 true ; but it was to hear of the'triumph of the man he detested, and 
 to find his home desolate. His wife Henda met him with frantic la- 
 mentations for the death of her father, her uncle, and her brother. 
 Rage mingled with her grief, and she cried night and day for ven- 
 geance on Hamza and AH, by whose hands they had fallen. 1 
 
 Abu Sofian summoned two hundred fleet horsemen, each with a 
 sack of meal at his saddle-bow, the scanty provisions of an Arab for 
 a foray; as he sallied forth he vowed neither to anoint his head, 
 perfume his beard, nor approach a female, until he had met Ma- 
 homet face to face. Scouring the country to within three miles 
 of the gates of Medina, he slew two of the prophet's followers, 
 ravaged the 'fields, and burnt the dale -trees. 
 
 Mahomet sallied forth to meet him at the head of a superior 
 force. Abu Sofian, regardless of his vow, did not await his ap- 
 proach, but turned bridle and fled. His troop clattered after him, 
 throwing off their sacks of meal in the hurry of their flight; whence 
 this scampering affair was derisively called " The war of the meal 
 sacks." 
 
 Moslem writers record an imminent risk of the prophet, while 
 yet in the field on this occasion. He was one day sleeping alone 
 at the foot of a tree, at a distance from his camp, when he was 
 awakened by a noise, and beheld Durthur, a hostile warrior, 
 standing over him with a drawn sword. ' ; Oh Mahomet," cried 
 he, "who is there now to save thee?" " God!" replied the 
 prophet. " Struck with conviction, Durthur let fall his sword, which 
 was instantly seized upon by Mahomet. Brandishing the weapon, 
 he exclaimed in turn, " \V~ho is there now to save thee, Oh Durthur?" 
 " Alas, no one ! " replied the soldier. " Then learn from me to be 
 merciful." So saying, he returned the sword. The heart of the 
 warrior was overcome ; he acknowledged Mahomet as the prophet 
 of God, and embraced the faith. 
 
 1 It is a received law among all the Arabs, thai whoever sheds the blood of a man, 
 owes blood on that account to the family of the slain person. This ancient law is 
 sanctioned by the Koran. "0 true believers, the law of retaliation is ordained to you 
 for the slain; the free shall die for the free " 'ihe blood revenge, or Thar, as it is termed 
 in Arabic, is claimed by the- relatives of all who have been killed in open war, and not 
 merely of the actual homicide, but of all his relations. For those killed in wars between 
 two tribes, the price of blood is required from the persons who were known to have 
 actually killed them. 
 
 The Arab regards this blood revenge as one of his most sacred rights, as well as 
 duties; no earthly consideration could induce him to give it up. He has a proverbial 
 sajing, "Were hell-fire to be my lot, 1 would not relinquish the Thar." See Burck- 
 hardt, v. i. 31 4, Notes,
 
 74 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 As if the anecdote were not sufficiently marvellous, other devout 
 Moslems affirm that the delivrance of M; hornet was through the in- 
 tervention of the angel Gabriel, who, at the moment Durthur was 
 about to strike, gave him a blew on the breast with his invisible 
 hand, which caused him to let fall his sword. 
 
 About this time the Koreishites of Mecca bethought themselves 
 of the relatives and disciples of Mahomet who had taken refuge 
 from their persecutions in Abyssinia; most of whom still remained 
 there under the protection of the Najashee or Abyssinian king. To 
 this potentate the Koreishites sent an embassy to obtain the persons 
 of the fugitives. One of the ambassadors was Abdallah Ibn Rabia ; 
 another was Amru Ibn Al A ass, the distinguished poet who had as- 
 sailed Mahomet at the outset of his mission with lampoons and 
 madrigals. He was now more matured in years, and as remark- 
 able for his acute sagacity as for his poetic talents. He was still 
 a redoubtable opponent of the faith of Islam, of which' in after 
 years he was to prove one of the bravest and most distinguished 
 champions. 
 
 Amru and Abdallah opened their embassy in the oriental style by 
 the parade of rich presents, and then requested, in the name of the 
 Koreish authorities of Mecca, that the fugitives might be delivered 
 up to them. The king was a just man, and summoned the Moslems 
 before him to explain this new and dangerous heresy of which they 
 were accused. 'Among their number was Giafar, or Jaffar, the son 
 of Abu Taleb, and brother of Ali, consequently the cousin of Ma- 
 homet. He was a man of persuasive eloquence and a most pre- 
 possessing appearance He stood forth on this occasion, and 
 expounded the doctrines of Islam with zeal and power. The king, 
 who, as has been observed, was a Nestorian Christian, found these 
 doctrines so similar in many respects to those of his sect, and so op- 
 posed to the gross idolatry of the Koreishites, that, so far from 
 giving up the fugitives, he took them more especially into favour and 
 protection, and returning to Amru and Abdallah the presents they 
 had brought, dismissed them from his court. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Growing power of Mahomet. His resentment against the Jews. Insult to an Arab 
 damsel by the Jewish tribe ofKainoka. A tumult. The Beni Kainoka take refuge in 
 their castle. Subdued and punished by confiscation and banishment. Marriage of 
 Olhman to the prophet's daughter Onim Kollhum, and of the prophet to Haf/.a. 
 
 The battle of Beder had completely changed the position of Ma- 
 homet ; he was now a triumphant chief of a growing power. The 
 idolatrous tribes of Arabia were easily converted to a faith M'hich 
 flattered their predatory inclinations with the hope of spoil, and 
 which, after all, professed but to bring them back to the primitive 
 religion of their ancestors ; the first cavalcade, therefore, which
 
 GROWING POWER OF MAHOMET. 75 
 
 entered the gates of Medina with the plunder of a camp, made 
 converts of almost all its heathen inhabitants, and gave Mahomet 
 the control of the city. His own tone now became altered, and he 
 spoke as a lawgiver and a sovereign. The first evidence of this 
 change of feeling was in his treatment of the Jews, of whom there 
 were three principal and powerful families in Medina. 
 
 All the concessions made by him to that stiff-necked race had 
 proved fruitless; they not only remained stubborn in unbelief, but 
 treated him and his doctrines with ridicule. Assma, the daughter 
 of Mcrwan, a Jewish poetess, wrote satires against him. She was 
 put to death by one of his fanatic disciples. Abu Afak, an Israelite, 
 one hundred and twenty years of age, was likewise slain for 
 indulging in satire against the prophet. Kaab Ibn Aschraf, another 
 Jewish poet, repaired to Mecca after the battle of Beder, and 
 endeavoured to stir up the Koreishites to vengeance, reciting verses 
 in which he extolled the virtues and bewailed the death of those 
 of their tribe who had fallen in the battle. Such was his infatua- 
 tion, that he recited these verses in public, on his return to Medina, 
 and in the presence of some of the prophet's adherents who were 
 related to the slain. Stung by this invidious hostility, Mahomet 
 one day exclaimed in his anger, "Who will rid me of this son of 
 Aschraf? " Within a few clays afterwards, Kaab paid for his poetry 
 with his life; being slain by a zealous Ansarian of the Awsite tribe. 
 
 An event at length occurred, which caused the anger of Maho- 
 met against the Jews to break out in open hostility. A damsel of 
 one of the pastoral tribes of Arabs who brought milk to the city, 
 was one day in the quarter inhabited by the Beni Kainoka, or 
 children of Kainoka, one of the three principal Jewish families. 
 Here she was accosted by a number of young Israelites, who 
 having heard her beauty extolled, besought her to uncover her 
 face. The damsel refused an act contrary to the laws of propriety 
 among her people. A young goldsmith, whose shop was hard by, 
 secretly fastened the end of her veil to the bench on which she was 
 sitting, so that when she rose to depart, the garment remained, and 
 her face was exposed to view. Upon this there was laughter and 
 scoffing among the young Israelites, and the damsel stood in the 
 midst confounded and abashed. A Moslem present, resenting the 
 shame put upon her, drew his sword, and thrust it through the 
 body of the goldsmith; he in his turn was instantly slain by the 
 Israelites. The Moslems from a neighbouring quarter flew to arms, 
 the Beni Kainoka did the same, but being inferior in numbers, 
 took refuge in a stronghold. Mahomet interfered to quell the 
 tumult; but, being generally exasperated against the Israelites, 
 insisted that the offending tribe should forthwith embrace the faith. 
 They pleaded the treaty which he had made with them on his 
 coming to Medina, by which they were allowed the enjoyment of 
 their religion ; but he was not to be moved. For some time the 
 Beni Kainoka refused to yield, and remained obstinately shut up 
 in their stronghold ; but famine compelled them to surrender. 
 Abdallah Ibn Obba Solul, the leader of the Khazradites, who was 
 a protector of this Jewish tribe, interfered in their favour, and 
 prevented their being put to the sword; but their wealth and effects
 
 76 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 wefe confiscated, and they were banished to Syria, to the number 
 of seven hundred men. 
 
 The arms and riches accruing to the prophet and his followers 
 from this confiscation, were of great avail in the ensuing wars of 
 the faith. Among the weapons which fell to the share of Mahomet, 
 are enumerated three swords; Medham, the Keen, al Battar, the 
 Trenchant, and Hatef, the Deadly. Two lances, al Monthari, the 
 Disperser, and al Monthawi, the Destroyer. A cuirass of silver, 
 named al Fadha, and another named al Saadia, said to have been 
 given by Saul to David, when about to encounter Goliath. There 
 was a bow, loo, dalled al CJatum, or the Strong, but it did not 
 answer to its name, for in the first battle in which the prophet used 
 it, he drew it with such force that he broke it in pieces. In gene- 
 ral, he used the Arabian kind of bow, with appropriate arrows 
 and lances, and forbade his followers to use those of Persia. 
 
 Mahomet now sought no longer to conciliate the Jews; on the 
 contrary, they became objects of his religious hostility. He 
 revoked the regulation by which he had made Jerusalem the Kebla 
 or point of prayer, and established Mecca in its place ; towards 
 which, ever since, the Mahometans turn their faces when perform- 
 ing their devotions. 
 
 The death of the prophet's daughter Rokaia had been properly 
 deplored by her husband Othman. To console the latter for his 
 loss, Omar, .his brother in arms, offered him, in the course of the 
 year, his daughter Hafza for wife. She was the widow of Hobash, 
 a Suhamite, eighteen years of age, and of tempting beauty, yet 
 Olhman declined the match. Omar was indignant at what he con- 
 ceived a slight to his daughter and to himself, and complained of 
 it to Mahomet. " Be not grieved, Omar," replied flie prophet, 
 "a better wife is destined for Othman, and a better husband for 
 thy daughter." He in effect gave his own daughter Omm Kolthum 
 to Othman ; and took the fair Hafza to wife himself. By 'these 
 politic alliances he grappled both Othman and Omar more strongly 
 to his side, while he gratified his own inclinations for female beauty. 
 Hafza, next to Ayesha, was the most favoured of his wives; and was 
 intrusted with the coffer containing the chapters and verses of the 
 Koran as they were revealed. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Henda incites Abu Soflan and the Koreishites to revenge the death of her relations slain 
 in the battle of Beder. The Koreishites sally forth, followed by Henda and her female 
 companions. Battle of Ohod. Ferocious triiimp of Henda. Mahomet consoles him- 
 self by marrying Hcnd, Ihe daughter of Onieya. 
 
 As the power of Mahomet increased in Medina, the hostility of 
 the Koreishites in Mecca augmented in virulence. Abu Sofian 
 held command in the sacred city, and was incessantly urged to 
 warfare by his wife Henda, whose fierce spirit could take no rest,
 
 BATTLE OF OHOD 77 
 
 until ' blood revenge" had been wreaked on those by whom her 
 father and brother hart been slain Akrema, also, a son of Abu 
 Jahl,and who inherited his father's hatred of the prophet, clamoured 
 for vengeance In the third year of the Hegira, therefore, the 
 year after the battle of Beder, Abu Soiian took the field at the 
 head of three thousand men, most of them Koreishites, though 
 there were also Arabs of the tribes of Kanana and Teharaa. Seven 
 hundred were armed with corselets and two hundred were horse- 
 men. Akrema was one of the captains,, as was also Kaled Ibn al 
 Waled, a warrior of indomitable valour, who afterwards rose to 
 great renown. The banners were borne in front by the race of 
 Abd al Dar, a brancli of the tribe of Korcish, who had a hereditary 
 right to the foremost place in council, the foremost rank in battle, 
 and to bear the standard in the advance of the army. 
 
 In the rear of the hostfolloyed the vindictive Henda, with fifteen 
 principal women of Mecca, relatives of those slain in the battle of 
 Beder; sometimes filling the air with waitings and lamentations for 
 the dead ; at other times animating the troops with the sound of 
 timbrels and warlike chants. As they passed through the village 
 of Abwa, where Amina the mother of Mahomet was interred, Henda 
 was with difficulty prevented from tearing the mouldering bones 
 out of the grave. 
 
 Al Abbas, the uncle of Mahomet, who still resided in Mecca, and 
 was considered hostile to the new faith, seeing that destruction 
 threatened his nephew should that army come upon him by sur- 
 prise, sent secretly a swift messenger to inform him of his danger. 
 Mahomet was at the village of Koba, when the message reached 
 him. He immediately hastened back to Medina, and called a 
 council of his principal adherents. Representing the insufficiency 
 of their force to take the field, he gave it as his opinion that they 
 should await an attack in Medina, where the very women and 
 children could aid them by hurling stones from the house-tops. 
 The elder among his followers joined in his opinion ; but the young 
 men, of heady valour at all times, and elated by the late victory at 
 Beder, cried out for a fair fight in the open field. 
 
 Mahomet yielded to their clamours, but his forces, when mustered, 
 were scarce a thousand men ; one hundred only had cuirasses, and 
 but two were horsemen. The hearts of those recently so clamor- 
 ous to sally forth, now misgave them, and they would fain await 
 the encounter within the walls " No," replied Mahomet, " it 
 becomes not a prophet when once he has drawn the sword to 
 sheathe it; nor when once he has advanced, to turn back, until 
 God has decided between him and the foe." So saying, he led 
 forth his army. Part of it was composed of Jews and Khazradites, 
 led by Abdallah Ibn Obba Solul. Mahomet declined the assistance 
 of the Jews, unless they embraced the faith of Islam, and as they 
 refused, he ordered them back to Medina; upon which their pro- 
 tector, Abdallah, turned back also with his Khazradites; thus re- 
 ducing the army to about seven hundred men. 
 
 With this small force .Mahomet posted himself upon the hill of 
 Ohod, about six miles from Medina. His position was partly defended 
 by rocks and the asperities of the hill, and archers were stationed
 
 78 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 to protect him in flank and rear from the attacks of cavalry. He 
 was armed with a helmet and two shirts of mail. On his sword 
 was engraved, ," Fear brings disgrace; forward lies honour. 
 Cowardice saves no man from his fate." As he was not to take 
 an active part in battle, he confided his sword to a brave warrior, 
 Abu Dudjana, who swore to wield it as long as it had edge and 
 temper. For himself, he, as usual, took a commanding stand 
 whence he might overlook the field. 
 
 The Koreishites, confident in their numbers, came marching to 
 the foot of the hill with banners flying. Abu Sofian led the centre ; 
 there were a hundred horsemen on each wing; the left commanded 
 by Akrema, the son of Abu Jahl, the right by Khaled Ibn al Waled. 
 As they advanced, Hentla and her companions struck their timbrels 
 and chanted their war song ; shrieking out at intervals the names 
 of those who had been slain in the battle of Beder. "Courage, 
 sons of Abd al Dar ! " cried they to the standard-bearers. " Forward 
 to the fight! close with the foe ! strike home and spare not. Sharp 
 be your swords and pitiless your hearts ! " 
 
 Mahomet restrained the impatience of his stroops; ordering them 
 not to commence the fight, but to stand firm and maintain their 
 advantage of the rising ground. Above all, the archers were to 
 keep to their post, let the battle go as it might, lest the cavalry 
 should fall upon his rear. 
 
 The horsemen of the left wing, led by Akrema, now attempted 
 to take the Moslems in flank, but were repulsed by the archers, and 
 retreated in confusion. Upon this Hamza set up the Moslem war- 
 cry, Amit! amit! (Death! death!) and rushed down with his forces 
 upon the centre. Abu Dudjana was at his right hand, armed with 
 the sword of Mahomet, and having a red band round his head, on 
 which was written, " Help comes from God ! victory is ours ! " 
 
 The enemy were staggered by the shock. Abu Dudjana dashed 
 into the midst of them, dealing deadly blows on every side, and 
 exclaiming. "The sword of God and his prophet! " Seven standard- 
 bearers, of the race of Abd el Dar, were, one after the other, 
 struck down, and the centre began to yield The Moslem archers, 
 thinking the victory secure, forgot the commands of Mahomet, and 
 leaving their post, dispersed in quest of spoil, crying "Booty! 
 booty!" Upon this Khaled, rallying. the horse, got possession of 
 the ground abandoned by the archers, attacked the Moslems in 
 rear, put some to flight, and threw the rest in confusion. In the 
 midst of the confusion a horseman, Obbij Ibn Chalaf by name, 
 pressed through the throng, crying, "AVhere is Mahomet? There 
 is no safety while he lives. " But Mahomet, seizing a lance from 
 an attendant, thrust it through the throat of the idolater, who fell 
 dead from his horse. "Thus," says the pious Al Jannabi, "died 
 this enemy of God, who, some years before, had menaced the 
 prophet, saying, *I shall find a day to slay thee.' 'Have a care,' 
 was the reply ; ' if it please Allah, thou thyself shall fall beneath my 
 hand.'" 
 
 In the midst of the melee a stone from a sling struck Mahomet 
 on the mouth, cutting his lip and knocking out one of his front 
 teeth ; he was wounded in the face also by an arrow, the iron head
 
 BATTLE OF OHOD. 79 
 
 of which remained in the wound. Hamza, too, while slaying a 
 Koreishite, was transfixed by the lance of Waksa, an Ethiopian 
 slave, who had been promised his freedom if he should revenge the 
 death of his master, slain by Hamza in the battle of Beder. Mosaab 
 Ibn Omair, also, who bore the standard of Mahomet, was laid low, 
 but AH seized the sacred banner and bore it aloft amidst the storm 
 of battle. 
 
 As Mo^aab resembled the prophet in person, a shout was put up 
 by tliti enemy that Mahomet was slain. The Koreishites were 
 inspired with redoubled ardour at the sound ; the Moslems fled in 
 despair, bearing with them Abu Beker and Omar, who were 
 wounded. Raab, the son of Malek, however, beheld Mahomet 
 lying among the wounded in a ditch, and knew him by his armour. 
 "Oh believers! " cried he, '' the prophet of God yet lives. To the 
 rescue! to the rescue!." Mahomet was drawn forth and borne up 
 the hill to the summit of a rock, where the Moslems prepared for 
 a desperate defence. The Koreishites, however, thinking Mahomet 
 slain, forbore to pursue them, contenting themselves with plunder- 
 ing and mutilating the dead. Henda and her female companions 
 were foremost in the savage work of vengeance ; and the fero- 
 cious heroine sought to tear out and devour the heart of Hamza. 
 Abu Sofian bore a part of the mangled body upon his lance, 
 and descending the hill in triumph, exclaimed, exultingly, " \Var 
 has its vicissitudes. The battle of Ohod succeeds to the battle of 
 Beder." 
 
 The Koreishites having withdrawn, Mahomet descended from the 
 rock and visited the field of battle. At sight of the body of his 
 uncle Hamza, so brutally mangled and mutilated, he vowed to 
 inflict like outrage on seventy of the enemy when in his power. 
 His grief, we are told, was soolhed by the angel Gabriel, who 
 assured him that Hamza was enregistered an inhabitant of the 
 seventh heaven, by the title of "The lion of God and of his 
 prophet." 
 
 The bodies of the slain were interred two and two, and three and 
 three, in the places where they had fallen. Mahomet forbade his 
 followers to mourn for the dead by cutting off their hair, rending 
 their garments, and the other modes of lamentation usual among the 
 Arabs ; but he consented that they should weep for the dead, as tears 
 relieve the overladen heart. 
 
 The night succeeding the battle was one of great disquietude, lest 
 the Koreishites should make another attack; or should surprise 
 Medina. On the following day he marched in the direction of that 
 city, hovering near the enemy, and on the return of night lighting 
 numerous watch-fires. Abu Sofian, however, had received intelli- 
 gence that Mahomet was still alive. He felt himself too weak to 
 attack the city, therefore, while Mahomet was in the field, and 
 might come to its assistance ; and he feared that the latter might 
 be reinforced by its inhabitants, and seek him with superior num- 
 bers. Contenting himself, therefore, with the recent victory, he 
 made a truce with the Moslems for a year, and returned in triumph 
 to Mecca. 
 
 Mahomet sought consolation for this mortifying defeat by taking
 
 80 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 to himself another wife, Hend, the daughter of Omeya, a man of 
 great influence. She was a wiiiow, and had, with her husband, 
 been among the number of the fugitives in Abyssinia. She was 
 now twenty-eight years of age, and had a son named Salma, 
 whence, she was commonly called Omm Salma, or the Mother of 
 Salma. Being distinguished for grace and beauty, she had been 
 sought by Abu Beker and Omar, but without success. Even Ma- 
 homet at first met with difficulty. "Alas!" said she, "what hap- 
 piness can the prophet of God expect with* me? I am no longer 
 young; I have a son, and I am of a jealous disposition." " As to 
 thy age," replied Mahomet, " thou art much younger than I. As to 
 thy son, I will be a father to him : as to thy jealous disposition, I 
 will pray Allah to root it from thy heart." 
 
 A separate dwelling was prepared for the bride, adjacent to 
 the mosque. The household goods, as stated by a Moslem writer, 
 consisted of a sack of barley, a hand-mill, a pan, and a pot of 
 lard or,butter. Such were as yet the narrow means of the prophet; 
 or rather, such the frugality of his habits and the simplicity of 
 Arab life. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 Treachery of certain Jewish tribes; their punishment.- Devotion of the prophet's freed - 
 man Zeid; divorces his beauliful wife Zeinab, that she may become the wife of the 
 prophet. 
 
 The defeat of Mahomet at the battle of Ohod, acted for a time 
 unfavourably to his cause among some of the Arab and Jewish tribes, 
 as was evinced by certain acts of perfidy. The inhabitants of two 
 towns, Adhal and Kara, sent a deputation to him. professing an in- 
 clination to embrace the faith, and requesting missionaries lo teach 
 them its doctrines. He accordingly sent six disciples to accompany 
 the deputation; but on the journey, while reposing by the brook 
 Radje within the boundaries of the Hodseilites, the deputies fell 
 upon the unsuspecting Moslems, slew four of them, and carried the 
 other two to Mecca, where they gave them up to the K6reishites, 
 who put them to death. 
 
 A similar act of treachery was practised by the people of the 
 province of Nadjed. Pretending to be Moslems, they sought suc- 
 cour from Mahomet against their enemies-. He sent a number of 
 his followers to their aid, who were attacked by the Beni Suleirn or 
 Suleimites, near the brook .Manna, about four day's journey from 
 Medina, and slain almost to a man. One of the Moslems, Amru 
 Ibn Omeya, escaped the carnage and made for Medina. On the 
 way he met two unarmed Jews of the Beni Amir ; either mistaking 
 these for enemies, or provoked to wanton rage by the death of his 
 comrades, he fell upon them and slew them. The tribe, who were 
 at peace with Mahomet, called upon him for redress. He referred 
 the matter to the mediation of another Jewish tribe, the Beni
 
 TREACHERY OF THE JEWS. 81 
 
 Nadher, who had rich possessions and a castle, called Zohra, within 
 three miles of Medina. This tribe had engaged by treaty, when 
 he came a fugitive from Mecca, to maintain a neutrality between 
 him and his opponents. The chief of this tribe being now applied 
 to as a mediator, invited Mahomet to an interview. He went, ac- 
 companied by Abu Beker, Omar, Ali, and a few others. A repast 
 was spread in the open air before the mansion of lh^ chief. Maho- 
 met, however, received private information thathe had been treach- 
 erously decoyed hither, and was to be slain as he sat at the repast : 
 it is said that he was to be crushed by a mill-stone, flung from the 
 terraced roof of the house Without intimating his knowledge of 
 the treason, he left the company abruptly, and hastened back to 
 Medina. 
 
 His rage was now kindled against the whole race of Nadher, and 
 he ordered them to leave the country within ten days on pain of 
 death. They would have departed, but Abdallah the Khazradite 
 secretly persuaded them to stay by promising them aid. He failed 
 in his promise. The Beni Nadher, thus disappointed by the " Chief 
 of the Hypocrites," shut themselves up in their castle of Zohra, 
 where they were besieged by Mahomet, who cut down and burnt 
 the date-trees, on which they depended for supplies. At the end 
 of six days they capitulated, and were permitted to depart, each 
 with a camel load of effects, arms excepted. Some were banished 
 to Syria, others to Khaibar, a strong Jewish city and fortress, dis- 
 tant several days' journey from Medina. As the tribe was wealthy, 
 there was great spoil, which Mahomet took entirely to himself. 
 His followers demurred that this was contrary to the law of parti- 
 tion revealed in the Koran; but he let them know that according 
 to another revelation, all booty gained, like the present, without 
 striking a blow, was not won by man, but was a gift from God, 
 and must be delivered over to the prophet to be expended by him 
 in good works, and the relief of orphans, of the poor, and the 
 traveller. Mahomet in effect did not appropriate it to his own 
 benefit, but shared it among the Mohadjerins, or exiles from Mecca ; 
 tw r o Nadherite Jews who had embraced Islamism, and two or three 
 Ansarians or Auxiliaries of Medina, who had proved themselves 
 worthy, and were poor. 
 
 We forbear to enter into details of various petty expeditions of 
 Mahomet about this time, one of which extended to the neighbourhood 
 of Tabuk, on the Syrian frontier, to punish a horde which had 
 plundered the caravans of Medina. These expeditions were check- 
 ered in their results, though mostly productive of booty ; which 
 now began to occupy the minds of the Moslems, almost as much 
 as the propagation of the faith. The spoils thus suddenly gained 
 may have led to riot and debauchery, as we find a revelation of 
 the passage of the Koran, forbidding wine and games of hazard, 
 those fruitful causes of strife and insubordination in predatory 
 camps. 
 
 During this period of his career, Mahomet in more than one in- 
 stance narrowly escaped falling by the hand of an assassin. He 
 himself is charged with the use of insidious means to rid himself of 
 an enemy; for it is said that he sent Amru Ibn Omeya on a secret
 
 82 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 errand to Mecca, to assassinate Abu Sofian, but that the plot was 
 discovered, and the assassin only escaped by rapid flight. The 
 charge, however, is not well substantiated, and is contrary to his 
 general character and conduct. 
 
 If Mahomet had relentless enemies, he had devoted friends, an 
 instance of which we have in the case of his freedman and adopted 
 son Zeid Ibn Horeth. He had been one of the first converts to the 
 faith, and one of its most valiant champions. Mahomet consulted 
 him on all occasions, and employed him in his domestic concerns. 
 One day he entered his house with the freedom with which a father 
 enters the dwelling of a son. Zeid was absent, but Zeinab his 
 wife, whom he had recently married, was at home. She was the 
 daughter of Djasch, of the country of Kaiba, and considered the 
 fairest of her tribe. In the privacy of home she had laid aside her 
 veil and part ofher attire, so that her beauty stood revealed to the 
 gaze of Mahomet on his sudden entrance. He could not refrain 
 from expressions of wonder and admiration, to which she made no 
 reply, but repeated them all to her husband on his return. Zeid 
 knew the amorous susceptibility of Mahomet, and saw that he had 
 been captivated by the beauty of Zeinab. Hastening after him, he 
 offered to repudiate his wife ; but the prophet forbade it as contrary 
 to the law The zeal of Zeid was not to be checked; he loved 
 his beautiful wife, but lie venerated the prophet, and he divorced 
 himself without delay. "When the requisite term of separation had 
 elapsed, Mahomet accepted, with gratitude, this pious sacrifice. 
 His nuptials with Zeinab surpassed in splendour all his other mar- 
 riages. His doors were thrown open to all comers; they were 
 feasted with the flesh of sheep and lambs, with cakes of barley, with 
 honey, and fruits, and favourite beverages; so they ate and drank 
 their fill and then departed railing against the divorce as shameful, 
 and the marriage as incestuous. 
 
 At this critical juncture was revealed that part of the thirty-third 
 chapter of the Koran, distinguishing relatives by adoption from 
 relatives by blood, according to which there was no sin in marry- 
 ing one who had been the wife of an adopted son. This timely re- 
 velation pacified the faithful ; but, to destroy all shadow of a scruple, 
 Mahomet revoked his adoption, and directed Zeid to resume his 
 original appellation of Ibn Hareth, after his natural father. The 
 beautiful Zeinab, however, boasted thenceforth a superiority over 
 the other wives of the prophet on the score of the revelation, 
 alleging that her marriage was ordained by heaven. 1 
 
 i This was Mahomet's second wife of the name of Zeinab; the first, who had died 
 tome lime previous, was the daughter of Chuzeima.
 
 FIGHT WITH THE FEW MOSTALEK. 83 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Expediiion of Mahomet against the Beni Mostalek.-He espouses Barra, a captive. 
 Treachery of Abdallah Jbn Obba. Ayesha slandered. -Her vindication. Her inno- 
 cence proved by a revelation. 
 
 Among the Arab tribes which ventured to take up arms against 
 Mahomet after his defeat at Ohod, were Ihe Beni Mostalek, a power- 
 ful race of Koreishite origin. Mahomet received intelligence of 
 their being assembled in warlike guise under their prince Al Hareth, 
 near the wells of Moraisi, in the territory of Kedaid, and within 
 five miles of the Red Sea. He immediately took the field at the 
 head of a chosen band of the faithful, accompanied by numbers of 
 the Khazradites, led by their chief Abdallah Ibn Obba. By a rapid 
 movement he surprised the enemy ; Al Hareth was killed at the 
 onset by the flight shot of an arrow; his troops fled in confusion 
 after a brief resistance, in which a few were slain. Two hundred 
 prisoners, five thousand sheep, and one thousand camels, were the 
 fruits of this easy victory. Among the captives was Barra the 
 daughter of Al Hareth, and wife to a young Arab of her kin. In 
 the division of the spoil she fell to the lot of Thabet Ibn Reis, who 
 demanded a high ransom. The captive appealed to Mahomet 
 against this extortion, and prayed that the ransom might be miti- 
 gated. The prophet regarded her with eyes of desire, for she was 
 fair to look upon. "I can serve thee better," said he, "than by 
 abating thy ransom : be my wife." The beautiful Barra gave ready 
 consent ; her ransom was paid by the prophet to Thabet ; her 
 kindred were liberated by the Moslems, to whose lot they had 
 fallen ; most of them embraced the faith, and Barra became the wife 
 of Mahomet after his return to Medina. 
 
 After the battle, the troops crowded round the wells of Moraisi 
 to assuage their thirst. In the press a quarrel rose between some 
 of the Mohadjerins, or exiles of Mecca, and the Khazradites, in 
 which one of the latter received a blow. His comrades rushed to 
 revenge the insult, and blood would have been shed but for the in- 
 terference of Mahomet. The Khazradites remained incensed, and 
 other of the people of Medina made common cause with them. 
 Abdallah Ibn Obba, eager to take advantage of every circumstance 
 adverse to the rising power of Mahomet, drew his kindred and 
 townsfolk apart. " Behold," said he, " the insults you have 
 brought upon yourselves by harbouring these fugitive Koreishites. 
 You have taken them to your houses, and given them your goods, 
 and now they turn upon and maltreat you. They would make 
 themselves your masters even in your own house ; but by Allah, 
 when we return to Medina, we will see which of us is strongest " 
 
 Secret word was brought to Mahomet of this seditious speech. 
 Omar counselled him at once to make way with Abdallah ; but the
 
 84 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 prophet feared to excite the vengeance of the kindred and adherents 
 of the powerful Khazradite. To leave no time for mutiny, he set 
 off immediately on the homeward inarch, although it was in the 
 heat of the day, and continued on throughout the night, nor halted 
 until the following noon, when the wearied soldiery cared for nothing 
 but repose. 
 
 On arriving at Medina, he called Ahdallah to account for his 
 seditious expressions. He flatly denied them, pronouncing the one 
 who had accused him a liar. A revelation from heaven, however, 
 established the charge against him and his adherents. " These are 
 the men," says the Koran, "who say to the inhabitants of Medina, 
 do not bestow any thing on the refugees who are with the apostle 
 of God, that they may be compelled to separate from him. They 
 say, verily, if we return to Medina, the worthier will expel thence 
 the meaner. God curse them ! how are they turned aside from 
 the truth." 
 
 Some of the friends of Abdallah, convinced by this revelation, 
 advised him to ask pardon of the prophet; but he spurned their 
 counsel. "You have already," said he, "persuaded me to give 
 this man my countenance and friendship, and now you would have 
 me put myself beneath his very feet" 
 
 Nothing could persuade him that Mahomet was not an idolater at 
 heart, and his revelations all imposture and deceit. He considered 
 him, however, a formidable rival, and sought in every way to in- 
 jure and annoy him. To this implacable hostility is attributed a 
 scandalous story which he propagated about Ayesha, the favourite 
 wife of the prophet. 
 
 It was the custom with Mahomet always to have one of his wives 
 willi him, on his military expeditions, as companion and solace; 
 she was taken by lot, and on the recent occasion the lot had fallen 
 on Ayesha. She travelled in a litter, inclosed by curtains, and 
 borne on the back of a camel, which was led by an attendant. 
 On the return homeward the army, on one occasion, coming to a 
 halt, the attendants of Ayesha were astonished to find the litter 
 empty. Before they had recovered from their surprise, she arrived 
 on a camel, led by a youthful Arab named Safwan Ibn al Moattel. 
 This circumstance having come to the knowledge of Abdallah, he 
 proclaimed it to the world after his return to Medina, affirming 
 that Ayesha had been guilty of wantonness with the youthful 
 Safwan. 
 
 The story was eagerly caught up and circulated by Hamna, the 
 sister of the beautiful Zeinab, whom Mahomet had recently 
 espoused, and who hoped to benefit her sister by the downfall of 
 her deadly rival Ayesha ; it was echoed also by Mistah, a kinsman 
 of Abu Bcker, and was celebrated in satirical verses by a poet 
 named Hasan. 
 
 It was some time before Ayesha knew of the scandal thus cir- 
 culating at her expense. Sickness had confined her to the house on 
 her return to Medina, and no one ventured to tell her of what she 
 was accused. She remarked, however, that the prophet was stern 
 and silent, and no longer treated her with his usual tenderness. 
 On her recovery, she heard with consternation the crime alleged
 
 SCANDAL AGAINST AYESUA. 85 
 
 against her, and protested her innocence. The following is her 
 version of the story. 
 
 The army, on its homeward march, had encamped not far from 
 Medina, when orders were given in the night to march. The at- 
 tendants, as usual, brought a camel before the tent of Ayesha, and 
 placing the litter on the ground, retired until she could take her 
 seat within it. As she was about to enter, she missed her necklace, 
 and returned into the tent to seek it. In the meantime the atten- 
 dants lifted the litter upon the camel and strapped it fast not per- 
 ceiving that it was empty ; she being slender and of little weight. 
 When she returned from seeking the necklace, the camel was 
 gone, and the army was on the march ; whereupon she wrapped 
 herself in her mantle and sat down, trusting that, when her absence 
 should be discovered, some persons would be sent back in quest 
 of her. 
 
 While thus seated, Safwan Ibn al Moattel, the young Arab, 
 being one of the rear-guard, came up, and, recognizing her, ac- 
 costed her with the usual Moslem salutation. "To God we belong, 
 and to God we must return ! AVife of the prophet, why dost thou 
 remain behind ? " 
 
 Ayesha made no reply, but drew her veil closer over her face. 
 Safwan then alighted, aided her to mount the camel, and, taking 
 the bridle, hastened to rejoin the army. The sun had risen, 
 however, before he overtook it. just without the walls of Medina. 
 
 This account, given by Ayesha, and attested by Safwan Ibn al 
 Moattel, was satisfactory to her parents and particular friends; 
 but was scoffed atbyAbdallah and his adherents, "the Hypocrites." 
 Two parties thus arose on the subject, and great strife ensued. 
 As to Ayesha, she shut herself up within her dwelling, refusing all 
 food, and weeping day and night in the bitterness of her soul. 
 
 Mahomet was sorely troubled in mind, and asked counsel of Ali 
 in his perplexity. The latter made light of the affair, observing 
 that his misfortune was the frequent lot of man. The prophet was 
 but little consoled by this suggestion. He remained separated 
 from Ayesha for a month; but his heart yearned toward her; not 
 merely on account of her beauty, but because he loved her society. 
 In a paroxysm of grief, he fell into one of those trances, which 
 unbelievers have attributed to epilepsy ; in the course of which he 
 received a seasonable revelation, which will be found in a chapter 
 of the Koran. It was to this effect. 
 
 They who accuse a reputable female of adultery, and produce 
 not four witnesses of the fact, shall be scourged with fourscore 
 stripes, and their testimony rejected. As to those who have made 
 the charge against Ayesha, have they produced four witnesses 
 thereof? If they have not, they are liars in the sight of God. Let 
 them receive, therefore, the punishment of their crime. 
 
 The innocence of the beautiful Ayesha being thus miraculously 
 made manifest, the prophet took her to his bosom with augmented 
 affection. Nor was he slow 7 in dealing the prescribed castigation. 
 It is true, Abdallah Ibn Obba was too powerful a personage to be 
 subjected to the scourge, but it fell the heavier on the shoulders 
 of his fellow calumniators. The poet Hasan was cured for some
 
 86 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 time of his propensity to make satirical verses, nor could Hamna, 
 though a female, and of great personal charms, escape the inflic- 
 tion of stripes ; for, Mahomet observed that such beauty should 
 have been accompanied by a gen tier nature. 
 
 The revelation at once convinced the pious Ali of the purity 
 of Ayesha ; but she never forgot nor forgave that he had doubted ; 
 and the hatred thus implanted in her bosom, was manifested to his 
 great detriment in many of the most important concerns of his 
 after life. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 The battle of the Moat. Bravery of Saad Ibn Moad. Defeat of the Koreishiles. Capture 
 of the Jewish caslle of Koraida. Saad decides as to the punishment of the Jews. 
 Mahomet espouses Rehana, a Jewish captive. His life endangered by sorcery : saved 
 by a revelation of the angel Gabriel. 
 
 During the year of truce which succeeded the battle of Ohod, 
 Abu Sofian, the restless chief of the Koreishites, formed a confede- 
 racy with the Arab tribe of Ghalafan and other tribes of the desert, 
 as well as with many of the Jews of the race of Nadher, whom 
 Mahomet had driven from their homes. The truce being ended, 
 he prepared to march upon Medina, with these confederates, their 
 combined forces amounting to ten thousand men. 
 
 Mahomet had early intelligence of the meditated attack, but his 
 late reverse at Ohod made him wary of taking the field against 
 such numbers; especially as he feared the enemy might have secret 
 allies in Medina ; where he distrusted the Jewish inhabitants and 
 the Hypocrites, the partisans of Abdallah Ibn Obba, who were 
 numerous and powerful. 
 
 Great exertions were now made to put the city in a state of 
 defence. Salman the Persian, who had embraced the faith, advised 
 that a deep moat should be digged at some distance beyond the 
 wall, on the side on which the enemy would approach. This 
 mode of defence, hitherto unused in Arabia, was eagerly adopted 
 by Mahomet; who set a great number of men to dig the moat, and 
 even assisted personally in the labour. Many miracles are recorded 
 of him during the progress of this work. At onetime, it is said, 
 he fed a great multitude from a single basket of dates; which re- 
 mained full after all were satisfied. At another time he feasted 
 a thousand men upon a roasted lamb and a loaf of barley bread; 
 yet enough remained for all his fellow-labourers in the moat. Nor 
 must we omit to note the wonderful blows which he gave to a 
 rock, with an iron mallet; striking off sparks which in one direc- 
 tion lighted up all Yemen, or Arabia the Happy; in another, re- 
 vealed the imperial palace of Constantinople; and in a third, illu- 
 mined the towers of the royal residence of Persia 5 all signs and 
 portents of the future conquests of Islam. 
 
 Scarcely was the moat completed when the enemy appeared in 
 great force on the neighbouring hills. Leaving Ibn 6mm Mactum,
 
 IUT1LK OF TUt: MOAT. 7 
 
 a trusty officer, to command in the city, and keep a vigilant eye on 
 the disaffected, Mahomet sallied forth with three thousand men, 
 whom he formed in battle array, having the deep moat in front. 
 Abu Sofian advanced confidently with his combined force of Ko- 
 reishites and Ghalafanites, but was unexpectedly checked by the 
 moat, and by a galling fire from the Moslems drawn up beyond it. 
 The enemy now encamped ; the Koreishites in the lower part of 
 the valley, an 1 the Ghatafanites in the upper; and for some days 
 the armies remained on each side of the moat, keeping up a distant 
 combat with slings and stones, and flights of arrows. 
 
 In the meantime, spies brought word to Mahomet that a Jewish 
 tribe, the Bern Koraida, who had a strong castle near the city, 
 and had made a covenant of peace with him, were in secrel league 
 with the enemy. He now saw the difficulty, with his scanty forces, 
 to man the whole extent of the moat; to guard against a perfidious 
 attack from the Koraidites ; and to maintain quiet in the city where 
 the Jews must have secret confederates. Summoning a council 
 of war, he consulted with his captains on the policy of bribing the 
 Ghatafauites to a separate peace, by offering them a third of the 
 date-harvest of Medina. Upon this, Saad Ibn Moad, a stout leader 
 of the Awsites of Medina, demanded : " Do you propose this by the 
 command of Allah, or is it an idea of your own?" " If it had 
 been a command of Allah," replied Mahomet, " I should never 
 have asked your advice. I see you pressed by enemies on every 
 side, and I seek to break their confederacy " " Oh prophet of 
 God!" rejoined Saad, "when we were fellow-idolaters with these 
 people of Ghatafan, they got none of our dates without paying for 
 them : and shall we give them up gratuitously now that we are of 
 the true faith, and led by thee? No. by Allah ! if they want our 
 dates they must win them with their swords." 
 
 The stout Saad had his courage soon put to the proof. A 
 prowling party of Koreishite horsemen, among whom was Akrema 
 the son of Abu Jahl, and Aniru, uncle of Mahomet's first wife 
 Cadijah, discovered a place where the moat was narrow, and 
 putting spurs to their steeds succeeded in. leaping over, followed 
 by some of their comrades. They then challenged the bravest of 
 the Moslems to equal combat, the challenge was accepted by 
 Saad Ibu Moad, by Ali, and several of their companions. Ali had 
 a close combat with Aniru ; they fought on horseback and on foot, 
 until, grappling with each other, they rolled in the dust. In the 
 end, Ali was victorious and slew his foe. The general conflict 
 was maintained with great obstinacy; several were slain on both 
 sides, and Saad Ibn Moad was severely wounded. At length the 
 Koreishites gave way, and spurred their horses to recross the moat. 
 The steed of one of them, Nawfal Ibn Abdallah, leaped short; his 
 rider was assailed with stones while in the moat, and defied the 
 Moslems to attack him with nobler weapons, In an instant Ali 
 sprang down into the moat, and Nawfal soon fell beneath his 
 sword. Ali then joined his companions in pursuit of the retreating 
 foe, and wounded Akrema with a javelin This skirmish was dig- 
 nified with the name of the Battle of the Moat. 
 
 Mahomet, still unwilling to venture a pitched battle, sent Rueim,
 
 88 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 a secretly converted Arab of the tribe of Ghatafan, to visit the 
 camps of the confederates and artfully to sow dissensions among 
 them. Rueim first repaired to the Koraidites, with whom he was 
 in old habits of friendship. "What folly is this," said he, "to 
 suffer yourselves to be drawn by the Koreishites of Mecca into 
 their quarrel. Bethink you how different is your situation from 
 theirs. If defeated, they have only to retreat to Mecca, and be 
 secure. Their allies from the desert will also retire to their distant 
 homes, and you will be left to bear the w,hole brunt of the ven- 
 geance of Mahomet and the people of Medina. Before you make 
 common cause with them, therefore, let them pledge themselves 
 and give hostages, never to draw back until they have broken the 
 power of Mahomet." 
 
 He then went to the Koreishites and the tribe of Ghatafan, and 
 warned them against confiding in the Jews of Koraida, who in- 
 tended to get hostages from them, and deliver them up into the 
 hands of Mahomet. 
 
 The distrust thus artfully sown among the confederates soon 
 produced its effects. Abu Sofian sent word on Friday evening, to 
 the Koraidites, to be ready to join next morning in a general 
 assault. The Jews replied, that the following day was their 
 Sabbath, on which they could not engage in battle ; at the same 
 time they declined to join in any hostile act, unless their allies 
 should give hostages to stand by them to the end. 
 
 The Koreishites and Ghatafanites were now convinced of the 
 perfidy of the Koraidites, and dared not venture upon the medi- 
 tated attack, lest these should fall upon them in the rear. AVhile 
 they lay idly in their camp a cold storm came on, with drenching 
 rain and sweeping blasts from the desert. Their tents were blown 
 down ; their camp-fires were extinguished ; in the midst of the 
 uproar, the alarm was given that Mahomet had raised the storm by 
 enchantment, and was coming upon them with his forces. All now 
 was panic and confusion, Abu Sofian, finding all efforts vain to 
 produce order, mounted his camel in despair, and gave the word 
 to retreat. The confederates hurried off from the scene of tumult 
 and terror, the Koreishites towards Mecca, the others to their 
 homes in the desert. 
 
 Abu Sofian, in rage and mortification, wrote a letter to Mahomet, 
 upbraiding him with his cowardice in lurking behind a ditch, a 
 thing unknown in Arabian warfare ; and threatening to take his re- 
 venge on some future day, when they might meet in open fight, as 
 in the field of Ohod. Mahomet hurled -back a defiance, and pre- 
 dicted that the day was approaching when he would break in pieces 
 the idols of the Koreishites. 
 
 The invaders having disappeared, Mahomet turned to take ven- 
 geance on the Beni Koraida; who shut themselves up in their 
 castle, and withstood a siege of many days. At length, pinched by 
 famine, they implored the intercession of their ancient friends and 
 protectors, the Awsites. The latter entreated the prophet to grant 
 these Hebrews the same terms he had formerly granted to the Be,ni 
 Kainoka, at the prayer of Abdallah the Khazradite. Mahomet re- 
 flected a moment, and offered to leave their fate to the decision of
 
 MARRIAGE WITH R1HANA AHKTA1J. 89 
 
 Saad Ibn Moad, the Awsite chief. The Koraidites gladly agreed, 
 knowing him lo have been formerly their friend. They accordingly 
 surrendered themselves, to the number of seven hundred, and were 
 conducted in chains to Medina. Unfortunately for them, Saad con- 
 sidered their perfidious league with the enemy as one cause of the 
 recent hostility. He was still smarting with the wound received in 
 the battle of the Moat, and in his moments of pain and anger had 
 repeatedly prayed that his life might be spared to see vengeance 
 wreaked on the Koraidites. Such was the state of his feelings 
 when summoned to decide upon their fate. 
 
 Being a gross, full-blooded man, he was with difficulty helped 
 upon an ass, propped up by a leathern cushion, and supported in 
 his seat until he arrived at the tribunal of justice. Before ascend- 
 ing it, he exacted an oath from all present to abide by his deci- 
 sion. The Jews readily took it, anticipating a favourable sentence. 
 No sooner was he helped into the tribunal, than, extending his hand, 
 he condemned the men to death, the women and children to slavery, 
 and their effects to be shared among the victors. 
 
 Tbe wretched Jews looked aghast, but there was no appeal. 
 They were conducted to a public place since called the Market of 
 the Koraidites, where great graves had been digged. Into these 
 they were compelled to descend, one by one, their prince Hoyai 
 Ibn Ahktab among the number, and were successively put to death. 
 Thus the prayer of Saad Ibn Moad for vengeance on the Koraidites 
 was fully gratilied. He witnessed the execution of the men he had 
 condemned, but such was his excitement that his wound broke out 
 afresh, and he died shortly afterwards. 
 
 In the Castle of Koraida was found a great quantity of pikes, 
 lances, cuirasses, and other armour; and its lands were covered 
 with flocks and herds and camels. In dividing the spoil each foot- 
 soldier had one lot, each horseman three ; two for his horse, and 
 one for himself. A fifth part of the whole was set apart for the 
 prophet. 
 
 The most precious prize in the eyes of Mahomet was Rihana, 
 daughter of Simeon, a wealthy and powerful Jew ; and the most 
 beautiful female of her tribe. He took her to himself, and, having 
 converted her to the faith, added her lo the number of his wives. 
 
 But, though thus susceptible of the charms of the Israelitish 
 women, Mahomet became more and more vindictive in his haired 
 of the men ; no longer putting faith in their covenants, and suspect- 
 ing them of the most insidious attempts upon his life. Moslem 
 writers attribute to the spells of Jewish sorcerers a long and lan- 
 guishing illness, with which he was afflicted about this time, and 
 which seemed to defy all remedy. They describe the very charm 
 by which it was produced. It was prepared, say they, by a Jewish 
 necromancer from the mountains, aided by his daughters, \vho 
 were equally skilled in the diabolic art. They formed a small 
 waxen effigy of Mahomet ; wound round it some of his hair, and 
 thrust through it eleven needles. They then made eleven knots in 
 a bow-string, blowing with thejr breaths on each ; and, winding 
 the string round the effigy, threw the whole into a well 
 
 Under the influence of this potent spell Mahomet wasted away,
 
 90 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 until his friend, the angel Gabriel, revealed the secret to him in a 
 vision. On awaking, he sent AH to the well, where the image was 
 discovered. AVhen it was brought to Mahomet, continues the le- 
 gend, he repeated over it the two last chapters of the Koran, which 
 had been communicated to him in the recent vision. They consist 
 of eleven verses, and are to the following purport. 
 
 In the name of the all merciful God ! I will fly for refuge to the 
 Lord of the light of day. 
 
 That he may deliver me from the danger of beings and things 
 created by himself. 
 
 From the dangers of the darksome night, and of the moon when 
 in eclipse. 
 
 From the danger of sorcerers, who tie knots and blow on them 
 with their breath. 
 
 From the danger of the envious, who devise deadly harm. 
 
 I will fly for refuge to Allah, the Lord of men. 
 
 To Allah, the King of men. 
 
 To Allah, the God of men. 
 
 That he may deliver me from the evil spirit who flies at the men- 
 tion of his holy name. 
 
 Who suggests evil thoughts into the hearts of the children of 
 men. 
 
 And from the evil Genii, and men who deal in magic. 
 
 At the repetition of each one of these verses, says the legend,, a 
 knot of the bow-string came loose, a needle fell from the effigy, 
 and Mahomet gained strength. At the end of the eleventh verse he 
 rose, renovated in health and vigour, as one restored to freedom, 
 after having been bound with cords. 
 
 The two final chapters of the Koran, which comprise these 
 verses, are entitled the amulets, and considered by the supersti- 
 tious Moslems effectual talismans against sorcery and magic charms. 
 
 The conduct of Mahomet in the affair narrated in this chapter, 
 has been censured as weak and vacillating, and deficient in mili- 
 tary decision, and his measures as wanting in true greatness of 
 mind, and the following circumstances are adduced to support 
 these charges. When threatened with violence from without, and 
 perfidy from within, he is for bribing a part of his confederate foes 
 to a. separate peace ; but suffers himself to be, in a manner, hec- 
 tored out of this crafty policy by Saad Ibn Moad ; yet, subsequently, 
 he resorts to a scheme still more subtle and crafty, by which he 
 sows dissension among his enemies. Above all, his conduct to- 
 wards the Jews has been strongly reprobated. His referring the 
 appeal of the Beni Koraida for mercy, to the decision of one whom 
 he knew to be bent on their destruction, has been stigmatized as 
 cruel mockery ; and the massacre of th:>se unfortunate men in the 
 market-place of Medina, is pronounced one of the darkest pages of 
 his history. In fact, his conduct towards this race from the time 
 that he had power in his hands, forms an exception to the general 
 tenour of his disposition, which was forgiving and humane. He may 
 have been especially provoked against them by proofs of treachery 
 and deadly rancour on their part, but we see in this, as in other 
 parts of his policy in this part of his career, instances of that worldly
 
 PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA. 91 
 
 alloy which at times was debasing his spirit, now that he had be- 
 come the Apostle of the religion of the Sword. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 Mahomet undertakes a pilgrimage to Mecca. Evades Khaled and a troop of horse sent 
 against him. Encamps near Mecca. Negotiates with the Koreishites for permission 
 to enter and complete his pilgrimage. Treaty for ten years, by which he is permitted 
 to make a yearly visit of three days. He returns to Medina. 
 
 Six years had now elapsed since the flight of Mahomet from 
 Mecca. As that city was sacred in the eyes of the Arabs and their 
 great point of pilgrimage, his long exile from it, and his open war- 
 fare with the Koreishites, who had charge of the Caaba, prejudiced 
 him in the opinion of many of the tribes, and retarded the spread 
 of his doctrines. His followers, too, who had accompanied him in 
 his flight, languished once more to see their native home, and 
 there was danger of their faith becoming enfeebled under a pro- 
 tracted exile. 
 
 Mahomet fell more and more the importance of linking the sa- 
 cred city with his religion, and maintaining the ancient usages of his 
 race. Besides, he claimed but to be a reformer, anxious to restore 
 the simplicity and purity of the patriarchal faith. The month Doul 
 Kaada was at hand, the month of pilgrimage, when there was a 
 truce to warfare, and enemies might meet in peace within the holy 
 boundaries. A timely vision assured Mahomet that he and his fol- 
 lowers might safely avail themselves of the protection of this vene- 
 rable custom to revisit the ancient shrines of Arabian worship. The 
 revelation was joyfully received by his followers, and in the holy 
 month he set forth from Medina on his pilgrimage, at the head of 
 fourteen hundred men; partly Mohacljerins or Fugitives, and partly 
 Ansarians or Auxiliaries. They took with them seventy camels to 
 be slain in sacrifice at the Caaba. To manifest publicly that they 
 came in peace and not in war, they halted at Usu Huleifa, a vil- 
 lage about a day's journey from Medina, where they laid aside all 
 their weapons, excepting their sheathed swords, and thence conti- 
 nued on in pilgrim garb. 
 
 In the meantime a confused rumour of this movement had 
 reached Mecca. The Koreishites, suspecting hostilities, sent forth 
 Khaled Ibn AValed with a powerful troop of horse, to take post in 
 a valley about two days' journey from Mecca, and check the ad- 
 vance of Hie Moslems. 
 
 Mahomet, heaJng that the main road was thus barred against 
 him, took a rugged and difficult route through the defiles of the 
 mountains, and, avoiding Khaled and his forces, descended into the 
 plain near Mecca; where he encamped at Hodeiba, within the sa- 
 cred boundaries. Hence he sent assurances to the Koreishites of 
 his peaceable intentions, and claimed the immunities and rights of 
 pilgrimage. 
 
 Envoys from the Koreishites visited his camp to make observa-
 
 92 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 tions. They were struck with the reverence with which he was 
 regarded by his followers. The water with which he per- 
 formed his ablutions became sanctified ; a hair falling from his 
 head, or the paring of a nail, was caught up as a precious relic. 
 One of the envoys, in the course of conversation, unconsciously 
 touched the flowing beard of the prophet; he was thrust back by 
 the disciples, and warned of the impiety of the act. In making his 
 report to the Korcishites on his return, " I have seen the king of 
 Persia, and the emperor of Constantinople, surrounded by their 
 courts;" said he, "but never did I behold a sovereign so revered 
 by his subjects, as is Mahomet by his followers." 
 
 The Koreishites were the more loth to admit into their city an 
 adversary to their sect, so formidable in his influence over the minds 
 and affections of his fellow-men. Mahomet sent repeated missions 
 to treat for a safe access to the sacred shrines, but in vain. Olhman 
 Ibn Affan, his son-in-law, was his last envoy. Several days elapsed 
 without his return, and it was rumoured that he was slain. Ma- 
 homet determined to revenge his fall. Standing under a tree, and 
 summoning his people around him, he exacted an oath to defend 
 him even to the death, and never to desert the standard of the 
 faith. This ceremony is known among Mahometans, by the name 
 of the Spontaneous Inauguration. 
 
 The reappearance of Olhman in the camp, restored tranquillity. 
 He was accompanied by Solhail, an ambassador from the Koreishites, 
 to arrange a treaty of peace. They perceived the impolicy of war- 
 ring with a man whose power was incessantly increasing, and who 
 was obeyed with such fanatic devotion. The treaty proposed was 
 for ten years; during which time Mahomet and his adherents were 
 to have free access to Mecca as pilgrims, there to remain, three days 
 at a time, in the exercise of their religious rites. The terms were 
 readily accepted, and AH was employed to draw up the treaty. 
 Mahomet dictated the words. "Write," said he, "these are the 
 conditions of peace made by Mahomet the apostle of God." 
 " Hold ! " cried Solhail, the ambassador, " had I believed thee to 
 be the apostle of God, I should never have taken up arms against 
 thee. Write, therefore, simply thy name, and the name of thy 
 father." Mahomet was fain to comply, for he felt he was not suf- 
 ficiently in force at this moment to contend about forms ; so he 
 merely denominated himself in the treaty, Mahomet Ibn Abdallah 
 (Mahomet the son of Abdallah), an abnegation which gave some 
 little scandal to his followers. Their discontent was increased when 
 he ordered them to shave their heads, and to sacrifice on the spot 
 the camels brought to be offered up at the Caaba, as it showed he 
 had not the intention of entering Mecca ; these rites being properly 
 done at the conclusion of the ceremonials of pilgrimage. They re- 
 minded him of his vision which promised a safe entrance of the sa - 
 cred city ; he replied, that the present treaty was an earnest of its 
 fulfilment, which would assuredly take place on the following year. 
 With this explanation they had to content themselves ; and having 
 performed the ceremony, and made the sacrifice prescribed, the 
 camp was broken up, and the pilgrim host returned, somewhat 
 disappointed and dejected, to Medina.
 
 SIEGE OF KHAIBAR. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 Expedition against the cily of Khaibar; siege. -Exploits of Mahomet's captains. -Battle 
 of Ali and Marhab. Storming of the citadel. Ali makes a buckler of the gale. 
 Capture of the place. Mahomet poisoned ; he marries Saflya, a captive; also Omm 
 Habiba, a widow. 
 
 To console his followers for the check their religious devotion 
 had experienced at Mecca, Mahomet now set on foot an expedition 
 calculated to gratify that love of plunder, which began to rival fa- 
 naticism in attaching them to his standard 
 
 About five days' journey to the northeast of Medina, was situated 
 the city of Khaibar, and its dependent territory. It was inhabited 
 by Jews, who had grown wealthy by commerce, as well as agri- 
 culture. Their rich domain was partly cultivated with grain, and 
 planted with groves of palm-trees; partly devoted to pasturage 
 and covered with flocks and herds; and it was fortified by several 
 castles. So venerable was its antiquity, that Abulfeda, the Arabian 
 historian, assures us that Moses, after the passage of the Red Sea, 
 sent an army against the Amalekites, inhabiting Gothreb (Medina), 
 and the strong city of Khaibar. 
 
 This region had become a place of refuge for the hostile Jews, 
 driven by Mahomet from Medina and its environs, and for all 
 those who had made themselves obnoxious to his vengeance. 
 These circumstances, together with its teeming wealth, pointed it 
 out as a fit and ripe object for that warfare which he had declared 
 against all enemies of the faith. 
 
 In the beginning of the seventh year of the Hegira, he departed 
 on an expedition against Khaibar, at the head of twelve hundred 
 foot and two hundred horse, accompanied by Abu Beker, by Ali, 
 by Omar, and other of his principal officers. He had two stan- 
 dards j one represented the sun, the other a black eagle ; which last 
 became famous in after years as the standard of Khaled. 
 
 Entering the fertile territory of Khaibar, he began his warfare by 
 assailing the inferior castles with which it was studded. Some of 
 these capitulated without making resistance ; in which cases, being 
 considered " gifts from God," the spoils went to the prophet, to be 
 disposed of by him in the way before mentioned. Others of more 
 strength, and garrisoned by stouter hearts, had to be taken by 
 storm. 
 
 After the capture of these minor fortresses, .Mahomet advanced 
 against the city of Khaibar. It was strongly defended by outworks, 
 and its citadel, Al Kamus, built on a steep rock, was deemed im- 
 pregnable, insomuch that Kenana Ibn al Rabi, the chief or king 
 of the nation, had made it the depository of all his treasures. 
 
 The siege of this city was the most important enterprise the 
 Moslems had yet undertaken. When Mahomet first came in sight 
 of its strong and frowning walls, and its rock-built citadel, he is 
 said to have put up the following prayer :
 
 94 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 " Oh Allah ! Lord of the seven heavens, and of all things which 
 they cover! Lord of the seven earths, and all which they sustain ! 
 Lord of the evil spirits, and of all whom they lead astray ! Lord 
 of the winds, and of all whom they scatter and disperse ! We 
 supplicate thee to deliver into our hands this city, and all that it 
 contains, and the riches of all its lands. To thee we look for aid 
 against this people, and against all the perils by which we are 
 environed." 
 
 To give more solemnity to his prayers, he chose as his place of 
 worship a great rock, in a stony place called Mansela, and, during 
 all the time that he remained encamped before Khaibar, made 
 daily seven circuits round it, as are made round the Caaba. A 
 mosque was erected on this rock in after times in memorial of this 
 devout ceremonial, and it became an object of veneration to all 
 pious Moslems. 
 
 The siege of the citadel lasted for some time, and tasked the skill 
 and patience of Mahomet and his troops; as yet but little practised 
 in the attack of fortified places. They suffered too from want of 
 provisions, for the Arabs in their hasty expeditions seldom burden 
 themselves with supplies, and the Jews on their approach had laid 
 waste the level country, and destroyed the palm-trees round their 
 capital. 
 
 Mahomet directed the attacks in person : the besiegers protected 
 themselves by trenches, and brought battering-rams to play upon 
 the walls ; a breach was at length effected, but for several days 
 every attempt to enter was vigorously repelled. Abu Beker at one 
 time led the assault, bearing the standard of the prophet; but, after 
 fighting with great bravery, was compelled to retreat. The next 
 attack was headed by Omar Ibn Khattab, who fought until the 
 close of day with no better success. A third attack was led by Ali, 
 whom Mahomet armed with his own scimetar, called Dhu'l-Kakar, 
 or the Trenchant. On confiding to his hands the sacred banner, he 
 pronounced him "a man who loved God and his prophet; and 
 whom God and his prophet loved. A man who knew not fear, 
 nor ever turned his back upon a foe." 
 
 And here it may be well to give a traditional account of the 
 person and character of Ali. He was of the middle height, but 
 robust and square, and of prodigious strength. He ha I a smiling 
 countenance, exceedingly florid, with a bushy beard. He was 
 distinguished for an amiable disposition, sagacious intellect, and 
 religious zeal, and, from his undaunted courage, was surnamed the 
 Lion of God. 
 
 Arabian writers dwell with fond exaggeration on the exploits, 
 at Khaibar, of this their favourite hero. He was clad,they say, in a 
 scarlet vest, over which was buckled a cuirass of steel. Scrambling 
 with his followers up the great heap of stones and rubbish in front 
 of the breach, he planted his standard on the top, determined never 
 to recede until the citadel was taken. The Jews sallied forth to 
 drive down the assailants. In the conflict which ensued, Ali fought 
 hand to hand with the Jewish commander, Al Hareth, whom he 
 slew. The brother of the slain advanced to revenge his death. 
 He was of gigantic stature; with a double cuirass, a double turban,
 
 TREATMENT OF KENANA. 95 
 
 wound round a helmet of proof, in front of which sparkled an 
 immense diamond. He had a sword girt to each side, and bran- 
 dished a three-pronged spear, like a trident. The warriors measured 
 each other with the eye, and accosted each other in boasting 
 oriental style. 
 
 "I," said the Jew, "am Marhab; armed at all points, and 
 terrible in battle." 
 
 "And I am Ali, whom his mother, at his birth, surnamed Al 
 Haid: ra (the rugged lion)." 
 
 The Moslem writers make short work of the Jewish champion, 
 lie made a thrust at Ali with his three-pronged lance, but it was 
 dexterously parried ; and before he could recover himself, a blow 
 from the scimetar Dhu'l-Fakfir divided his buckler, passed through 
 the helm of proof, through doubled turban and stubborn skull, 
 cleaving his head even to his teeth. His gigantic form fell lifeless 
 to the earth. 
 
 The Jews now retreated into the citadel, and a general assault 
 took place. In the heat of the action the shield of Ali was severed 
 from his arm, leaving his body exposed : wrenching a gate, how- 
 ever, from its hinges, he used it as a buckler through the remainder 
 of the fight. Abu Rafe, a servant of Mahomet, testifies to the fact. 
 U I afterwards," says he, "examined this gate in company with 
 seven men, and all eight of us attempted in vain to wield it " ' 
 
 The citadel being captured, every vault and dungeon was ran- 
 sacked for the wealth said to be deposited there by Kenana the 
 Jewish prince. None being discovered, Mahomet demanded of 
 him where he had concealed his treasure. He declared that it had 
 all been expended in the subsistence of his troops, and in prepa- 
 rations for defence One of his faithless subjects, however, revealed 
 the place where a great amount had been hidden. It did not equal 
 the expectations of the victors, and Kenana was put to the torture 
 to reveal the rest of his supposed wealth He either could not or 
 would not make further discoveries, so he was delivered up to the 
 vengeance of a Moslem, whose brother he had crushed to death by 
 a piece of a millstone hurled from the wall, ami who struck off his 
 head with a single blow of his sabre. 2 
 
 While in the citadel of Khaibar, Mahomet caine near falling a 
 victim to Jewish vengeance. Demanding something to eat, a 
 shoulder of lamb was set before him. At the first mouthful he 
 perceived something unusual in the taste, and spat it forth, but 
 instantly felt acute internal pain. One of his followers, named 
 Baschar, who had eaten more freely, fell down and expired in 
 convulsions. All now was confusion and consternation; on diligent 
 inquiry, it was found that the lamb had been cooked by Zainab, a 
 
 i This stupendous feat is recorded by ihe historian Abulfeda, c. 24. "Abu Rafe," 
 observes Gibbon, "was an eye-witness; but who will be witness for Abu Rafe?" We 
 join with the distinguished historian in his doubt; yet if we scrupulously question the 
 testimony of an eye-witness, what will become of history ? 
 
 * The Jews inhabiting the tract of country called Khaibar, are still known in Arabia by 
 the name of Beni Kheibar. They are divided inlo three tribes, under independent 
 Sheikhs, the Beni Messiad, Beni Schahan, and Beni Anaesse. They are accused of 
 pillaging the caravans. Niebuhr, \. ii. p. 43.
 
 96 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 female captive, niece to Marhab, the gigantic warrior slain by AH. 
 Being brought before Mahomet, and charged with having infused 
 poison into the viand, she boldly avowed it, vindicating it as a 
 justifiable revenge for the ills he had brought upon her tribe and 
 her family. "I thought," said she, "if thou wert indeed a prophet, 
 thou wouldst discover thy danger; if but a chieftain, thou wouldst 
 fall, and we should be delivered from a tyrant." 
 
 Arabian writers are divided as to the fate of this heroine. 
 According to some, she was delivered up to the vengeance of the 
 relatives of Baschar, w-ho had died of the poison. According to 
 others, her beauty pleaded in her behalf, and Mahomet restored 
 her unharmed to her family. 
 
 The same writers seldom permit any remarkable event of Ma- 
 homet's life to pass without a miracle. In the present instance, they 
 assure us that the poisoned shoulder of lamb became miraculously 
 gifted with speech, and warned Mahomet of his danger. If so, it 
 was rather slow of speech, for he had imbibed sufficient poison to 
 injure his constitution throughout the remainder of his life ; affecting 
 him often with paroxysms of pain; and in his last moments he com- 
 plained that the veins of his heart throbbed with the poison of 
 Khaibar. He experienced kinder treatment at the hands of Safiya 
 (or Sophia), another female captive, who had still greater motives 
 for vengeance than Zalnab ; for she was the recently espoused wife 
 of Kenana, who had just been sacrificed for his wealth, and she 
 was the daughter of Hoya Ibn Akhtab, prince of the Beni Koraida, 
 who, with seven hundred of his people, had been put to death in the 
 square of Medina, as has been related. 
 
 This Safiya was of great beauty ; it is not surprising, therefore, 
 that she should find instant favour in the eyes of Mahomet, and that 
 he should seek, as usual, to add her to his harem; but it may 
 occasion surprise that she should contemplate such a lot with com- 
 placency. Moslem writers, however, explain this by assuring us 
 that she was surpernaturally prepared for the event. 
 
 While Mahomet was yet encamped before the city, and carrying 
 on the siege, she had a vision of the night, in which the sun des- 
 cended from the firmament and nestled in her bosom. On recounting 
 her dream to her husband Kenana in the morning, he smote her 
 on the face, exclaiming, " Woman, you speak in parables of this 
 Arab chief who has come against us." 
 
 The vision of Safiya was made true, for having converted her 
 with all decent haste to the faith of Islam, Mahomet took her to 
 wife before he left Khaibar. Their nuptials took place on the 
 homeward march, at Al Sahba, where the army halted for three 
 days Abu Ayub, one of the prophet's most ardent disciples 
 and marshal of his household, patrolled around the nuptial tent 
 throughout the night, sword in hand. Safiya was one the most 
 favoured wives of Mahomet whom she survived for forty years 
 of widowhood. 
 
 Besides the marriages of affection which we have recorded, the 
 prophet, about this time, made another of policy. Shortly after 
 his return to Medina, he was gladdened by the arrival, from 
 Abyssinia, of the residue of the fugitives. Among these was a
 
 DIPLOMATIC MISSIONS. 97 
 
 comely widow, thirty years of age, whose husband, Abdallah, had 
 died while in exile. She was generally known by the name of 
 Omm Ilabiba, the mother of Habiba, from a daughter to whom she 
 had given birth. This widow was the daughter of Mahomet's arch 
 enemy, Abu Sofian; and the prophet conceived that a marriage 
 with the daughter might soften the hostility of the father; a politic 
 consideration, which is said to have been either suggested or 
 sanctioned by a revelation of a chapter of the Koran. 
 
 "When Abu Sofian heard of the espousals, "By heaven, "exclaimed 
 he, " this camel is so rampant, that no muzzle can restrain him." 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 Missions to various Princes; to Heraclius; to Khosru II; to the Prefect of Egypt. 
 Their result. 
 
 During the residue of the year, Mahomet remained at Medina, 
 sending forth his trusty disciples, by this time experienced captains, 
 on various military expeditions ; by which refractory tribes were 
 rapidly brought into subjection. Flis views as a statesman widened 
 as his territories increased. Though he professed, in cases of 
 necessity, to propagate his religion by the sword, he was not 
 neglectful of the peaceful measures of diplomacy, and sent envoys 
 to various princes and potentates, whose dominions bordered on 
 his political horizon, urging them to embrace the faith of Islam; 
 which was in effect, to acknowledge him, through his apostolic 
 office, their superior. 
 
 Two of the most noted of these missions, were to Khosru II, king 
 of Persia, and Heraclius, the Roman emperor, at Constantinople. 
 The wars between the Romans and the Persians, for the dominion 
 of the East, which had prevailed from time to time through several 
 centuries, had been revived by these two potentates with varying 
 fortunes, and for several years past had distracted the eastern 
 world. Countries had been overrun by cither power ; states and 
 kingdoms had changed hands under alternate invasions, and 
 according to the conqtiets and defeats of the warring parties. At 
 one time, Khosru with three armies, one vauntingly called the Fifty 
 Thousand Golden Spears, had wrested Palestine, Cappadocia, 
 Armenia, and several other great and wealthy provinces from the 
 Roman emperor; had made himself master of Jerusalem, and 
 carried off the Holy Cross to Persia ; had invaded Africa, con- 
 quered Libya and Egypt, and extended his victories even to 
 Carthage. 
 
 In the midst of his triumphant career, a Moslem envoy arrived 
 bearing him a letter from Mahomet. Khosru sent for his secre- 
 tary or interpreter, and ordered him to read it. The letter began 
 as follows :
 
 98 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 "In the name of the most merciful God! Mahomet, son of 
 Abdallah, and apostle of God, to Khosruking of Persia." 
 
 "What!" cried Khosru, starting up in haughty indignation, 
 " does one who is my slave, dare to put his name first in writing 
 to me?" So saying, he seized the letter and tore it in pieces, 
 without seeking to know its contend. He then wrote to his viceroy 
 in Yemen, saying* "I am told there is in Medina a madman, of 
 the tribe of Koreish, who pretends to he a prophet Restore him 
 to his senses; or if you cannot, send me his head." 
 
 When Mahomet was told how Khosru had torn his letter, "Even 
 so," said he, "shall Allah rend his empire in pieces." 
 
 The letter from the prophet to Heraclius, was more favourably 
 received, reaching him probably during his reverses. It was signed 
 in characters of silver, Mahomet Azzarel, Mahomet the messenger 
 of God, and invited the emperor to renounce Christianity, and 
 embrace the faith of Islam. Heraclius, we are told, deposited the 
 epistle respectfully upon his pillow, treated the envoy with distinc- 
 tion, and dismissed him with magnificent presents. Engrossed, 
 however, by his Persian wars, he paid no further attention to this 
 mission, from one whom he probably considered a mere Arab fa- 
 natic ; nor attached sufficient importance to his military operations, 
 which may have appeared mere predatory forays of the wild tribes 
 of the desert. 
 
 Another mission of Mahomet was to the Mukowkis, or governor 
 of Egypt, who had originally been sent there by Heraclius to collect 
 tribute ; but who, availing himself of the confusion produced by 
 the wars between the Romans and Persians, had assumed sovereign 
 power, and nearly thrown off all allegiance to the emperor. He 
 received the envoy with signal honour, but evaded a direct reply 
 to the invitation to embrace the faith, observing that it was a grave 
 matter requiring much consideration. In the meantime, he sent 
 presents to Mahomet of precious jewels; garments of Egyptian 
 linen; exquisite honey and butter; a white she-ass, called Yafur; 
 a white mule, called Daldal, and a fleet horse called Lazlos, or the 
 Prancer. The most acceptable of his presents, however, were two 
 Coptic damsels, sisters, called Mariyah (or Mary), and Shiren. 
 
 The beauty of Mariyah caused great perturbation in the mind 
 of the prophet. He would fain have made her his concubine, but 
 was impeded by his own law in the seventeenth chapter of the 
 Koran, ordaining that fornication should be punished with stripes. 
 
 He was relieved from his dilemma, by another revelation re- 
 voking the law in regard to himself alone, allowing him inter- 
 course with his handmaid. It remained in full force, however, 
 against all other Moslems. Still, to avoid scandal, and above all, 
 not to excite the jealousy of his wives, he carried on his inter- 
 course with the beautiful Mariyah in secret ; which may be one 
 reason why she remained long a favourite.
 
 PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA. 99 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 Mahomet's pilgrimage lo Mecca; his marriage with Maimuna. Khaled Ibn al Waled 
 and Amru Ibn al Aass become proselytes. 
 
 The time had now arrived when, by treaty with the Koreishites, 
 Mahomet and his followers were permitted to make a pilgrimage 
 to Mecca, and pass three days unmolested at the sacred shrines. 
 He departed accordingly with a numerous and well-armed host, 
 and seventy camels for sacrifices. His old adversaries would fain 
 have impeded his progress, but they were overawed, and on his 
 approach withdrew silently to the neighbouring hills. On entering 
 the bounds of Mecca, the pilgrims, according to compact and usage, 
 laid aside all their warlike accoutrements excepting their swords, 
 which they carried sheathed. 
 
 Great was their joy on beholding once more the walls and towers 
 of the sacred city. They entered the gates in pilgrim garb, with 
 devout and thankful hearts, and Mahomet performed all the ancient 
 and customary rites, with a zeal and devotion which gratified be- 
 holders, and drew to him many converts. "When he had complied 
 with all the ceremonials he threw aside the Irani or pilgrim's garb, 
 and withdrew to Sarif, a hamlet two leagues distant, and without 
 the sacred boundaries. Here he had a ceremonial of a diffe- 
 rent kind to perform, but one in which he was prone to act with 
 unfeigned devotion. It was to complete his marriage with Mai- 
 muna, the daughter of Al Hareth, the Helalite. He had become 
 betrothed to her on his arrival at Mecca, but had postponed the 
 nuptials until after he had concluded the rites of pilgrimage. This 
 was doubtless another marriage of policy, for Maimuna was fifty- 
 one years of age, and a widow, but the connexion gained him two 
 powerful proselytes- One was Khaled Ibn al Waled, a nephew of 
 the widow, an intrepid warrior who had come near destroying 
 Mahomet at the battle of Ohod. He now became one of the most 
 victorious champions of Islamism, and by his prowess obtained the - 
 appellation of "The Sword of God." 
 
 The other proselyte was Khaled's friend Amru Ibn al Aass; the 
 same who assailed Mahomet with poetry and satire at the com- 
 mencement of his prophetic career ; who had been an ambassador 
 from the Koreishites to the king of Abyssinia, to obtain the sur- 
 render of the fugitive Moslems, and who was henceforth destined 
 with his sword to carry victoriously into foreign lands, the faith he 
 had once so strenuously opposed. 
 
 NOTE. Maimuna was the last spouse of the prophet, and, old as she was at 
 her marriage, survived all his other wives. She died many years after him, in 
 a pavilion at Serif, under the same tree in Ihe shade of which her nuptial tent 
 had been pitched, and was there interred. The pious historian, Al Jannabi, 
 who styles himself "a poor servant of Allah, hoping for the pardon of his sins
 
 100 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 through the mercy of God," visited her tomb on returning from a pilgrimage to 
 Mecca, in the year of the Hegira, 9G3, A. D. 1655. "I saw there," said he, "a 
 dome of black marble erected in memory of Maimnna, on the very spot on -which 
 the apostle of God had reposed -with her. God knows the truth! and also the 
 reason of the black colour of the stone. There is a place of ablution, and an 
 oratory ; but the building has fallen to decay." 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 A Moslem envoy slain in Syria. Expedition lo avenge his death. Baltic of Muta. 
 
 Us results. 
 
 Among the different missions which had been sent by Mahomet 
 beyond the bounds of Arabia to invite neighbouring princes to em- 
 brace his religion, was one to the governor of Bosra, the great 
 mart on the confines of Syria, to which he had made his first ca- 
 ravan journey in the days of his youth. Syria had been alter- 
 nately under Roman and Persian domination, but was at that time 
 subject to the emperor, though probably in a great state of con- 
 fusion. The envoy of Mahomet was slain at Muta, a town about 
 three days' journey eastward from Jerusalem. The one who slew 
 him was an Arab of the Christian tribe of Gassan, and son to Shor- 
 hail, an emir,, who governed Muta in the name of Heraclius. 
 
 To revenge the death of his legate, and to insure respect to his 
 envoys in future, Mahomet prepared to send an army of three 
 thousand men against the offending city. It was a momentous ex 
 pedition, as it might, for the first time, bring the arms of Islam in 
 collision with those of the Roman Empire; but Mahomet presumed 
 upon his growing power, the energy of his troops, and the disor- 
 dered state of Syrian affairs. The command was intrusted to his 
 freedman Zeid, who had given such signal proof of devotion in 
 surrendering to him his beautiful wife Zeinab. Several chosen 
 officers were associated with him. One was Mahomet's cousin Jaa- 
 far, son of Abu Taleb, and brother of Ali ; the same who, by his 
 eloquence, had vindicated the doctrines of Islam before the king 
 of Abyssinia, and defeated the Koreish embassy. He was now in the 
 prime of life, and noted for great courage and manly beauty. Another 
 of the associate officers was Abdallah Ibn Kawaha, the poet, but 
 who had signalized himself in arms as well as poetry. A third was 
 the new proselyte Khaled, who joined the expedition as a volunteer, 
 being eager to prove by his sword the sincerity of his conversion. 
 
 The orders to Zeid were to march rapidly, so as to come upon 
 Muta by surprise, to summon the inhabitants to embrace the faith, 
 and to treat them with lenity. Women, children, monks, and the 
 blind, were to be spared at all events; nor were any houses to be 
 destroyed, nor trees cut down. 
 
 The little army sallied from Medina in the full confidence of 
 coming upon the enemy unawares. On their march, however, they 
 learned that a greatly superior force of Romans, or rather Greeks
 
 MOURNING FOR JAAFAR. 101 
 
 and Arabs, was advancing to meet them. A council of war was 
 called. Some were for pausing, and awaiting further orders from 
 Mahomet : but Abdallah, the poet, was for pushing fearlessly 
 forward without regard to numbers. " We fight for the faith!" 
 cried he; " if we fall, paradise is our reward. On, then, to vic- 
 tory or martyrdom ! " 
 
 All caught a spark of the poet's fire, or rather, fanaticism. 
 They met the enemy near Muta, and encountered them with fury 
 rather than valour. In the heat of the conflict Zeid received a 
 mortal wound. The sacred banner was falling from his grasp, 
 but was seized and borne aloft by Jaafar. The battle thickened 
 round him, for the banner was the object of fierce contention. 
 He defended it with desperate valour. The hand by which he held 
 it was struck off; he grasped it with the other. That, too, was 
 severed ; he embraced it with his bleeding arms. A blow from 
 a scimetar cleft his skull; he sank dead upon the field, still clinging 
 to the standard of the faith. Abdallah the poet next reared the 
 banner; but he too fell beneath the sword. Khaled, the new 
 convert, seeing the three Moslem leaders slain, now grasped the 
 fatal standard, but in his hand it remained aloft. His voice rallied 
 the wavering Moslems : his powerful arm cut its way through the 
 thickest of the enemy. If his own account may be credited, and 
 he was one whose deeds needed no exaggeration, nine scimetars 
 were broken in his hand by the fury of the blows given by him 
 in this deadly conflict. 
 
 Night separated the combatants. In the morning Khaled, whom 
 the army acknowledged as their commander, proved himself as 
 wary as he was valiant. By dint of marches and counter-marches, 
 he presented his forces in so many points of view, that Ihe enemy 
 were deceived as to his number, and supposed he had received a 
 strong reinforcement. At his first charge, therefore, they re- 
 treated : their retreat soon became a flight; in which they were 
 pursued with great slaughter. Khaled then plundered their camp , 
 in which was found great booty. Among the slain in the field of 
 battle was found the body of Jaafar, covered with wounds, but all 
 in front. Out of respect to his valour, and to his relationship with 
 the prophet, Khaled ordered that his corpse should not be buried 
 on the spot, but borne back for honourable interment at Medina. 
 
 The army, on its return, though laden with spoil, entered the 
 city more like a funeral train than a triumphant pageant, and was 
 received with mingled shouts and lamentations. While the people 
 rejoiced in the success of their arms, they mourned the loss of 
 three of their favourite generals. All bewailed the fate of Jaafar, 
 brought home a ghastly corpse to that city whence they had so 
 recently seen him sally forth in all the pride of valiant manhood, 
 the admiration of every beholder. He had left behind a beautiful 
 wife and infant son. The heart of Mahomet was touched by her 
 affliction. He took the orphan child in his arms and bathed it with 
 his tears. But most he was affected when he beheld the young 
 daughter of his faithful Zeid approaching him. He fell on her neck 
 and wept in speechless emotion. A bystander expressed surprise 
 that he should give way to tears for a death which, according to
 
 102 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Moslem doctrine, was but a passport to paradise. " Alas! " replied 
 the prophet, " these are the tears of friendship for the loss of a 
 friend!" 
 
 The obsequies of Jaafar were performed on the third day after the 
 arrival of the army. By that time Mahomet had recovered his 
 self-possession, and was again the prophet. He gently rebuked 
 the passionate lamentations of the multitude, taking occasion to 
 inculcate one of the most politic and consolatory doctrines of 
 his creed. " Weep no more," said he, "over Ihe death of this my 
 brother. In place of the two hands lost in defending the standard 
 of the faith, two wings have been given him to bear him to para- 
 dise ; there to enjoy the endless delights insured to all believers 
 who fall in battle." 
 
 It was in consequence of the prowess and generalship displayed 
 by Khaled in this perilous fight, that he was honoured by Mahomet 
 with the appellation of " The Sword of God," by which he was 
 afterwards renowned. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX, 
 
 Designs upon Mecca. Mission of Abu Soflan.^lts result. 
 
 Mahomet, by force either of arms or eloquence, had now ac- 
 quired dominion over a great number of the Arabian tribes. He 
 had many thousand warriors under his command ; sons of the de- 
 sert inured to hunger, thirst, and the scorching rays of the sun, 
 and to whom war was a sport, rather than a toil. He had corrected 
 their intemperance, disciplined their valour, and subjected them to 
 rule. Repeated victories had given them confidence in themselves 
 and in their leader; whose standard they followed with the implicit 
 obedience of soldiers, and the blind fanaticism of disciples. 
 
 The views of Mahomet expanded with his means, and a grand 
 enterprise now opened upon his mind. Mecca, his native city, 
 the abode of his family for generations, the scene of his happiest 
 years, was still in the hands of his implacable foes. The Caaba, 
 the object of devotion and pilgrimage to all the children of Ishmael, 
 the shrine of his earliest worship, was still profaned by the em- 
 blems and rites of idolatry. To plant the standard of the faith on 
 the walls of his native city ; to rescue the holy house from profa- 
 nation ; restore it to the spiritual worship of the one true God, 
 and make it the rallying point of Islamism, formed now the leading 
 object of his ambition. 
 
 The treaty of peace existing with the Koreishites was an impe- 
 diment to any military enterprise; but some casual feuds and 
 skirmishings soon gave a pretext for charging them with having 
 violated the treaty stipulations. The Koreishites had by this time 
 learned to appreciate and dread the rapidly increasing power of 
 the Moslems, and were eager to explain away, or atone for, the
 
 EXPEDITION AGAINST MECCA. 103 
 
 quarrels and misdeeds of a few heedless individuals. They even 
 prevailed on their leader, Abu Sofian, to repair to Medina as 
 ambassador of peace, trusting that he might have some influence 
 with the prophet through his daughter Omm Habiba. 
 
 It was a sore trial to this haughty chief to come almost a sup- 
 pliant to the man whom he had scoffed at as an impostor, and 
 treated with inveterate hostility; and his proud spirit was doomed 
 to still further mortification, for Mahomet, judging from his errand 
 of the weakness of his parly, and being secretly bent on war, 
 vouchsafed him no reply. 
 
 Repressing his rage, Abu Sofian sought the intermediation of 
 Abu Beker, of Omar, and Ali; but they all rebuked and repulsed 
 him ; for they knew the secret wishes of Mahomet. He next en- 
 deavoured to secure the favour of Fatima, the daughter of Mahomet 
 and wife of Ali, by flattering a mother's pride, entreating her to 
 let her son Hasan, a child but six years old, be his protector; but 
 Fatima answered haughtily, " My son is too young to be a pro- 
 tector; and no protection can avail against the will of the prophet 
 of God." Even his daughter, Omm Habiba, the wife of Mahomet, 
 on whom Abu Sofian had calculated for influence, added to his 
 mortification, for on his offering to seat himself on a mat in her 
 dwelling, she hastily folded it up, exclaiming, " It is the bed of the 
 prophet of God, and too sacred to be made ihe resting-place of an 
 idolater." 
 
 The cup of humiliation was full to overfloving, and in the bit- 
 terness of his heart Abu Sofian cursed his daughter. He now 
 turned again to Ali, beseeching, his advice in the desperate state of 
 his embassy. 
 
 "I can advise nothing better," replied Ali, "than for thee to 
 promise, as the head of the Koreishites, a continuance of thy protec- 
 tion ; and then to return to thy home." 
 
 " But thinkest thou, that promise will be of any avail?" 
 
 " I think not," replied Ali dryly; tl but I know not to the con- 
 trary." 
 
 In pursuance of this advice, Abu Sofian repaired to the mosque, 
 and made public declaration, in behalf of the Koreishites, that on 
 their part the treaty of peace should be faithfully maintained ; after 
 which he returned to Mecca, deeply humiliated by the imperfect 
 result of his mission. He was received with scoffs by the Koreishites, 
 who observed that his declaration of peace availed nothing without 
 the concurrence of Mahomet. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 Surprise and Capture of Mecca. 
 
 Mahomet now prepared for a secret expedition to take Mecca by 
 surprise. His allies were summoned from all quarters to Medina ; 
 but no intimation was given of the object he had in view. All the
 
 ]<M MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 roads leading to Mecca were barred to prevent any intelligence of 
 his movements being carried to the Koreishites. "With all bis pre- 
 cautions the secret came near being discovered. Among his fol- 
 lowers, fugitives from Mecca, was one named Ilateb, whose family 
 had remained behind, and were without connexions or friends to 
 take an interest in their welfare. H ateb now thought to gain favour 
 for them among the Koreishites, by betraying the plans of Mahomet. 
 He accordingly wrote a letter revealing the intended enterprise, and 
 gave it in charge to a singing woman, named Sara, a Haschemite 
 slave, who undertook to carry it to Mecca. 
 
 She was already on the road when Mahomet was apprised of the 
 treachery. Ali and five others, well mounted, were sent in pursuit 
 of the messenger. They soon overtook her, but searched her 
 person in vain. Most of them would have given up the search and 
 turned back, but Ali was confident that the prophet of God could 
 not be mistaken nor misinformed. Drawing his scimetar, he swore 
 to strike off the head of the messenger, unless the letter were pro- 
 duced, The threat was effectual. She drew forth the letter from 
 among her hair. 
 
 Hateb on being taxed with his perfidy, acknowledged it ; but 
 pleaded his anxiety to secure- favour for his destitute family, and 
 his certainty that the letter would be harmless, and of no avail 
 against the purposes of the apostle of God. Omar spurned at his 
 excuses and would have struck off his head ; but Mahomet, calling 
 to mind that Hateb had fought bravely in support of the faith in the 
 battle of Beder, admitted his excuses and forgave him. 
 
 The prophet departed with ten thousand men on this momentous 
 enterprise. Omar, who had charge of regulating the march, and 
 appointing the encampments, led the army by lonely passes of the 
 mountains; prohibiting the sound of attabal or trumpet, or any 
 thing else that could betray their movements. AVhile on the march , 
 Mahomel was joined by his uncle Al Abbas, who had come forth 
 with his family from xMecca,to rally under the standard of the faith. 
 Mahomet received him graciously, yet with a hint at his tardiness. 
 " Thou art the last of the emigrants," said he, " as I am the 
 last of the prophets." Al Abbas sent his family forward to Me- 
 dina, while he turned and accompanied the expedition. The 
 army reached the valley of Marr Azzahran, near to the sacred city, 
 without being discovered. It was nightfall when they silently pitched 
 their tents, and now Omar for the first time permitted them to light 
 their watch-fires. 
 
 In the meantime, though Al Abbas had joined the standard of the 
 faith in all sincerity, yet he was sorely disquieted at seeing his 
 nephew advancing against Mecca, with such a powerful force and 
 such hostile intent; and feared the entire destruction of the Ko- 
 reishites, unless they could be persuaded in time to capitulate. In 
 the dead of the night, he mounted Mahomet's white mule Fadda, 
 and rode forth to reconnoitre. In skirting the camp, he heard the 
 tramp of men and sound of voices. A scouting party were bringing 
 in two prisoners captured near the city. Al Abbas approached, 
 and found the captives to be Abu Sofian, and one of his captains. 
 They were conducted to the walch-fire of Omar, who recognized
 
 CAPTURE OF ABU SOFIAN. 105 
 
 Abu Sofian by the light. "God be praised," cried he, "that I 
 have such an enemy in my hands, and without conditions." His 
 ready scimetar might have given fatal significance to his words, had 
 not Al Abbas stepped forward and taken Abu Sofian under his pro- 
 tection, until the will of the prophet should be known. Omar 
 rushed forth to ascertain that will, or rather to demand the life of 
 the prisoner ; but Al Abbas, taking the latter up behind him, put 
 spurs to his mule, and was the first to reach the tent of the prophet, 
 followed hard by Omar, clamouring for the head of Abu Sofian. 
 
 Mahomet thus beheld in his power his inveterate enemy, who had 
 driven him from his home and country, and persecuted his family 
 and friends; but lie beheld in him the father of his wife Omm 
 Habiba, and felt inclined to clemency. He postponed all decision 
 in the matter until morning ; giving Abu Sofian in charge of Al Abbas. 
 
 AVhen the captain was brought before him on the following day : 
 "Well, Abu Sofian," cried he, "is it not at length time to know 
 that there is no other God but God?". 
 
 " That I already knew," replied Abu Sofian. 
 
 " Good! and is it not time for thee to acknowledge me as the 
 apostle of God?" 
 
 " Dearer art thou to me than my father and my mother," replied 
 Abu Sofian, using an oriental phrase of compliment ; "but I am not 
 yet prepared to acknowledge thee a prophet." 
 
 " Out upon thee ! " cried Omar, " testify instantly to the truth, or 
 thy head shall be severed from thy body." 
 
 To these threats were added the counsels and entreaties of Al 
 Abbas, who showed himself a real friend in need. The rancour of 
 Abu Sofian had already been partly subdued by the unexpected 
 mildness of Mahomet; so, making a merit of necessity, he acknow- 
 ledged the divinity of his mission ; furnishing an illustration of the 
 Moslem maxim, " To convince stubborn unbelievers, there is no 
 argument like the sword." 
 
 Having now embraced the faith, Abu Sofian obtained favourable 
 terms for the people of Mecca, in case of their submission. 
 None were to be harmed who should remain quietly in their houses ; 
 or should take refuge in the houses of Abu Sofian and Hakim ; or 
 under the banner of Abu Rawaiha. 
 
 That Abu Sofian might take back to the city a proper idea of the 
 force brought against it, he was stationed with Al Abas at a narrow 
 defile where the whole army passed in review. As the various 
 Arab tribes marched by with their different arms and ensigns, Al 
 Abbas explained the name and country or each. Abu Sofian was 
 surprised at the number, discipline, and equipment of the troops; 
 for the Moslems had been rapidly improving in the means and art 
 of war ; but when Mahomet approached, in the midst of a chosen 
 guard, armed at all points and glittering with steel, his astonish- 
 ment passed all bounds. "There is no withstanding this ! " cried 
 he to Al Abas, with an oath "truly thy nephew wields a mighty 
 power." 
 
 "Even so," replied the other; "return then to thy people; 
 provide for their safety, and warn them not to oppose the apostle 
 of God,"
 
 106 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Abu Sofian hastened back to Mecca, and assembling the inhabi- 
 tants, told them of the mighty host at hand, led on by Mahomet; 
 of the favourable terms offered in case of their submission, and of 
 the vanity of all resistance. As Abu Sofian had been the soul of 
 the opposition to Mahomet and his doctrines, his words had instant 
 effect in producing acquiescence in an event which seemed to leave 
 no alternative. The greater part of the inhabitants, therefore, 
 prepared to witness, without resistance, the entry of the pro- 
 phet. 
 
 Mahomet, in the meantime, who knew not what resistance he 
 might meet with, made a careful distribution of his forces as he 
 approached the city. While the main body marched directly 
 forward, strong detachments advanced over the hills on each side. 
 To Ali, who commanded a large body of cavalry, was confided the 
 sacred banner, which hewastoplantonMount Hadjun, and maintain 
 it there until joined by the prophet. Express orders were given 
 to all the generals to practise forbearance, and in no instance to 
 make the first attack; for it was the earnest desire of Mahomet to 
 win Mecca by moderation and clemency, rather than subdue it by 
 violence. It is true, all who offered armed resistance were to be 
 cut down, but none were to be harmed who submitted quietly. 
 Overhearing one of his captains exclaim, in the heat of his zeal, 
 that " no place was sacred on the day of battle," he instantly ap- 
 pointed a cooler-headed commander in his place. 
 
 The main body of the army advanced without molestation. 
 Mahomet brought up the rear-guard, clad in a scarlet vest, and 
 mounted on his favourite camel Al Kaswa. He proceeded but 
 slowly, however; his movements being impeded by the immense 
 multitude which thronged around him. Arrived on Mount Hadjun, 
 where Ali had planted the standard of the faith, a tent was pitched 
 for him. Here he alighted, put offhis scarlet garment, and assumed 
 the black turban and the pilgrim garb, Casting a look down into 
 the plain, however, he beheld, with grief and indignation, the 
 gleam of swords and lances, and Khaled, who commanded the left 
 wing, in a full career of carnage. His troops, composed of Arab 
 tribes converted to the faith, had been galled by a flight of arrows 
 from a body of Koreishites ; whereupon the fiery warrior charged 
 into the thickest of them with sword and lance ; his troops pressed 
 after him; they put the enemy to flight, entered the gates of Mecca 
 pell-mell with them, and nothing but the swift commands of Maho- 
 met preserved the city from a general massacre. 
 
 The carnage being stopped, and no further opposition manifested, 
 the prophet descended from the mount and approached the gates, 
 seated on his camel, accompanied By Abu Beker on his right hand, 
 and followed by Osama, the son of Zeid. The sun was just rising 
 as he entered the gates of his native city, with the glory of a con- 
 queror, but the garb and humility of a pilgrim. He entered, 
 repeating verses of the Koran, which he said had been revealed to 
 him at Medina, and were prophetic of the event. He triumphed 
 in the spirit of a religious zealot, not of a warrior. " Unto God," 
 said he, < belong the hosts of heaven and earth, and God is mighty 
 and wise. Now hath God verified unto his apostle the vision,
 
 RELIGIOUS RITES. 107 
 
 wherein he said, ye shall surely enter the holy temple of Mecca in 
 full security." 
 
 Without dismounting, Mahomet repaired directly to the Caaba, 
 the scene of his early devotions, the sacred shrine of worship since 
 the days of the patriarchs, and which he regarded as the primitive 
 temple of the one true God. Here he made the seven circuits 
 round the sacred edifice, a reverential rite from the days of reli- 
 gious purity ; with the same devout feeling he each lime touched 
 the black stone with his staff; regarding it as a holy relic. He 
 would have entered the Caaba, but Othman Ibn Talha, the ancient 
 custodian, locked the door. AH snatched the keys, but Mahomet 
 caused them to be returned to the venerable officer, and so won 
 him by his kindness, that he not merely threw open the doors, but 
 subsequently embraced the failh of Islam ; whereupon he was con- 
 tinued in his office. 
 
 Mahomet now proceeded to execute the great object of his reli- 
 gious aspirations, the purifying of the sacred edifice from the 
 symbols of idolatry, with which it was crowded. All the idols in 
 and about it, to the number of three hundred and sixty, were 
 thrown down and destroyed. Among these, the most renowned was 
 Hobal, an idol brought from Balka, in Syria, and fabled to have 
 the power of granting rain. It was, of course, a great object of 
 worship among the inhabitants of the thirsty desert. There were 
 statues of Abraham and Ishmael also, represented with divining 
 arrows in their hands; "an outrage on their memories," said 
 Mahomet, " being symbols of a diabolical art which they had never 
 practised." In reverence of their memories, therefore, these 
 statues were demolished. There were paintings, also, depicting 
 angels in the guise of beautiful women. t( The angels," said Maho- 
 met, indignantly, " are no such beings. There are celestial houris 
 provided in paradise for the solace of true believers ; but angels 
 are ministering spirits of the Most High, and of too pure a nature to 
 admit of sex." The paintings were accordingly obliterated. 
 
 Even a dove, curiously carved of wood, he broke with his own 
 hands, and cast upon the ground, as savouring of idolatry. 
 
 From the Caaba he proceeded to the well of Zem Zem. It was 
 sacred in his eyes, from his belief that it was the identical well 
 revealed by the angel to Hagar and Ishmael, in their extremity; 
 he considered the rite connected with it as pure and holy, and 
 continued it in his faith. As he approached the well, his uncle Al 
 Abbas presented him a cruise of the water, that he might drink, 
 and make the customary ablution. In commemoration of this 
 pious act, he appointed his uncle guardian of the cup of the well ; 
 an office of sacred dignity, which his descend ants -retain to this day. 
 
 At noon one of his followers, at his command summoned the 
 people to prayer from the top of the Caaba, a custom continued 
 ever since throughout Mahometan countries, from minarets or 
 towers provided in every mosque. He also established the Kebla, 
 toward which the faithful in every part of the world should turn 
 their faces in prayer. 
 
 He afterwards addressed the people in a kind of sermon, setting 
 forth his principal doctrines, and announcing the triumph of the
 
 108 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 faith as a fulfiment of prophetic promise. Shouts hurst from the 
 multitude in reply. "Allah Achbar! God is great!" cried they. 
 "There is no God but God, and Mahomet is his prophet." 
 
 The religious ceremonials being ended, Mahomet took his sta- 
 tion on the hill Al Safa, and the people of Mecca, male and female 
 passed before him, taking the oath of fidelity to him as the prophet 
 of God, and renouncing idolatry. This was in compliance with a 
 revelation in the Koran : "God hath sent his apostle with the 
 direction, and the religion of truth, that he may exalt the same 
 over every religion. Verily, they who swear fealty to him, swear 
 fealty unto God; the hand of God is over their hands." In the 
 midst of his triumph, however, he rejected all homage paid exclu- 
 sively to himself, and all regal authority. "AVhy dost thou 
 tremble?" said he, to a man who approached with timid and 
 faltering steps. ' ' Of what dost thou stand in awe ? I am no king, 
 but the son of a Koreishite woman, who ate flesh dried in the sun." 
 
 His lenity was equally conspicuous. The once haughty chiefs 
 of the Koreishites appeared with abject countenances before the 
 man they had persecuted, for their lives were in his power. 
 
 " What can you expect at my hands?" demanded he sternly. 
 
 "Mercy, oh generous brother! Mercy, oh son of a generous 
 line ! " 
 
 " Be it so ! " cried he, with a mixture of scorn and pity " Away ! 
 begone ! ye are free ! " 
 
 Some of his followers who had shared his persecutions, were 
 disappointed in their anticipations of a bloody revenge, and mur- 
 mured at his clemency ; but he persisted in it, and established Mecca 
 as an inviolable sanctuary, or place of refuge, so to continue until 
 the final resurrection. He reserved to himself, however, the right 
 on the present occasion, and during that special day to punish a few 
 of the people of the city, who had grievously offended, and been 
 expressly proscribed; yet even these, for the most part, were 
 ultimately forgiven. 
 
 Among the Koreishite women who advanced to take the oath, he 
 descried Henda, the wife of Abu Sofian ; the savage woman who 
 had animated the infidels at the battle of Ohod, and had gnawed the 
 heart of Hamza, in revenge for the death of her father. On the 
 present occasion she had disguised herself to escape detection ; but 
 seeing the eyes of the prophet fixed on her, she threw herself at his 
 feet, exclaiming, "I am Henda: pardon! pardon!" Mahomet 
 pardoned her and was requited for his clemency by her making 
 his doctrines the subject of contemptuous sarcasms. 
 
 Among those destined to punishment, was AVacksa, the Ethio- 
 pian, who had slain Hamza; but he had fled from Mecca on the 
 entrance of the army. At a subsequent period he presented him- 
 self before the prophet, and made the profession of faith before he 
 was recognized. He was forgiven, and made to relate the parti- 
 culars of the death of Hamza ; after which Mahomet dismissed him 
 with an injunction, never again to come into his presence. He sur- 
 vived until the time of the Caliphat of Omar, during whose reign 
 he was repeatedly scourged for drunkenness. 
 
 Another of the proscribed, was Abdallah Ibn Saad, a young
 
 CLEMENCY OF THE PROPHET. 109 
 
 Koreishite, distinguished for wit and humour, as well as for warlike 
 accomplishments. As he held the pen of a ready writer, Mahomet 
 had employed him to reduce the revelations of the Koran to writ- 
 ing. In so doing, he had often altered and amended the text; nay, 
 it was discovered that, through carelessness or design, he had oc- 
 casionally falsified it, and rendered it absurd. He had even made 
 his alterations and amendments matter of scoff and jest among his 
 companions, observing that if the Koran proved Mahomet to be a 
 prophet, he himself must be half a prophet. His interpolations 
 being detected he had fled from the wrath of the prophet, and re- 
 turned to Mecca, where he relapsed into idolatry. On the capture 
 of the city his foster-brother concealed him in his house, until the 
 tumult had subsided, when he led him into the presence of the pro- 
 phet, and supplicated for his pardon. This was the severest trial 
 of the lenity of Mahomet. The offender had betrayed his confi- 
 dence ; held him up to ridicule ; questioned his apostolic mission, 
 and struck at the very foundation of his faith. For some time he 
 maintained a stern silence ; hoping, as he afterwards declared, some 
 zealous disciple might strike off the offender's head. No one, how- 
 ever, stirred; so, yielding to the entreaties of Othman, he granted 
 a pardon. Abdallah instantly renewed his profession of faith; and 
 continued a good Mussulman. His name will be found in the wars 
 of the Caliphs. He was one of the most dexterous horsemen of his 
 tribe, and evinced his ruling passion to the last, for he died repeat- 
 ing the hundredth chapter of the Koran, entitled " The war steeds, " 
 Perhaps it was one which had experienced his interpolations. 
 
 Another of the proscribed, was Akrema Ibn Abu Jahl, who on 
 many occasions had manifested a deadly hostility to the prophet, 
 inherited from his father. On the entrance of Mahomet into Mecca, 
 Akrema threw himself upon a fleet horse, and escaped by an op- 
 posite gate, leaving behind him a beautiful wife, Omm Hakem, to 
 whom he was recently married. She embraced the faith of Islam, 
 but soon after learnt that her husband, in attempting to escape by 
 sea to Yemen, had been driven back to port. Hastening to the 
 presence of the prophet, she threw herself on her knees before him, 
 loose, dishevelled, and" unveiled, and implored grace for her hus- 
 band. The prophet, probably more moved by her beauty than her 
 grief, raised her gently from the earth, and told her her prayer was 
 granted. Hurrying to the seaport, she arrived just as the vessel in 
 which her husband had embarked was about to sail. She returned, 
 mounted behind him, to Mecca, and brought him, a true believer, 
 into the presence of the prophet. On this occasion, however, she 
 was So closely veiled that her dark eyes alone were visible. Ma- 
 homet received Akrema's profession of faith ; made him commander 
 of a battalion of Hawazenites, as the dower of his beautiful and de- 
 voted wife, and bestowed liberal donations on the youthful couple. 
 Like many other converted tmemies, Akrema proved a valiant sol- 
 dier in the wars of the faith, and after signalizing himself on va- 
 rious occasions, fell in battle, hacked and pierced by swords and 
 lances. 
 
 The whole conduct of Mahomet on gaining possession of Mecca, 
 showed that it was a religious, more than a military triumph. His
 
 110 MAHOMET ATXD HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 heart, too, softened toward his native place, now that it was in his 
 power ; his resentments were extinguished by success, and his in- 
 clinations were all toward forgiveness. 
 
 The Ansarians, or Auxiliaries of Medina, who had aided him in 
 his campaign, began to fear that its success might prove fatal to 
 their own interests. They watched him anxiously, as one day, after 
 praying on the hill Al Safa, he sat gazing down wistfully upon 
 Mecca, the scene of his early struggles and recent glory : " Verily," 
 said he, " thou art the best of cities, and the most beloved of Allah ! 
 Had I not been driven out from thee by my own tribe, never would 
 I have left thee ! " On hearing this, the Ansarians said, one to an- 
 other, u Behold ! Mahomet is conqueror and master of his native 
 city; he will, doubtless, establish himself here, and forsake Me- 
 dina! " Their words reached his ear, and he turned to them with 
 reproachful warmth : "No ! " cried he, " when you plighted to me 
 your allegiance, I swore to live and die with you. I should not 
 act as the servant of God, nor as his ambassador, were I to leave 
 you." 
 
 He acted according to his words, and Medina, which had been 
 his city of refuge, continued to be his residence to his dying day. 
 
 Mahomet did not content himself with purifying the Caaba, and 
 abolishing idolatry from his native city; he sent forth his captains 
 at the head of armed bands, to cast down the idols of different 
 tribes set up in Ihe neighbouring towns and villages, and to con- 
 vert their worshippers to his faith. 
 
 Of all these military apostles, none was so zealous as Khaled ; 
 whose spirit was still fermenting with recent conversion. Arriving 
 at Naklah, the resort of the idolatrous Koreishites to worship at the 
 shrine of Uzza, he penetrated the sacred grove, laid waste the temple, 
 and cast the idol to the ground. A horrible hag, black and naked, 
 with dishevelled hair, rushed forth, shrieking and wringing her 
 hands ; but Khaled severed her through the middle with one blow 
 of his scimetar. He reported the deed to Mahomet, expressing a 
 doubt whether she were priestess or evil spirit. " Of a truth," re- 
 plied the prophet, " it was Uzza herself whom thou hast destroyed." 
 
 On a similar errand into the neighbouring province of Tehama, 
 Khaled had with him three hundred and fifty men, some of them 
 of the tribe of Suleim, and was accompanied by Abda'lrahman, 
 one of the earliest proselytes of the faith. His instructions from 
 the prophet were to preach peace and good will, to inculcate the 
 faith, and to abstain from violence, unless assailed. "When about 
 two days' journey on his way to Tehama, he had to pass through 
 the country of the tribe of Jadsima. Most of the inhabitants had 
 embraced the faith, but some were still of the Sabean religion. On 
 a former occasion this tribe had plundered and slain an uncle of 
 Khaled, also the father of Abda'lrahman, and several Suleimites, 
 as they were returning from Arabia Felix. Dreading that Khaled 
 and his host might take vengeance for these misdeeds, -they armed 
 themselves on their approach. 
 
 Khaled was secretly rejoiced at seeing them ride forth to meet 
 him in this military array. Hailing them with an imperious tone, 
 he demanded whether they were Moslems or infidels. They re-
 
 ENEMY'S CAMP. Ill 
 
 plied, in faltering accents, "Moslems." ""Why, then, come ye 
 forth to meet us with weapons in your hands?" "Because we 
 have enemies among some of the tribes who may attack us 
 unawares." 
 
 Khaled sternly ordered them to dismount and lay by their 
 weapons. Some complied, and were instantly seized and bound ; 
 the rest fled. Taking their flight as a confession of guilt, he pur- 
 sued them with great slaughter; laid waste the country, and in the 
 effervescence of his zeal even slew some of the prisoners. 
 
 Mahomet, when he heard of this unprovoked outrage, raised his 
 hands to heaven, and called God to witness that lie was innocent 
 of it. Khaled, when upbraided with it on his return, would fain 
 have shifted the blame on Abda'lrahman, but Mahomet rejected in- 
 dignantly an imputation against one of the earliest and worthiest of 
 his followers. The generous AH was sent forthwith to restore to 
 the people of Jadsima what Khaled had wrested from thenl, and to 
 make pecuniary compensation to the relatives of the slain. It was 
 a mission congenial with his nature, and he executed it faithfully. 
 Inquiring into the losses and sufferings of each individual, he paid 
 him to his full content. When every loss was made good, and all 
 blood atoned for, he distributed the remaining money among the 
 people, gladdening every heart by his bounty. So Ali received the 
 thanks and praises of the prophet, but the vindictive Khaled was 
 rebuked even by those whom he had thought to please. 
 
 "Behold!" said he, to Abda'lrahman, "I have avenged the 
 death of thy father." " Rather say," replied the other, indignantly, 
 " thou hast avenged the death of thine uncle. Thou hast disgraced 
 the faith by an act worthy of an idolater." 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 Hostilities in the Mountains. Enemy's camp in the valley of Autas. Battle at the pass 
 of Honein. Capture of the enemy's camp. Interview of Mahomet with the nurse of 
 his childhood. Division of spoil. Mahomet at his mother's grave. 
 
 While the military apostles of Mahomet were spreading his doc- 
 trines at the point of the sword in the plains, a hostile storm was 
 gathering in the mountains. A league was formed among the Tha- 
 kefites, the Hawazins, the Joshmites, the Saadites. and several other 
 of the hardy mountain tribes of Bedouins, to check a power which 
 threatened to subjugate all Arabia. The Saadites, or Beni Sad, 
 here mentioned, are the same pastoral Arabs among whom Maho- 
 met had been nurtured in his childhood ; and in whose valley, ac- 
 cording to tradition, his heart had been plucked forth and purified 
 by an angel. The Thakefites, who were foremost in the league, 
 were a powerful tribe, possessing the strong mountain town of 
 Tayef and its productive territory. They were bigoted idolaters ; 
 maintaining at their capital the far-famed shrine of the female idol
 
 112 MAHOMET AND UTS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Al Lat. The reader will remember the ignominious treatment of 
 Mahomet, when he attempted to preach his doctrines at Tayef; 
 being stoned in the public square, and ultimately driven with insult 
 from the gates. It was probably a dread of vengeance at his 
 hands, which now made the Thakefites so active in forming a league 
 against him. 
 
 Malec Ibn Auf, the chief of the Thakefites, had the general com- 
 mand of the confederacy. He appointed the valley of Autas, be- 
 tween Honein and Tayef, as the place of assemblage and encamp- 
 ment ; and as he knew the fickle nature of the Arabs, and their 
 proneness to return home on the least caprice, he ordered them 
 to bring with them their families and effects. They assembled, 
 accordingly, from various parts, to the number of four thousand 
 fighting men ; but the camp was crowded with women and children, 
 and encumbered with flocks and herds. 
 
 The expedient of Malec Ibn Auf to secure the adhesion of the 
 warriors, was strongly disapproved by Dorafd, the chief of the 
 Joshmites. This was an ancient warrior, upwards of a hundred 
 years old; meagre as a skeleton, almost blind, and so feeble that 
 he had to be borne in a litter on the back of a camel. Still, 
 though unable to mingle in battle, he was potent in council from 
 his military experience. This veteran of the desert advised that 
 the women and children should be sent home forthwith, and the 
 army relieved from all unnecessary incumbrances. His advice was 
 not taken ; and the valley of Autas continued to present rather the 
 pastoral encampment of a tribe, than the hasty levy of an army. 
 
 In the meantime Mahomet, hearing of the gathering storm, had 
 sallied forth to anticipate it, at the head of about twelve thousand 
 troops, partly fugitives from Mecca, and auxiliaries from Medina, 
 partly Arabs of the desert, some of whom had not yet embraced 
 the faith. 
 
 In taking the field he wore a polished cuirass and helmet, and 
 rode his favourite while mule Daldal, seldom mounting a charger, 
 as he rarely mingled in actual fight. His recent successes and his 
 superiority in numbers, making him confident of an easy victory, 
 he entered the mountains without precaution, and pushing forward 
 for the enemy's camp at Mutas, came to a deep gloomy valley on 
 the confines of Honein. The troops marched without order through 
 the rugged defile, each one choosing his own path. Suddenly they 
 were assailed by showers of darts, stones, and arrows, which lay 
 two or three of Mahomet's soldiers dead at his feet, and wounded 
 several others. Malec, in fact, had taken post with his ablest war- 
 riors about the heights commanding this narrow gorge. Every cliff 
 and cavern was garrisoned with archers and slingers, and some 
 rushed down to contend at close quarters. 
 
 Struck with a sudden panic, the Moslems turned and fled. In 
 vain did Mahomet call upon them as their general, or appeal to 
 them as the prophet of God. Each man sougth but his own safety, 
 and an escape from this horrible valley. 
 
 For a moment all seemed lost, and some recent but unwilling 
 converts betrayed an exultation in the supposed reverse of fortune 
 of the prophet.
 
 THE PASS OF IIONEIN. 113 
 
 "By heavens!" cried Abu Sofian, as he looked after the flying 
 Moslems, e( nothing will stop them until they reach the sea." 
 
 " Ay," exclaimed another, " the magic power of Mahomet is at 
 an end!" 
 
 A third, who cherished a lurking revenge for the death of his 
 father, slain by the Moslems in the battle of Ohod, would have 
 killed the prophet in the confusion, had he not been surrounded 
 and protected by a few devoted followers. Mahomet himself, in 
 an impulse of desperation, spurred his mule upon the enemy ; but 
 Al Abbas seized the bridle, stayed him from rushing to certain 
 death, and at the same time put up a shout that echoed through 
 the narrow valley. Al Abbas was .renowned for strength of lungs, 
 and at this critical moment it was the salvation of the army. The 
 Moslems rallied when they heard his well-known voice, and finding 
 they were not pursued, returned to the combat. The enemy had 
 descended from the heights, and now a bloody conflict ensued in 
 the defile. "The furnace is kindling," cried Mahomet exultingly, 
 as he saw the glitter of arms and flash of weapons. Stooping from 
 his saddle, and grasping a handful of dust, he scattered it in the 
 air toward the enemy. " Confusion on their faces ! " cried he, 
 " may this dust blind them ! " They were blinded accordingly, 
 and fled in confusion, say the Moslem writers; though their defeat 
 may rather be attributed to the Moslem superiority of force, and 
 the zeal inspired by the exclamations of the prophet. Malec and the 
 Thakefites took refuge in the distant city of Tayef, the rest retreated 
 to the camp in the valley of Autas. 
 
 While Mahomet remained in the valley of Honein, he sent Abu 
 Amir with a strong force, to attack the camp. The Hawazins made 
 a brave defence. Abu Amir was slain ; but his nephew, Abu Musa, 
 took the command, and obtained a complete victory, killing many 
 of the enemy. The camp afforded great booty and many captives, 
 from the unwise expedient of Malec Ibn Auf, in encumbering it 
 with the families and effects, the flocks and herds of the confede- 
 rates ; and from his disregard of the sage advice of the veteran 
 Doraid. The fate of that ancient warrior of the desert is 'worthy 
 of mention. While the Moslem troops, scattered through the 
 camp, were intent on booty, Rabia Ibn Rafi, a young Suleimite, 
 observed a litter born off on the back of a camel, and pursued it, 
 supposing it to contain some beautiful female. On overtaking it 
 and drawing the curtain, he beheld the skeleton form of the an- 
 cient Doraid. Vexed and disappointed, he struck at him with his 
 sword, but the weapon broka in his hand "Thy mother," 
 said the old man sneeringly, " has furnished Ihee with 
 wretched weapons ; thou wilt find a better one hanging behind my 
 saddle." 
 
 The youth seized it, but as he drew it from the scabbard, Doraid 
 perceiving that he was a Suleimite, exclaimed, " Tell thy mother 
 thou hast slain Doraid Ibn Simma, who has protected many women 
 of her tribe in the day of battle." The words were ineffectual; 
 the skull of the veteran was cloven with his own scimetar. When 
 Rabia, on his return to Mecca, told his mother of the deed, " Thou 
 hast indeed slain a benefactor of thy race,'' said she reproachfully. 
 
 8
 
 114 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 " Three women of thy family has Doraicl Ibn Simma freed from 
 captivity." 
 
 AbuMusa returned in triumph to Mahomet, making a great display 
 of the spoils of the camp of Autas, and the women and' children 
 whom he had captured. One of the female" captives threw herself 
 at the feet of the prophet, and implored IMS mercy as his foster- 
 sister Al Shima, the daughter of his nurse Halenia, who had nurtured 
 him in the Saadite valley. Mahomet sought in vain to recognize in 
 her withered features the bright playmate of his infancy, but she 
 laid bare her back, and showed a scar where he had bitten her in 
 their childish gambols. He no longer doubted ; but treated her with 
 kindness, giving her the choice either to remain with him and under 
 his protection, or to return to her home and kindred. 
 
 A scruple rose among the Moslems with respect to their female 
 captives. Gould they take to themselves such as were married, 
 without committing the sin of adultery ? The revelation of a text 
 of the Koran put an end to the difficulty, " Ye shall not take to wife 
 free women who are married, unless your right hand shall have made 
 them slaves. " According to this all women taken in war may be 
 made the wives of the captors, though their former husbands be 
 living. The victors of Honein failed not to take immediate advan- 
 tage of this law. 
 
 Leaving the captives and the booty in a secure place, and 
 properly guarded, Mahomet now proceeded in pursuit of the 
 Thakefites who had taken refuge in Tayef . A sentiment of ven- 
 geance mingled with his pious ardour as he approached this idola- 
 trous place, the scene of former injury and insult, and beheld the 
 gate whence he had once been ignominiously driven forth. The 
 walls were too strong however to be stormed., and there was a pro- 
 tecting castle ; for the first time, therefore, he had recourse to cata- 
 pults, battering-rams, and other engines used in sieges, but unknown 
 in Arabian warfare. These were prepared under the direction of 
 Salman al Farsi,the converted Persian. 
 
 The besieged, however, repulsed every attack, galling the as- 
 sailants* with darts and arrows, and pouring down melted iron upon 
 the shields of bull-hides, under covert of which they approached 
 the walls. Mahomet now laid waste the fields, the orchards, and 
 vineyards., and proclaimed freedom to all slaves who should desert 
 from the city. For twenty days he carried on an ineffectul siege 
 daily offering up prayers midway between the tents of his wives 
 Omni Salama and Zeinab, to whom it had fallen by lot to accompany 
 him in this campaign. His hopes of success began to fail, and he 
 was further discouraged by a dream, which was unfavourably in- 
 terpreted by Abu Beker, renowned for his skill in expounding vi- 
 sions. He would have raised the siege, but his troops murmured; 
 whereupon he ordered an assault upon one of the gates. As usual, 
 it was obstinately defended ; numbers were slain on both sides ; Abu 
 Sofian, who fought valiantly on the occasion, lost an eye, and the 
 Moslems were finally repulsed. 
 
 Mahomet now broke up his camp, promising his troops to renew 
 the siege at a future day, and proceeded to the place where were 
 collected the spoils of his expedition. These, say Arabian writers,
 
 POLITIC GENEROSITY. 115 
 
 amounted to twenty-four thousand camels, forty thousand sheep, 
 four thousand ounces of silver, and six thousand captives. 
 
 In a little while appeared a deputation from the Hawazins, de- 
 claring the submission of their tribe, and begging the restoration 
 of their families and effects. "With them came Halema, Mahomet's 
 foster-nurse, now well stricken in years. The recollections of his 
 childhood again pleaded with his heart. " Which is dearest to you," 
 said he to the Hawazins, '"your families or your goods?" They 
 replied, "Our families." 
 
 " Enough /'-rejoined he, " as far as it concerns Al Abbas and 
 myself, we are ready to give up our share of the prisoners ; but 
 there are others to be moved. Come to me after noontide prayer, 
 and say, ' we implore the ambassador of God that he counsel his 
 followers to return us our wives and children ; and we implore his 
 followers that they intercede with him in our favour." 
 
 The envoys did as he advised. Mahomet and Al Abbas im- 
 mediately renounced their share of the captives ; their example 
 was followed by all excepting the tribes of Tamim and Fazara, but 
 Mahomet brought them to consent by promising them a sixfold 
 share of the prisoners taken in the next expedition. Thus the in- 
 tercession of Halema procured the deliverance of all the captives of 
 her tribe. A traditional anecdote shows the deference with which 
 Mahomet treated this humble protector of his infancy. " I was sit- 
 ting with the prophet, " said one of his disciples, " when all of a 
 sudden a woman presented herself, and he rose and spread his cloth 
 for her to sit down upon. When she went away, it was observed, 
 ' that woman suckled the prophet.' " 
 
 Mahomet now sent an envoy to Malec, who remained shut up in 
 Tayef, offering the restitution of all the spoils taken from him at 
 Honein, and a present of one hundred camels, if he would submit 
 and embrace the faith. Malec was conquered and converted by 
 this liberal offer, and brought several of his confederate tribes with 
 him to the standard of the prophet. He was immediately made their 
 chief; and proved, subsequently, a severe scourge in the cause of 
 the faith to his late associates the Thakefites. 
 
 The Moslems now began to fear that Mahomet, in these magnani- 
 mous impulses, might squander away all the gains of their recent 
 battles ; thronging round him, therefore, they clamoured for a di- 
 vision of the spoils and captives. Regarding them, indignantly, 
 " Have you ever," said he, " found me avaricious., or false, or 
 disloyal?" Then plucking a hair from the back of a camel, and 
 raising his voice, " By Allah ! " cried he, " I have never taken 
 from the common spoil the value of that camel's hair more than 
 my fifth ; and that fifth has always been expended for your good." 
 He then shared the booty as usual; four-fifths among the 
 troops; but his own fifth he distributed among those whose fidelity 
 he wished to insure. The Koreishites he considered dubious al- 
 lies ; perhaps he had overheard the exultation of some of them in 
 anticipation of his defeat; he now sought to rivet them to him 
 by gifts. To Abu Sofian he gave one hundred camels and forty 
 okks of silver, in compensation for the eye lost in the attack on 
 the gate of Tayef. To Akrema Ibn Abu -Jahl, and others of
 
 H6 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 like note, he gave in due proportions, and all from his own share. 
 
 Among the lukewarm converts thus propitiated, was Abbas Ibn 
 Mardas, a poet. He was dissatisfied with his share, and vented 
 his discontent in satirical verses. Mahomet overheard him. " Take 
 that man hence," said he ? " and cut out his tongue." Omar, ever 
 ready for rigorous measures, would have executed the sentence li- 
 terally, and on the spot ; but others, better instructed in the pro- 
 phet's meaning, led Abbas, all trembling, to the public square where 
 the captured cattle were collected, and bade him choose what he 
 liked from among them. 
 
 " What ! " cried the poet, joyously, relieved from the horrors 
 of mutilation, " i this the way the prophet would silence my 
 tongue ? By Allah ! I will take nothing'. " Mahomet, however, 
 persisted in his politic generosity, and sent him sixty camels. From 
 that time forward the poet was never weary of chanting the libe- 
 rality of the prophet. 
 
 While thus stimulating the good-will of lukewarm proselytes of 
 Mecca, Mahomet excited the murmurs of his auxiliaries of Medina. 
 " See," said they, " how he lavishes gifts upon the treacherous Ko- 
 reishites, while we, who have been-loyal to him through all dangers, 
 receive nothing but our naked share. What have we done that we 
 should be thus thrown into the background?" 
 
 Mahomet was told of their murmurs, and summoned their 
 leaders to his tent. " Hearken, ye men of Medina," said he; 
 " wer ye not in discord among yourselves, and have I not 
 brought you into harmony? Were ye not in error, and have I 
 not brought yo into the path of truth? W r ere ye not poor, and 
 have I not made you rich ?" 
 
 They acknowledged the truth of his words. "Look ye!" con- 
 tinued he, " I came among you stigmatized as a liar, yet you 
 believed in me; persecuted, yet you protected me; a fugitive, yet 
 you sheltered uie ; helpless, yet you aided me. Think you 1 do not 
 feel all this? Think you I can be ungrateful ? You complain that 
 I bestow gifts upon these people, and give none to you. It is 
 true, I give them worldly gear, but it is to win their w r orldly hearts. 
 To you, who have been true, I give myself! They return home 
 with sheep and camels ; ye return with the prophet of God among 
 you. For, by him in whose hands is the soul of Mahomet, though 
 the whole world should go one way and ye another, I would remain 
 with you ! Which of you, then, have I most rewarded ? " 
 
 The auxiliaries were moved even to tears by this appeal. U 0h, 
 prophet of God," exclaimed they, "we are content with our lot!" 
 
 The booty being divided, Mahomet returned to Mecca, not 
 with the parade and exultation of a conqueror, but in pilgrim 
 garb, to complete the rites of his pilgrimage. All these being 
 scrupulously performed, he appointed Moad Ibn Jabal as iman, 
 or pontiff, to instruct the people in the doctrines of Islam, and 
 gave the government of the city into the hands of Otab, a youth 
 but eighteen years of age; after which he bade farewell to 
 his native place, and set out with his troops on the return to 
 Medina 
 
 Arriving at the village of Al Abwa, where his mother was buried,
 
 BIRTH OF A SON. 117 
 
 his heart yearned to pay a filial tribute to her memory, but his 
 own revealed law forbade any respect to the grave of one who 
 had died in unbelief. In the strong agitation of his feelings he 
 implored from heaven a relaxation of this law. If there was any 
 deception on an occasion of this kind, one would imagine it must 
 have been self-deception, and that he really believed in a fancied 
 intimation from heaven relaxing the law, in part, in the present 
 instance, and permitting him to visit the grave? He burst into tears 
 on arriving at this trying place of the tenderest affections; but tears 
 were all the filial tribute he was permitted to offer. "I asked leave 
 of God," said he, mournfully, "to visit my mother's grave, and it 
 was granted ; but when I asked leave to pray for her, it was de- 
 nied me." 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 Death of the prophet's daughter Zcinab. -Birth of his son Ibrahim. Deputations from 
 distant tribes. Poetical contest in presence of the prophet- His susceptibility to the 
 charms of poetry. Reduction of the city of Tayef ; destruction of its idols. -Negotia- 
 tion with Amir Ibn Tafiel, a proud Bedouin chief; independent spirit of the latter. 
 Interview of Adi, another chief, with Mahomet. 
 
 Shortly after his return to Medina, Mahomet was afflicted by the 
 death of, his daughter Zeinab, the same who had been given up to 
 him in exchange for her husband Abul Aass, the unbeliever, cap- 
 tured at the battle of Beder. The domestic affections of the prophet 
 were strong, and he felt deeply this bereavement; he was consoled, 
 however, by the birth of a son, by his favourite concubine Mariyah. 
 He called the child Ibrahim, and rejoiced in the hope, that this son of 
 his old age, his only male issue living, would continue his name to 
 after generations. 
 
 His fame, either as a prophet or a conqueror, was now spreading 
 to the uttermost parts of Arabia, and deputations from distant tribes 
 were continually arriving at Medina, some acknowledging him as 
 a prophet and embracing Islamism ; others submitting to him as a 
 temporal sovereign, and agreeing to pay tribute. The talents of 
 Mahomet rose to the exigency of the moment ; his views expanded 
 with his fortunes, and he now proceeded with statesmanlike skill 
 to regulate the fiscal concerns of his rapidly growing empire. Under 
 the specious appellation of alms, a contribution was levied on true 
 believers, amounting to a tithe of the productions of the earth, 
 where it was fertilized by brooks and rain ; and a twentieth part 
 where its fertility was the result of irrigation. For every ten 
 camels, two sheep were required ; for forty head of cattle, one cow ; 
 for thirty head, a two year's calf; for every forty sheep, one ; whoever 
 contributed more than at this rate, would be considered so much 
 the more devout, and would gain a proportionate favour in the eyes 
 of God. 
 
 The tribute exacted from those who submitted to temporal sway, 
 but continued in unbelief, was at the rate of one dinar in money or 
 goods, for each adult person, bond or fr^e.
 
 118 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Some difficulty occurred in collecting the charitable contributions; 
 the proud tribe of Tamim openly resisted them, and drove away 
 the collector. A troop of Arab horse was sent against them, and 
 brought away a number of men, women and children, captives. A 
 deputation of the Tamimites came to reclaim the prisoners. Four of 
 the deputies were renowned as orators and poets, and instead of 
 humbling themselves before Mahomet, proceeded to declaim in prose 
 and verse, defying the Moslems to a poetical contest. 
 
 "I am not sent by God as a poet," replied Mahomet, "neither do 
 I seek fame as an orator. " 
 
 Some of his followers, however, accepted the challenge, and a 
 war of ink ensued, in which the Tamimites acknowledged them- 
 selves vanquished. So well pleased was Mahomet with the spirit of 
 their defiance^ with their poetry, and with their frank acknowledg- 
 ment of defeat, that he not merely gave them up the prisoners, but 
 dismissed them with presents. 
 
 Another instance of his susceptibility to the charms of poetry, is 
 recorded in the case of Caab Ibn Zohair, a celebrated poet of 
 Mecca, who had made him the subject of satirical verses, and had 
 consequently been one of the proscribed ; but had fled on the 
 capture of the sacred city. Caab now came to Medina to make his 
 peace, and approaching Mahomet when in the mosque began 
 chanting his praises in a poem afterwards renowned among the 
 Arabs as a master-piece. He concluded by especially extolling his 
 clemency, " for with the prophet of God, the pardon of injuries is, 
 of all his virtues, that on which one can rely with the greatest 
 certainty." 
 
 Captivated with the verse, and soothed by the flattery, Mahomet 
 made good the poet's words, for he not merely forgave him, but 
 taking off his own mantle, threw it upon his shoulders. The poet; 
 preserved the sacred garment to the day of his death, refusing 
 golden offers for it. The Caliph Moawyah purchased it of his heirs 
 for ten thousand drachmas, and it continued to be worn by the 
 Caliphs in processions and solemn ceremonials, until the thirty- 
 sixth Caliphat, when it was torn from the back of the Caliph Al- 
 Most'asem Billah. by Holagu, the Tartar conqueror, and burnt to 
 ashes. 
 
 While town after town, and castle after castle of the Arab tribes 
 were embracing the faith, and professing allegiance to Mahomet, 
 Tayef, the stronghold of the Thakefites, remained obstinate in the 
 worship of its boasted idol Al Lat. The inhabitants confided in 
 their mountain position, and in the strength of their walls and castle. 
 But, though safe from assault, they found themselves gradually 
 hemmed in and isolated by the Moslems, so that at length they 
 could not stir beyond their walls without being attacked. Thus 
 threatened and harassed, they sent ambassadors to Mahomet to treat 
 for peace. 
 
 The prophet cherished a deep resentment against this stiff-necked 
 and most idolatrous city, which had at one time ejected him from 
 its gates, and at another time repulsed him from its walls. Flis 
 terms were conversion and unqualified submission. The ambassa- 
 dors readily consented to embrace Jslamism themselves, but pleaded
 
 DESTRUCTION OF IDOLS AT TAYEF. 119 
 
 the danger of suddenly shocking (he people ofTayef, by a demand 
 to renounce their ancient faith. In' their name, therefore, they 
 entreated permission for three years longer, to worship their an- 
 cient idol Al Lat. The request was peremptorily denied. They 
 then asked at least one month's delay, to prepare the public mind. 
 This likewise was refused, all idolatry being incompatible with Ihe 
 worship of God. They then entreated to be excused from the 
 observance of the daily prayers. 
 
 "There can be no true religion without prayer," replied Ma- 
 homet. In fine, they were compelled to make an unconditional 
 submission. 
 
 Abu Sofian Ibn Harb, and Al Mogheira, were sent to Tayef, to 
 destroy the idol AlLat, which was of stone. Abu Sofian struck at 
 it with a pick-axe, but missing his blow fell prostrate on his face. 
 The populace set up a shout, considering it a good augury, but Al 
 Mogheira demolished their hopes, and the statue, at one blow of 
 a sledge-hammer. He then stripped it of the costly robes, the bra- 
 celets, the necklace, the ear-rings, and other ornaments of gold 
 and precious stones wherewith it had been decked by its worship- 
 pers, and left it in fragments on the ground, with the women of 
 Tayef weeping and lamenting over it. 1 
 
 Among those who still defied the power of Mahomet, was the Be- 
 douin chief Amir Ibn Tufiel, head of the powerful tribe of Amir. 
 He was renowned for personal beauty and princely magnificence ; 
 but was of a haughty spirit, and his magnificence partook of osten- 
 tation. At the great fair of Okaz, between Tayef and Naklah, where 
 merchants, pilgrims, and poets, were accustomed to assemble from 
 all parts of Arabia; a herald would proclaim : " Whoso wants a 
 beast of burden, let him come to Amir; is any one hungry, let 
 him come to Amir, and he will be fed; is he persecuted, let him 
 fly to Amir, and he will be protected. " 
 
 Amir had dazzled every one by his generosity, and his ambition 
 had kept pace with his popularity. The rising power of Mahomet 
 inspired him with jealouly. When advised to .make terms with 
 him , "I have sworn," replied he haughtily, "never to rest until I 
 had won all Arabia ; and shall I do homage to this Koreishite ?" 
 
 The recent conquests of the Moslems, however, brought him to 
 listen to the counsels of his friends. He repaired to Medina, and 
 coming into the presence of Mahomet, demanded frankly, " Wilt 
 thou be my friend ?" 
 
 " Never, by Allah !" was the reply, " unless thou dost embrace 
 the faith of Islam." 
 
 "And if I do ; wilt thou content thyself with the sway over the 
 Arabs of the cities, and leave to me the Bedouins of the deserts?" 
 
 Mahomet replied in the negative. 
 
 "What then will I gain by embracing thy faith?" 
 
 "The fellowship of all true believers." 
 
 i The Thakefites continue a powerful tribe to this day: possessing the same fertile 
 region on the eastern declivity of the Hedjas chain of mountains. Some inhabit the 
 ancient town of Tayef, others dwell in tents and have flocks of goals and sheep. Thev 
 can raise two thousand match-locks, and defended their stronghold of Tayef in the 
 wars with (he Wahabys. Burckhardt, Nolet, v. 2.
 
 120 MAHOMI/r AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 "I covet no such fellowship!" replied the proud Amir; and with 
 a warlike menace he returned to his tribe. 
 
 A Bedouin chieftain of a different character was /Ydi, a prince 
 of the tribe of Tai. His father Hatim had been famous, not merely 
 for warlike deeds, but for boundless generosity, insomuch that the 
 Arabs were accustomed to say, ' as generous as Hatim." Adi the 
 son was a Christian ; and however he might have inherited his 
 father's generosity, was deficient in his valour. Alarmed at the 
 ravaging expeditions of the Moslems, he ordered a young Arab, 
 who tended his camels in the desert, to have several of the strongest 
 and fleetest at hand, and to give instant notice of the approach of 
 an enemy. 
 
 It happened that Ali, who was scouring that part of the country 
 with a band of horsemen, came in sight, bearing with him two 
 banners, one white, the other black. The young Bedouin beheld 
 them from afar, and ran to Adi, exclaiming, "The Moslems are at 
 hand. I see their banners at a distance!" Adi instantly placed 
 his wife and children on the camels, and fled to Syria. His sister, 
 surnamed Saffana, or the Pearl, fell into the hands of the Moslems, 
 and was carried with other captives to Medina. Seeing Mahomet 
 pass near to the place of her confinement, she cried to him : 
 
 if Have pity upon me, oh ambassador of God ! My father is dead, 
 and he who should have protected has abandoned me. Have pity 
 upon me, oh ambassador of God, as God may have pity upon 
 thee !" 
 
 "Who is thy protector ?" asked Mahomet. 
 
 "Adi, the son of Hatim." 
 
 " He is a fugitive from God and his prophet," replied Mahomet, 
 and passed on. 
 
 On the following day, as Mahomet was passing by, Ali, who 
 had been touched by the woman's beauty and her grief, whispered 
 to her to arise and entreat the prophet once more. She accord- 
 ingly repeated her prayer. "Oh prophet of God! my father is 
 dead; my brother, who should have been my protector, has aban- 
 doned me. Have mercy upon me, as God will have mercy upon 
 thee." 
 
 Mahomet turned to her benignantly. "Be it so," said he; and 
 he not only set her free, but gave her raiment and a camel, and 
 sent her by the first caravan bound to Syria. 
 
 Arriving in presence of her brother, she upbraided him with his 
 desertion. He acknowledged his fault, and was forgiven. She 
 then urged him to make his peace with Mahomet; "he is truly a 
 prophet," said she, "and will soon have universal sway; hasten, 
 therefore, in time to win his favour." 
 
 The politic Adi listened to her counsel, and hastening to Medina, 
 greeted the prophet, who was in the mosque. His own account of 
 the interview presents a striking picture of the simple manners and 
 mode of life of Mahomet, now in the full exercise of sovereign 
 power, and the career of. rapid conquest. "He asked me," says 
 Adi, " my name, and when I gave it, invited me to accompany him 
 to his home. On the way a weak emaciated woman accosted him. 
 He stopped and talked to her of her affairs. This, thought I to
 
 SYRIAN CAMPAIGN. 121 
 
 myself, is not very kingly. When we arrived at his house, he 
 gave me a leathern cushion stuffed with palm-leaves to sit upon, 
 while he sat upon the bare ground. This, thought I, is not very 
 princely ! 
 
 ' He then asked me three times to embrace Islamism. I replied, 
 I have a faith of my own. 'I know thy faith,' said he, ' better than 
 thou dost thyself. As prince, thou takest one-fourth of the booty 
 from thy people. Is this Christian doctrine?' By these words I 
 perceived him to be a prcrphet, who knew more than other men. 
 
 "'Thou dost not incline to Islamism,' continued he, 'because 
 thou seest we are poor. The time is at hand when true believers 
 will have more wealth than they will know how to manage. Per- 
 haps thou art deterred, by seeing the small number of the Moslems 
 in comparison with the hosts of their enemies. By Allah ! in a little 
 while a Moslem woman will be able to make a pilgrimage on her 
 camel, alone and fearless, from Kadesia to God's temple at Mecca. 
 Thou thinkest, probably, that the might is in the hands of the un- 
 believers ; know that the time is not far off when we will plant our 
 standards on the white castles of Babylon.'" 1 
 
 The politic Adi believed in the prophecy, and forthwith em- 
 braced the faith. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 Preparations for an expedition against Syria. Intrigues of Abdallah Ibn Obba. 
 Contributions of Hie faithful. March of the army. The accursed region of Hajar. 
 Encampment at Tabuc. Subjugation of the neighbouring provinces. Khaled surprises 
 Okaidor and his cast!e.-Return of the army to Medina. 
 
 Mahomet had now, either by conversion or conquest, made him- 
 self sovereign of almost all Arabia. The scattered tribes, hereto- 
 fore dangerous to each other, but by their disunion powerless 
 against the rest of the world, he had united into one nation, and 
 thus fitted for external conquest. His prophetic character gave 
 him absolute control of the formidable power thus conjured up in 
 the desert, and he was now prepared to lead it forth for the pro- 
 pagation of the faith, and the extension of the Moslem power in 
 foreign lands. 
 
 His numerous victories, and the recent 'affair at Muta, had at 
 length, it is said, roused the attention of the Emperor Heraclius, who 
 was assembling an army on the confines of Arabia to crush this new 
 enemy. Mahomed determined to anticipate his hostilities, and to 
 carry the standard of the faith into the very heart of Syria. 
 
 Hitherto he had undertaken his expeditions with secrecy; im- 
 parting his plans and intentions to none but his most confidential 
 officers, and beguiling his followers into enterprises of danger. 
 The present campaign, however, so different from the brief predatory 
 excursions of the Arabs, would require great preparations; an unusual 
 
 J Weil's Mohammed, p. 247,
 
 122 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 force was to be assembled, and all kinds of provisions made for 
 distant marches, and a long absence. He proclaimed openly, 
 therefore, the object and nature of the enterprise. 
 
 There was not the usual readiness to flock to his standard. Many 
 remembered the disastrous affair ofMuta, and dreaded to come 
 again in conflict with disciplined Roman troops. The time of year 
 also was unpropitious for such a distant and prolonged expedition. 
 It was the season of summer heat; the earth was parched, and the 
 springs and brooks were dried up. The Hate-harvest too was ap- 
 proaching, when the men should be at home to gather the fruit, 
 rather than abroad on predatory enterprises. 
 
 All these things were artfully urged upon the people by Ab- 
 dallah Ibn Obba, the Khazradite, who continued to be the covert 
 enemy of Mahomet, and seized every occasion to counteract his 
 plans. " A fine season, this," would he cry, " to undertake 
 such a distant march in defiance of dearth and drought, and the 
 fervid heat of the desert ! Mahomet seems to think a war with 
 Greeks quite a matter of sport ; trust me, you will find it very 
 different from a war of Arab against Arab. By Allah! methinksl 
 already see you all in chains." 
 
 By these and similar scoffs and suggestions, he wrought upon the 
 fears and feelings of the Khazradites, his partisans, and rendered 
 the enterprise generally unpopular. Mahomet, as usual, had 
 resort to revelation. " Those who would remain behind, and 
 refuse to devote themselves to the service of God," said a timely 
 chapter of the Koran, " allege the summer heat as an excuse. 
 Tell them the fire of hell is hotter ! They may hug themselves in 
 the enjoyment of present safety, but endless tears will be their 
 punishment hereafter?" 
 
 Some of his devoted adherents manifested their zeal at this 
 lukewarn moment. Omar, Al Abbas, and Abda'lrahman, gave 
 large sums of money ; several female devotees brought their orna- 
 ments and jewels. Olhman delivered one thousand, some say ten 
 thousand, dinars to Mahomet, and was absolved from his sins, past, 
 present, or to come. Abu Beker gave four thousand drachmas ; 
 Mahomet hesitated to accept the offer, knowing it to be all that 
 he possessed. " What will remain," said he, " for thee and thy 
 family ? " " God and his prophet," wag the reply. 
 
 These devout examples had a powerful effect; yet it was with 
 much difficulty that an army of ten thousand horse and twenty 
 thousand foot was assembled. Mahomet now appointed AH go- 
 vernor of Medina during his absence, and guardian of both their 
 families. He accepted the trust with great reluctance, having 
 been accustomed always to accompany the prophet, and share all 
 his perils. All arrangements being completed, Mahomet marched 
 forth from Medina on this momentous expedition. A part of his army 
 was composed of Khazradites and their confederates, led by Ab- 
 dallah Ibn Obba. This man, whom Mahomet had well denominated 
 the Chief of the Hypocrites, encamped separately with his adhe- 
 rents at night, at some distance in the rear of the main army ; and 
 when the latter marched forward in the morning, lagged behind 
 and led his troops back to Medina. Repairing to AH, whose do-
 
 THE ACCURSED REGION, 123 
 
 minion in the city was irksome to him and his adherents, he 
 endeavoured to make him discontented with his position, alleging 
 that Mahomet had left him in charge of Medina solely to ride him- 
 self of an incumbrance. Stung by the suggestion, Ali hastened 
 after Mahomet, and demanded if what Abdallah and his followers 
 said were true. 
 
 " These men, replied Mahomet, " are liars. They are the party 
 of Hypocrites and Doubters, who would breed sedition in Medina. 
 I left thee behind to keep watch over them, and to be a guardian 
 to both our families. I would have thee to be to me what Aaron 
 was to Moses; excepting that thou canst not be, like him, a pro- 
 phet; I being the last of the prophets." With this explanation, 
 Ali returned contented to Medina. 
 
 Many have inferred from the foregoing, that Mahomet intended 
 Ali for his Caliph or successor; that being the signification of the 
 Arabic word used to denote the relation of Aaron to Moses. 
 
 The troops who had continued on with Mahomet soon began to 
 experience the difficulties of braving the desert in this sultry season. 
 Many turned back on the second day; and others on the third and 
 fourth. Whenever word was brought to the prophet of their de- 
 sertion, " Let them go," would be the reply; "if they are good 
 for any thing God will bring them back to us; if they are not, we 
 are relieved from so many incumbrances." 
 
 While some thus lost heart upon the march, others who had re- 
 mained at Medina repented of their faint-heartedness. One, named 
 Abu Khaithama, entering his garden during the sultry heat of the 
 day, beheld a repast of viands and fresh water spread for him by 
 his two wives in the cool shade of a tent. Pausing at the threshold, 
 " At this moment," exclaimed he, " the prophet of God is exposed 
 to the winds and heats of the desert, and shall Khaithama sit here 
 in the shade beside his beautiful wives? By Allah ! I will not enter 
 the tent ! " He immediately armed himself with sword and lance, 
 and, mounting his camel, hastened off to join the standard of the 
 faith. 
 
 In the meantime the army, after a weary march of seven days, 
 entered the mountainous district of Hajar, inhabited in days of old 
 by the Thamudites, one of the lost tribes of Arabia. It was the 
 accursed region, the tradition concerning which has already been 
 related. The advance of the army, knowing nothing of this tradi- 
 tion, and being heated and fatigued, beheld, with delight, a brook 
 running through a verdant valley, and cool caves cut in the sides 
 of the neighbouring hills, once the abodes of the heaven-smitten 
 Thamudites. Halting along the brook, some prepared to bathe, 
 others began to cook and make bread, while all promised them- 
 selves cool quarters for the night in the caves. 
 
 Mahomet, in marching, had kept, as was his w r ont, in the rear 
 of the army to assist the weak; occasionally taking up a wayworn 
 laggard behind him. Arriving at the place where the troops had 
 halted, he recollected it of old, and the traditions concerning it, 
 which had been told to him when he passed here in the days of 
 his boyhood. Fearful of incurring the ban which hung over the 
 neighbourhood, he ordered his troops to throw away the meat
 
 124 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 cooked with the water of the brook, to, give Ihe bread kneaded 
 with it to the camels, and to hurry away from the heaven-accursed 
 place. Then wrapping his face in the folds of his mantle, and 
 setting spurs to his mule, he hastened through that sinful region ; 
 the army following him as if flying from an enemy. 
 
 The succeeding night was one of great suffering ; the army had 
 to encamp without water ; the weather was intensely hot, with a 
 parching wind from the desert; an intolerable thirst prevailed 
 throughout the camp, as though the Thamudite ban slill hung 
 over it. The next day, however, an abundant rain refreshed and 
 invigorated both man and beast. The march was resumed with 
 new ardour, and the army arrived, without further hardship, at 
 Tabuc, a small town on the confines of the Roman empire, about 
 half way between Medina and Damascus, and about ten days' 
 journey from either city. 
 
 Here Mahomet pitched his camp in the neighbourhood of a 
 fountain, and in the midst of groves and pasturage. Arabian tra- 
 ditions affirm that the fountain was nearly dry; insomuch that, 
 when a small vase was filled for the prophet, not a drop was left : 
 having assuaged his thirst, however, and made his ablutions, 
 Mahomet threw what remained in the vase back into the fountain ; 
 whereupon a stream gushed forth sufficient for the troops and all 
 the cattle. 
 
 From this encampment Mahomet sent out his captains to pro- 
 claim and enforce the faith, or to exact tribute. Some of the 
 neighbouring princes sent embassies, either acknowledging the di- 
 vinity of his mission, or submitting to his temporal sway. One of 
 these was Johanna Ibn Ruba, prince of Eyla, a Christian city, near 
 the Red Sea. This was the same city about which the tradition 
 is told, that in days of old, when its inhabitants were Jews, the 
 old men were turned into swine, and the young men into monkeys, 
 for fishing on the Sabbath, a judgment solemnly recorded in the 
 Koran. 
 
 The prince of Eyla made a covenant of peace with Mahomet, 
 agreeing to pay an annual tribute of three thousand dinars or 
 crowns of gold. The form of the covenant became a precedent 
 in treating with others powers. 
 
 Among the Arab princes who professed the Christian faith, and 
 refused to pay homage to Mahomet, was Okaider Ibn Malcc, of the. 
 tribe of Kenda. He resided in a castle at the foot of a mountain, in 
 the midst of his domain. Khaled was sent with a troop of horse to 
 bring him to terms. Seeing the castle was too strong to be carried 
 by assault, he had recourse to stratagem. One moonlight night, as 
 Okaider and his wife were enjoying the fresh air on the terraced 
 roof of the castle, they beheld an animal grazing, which they sup- 
 posed to be a wild ass from the neighbouring mountains. Okaider, 
 who was a keen huntsman, ordered horse and lance, and sallied 
 forth to the chase, accompanied by his brother Hassan and several 
 of his people. The wild ass proved to be a decoy. They had not 
 ridden far before Khaled and his men rushed from ambush and 
 attacked them. They were too lightly armed to make much 
 resistance, Hassan was killed on the spot, and Okaider taken
 
 TRIUMPHAL ENTRY INTO MKDINA. 125 
 
 prisoner; the rest fled back to the castle; which, however, was 
 soon surrendered. The prince was ultimately set at liberty on pay- 
 ing a heavy ransom and becoming a tributary. 
 
 As a trophy of the victory, Khaled sent to Mahomet the vest 
 stripped from the body of Hassan. It was of silk, richly em- 
 broidered with gold. The Moslems gathered round, and examined 
 it with admiration. "Do you admire this vest?" said the prophet. 
 "I swear by him in whose hands is the soul of Mahomet, the vest 
 which Saad, the son of Maadi, wears at this moment in paradise, is 
 far more precious." This Saad was the judge who passed sentence 
 of death on seven hundred Jewish captives at Medina, at the con- 
 clusion of a former campaign. 
 
 His troops being now refreshed by the sojourn at Tabuc, and the 
 neighbouring country being brought into subjection, Mahomet was 
 bent upon prosecuting the object of his campaign, and pushing 
 forward into the heart of Syria. His ardour, however, was not 
 shared by his followers. Intelligence of immense bodies of hos- 
 tile troops, assembled on the Syrian borders, had damped the spirits 
 of the army. Mahomet remarked the general discouragement, yet 
 was loth to abandon the campaign when but half completed. 
 Calling a council of war, he propounded the question whether or 
 not to continue forward. To this Omar replied, dryly, "If thou 
 hast the command of God to proceed further, do so." " If I had 
 the command of God to proceed further," observed Mahomet, 
 " I should not have asked thy counsel." 
 
 Omar felt the rebuke. He then, in a respectful tone, represented 
 the impolicy of advancing in the face of the overwhelming force 
 said to be collected on the Syrian frontier ; he represented, also, 
 how much Mahomet had already effected in this campaign He had 
 checked the threatened invasion of the imperial arms, and had re- 
 ceived the homage and submission of various tribes and people, 
 from the head of the Red Sea to the Euphrates : he advised him, 
 therefore, to be content for the present year with what he had 
 achieved, and to defer the completion of the enterprise to a future 
 campaign. 
 
 His counsel was adopted : for, whenever Mahomet was not under 
 strong excitement, or fancied inspiration, he was rather prone to 
 yield up his opinion in military matters to that of his generals. 
 After a sojourn of about twenty days, therefore, at Tabuc, he broke 
 up his camp, and conducted his army back to Medina. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 Triumphal entry into Medina. Punishment of those who had refused to join the 
 campaign. -Effects of excommunication. Death of Abdallah Ibn Obba. Dissensions 
 in the prophet's harem. 
 
 The entries of Mahomet into Medina on returning from his war 
 like triumphs, partook of the simplicity and absence of parade, 
 which characterized all his actions. On approaching the city, when
 
 126 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 his household came forth with the multitude to meet him, he would 
 stop to greet them, and take up the children of the house behind 
 him on his horse. It was in this simple way he entered Medina, 
 on returning from the campaign against Tabuc. 
 
 The arrival of an army laden with spoil, gathered in the most 
 distant expedition ever undertaken by the soldiers of Islam, was 
 an event of too great moment, not to be hailed with triumphant 
 exultation by the community. Those alone were cast down in 
 spirit, who had refused to march forth with the army, or had de- 
 serted it when on the march. All these were at first placed under 
 an interdict ; Mahomet forbidding his faithful followers to hold any 
 intercourse with them. Mollified, however, by their contrition or 
 excuses, he gradually forgave the greater part of them. Seven of 
 those who continued under interdict, finding themselves cut off 
 from communion with their acquaintance, and marked with oppro- 
 brium amid an exulting community, became desperate, and chained 
 themselves to the walls of the mosque ; swearing to remain there 
 until pardoned. Mahomet, on the other hand, swore he would 
 leave them there unless otherwise commanded by God. Fortu- 
 nately he received the command in a revealed verse of the Koran ; 
 but, in freeing them from their self-imposed fetters, he exacted 
 one-third of their possessions, to be expended in the service of the 
 faith. 
 
 Among those still under interdict were Kaab Ibn Malec, Murara 
 IbnRabia, and Hilal Ibn Omeya. These had once been among the 
 most zealous of professing Moslems ; their defection was, there- 
 fore, ten limes more heinous in the eyes of the prophet, than that 
 of their neighbours, whose faith had been lukewarm and dubious. 
 Toward them, therefore, he continued implacable. Forty days 
 they remained interdicted, and the interdict extended to com- 
 munication with their wives. 
 
 The account given by Kaab Ibn Malecof his situation, while thus 
 excommunicated, presents a vivid picture of the power of Mahomet 
 over the minds of his adherents. Kaab declared that every body 
 shunned him, or regarded him with an altered mien. His two com- 
 panions in disgrace did not leave their homes; he, however, went 
 about from place to place, but no one spoke to him. He sought 
 the mosque, sat down near the prophet, and saluted him, but his 
 salutation was not returned. On the forty-first day came a com- 
 mand, that he should separate from his wife. He now left the city, 
 and pitched a tent on the hill of Sala, determined there to undergo 
 in its severest rigour the punishment meted out to him. His 
 heart, however, was dying away ; the wide world, he said, ap- 
 peared to grow narrow to him. On the fifty-first day came a mes- 
 senger holding out the hope of pardon. He hastened to Medina, 
 and sought the prophet at the inosque, who received him with a 
 radiant countenance, and said that God had forgiven him. The 
 soul of Kaab was lifted up from the depths of despondency, and in 
 the transports of his gratitude, he gave a portion of his wealth in 
 atonement of his errour. 
 
 Not long after the return of the army to Medina, Abdallah Ibn 
 Dbba, the Khazradite, "the chief of the Hypocrites," fell ill, so
 
 DISSENSIONS IN THE HAREM. . 157 
 
 that his life was despaired of. Although Mahomet was well aware 
 of the perfidy of this man, and the secret arts he had constantly 
 practised against him, he visited him repeatedly during his illness ; 
 was with him at his dying hour, and followed his body to the grave. 
 There, at the urgent entreaty of the son of the deceased, he put 
 up prayers that his sins might be forgiven. 
 
 Omar privately remonstrated with Mahomet for praying for a 
 hypocrite; reminding him how often he had been slandered by 
 Abdallah; but he was shrewdly answered by a text of the Koran ; 
 " Thou mayest pray for the * Hypocrites' or not, as thou wilt; but 
 though thou shouldest pray seventy times, yet will they not be 
 forgiven."' 
 
 The prayers at Abdallah's grave, therefore, were put up out of 
 policy, to win favour with the Khazradites, and the powerful friends 
 of the deceased ; and in this respect the prayers were successful, 
 for most of the adherents of the deceased became devoted to the 
 prophet, whose sway was thenceforth undisputed in Medina. Sub- 
 sequently he announced another revelation, which forbade him to 
 pray by the death-bed or stand by the grave of any one who died 
 in unbelief. 
 
 But though Mahomet exercised such dominion over his disciples, 
 and the community at large, he had great difficulty in governing 
 his wives, and maintaining tranquillity in his harem. He appears 
 to have acted with tolerable equity in his connubial concerns, as- 
 signing to each of his wives a separate habitation, of which she was 
 sole mitress, and passing the twenty-four hours with them by turns. 
 It so happened, that on one occasion, when he w r as sojourning with 
 Hafsa, the latter left her dwelling to visit her father. Returning 
 unexpectedly, she surprised the prophet with his favourite and for- 
 turnate slave Mariyah, the mother of his son Ibrahim. The jeal- 
 ousy of Hafsa was vociferous. Mahomet endeavoured to pacify her, 
 dreading lest her outcries should rouse his whole harem to rebel- 
 lion; but she was only to be appeased by an oath on his part never 
 more to cohabit with Mariyah. On these terms she forgave the 
 past and promised secrecy. 
 
 She broke her promise, however, and revealed to Ayesha the 
 infidelity of the prophet; and in a little while it was known through- 
 out the harem. His wives now united in a storm of reproaches ; 
 until, his patience being exhausted, he repudiated Hafsa and re- 
 nounced all intercourse with the rest. For a month he lay alone 
 on a mat in a separate apartment; but Allah, at length, in conside- 
 ration of his lonely state, sent down the first and sixth chapters of 
 the Koran, absolving him from the oath respecting Mariyah, who 
 forthwith became the companion of his solitary chamber. 
 
 The refractory wives were now brought to a sense of their errour, 
 and apprized by the same revelation, that the restrictions imposed 
 on ordinary men did not apply to the prophet. In the end he took 
 back Hafsa, who was penitent; and he was reconciled to Ayesha 
 whom he tenderly loved, and all the rest were in due time received 
 into favour ; but he continued to cherish Mariyah, for she was fair 
 to look upon, and was the mother of his only son.
 
 128 MAHOMET AND HTS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 Abu Beker conducts the yearly pilgrimage to Mecca. Mission of All to announce 
 
 a revelation. 
 
 The sacred month of yearly pilgrimage was now at hand, but 
 Mahomet was too much occupied with public and domestic con- 
 cerns to absent himself from Medina : he deputed Abu Beker, 
 therefore, to act in his place as emir or commander of the pilgrims, 
 who were to resort from Medina to the holy city. Abu Beker 
 accordingly departed at the head of three hundred pilgrims, with 
 twenty camels for sacrifice. 
 
 Not long afterwards Mahomet summoned his son-in-law and 
 devoted disciple All, and, mounting him on Al Adha, or the slit- 
 eared, the. swiftest of his camels, urged him to hasten with all speed 
 to Mecca, there to promulgate before the multitude of pilgrims 
 assembled from all parts, an important sura, or chapter of the 
 Koran, just received from heaven. 
 
 Ali executed his mission with his accustomed zeal and fidelity. 
 He reached the sacred city in the height of the great religious festi- 
 val. On the day of sacrifice, when the ceremonies of pilgrimage 
 were completed by the slaying of the victims in the valley of Mina, 
 and when Abu Beker had preached and instructed the people in 
 the doctrines and rites of Islamism, Ali rose before an immense 
 multitude assembled at the hill Al A kaba, and announced himself a 
 messenger from the prophet, bearing an important revelation. 
 He then read the sura, or chapter of the Koran, of which he was 
 the bearer ; in which the religion of the sword was declared in all 
 its rigour. It absolved Mahomet from all truce or league with ido- 
 latrous and other unbelievers, should they in any wise have been 
 false to their stipulations, or given aid to his enemies. It allowed 
 unbelievers four months of toleration from the time of this an- 
 nouncement, during which months they might "go to and fro 
 about the earth securely," but at the expiration of that time all 
 indulgence would cease ; war would then be made in every w r ay, 
 at every time and in every place, by open force or by stratagem, 
 against those who persisted in unbelief : no alternative would be 
 left them but to embrace the faith, or pay tribute. The holy 
 months and the holy places would no longer afford them protec- 
 tion. "When the months wherein ye are not allowed to attack 
 them shall be passed," said the revelation, "kill the idolatrous 
 wherever ye shall find them, or take them prisoners; besiege them, 
 or lay in wait for them." The ties of blood and friendship were 
 to be alike disregarded; the faithful were to hold no communion 
 with their nearest relatives and dearest friends, should they persist 
 in idolatry. After the expiration of the current year, no unbeliever 
 was to be permitted to tread the sacred bounds of Mecca, nor 
 to enter the temple of Allah, a prohibition which continues to the 
 present day.
 
 MISSION OF ALI TO YEMEN. 129 
 
 This stringent chapter of the Koran is thought to have been 
 provoked, in a great measure, by the conduct of some of the Jewish 
 and idolatrous Arabs, with whom Mahomet had made covenants, 
 who had repeatedly played him false, and even made treacherous 
 attempts upon his life. It evinces, however, the increased confi- 
 dence he felt in consequence of the death of his insidious and 
 powerful foe, Abdallah Ibn Obba, and the rapid conversion or 
 subjugation of the Arab tribes, It was, in fact, a decisive blow 
 for the exclusive, domination of his faith. 
 
 A^ hen Abu Beker and All returned to Mecca, the former ex- 
 pressed surprise and dissatisfaction that he had not been made the 
 promulgator of so important a revelation, as it seemed to be con- 
 nected with his recent mission, but he was pacified by the assu- 
 rance that all new revelations must be announced by the prophet 
 himself, or by some one of his immediate family. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 Mahomet sends his captains on distant enterprises. Appoints lieutenants to govern in 
 Arabia Felix. -Sends Ali to suppress an insurrection in that province. Death of the 
 prophet's only son Ibrahim. His conduct at the death-bed and the grave. His 
 growing infirmities. His valedictory pilgrimage to Mecca, and his conduct and 
 preaching while there. 
 
 The promulgation of the last-mentioned chapter of the Koran, 
 with the accompanying denunciation of exterminating war against 
 all who should refuse to believe or submit, produced hosts of con- 
 verts and tributaries; so that, towards the close of the month, ami 
 in the beginning of the tenth year of the Hegira, the gates of Me- 
 dina were thronged with envoys from distant tribes and princes. 
 Among those who bowed to the temporal power of the prophet 
 was Farwa, lieutenant of Heraclius, in Syria, and governor of 
 Ammon, the ancient capital of the Ammonites. His act of submis- 
 sion, however, was disavowed by the emperor, and punished 
 with imprisonment. 
 
 Mahomet felt and acted more and more as a sovereign, but his 
 grandest schemes as a conqueror were always sanctified by his 
 zeal as an apostle. His captains were sent on more distant expe- 
 ditions than formerly, but it was always with a view to destroy 
 idols, and bring idolatrous tribes to subjection; so that his tem- 
 poral power but kept pace with the propagation of his faith. He 
 appointed two lieutenants to govern in his name in Arabia Felix ; 
 but a portion of that rich and important country having shown 
 itself refractory, Ali was ordered to repair thither at the head of 
 three hundred horsemen; and bring the inhabitants to reason. 
 
 The youthful disciple expressed a becoming diffidence to under- 
 take a mission where he would have to treat wilh men far older 
 and wiser than himself; but Mahomet laid one hand upon his lips, 
 and the other upon his breast, and raising his eyes to heaven, ex- 
 claimed, " Oh, Allah ! loosen his tongue and guide his heart ! " He
 
 130 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 gave him one rule for his conduct as a judge. "When two par- 
 ties come before thee, never pronounce in favour of one until thou 
 hast heard the other." Then giving into his hands the standard 
 of the faith, and placing the turban on his head, he bade him 
 farewell. 
 
 "When the military missionary arrived in the heretical region of 
 Yemen, his men, indulging their ancient Arab propensities, began 
 to sack*, to plunder, and destroy. Ali checked their excesses, and 
 arresting the fugitive inhabitants, began to expound to them the 
 doctrines of Islam. His tongue, though so recently consecrated 
 by the prophet, failed to carry conviction, for he was answered by 
 darts and arrows; whereupon he returned to the old argument of 
 the sword, which he urged with such efficacy, that, after twenty 
 unbelievers had been slain, the rest avowed themselves thoroughly 
 convinced. This zealous achievement was followed by others of a 
 similar kind, after each of which he despatched messengers to the 
 prophet, announcing a new triumph of the faith. 
 
 While Mahomet was exulting in the tidings of success from every 
 quarter, he was stricken to the heart by one of the severest of do- 
 mestic bereavements. Ibrahim, his son, by his favourite concu- 
 bine Maryah, a child but fifteen months old, his only male issue, 
 on whom reposed his hope of transmitting his name to posterity, 
 was seized wiih a mortal malady, and expired before his eyes. 
 Mahomet could not control a father's feelings as he bent in agony 
 over this blighted blossom of his hopes. Yet even in this trying 
 hour he showed that submission to the will of God which formed 
 the foundation of his faith. "My heart is sad," murmured he, 
 " and mine eyes overflow with tears at parting with thee, oh my 
 son! And still greater would be my grief, did I not know that I 
 must soon follow thee ; for we are of God ; from him we came, 
 and to him we must return." 
 
 Abda'lrahman seeing him in tears, demanded : " Hast thou not 
 forbidden us to weep for the dead?" "No," replied the prophet. 
 " I have forbidden ye to utter shrieks and outcries, to beat your 
 faces, and rend your garments; these are suggestions of the evil 
 one; but tears shed for a calamity are as balm to the heart, and 
 are sent in mercy." 
 
 He followed his child to the grave, where amidst the agonies of 
 separation, he gave another proof that the elements of his religion 
 were ever present to his mind. " My son! my son ! " exclaimed 
 he as the body was committed to the tomb, " say God is my Lord ! 
 the prophet of God was my father, and Islamism is my faith!" 
 This was to prepare his child for the questioning by examining 
 angels, as to religious belief, which, according to Moslem creed, 
 the deceased would undergo while in the grave. ' 
 
 i One of the funeral rites of the Moslems is for the Mulakken or priest, to address the 
 deceased when in the grave, in the following words : "Oh servant of God ! O son of a 
 handmaid of God ! know that, at this lime, (hero will come down to thee two angels 
 commissioned respecting thee and the like of thee ; when (hey say to thee, ' Who is Ihy 
 Lord?" answer them, 'God is my Lord;' in truth, and when they ask thee concerning 
 thy propliet, or die man who haih been sent unto you, say to them, 'Mahomet is the 
 apostle of God,' with veracity, and when they ask thee concerning thy religion, say to 
 them, 'Islainism is my religion." And when Ibey ask thee concerning thy book of
 
 THE VALEDICTORY PILGRIMAGE. 131 
 
 An eclipse of the sun which happened about that time, was in- 
 terpreted by some of his zealous followers as a celestial sign of 
 mourning for the death of Ibrahim ; but the afflicted father rejected 
 such obsequious flattery. " The sun and the moon," said he " are 
 among the wonders of God, through which at times he signifies 
 his will to his servants ; but their eclipse has nothing to do either 
 with the birth or death of any mortal." 
 
 The death of Ibrahim was a blow which bowed him toward the 
 grave. His constitution was already impaired by the extraordi- 
 nary excitements and paroxysms of his mind, and the physical 
 trials to which he had been exposed; the poison too, administered 
 to him at Khaibar, had tainted the springs of life, subjected him 
 to excruciating pains, and brought on a premature old age. His 
 religious zeal took the alarm from the increase of bodily infirmities, 
 and he resolved to expend his remaining strength in a final pil- 
 grimage to Mecca ; intended to serve as a model for all future ob- 
 servances of the kind. 
 
 The announcement of his pious intention brought devotees from 
 all parts of Arabia, to follow the pilgrim-prophet. The streets of 
 Medina were crowded with Ihe various tribes from the towns and 
 cities, from the fastnesses of the mountains, and the remote parts 
 of the desert, and the surrounding valleys were studded with their 
 tents. It was a striking picture of the triumph of a faith, these 
 recently disunited, barbarous, and warring tribes brought together 
 as brethren, and inspired by one sentiment of religious zeal. 
 
 Mahomet was accompanied on this occasion by his nine wives, 
 who were transported on litters. He departed at the head of an 
 immense train, some say of fifty-five, others ninety, and others a 
 hundred and fourteen thousand pilgrims. There was a large 
 number of camels also, decorated with garlands and fluttering 
 streamers, intended to be offered up in sacrifice. 
 
 The first night's halt was a few miles from Medina, at the village 
 of Dhu'l Holaifa, where, on a former occasion, he and his followers 
 had laid aside their weapons, and assumed the pilgrim garb. Early 
 on the following morning after praying in the mosque, he 
 mounted his camel Al Aswa, and entering the plain of Balda, uttered 
 the prayer or invocation called in Arabic Talbijah, in which he 
 was joined by all his followers. The following is the import of 
 this solemn invocation : " Here am I in thy service, oh God! Here 
 am I in thy service! Thou hast no companion. To thee alone 
 belongeth worship. From thee cometh all good. This alone is 
 the kingdom. There is none to share it with thee." 
 
 This prayer, according to Moslem tradition, was uttered by the 
 patriarch Abraham, when, from the top of the hill of Kubeis, near 
 Mecca, he preached the true faith to the whole human race, and 
 so wonderful was the power of his voice, that it was heard by 
 every living being throughout the world: insomuch, that the 
 
 direction, say to them, 'the Koran is my book of direction, and the Moslems are my 
 brothers;' and when they ask ihee concerning lliy Kebla, say to them, 'the Caaba is ray 
 Kebla, and I have lived and died in the assertion that there is no deity but God, and 
 Mahomet is God's apostle,' and they will say, 'Sleep, servant of God, in the protection 
 of God ! '"See Lane't Modern EgypHani, vol. ii. p. 338,
 
 132 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 very child in the womb reponded, " Here am I in thy service, 
 oh God!" 
 
 In this way the pilgrim host pursued its course, Minding in a 
 lengthened train of miles, over mountain and valley, and making 
 the deserts vocal at limes with united prayers and ejaculations. 
 There were no longer any hostile armies to impede or molest it, 
 for by this time the Islam faith reigned serenely over all Arabia. 
 Mahomet approached the sacred city over the same heights which 
 he had traversed in capturing it, and he entered through the 
 gate Beni Scheiba, which still bears the name of The Holy. 
 
 A few days after his arrival, he was joined by Ali, who had 
 hastened back from Yemen ; and who brought with him a number 
 of camels to be slain in sacrifice. 
 
 As this was to be a model pilgrimage, Mahomet rigorously ob- 
 served all the rites which he had continued in compliance with 
 patriarchal usage, or introduced in compliance with revelation. 
 Being too weak and infirm to go on foot, he mounted his camel, 
 and thus performed the circuits round the Caaba, and the journey- 
 ings to and fro, between the hills of Safa and Merwa. 
 
 AVhen the camels were to be offered up in sacrifice, he slew 
 sixty-three with his own hand, one for each year of his age, and 
 Ali, at the same time, slew thirty-seven on his own account. 
 
 Mahomet then shaved his head., beginning on the right side and 
 ending on the left. The locks thus shorn away were equally divided 
 among his disciples, and treasured up as sacred relics. Khaled ever 
 afterwards wore one in his turban, and affirmed that it gave him 
 supernatural strength in battle. 
 
 Conscious that life was waning away within him, Mahomet, 
 during this last sojourn in the sacred city of his faith, sought to 
 engrave his doctrines deeply in the minds and hearts of his fol- 
 lowers. For this purpose he preached frequently in the Caaba 
 from the pulpit, or in the open air from the back of his camel. 
 "Listen to my words," would he say, "for I know not whether, 
 after this year, we shall ever meet here again. Oh, my hearers, 
 I am but a man like yourselves; the angel of death may at any 
 time appear, and I must obey his summons." 
 
 He would then proceed to inculcate not merely religious doc- 
 trines and ceremonies, but rules for conduct in all the concerns of 
 life, public and domestic ; and the precepts laid down and enforced 
 on this occasion, have had a vast and durable influence on the mo- 
 rals, manners, and habitudes of the whole Moslem world. 
 
 It was doubtless in view of his approaching end, and in solicitude 
 for the welfare of his relatives and friends after his death, and es- 
 pecially of his favourite Ali, who, he perceived, had given dissatisfac- 
 tion in the conduct of his recent campaign in Yemen, that he took 
 occasion, during a moment of strong excitement and enthusiain 
 among his hearers, to address to them a solemn adjuration. 
 
 " Ye believe," said he, " that there is but one God; that Ma- 
 homet is his prophet and apostle ; that paradise and hell are truths; 
 that death and the resurrection are certain; and that there is an 
 appointed time when all who rise from the grave must be brought 
 to judgment."
 
 FALSE PllUPilLTS. 133 
 
 They all answered, " We believe these things. " He then 
 adjured them solemnly by these dogmas of their faith ever to 
 hold his family, and especially Ali, in love and reverence. 
 " Whoever loves me," said he, " let him receive Ali as his friend. 
 .May God uphold those who befriend him, and may he turn from 
 his enemies." 
 
 It was at the conclusion of one of his discourses in the open air, 
 from the back of his camel, that the famous verse of the Koran is 
 said to have come down from heaven in the very voice of the Deity. 
 " Evil to those, this day, who have denied your religion. Fear 
 them not; fear me. This day I have perfected your religion, and 
 accomplished in you my grace. It is my good pleasure that Isla- 
 mism be your faith." 
 
 On hearing these words, say the Arabian historians, the camel 
 Al Karwa, on which the prophet was seated, fell on its knees in 
 adoration. The words, add they, were the. seal and conclusion of 
 the law, for after them there were no further revelations. 
 
 Having thus fulfilled all the rites and ceremonies of pilgrimage, 
 and made a full exposition of his faith, Mahomet bade a last farewell 
 to his native city, and, putting himself at the head of his pilgrim 
 army, set out on his return to Medina. 
 
 As he came in sight of it, he lifted up his voice, and exclaimed, 
 " God is great ! God is great ! There is but one God ; he has no 
 companion. His is the kingdom. To him alone belongelh praise. 
 He is almighty. He hath fulfilled his promise. He has stood by 
 his servant, and alone dispersed his enemies. Let us return to our 
 homes, and worship and praise him !" 
 
 Thus ended what has been termed the valedictory pilgrimage, 
 being the last made by the prophet. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 Of the two false prophets Al Aswad and Moseilma. 
 
 The health of Mahomet continued to decline after his return to 
 Medina ; nevertheless his ardour to extend his religious empire was 
 unabated, and he prepared, on a great scale, for the invasion of 
 Syria and Palestine. While he was meditating foreign conquest, 
 however, two rival prophets arose to dispute his sway in Arabia. 
 One was named Al Aswad, the other Moseilma ; they received 
 from the faithful the well-merited appellation of " The two 
 Liars. " 
 
 Al Aswad, a quick-witted man, and gifted with persuasive elo- 
 quence, was originally an idolater, then a convert to Islamism, 
 from which he apostatized to set up for a prophet, and establish 
 a religion of his own. His fickleness in matters of faith gained 
 him the appellation of Ailhala, or " The Weathercock. " In 
 emulation of Mahomet he pretended to receive revelations from
 
 134 MAHOMET XND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 heaven through the medium of two angels. Being versed in 
 juggling arts and natural magic, he astonished and confounded 
 the multitude with spectral illusions, which he passed off as mi- 
 racles, insomuch that certain Moslem writers believe he was really 
 assisted by two evil genii or demons. His schemes, for a time, 
 were crowned with great success, which shows how unsettled the 
 Arabs were in those days in matters of religion, and how ready to 
 adopt any new faith. 
 
 Budhan, the Persian whom Mahomet had continued as viceroy 
 of Arabia Felix, died in this year; whereupon Al Aswad, now at 
 the head of a powerful sect, slew his son and successor, espoused 
 his widow after putting her father to death, and seized upon the 
 reins of government. The people of Najran invited him to their 
 city ; the gates of Sanaa, the capital of Yemen, were likewise 
 thrown open to him, so that, in a little while, all Arabia Felix 
 submitted to his sway. 
 
 The news of this usurpation found Mahomet suffering in the first 
 stages of a dangerous malady, and engrossed by preparations for 
 the Syrian invasion. Impatient of any interruption to his plans, 
 and reflecting that the whole danger and difficulty in question de- 
 pended upon the life of an individual, he sent orders to certain of 
 his adherents, who were about Al Aswad, to make way with him 
 openly or by stratagem, either way being justifiable against enemies 
 of the faith, according to the recent revelation promulgated by Ali. 
 Two persons undertook the task, less, however, through motives 
 of religion than revenge. One, named Rais had received a mortal 
 offence from the usurper ; the other, named Firuz the Da'ilemite, 
 was cousin to Al Aswad's newly espoused wife and nephew of her 
 murdered father. They repaired to the woman, whose marriage 
 with the usurper had probably been compulsory, and urged upon 
 her the duty, according to the Arab law of blood, of avenging the 
 deaths of her father and her former husband. With much diffi- 
 culty they prevailed upon her to facilitate their entrance at the 
 dead of night into the chamber of Al Aswad, who was asleep. 
 Firuz stabbed him in the throat with a poniard. The blow was 
 not effectual. Al Aswad started up, and his cries alarmed the 
 guard. His wife, however, went forth and quieted them. <l The 
 prophet," said she, "is under the influence of divine inspiration." 
 By this lime the cries had ceased, for the assassins had stricken off 
 the head of their victim. "When the day dawned the standard of 
 Mahomet floated once more on the walls of the city, and a herald 
 proclaimed, by sound of trumpet, the death of Al Aswad, otherwise 
 called the Liar and Impostor. His career of power began, and 
 was terminated, within the space of four months. The people, 
 easy of faith, resumed Islamism with as much facility as they had 
 abandoned it. 
 
 Mosellma, the other impostor, was an Arab of the tribe of 
 Honeifa, and ruled over the city and province of Yamama, situated 
 between the Red Sea and the Gulf of Persia. In the ninth year 
 of the Hegira he had come to Mecca at the head of an embassy 
 from his tribe, and had made profession of faith between the hands 
 of Mahomet ; but, on returning to his own country, had proclaimed
 
 LAST ILLNESS OF THE PROPHET. 135 
 
 that God had gifted him likewise with prophecy, and appointed 
 him to aid Mahomet in converting the human race. To this effect 
 he likewise wrote a Koran, which he gave forth as a volume of 
 inspired truth. His creed was noted for giving the soul a humiliat- 
 ing residence in the region of the abdomen. 
 
 Being a man of influence and address, he soon made hosts of 
 converts among his credulous countrymen. Rendered confident 
 by success, he addressed an epistle to Mahomet, beginning as 
 follows : 
 
 " From Mosellma the prophet of Allah, to Mahomet the prophet 
 of Allah ! Come, now, and let us make a partition of the world, and 
 let half be thine and half be mine." 
 
 This letter came also to the hands of Mahomet, while bowed down 
 by infirmities and engrossed by military preparations. He contented 
 himself for the present with the following reply : 
 
 "From Mahomet the prophet of God, to Mosellma the Liar ! The 
 earth is the Lord's and he giveth it as an inheritance to such of his 
 servants as find favour in his sight. Happy shall those be who live 
 in his fear." 
 
 In the urgency of other affairs, the usurpation of Mosellma 
 remained unchecked. His punishment was reserved for a future 
 day. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 An army prepared to march against Syria. Command given to Osama The prophet's 
 farewell address to the troops. His last illness. His sermons in the mosque. -His 
 death and the attending circumstances. 
 
 It was early in the eleventh year of the Hegirathat, after unusual 
 preparations, a powerful army was ready to march for the invasion 
 of Syria. It would almost seem a proof of the failing powers of 
 Mahomet's mind, that he gave the command of such an army, on 
 such an expedition, to Osama, a youth but twenty years of age, 
 instead of some one of his veteran and well-tried generals. It seems 
 to have been a matter of favour, dictated by tender and grateful 
 recollections. Osama was the son of Zeid, Mahomet's devoted 
 frcedman, who had given the prophet such a signal and acceptable 
 proof of devotion in relinquishing to him his beautiful wife Zeinab. 
 Zeid had continued to the last the same zealous and self-sacrificing 
 disciple, and had fallen braveh fighting for the faith in the battle 
 of Muta. 
 
 Mahomet was aw r are of the hazard of the choice he had made, 
 and feared the troops might be insubordinate under so young a 
 commander. In a general review, therefore, he exhorted them to 
 obedience, reminding them that Osama's father, Zeid, had com- 
 manded an expedition of this very kind, against the very same 
 people, and had fallen by their hands; it was but a just tribute to 
 his memory, therefore, to give his son an opportunity of avenging
 
 136 MAHOMET AMD HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 his death. Then placing his banner in the hands of the youthful 
 general, he called upon him to fight valiantly the fight of the 
 faith against all who should deny the unity of God. The army 
 marched forth that very day, and encamped at Djorf, a few miles 
 from Medina ; hut circumstances occurred to prevent its further 
 progress. 
 
 That very night Mahomet had a severe access of the malady which 
 for some time past had affected him, and which was ascribed by 
 some to the lurking effects of the poison given to him at Khai'bar. 
 It commenced with a violent pain in the head, accompanied by 
 vertigo, and the delirium which seems to have mingled with all his 
 paroxysms of illness. Starting up in the mid-watches of the night 
 from a troubled dream, he called upon an attendant slave to accom- 
 pany him ; saying he was summoned by the dead who lay interred 
 in the public burying-place of Medina to come and pray for them. 
 Followed by the slave, he passed through the dark and silent city, 
 where all were sunk in sleep, to the great burying-ground, outside 
 of the walls. 
 
 Arrived in the midst of the tombs, he lifted up his voice and 
 made a solemn apostrophe to their tenants. " Rejoice, ye dwellers 
 in the grave !" exclaimed he, "More peaceful is the morning to which 
 ye shall awaken, than that which attends the living. Happier is your 
 condition than theirs. God has delivered you from the storms with 
 which they are threatened and which shall follow one another like 
 the watches of a stormy night, each darker than that which went 
 before." 
 
 After praying for the dead, he turned and addressed his slave. 
 (( The choice is given me," said he, " either to remain in this 
 world to the end of time, in the enjoyment of all its delights, or 
 to return sooner to the presence of God; and I have chosen the 
 latter. " 
 
 From this time his illness rapidly increased, though he endea- 
 voured to go about as usual, and shifted his residence from day to 
 day, with his different wives, as he had been accustomed to do. 
 He was in the dwelling of Maimona, when the violence of his 
 malady became so great, that he saw it must soon prove fatal. 
 His heart now yearned to be with his favourite wife Ayesha, and 
 pass with her the fleeting residue of life. \Vilh his head bound 
 up, and his tottering frame supported by All and Fadhl, the son 
 of Al Abbas, he repaired to her abode. She, likewise, was suf- 
 fering with a violent pain in the head, and entreated of him a 
 remedy. 
 
 " Wherefore a remedy ?" said he. " Better that thou shouldst 
 die before me. I could then close thine eyes ; w r rap thee in thy 
 funeral garb ; lay thee in the tomb, and pray for thee." 
 
 " Yes," replied she, "and then return to my house and dwell 
 with one of thy other wives, who would profit by my death." 
 
 Mahomet smiled at this expression of jealous fondness, and 
 resigned himself into her care. His only remaining child, Fatima, 
 the wife of Ali, came presently to see him. Ayesha used to say that 
 she never saw any one resemble the prophet more in sweetness of 
 temper, than this his daughter. He treated her always with
 
 SERVICES IN THE MOSQUE. 137 
 
 respectful tenderness. "When she came to him, he used to rise up, 
 go towards her, take her hy the hand, and kiss it, and would seat 
 her in liis own place. Their meeting on this occasion is thus 
 related by Ayesha, in the traditions preserved by Abulfeda. 
 
 "'Welcome, my child,' said the prophet, and made her sit beside 
 him. He then whispered something in her ear, at which she wept. 
 Perceiving her affliction, he whispered something more, and her 
 countenance brightened with joy. 'What is the meaning of this?' 
 said I to Fatinia. ' The prophet honours thee with a mark of confi- 
 dence never bestowed on any of his wives.' ' I cannot disclose the 
 secret of the prophet of God,' replied Fatiraa. Nevertheless, after 
 his death she declared that at first he announced to her his impend- 
 ing death ; but seeing her weep, consoled her with the assurance that 
 she would shortly follow him, and become a princess in heaven, 
 among the faithful of her sex." 
 
 In the second day of his illness Mahomet was tormented by a 
 burning fever, and taused vessels of water to be emptied on his 
 head and over his body ; exclaiming, amidst his paroxysms, " Now 
 I feel the poison of Khaibar rending my entrails." 
 
 When somewhat relieved, he was aided in repairing to the 
 mosque, which was adjacent to his residence. Here, seated in his 
 chair, or pulpit, he prayed devoutly ; after which, addressing the 
 congregation, which was numerous, "If any of you," said he, "have 
 aught upon his conscience, let him speak out, that I may ask God's 
 pardon for him." 
 
 Upon this a man, who had passed for a devout Moslem, stood 
 forth and confessed himself a hypocrite , a liar, and a weak dis- 
 ciple. "Out upon thee!" cried Omar, "why dost thou make 
 known what God had suffered to remain concealed ?" But Mahomet 
 turned rebukingly to Omar. "Oh son of Khattab," said he, 
 " better is it to blush in this world, than suffer in the next." Then 
 lifting his eyes to heaven, and praying for the self-accused, " Oh 
 God," exclaimed he, " give him rectitude and faith, and take from 
 him all weakness in fulfilling such of thy commands as his conscience 
 dictates." 
 
 Again addressing the congregation, " Is there any one among 
 you," said he, "whom I have stricken; here is my back, let him 
 strike me in return. Is there any one whose character I have 
 aspersed ; let him now cast reproach upon me. Is there any one from 
 whom I have taken aught unjustly ; let him now come forward and 
 be indemnified." 
 
 Upon this, a man among the throng reminded Mahomet of a debt 
 of three dinars of silver, and was instantly repaid with interest. 
 " Much easier is it," said the prophet, "to bear punishment in this 
 world than throughout eternity." 
 
 lie now prayed fervently for the faithful, who had fallen by his 
 side in the battle of Ohod, and for those who had suffered for the 
 faith in other battles ; interceding with them in virtue of the pact 
 which exists between the living and the dead. 
 
 After this he addressed the Mohajerius or Exiles, who had ac- 
 companied him from Mecca, exhorting them to hold in honour the 
 Ansarians, or allies of Medina. "The number of believers," said
 
 138 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 he, " will increase, but that of the allies never can. They were 
 my family with whom I found a home. Do good to those who do 
 good to them, and break friendship with those who are hostile to 
 them." 
 
 He then gave three parting commands : 
 
 First. Expel all idolaters from Arabia. 
 
 Second. Allow all proselytes equal privileges with yourselves. 
 
 Third.- Devote yourselves incessantly to prayer. 
 
 His sermon and exhortation being finished, he was affectionately 
 supported back to the mansion of Ayesha, but was so exhausted on 
 arriving there that he fainted. 
 
 His malady increased from day to day, apparently with intervals 
 of delirium ; for he spoke of receiving visits from the angel Gabriel, 
 who came from God to inquire after the state of his health; and 
 told him that it rested with himself to fix his dying moment ; the 
 angel of death being forbidden by Allah to enter his presence with- 
 out his permission. 
 
 In one of his paroxysms he called for writing implements, that 
 he might leave some rules of conduct for his followers. His at- 
 tendants were troubled, fearing he might do something to impair 
 the authority of the Koran. Hearing them debate among them- 
 selves, whether to comply with the request, he ordered them to 
 leave the room, and when they returned said nothing more on the 
 subject. 
 
 On Friday, the day of religious assemblage, he prepared, not- 
 withstanding his illness, to officiate in the mosque, and had water 
 again poured over him to refresh and strengthen him, but on making 
 an effort to go forth, fainted. On recovering, he requested Abu 
 Beker to perform the public prayers ; observing, " Allah has given 
 his servant the right to appoint whom he pleases in his place." It 
 was afterwards maintained by some that he thus intended to de- 
 signate this long tried friend and adherent as his successor in office \ 
 but Abu Beker shrank from construing the words too closely. 
 
 Word was soon brought to Mahomet, that the appearance of Abu 
 Beker in the pulpit had caused great agitation, a rumour being cir- 
 culated that the prophet was dead. Exerting his remaining 
 strength, therefore, and leaning on the shoulders of Ali and Al 
 Abbas, he made his way into the mosque, where his appearance 
 spread joy throughout the congregation. Abu Beker ceased to 
 pray, but Mahomet bade him proceed, and taking his seat behind 
 him in the pulpit, repeated the prayers after him. Then addressing 
 the congregation, f -\ have heard," said he, "that a rumour of the 
 death of your prophet filled you with alarm ; but has any prophet 
 before me lived for ever, that ye think I would never leave you ? 
 Every thing happens according to the will of God, and has its ap- 
 pointed lime, which is not to be hastened nor avoided. I return 
 to him who sent me; and my last command to you is, that ye re- 
 main united ; that ye love, honour, and uphold each other; that ye 
 exhort each other to faith and constancy in belief, and to the 
 performance of pious deeds ; by these alone men prosper ; all else 
 leads to destruction." 
 
 In concluding his exhortation, he added. " I do but go before
 
 DEATH. 139 
 
 you; you will soon follow me. Death awaits us all; let no one 
 then seek to turn it aside from me. My life has been for your 
 good ; so will be my death." 
 
 These were the last words he spake in public; he was again con- 
 ducted back by Ali and Abbas to the dwelling of Ayesha. 
 
 On a succeeding day there was an interval during which he ap- 
 peared so well that Ali, Abu Beker, Omar, and the rest of those 
 who had been constantly about him. absented themselves for a 
 time, to attend to their affairs. Ayesha alone remained with him. 
 The interval was but illusive. His pains returned with redoubled 
 violence. Finding death approaching he gave orders that all his 
 slaves should be restored to freedom, and all the money in the 
 house distributed among the poor; then raising his eyes to heaven^ 
 " God be with me, in the death struggle," exclaimed he. 
 
 Ayesha now sent in haste for her father and Hafza. Left alone 
 with Mahomet, she sustained his head on her lap, watching over 
 him with tender assiduity, and endeavouring to soothe his dying 
 agonies. From time to time he would dip his hand in a vase of 
 water, and with it feebly sprinkle his face. At length raising his 
 eyes and gazing upward for a time with unmoving eyelids., " Oh 
 Allah ! " ejaculated he, in broken accents, " be it so ! among the 
 glorious associates in paradise ! " 
 
 " I knew by this," said Ayesha, who related the dying scene, 
 " that his last moment had arrived, and that he had made choice 
 of supernal existence. " 
 
 In a few moments his hands were cold, and life was extinct. 
 Ayesha laid his head upon the pillow, and beating her head and 
 breast, gave way to loud lamentations. Her outcries brought the 
 other wives of Mahomet, and their clamorous grief soon made the 
 event known throughout the city. Consternation seized upon the 
 people, as if some prodigy had happened. All business was sus- 
 pended. The army which had struck its tents was ordered to halt, 
 and Osama, whose foot was in the stirrrup for the march, turned his 
 steed to the gates of Medina, and planted his standard at the pro- 
 phet's door. 
 
 The multitude crowded to contemplate the corpse, and agita- 
 tion and dispute prevailed even in the chamber of death. Some 
 discredited the evidence of their senses. " How can he be dead?" 
 cried they. " Is he not our mediator with God ? How then can 
 he be dead? Impossible ! He is but in a trance, and carried up 
 to heaven like Isa (Jesus) and the other prophets." 
 
 The throng augmented about the house, declaring with clamour 
 that the body should not be interred; when Omar, who had just 
 heard the tidings, arrived. He drew his scimetar, and pressing 
 through the crowd, threatened to strike off the hands and feet of 
 any who should affirm that the prophet was dead. " He has but 
 departed for a time," said he, " as Musa (Moses) the son of Imram 
 went up forty days into the mountain ; and like him he will return 
 again." 
 
 Abu Be.ker, who had been in a distant part of the city, arrived in 
 time to soothe the despair of the people and calm the transports of 
 Omar. Passing into the chamber he raised the cloth which covered
 
 140 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 the corpse, and kissing the pale face of Mahomet, "Oh thou ! " ex- 
 claimed he, "who wert to me as my father and my mother, sweet 
 art thou even in death, and living odours dost ihou exhale ! Now 
 livest thou in everlasting bliss, for never will Allah suhject thee to a 
 second death." 
 
 Then covering the corpse he went forth, and endeavoured to 
 silence Omar, Lut finding it impossible, he addressed the multi- 
 tude : " Truly if Mahomet is the sole object of your adoration, he is 
 dead ; but if it be God you worship, he cannot die. Mahomet was 
 but the prophet of God, and has shared the fate of the apostles and 
 holy men who have gone before him. Allah, himself, has said in his 
 Koran that Mahomet was but his ambassador, and was subject to 
 death. "What then ! will you turn the heel upon him, and abandon 
 his doctrine because he is dead? Remember your apostacy harms 
 not God, but insures your own condemnation ; while the blessings 
 of God will be poured out upon those who continue faithful to him." 
 
 The people listened to Abu Beker with tears and sobbings, and 
 as they listened their despair subsided. Even Omar was convinced 
 but not consoled, throwing himself on the earth, and bewailing the 
 death of Mahomet, whom he remembered as his commander and 
 his friend. 
 
 The death of the prophet, according to the Moslem historians 
 Abulfeda and Al Jannabi, took place on his birthday, when he had 
 completed his sixty-third year. It was in the eleventh year of the 
 Hegira, and the 632dyear of the Christian era. 
 
 The body was prepared for sepulture by several of the dearest 
 relatives and disciples. They affirmed that a marvellous fragrance 
 which, according to the evidence of his wives and daughters, 
 emanated from his person during life, still continued; so that to 
 use the words of Ali, "it seemed as if he were, at the same time, 
 dead and living." 
 
 The body having been washed and perfumed, was wrapped in 
 three coverings; two white, and the third of the striped cloth of 
 Yemen. The whole was then perfumed with amber, musk, aloes, 
 and odoriferous herbs. After this it was exposed in public, and 
 seventy-two prayers were offered up. 
 
 The body remained three days unburied, in compliance with 
 oriental custom, and to satisfy those who still believed in the pos- 
 sibility of a trance. When the evidences of mortality could no 
 longer be mistaken, preparations were made for interment. A dis- 
 pute now arose as to the place of sepulture. The Mohadjerins or 
 disciples from Mecca contended for that city, as being the place of 
 his nativity ; the Ansarians claimed for Medina, as his asylum and 
 the place of his residence during the last ten years of his life. A 
 third party advised that his remains should be transported to Jeru- 
 salem, as the place of sepulture of the prophets. Abu Beker, 
 whose word had always the greatest weight, declared it to have 
 been the expressed opinion of Mahomet that a prophet should be 
 buried in the place where he died. This in the present instance 
 was complied with to the very letter, for a grave was digged in the 
 house of Ayesha, beneath the very bed on which Mahomet had 
 expired.
 
 CHARACTERISTICS. 141 
 
 NOTE. The house of Ayesha was immediately adjacent to the mosque; -which 
 was at that time a humble edifice with clay walls, and a roof thatched with 
 palm-leaves, and supported by the trunks of trees. It has since been included 
 in a spacious temple, on the plan of a colonnade, inclosing an oblong square, 
 1G5 paces by 130, open to the heavens, with four gates of entrance. The co- 
 lonnade, of several rows of pillars of various sizes covered with stucco, and 
 gaily painted, s pports a succession of small white cupolas on the four sides of 
 the square. At the four corners are lofty and tapering minarets. , 
 
 Near the southeast corner of the square is an inclosure, surrounded by an 
 iron railing, painted green, wrought with filagree work and interwoven with 
 brass and gilded wire; admitting no view of the interior excepting through 
 small windows, about six inches square. This inclosure, the great resort of 
 pilgrims, is called tlie Hadgira, and contains the tombs of Mahomet, and his 
 two friends and early successors, Abu Beker and Omar. Above this sacred 
 inclosure rises a lofly dome surmounted with a gilded globe and crescent, at the 
 first sight of which, pilgrims, as they approach Medina, salute the tomb of the 
 prophet with profound inclinations of the body and appropriate prayers. The 
 marvellous tale, so long considered veritable, that the coffin of Mahomet re- 
 mained suspended in the air without any support, and which Christian writers 
 accounted for by supposing that it was of iron, and dexterously placed midway 
 between two magnets, is proved to be an idle fiction. 
 
 The mosque has undergone changes. It was at one time partially thrown 
 down and destroyed in an awful tempest, but was rebuilt by the Soldan of 
 Egypt. It has been enlarged and embellished by various Caliphs, and in par- 
 ticular by Waled I., under whom Spain was invaded and conquered. It was 
 plundered of its immense votive treasures by the Wahabees when they took 
 arid pillaged Medina. It is now maintained, though which diminished splendour, 
 under the care of about thirty Agas, whose chief is called Sheikh al Haram, or 
 chief of the Holy House. He is the principal personage in Medina. Pilgrimage 
 to Medina, though considered a most devout and meritorious act, is not imposed 
 on Mahometans, like pilgrimage to Mecca, as a religious duty, and has much 
 declined in modern days. 
 
 The foregoing particulars are from Burckhardt, who gained admission into 
 Medina, as well as into Mecca, in disguise, and at great peril; admittance into 
 those cities being prohibited to oil but Moslems. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX, 
 
 Person and character of Mahomet, and speculations on his prophetic career. 
 
 Mahomet, according to accounts handed down by tradition from 
 his contemporaries, was of the middle stature, square built and 
 sinewy, with large hands and feet. In his youth he was uncom- 
 monly strong and vigorous ; in the latter part of his life he inclined 
 to corpulency. His head was capacious, well shaped and well set 
 on a neck which rose like a pillar from his ample chest. His fore- 
 head was high, broad at the temples and crossed by veins extend- 
 ing down to the eyebrows, which swelled whenever he was angry 
 or excited. He had an oval face, marked and expressive features, 
 an aquiline nose, black eyes, arched eyebrows which nearly met, 
 a mouth large and flexible, indicative of eloquence ; very white 
 teeth, somewhat parted and irregular; black hair which waved
 
 142 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 without a curl on his shoulders, and a long and very full beard. 
 
 His deportment, in general, was calm and equable; he some- 
 times indulged in pleasantry, but more commonly was grave and 
 dignified ; though he is said to have possessed a smile of capti- 
 vating sweetness. His complexion was more ruddy than is usual 
 with Arabs, and in his excited and enthusiastic moments there was 
 a glow and radiance in his countenance, which his disciples magni- 
 fied into the supernatural light of prophecy. 
 
 His intellectual qualities were undoubtedly of an extraordinary 
 kind. He had a quick apprehension, a retentive memory, a vivid 
 imagination, and an inventive genius. Owing but little to educa- 
 tion, he had quickened and informed his mind by close observa- 
 tion, and stored it with a great variety of knowledge concerning 
 the systems of religion current in his day, or handed down by tra- 
 dition from antiquity. His ordinary discourse was grave and sen- 
 tentious, abounding with those aphorisms and apologues so popular 
 among the Arabs ; at times he was excited and eloquent, and his 
 eloquence was aided by a voice musical and sonorous. 
 
 He was sober and abstemious in his diet, and a rigorous observer 
 of fasts. He indulged in no magnificence of apparel, the ostenta- 
 tion of a petty mind ; neither was his simplicity in dress affected ; 
 but the result of a real disregard to distinction from so trivial a 
 source. His garments were sometimes of wool ; sometimes of the 
 striped cotton of Yemen, and were often patched. He wore a 
 turban, for he said turbans were worn by the angels: and in ar- 
 ranging it he let one end hang down between his shoulders, which 
 he said was the way they wore it. He forbade the wearing of 
 clothes entirely of silk ; but permitted a mixture of thread and silk. 
 He forbade also red clothes and the use of gold rings. He wore a 
 seal ring of silver, the engraved part under his finger close to the 
 palm of his hand, bearing thejnscription "Mahomet the messenger 
 of God." He was scrupulous as to personal cleanliness, and ob- 
 served frequent ablutions. In some respects he was a voluptuary 
 "There are two things in this world," would he say, "which 
 delight me, women and perfumes These two things rejoice my 
 eyes, and render me more fervent in devotion." From his extreme 
 cleanliness, and the use of perfumes and of sweet scented oil for 
 his hair, probably arose that sweetness and fragrance of person, 
 which his disciples considered innate and miraculous. His passion 
 for the sex had an influence over all his affairs. It is said that when 
 in the presence of a beautiful female, he was continually smoothing 
 his brow and adjusting his hair, as if anxious to appearto advantage. 
 
 The number of his wives is uncertain. Abulfeda, who writes 
 with more caution than other of the Arabian historians, limits it to 
 fifteen, though some make it as much as twenty-five. At the time 
 of his death he had nine, each in her separate dwelling, and all in 
 the vicinity of the mosque at Medina. The plea alleged for his 
 indulging in a greater number of wives than he permitted to his 
 followers, was a desire to beget a race of prophets for his people. 
 If such indeed were his desire, it was disappointed. Of all his 
 children, Fatima the wife of Ali alone survived him, and she died 
 within a short time after his death. Of her descendants, none ex-
 
 NOTICE OF THE KORAN. 143 
 
 cepting her eldest son Hassan ever sat on the throne of the Caliphs. 
 
 In his private dealings he was just. He treated friends and stran- 
 gers, the rich and poor, the powerful and the weak, with equity, 
 and was beloved by the common people for the affability with 
 which he received them, and listened to their complaints. 
 
 He was naturally irritable, but had brought his temper under 
 great control, so that even in the self-indulgent intercourse of do- 
 mestic life he was kind and tolerant. "I served him from the 
 lime I was eight years old," said his servant Anas, " and he never 
 scolded me for any thing, though things were spoiled by me." 
 
 The question now occurs, was he the unprincipled impostor that 
 he has been represented? Were all his visions and revelations 
 deliberate falsehoods, and was his whole system a tissue of deceit ? 
 In considering this question we must bear in mind, that he is not 
 chargeable with many extravagancies which exist in his name. 
 Many of the visions and revelations handed down as having been 
 given by him are spurious. The miracles ascribed to him are all 
 fabrications of Moslem zealots. He expressly and repeatedly dis- 
 claimed all miracles excepting the Koran; which, considering its 
 incomparable merit, and the way in which it had come down to 
 him from heaven, he pronounced the greatest of miracles. And 
 here we must indulge a few observations on this famous document. 
 While zealous Moslems and some of the most learned doctors of 
 the faith draw proofs of its divine origin from the inimitable excel- 
 lence of its style and composition, and the avowed illiteracy of Ma- 
 homet, less devout critics have pronounced it a chaos of beauties 
 and defects; without method or arrangement; full of obscurities, 
 Incoherencies, repetitions, false versions of scriptural stories, and 
 direct contradictions. The truth is that the Koran as it now exists 
 is not the same Koran delivered by Mahomet to his disciples, but 
 has undergone many corruptions and interpolations. The revela- 
 tions contained in it were given at various times, in various places, 
 and before various persons ; sometimes they were taken down by 
 his secretaries or disciples on parchment, on palm-leaves, or the 
 shoulder-blades of sheep, and thrown together in a chest, of which 
 one of his wives had charge ; sometimes they were merely treasured 
 up in the memories of those who heard them. JNo care appears to 
 have been taken to systematize and arrange them during his life ; 
 and at his death they remained in scattered fragments, many of 
 them at the mercy of fallacious memories. It was not until some 
 lime after his death that Abu Beker undertook to have them gathered 
 together and transcribed. Zeid Ibu Thabet, who had been one of 
 the secretaries of Mahomet, was employed for Ihe purpose. He 
 professed to know many parts of the Koran by heart, having writ- 
 ten them down under the dictation of the prophet ; other parts he 
 collected piecemal from various hands, written down in the rude 
 way we have mentioned, and many parts he took down as repeated 
 to him by various disciples who professed lo have heard them ut- 
 tered by the prophet himself. The heterogeneous fragments thus 
 collecled were thrown together without selection; without chrono- 
 logical order, and without system of any kind. The volume thus 
 formed during Ihe Galiphat of Abu Beker was transcribed by diffe-
 
 144 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 rent hands, and many professed copies put in circulation and dis- 
 persed throughout the Moslem cities. So many errors, interpola- 
 tions, and contradictory readings, soon crept into these copies, that 
 Othman, the third Caliph, called in the various manuscripts, and 
 forming what he pronounced the genuine Koran, caused all the 
 olhers to be destroyed. 
 
 This simple statement may account for many of the incoherencies, 
 repetitions, and other discrepancies charged upon this singular do- 
 cument. Mahomet, as has justly been observed, may have given 
 the same precepts, or related the same apologue at different limes, 
 to different persons in different words ; or various persons may 
 have been present at one time, and given various versions of his 
 words ; and reported his apologues and scriptural stories in diffe- 
 rent ways, according to their imperfect memoranda or fallible re- 
 collections. Many revelations given by him as having been made in 
 foregone times to the prophets, his predecessors, may have been 
 reported as having been given as relations made to himself. It 
 has been intimated that Abu Beker, in the early days of his Cali- 
 phat, may have found it politic to interpolate many things in the 
 Koran, calculated to aid him in emergencies, and confirm the 
 empire of Islamism. What corruptions and interpolations may have 
 been made by other and less scrupulous hands, after the prophet's 
 death, we may judge by the daring liberties of the kind taken by 
 Abdallah Ibn Saad, one ef his secretaries, during his lifetime. 
 
 From all these circumstances it will appear, that even the do- 
 cumentary memorials concerning Mahomet abound with vitia- 
 tions, while the traditional are full of fable. These increase the 
 difficulty of solving the enigma of his character and conduct. 
 His history appears to resolve into itself two grand divisions. 
 During the first part, up to the period of middle life, we cannot 
 perceive what adequate object he had {to gain by the impious 
 and stupendous imposture with which he stands charged. "Was 
 it riches? His marriage with Cadijah had already made him 
 wealthy, and for years preceding his pretended vision he had ma- 
 nifested no desire to increase his store. "Was it distinction? He 
 already stood high in his native place, as a man of intelligence and 
 probity. He was of the illustrious tribe of Koreish, and of the 
 most honoured branch of that tribe. "Was it power? The guar- 
 dianship of the Caaba, and with it the command of the sacred city, 
 had been for generations in his immediate family, and his situation 
 and circumstances entitled him to look forward with confidence to 
 that exalted trust. In attempting to subvert the faith in which he 
 had been brought up, he struck at the root of all these advantages. 
 On that faith were founded the fortunes and dignities of his family. 
 To assail it must draw on himself the hostility of his kindred, the 
 indignation of his fellow-citizens, and the horror and odium of all 
 his countrymen, who were worshippers at the Caaba. 
 
 Was there any thing brilliant in the outset of his prophetic 
 career to repay him for these sacrifices, and to lure him on? On 
 the contrary, it was begun in doubt and secrecy. For years it 
 was not attended by any material success. In proportion as he 
 made known his doctrines and proclaimed his revelations, they
 
 QUESTION OF IMPOSTURE. 14.i 
 
 subjected him to ridicule, scoi;n, obloquy, and finally to an in- 
 veterate persecution ; which ruined the fortunes of himself and his 
 friends, compelled some of his family and followers to take refuge 
 in a foreign land; obliged him to hide from sight in his native city, 
 and finally drove him forth a fugitive to seek an uncertain home 
 elsewhere. Why should he persist for years in a course of im- 
 posture which was thus prostrating all his worldly fortunes, at a 
 time of life when it was too late to build them up anew? 
 
 In the absence Of sufficient worldly motives, we are compelled 
 to seek some other explanation of his conduct in this stage of his 
 most enigmatical history; and this we have endeavoured to set 
 forth in the early part of this work; where we have shown his en- 
 thusiastic and visionary spirit gradually wrought up by solitude, 
 fasting, prayer, and meditation, and irritated by bodily disease 
 into a state of temporary delirium, in which he fancies he receives 
 a revelation from heaven, and is declared a prophet of the Most 
 High. We cannot but think there was self-deception in this in- 
 stance ; and that he believed in the reality of the dream or vision ; 
 especially after his doubts had been combated by the zealous and 
 confiding Cadijah and the learned and crafty Waraka. 
 
 Once persuaded of his divine mission to go forth and preach 
 the faith, all subsequent dreams and impulses might be construed 
 to the same purport; all might be considered intimations of the 
 divine will, imparted in their several ways to him as a prophet. 
 We find him repeatedly subject to trances and ecstasies in times of 
 peculiar agitation and excitement, when he may have fancied 
 himself again in communication with the Deity, aud these were 
 almost always followed by revelations. 
 
 The general tenor of his conduct up to the time of his flight 
 from Mecca, is that of an enthusiast acting under a species of 
 mental delusion ; deeply imbued with a conviction of his being 
 a divine agent for religious reform : and there is something striking 
 and sublime in the luminous path which his enthusiastic spirit 
 struck out for itself through the bewildering maze of adverse faiths 
 and wild traditions; the pure and spiritual worship of the one true 
 God, which he sought to substitute for the blind idolatry of his 
 childhood. 
 
 All the parts of the Koran supposed to have been promulgated 
 by him at this time, incoherently as they have come down to us, 
 and marred as their pristine beauty must be in passing through 
 various hands, are of a pure and elevated character, and breathe 
 poetical, if not religious, inspiration. They show that he had 
 drunk deep of the living waters of Christianity, aud if he had failed 
 to imbibe them in their crystal purity, it might be because he had 
 to drink from broken cisterns, and streams troubled and perverted 
 by those who should have been their guardians. The faith he had 
 hitherto inculcated was purer than that held forth by some of the 
 pseudo Christians of Arabia, and his life, so far, had been regulated 
 according to its tenets. 
 
 Such is our view of Mahomet and his conduct during the early 
 part of his career, while he was a persecuted and ruined man in 
 Mecca. A signal change, however, took place, as we have shown 
 
 10
 
 N6 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 in the foregoing chapters, after his flight to Medina, whe.n, in place 
 of the mere shelter and protection which he sought, he finds him- 
 self revered as a prophet, implicitly obeyed as a chief, and at the 
 head of a powerful, growing, and warlike host of votaries. From 
 this time worldly passions and worldly schemes too often give the 
 impulse to his actions, instead of that visionary enthusiasm which, 
 even if mistaken, threw a glow of piety on his earlier deeds. The 
 old doctrines of forbearance, long-suffering, and resignation, are 
 suddenly dashed aside; he becomes vindictive towards those who 
 have hitherto oppressed him, and ambitious of extended rule. 
 His doctrines, precepts, and conduct, become marked by contra- 
 dictions, and his whole course is irregular and unsteady. His re- 
 velations, henceforth, are so often opportune, and fitted to parti- 
 cular emergencies, that we are led to doubt his sincerity, and that 
 he is any longer under the same delusion concerning them. Still, 
 it must be remembered, as we have shown, that the records of 
 these revelations are not always to be depended upon. "What he 
 may have uttered as from his own will, may have been reported 
 as if given as the will of God. Often, too, as we have already 
 suggested, he may have considered his own impulses as divine in- 
 timations; and that, being an agent ordained to propagate the 
 faith, all impulses and conceptions toward that end might be part 
 of a continued and divine inspiration. 
 
 If we are far from considering Mahomet the gross and impious 
 impostor that some have represented him, so also are we indisposed 
 to give him credit for vast forecast, and for that deeply concerted 
 scheme of universal conquest which has been ascribed to him. 
 He was, undoubtedly, a man of great genius and a suggestive ima- 
 gination, but it appears to us that he was, in a great degree, the 
 creature of impulse and excitement, and very much at the mercy 
 of circumstances. His schemes grew out of his fortunes, and not 
 His fortunes out of his schemes. He was forty years of age before 
 he first broached his doctrines. He suffered year after year to 
 steal away before he promulgated them out of his own family. 
 When he fled from Mecca thirteen years had elapsed from the 
 announcement of his mission, and from being a wealthy merchant 
 he had sunk to be a ruined fugitive. When he reached Medina he 
 had no idea of the worldly power that awaited him ; his only 
 thought was to build a humble mosque where he might preach; 
 and his only hope that he might be suffered to preach with impu- 
 nity. "When power suddenly broke upon him, he used it for a 
 time in petty forays and local feuds. His military plans expanded 
 with his resources, but were by no means masterly, and were 
 sometimes unsuccessful. They were not struck out with boldness, 
 nor executed with decision ; but were often changed in deference 
 to the opinions of warlike men about him, and sometimes at the 
 suggestion of inferior minds, who occasionally led him wrong. 
 Had he, indeed, conceived from the outset the idea of binding up 
 the scattered and conflicting tribes of Arabia into one nation by a 
 brotherhood of faith, for the purpose of carrying out a scheme of 
 external conquest, he would have been one of the first of military 
 projectors ; but the idea of extended conquest seems to have been
 
 CONCLUSION. 147 
 
 an after-thought, produced by success. The moment he pro- 
 claimed the religion of the sword, and gave the predatory Arabs a 
 taste of foreign plunder, that moment he was launched in a career 
 of conquest, which carried him forward with its own irresistible 
 impetus. The fanatic zeal with which he had inspired tis followers 
 did more for his success than his military science ; their belief in 
 his doctrine of predestination produced victories which no military 
 calculation could have anticipated. In his dubious outset, as a 
 prophet, he had been encouraged by the crafty counsels of his 
 scriptural oracle Waraka; in his career as a conqueror, he had 
 Omar, Khaled, and other fiery spirits by his side to urge him on, 
 and to aid him in managing the tremendous power which he had 
 evoked into action. Even with all their aid, he had occasionally 
 to avail himself of his supernatural machinery as a prophet, and in 
 so doing may have reconciled himself to the fraud by considering 
 the pious end to be obtained. 
 
 His military triumphs awakened no pride nor vainglory, as they 
 would have done had they been effected for selfish purposes. In 
 the lime of his greatest power, he maintained the same simplicity 
 of manners and appearance as in the days of his adversity. So 
 far from affecting regal state, he was displeased if, on entering a 
 room, any unusual testimonial of respect were shown him If he 
 aimed at universal dominion, it was the dominion of the faith : as 
 to the temporal rule which grew up in his hands, as he used it 
 without ostentation, so he took no step to perpetuate it in his 
 faaiily. 
 
 The riches which poured in upon him from tribute and the 
 spoils of war, were expended in promoting the victories of the 
 faith, and in relieving the poor among its votaries ; insomuch that 
 his treasury was often drained of its last coin. Omar Ibn Al 
 Ha.reth declares that Mahomet, at his death, did not leave a golden 
 dinar nor a silver dirhem, a slave nor a slave girl, nor any thing 
 but his gray mule Daldal, his arms, and the ground which he 
 bestowed upon his wives, his children, and the poor. "Allah," 
 says an Arabian writer, " offered him the keys of all the treasures 
 of the earth ; but he refused to accept them." 
 
 It is this perfect abnegation of self, connected with this appa- 
 rently heartfelt piety, running throughout the various phases of 
 his fortune, which perplex one in forming a just estimate of Ma- 
 homet's character. However he betrayed the alloy of earth after 
 he had worldly power at his command, the early aspirations of his 
 spirit continually returned and bore him above all earthly things. 
 Prayer, that vital duty of Islamism, and that infallible purifier of 
 the soul, was his constant practice. " Trust in God," was his 
 comfort and support in times of trial and despondency. On the 
 clemency of God, we are told, he reposed all his hopes of supernal 
 happiness. Ayesha relates that on one occasion she inquired of 
 him, "Oh prophet, do none enter paradise but through God's 
 mercy?" "None none none!" replied he, with earnest and 
 emphatic repetition. "But you, oh prophet, will not you enter 
 excepting through his compassion?" Then Mahomet put his 
 hand upon his head, and replied three times, with great solemnity,
 
 148 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 "Neither shall 1 enter paradise unless God cover me with his 
 mercy! " 
 
 When he hung over the death-bed of his infant son Ibrahim, 
 resignation to the will of God was exhibited in his conduct under 
 this keenest of afflictions; and the hope of soon rejoining his child 
 in paradise was his consolation. When he followed him to the 
 grave, he invoked his spirit, in the awful examination of the tomb, 
 to hold fast to the foundations of the faith, the unity of God, and 
 his own mission as a prophet. Even in his own dying hour, when 
 there could be no longer a worldly motive for deceit, he still 
 breathed the same religious devotion, and the same belief in his 
 apostolic mission. The last words that trembled on his lips eja- 
 culated a trust of soon entering into blissful companionship with 
 the prophets who had gone before him. 
 
 It is difficult to reconcile such ardent, persevering piety, with 
 an incessant system of blasphemous imposture ; nor such pure and 
 elevated and benignant precepts as are contained in the Koran, 
 with a mind haunted by ignoble passions, and devoted to the gro- 
 velling interests of mere mortality ; and we find no other satisfactory 
 mode of solving the enigma of his character and conduct, than by 
 supposing that the ray of mental hallucination which flashed upon 
 his enthusiastic spirit during his religious ecstasies in the midnight 
 cavern of Mount Hara, continued more or less to bewilder him 
 with a species of monomania to the end of his career, and that he 
 died in the delusive belief of his mission as a prophet.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 OF THE ISLAM FAITH. 
 
 In an early chapter of this work we have given such particulars of the faith 
 inculcated by Mahomet as we deemed important to the understanding of the suc- 
 ceeding narrative : we now, though at the expense of some repetition, subjoin a 
 more complete summary, accompanied by a few observations. 
 
 The religion of Islam, as we observed on the before-mentioned occasion, is 
 divided into two parts; FAITH and PRACTICE : and first of Faith. This is distri- 
 buted under six different heads, or articles, viz. : 1st, faith in God ; 2d, in his 
 angels; 3d, in his Scriptures or Koran; 4th, in his prophets; 5th, in the resur- 
 rection and final judgment; 6th, in predestination. Of these we will briefly treat 
 in the order we have enumerated them. 
 
 FAITH is GOD. Mahomet inculcated .he belief that there is, was, and ever will 
 be, one only God, the creator of all things ; who is single, immutable, omniscient, 
 omnipotent, all merciful and eternal. The unity of God was specifically and 
 strongly urged, in contradistinction to the Trinity of the Christians. It was de- 
 signated, in the profession of faith, by raising. one finger, and exclaiming, " La 
 i liana il Allah! " There is no God but God to which was added, "Mohamed 
 Resoul Allah!" Mahomet is the prophet of God. 
 
 FAITH is ANGELS. The beautiful doctrine of angels, or ministering spirits, 
 which was one of the most ancient and universal of oriental creeds, is inter- 
 woven throughout the Islam system. They are represented as ethereal beings, 
 treated fi om fire, the purest of elements, perfect in form and radiant in beauty, 
 but without sex ; free from all gross or sensual passion, and all the appetites and 
 infirmities of frail humanity; and existing in perpetual and unfading youth. 
 They are various in their degrees and duties, and in their favour with the Deity. 
 Some worship around the, celestial throne ; others perpetually hymn the praises 
 of Allah ; some are winged messengers to execute his orders, and others intercede 
 for the children of men. 
 
 The most distinguished of this heavenly host are four Archangels. Gabriel, 
 the angel of revelations, who writes down the divine decrees ; Michael, the cham- 
 pion, who fights the battles of the faith; Azrail, the angel of death ; and Israfil, 
 who holds the awful commission to sound the trumpet on the day of resurrection. 
 There was another angel named Az;izil, the same as Lucifer, once the most glo- 
 rious of the celestial band; but he became proud and rebellious. When. God 
 commanded his angels to worship ^dam, Azazil refused, saying, " Why should I, 
 whom thou hast created of fire, bow down to one whom thou hast formed of 
 clay?" For this offence he was accursed and cast forth from paradise, and his
 
 150 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 name changed to Eblis, which signifies despair. In revenge of his abasement, 
 he works all kinds of mischief against the children of men, and inspires them 
 with disobedience and impiely. 
 
 Among the angels of inferior rank is a class called Moakkibat ; two of whom keep 
 watch upon euch mortal, one on the right hand, the oilier on the left, taking note 
 of every word and action. At the close of each day they fly up to heaven with a 
 written report, and are replaced by two similar, angels on the following day. 
 According to Mahometan tradition, every good action is recorded ten times by the 
 angel on the right ; and if the mortal commit a sin, the same benevolent spirit 
 says to the angel on the left, " Forbear for seven hours to record it ; perad ven- 
 ture he may repent and pray and obtain forgiveness." 
 
 Beside the angelic orders Mahomet inculcates a bjelief in spiritual beings called 
 Gins or Genii, who, though likewise created of fire, partake of the appetites and 
 frailties of the children of the dust, and like them are ultimately liable to death. 
 By beings of this nature, which haunt the solitudes of the desert, Mahomet, as 
 we have shown, professed to have been visited after his evening orisons in the 
 solitary valley of Al Naklah. 
 
 When the angel Azazil rebelled and fell and became Satan or Eblis, he still 
 maintained sovereignty over these inferior spirits ; who are divided by Orientalists 
 into Dives and Peri : the former ferocious and gigantic; the latter delicate and 
 gentle, subsisting on perfumes. It would seem as if the Peri were all of the 
 female tex, though on this point there rests obscurity. From these imaginary 
 beings it is supposed the European fairies are derived. 
 
 Besides these there are other demi-spirits called Tacwins or Fates; being 
 winged females of beautiful forms, who utter oracles and defend mortals from 
 the assaults and machinations of evil demons. 
 
 There is vagueness and uncertainty about all the attributes given by Mahomet 
 to these half-celestial beings ; his ideas on the subject having been acquired from 
 various sources. His whole system of intermediate spirits has a strong, though 
 indistinct infusion of the creeds and superstitions of the Hebrews, the Marians, 
 and the Pagans of Sabeans. 
 
 The third article of faith is a belief in the KORAN , as a book of divine reve- 
 lation. According to the Moslem creed a book was treasured up in the seventh 
 heaven, and had existed there from all eternity, in which were written down all 
 the decrees of God and all events, past, present, or to come. Transcripts from these 
 tablets of the divine will were brought down to the lowest heaven by the angel 
 Gabriel, and by him revealed to Mahomet from time to time, in portions adapted 
 to some event or emergency. Being the direct words of God, they were all spoken 
 in the first person. 
 
 Of the way in which these revelations were taken down or treasured up by 
 secretaries and disciples, and gathered together by Abu Beker after the death of 
 Mahomet, we have made sufficient mention. The compilation, for such in fact 
 it is, forms the Moslem code of civil and penal as well as religious law, and is 
 treated with the utmost reverence by all true believers. A zealous pride is shown 
 in having copies of it splendidly bound and ornamented. An inscription on the 
 cover forbids any one to touch it who is unclean, and it is considered irreverent, 
 in reading it, to hold it below the girdle. Moslems swear by it, and take omens 
 from its pnges, by opening it and reading the first text that meets the eye. With 
 all its errours and discrepancies, if we consider it mainly as the work of one 
 man, and that an unlettered man, it remains a stupendous monument of soli- 
 tary legislation. 
 
 Beside the Koran or written law, a number of precepts and apologues which 
 casually fell from the lips of Mahomet were collected after his death from ear- 
 witnesses, and transcribed into a book called the Sonna or Oral Law. This is 
 held equally sacrc.d with the Koran by a sect of Mahometans thence called Son- 
 nites; others reject it as apocryphal ; these last are termed Schiites. Hostilities 
 and persecutions have occasionally taken place between these sects almost as vi- 
 rulent as those which, between Catholics and Protestants, have disgraced Chris-
 
 APPENDIX. 151 
 
 tianity. The Sonnites are distinguished by white, the Schiites by red turbans; 
 hence the latter have received from their antagonists the appellation of Kussil- 
 bachi.or Red Heads. 
 
 Il is remarkable that circumcision, -which is invariably practised by the Ma- 
 hometans and forms a distinguishing rite of their faith, to which all proselytes 
 must conform, is neither mentioned in the Koran nor the Sonna. It seems to 
 have been a general usage in Aiahia, tacitly adopted from the Jews, and is even 
 said to have been prevalent throughout the East before the time of Moses. 
 
 It is said that the Koran forbids the making likenesses of any living thing, which 
 has presented the introduction of portrait-painting among Mahometans. The 
 passage of the Koran, however, which is thought to contain the prohibition, 
 seems merely an echo of ihe second commandment, held sacred by Jews and 
 Christians, not to form images or pictures for worship. One of Mahomet's 
 standards was a black eagle. Among the most distinguished Moslem ornaments 
 of the Alhambra at Granada is a fountain supported by lions carved of stone, 
 and some Moslem monarchs have had their effigies stamped on their coins. 
 
 Another and an important mistake with regard to the system of Mahomet, is 
 the idea that it denies souls to the female sex, and excludes them from paradise. 
 This errour arises from his omitting to mention their enjoyments in a future 
 stale, while he details those of his own sex with the minuteness of a voluptuary. 
 The beatification of virtuous females is ailuded to in the 5(ith Sura of the Koran, 
 and also in oilier places, although from the vagueness of the language a cursory 
 reader might suppose the Houris of paradise to be intended. 
 
 The fourth article of faith relates to the PROPHETS. Their number amounts 
 to two hundred thousand, but only six are super-eminent, as having brought new 
 laws and dispensations upon earth, each abrogating those previously received 
 wherever they varied or were contradictory. These six distinguished prophets 
 were Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Mahomet. 
 
 The fifth article of Islam faith is on the RESURRECTION and the FINAL JUDGMENT. 
 On this awful subject Mahomet blended some of the Christian belief with certain 
 notions current among the- Arabian Jews. One of the latter is the fearful tribunal 
 of the Sepulchre. When A/rail, the angel of death, has performed his office, and 
 the corpse has been consigned to the tomb, two black angels, Munkar and Nakeer, 
 of dismal and appalling aspect, present themselves as inquisitors; during whose 
 scrutiny the soul is reunited to the body. The defunct, being commanded to sit 
 up, is interrogated as to the two great points of faith, the unity of God and the 
 divine mission of Mahomet, and likewise as to the deeds done by him during life; 
 and his replies are recorded in books against the day of judgment. Should they 
 be satisfactory, his soul is gently drawn forth from his lips, and his body left to 
 its repose ; should they be otherwise, he is beaten about the brows with iron clubs, 
 and his soul wrenched forth with racking tortures. For the convenience of this 
 awful inquisition, the Mahometans generally deposit their dead in hollow or 
 vaulted sepulchres; merely wrapped in funeral clothes, but not placed in coffins. 
 
 The space of time between death and resurrection is called Bcrzak, or the Inter- 
 val. During this period the body rests in the grave, but the soul has a foretaste, 
 in dreams or visions, of its future doom. 
 
 The souls of prophets are admitted at once into the full fruition of paradise. 
 Those of martyrs, including all who die in battle, enter into the bodies or crops 
 of green birds, who feed on the fruits and drink of the streams of paradise. 
 Those of the great mass of true believers are variously disposed of, but, acording 
 to the most received opinion, they hover, in a state of seraphic tranquillity, near 
 the tombs. Hence the. Moslem usage of visiting the graves of their departed 
 friends and relatives, in the idea that their souls are the gratified witnesses of these 
 testimonials of affection. 
 
 Many Moslems believe that the souls of the truly faithful assume the forms of 
 snow- while birds, and neslle beneath the throne of Allah; a belief in accordance 
 with an ancient superstition of the Hebrews, that the souls of the just will have a 
 place in heaven under the throne of glory.
 
 152 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 With regard to the souls of infidels, the most orthodox opinion is that they will 
 be repulsed by angels both from heaven and earth, and cast into the cavernous 
 bowels of the earth, there to await in tribulation the day of judgment. 
 
 THE DAY OF RESURRECTION will be preceded by signs and portents in heaven and 
 earth. A total eclipse of the moon ; a change in the course of the sun, rising in 
 the west instead of the east; wars and tumults; a universal decay of faith; the 
 advent of Antichrist; the issuing forth of Gog and Magog to desolate the world ; a 
 great smoke, covering the whole earth : these and many more prodigies and omens 
 affrighting andHarassing the souls of men, and producing a wretchedness of spirit 
 and a weariness of life; insomuch that a man passing by a grave shall envy the 
 quiet dead, and say, " Would to God 1 were in thy place!" 
 
 The last dread signal of the awful day will be the blast of a trumpet by the 
 archangel 1/rafil. At the sound thereof the earth will tremble; castles and towers 
 will be shaken to the ground, and mountains levelled with the plains. The face 
 of heaven will be darkened ; the firmament will melt away, and the sun, the 
 moon, and stars will fall into the sea. The ocean will be either dried up, or will 
 boil and roll in fiery billows. 
 
 At the sound of that dreadful trump a panic will fall on the human race; men 
 will fly from their brothers, their parents, and their wives; and mothers, in 
 frantic terrour, abandon the infant at the breast. The savage beasts of the forests, 
 and the tame animals of the pasture, will forget their fierceness and their anti- 
 pathies, and herd together in affright. 
 
 The second blast of the trumpet is the blast of extermination. At that sound, 
 all creatures in heaven and on earth and in the waters under theearth, angels and 
 genii and men and animals, all will die; excepting the chosen few especially 
 reserved by Allah. The last to die will be Azrail, the angel of death ! 
 
 Forty days, or, according to explanations, forty years of continued rain will 
 follow this blast of extermination ; then will be sounded for the third time the 
 trumpet of the archangel Izrafil ; it is the call to judgment! At the sound of this 
 blast, the whole space between heaven and earth will be filled with the souls of the 
 dead flying in quest of their respective bodies. Then the earth will open ; and 
 there will be a rattling of dry bones, and a gathering together of scattered limbs; 
 the very hairs will congregate together, and the whole body be reunited, and the 
 soul will re-enter it, and the dead will rise from mutilation, perfect in every part, 
 and naked as when born. The infidels will grovel with their faces on the eaith, 
 but the faithful will walk erect; as to the truly pious, they will be borne aloft on 
 winged camels, white as milk, with saddles of fine gold. 
 
 Every human being will then be put upon his trial as to the manner in which 
 he has employed his faculties, and the good and evil actions of his life. A mighty 
 balance will be poised by the angel Gabriel; in one of the scales, termed Light, 
 will be placed his good actions ; in the other, termed Darkness, his evil deeds. An 
 atom or a grain of mustard-seed will suffice to turn this balance; and the nature of 
 the sentence will depend on the preponderance of either scale. At that moment 
 retribution will be exacted for every wrong and injury. He who has wronged a 
 fellow mortal will have to repay him with a portion of his own good deeds, or, if 
 he have none to boast of, will have to take upon himselt a proportionate weight 
 of the other's sins. 
 
 The trial of the balance will be succeeded by the ordeal of the bridge. The 
 whole assembled multitude will have to follow Mahomet across the bridge Al Sera"t, 
 as fine as the edge of a scimetar, which crosses the gulf of Jehennam or Hell. 
 Infldels and sinful Moslems will grope along it darkling and fall into the abyss; 
 but the faithful, aided by a beaming light, will cross with the swiftness of birds 
 and enter the realms of paradise. The idea of this bridge, and of the dreary 
 realms of Jehennam, is supposed to have been derived partly from the Jews, but 
 chiefly from the Magians. 
 
 Jehennam is a region fraught with all kinds of horrours. The very trees have 
 writhing serpents for branches, bearing lor fruit the heads of demons. We for- 
 bear to dwell upon the particulars of this [dismal abode, which are given with
 
 APPENDIX. 153 
 
 painful and often disgusting minuteness. It is described as consisting of seven 
 stages, one below the other, and varying in the nature and intensity of torment. 
 The flrst stage is alloted to Atheists, who deny creator and creation, and believe 
 the world to be eternal. The second for Manicheans and others that admit two 
 divine principles; and for the Arabian idolaters of the era of Mahomet. The 
 third is for the Brahmins of India; the fourth for the Jews; the fifth for Christians; 
 the sixth for the Magians or Ghebers of Persia; the seventh for hypocrites, who 
 profess without believing in religion. 
 
 The fierce angel Tuabeck, that is to say, the Executioner, presides over this 
 region of terror. 
 
 We must observe that the general nature of Jehennam, and the distribution of 
 its punishments, have given rise to various commentaries and expositions among 
 the Moslem doctors. It is maintained by some, and it is a popular doctrine, that 
 none of the believers in Allah and his prophets will be condemned to eternal 
 punishment. Their sins will be expiated by proportionate periods of suffering, 
 varying from nine hundred to nine thousand years. 
 
 Some of the most humane among the Doctors contend against eternity of 
 punishment to any class of sinners, saying that, as God is all merciful, even infidels 
 will eventually be pardoned. Those who have an intercessor, as the Christians 
 have in Jesus Christ, will be first redeemed. The liberality of these worthy com- 
 mentators, however, does not extend so far as to admit them into paradise among 
 true believers; but concludes that, after long punishment, they will be relieved 
 from their torments by annihilation. 
 
 Between Jehennam and paradise is Al Araf or the Partition, a region destitute 
 of peace or pleasure, destined for the reception of infants, lunatics, idiots, and such 
 other beings as have done neither good nor evil. For such too whose good and 
 evil deeds balance each other; though these may be admitted to paradise through 
 the intercession of Mahomet, on performing an act of adoration, to turn the scales 
 in their favour. It is said that the tenants of this region can converse with their 
 neighbours on either hand, the blessed and the condemned; and that Al Araf 
 appears a paradise to those in hell and a hell to those in paradise. 
 
 AL JANNAT, OR THE GARDEN. When the true believer has passed through all his 
 trials, and expiated all his sins, he refreshes himself at the Pool of the Prophet. 
 This is a lake of fi agrant water, a month's journey in circuit, fed by the river Al 
 Cauther, which flows from paradise. The water of this lake is sweet as honey, 
 cold as snow, and clear as crystal ; he who once tastes of it will never more be 
 tormented by thirst ; a blessing dwelt upon with peculiar zest by Arabian writers, 
 accustomed to the parching thirst of the desert. 
 
 After the true believer has drunk of this water of life, the gate of paradise is 
 opened to him by the angel Rushvan. The same prolixity and minuteness which 
 occur in the description of Jehennam, are lavished on the delights of paradise, 
 until the imagination is dazzled and confused by the details. The soil is of the 
 finest wheaten flour, fragrant with perfumes, and strewed with pearls and 
 hyacinths instead of sands and pebbles. 
 
 Some of the streams are of crystal purity, running between green banks enamel- 
 led with flowers ; others are of milk, of wine and honey ; flowing over beds of musk, 
 between margins of camphire, covered with moss and saffron ! The air is sweeter 
 than the spicy gales of Sabea, and cooled by sparkling fountains. Here, too, is 
 Taba, the wonderful tree of life, so large that a fleet horse would need a hundred 
 years to cross its shade. The boughs are laden with every variety of delicious fruit, 
 and bend to the hand of those who seek to gather. 
 
 The inhabitants of this blissful garden are clothed in raiment sparkling with 
 jewels; they wear crowns of gold enriched with pearls and diamonds, and dwell 
 in sumptuous palates or silken pavilions, reclining on voluptuous couches. Here 
 every believer will have hundreds of attendants, bearing dishes and goblets of 
 gold, to serve him with every variety of exquisite viand and beverage. He will 
 eat without satiety, and drink without inebriation ; the last morsel "and the last 
 drop will be equally relished with the flrst : he will feel no repletion, and need no 
 evacuation.
 
 154 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 The air will resound with the melodious voice of Izrafil, and the songs of the 
 daughters of paradise ; the very rustling of the trees will produce ravishing har- 
 mony, while myriads of bells, hanging among their branches, will be put in dulcet 
 motion by airs from the throne of Allah. 
 
 Above all, the faithful will be blessed with female society to the full extent even 
 of oriental imaginings. Beside the wives he had on earth, who will rejoin him 
 in all their pristine charms, he will be attended by the Hur al Oyun, or Houris, 
 so called from their large black eyes; resplendent beings, free from every human 
 defect or frailty ; perpetually retaining their youth and beauty, and renewing their 
 virginity. Seventy two of these are allotted to every believer. The intercourse 
 with them will be fruitful or not according to their wish, and the offspring will 
 grow within an hour to the same stature with the parents. 
 
 That the true believer may be fully competent to the enjoyments of this blissful 
 region, he will rise from the grave in the prime of manhood, at the age of thirty, 
 of the stature of Adam, which was thirty cubits; with all his faculties improved 
 to a state of preternatural perfection, with the abilities of a hundred men, and 
 with desires and appetites quickened rather than sated by enjoyment. 
 
 These and similar delights are promised to the meanest of the faithful ; there arc 
 gradations of enjoyment, however, as of merit; but, as to those prepared for the 
 most deserving, Mahomet found the powers of description exhausted, and was 
 fain to make use of the text from Scripture, that they should be such things " as 
 eye hath not seen, ear hath not heard, neither hath it entered into the heart of 
 man to conceive." 
 
 The expounders of the Mahometan law differ in their opinions as to the whole 
 meaning of this system of rewards and punishments. One set understanding 
 every tiling in a figurative, the other in a literal sense. The former insist that the 
 prophet spake in parable, in a manner suited to the coarse perceptions and sensual 
 natures of his hearers; and maintain that the joys of heaven will be mental as 
 well as corporeal; the resurrection being of both soul and body. The soul will 
 revel in a supernatural development and employment of all its faculties; in a 
 knowledge of all the arcana of nature; the full revelation of every thing past, 
 present, and to come. The enjoyments of the body will be equally suited to its 
 various senses, and perfected to a supernatural degree. 
 
 Thesame expounders regard the description of Jehennam as equally figurative ; 
 the torments of the soul consisting in the anguish of perpetual remorse for past 
 crimes, and deep and ever increasi-ng despair for the loss of heaven; those of the 
 body in excruciating and never-ending pain. 
 
 The other doctors, who construe every thing in a literal sense, are considered 
 the most orthodox, and their sect is beyond measure the most numerous. Most of 
 the particulars in the system of rewards and punishments, as has been already 
 observed, have close affinity to the superstitions ol the Magians and the Jewish 
 Rab!>ins. The Houri, or black-eyed nymphs, who figure so conspicuously in the 
 Moslem's paradise, ate saM to be the same .is the Huram Behest of the Persian 
 Magi, and Mahomet is accused by Chiistian investigators of having purloined 
 much of his description of heaven from the account of the New Jerusalem in the 
 Apocalypse; with such variation as is used by knavish jewellers, when they ap- 
 propriate stolen jewels to their own use. 
 
 The sixth and last article of the Islam faith is PREDESTINATION, and on this 
 Mahomet evidently reposed his chief dependence for the success of his military 
 enterprises. He inculcated that every event had been predetermined by God, 
 and written down in the eternal tablet previous to the creation of the world. 
 That the destiny of every individual, and the hour of his death, were irrevocably 
 fixed, and could neither be varied nor invaded by any effort of human sagacity or 
 foresight. Under this persuasion, the Moslems engaged in battle without risk ; 
 and, as death in battle was equivalent to martyrdom, and entitled them to an 
 immediate admission into paradise, they had in either alternative, death or vic- 
 tory, a certainty of gain. 
 
 This doctrine, according lo which men by their own free will can neither
 
 APPENDIX. 155 
 
 avoid sin nor avert punishment, is considered by many Mussulmen as dero- 
 gatory to the justice and clemency of God ; and several sects have sprung up, 
 who endeavour to soften and explain away this perplexing dogma; but the num- 
 ber of these doubters is small, and they are not considered orthodox. 
 
 The doctrine of Predestination was one of those timely revelations to Mahomet, 
 that were almost miraculous from their seasonable occurrence. It took place im- 
 medialely after the disastrous battle of Ohod, in which many of his followers, 
 and among them his uncle Hamza, were slain. Then it was, in a moment of 
 gloom and despondency, when his followers around him were disheartened, that 
 he promulgated this law, telling them that every man must die at the appointed 
 hour, whether in bed or in the field of battle. He declared, moreover, that the 
 angel Gabriel had announced to him the reception of Hamza into the seventh 
 heaven, with the title of Lion of God and of the Prophet. He added, as he con- 
 templated the dead bodies, "I am witness for these, and for all who have been 
 slain for the cause of God, that they shall appear in glory at the resurrection, 
 with their wounds brilliant as vermilion and odoriferous as musk." 
 
 What doctrine could have been devised more calculated to hurry forward, in 
 a wild career of conquest, a set of ignorant and predatory soldiers, than this as- 
 surance of booty if they survived, and paradise if they fell ? * It rendered 
 almost irresistible the Moslem arms; but it likewise contained the poison that 
 was to destroy their dominion. From the moment the successors of the prophet 
 ceased to be aggressors and conquerors, and sheathed the sword definitively, the 
 doctrine of predestination began its baneful work. Enervated by peace, and the 
 sensuality permitted by the Koran which so distinctly separates its doctrines 
 from the pure and self-denying religion of the Messiah the Moslem regarded 
 every reverse as preordained by Allah, and inevitable ; to be borne stoically, since 
 human exertion and foresight were vain. " Help thyself and God will help thee," 
 was a precept never in force with the followers of Mahomet, and its reverse has 
 been their fate. The crescent has waned before the cross, and exists in Eu- 
 rope, where it was once so mighty, only by the suffrage, or rather the jealousy 
 of the great Christian powers, probably ere long to furnish another illustration, 
 that "they that take the sword shall perish with the sword." 
 
 RELIGIOUS PRACTICE. 
 
 The articles of religious practice are fourfold : Prayer, including ablution, 
 Alms, Fasting, Pilgrimage. 
 
 ABLUTION is enjoined as preparative to PRAYER, purity of body being consi- 
 dered emblematical of purity of sou{. It is prescribed in the Koran wilh curious 
 precision. The face, arms, elbows, feel, and a fourth part of the head, to be 
 washed once; the hands, mouth and nostrils, three times; the ears to be 
 moistened with the residue of the water used for the head, and the teeth to be 
 cleaned with a brush. The ablution to commence on the right and terminate 
 on the left; in washing the hands and feet to begin wilh the fingers and toes; 
 where water is not to be had, fine sand may be used. 
 
 PRAYER is to be performed five times every day, viz. : the first in the morning 
 before sunrise ; the second at noon ; the third in the afternoon before sunset ; the 
 fourth in the evening between sunset and dark ; the fifth between twilight and 
 the first watch, being the vesper prayer. A sixth prayer is volunteered by many 
 between the first watch of the night and the dawn of day. These prayers are but 
 repetitions of the same laudatory ejaculation, " God is great ! God is powerful ! 
 God is all powerful ! " and are counted by the scrupulous upon a string of beads. 
 They may be performed at .the mosque, or in any clean place. During prayer 
 
 i The reader may recollect that a belief in predestination, or destiny, was encouraged 
 by Napoleon, and had much influence on bis troops.
 
 156 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 the eyes are turned to the Kebla, or point of the heaven in the direction of Mecca ; 
 which is indicated in every mosque by a niche called Al Mehrab, and externally 
 by the position of the minarets and doors. Even the postures to be observed in 
 prayer are prescribed, and the most solemn act of adoration is by bowing the 
 forehead to the ground. Females in praying are not to stretch forth their arms, 
 but to fold them on their bosoms. They are ndt to make as profound inflexions 
 as the men. They are to pray in a low and gentle lone of voice. They are not 
 permitted to accompany the men to the mosque, lest the minds of the worshippers 
 should be drawn from their devotions. In addressing themselves to God, the 
 faithful are enjoined to do so with humility ; putting aside costly ornaments and 
 sumptuous apparel. 
 
 Many of the Mahometan observances with respect to prayer were similar to 
 those previously maintained by the Sabeans; others agreed with the ceremonials 
 prescribed by the Jewish Rabbins. Such were the postures, inflexions and pros- 
 trations, and the turning of the face towards the Kebla, which, however, with 
 the Jews was in the direction of the temple at Jerusalem. 
 
 Prayer, with the Moslem, is a daily exercise: but on Friday there is a sermon 
 in the mosque. This day was generally held sacred among oriental nations as 
 the day on which, man was created. The Sabcan idolaters consecrated it to As- 
 tarte, or Venus, the most beautiful of the planets and brightest of the stars. 
 Mahomet adopted it as his Sabbath, partly perhaps from early habitude, but 
 chiefly to vary from the Saturday of the Jews and Sunday of the Christians. 
 
 The second article of religious practice is CHARITY, or the giving of alms. 
 There are two kinds of alms, viz. : those prescribed by law, called Zacat, like 
 tithes in the Christian church, to be made in specified proportions, whether in 
 money, wares, cattle, corn, or fruit; and voluntary gifts termed Sadakat, made 
 at the discretion of the giver. Every Moslem is enjoined, in one way or the 
 other, to dispense a tenth of his revenue in relief of the indigent and distressed. 
 
 The third article of practice is FASTING, also supposed to have been derived 
 from the Jews. In each year for thirty days, during the month Rhamadan, the 
 true believer is to abstain rigorously, from the rising to the setting of the sun 
 from meat and drink, bath?, peri'umes, the intercourse of the sexes, and all other 
 gratifications and delights of the senses. This is considered a great triumph of 
 self-denial, mortifying and subduing the several appetites, and purifying both 
 body and soul. Of these three articles of practice the Prince Abdalasis used to 
 say, " Prayer leads us halfway to God; fasting conveys us to his threshold, but 
 alms conduct us into his presence." 
 
 PILGRIMAGE is the fourth grand practical duty enjoined upon Moslems. Every 
 true believer is bound to make one pilgrimage to Mecca in the course of his life, 
 either personally or by proxy. In the latter case, his name must be mentioned 
 in every prayer offered up by his substitute. 
 
 Pilgrimage is incumbent only on free persons of mature age, sound intellect, 
 and who have health and wealth enough to bear the fatigues and expenses of the 
 journey. The pilgrim before his departure from home arranges all his affairs, 
 public and domestic, as if preparing for his death. 
 
 On the appointed day, which is either Tuesday, Thursday, or Saturday, as 
 being propitious for the purpose, he assembles his wives, children, and all his 
 household, and devoutly commends them and all his concerns to the care of 
 God during his holy enterprise. Then passing one end of his tuiban beneath 
 his chin to the opposite side of his head, like the attire of a nun, and grasping a 
 stout staff of bitter almonds he takes leave of his household, and sallies fiom the 
 apartment, exclaiming, "In the name of God I undertake this holy work, con- 
 fiding in his protection. 1 believe in him, and place in his hands my actions and 
 my life." 
 
 On leaving the portal he turns his face toward the Kebla, repeats certain pas- 
 sages of the Koran, and adds, "I turn my face to the Holy Caaba, the throne of 
 God, to accomplish the pilgrimage commanded by his law, and which shall draw 
 me near to him. 1 '
 
 APPENDIX. 157 
 
 He finally puts his foot in the stirrup, mounts into the saddle, commends 
 himself again to God, almighty, all wise, all merciful, and sets forth on his pil- 
 grimage. The time of departure is always calculated so as to insure an arrival at 
 Mecca at the beginning of the pilgrim month Dhu'l-hajji. 
 
 Three laws are to be observed throughout this pious journey. 
 
 1. To commence no quarrel. 
 
 2. To bear meekly all harshness and reviling. 
 
 3. To promote peace and good-will among his companions in the caravan. 
 
 He is, moreover, to be liberal in his donations and charities throughout his pil- 
 grimage. 
 
 When arrived at some place in the vicinity of Mecca, he allows his hair and nails 
 to grow, strips himself to the skin, and assumes the Ihram or pilgrim garb, 
 consisting of two scarfs, without seams or decorations, and of any stuff excepting 
 silk. One of these is folded round the loins, the other thrown over the neck and 
 shoulders, leaving the right arm free. The head is uncovered, but the aged and 
 infirm are permitted to fold something round it in consideration of alms given to 
 the poor. Umbrellas are allowed as a protection against the sun, and indigent 
 pilgrims supply their place by a rag on the end of a staff. 
 
 The instep must be bare; and peculiar sandals are provided for the purpose, or 
 a piece of the upper leather of the shoe is cut out. The pilgrim, when thus attired, 
 is termed Al Mohrem. 
 
 The Ihram of females is an ample cloak and veil, enveloping the whole person, 
 so that, in strictness, the wrists, the ankles, and even the eyes should be con- 
 cealed. 
 
 When once assumed, the Ihram must be worn until the pilgrimage is completed, 
 however unsuited it may be to the season or the weather. While wearing it, the 
 pilgrim must abstain from all licentiousness of language; all sensual intercourse; 
 all quarrels and acts of violence; he must not even take the life of an insect that 
 infests him; though an exception is made in regard to biting dogs, to scorpions, 
 and birds of prey. 
 
 On arriving at Mecca, he leaves his baggage in some shop, and, without atten- 
 tion to any worldly concern, repairs straightway to the Caaba, conducted by 
 one of the Metowefs or guides, who are always at hand to offer their services to pil- 
 grims. 
 
 Entering the mosque by the Bab el Salam, or Gate of Salutation, he makes four 
 prostrations, and repeats certain prayers as he passes under the arch. Ap- 
 proaching the Caaba, he makes four prostrations opposite the Black Stone, which 
 he then kisses ; or, if prevented by the throng, he touches it with his right hand, 
 and kisses that. Departing from the Black Stone, and keeping the building on 
 his left hand, he makes the seven circuits, the three first quickly, the latter four 
 with slow and solemn pace. Certain prayers are repeated in a low voice, and the 
 Black Stone kissed, or touched, at the end of every circuit 
 
 The Towaf, or procession, round the Caaba was an ancient ceremony, observed 
 long before the time of Mahomet, and performed by both sexes entirely naked. 
 Mahomet prohibited this exposure, and prescribed the Ihram, or pilgrim dress. 
 The female Hajji walk the Towaf generally during the night; though occasionally 
 they perform it mingled with the men in the daytime. * 
 
 The seven circuits being completed, the pilgrim presses his breast against the 
 wall between the Black Stone and the door of the Caaba, and with outstretched 
 arms, prays for pardon of his sins. 
 
 He then repairs to the Makam, or station of Abraham, makes four prostration?, 
 prays for the intermediation of the Patriarch, and thence to the well Zem Zem, and 
 drinks as much of the water as he can swallow. 
 
 During all this ceremonial, the uninstructed Hajji has his guide or Metowef 
 close at his heels, muttering prayers for him to repeat. He is now conducted out 
 of the mosque by the gate Bab el Znfa to a slight ascent about fifty paces distant, 
 
 Btm-khardt's Travels in Arabia, vol. I, p. 260, Lend, edit., 18-29.
 
 158 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 called the Hill of Zafa, when, after uttering a prayer with uplifted hands, he 
 commences the holy promenade, called the Saa or Say. This lies through a 
 straight and level street, called Al Mesaa, six hundred paces in length, lined with 
 shops like a bazaar, and terminating at a place called Merowa. The walk of the 
 . Say is in commemoration of the wandering of Hagar over the same ground, in 
 search of water for her child Ishmael. The pilgrim, therefore, walks at times 
 slowly, with an inquisitive air, then runs in a certaia place, and again walks 
 gravely, stopping at times and looking anxiously back. 
 
 Having repeated the walk up and down this street seven times, the Hajji enters 
 a barber's shop at Merowa ; his head is shaved, his nails pared, the barber 
 muttering prayers and the pilgrim repeating them all the time. The paring and 
 shearing are then buried in consecrated ground, and the most essential duties of 
 the pilgrimage are considered as fulfilled, i 
 
 On the ninth of the month Al Dhu'l-hajji, the pilgrims make a hurried and tu- 
 multuous visit to Mount Arafat, where 'they remain until sunset ; then pass the 
 night in prayer at an Oratory, called Mozdalifa, and before sunrise next morning 
 repair to the valley of Mena, where they throw seven stones at each of three 
 pillars, in imitation of Abraham, and some say also of Adam, who drove away 
 the devil from this spot with stones, when disturbed by him in his devotions. 
 
 Such are the main ceremonies which form this great Moslem rite of pilgrimage; 
 but, before concluding this sketch of Islam faith, and closing this legendary me- 
 moir of its founder, we cannot forbear to notice one of his innovations, which 
 has entailed perplexity on all his followers, and particular inconvenience on pious 
 pilgrims. 
 
 The Arabian year consists of twelve lunar months, containing alternately 
 thirty and twenty-nine days, and making three hundred and fifty-four in the 
 whole, so that eleven days were lost in every solar year. To make up the de- 
 ficiency, a thirteenth or wandering month was added to every third year, pre- 
 vious to the era of Mahomet, to the same effect as one day is added in the Chris- 
 tian calendar to every leap-year. Mahomet, who was uneducated and ignorant 
 of astronomy, retrenched this thirteenth or intercalary month, as contrary to the 
 divine order of revolutions of the moon, and reformed the calendar by a divine 
 revelation during his last pilgrimage. This is recorded in the ninth sura or 
 chapter of the Koran, to the following effect : 
 
 "For the number of months is twelve, as was ordained by Allah, and recorded 
 on the eternal tables * on the day wherein he created the heaven and the 
 earth." 
 
 " Transfer not a sacred month unto another month, for verily it is an innova- 
 tion of the infidels." 
 
 The number of days thus lost amount in 33 years to 363. It becomes necessaryi 
 therefore, to add an intercalary year at the end of each thirty-third year to re- 
 duce the Mahometan into the Christian era. 
 
 One great inconvenience arising from this revelation of the prophet is, that 
 the Moslem months do not indicate the season ; as they commence earlier by ele- 
 ven days every year. This at certain epochs is a sore grievance to the Devotees 
 at Mecca, as the great pilgrim month Dhu'l-hajji, during which they are com- 
 pelled to wear the Ihram, or half-naked pilgrim garb, runs the round of the 
 
 . * The greater part of the particulars concerning Mecca and Medina, and their respec- 
 tive pilgrimages, are gathered from Hie writings of that accurate and indefatigable 
 traveller, Burckhart; who, in the disguise of a pilgrim, visited these shrines, and 
 complied with all the forms and ceremonials. His works throw great light upon the 
 manners and customs of the East, and practice of (he Mahometan faith. 
 
 ' The facts_ related by Burckhardt have been collated with those of other travellers and 
 writers, and many particulars have been inlerwoven with them from other sources. 
 
 The eternal tables or tablet was of white pearl, extended from east to west and 
 from earth to heaven. All the decrees of God were recorded on it, and all events past, 
 present, and to come, to all eternity. It was guarded by angels.
 
 APPENDIX. 159 
 
 seasons, occurring at one time in the depth of winter, at another In the fervid 
 heat of summer. 
 
 Thus Mahomet, though according to legendary history he could order the 
 moon from the firmament and make her revolve ;ibout the sacred house, could 
 not control her monthly revolutions; and found that the science of numbers is 
 superior even to the gift of prophecy, and sets miracles at defiance. 
 
 END OF THE LIFE OF MAHOMET.
 
 LIVES 
 
 SUCCESSORS OF MAHOMET 
 
 11
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 It is the intention of the author in the following pages, 
 to trace the progress of the Moslem dominion from the 
 death of Mahomet, A.D. 622, to the invasion of Spain, 
 A.D. 710. In this period, of less than fourscore and ten 
 years, which passed within the lifetime of many an aged 
 Arab, the Moslems extended their empire and their faith 
 over the wide regions of Asia and Africa, subverting the 
 empire of the Khosrus ; subjugating great territories in In- 
 dia ; establishing a splendid seat of power in Syria ; dic- 
 tating to the conquered kingdom of the Pharaohs; overrun- 
 ning the whole northern coast of Africa; scouring the 
 Mediterranean with their ships; carrying their conquests 
 in one direction to the very walls of Constantinople, and 
 in another to the extreme limits of Mauritania ; in a word, 
 trampling down all the old dynasties which once held 
 haughty and magnificent sway in the East. The whole 
 presents a striking instance of the triumph of fanatic en- 
 thusiasm over disciplined valour, at a period when the in- 
 vention of fire-arms had not reduced war to a matter of 
 almost arithmetical calculation. There is also an air of 
 wild romance about many of the events recorded in this 
 narrative, owing to the character of the Arabs, and their 
 fondness for stratagems, daring exploits, and individual 
 achievements of an extravagant nature. These have some-
 
 104 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 times been softened, if not suppressed, by cautious his- 
 torians ; but the author has found them so in unison with 
 the people and the times, and with a career of conquest, 
 in itself out of the bounds of common probability, that he 
 has been induced to leave them in all their graphic force. 
 
 Those who have read the life of Mahomet, will find in 
 the following pages most of their old acquaintances again 
 engaged, but in a vastly grander field of action ; leading 
 armies, subjugating empires, and dictating from the palaces 
 and thrones of deposed potentates. 
 
 In constructing his work, which is intended merely for 
 popular use, the author has adopted a form somewhat 
 between biography and chronicle, admitting of personal 
 anecdote, and a greater play of familiar traits and peculia- 
 rities, than is considered admissible in the stately walk of 
 history. His ignorance of the oriental languages has 
 obliged him to take his materials at second-hand, where he 
 could have wished to read them in the original; such, for 
 instance, has been the case with the accounts given by the 
 Arabian writer, Al Wakidi, of the conquest of Syria, and 
 especially of the siege of Damascus, which retain much of 
 their dramatic spirit even in the homely pages of Ockley. 
 To this latter writer, the author has been much indebted, 
 as well as to the Abbe" de Marigny's History of the Arabians, 
 and to D'Herbelot's Bibliotheque Orientale. In fact, his 
 pages are often a mere digest of facts already before the 
 public, but divested of cumbrous diction and uninteresting 
 details. Some, however, are furnished from sources re- 
 cently laid open, and not hitherto wrought into the regular 
 web of history. 
 
 In his account of the Persian conquest, the author has
 
 FRtFACE. 165 
 
 been much benefited by the perusal of the Gemaldesaal of 
 the learned Von Hammer-Purgstall, and by a translation of 
 the Persian historian Tabari, recently given to the public in 
 the Journal of the American Oriental Society, by Mr. John 
 P. Brown, dragoman of the United States Legation at Con- 
 stantinople. 
 
 In the account of the Moslem conquests along the 
 northern coast of Africa, of which so little is known, he has 
 gleaned many of his facts from Conde's Domination of the 
 Arabs in Spain ; and from the valuable work on the same 
 subject, recently put forth under the sanction of the Orien- 
 tal Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland, by his 
 estimable friend, Don Pascual de Gayangos, formely Pro- 
 fessor of Arabic in the Athenaeum of Madrid. 
 
 The author might cite other sources whence he has derived 
 scattered facts; but it appears to him that he has already 
 said enough on this point, about a work written more from 
 inclination than ambition ; and which, as before intimated, 
 does not aspire to be consulted as authority, but merely to 
 be read as a digest of current knowledge, adapted to po- 
 pular use. 
 
 , 1850
 
 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSOR. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Election of Abu Beker, first Caliph, Hegira I lib, A. D. 632. 
 
 The death of Mahomet left his religion without a head and 
 his people without a sovereign ; there was danger, therefore, 
 of the newly formed empire falling into confusion. AH Me- 
 dina, on the day of his death, was in a kind of tumult, and 
 nothing but the precaution of Osama Ibn Zeid in planting the stan- 
 dard before the prophet's door, and posting troops in various parts, 
 prevented popular commotions. The question was, on whom to 
 devolve the reins of government? Four names stood prominent 
 as having claims of affinity; Abu Beker, Omar, Othman, and Ali. 
 Abu Beker was the father of Ayesha, the favorite wife of Mahomet. 
 Omar was father of Hafsa, another of his wives, and the one to 
 whose care he had confided the coffer containing the revelations of 
 the Koran. Othman had married successively two of his daugh- 
 ters, but they were dead, and also their progeny. Ali was cousin- 
 german of Mahomet and husband of Fatima, his only daughter. 
 Such were the ties of relationship to him of these four great cap- 
 tains The right of succession, in order of consanguinity, lay with 
 Ali ; and his virtues and services eminently entitled him to it. On 
 the first burst of his generous zeal, when Islamism was a derided 
 and persecuted faith, he had been pronounced by Mahomet his 
 brother, his vicegerent; he had ever since been devoted to him in 
 word and deed, and had honoured the cause by his magnanimity 
 as signally as he had vindicated it by his valour. His friends, con- 
 fiding in the justice of his claims, gathered round him in the dwel- 
 ling of Fatima his wife, to consult about means of putting him quietly 
 in possession of the government. 
 
 Other interests, however, were at work, operating upon the 
 public mind. Abu Beker was held up, not merely as connected by 
 marriage ties with the prophet, but as one of the first and most 
 zealous of his disciples; as the voucher for the truth of his night 
 journey ; as his fellow-sufferer in persecution ; as the one who ac- 
 companied him in his flight from Mecca; as his companion in the
 
 168 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 cave when they were miraculously saved from discovery ; as his 
 counsellor and co-operator in all his plans and undertakings ; as 
 the one in fact whom the prophet had plainly pointed out as his 
 successor, by deputing him to officiate in his stead in the religious 
 ceremonies during his last illness. His claims were strongly urged 
 by his daughter Ayesha, who had great influence among the faith- 
 ful; and who was stimulated not so much by zeal for her falher, as 
 by haired of Ali, whom she had never forgiven for having inclined 
 his ear to the charge of incontinence against her in the celebrated 
 case entitled The False Accusation. 
 
 Omar also had a powerful party among the populace, who ad- 
 mired him for his lion-like demeanour; his consummate military 
 skill ; his straight-forward simplicity and dauntless courage. He 
 also had an active female partisan in his daughter Hafsa. 
 
 "While therefore Ali and his friends were in quiet counsel in the 
 house of Fatima, many of the principal Moslems gathered together 
 without their knowledge, to settle the question of succession. The 
 two most important personages in this assemblage were Abu Beker 
 and Omar. The first measure was to declare the supreme power 
 not hereditary but elective ; a measure which at once destroyed (he 
 claims of Ali on the score of consanguinity, and left the matter open 
 to the public choice. This has been ascribed to the jealousy of the 
 Koreishites of the line of Abd Schems ; who feared, should Ali's 
 claims be recognized, that the sovereign power, like the guardian- 
 ship of the Caaba, might be perpetuated in the haughty line of 
 Haschem. Some, however, pretend to detect in it the subtle and 
 hostile influence of Ayesha. 
 
 A dispute now arose between the Mohadjerins or refugees from 
 Mecca and the Ansarians or Helpers of Medina, as to the claims of 
 their respective cities to nominate a successor to Mahomet. The 
 former founded the claims of Mecca on its being the birth-place of 
 the prophet, and the first in which his doctrines had been divulged; 
 they set forward their own claims also as his townsmen, his rela- 
 tives, and the companions of his exile. The Ansarians, on the 
 other. hand, insisted on the superior claims of Medina, as having 
 been the asylum of the prophet, and his chosen residence ; and on 
 their own claims as having supported him in his exile, and enabled 
 him to withstand and overcome his persecutors. 
 
 The dispute soon grew furious and scimetars flashed from their 
 scabbards, when one of the people of Medina proposed as a com- 
 promise, that each party should furnish a ruler and the government 
 have two heads. Omar derided the proposition with scorn. " Two 
 blades," said he, "cannot go into one sheath." Abu Beker also 
 remonstrated against a measure calculated to weaken the empire in 
 its very infancy. He conjured the Moslems to remain under one 
 head, and named Omar and Abu Obeidah as persons worthy of the 
 office, and between whom they should choose. Abu Obeidah was 
 one of the earliest disciples of Mahomet, he had accompanied him 
 in his flight from Mecca, and adhered to him in all his fortunes. 
 
 The counsel ol Abu Beker calmed for a time the turbulence of 
 the assembly, but it soon revived with redoubled violence. Upon 
 this Omar suddenly rose, advanced to Abu Beker and hailed him
 
 ABU BEKEK. 169 
 
 as the oldest, best, and most thoroughly-tried of the adherents of 
 the prophet, and the one most worthy to succeed him. So saying, 
 he kissed his hand in token of allegiance, and swore to obey him 
 as his sovereign. 
 
 This" sacrifice of his own claims in favour of a rival struck the 
 assembly with surprise, and opened their eyes to the real merits 
 of Abu Beker. They beheld in him the faithful companion of the 
 prophet, who had always been by his side. They knew his wisdom 
 and moderation and venerated his gray hairs. It appeared but 
 reasonable that the man whose counsels had contributed to establish 
 the government, should be chosen to carry it on. The example of 
 Omar, therefore, was promptly followed, and Abu Beker was hailed 
 as chief. 
 
 Omar now ascended the pulpit. " Henceforth," said he, " if 
 any one shall presume to take upon himself the sovereign power 
 without the public voice, let him suffer death ; as well as all who 
 may nominate or uphold him. " This measure was instantly 
 adopted , and thus a bar was put to the attempts of any other 
 candidate. 
 
 The whole policy of Omar in these measures, which at first sight 
 appears magnanimous , has been cavilled at as crafty and selfish. 
 Abu Beker, it is observed , was well-stricken in years, being about 
 the same age with the prophet; it was not probable he would long 
 survive. Omar trusted, therefore, to succeed in a little while to 
 the command. His last measure struck at once at the hopes of 
 All, his most formidable competitor ; who, shut up with his friends 
 in the dwelling of Fatima, knew nothing of the meeting in which his 
 pretensions were thus demolished. Craft, however, we must observe, 
 was not one of Omar's characteristics, and was totally opposed to 
 the prompt, stern, and simple course of his conduct on all occasions; 
 nor did he ever show any craving lust for power. He seems ever to 
 have been a zealot in the cause of Islam, and to have taken no indi- 
 rect measures to promote it. 
 
 His next movement was indicative of his straight-forward cut- 
 and-lhrust policy. Abu Beker, wary and managing, feared there 
 might be some outbreak on the part of All and his friends when 
 they should hear of the election which had taken place. He re- 
 quested Omar, therefore , to proceed with an armed band to the 
 mansion of Falima, and maintain tranquillity in that quarter. 
 Omar surrounded the house with his followers ; announced to 
 Ali the election of Abu Beker, and demanded his concurrence.' 
 AH attempted to remonstrate , alleging his own claims; but Omar 
 proclaimed the penalty of death, decreed to all who should 
 attempt to usurp the sovereign power in defiance of public will ; 
 and threatened to enforce it by setting fire to the house and con- 
 suming its inmates. 
 
 "Oh son of Khattfib!" cried Fatima reproachfully, "thou wilt 
 not surely commit such an outrage ! " 
 
 " Aye will I in very truth ! " replied Omar, "unless ye all make 
 common cause with the people." 
 
 The friends of Ali were fain to yield, and to acknowledge the 
 sovereignty of Abu Beker. Ali, however, held himself apart in
 
 170 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 proud and Indignant reserve until the death of Fatima, which hap- 
 pened in the course of several months. He then paid tardy homage 
 to Abu Beker, but, in so doing, upbraided him with want of open- 
 ness and good faith in managing the election without his privity; 
 a reproach which the reader will probably think not altogether 
 unmerited. Abu Beker, however, disavowed all intrigue, and 
 declared he had accepted the sovereignty merely to allay the 
 popular commotion ; and was ready to lay it down whenever a more 
 worthy candidate could be found who would unite the wishes of the 
 people. 
 
 Ali was seemingly pacified by this explanation ; but he spurned 
 it in his heart, and retired in disgust into the interior of Arabia, 
 taking with him his two sons Hassan and Hosein ; the only descen- 
 dants of the prophet. From these have sprung a numerous progeny, 
 who to this day are considered noble, and wear green turbans as the 
 outward sign of their illustrious lineage. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Moderation of Abu Beker. Traits of his character. Rebellion of Arab tribes. Defeat 
 and death of Malec Ibn Nowirah. Harsh measures of Khaled condemned by Omar, 
 but excused by Abu Beker. Khaled defeats Moseilma the false prophet. Compilation 
 of the Koran. 
 
 On assuming the supreme authority, Abu Beker refused to take 
 the title of king or prince ; several of the Moslems hailed him as 
 God's vicar on earth, but he rejected the appellation; he was not the 
 vicar of God, he said, but of his prophet, whose plans and wishes it 
 was his duty to carry out and fulfil. " In so doing," added he, "I 
 will endeavour to avoid all prejudice and partiality. Obey me only 
 so far as I obey God and the prophet. If I go beyond these bounds, 
 I have no authority over you. If I err, set me right, I shall be open to 
 conviction." 
 
 He contented himself, therefore, with the modest title of Caliph, 
 that is to say, successor, by which the Arab sovereigns have ever 
 since been designated. They have not all, however, imitated the 
 modesty of Abu Beker, in calling themselves successors of the 
 prophet; but many, in after times, arrogated to themselves the 
 title of Caliphs and Vicars of God, and his Shadow upon Earth. 
 The supreme authority, as when exercised by Mahomet, united 
 ftie civil and religious functions : the Caliph was sovereign and 
 pontiff. 
 
 It may be well to observe, that the original name of the newly 
 elected Caliph was Abdallah Athek Ibn Abu Kahafa. He was 
 also, as we have shown, termed Al Seddek, or The Testifier 
 to the Truth; from having maintained the verity of Mahomet'^ 
 nocturnal journey; but he is always named in Moslem histories:
 
 ABC BEKER. 171 
 
 Abu Beker ; that is to say, The Father of the Virgin ; his 
 daughter Ayesha being the only one of the prophet's wives that 
 came a virgin to his arms; the others haying previously been 
 in wedlock. 
 
 At the time of his election Abu Beker was about sixty-two years 
 of ago ; tall , and well formed , though spare ; with a florid com- 
 plexion and thin beard, which would have been gray, but that he 
 tinged it after the oriental usage. He was a man of great judgment 
 and discretion , whose wariness and management at times almost 
 amounted to craft ; yet his purposes appear to have been honest 
 and unselfish ; directed to the good of the cause, not to his own 
 benefit. In the administration of his office he betrayed nothing of 
 sordid worldliness. Indifferent to riches, and to all pomps, luxu- 
 ries, and sensual indulgencies, he accepted no pay for his services 
 but a mere pittance, sufficient to maintain an Arab establishment of 
 the simplest kind, in which all his retinue consisted of a camel and 
 a black slave. The surplus funds accruing to his treasury he 
 dispensed every Friday ; part to the meritorious, the rest to the 
 poor ; and was ever ready, from his own private means, to help 
 the distressed. On entering office he caused his daughter 
 Ayesha to take a strict account of his private patrimony, to 
 stand as a record against him should he enrich himself while 
 in office. 
 
 Notwithstanding all his merits, however, his advent to power 
 was attended by public commotions. Many of the Arabian tribes 
 had been converted by the sword, and it needed the combined 
 terrors of a conqueror and a prophet to maintain them in allegiance 
 to the faith. On the death of Mahomet, therefore, they spurned at 
 the authority of his successor, and refused to pay the Zacat, or 
 religious contributions of tribute , tithes, and alms. The signal of 
 revolt flew from tribe to tribe, until the Islam empire suddenly shrank 
 to the cities of Mecca, Medina, and Tayef, 
 
 A strong body of the rebels even took the field and advanced 
 upon Medina. They were led on by a powerful and popular 
 Sheikh named Malec Ibn Nowirah. He was a man of high birth 
 and great valour, an excellent horseman, and a distinguished poet ; 
 all great claims on Arab admiration. To these may be added the 
 enviable fortune of having for wife the most beautiful woman in all 
 Arabia. 
 
 Hearing of the approach of this warrior poet and his army, Abu 
 Beker hastened to fortify the city, sending the women and children, 
 the aged and infirm , to the rocks and caverns of the neighbouring 
 mountains. 
 
 But though Mahomet was dead, the sword of Islam was not 
 buried with him ; and Khaled Ibn "Waled now stood forward to 
 sustain the fame acquired by former acts of prowess. He was sent 
 out against the rebels at the head of a hasty levy of four thousand 
 five hundred men and eleven banners. The wary Abu Beker, 
 with whom discretion kept an equal pace wilh valour, had a high 
 opinion of the character and talents of the rebel chief, and hoped, 
 notwithstanding his defection, to conquer him by kindness. Khaled 
 was instructed, therefore, should Malec fall into his power, to treat
 
 in MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 him with great respect ; to be lenient to the vanquished, and to 
 endeavour, by gentle means, to win all back to the standard of 
 Islam. 
 
 Khaled, however, was a downright soldier, who had no liking 
 for gentle means. Having overcome the rebels in a pitched battle, 
 he overran their country, giving his soldiery permission to seize 
 upon the flocks and herds of the vanquished, and make slaves of 
 their children. 
 
 Among the prisoners brought into his presence were Malec and 
 his beautiful wife. The beauty of the latter dazzled the eyes even 
 of the rough soldier, but probably hardened his heart against her 
 husband. 
 
 "Why," demanded he of Malec, "do you refuse to pay the 
 Zacat?" 
 
 "Because I can pray to God without paying these exactions," 
 was the reply. 
 
 "Prayer, without alms, is of no avail," said Khaled. 
 "Does your master say so?" demanded Malec, haughtily. 
 "My master !" echoed Khaled, "and is he not thy master like- 
 wise ? By Allah, I have a mind to strike off thy head ! " 
 
 "Are these also the orders of your master?" rejoined Malec, 
 with a sneer. 
 
 "Again !" cried Khaled, in a fury "smite off the head of this 
 rebel." 
 
 His officers interfered, for all respected the prisoner ; but the 
 rage of Khaled was not to be appeased. 
 
 "The beauty of this woman kills me," said Malec, significantly, 
 pointing to his wife. 
 
 " Nay ! " cried Khaled, " it is Allah who kills thee because of 
 thine apostacy." 
 
 " I am no apostate," said Malec, "I profess the true faith " 
 
 It was too late ; the signal of death had already been given. 
 Scarce had the declaration of faith passed the lips of the unfortu- 
 nate Malec, when his head fell beneath the scimetar of Derar Ibn 
 al Azwar, a rough soldier after Khaled's own heart. 
 
 This summary execution, to which the beauty of a woman was 
 alleged as the main excitement, gave deep concern to Abu Beker, 
 who remarked, that the prophet had pardoned even Wacksa, the 
 Ethiop, the slayer of his uncle Hamza, when the culprit made pro- 
 fession of the faith. As to Omar, he declared that Khaled, ac- 
 cording to the laws of the Koran, ought to be stoned to death for 
 adultery, or executed for the murder of a Moslem. The politic 
 Abu Beker, however, observed that Khaled had sinned through 
 errour rather than intention. "Shall I," added he, "sheathe the 
 sword of God? The sword which he himself has drawn against 
 the unbelieving?" 
 
 So far from sheathing the sword, we find it shortly afterwards 
 employed in an important service. This was against the false 
 prophet Moseilma ; who, encouraged by the impunity with which, 
 during the illness of Mahomet, he had been suffered to propagate 
 his doctrines, had. increased greatly the number of his proselytes 
 and adherents, and held a kind of regal and sacerdotal sway over
 
 ABU BEKER. 173 
 
 the important city and fertile province of Yamawa, between the 
 Red Sea and the Gulf of Persia. 
 
 There is quite a flavour of romance in the story of this impostor. 
 Among those dazzled by his celebrity and charmed by his rhapso- 
 dical effusions, was Sedjah, wife of Abu Cahdla, a poetess of the 
 tribe of Tamim, distinguished among the Arabs for her personal 
 and mental charms. She came to see Moseilma in like manner as 
 the Queen of Slieba came to witness the wisdom and grandeur of 
 King Solomon. They were inspired with a mutual passion at the 
 first interview, and passed much of their time together in tender, 
 if not religious intercourse. Sedjah became a convert to the faith 
 of her lover, and caught from him the imaginary gift of prophecy. 
 He appears to have caught, in exchange, the gift of poetry, for 
 certain amatory effusions, addressed by him to his beautiful 
 visitant, are still preserved by an Arabian historian, and breathe 
 all the warmth of the Song of Solomon. 
 
 This dream of poetry and prophecy was interrupted by the 
 approach of Khaled at the head of a numerous army. Moseilma 
 sallied forth to meet him with a still greater force. A battle took 
 place at Akreba, not far from the capital city of Yamama. At the 
 onset the rebels had a transient success, and twelve hundred 
 Moslems bit the dust. Khaled, however, rallied his forces ; the 
 enemy were overthrown, and ten thousand cut to pieces. Moseilma 
 fought with desperation, but fell covered with wounds. It is said 
 his death-blow was given by "Wacksa, the Ethiopian, the same who 
 had killed Hamza, uncle of Mahomet, in the battle of Ohod, and 
 that he used the self-same spear. "Wacksa, since his pardon by 
 Mahomet, had become a zealous Moslem. 
 
 The surviving disciples of Moseilma became promptly converted 
 to Islamism under the pious but heavy hand of Khaled; whose 
 late offence in the savage execution of Malec was completely 
 atoned for by his victory over the false prophet. He added other 
 services of the same military kind in this critical juncture of public 
 affairs; reinforcing and co-operating with certain commanders who 
 had been sent in different directions to suppress rebellions ; and it 
 was chiefly through his prompt and energetic activity that, before 
 the expiration of the first year of the Caliphat, order was restored, 
 and the empire of Islam re-established in Arabia. 
 
 It was shortly after the victory of Khaled over Moseilma. that 
 Abu Beker undertook to gather together, from written and oral 
 sources, the precepts and revelations of the Koran, w'hich hitherto 
 had existed partly in scattered documents, and partly in the me- 
 mories of the disciples and companions of the prophet. He was 
 greatly urged to this undertaking by Omar, that ardent zealot for 
 the faith. The latter had observed with alarm the number of 
 veteran companions of the prophet who had fallen in the battle of 
 Akreba. "In a little while," said he, "all the living testifiers to 
 the faith, who bear the revelations of it in their memories, will 
 have passed away, and with them so many records of the doctrines 
 of Islam." He urged Abu Beker, therefore, to collect from the 
 surviving disciples all that they remembered ; and to gather to- 
 gether from all quarters whatever parts of the Koran existed in
 
 174 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 writing. The manner in which Abu Beker proceeded to execute 
 this pious task has been noticed in the preceding volume ; it was 
 not, however, completed until under a succeeding Caliph. 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 Campaign against Syria. Army sent under Yezed Ibn AbuSofian. Successes. Another 
 army under Amru Ibn al Aass. Brilliant achievements of Khaled in Irak. 
 
 The rebel tribes of Arabia being once more brought into alle- 
 giance., and tranquillity established at home, Abu Beker turned his 
 thoughts to execute the injunction of the prophet, to propagate 
 the faith throughout the world, until all nations should be con- 
 verted to Islamism, by persuasion or the sword. The moment was 
 auspicious for such a gigantic task. The long and desolating wars 
 between the Persian and Byzantine emperors, though now at an 
 end, had exhausted those once mighty powers, and left their fron- 
 tiers open to aggression. In the second year of his reign, there- 
 fore, Abu Beker prepared to carry out the great enterprise con- 
 templated by Mahomet in his latter days ; the conquest of Syria. 
 
 Under this general name, it should be observed, were com- 
 prehended the countries lying between the Euphrates and the 
 Mediterranean, including Phrenicia and Palestine 1 . These coun- 
 tries, once forming a system of petty states and kingdoms, each 
 with its own government and monarch, were now merged into the 
 great Byzantine empire, and acknowledged the sway of the empe- 
 ror Heraclius at Constantinople. 
 
 Syria had long been a land of promise to the Arabs. They had 
 known it for ages by the intercourse of the caravans, and had 
 drawn from it their chief supplies of corn. It was a land of abun- 
 dance. Part of it was devoted to agriculture and husbandry, 
 covered with fields of grain, with vineyards and trees producing 
 the finest fruits ; with pastures well stocked with flocks and herds. 
 On the Arabian borders it had cities, the rich marts of internal 
 trade ; while its seaports, though declined from the ancient splendour 
 and pre-eminence of Tyre and Sidon, still were the staples of an 
 opulent and widely extended commerce. 
 
 In the twelfth year of the Hegira, the following summons was 
 sei.t by Abu Beker to the chiefs of Arabia Petrea, and Arabia Felix. 
 
 " In thenameof theMost Merciful God ! Abdallah AtheklbnKa- 
 hafato all true believers, health, happiness, and the blessing of God. 
 Praise be to God, and to Mahomet his prophet ! This is to inform 
 you that I intend to send an army of the faithful into Syria, to deliver 
 
 ' Syria, in its widest oriental acceptation, included likewise Mesopotamia, Chaklea, 
 and even Assyria, the whole forming what in Scriptural geography was denominated 
 Aram.
 
 ABU BEKER. J7 & 
 
 that country from the infidels, and I remind you that to fight for 
 the true faith is to obey God ! " 
 
 Thefe needed no further inducement to bring to his standard 
 every Arab that owned a horse or a camel, or could wield a lance. 
 Every day brought some Sheikh to Medina at the head of the 
 fighting men of his tribe, and before long the fields round the city 
 were studded with encampments. The command of the army was 
 given to Yezed Ibn Abu Sofian. The troops soon became impa- 
 tient to strike their sunburnt tents and march. " "Why do we 
 loiter?" cried they; "all our fighting men are here; there are 
 none more to come. The plains of Medina are parched and bare, 
 there is no food for man or steed. Give us the word, and let us 
 march for the fruitful land of Syria." 
 
 Abu Beker assented to their wishes. From the brow of a hill 
 he reviewed the army on the point of departure. The heart of 
 the Caliph swelled with pious exultation as he looked down upon 
 the stirring multitude; the glittering array of arms; the squadrons 
 of horsemen ; the lengthening line of camels ; and called to mind 
 the scanty handful that used to gather round the standard of the 
 prophet. Scarce ten years had elapsed since the latter had been 
 driven a fugitive from Mecca, and now a mighty host assembled 
 at the summons of his successor, and distant empires were threat- 
 ened by the sword of Islam Filled with these thoughts, he lifted 
 up his voice and prayed to God to make these troops valiant and 
 victorious. Then giving the word to march, the tents were struck, 
 the camels laden, and in a little while the army poured in a long 
 continuous train over hill and valley. 
 
 Abu Beker accompanied them on foot on the first day's march. 
 The leaders would have dismounted and yielded him their steeds. 
 " Nay," said he, " ride on You are in the service of Allah. 
 As for me, I shall be rewarded for every step I take in his cause." 
 His parting charge to Yezed, the commander of the army, was 
 a singular mixture of severity and mercy. 
 
 " Treat your soldiers with kindness and consideration ; be just 
 in all your dealings with them, and consult their feelings and opi- 
 nions. Fight valiantly, and never turn your back upon a foe. 
 When victorious harm not the aged, and protect women and chil- 
 dren. Destroy not the palm-tree, nor fruit-trees of any kind ; 
 waste not the cornfield with fire ; nor kill any cattle excepting for 
 food. Stand faithfully to every covenant and promise ; respect all 
 religious persons who live in hermitages, or convents, and spare 
 their edifices But should you meet with a class of unbelievers of 
 a different kind, who go about with shaven crowns, and belong to 
 the synagogue of Satan, be sure you cleave their skulls unless they 
 embrace the true faith, or render tribute." 
 
 Having received this summary charge, Yezed continued his march 
 toward Syria, and the pious Caliph returned to Medina. 
 
 The prayers which the totter had put up for the success of the 
 army appeared to be successful. Before long a great cavalgada 
 of horses, mules and camels laden with booty poured into the gates 
 of Medina. Yezed had encountered, on the confines of Syria, a 
 body of troops detached by the emperor Heraclius to observe him,
 
 176 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 and had defeated them, killing the general and twelve hundred 
 men. He had been equally successful in various subsequent 
 skirmishes. All the booty gained in these actions had been sent 
 to the Caliph, as an offering by the army of the first fruits of the 
 harvest of Syria. 
 
 Abu Beker sent tidings of this success to Mecca, and the sur- 
 rounding country, calling upon all true believers to press forward 
 in the career of victory, thus prosperously commenced. Another 
 army was soon set on foot, the command of which was given to 
 Seid Ibn Khaled. This appointment, however, not being satis- 
 factory to Omar, whose opinions and wishes had vast weight at 
 Medina, Ayesha prevailed on her father to invite Seid to resign, 
 and to appoint in his place Amru Ibn al Aass; the same who in the 
 early days of the faith ridiculed Mahomet and his doctrines in sati- 
 rical verses; but who, since his conversion to Islamism, had risen 
 to eminence in its service and was one of its most valiant and effi- 
 cient champions. 
 
 Such was the zeal of the Moslems in the prosecution of this holy 
 war, that Seid Ibn Khaled cheerfully resigned his command and 
 enlisted under the standard which he had lately reared. 
 
 At the departure of the army Abu Beker, who was excellent at 
 counsel, and fond of bestowing it, gave Amru a code of conduct for 
 his government; admonishing him to live righteously, as a dying 
 man in the presence of God, and accountable for all things in a 
 future state. That he should not trouble himself about the private 
 concerns of others; and should forbid his men all religious disputes 
 about events and doctrines of the "times of ignorance;" that is to 
 say, the times antecedent to Mahomet; but should enforce the 
 diligent reading of the Koran, which contained all that was ne- 
 cessary for them to know. 
 
 As there would now be large bodies of troops in Syria, and 
 various able commanders, Abu Beker in maturing the plan of his 
 campaign assigned them different points of action. Amru was to 
 draw toward Palestine ; Abu Obeidah to undertake Emessa ; Seid 
 Ibn Abu Sofian, Damascus; and Serhil Ibn Hasan, the country 
 about the Jordan. They were all to act as much as possible in 
 concert, and to aid each other in case of need. AVhen together 
 they were all to be under the orders of Abu Obeidah, to whom was 
 given the general command in Syria. This veteran disciple of the 
 prophet stood high, as we ave shown, in the esteem and confidence 
 of Abu Beker, having been one of the two whom he had named as 
 worthy of the Caliphat. He was now about fifty years of age ; 
 zealously devoted to the cause, yet one with whom the sword of 
 faith was sheathed in meekness and humanity; perhaps the cautious 
 Abu Beker thought his moderation would be a salutary check to the 
 headlong valour of the fanatical soldiers of Islam. 
 
 While this grand campaign was put in operation against the 
 Roman possessions in Syria, a minor force was sent to invade Irak. 
 This province, which included the ancient Chaldea and the Baby- 
 lonia of Ptolemy, was bounded on the east by Susiana or Khurzestan 
 and the mountains of Assyria and Medea, on the north by part of 
 Mesopotomia, on the west and south by the Deserts of Sham or
 
 ABU BEKLR. 177 
 
 Syria and by a part of Arabia Deserta. It was a region tributary 
 to the Persian monarch, and so far a part of his dominions. The 
 campaign in this quarter was confided to Khaled, of whose prowess 
 Abu Beker had an exalted opinion, and who was at this time at the 
 head of a moderate force in one of the rebellious provinces which 
 he had brought into subjection. The Caliph's letter to him was to 
 the following effect. "Turn Ihee toward Arabian Irak! The 
 conquest of Hira and Cufa is intrusted to thee. After the sub- 
 jection of those lands, turn thee against Aila and subdue it with 
 God's help!" 
 
 Hira was a kingdom to the west of Babylonia, on the verge of 
 the Syrian Desert : it had been founded by a race of Arabs, des- 
 cendants of Kahtan, and had subsisted upwards of six hundred 
 years; the greater part of the time it had been under a line of 
 princes of the house of Mondar ; who acknowledged allegiance to 
 the kings of Persia, and acted as their lieutenants over the Arabs 
 of Irak. 
 
 During the early part of the third century many Jacobite Chris- 
 tians had been driven, by the persecutions and disorders of the 
 Eastern Church, to take refuge among the Arabs of Hira. Their 
 numbers had been augmented in subsequent times by fugitives 
 from various quarters, until, shortly before the birth of Mahomet, 
 the king of Hira and all his subjects had embraced Christianity. 
 
 Much was said of the splendour of the capital , which bore the 
 same name with the kingdom. Here were two palaces of extraor- 
 dinary magnificence, the beauty of one of which, if Arabian legends 
 speak true, w r as fatal to the architect; for the king, fearing that he 
 might build one still more beautiful for some other monarch, had 
 him thrown headlong from the tower. 
 
 Khaled acted with his usual energy and success in the invasion 
 of this kingdom. "With ten thousand men he besieged the city 
 of Hira; stormed its palaces; slew the king in battle ; subdued the 
 kingdom ; imposed on it an annual tribute of seventy thousand 
 pieces of gold, the first tribute ever levied by Moslems on a foreign 
 land, and sent the same, with the son of the deceased king, to 
 Medina. 
 
 He next carried his triumphant arms against Aila, defeated Hor- 
 muz, the Persian governor, and sent his crown, with a fifth part of 
 the booty, to the Caliph. The crown was of great value, being one 
 of the first class of those worn by the seven vicegerents of the 
 Persian " King of Kings." Among the trophies of victory sent to 
 Medina was an elephant. Three other Persian generals and go- 
 vernors made several attempts, with powerful armies, to check the 
 victorious career of Khaled, but were alike defeated City after 
 city fell into his hands; nothing seemed capable of withstanding 
 his arms. Planting his victorious standard on the bank of the Eu- 
 phrates, he wrote to the Persian monarch, calling upon him to 
 embrace the faith or pay tribute. " If you refuse both," added 
 he, " I will come upon you with a host who love death as much as 
 you do life." 
 
 The repeated convoys of booty sent by Khaled to Medina after 
 his several victories, the sight of captured crowns and captured
 
 178 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 princes, and of the first tribute imposed on foreign lands, had 
 excited the public exultation to an uncommon degree. Abu Beker 
 especially took pride in his achievements; considering them proofs 
 of his own sagacity and foresight, which he had shown in refusing 
 to punish him with death when strongly urged to do so by Omar. 
 As victory after victory was announced, and train after train laden 
 with spoils crowded the gates of Medina, he joyed to see his anti- 
 cipations so far outstripped by the deeds of this headlong warrior. 
 " By Allah," exclaimed he, in an ecstasy, "womankind is too weak 
 to give birth to another Khaled." 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Incompetency of Abu Obeidah to the general command in Syria.- Khaled sent to 
 supersede him. Peril of the Moslem army before Bosra. Timely arrival of Khaled 
 His exploits during the siege. Capture of Bosra. 
 
 The exultation of the Caliph over the triumphs in Irak was 
 checked by tidings of a different tone from the army in Syria. Abu 
 Obeidah, who had the general command, wanted the boldness 
 and enterprise requisite to an invading general A partial defeat of 
 some of his troops discouraged him, and he heard with disquiet of 
 vast hosts which the emperor Heraclius was assembling to over- 
 whelm him. His letters to the Caliph partook of the anxiety and 
 perplexity of his mind. Abu Beker, whose generally sober mind 
 was dazzled at the time by the daring exploits of Khaled, was annoyed 
 at finding that, while the latter was dashing forward in a brilliant 
 career of conquest in Irak, Abu Obeidah was merely standing on 
 the defensive in Syria. In the vexation of the moment, he regretted 
 that he had intrusted the invasion of the latter country to one who 
 appeared to him a nerveless man ; and he forthwith sent missives 
 to Khaled ordering him to leave the prosecution of the war in Irak 
 to his subordinate generals, and repair, in all haste, to aid the ar- 
 mies in Syria, and take the general command there. Khaled 
 obeyed the orders with his usual promptness. Leaving his army 
 under the charge of Mosenna Ibn Haris, he put himself at the head 
 of fifteen hundred horse, and spurred over the Syrian borders to 
 join the Moslem host, which he learned, while on the way, was 
 drawing toward the Christian city of Bosra. 
 
 This city, the reader will recollect, was the great mart on the 
 Syrian frontier, annually visited by the caravans, and where Maho- 
 met, when a youth, had his first interview with Scrgius, the Nesto- 
 rian monk, from whom he was said to have received instructions 
 in the Christian faith. It was a place usually filled with merchan- 
 dise, and held out a promise of great booty ; but it was strongly 
 walled, its inhabitants were inured to arms, and it could at any 
 time pour forth twelve thousand horse. Its very name, in the Sy- 
 rian tongue, signified a tower of safety. Against this place Abu
 
 ABU BEKER. 179 
 
 Obeidahhad sent Serjabil Ibn Hasanali, a veteran secretary of Ma- 
 homet, with a troop of ten thousand horse. On his approach, Ro- 
 manus, the governor of the city, notwithstanding the strength of 
 the place and of the garrison, would fain have paid tribute, for he 
 was dismayed by the accounts he had received of the fanatic zeal 
 and irresistible valour of the Moslems, but hispeoplewere stout of 
 heart, and insisted on fighting. 
 
 The venerable Serjabil, as he drew near to the city, called upon 
 Allah to grant the victory promised in his name by his apostle ; and 
 to establish the truth of his unity by confounding its opposers.' His 
 prayers apparently were of no avail. Squadron after squadron of 
 horsemen wheeled down from the gates of Bosra, attacked the Moslems 
 on every side, threw them into confusion, and made great slaughter. 
 Overwhelmed by numbers, Serjabil was about to order a retreat, 
 when a great cloud of dust gave notice of another army at hand. 
 
 There was a momentary pause on both sides, but the shout of 
 Allah Achbar! Allah Achbar! resounded through the Moslem host, 
 as the eagle banner of Khaled was descried through the cloud. 
 That warrior came galloping to the field, at the head of his troop 
 of horsemen, all covered with dust. Charging the foe with his cha- 
 racteristic impetuosity, he drove them back to the city, and planted 
 his standard before the walls. 
 
 The battle over, Serjabil would have embraced his deliverer, 
 who was likewise his ancient friend, but Khaled regarded him re- 
 proachfully. " What madness possessed thee, " said he, " to attack 
 with thy handful of horsemen a fortress girt with stone walls and 
 thronged with soldiers?" 
 
 "I acted," said Serjabil, "not for myself, but at the command 
 of AbuObeidah." 
 
 "Abu Obeidah," replied Khaled, bluntly, "is a very worthy 
 man, but he knows little of warfare. " 
 
 In effect the army of Syria soon found the difference between the 
 commanders. The soldiers of Khaled, fatigued with a hard march, 
 and harder combat, snatched a hasty repast, and throwing them- 
 selves upon the ground, were soon asleep. Khaled alone took no 
 rest ; but, mounting a fresh horse, prowled all night round the city 
 and the camp, fearing some new irruption from the foe. 
 
 At daybreak he roused his army for the morning prayer. Some 
 of the troops performed their ablutions with water, others with 
 sand. Khaled put up the matin prayer: then every man grasped 
 his weapon and sprang to horsej for the gates of Bosra were already 
 pouring forth their legions. The eyes of Khaled kindled as he saw 
 them prancing down into the plain, and glittering in the rising sun. 
 "These infidels," said he, " think us weary and wayworn, but they 
 will be confounded. Forward to the fight, for the blessing of Allah 
 is with us!" 
 
 As the armies approached each other, Romanus rode in advance 
 of his troops, and defied the Moslem chief to single combat. 
 Khaled advanced on the instant. Romanus, however, instead of 
 levelling his lance, entered into a parley in an under tone of voice. 
 He declared that he was a Mahometan at heart, and had incurred 
 great odium among the people of the place by endeavouring to per-
 
 180 MAHOMET A*b HIS SUCCtSSOUS. 
 
 suade them to pay tribute. He now offered to embrace Islamism, 
 and to return and do his best to yield the city into the hands 
 of the Moslems, on condition of security for life, liberty, and 
 property. 
 
 Khaled readily assented to the condition, but suggested that they 
 should exchange a few dry blows, to enable Romanus to return to 
 the city with a better grace, and prevent a suspicion of collusion. 
 Romanus agreed to the proposal, but with no great relish, for he 
 was an arrant craven. He would fain have made a mere feint and 
 flourish of weapons; but Khaled had a heavy hand and a kindling 
 spirit, and dealt such hearty blows, that he would have severed the 
 other in twain, or cloven him to the saddle, had he struck with the 
 edge instead of the flat of the sword. 
 
 " Softly, softly," cried Romanus. " Is this what you call sham 
 fighting ; or do you mean to slay me ?" 
 
 " By no means," replied Khaled, " but we must lay on our blows 
 a little roughly, to appear in earnest." 
 
 Romanus, battered and bruised, and w r ounded in several places, 
 was glad to get back to his army with his life. He now extolled 
 the prowess of Khaled, and advised the citizens to negotiate a sur- 
 render; but they upbraided him with his cowardice, stripped him of 
 his command, and made him a prisoner in his own house : substi- 
 tuting in his place the general who had come to them with rein- 
 forcements from the emperor Heraclius. 
 
 The new governor, as his first essay in command, sallied in ad- 
 vance of the army, and defied Khaled to combat. Abda-'lrahman, 
 son of the Caliph, a youth of great promise, begged of Khaled the 
 honour of being his champion. His request being granted, he rode 
 forth, well armed, to the encounter. The combat was of short 
 duration. At the onset the governor was daunted by the fierce 
 countenance of the youthful Moslem, and confounded by the ad- 
 dress with which he managed his horse and wielded his lance. At 
 the first wound he lost all presence of mind, and turning the reins, 
 endeavoured to escape by dint of hoof. His steed was swiftest, 
 and he succeeded in throwing himself into the midst of his forces. 
 The impetuous youth spurred after him, cutting and slashing, 
 right and left, and hewing his way with his scimetar. 
 
 Khaled, delighted with his valour, but alarmed at his peril, gave 
 the signal for a general charge. To the fight ! to the fight ! Para- 
 dise ! Paradise ! was the maddening cry. Horse was spurred 
 against horse; man grappled man. The desperate conflict was 
 witnessed from the walls, and spread dismay through the city. 
 The bells rang alarums, the shrieks of women and children mingled 
 with the prayers and chants of priests and monks moving in pro- 
 cession through the streets. 
 
 The Moslems, too, called upon Allah for succour, mingling prayers 
 and execrations as they fought. At length the troops of Bosra gave 
 way : the squadrons that had sallied forth so gloriously in the 
 morning, were driven back in broken and headlong masses to the 
 city ; the gates were hastily swung to and barred after them ; and, 
 while they panted with fatigue and terror behind their bulwarks, 
 the standards and banners of the cross were planted on the battle-
 
 ABU BEKER. 181 
 
 ments, and couriers were sent off imploring reinforcements from 
 the emperor. 
 
 Night closed upon the scene of battle. The stifled groans of 
 wounded warriors, mingled with the wailings of women, and the 
 prayers of monks and friars, were heard in the once joyful streets 
 of Bosra ; while sentinels walked the rounds of the Arab camp to 
 guard it against the desperation of the foe. 
 
 Abda'lrahman commanded one of the patrols. "Walking his 
 round beneath the shadow of the city walls, he beheld a man come 
 stealthily forth, the embroidery of whose garments, faintly glit- 
 tering in the starlight, betrayed him to be a person of consequence. 
 The lance of Abda'lrahman was at his breast, when he proclaimed 
 himself to be Romanus, and demanded to be led to Khaled. On 
 entering the tent of that leader, he inveighed against the treatment 
 he had experienced from the people of Bosra, and invoked ven- 
 geance. They had confined him to his house, but it was built 
 against the wall of the city. He had caused his sons and servants, 
 therefore, to break a hole through it, by which he had issued forth, 
 .and by which he offered to introduce a band of soldiers, who might 
 throw open the city gates to the army. 
 
 His offer was instantly accepted, and Abda'lrahman was intrusted 
 with the dangerous enterprise. He took with him a hundred 
 picked men, and, conducted by Romanus, entered in the dead of 
 night, by the breach in the wall, into the house of the traitor. 
 Here they were refreshed with food, and disguised to look like the 
 soldiers of the garrison. Abda'lrahman then divided them into 
 four bands of twenty-five men each ; three of which he sent in diffe- 
 rent directions, with orders to keep quiet until he and his followers 
 should give the signal-shout of Allah Achbar ! He then requested 
 Romanus to conduct him to the quarters of the governor, who 
 had fled the fight with him that day. Under the guidance of the 
 traitor, he and his twenty-five men passed with noiseless steps 
 through the streets. Most of the unfortunate people of Bosra had 
 sunk to sleep ; but now and then the groan of some wounded war- 
 rior, or the lament of some afflicted woman, broke the stillness of 
 the night and startled the prowlers. 
 
 Arrived at the gate of the citadel they surprised the sentinels, 
 who mistook them for a friendly patrol, and made their way to the 
 governor's chamber. Romanus entered first, and summoned the 
 governor to receive a friend. 
 
 " "What friend seeks me at this hour of the night ?" 
 
 *< Thy friend Abda'lrahman," cried Romanus with malignant 
 triumph ; "who comes to send thee to hell ! " 
 
 The wretched poltroon would have fled. "Nay," cried Ab- 
 da'lrahman, "you escape me not a second lime!" and with a blow 
 of his scimetar laid him dead at his feet. He then gave the signal 
 shout of Allah Achbar ! . It was repeated by his followers at the 
 portal ; echoed by the other parties in different quarters ; the city 
 gates were thrown open, the legions of Khaled and Serbajil rushed 
 in, and the whole city resounded with the cries of Allah Aclibar ! 
 The inhabitants, startled from their sleep, hastened forth to know 
 the meaning of Ilio uproar, but were cut down at their thresholds.
 
 182 MAHOHET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 and a horrible carnage took place until there was a general cry for 
 quarter. Then, in compliance with one of the precepts of Maho- 
 met, Khaled put a stop to the slaughter, and received the survivors 
 under' the yoke. 
 
 The savage tumult being appeased, the unhappy inhabitants of 
 Bosra inquired as to the mode in which they had been surprised. 
 Khaled hesitated to expose the baseness of Romanus ; but the trai- 
 tor gloried in his shame, and in the vengeance he had wreaked upon 
 fonner friends. '"Twasl!" cried he with demoniac exultation. 
 "I renounce ye both in this world and the next. I deny him who 
 was crucified and despise his worshippers. I choose Islam for my 
 faith ; the Caaba for my temple" ; the Moslems for my brethren ; 
 Mahomet for my prophet ; and I bear witness that there is but one 
 only God, who has no partner in his power and glory." 
 
 Having made this full recantation of his old faith and profession 
 of his new, in fulfilment of his traitorous compact the apostate de- 
 parted from Bosra, followed by the execrations of its inhabitants, 
 among whom he durst no longer abide ; and Khaled, although he 
 despised him in his heart, appointed a guard to protect his property 
 from plunder. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Khaled lays siege to Damascus. 
 
 The capture of Bosra increased the ambition and daring of the 
 Moslems, and Khaled now aspired to the conquest of Damascus. 
 This renowned and beautiful city, one of the largest and most 
 magnificent of the East, and reputed to be the oldest in the world, 
 stood in a plain of wonderful richness and fertility, covered with 
 groves and gardens, and bounded by an amphitheatre of hills, the 
 skirts of Mount Lebanon. A river called by the ancients Chrysor- 
 rhoa, or the stream ol gold, flows through this plain, feeding the 
 canals and water-courses of its gardens, and the fountains of the 
 city. 
 
 The commerce of the place bespoke the luxuriance of the soil ; 
 dealing in wines, silks, wool, prunes , raisins, figs of unrivalled 
 flavour, sweet-scented waters and perfumes. The fields were co- 
 vered with odoriferous flowers, and the rose of Damascus has be- 
 come famous throughout the world. Tlus is one of the few, the 
 very few, cities famous in ancient times, which still retain a trace 
 of ancient delights. " The citron," says a recent traveller, "per- 
 fumes the air for many miles round the city ; and the fig-trees are 
 of vast size. The pomegranate and orange grow in thickets. 
 There is the trickling of water on every hand. AVherever you go 
 there is a trotting brook, or a full and silent stream beside the 
 track; and you have frequently to cross from one vivid green 
 meadow to another by fording, or by little bridges. These streams 
 are all from the river beloved by Naaman of old. He might well
 
 ABU BEKER. 183 
 
 ask whether the Jordan was better than Pharpar ajid Abana, the 
 rivers of Damascus." 
 
 In this city too were invented those silken stuffs called damask 
 from the place of their origin, and those swords and scimetars pro- 
 verbial for their matchless tamper. 
 
 When Khaled resolved to strike for this great prize, he had but 
 fifteen hundred horse, which had followed him from Irak, in addi- 
 tion to the force which he found with Serjabil; having, however, 
 the general command of the troops in Syria, he wrote to Abu 
 Obeidah to join him with his army, amounting to thirty-seven 
 thousand men. 
 
 The Moslems, accustomed to ,the aridity of the desert, gazed 
 with wonder and delight upon the rich plain of Damascus. As 
 they wound in lengthening files along the banks of the shining river, 
 through verdant and flowery fields, or among groves and vineyards 
 and blooming gardens, it seemed as if they were already realizing 
 the paradise promised by the prophet to true believers ; but when 
 the fanes and towers of Damascus rose to sight from among tufted 
 bowers, they broke forth into shouts of transport. 
 
 Heraclius the emperor was at Antioch, the capital of his Syrian 
 dominions, when he heard of the advance of the Arabs upon the 
 city of Damascus. He supposed the troops of Khaled, however, to 
 be a mere predatory band, intent as usual on hasty ravage, and 
 easily repulsed when satisfied with plunder; and he felt little alarm 
 for the safety of the city, knowing it to be very populous, strongly 
 fortified, and well garrisoned. He contented himself, therefore, 
 with despatching a general named Caloiis with five thousand men 
 to reinforce it. 
 
 In passing through the country, Caloiis found the people flying 
 to castles and other strongholds and putting them in a state of de- 
 fence. As he approached Baalbec, the women came forth with 
 dishevelled hair, wringing their hands and uttering cries of despair. 
 " Alas! " cried they, tf the Arabs overrun the land, and nothing 
 can withstand them. Aracah ahd Sachnah, and Tadmor and Bosra, 
 have fallen, and who shall protect Damascus!" 
 
 Calous inquired the force of the invaders, 
 
 They knew but of the troops of Khaled, and answered, " fifteen 
 hundred horse." 
 
 " Be of good cheer," said Calous; "in a few days I will return 
 with the head of Khaled on the point of this good spear." 
 
 He arrived at Damascus before the Moslem army came in sight, 
 and the same self-confidence marked his proceedings. Arrogating 
 to himself the supreme command, he would have deposed and ex- 
 pelled the former governor Azrail, a meritorious old soldier, well 
 beloved by the people. Violent dissensions immediately arose, 
 and the city, instead of being prepared for defence, was a prey to 
 internal strife. 
 
 In the height of these tumults, the army of Khaled, forty thousand 
 strong, being augmented by that of Abu Obeidah, was descried 
 marching across the plain. The sense of danger calmed the fury 
 of contention, and the two governors sallied forth, with a great 
 part of the garrison, to encounter the invaders.
 
 184 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Both armies drew up in battle array. Khaled was in front of 
 the Moslem line, and with him was his brother in arms, Derar Ibn 
 al Azwar. The latter was mounted on a fine Arabian mare, and 
 poised a ponderous lance, looking a warrior at all points. Khaled 
 regarded him with friendly pride , and resolved to give him 
 an opportunity of distinguishing himself. For this purpose he 
 detached him with a small squadron of horse to feel the pulse of 
 the enemy. "Now is the time, Derar," cried he, "to show 
 thyself a man, and emulate the deeds of thy father and other il- 
 lustrious soldiers of the faith. Forward in the righteous cause, 
 and Allah will protect thee." 
 
 Derar levelled his lance, and at the head of his handful of fol- 
 lowers charged into the thickest of the foe. In the first encounter 
 four horsemen fell beneath his arm ; then wheeling off, and soaring 
 as it were into the field to mark a different quarry, he charged 
 with his little troop upon the foot soldiers, slew six with his own 
 hand, trampled down others, and produced great confusion. The 
 Christians , however, recovered from a temporary panic, and op- 
 posed him with overwhelming numbers and Roman discipline. 
 Derar saw the inequality of the fight, and having glutted his mar- 
 tial fury, showed the Arab dexterity at retreat, making his way 
 back safely to the Moslem army by whom he was received with 
 acclamation. 
 
 Abda'lrahman gave a similar proof of fiery courage ; but his 
 cavalry was received by a battalion of infantry arranged in phalanx 
 with extended spears, while stones and darts hurled from a dis- 
 tance galled both horse and rider. He also, after, making a dar- 
 ing assault and sudden carnage, retired upon the spur and rejoined 
 the army. 
 
 Khaled now emulated the prowess of his friends, and careering 
 in front of the enemy, launched a general defiance to single 
 combat. 
 
 The jealousies of the two Christian commanders continued in 
 the field. Azrall, turning to Caloiis, taunted him to accept the 
 challenge as a matter of course; seeing he was sent to protect the 
 country -in this hour of danger. 
 
 The vaunting of Caloiis was at an end. He had no inclination 
 for so close a fight with such an enemy, but pride would not per- 
 mit him to refuse. He entered into the conflict with a faintheart, 
 and in a short time would have retreated, but Khaled wheeled 
 between him and his army. He then fought with desperation, and 
 the contest was furious on both sides, until Caloiis beheld his blood 
 streaming down his armour. His heart failed him at the sight ; his 
 strength flagged; he fought merely on the defensive. Khaled 
 perceiving this j suddenly closed with him, shifted his lance to his 
 left hand, grasped Caloiis with the right, dragged him out of the 
 saddle, and hore him off captive to the Moslem host, who rent the 
 air with triumphant shouts. 
 
 Mounting a frosh horse Khaled prepared again for battle. 
 
 " Tarry, my friend," cried Derar; " repose thyself for a time, 
 and I will take thy place." 
 
 " Oh Derar," replied Khaled, "he who labours to-day shall rest
 
 ABU BEKER. 185 
 
 to-morrow. There will be repose sufficient amidst the delights of 
 paradise!" 
 
 When about to return to the field Calolis demanded a mo- 
 ment's audience, and making use of the traitor Romanus as an 
 interpreter, advised Khaled to bend all his efforts against Azrail, 
 the former governor of the city, whose death he said would be 
 the surest means of gaining the victory. Thus a spirit of envy in- 
 duced him to sacrifice the good of his country to the desire of 
 envy induced him to sacrifice the good of his country to the desire 
 of injuring a rival. 
 
 Khaled was willing to take advice even from an enemy, espe- 
 cially when it fell in with his own humour ; he advanced, therefore, 
 in front, challenging Azrail loudly by name. The latter quickly 
 appeared, well armed and mounted, and with undaunted bearing. 
 
 The contest was long and obtinate. The combatants paused for 
 breath. Khaled could not but regard his adversary with ad- 
 miration. 
 
 " Thy name," said he, " is Azra'il ? " (This is the Arabic name 
 for the angel of death.) 
 
 " Azrail is my name," replied the other. 
 
 " By Allah ! " replied Khaled, " thy namesake is at hand, wait- 
 ing to carry thy soul to the fire of Jehennam ! " 
 
 They renewed the fight. Azrail, who was the most fleetly 
 mounted, being sorely pressed, made use of an Arabian stratagem, 
 and giving the reins to his steed pretended to fly the field. Hav- 
 ing distanced his adversary and fatigued his horse, he suddenly 
 wheeled about and returned to the charge. Khaled, however, was 
 not to be outdone in stratagem. Throwing himself lightly from 
 his saddle just as his antagonist came galloping upon him, he 
 struck at tlfe legs of his horse, brought him to the ground and took 
 his rider prisoner. 
 
 The magnanimity of Khaled was not equal to his valour ; or 
 rather his fanatical zeal overcame all generous feelings. He ad- 
 mired Azrail as a soldier ; but detested him as an infidel. Placing 
 him beside his late rival Caloiis, he called upon both to renounce 
 Christianity and embrace the faith of Islam. They persisted in a 
 firm refusal, upon which he gave the signal, and their heads were 
 struck off and thrown over the walls into the city, a fearful warning 
 to the inhabitants. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Siege of Damascus continued. -Exploits of Derar. Defeat of the imperial army. 
 
 The siege of Damascus continued with increasing rigour. The 
 inhabitants were embarrassed and dismayed by the loss of their 
 two governors, and the garrison was thinned by frequent skir- 
 mishes, in which the bravest warriors were sure to fall. At length
 
 186 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS, 
 
 the soldiers ceased to sally forth, and the place became strictly in- 
 vested. Khaled, with one half of the army, drew near to the walls 
 on the east side ; while Abu Obeidah, with the other half, was sta- 
 tioned on the west. The inhabitants now attempted to corrupt 
 Khaled, offering him a thousand ounces of gold, and two hundred 
 magnificent damask robes to raise the siege. His reply was, that 
 they must embrace the Islam faith., pay tribute, or fight unto the 
 death. 
 
 "While the Arabs lay thus encamped round the city, as if watching 
 its expiring throes, they were surprised one day by the unusual 
 sound of shouts of joy within its walls. Sending* out scouts, they 
 soon learnt the astounding intelligence that a great army was 
 marching to the relief of the place. 
 
 The besieged, in fact, in the height of their extremity, had lowered 
 a messenger from the walls in the dead of the night, bearing tidings 
 to the emperor at Antioch of their perilous condition, and imploring 
 prompt and efficient succour. Aware for the first time of the real 
 magnitude of the danger, Heraclius despatched an army of a hun- 
 dred thousand men to their relief, led on by Werdan, prefect of 
 Emessa, an experienced general. 
 
 Khaled would at once have marched to meet the foe ; alleging 
 that so great a host could come only in divisions, which might be 
 defeated in detail; the cautious and quiet Abu Obeidah, however, 
 counselled to continue the siege, and send some able officer with a 
 detachment to check and divert the advancing army. His advice 
 was adopted, and Derar, the cherished companion in arms of 
 Khaled, was chosen for the purpose. That fiery Moslem was ready 
 to march at once and attack the enemy with any handful of men 
 that might be assigned him; but Khaled rebuked his inconsiderate 
 zeal. " \Ve are expected," said he, " to fight for the faith, but not 
 to throw ourselves away." Allotting to his friend, therefore, one 
 thousand chosen horsemen, he recommended to him to hang on 
 the flanks of the enemy and impede their inarch. 
 
 The fleetly mounted band of Derar soon came in sight of the 
 van of "Werdan's army, slowly marching in heavy masses. They 
 were for hovering about it and harassing it in the Arab manner, 
 but the impetuous valour of Derar was inflamed, and he swore not 
 to draw back a step without hard fighting. He was seconded by 
 Rafi Ibn Omeirah, who reminded the troops that a handful of the 
 faithful was sufficient to defeat an army of infidels. 
 
 The battle cry was given. Derar, with some of his choicest 
 troops, attacked the centre of the army, seeking to grapple with 
 the general, whom he beheld there, surrounded by his guard. At 
 the very onset he struck clown the prefect s right-hand man, and 
 then his standnrd-bearer. Several of Derar's followers sprang 
 from their steeds to seize the standard, a cross richly adorned with 
 precious stones, while he beat off the enemy, who endeavoured to 
 regain it. The captured cross was borne off in triumph ; but at the 
 same moment Derar received a wound in the left arm from a javelin, 
 launched by a son of AVerdan. Turning upon the youth, he thrust 
 his lance into his body, but, in withdrawing it, the iron head re- 
 mained in the wound. Thus left, unarmed, he defended himself
 
 ABU BEKER. 187 
 
 for a time with the mere truncheon of the lance, but was over- 
 powered and taken prisoner. The Moslems fought furiously to 
 rescue him, but in vain, and he was borne captive from the field. 
 They would now have fled, but were recalled by Rafi Ibn Omeirah. 
 " AVhoever flies," cried he, " turns his back upon God and his pro- 
 phet. Paradise is for those who fall in battle. If your captain be 
 dead, God is living, and sees your actions." 
 
 They rallied and stood at bay. The fortune of the day was 
 against them ; they were attacked by tenfold their number, and 
 though they fought with desperation, they would soon have been 
 cut to pieces, had not Khaled, at that critical moment, arrived at 
 the scene of action with the greater part of his forces; a swift horse- 
 man having brought him tidings of the disastrous affray, and the 
 capture of his friend. 
 
 On arriving, he stopped not to parley, but charged into the 
 thickest of the foe, where he saw most banners, hoping there to 
 find his captive friend. Wherever he turned he hewed a path be- 
 fore him, but Derar was not to be found. At length a prisoner told 
 him that the captive had been sent off to Emessa under a strong 
 escort. Khaled instantly despatched Rafi Ibn Omeirah with a hun- 
 dred horse in pursuit. They soon overtook the escort, attacked 
 them furiously, slew several, and put the rest to flight, who left 
 Derar, bound with cords, upon his charger. 
 
 By the time that Rafi and Derar rejoined the Moslem army, 
 Khaled had defeated the whole forces of Werdan, division after di- 
 vision, as they arrived successively at the field of action. In this 
 manner a hundred thousand troops were defeated, in detail, by 
 less than a third of their number, inspired by fanatic valour, and 
 led on by a skilful and intrepid chief. Thousands of the fugitives 
 were killed in the pursuit ; an immense booty in treasure, arms, 
 baggage, and horses fell to the victors, and Khaled led back his 
 army, flushed with conquest, but fatigued with fighting and bur- 
 thened with spoil, to resume the siege of Damascus. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Siege of Damascus continued. Sally of the garrison. Heroism of the Moslem women. 
 
 The tidings of the defeat of Werdan and his powerful army, 
 made the Emperor Heraclius tremble in his palace at Antioch, for 
 the safety of his Syrian kingdom. Hastily levying another army of 
 seventy thousand men, he put them under the command of Werdan, 
 at Aiznadin, with orders to hasten to the relief of Damascus, and 
 attack the Arab army, which must be diminished and enfeebled by 
 the recent battle. 
 
 Khaled took counsel of Abu Obeidah how to avoid the impend- 
 ing storm. It was determined to raise the siege of Damascus, and
 
 188 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 seek the enemy promptly at Aiznadin. Conscious, however, of the 
 inadequacy of his forces, Khaled sent missives to all the Moslem 
 generals within his call. 
 
 " In the name of the merciful God ! Khaled Ibn al Walid to 
 Amru Ibn al Aass, health and happiness. The Moslem brethren are 
 about to march to Aiznadin to do battle with seventy thousand 
 Greeks who are coming to extinguish the light of God. But Allah 
 will preserve his light in despite of all the inlidels. Come to Aiz- 
 nadin with thy troops; for, God willing/ thou shalt find me there." 
 These missives sent, he broke up his encampment before Damascus, 
 and marched, with his whole force, toward Aiznadin. He would 
 have placed AbuObeidah at the head of the army; but the latter 
 modestly remarked, that as Khaled was now commander-in-chief 
 that station appertained to him. Abu Obeidah, therefore, brought 
 up the rear, where were the baggage, the booty, the women, and 
 the children. 
 
 When the garrison of Damascus saw their enemy on the march, 
 they sallied forth under two brothers named Peter and Paul. The 
 former led ten thousand infantry, the latter six thousand horse. 
 Overtaking the rear of the Moslems, Paul with his cavalry charged 
 into the midst of them, cutting down some, trampling others under 
 foot, and spreading wide confusion. Peter in the meantime, with 
 his infantry, made a sweep of the camp equipage, the baggage, 
 and the accumulated booty, and capturing most of the women, 
 made off with his spoils towards Damascus. 
 
 Tidings of this onset having reached Khaled in the van, he sent 
 Derar, Abda'lrahman, and Rafi Ibn Omeirah, scouring back, each 
 at the head of two hundred horse, while he followed with the main 
 force. 
 
 Derar and his associates soon turned the tide of battle, routing 
 Paul and his cavalry with such slaughter, that of the six thousand 
 but a small part escaped to Damascus. Paul threw himself from his 
 horse, and attempted to escape on foot, but was taken prisoner. 
 The exultation of the victors, however, was damped by the intelli- 
 gence that their women had been carried away captive, and great 
 was the grief of Derar, on learning that his sister Caulah, a woman 
 of great beauty, was among the number. 
 
 In the meantime, Peter and his troops, with their spoils and 
 captives, had proceeded on the way to Damascus, but halted under 
 some trees beside a fountain, to refresh themselves and divide 
 their booty. In the division, Caulah the sister of Derar was allot- 
 ted to Peter. This done, the captors went into their tents to ca- 
 rouse and make merry with the spoils, leaving the women among 
 the baggage, bewailing their captive state. 
 
 Caulah, however, was the worthy sister of Derar. Instead of 
 weeping and wringing her hands, she reproached her companions 
 with their weakness. "\Vhat!" cried she, ""shall we, the 
 daughters of warriors and followers of Mahomet, submit to be the 
 slaves and paramours of barbarians and idolaters? For my part, 
 sooner will I die ! " 
 
 Among her fellow-captives were Hamzarite women, descendants 
 as it is supposed of the Amalekites of old, and others of the tribe of
 
 ABU BEKKK. 189 
 
 Himiar, all bold viragos, accustomed from their youth to mount 
 the horse, ply the bow, and launch the javelin. They were roused 
 by the appeal of Caulah. "What, however, can we do," cried 
 they, "having neither sword nor lance nor bow?" 
 
 "Let us each take a tent pole," replied Caulah, "and defend 
 ourselves to the utmost. God may deliver us ; if not, we shall die 
 and be at rest, leaving no stain upon our country." She was se- 
 conded by a resolute woman named Offeirah. Her words prevailed. 
 They all armed themselves with tent poles, and Caulah placed 
 them closely side by side in a circle. /'Stand firm," said she. 
 " Let no one pass between you ; parry the weapons of your assai- 
 lants, and strike at their heatls." 
 
 With Caulah, as with her brother, the word was accompanied 
 by the deed ; for scarce had she spoken, when a Greek soldier 
 happening to approach, with one blow o[ her staff she shattered his 
 skull. 
 
 The noise brought the carousers from the tents. They surrounded 
 the women, and sought to pacify them; but whoever came within 
 reach of their staves was sure to suffer. Peter was struck with the 
 matchless form and glowing beauty of Caulah, as she stood fierce 
 and fearless, dealing her blows on all who approached. He charged 
 his men not to harm her, and endeavoured to win her by sooth- 
 ing words and offers of wealth and honour ; but she reviled him as 
 an infidel, a dog, and rejected with scorn his brutal love. Incensed 
 at length by her taunts and menaces, he gave the word, and his 
 followers rushed upon the women with their scimetars. The une- 
 qual combat would soon have ended, when Khaled and Derar came 
 galloping with their cavalry to the rescue. Khaled was heavily 
 armed ; but Derar was almost naked, on a horse without 'a saddle, 
 and brandishing a lance. 
 
 At sight of them Peter's heart quaked; he put a stop to the 
 assault on the women, and would have made a merit of delivering 
 them up unharmed. "We have wives and sisters of our own," 
 said he, "and respect your courageous defence. Go in peace to 
 your countrymen." 
 
 He turned his horse's head, but Caulah smote the legs of the ani- 
 mal and brought him to the ground; and Derar thrust his spear 
 through the rider as he fell. Then alighting and striking off the 
 head of Peter, he elevated it on the point of his lance. A general 
 action ensued. The enemy were routed and pursued with slaughter 
 to the gates of Damascus, and great booty was gained of horses 
 and armour. 
 
 The battle over, Paul was brought a prisoner before Khaled, and 
 the gory head of his brother was shown to him. "Such," cried 
 Khaled, "will be your fate unless you instantly embrace the faith 
 of Islam." Paul wept over the head of his brother, and said he 
 wished not to survive him. "Enough," cried Khaled; the signal 
 was given, and the head of Paul was severed from his body. 
 
 The Moslem army now retired to their old camp, where they 
 found Abu Obeidah, who had rallied his fugitives and intrenched 
 himself, for it was uncertain how near Werdan and his army might 
 be. Here the weary victors reposed themselves from their dangers
 
 190 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 and fatigues ; talked over the fortunes of the day, and exulted in 
 the courage of their women. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Battle of Aiznadin. 
 
 The army of the prefect AVerdan, though seventy thousand in 
 number, was for the most part composed of newly levied troops. 
 It lay encamped at Aiznadin, and ancient historians speak much of 
 the splendid appearance of the imperial camp, rich in its sumptuous 
 furniture of silk and gold, and of the brilliant array of the troops in 
 burnished armour, with glittering swords and lances. 
 
 While thus encamped, AVerdan was surprised one day to behold 
 clouds of dust rising in different directions, from which as they ad- 
 vanced broke forth the flash of arms and din of trumpets. These 
 were in fact the troops which Khaled had summoned by letter from 
 various parts, and which, though widely separated, arrived at the 
 appointed time with a punctuality recorded by the Arabian chro- 
 niclers as miraculous. 
 
 The Moslems were at first a little daunted by the number and 
 formidable array of the imperial host; but Khaled harangued them 
 in a confident tone. ff You behold," said he, "the last stake of the 
 infidels. This army vanquished and dispersed, they can never 
 muster another of any force, and all Syria is ours." 
 
 The armies lay encamped in sight of each other all night, and 
 drew out in battle array in the morning. 
 
 "AVho will undertake," said Khaled, "to observe the enemy 
 near at hand, and bring me an account of the number and dispo- 
 sition of his forces?" 
 
 Derar immediately stepped forward. "Go," said Khaled, "and 
 Allah go with thee. But I charge thee, Derar, not to strike a blow 
 unprovoked, nor to expose thy life unnecessarily." 
 
 When AVerdan saw a single horseman prowling in view of his army 
 and noting its strength and disposition, he sent forth thirty horse- 
 men to surround and capture him. Derar retreated before them 
 until they became separated in the eagerness of pursuit, then sud- 
 denly wheeling, he received the first upon the point of his lance, 
 and so another and another, thrusting them through or striking 
 them from their saddles, until he had killed or unhorsed seventeen, 
 and so daunted the rest, that he was enabled to make his retreat 
 in safety. 
 
 Khaled reproached him with rashness and disobedience of 
 orders. 
 
 " I sought not the fight," replied Derar. " They came forth 
 against me, and I feared that God should see me turn my back. He 
 doubtless aided me, and had it not been for your orders, I should 
 not have desisted when I did." 
 
 Being informed by Derar of the number and positions of the
 
 ABU BEKER. 191 
 
 enemy's troops, Khaled marshalled his army accordingly. He 
 gave command of the right wing to Mead and Noman; the left to 
 Saad Ibn Abu Wakkas and Serjabil, and took charge of the centre 
 himself, accompanied by Amru, Abda'lrahman, Derar, Kais, Rafi, 
 and other distinguished leaders. A body of four thousand horse, 
 under Yezed Ebn Abu Sofian, was posted in the rear to guard the 
 baggage and the women. 
 
 But it was not the men alone that prepared for this momentous 
 battle. Caulah and Offeirah, and their intrepid companions, among 
 whom were women of the highest rank, excited by their recent 
 success, armed themselves with such weapons as they found at 
 hand, and prepared to mingle in the fight. Khaled applauded their 
 courage and devotion, assuring them that, if they fell, the gates of 
 paradise would be open to them. He then formed them into two 
 battalions, giving command of one to Caulah, and of the other to 
 OiFeirah ; and charged them, besides defending themselves against 
 the enemy, to keep a strict eye upon his own troops; and whenever 
 they saw a Moslem turn his back upon the foe, to slay him as a 
 recreant and an apostate. Finally he rode through the ranks of 
 his army, exhorting them all to fight with desesperation, since they 
 had wives, children, honour, religion, every thing at stake : and 
 no place of refuge should they be defeated. 
 
 The war cries now arose from either army ; the Christians shout- 
 ing for " Christ and for the faith;" the Moslems, "La I'laha ilia 
 Allah, Mohammed Resoul Allah ! " "There is but one God! Ma- 
 homet is the prophet of God ! " 
 
 Just before the armies engaged, a venerable man came forth 
 from among the Christians, and, approaching Khaled, demanded, 
 "Art thou the general of this army?" "lam considered such," 
 replied Khaled, " while I am true to God, the Koran, and the 
 prophet. " 
 
 "Thou art come unprovoked," said the old man, "thou and 
 thy host, to invade this Christian land. Be not too certain of suc- 
 cess. Others who have heretofore invaded this land, have found 
 a tomb instead of a triumph. Look at this host. It is more nu- 
 merous, and peril aps better disciplined than thine. Why wilt thou 
 tempt a battle which may end in thy defeat, and must at all events 
 cost thee most lamentable bloodshed ? Retire, then, in peace, and 
 spare the mise ies which must otherwise fall upon either army. 
 Shouldst thou do so, I am authorized to offer, for every soldier in 
 thy host, a suit of garments, a turban, and a piece of gold ; for 
 thyself a hundred pieces and ten silken robes, and for thy Caliph, 
 a thousand pieces and a hundred robes." 
 
 -"'You proffer a part," replied Khaled, scornfully, "to one who 
 will soon possess the whole. For yourselves there are but three 
 conditions; embrace the faith, pay tribute, or expect the sword." 
 "With this rough reply the venerable man returned sorrowfully to 
 the Christian host. 
 
 Still Khaled was unusually wary. "Our enemies are two to 
 one," said he, "we must have patience and outwind them. Let 
 us hold back unjil nightfall, for that with the prophet was the pro- 
 pitious time of victory."
 
 192 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 The enemy now threw their Armenian archers in the advance, 
 and several Moslems were killed and wounded with flights of ar- 
 rows. Still Khaled restrained the impatience of his troops, order- 
 ing that no man should stir from his post. The impetuous Derar 
 at length obtained permission to attack the insulting band of ar- 
 chers, and spurred vigorously upon them with his troop of horse. 
 They faltered, but were reinforced : troops were sent to sustain 
 Derar ; many were slain on both sides, but success inclined to the 
 Moslems. 
 
 The action was on the point of becoming general, when a horse- 
 man from the advance army galloped up, and inquired for the 
 Moslem general. Khaled, considering it a challenge, levelled his 
 lance for the encounter. "Turn, thy lance aside, I pray thee," 
 cried the Christian, eagerly; "I am but a messenger, and seek a 
 parley." 
 
 Khaled quietly reined up his steed, and laid his lance athwart 
 the pommel of his saddle : " Speak to the purpose," said he, " and 
 tell no lies." 
 
 " I will tell the naked truth ; dangerous for me to tell, but most 
 important for thee to hear; but first promise protection for myself 
 and family." 
 
 Having obtained this promise, the messenger, whose name was 
 David, proceeded : "I am sent by "NVcrdan to entreat that the 
 battle may cease, and the blood of brave men be spared ; and that 
 thou wilt meet him to-morrow morning, singly, in sight of either 
 army, to treat of terms of peace. Such is my message ; but beware, 
 oh Khaled ! for treason lurks beneath it. Ten chosen men, well 
 armed, will be stationed in the night close by the place of confe- 
 rence , to surprise and seize, or kill thee, when defenceless and 
 off thy guard." 
 
 He then proceeded to mention the place appointed for the con- 
 ference, and all the other particulars. u Enough," said Khaled. 
 " Return to Werdan, and tell him I agree to meet him," 
 
 The Moslems were astonished at hearing a retreat sounded, when 
 the conflict was inclining in their favour ; they withdrew reluctantly 
 from the field, and Abu Obeidah and Derar demanded of Khaled 
 the meaning of this conduct. He informed them of what had just 
 been revealed to him. "I will keep this appointment," said he. 
 "I will go singly, and will bring back the heads of all the assas- 
 sins," Abu Obeidah, however, remonstrated against his exposing 
 himself to such unnecessary danger. "Take ten men with thee," 
 said he, "man for man." ""Why defer the punishment of their 
 perfidy until morning?" cried Derar. "Give me the ten men, 
 and I will counterplot these lurkers this very night." 
 
 Having obtained permission, he picked out ten men of assured 
 coolness and courage, and set off with them in the dead of the night 
 for the place of ambush. As they drew near Derar caused his 
 companions to halt, and, putting off his clothes to prevent all 
 rustling noise, crept warily with his naked scimetar to the appointed 
 ground. Here he beheld the ten men fast asleep, with their 
 weapons beneath their heads. Returning silently, and beckoning his 
 companions, they singled out each his man, so that the whole were
 
 ABU KEKER. 193 
 
 despatched at a blow. They then stripped the dead, disguised 
 themselves in their clothes, and awaited the coming day. 
 
 The rising sun shone on the two armies, drawn out in battle 
 array, and awaiting the parley of the chiefs. "Werdan rode forth 
 on a white mule, and was arrayed in rich attire, with chains of 
 gold and precious stones. Khaled was clad in a yellow silk vest 
 and green turban. He suffered himself to be drawn by "Werdan 
 towards the place of ambush ; then, alighting, and seating them- 
 selves on the ground, they entered into a parley. Their conference 
 was brief and boisterous. Each considered the other in his p'ower, 
 and conducted himself with haugtiness and acrimony. Werdan 
 spoke of the Moslems as needy, spoilers,' who lived by the sword, 
 and invaded the fertile territories of their neighbours in quest of 
 plunder. "We, on the other hand," said he, "are wealthy, and 
 desire peace. Speak , what do you require to relieve your wants 
 and satisfy your rapacity ? " 
 
 " Miserable infidel ! " replied Khaled. "We are not so poor as 
 to accept alms at your hands. Allah provides for us. You offer 
 us a part of what is all our own ; for Allah has put all that you have 
 into our hands ; even to your wives and children. But do you 
 desire peace? We have already told you our conditions. Either 
 acknowledge that there is no other God but God, and that Mahomet 
 is his prophet, or pay us such tribute as we may impose. Do you 
 refuse ? For what, then have you brought me here ? Yow knew 
 our terms yesterday, and that all your propositions were rejected. 
 Do you entice me here alone for single combat? Be it so^ and let 
 our weapons decide between us." 
 
 So saying, he sprang upon his feet. Werdan also rose, but ex- 
 pecting instant aid, neglected to draw his sword. Khaled seized 
 him by the throat, upon which he called loudly to his men in am- 
 bush. The Moslems in ambush rushed forth, and, deceived by 
 their Grecian dresses, Werdan for an instant thought himself secure. 
 As they drew near, he discovered his mistake, and shrank with 
 horror at the sight of Derar, who advanced, almost naked, bran- 
 dishing a scimetar, and in whom he recognized the slayer of his 
 son. " Mercy! Mercy!" cried he to Khaled, at finding himself 
 caugbt in his own snare. 
 
 "There is no x mercy," replied Khaled, "for him who has no 
 faith. You came to me with peace on your lips, but murder in 
 your heart. Your crime be upon your head." 
 
 The sentence was no sooner pronounced, than the powerful 
 sword of Derar performed its office, and the head of Werdan was 
 struck olT at a blow. The gory trophy was elevated on the point 
 of a lance and borne by the little band toward the Christian troops, 
 who, deceived by the Greek disguises, supposed it the head of 
 Khaled and shouted with joy. Their triumph was soon turned to 
 dismay as they discovered their errour. Khaled did not suffer them 
 to recover from their confusion, but bade his trumpets sound a 
 general charge. What ensued was a massacre rather than a battle. 
 The imperial army broke and fled in all directions ; some toward 
 Caesarea, others to Damascus, and others to Antioch. The booty 
 was immense ; crosses of silver and gold, adorned with precious 
 
 13
 
 194 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 stones, rich chains and bracelets, jewels of price, silken robes, 
 armour and weapons of all kinds, and numerous banners all which 
 Khaled declared should not be divided until after the capture of 
 Damascus. 
 
 Tidinds of this great victory was sent to the Caliph at Medina, by 
 his brave and well beloved son Abda'lrahman. On receiving it, 
 Abu Beker prostrated himself and returned thanks to God. The 
 news spread rapidly throughout Arabia. Hosts of adventurers 
 hurried to Medina from all parts, and especially from Mecca. All 
 were eager to serve in the cause of the faith, now they found it 
 crowned with conquest and rewarded with riches. 
 
 The worthy Abu Beker was disposed to gratify their wishes, but 
 Omar on being consulted sternly objected. " The greater part of 
 these fellows," said he, " who are so eager to join us now that we 
 are successful, are those who sought to crush us when we were 
 few and feeble. They care not for the faith, but they long to 
 ravage the rich fields of Syria, and share the plunder of Damascus. 
 Send them not to the army to make brawls and dissensions. Those 
 already there are sufficient to complete what they have begun. 
 They have won the victory ; let them enjoy the spoils." 
 
 In compliance with this advice, Abu Beker refused the prayer of 
 the applicants, lipon this the people of Mecca, and especially 
 those of the tribe of Koreish, sent a powerful deputation, headed 
 by Abu Sofian, to remonstrate with the Caliph. u "NYhy are we 
 denied permission," said they, "to fight in the cause of our reli- 
 gion ? It is true, that in the days of darkness and ignorance we 
 made war on the disciples of the prophet, because we thought we 
 were doing God service. Allah, however, has blessed us with the 
 light ; we have seen and renounced our former errours. We are 
 your brethren in the faith, as we have ever been your kindred in 
 blood, and hereby take upon ourselves to fight in the common 
 cause. Let there then no longer be jealousy and envy between 
 us." 
 
 The heart of the Caliph was moved by these remonstrances. 
 He consulted with Ali and Omar, and it was agreed that the tribe 
 of Koreish should be permitted to join the army. Abu Beker 
 accordingly wrote to Khaled congratulating him on his success, 
 and informing him that a large reinforcement would join him con- 
 ducted by Abu Sofian. This letter he sealed with the seal of the 
 prophet, and despatched it by his son Abda'lrahman. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Occurrences before Damascus. Exploits of Thomas. Aban Ibn Zeid and his Amazo- 
 nian wife. 
 
 The fugitives from the field of Aiznadin carried to Damascus the 
 dismal tidings that the army was overthrown, and the last hope of 
 succour destroyed. Great was the consternation of the inhabitants,
 
 ABU BEKER. 195 
 
 yet they set to work, wilh desperate activity, to prepare for the 
 coming storm. The fugitives had reinforced the garrison with 
 several thousand effective men. New fortifications were hastily 
 erected. The walls were lined with engines to discharge stones 
 and darts, which were managed by Jews skilled in their use. 
 
 In the midst of their preparation, they beheld squadron after 
 squadron of Moslem cavalry emerging from among distant groves, 
 while a lengthening line of foot soldiers poured along between the 
 gardens. This was the order of march of the Moslem host The 
 advance guard, of upwards of nine thousand horsemen, was led 
 by Amru. Then came two thousand Koreisliite horse, led by Abu 
 Sofiau. Then a like number under Serjabil. Then Omar Ibn 
 Rabiyah wilh a similar division; then the main body of the army 
 led by Abu Obeidah, and lastly the. rear-guard displaying the 
 black eagle, the fateful banner of Khaled, and led by that invincible 
 warrior. 
 
 Khuled now assembled his captains, and assigned to them their 
 different stations. Abu Sofian was posted opposite the southern 
 gate. Serjabil opposite that of St. Thomas. Amru before that of 
 Paradise, and Kais Ibn Hobeirah before that of Kaisan. Abu 
 Obeidah encamped at some distance, in front of the gate of Jabiyah, 
 and was charged to be strict and vigilant, and to make frequent 
 assaults, for Khaled knew his humane and easy nature. As to 
 Khaled himself, he took his station and planted his black eagle 
 before the eastern gate. 
 
 There was still a southern gate, that of St. Mark, so situated 
 that it was not practicable to establish posts or engage in skirmishes 
 before it ; it was, therefore, termed the Gate of Peace. As to the 
 the active and impetuous Derar, he was ordered to patrol round 
 the walls and scour the adjacent plain at the head of two thousand 
 horse, protecting the camp from surprise and preventing supplies 
 and reinforcements to the city. " If you should be attacked," 
 said Khaled, "send me word, and I will come to your assistance." 
 "And must I stand peaceably until you arrive?" said Derar, in 
 recollection of former reproofs of his rash contests. ' ' Not so," 
 rejoined Khaled, " but fight stoutly, and be assured I will not fail 
 you." The rest of the army were dismounted to carry on the 
 siege on foot. 
 
 The Moslems were now better equipped for war than ever, having 
 supplied themselves with armour and weapons taken in repeated 
 battles. As yet, however, they retained their Arab frugality and 
 plainness, neglecting the delicate viands, the sumptuous raiment, 
 and other luxurious indulgences of their enemies. Even Abu 
 Obeidah, in the humility of his spirit, contented himself with his 
 primitive Arab tent of camel's hair; refusing the sumptuous tents 
 of the Chistian commanders, won in the recent battle. Such were 
 the stern simple-minded invaders of the effeminate and sensual 
 nations of the East. 
 
 The first assaults of the Moslems were bravely repelled, and 
 many were slain by darts and stones hurled by the machines from 
 the wall. The garrison even ventured to make a sally, but were 
 driven back with signal slaughter. The siege was then pressed with
 
 196 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 unremitting rigour, until no one dared to venture beyond the 
 bulwarks. The principal inhabitants now consulted together 
 whether it were not best to capitulate, while there was yet a chance 
 of obtaining favourable terms 
 
 There was at this time living in Damascus, a noble Greek, 
 named Thomas, who was married to a daughter of the emperor 
 Heraclius. He held no post, but was greatly respected, for he 
 was a man of talents and consummate courage. In this moment 
 of general depression, he endeavoured to rouse the spirits of the 
 people; representing their invaders as despicable, barbarous, 
 naked, and poorly armed, without discipline or military service, 
 and formidable only through their mad fanaticism, and the panic 
 they had spread through the country. 
 
 Finding all arguments in vain, he offered to take the lead himself, 
 if they would venture upon another sally. His offer was accepted, 
 and the next morning appointed for the effort. 
 
 Khaled perceived a stir of preparation throughout the night, 
 lights gleaming in the turrets and along the battlements, and exhorted 
 his men to be vigilant, for he anticipated some desperate movement. 
 " Let no man sleep," said he. " We shall have rest enough after 
 death, and sweet will be the repose that is never more to be fol- 
 lowed by labour." 
 
 The Christians were sadly devout in this hour of extremity. At 
 early dawn the bishop , in his robes, proceeded at the head of the 
 clergy to the gate by which the sally was to be made ; where he 
 elevated the cross, and laid beside it the New Testament. As Tho- 
 mas passed out at the gate, he laid his hand upon the sacred vo- 
 lume. "Oh God! " exclaimed he, " if our faith be true, aid us, 
 and deliver us not into the hands of its enemies. " 
 
 The Moslems, who had been on the alert, were advancing to 
 attack just at the time of the sally, but were checked by a general 
 discharge from the engines on the wall. Thomas led his troops 
 bravely to the encounter, and the conflict was fierce and bloody. 
 He was a dexterous archer, and singled out the most conspicuous 
 of the Moslems, who fell one after another beneath his shafts. 
 Among others he wounded Aban Ibn Zeid with an arrow tipped 
 with poison. The latter bound up the wound with his turban, 
 ana continued in the field, but being overcome by the venom, 
 was conveyed to the camp. He had but recently been married 
 to a beautiful woman of the intrepid race of the Himiar; one of 
 those Amazons accustomed to use the bow and arrow, and to mingle 
 in warfare. 
 
 Hearing that her husband was wounded, she hastened to his 
 tent, but before she could reach it he had expired. She uttered 
 no lamentation, nor shed a tear, but, bending over the body, 
 " Happy art thou, oh my beloved," said she, for thou art with 
 Allah, who joined us but to part us from each other. But I 
 will avenge thy death, and then seek to join thee in paradise. 
 Henceforth shall no man touch me more, for I dedicate myself 
 to God!" 
 
 Then grasping her husband's bow and arrows, she hastened to 
 the field in quest of Thomas, who. she had been told, was the
 
 ABU BEhEK. 197 
 
 slayer of her husband. Pressing toward the place where he was 
 fighting, she let fly a shaft, which wounded his standard-bearer in 
 the hand. The standard fell, and was borne off by the Moslems. 
 Thomas pursued it, laying about him furiously, and calling upon 
 his men to rescue their banner. It was shifted from hand to hand 
 until it came into that of Serjabil. Thomas assailed him with his 
 scimetar : Serjabil threw the standard among his troops and closed 
 with him. They fought with equal ardour, but Thomas was gaining 
 the advantage, when an arrow, shot by the wife of Aban, smote him 
 in the eye. He staggered with the wound, but his men, abandon- 
 ing the contested standard, rushed to his support, and bore him 
 off to the city. He refused to retire to his home, and, his wound 
 being dressed on the ramparts, would have returned to the conflict, 
 but was overruled by the public. He took his station, however, 
 at the city gate, whence he could survey the field and issue his 
 orders. The battle continued with great fury ; but such showers 
 of stones and darts and other missiles were discharged by the 
 Jews from the engines on the walls, that the besiegers were 
 kept a distance. Night terminated the conflict. The Moslems 
 returned to their camp wearied with a long day's fighting ; and, 
 throwing themselves on the earth, were soon buried in profound 
 sleep. 
 
 Thomas, finding the courage of the garrison roused by the 
 stand they had that day made, resolved to put it to further 
 proof. At his suggestion, preparations were made in the dead 
 of the night for a general sally at daybreak from all the gates 
 of the city. At the signal of a single stroke upon a bell at the 
 first peep of dawn, all the gates were thrown open, and from 
 each rushed forth a torrent of warriors upon the nearest en- 
 campment. 
 
 So silently had the preparations been made, that the besiegers 
 were completely taken by surprise. The trumpets sounded alarms, 
 the Moslems started from sleep and snatched up their weapons, 
 but the enemy were already upon them, and struck them down be- 
 fore they had recovered from their amazement. For a time it was a 
 slaugter rather than a fight, at the various stations. Khaled is said 
 to have shed tears at beholding the carnage. " Oh thou, who never 
 sleepest! " cried he, in the agony of his heart, "aid thy faithful ser- 
 vants ; let them not fall beneath the weapons of these infidels." Then, 
 followed by four hundred horsemen, he spurred about the field 
 wherever relief was most needed. 
 
 The hottest of the fight was opposite the gate whence Thomas had 
 sallied. Here Serjabil had his station, and fought with undaunted 
 valour. Near him was the intrepid wife of Ab&n, doing deadly execu- 
 tion with her shafts. She had expended all but one, when a Greek 
 soldier attempted to seize her. In an instant the arrow was sped 
 through his throat, and laid him dead at her feet ; but she was now 
 weaponless, and was taken prisoner. 
 
 At the same time Serjabil and Thomas were again engaged 
 hand to hand with equal valour ; but the scimetar of Serjabil 
 broke on the buckler of his adversary, and he was on the 
 point of being slain or captured, when Khaled and Abda'lrah-
 
 198 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 man galloped up with a troop of horse. Thomas was obliged to 
 take refuge in the city, and Serjabil and the Amazonian widow 
 were rescued. 
 
 The troops who sallied out at the gate of Jabeyah. met with the 
 severest treatment. The meek Abu Obeidah was stationed in front 
 of that gate, and was slumbering quietly in his hair tent at the time 
 of the sally. His first care in the moment of alarm was to repeat 
 the morning prayer. He then ordered forth a body of chosen men 
 to keep the enemy at bay, and while they were fighting, led another 
 detachment, silently but rapidly, round between the combatants 
 and the city. The Greeks thus suddenly found themselves assailed in 
 front and rear; they fought desperately, but so successful was the 
 stratagem^ and so active the valour of the meek Abu Obeidah, when 
 once aroused, that never a man, says the Arabian historian, that 
 sallied from that gate, returned again. 
 
 The battle of the night was almost as sanguinary as that of the 
 day; the Christians were repulsed in all quarters, and driven once 
 more within their walls, leaving several thousand dead upon the field. 
 The Moslems followed them to the very gates, but were compelled 
 to retire by the deadly shower hurled by the Jews from the engines 
 on the walls. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Surrender or Damascus. Disputes of the Saracen generals. Departure of Thomas and 
 
 the exiles. 
 
 For seventy days had Damascus been besieged by the fanatic 
 legions of the desert : the inhabitants had no longer the heart to 
 make further sallies, but again began to talk of capitulating. It" 
 was in vain that Thomas urged them to have patience until he should 
 write to the emperor for succour; they listened only to their fears, 
 and sent to Khaled begging a truce, that they might have time to 
 treat of a surrender. That fierce warrior turned a deaf ear to their 
 prayer : he wished for no surrender, that would protect the lives and 
 property of the besieged; he was bent upon taking the city by the 
 sword, and giving it up to be plundered by his Arabs. 
 
 In their extremity the people of Damascus turned to the good Abu 
 Obeidah, whom they knew to be meek and humane. Having first 
 treated with him by a messenger who understood Arabic, and 
 received his promise of security, a hundred of the principal inhabi- 
 tants, including the most venerable of the clergy, issued privately 
 one night by the gate of Jabiyah, and sought his presence. They 
 found this leader of a mighty force , that was shaking the empire 
 of the Orient., living in a humble tent of hair-cloth, like a mere 
 wanderer of the desert. He listened favourably to their proposi- 
 tions, for his object was conversion rather than conquest; tribute 
 rather than plunder. A covenant was soon written, in which he 
 engaged that hostilities should cease on their delivering the city
 
 ABU BEKER. 199 
 
 into his hands; that such of the inhabitants as pleased might depart 
 in safety with as much of their effects as they could carry, and those 
 who remained as tributaries should retain their property, and have 
 seven churches allotted to them. This covenant was not signed by 
 Abu Obeidah, not being commander-in-chief, but he assured the 
 envoys it would be held sacred by the Moslems. 
 
 The capitulation being arranged, and hostages given for the 
 good faith of the besieged, the gate opposite to the encampment 
 of Abu Obeidah was thrown open, and the venerable chief entered 
 at the head of a hundred men to take possession. 
 
 "While these transactions were taking place at the gate of Jabiyah, 
 a different scene occurred at the eastern gate. Khaled was exas- 
 perated by the death of a brother of Amru, shot from the walls 
 with a poisoned arrow. In the height of his indignation, an apos- 
 tate priest, named Josias, undertook to deliver the gate into his 
 hands, on condition of security of person and property for himself 
 and his relatives. 
 
 By means of this traitor, a hundred Arabs were secretly intro- 
 duced within the walls, who, rushing to the eastern gate, broke 
 the bolts and bars and chains by which it was fastened, and threw 
 it open with the signal shout of Allah Achbar ! 
 
 Khaled and his legions poured in at the gate with sound of trum- 
 pet and tramp of steed; putting all to the sword, and deluging the 
 streets with blood. " Mercy ! Mercy ! " was the cry. " No mercy 
 for infidels! " was Khaled's fierce response. 
 
 He pursued his career of carnage into the great square before 
 the church of the Virgin Mary. Here, to his astonishment, he 
 beheld Abu Obeidah and his attendants, theirs swords sheathed, 
 and marching in solemn procession with priosts ajid monks and the 
 principal inhabitants, and surrounded by women and children. 
 
 Abu Obeidah saw fury and surprise in the looks of Khaled, and 
 hastened to propitiate him by gentle words. " Allah in his mercy," 
 said he, " has delivered "this city into my hands by peaceful sur- 
 render; sparing the effusion of blood and the necessity of fighting.'' 
 
 " Not so," cried Khaled in a fury. " I have won it with this 
 sword, and I grant no quarter." 
 
 " But I have given the inhabitants a covenant written with my 
 own hand." 
 
 " And what right had you," demanded Khaled, " to grant a 
 capitulation without consulting me? Am not I the general? Yes, 
 by Allah! and to prove it I will put every inhabitant to the sword." 
 
 Abu Obeidah felt that in point of military duty he had erred, 
 but he sought to pacify Khaled, assuring him he had intended all 
 for the best, and felt sure of his approbation; entreating him to 
 respect the covenant he had made in the name of God and the 
 prophet, and with the approbation of all the Moslems present at 
 the transaction. 
 
 Several of the Moslem officers seconded Abu Obeidah, and en- 
 deavoured to persuade Khaled to agree to the capitulation. While 
 he hesitated, his troops, impatient of delay, resumed the work of 
 massacre and pillage. 
 
 The patience of the good Abu Obeidah was at an end. " By
 
 200 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Allah! " cried he, " my word is treated as nought, and my cove- 
 nant is trampled under foot!" 
 
 Spurring his horse among the marauders, he commanded them, 
 in the name of the prophet, to desist until he and Khaled should 
 have time to settle their dispute. The name of the prophet had 
 its effect; the soldiery paused in their bloody career, and the two 
 generals with their officers retired to the church of the Virgin. 
 
 Here, after a sharp altercation, Khaled, callous to all claims of 
 justice and mercy, Was brought to listen to policy. It was re- 
 presented to him that he was invading a country where many cities 
 were yet to be taken ; that it was important to respect the capitu- 
 lations of his generals, even though they might not be altogether 
 to his mind; otherwise the Moslem word would cease to be trusted, 
 and other cities, warned by the fate of Damascus, instead of sur- 
 rendering on favourable terms, might turn a deaf ear to all offers 
 of mercy and fight to the last extremity. 
 
 It was with the utmost difficulty that AbuObeidah wrung from the 
 iron soul of Khaled a slow consent to his capitulation, on condition 
 that the whole matter should be referred to the Caliph. At every 
 article he paused and murmured. He would fain have inflicted 
 death upon Thomas, and another leader named Herbis, but Abu 
 Obeidah insisted that they were expressly included in the covenant. 
 
 Proclamation was then made that such of the inhabitants as 
 chose to remain tributaries to the Caliph should enjoy the exercise 
 of their religion ; the rest were permitted to depart. The greater 
 part preferred to remain ; but some determined to follow their 
 champion Thomas to Antioch. The latter prayed for a passport 
 or a safe-conduct through the country controlled by the Moslems. 
 After much difficulty, Khaled granted them three days' grace, 
 during which they should be safe from molestation or pursuit; 
 on condition they took nothing with them but provisions. 
 
 Here the worthy Abu Obeidah interfered, declaring that he had 
 covenanted to let them go forth with bag and baggage. " Then," 
 said Khaled, " they shall go unarmed." Again Abu Obeidah in- 
 terfered, and Khaled at length consented that they should have 
 arms sufficient to defend themselves against robbers and wild 
 beasts; he, however, who had a lance, should have no sword; 
 and he who had a bow, should have no lance. 
 
 Thomas and Herbis, who were to conduct this unhappy caravan, 
 pitched their tents in the meadow adjacent to the city, whither all 
 repaired who were to follow them into exile; each laden with, 
 plate, jewels, silken stuffs, and whatever was most precious and 
 least burdensome. Among other things was a wardrobe of the 
 emperor Heraclius, in which there were above three hundred 
 loads of costly silks and cloth of gold. 
 
 All being assembled, the sad multitude set forth on their way- 
 faring. Those who from pride, from patriotism, or from religion, 
 thus doomed themselves to poverty and exile, were among the 
 noblest and most highly bred of the land ; people accustomed to 
 soft and luxurious life, and to the silken abodes of palaces. Of 
 this number was the wife of Thomas, a daughter of the emperor 
 Heraclius, who was attended by her maidens. It was a piteous
 
 ABU BEKEK. 201 
 
 sight to behold aged men, delicate and shrinking women, and 
 helpless children, Ihus setting forth on a wandering journey through 
 wastes and deserts, and rugged mountains, infested by savage 
 hordes. Many a time did they turn to cast a look of fondness and 
 despair on those sumptuous palaces and delightful gardens, once 
 their pride and joy; and still would they turn and weep, and beat 
 their breasts, and gaze through their tears on the stately towers 
 of Damascus, and the flowery banks of the Pharpar. 
 
 Thus terminated the hard -contested siege of Damascus, which 
 Voltaire has likened for its stratagems, skirmishes, and single com- 
 bats, to Homer's siege of Troy. More than twelve months elapsed 
 between the time the Saracens first pitched their tents before it and 
 the day of its surrender. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 Slory of Jonas and Eudocea. Pursuit of the exiles. Death of the Caliph Abu Beker. 
 
 It is recorded that Derar gnashed his teeth with rage at seeing 
 the multitude of exiles departing in peace, laden with treasures, 
 which he considered as so much hard-earned spoil, lost to the 
 faithful; but what most incensed him w 7 as, that so many unbelievers 
 should escape the edge of the scimetar. Khaled would have been 
 equally indignant, but that he had secretly covenanted with himself 
 to regain this booty. For this purpose he ordered his men to 
 refresh themselves and their horses, and be in readiness for action, 
 resolving to pursue the exiles when the three days of grace should 
 have expired. 
 
 A dispute with Abu Obeidah concerning a quantity of grain, 
 which the latter claimed for the citizens, detained him one day 
 longer, and he was about to abandon the pursuit as hopeless, when 
 a guide presented himself who knew all the country, and the 
 shortest passes through the mountains. The story of this guide is 
 worthy of notice, as illustrating the character of these people and 
 these wars. 
 
 During the siege, Derar, as has been related, was appointed to 
 patrol round the city and the camp, with two thousand horse. As 
 a party of these were one night going their rounds, near the walls, 
 they heard the distant neighing of a horse, and looking narrowly 
 round, descried a horseman coming stealthily from the gate 
 Keisan. Halting in a shadowy place, they waited until he came 
 close to them, when, rushing forth, they made him prisoner. He 
 was a youthful Syrian, richly and gallantly arrayed, and apparently 
 a person of distinction. Scarcely had they seized him when they 
 beheld another horseman issuing from the same gate, who in a soft 
 voice called upon their captive, by the name of Jonas. They com- 
 manded the latter to invite his companion to advance. He seemed 
 to reply, and called out something in Greek : upon hearing which.
 
 202 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 the other turned bridle and galloped back into the city. The 
 Arabs, ignorant of Greek, and suspecting the words to be a warning, 
 would have slain their prisoner on the spot; but, upon second 
 thoughts, conducted him to Khaled. 
 
 The youth avowed himself a nobleman of Damascus, and betrothed 
 to a beautiful maiden named Eudocea; but her parents, from some 
 capricious reason, had withdrawn their consent to his nuptials; 
 whereupon the lovers had secretly agreed to fly from Damascus. 
 A sum of gold had bribed the sentinels who kept watch that night 
 at the gate. The damsel, disguised in male attire, and accom- 
 panied by two domestics, was following her lover at a distance, as 
 he sallied in advance. His reply in Greek, when she called upon 
 him, was, " the bird is caught! " a warning at the hearing of which 
 she had fled back to the city. 
 
 Khaled was not the man to be moved by a love tale ; but he gave 
 the prisoner his alternative. " Embrace the faith of Islam," said 
 he, " and when Damascus falls into our power, you shall have your 
 betrothed ; refuse, and your head is forfeit." 
 
 The youth paused not between a scimetar and a bride. He 
 made immediate profession of faith between the hands of Khaled, 
 and thenceforth fought zealously for the capture of the city', since 
 its downfall was to crown his hopes. 
 
 \Vhen Damascus yielded to its foes, he sought the dwelling of 
 Eudocea, and learnt a new proof of her affection. Supposing, on 
 his capture by the Arabs, that he had fallen a martyr to his faith, 
 she had renounced the world, and shut herself up in a convent. 
 With throbbing heart he hastened to the convent, but when the 
 lofty-minded maiden beheld in him a renegade, she turned from 
 him with scorn, retired to her cell, and refused to see him more. 
 She was among the noble ladies who followed Thomas and Herbis 
 into exile. Her lover, frantic at the thoughts of losing her, reminded 
 Khaled of his promise to restore her to him, and entreated that she 
 might be detained; but Khaled pleaded the covenant of Abu 
 Obeidah. according to which all had free leave to depart. 
 
 "When Jonas afterwards discovered that Khaled meditated a 
 pursuit of the exiles, but was discouraged by the lapse of time, he 
 offered to conduct him by short and secret passes through the 
 mountains, which would insure his overtaking them. His offer was 
 accepted. On the fourth day after the departure of the exiles, 
 Khaled set out in pursuit, with four thousand chosen horsemen; 
 who, by the advice of Jonas, were disguised as Christian Arabs. 
 For some time they traced the exiles along the plains, by the 
 numerous foot-prints of mules and camels, and by articles thrown 
 away to enable them to travel more expeditiously. At length, 
 the foot-prints turned to wards the mountains of Lebanon, and were 
 lost in their arid and rocky defiles. The Moslems began to falter. 
 " Courage ! "' cried Jonas, " they will be entangled among the 
 mountains. They cannot now escape." 
 
 They continued their weary course, stopping only at the stated 
 hours of prayer. They had now to climb the high and cragged 
 passes of Lebanon, along rifts and glens worn by winter torrents. 
 The horses struck fire at every tramp ; they cast their shoes, their
 
 ABU BEKER. 503 
 
 hoofs were battered on the rocks, and many of them were lamed 
 and disabled. The horsemen dismounted and scrambled up on 
 foot, leading their weary and crippled steeds. Their clothes were 
 worn to shreds, and the soles of their iron-shod boots were torn 
 from the upper leathers. The men murmured and repined ; never 
 in all their marches had they experienced such hardships pthey 
 insisted on halting, to rest and to bait their horses. Even Khaled, 
 whose hatred of infidels furnished an impulse almost equal to the 
 lover's passion, began to flag, and reproached the renegade "as the 
 cause of all this trouble. 
 
 Jonas still urged them forward : he pointed to fresh footprints 
 and tracks of horses that must have recently passed. After a few 
 hours' refreshment they resumed the pursuit; passing within sight 
 of Jabalah and Laodicea, but without venturing within their gates, 
 lest the disguise of Christian Arabs, which deceived the simple 
 peasantry, might not avail with the shrewder inhabitants of the 
 towns. 
 
 Intelligence received from a country boor increased their per- 
 plexity. The emperor Heraclius, fearing that the arrival of the 
 exiles might cause a panic at Antioch, had sent orders for them to 
 proceed along the sea-coast to Constantinople. This gave their 
 pursuers a greater chance to overtake them : but Khaled was 
 startled at learning, in addition, that troops were assembling to be 
 sent against him, and that but a single mountain separated him 
 from them. He now feared they might intercept his return, or 
 fall upon Damascus in his absence. A sinister dream added to his 
 uneasiness, but it was favourably interpreted by Abda'lrahman, 
 and he continued the pursuit. 
 
 A tempestuous night closed on them : the rain fell in torrents, 
 and man and beast was ready to sink with fatigue : still they were 
 urged forward : the fugitives could not be far distant, the enemy 
 was at hand : they must snatch their prey and retreat. The morning 
 dawned ; the storm cleared up, and the sun shone brightly on the 
 surrounding heights* They dragged their steps wearily, however, 
 along the defiles, now 7 swept by torrents or filled with mire, until 
 the scouts in the advance gave joyful signal from the mountain 
 brow. It commanded a grassy meadow, sprinkled with flowers, 
 and watered by a running stream, 
 
 On the borders of the rivulet was the caravan of exiles, reposing 
 in the sunshine from the faligues of the recent storm. Some were 
 sleeping on the grass, others were taking their morning repast; 
 while the meadow was gay with embroidered robes and silks of 
 various dyes spread out to dry upon the herbage. The weary 
 Moslems, worn out with the horrors of the mountains, gazed with 
 delight on the sweetness and freshness of the meadow; but Khaled 
 eyed the caravan with an eager eye, and the lover only stretched 
 his gaze, o catch a glimpse of his betrothed among the females 
 reclining en the margin of the stream. 
 
 Having cautiously reconnoitred the caravan without being per- 
 ceived, Khaled disposed of his band in four squadrons; the first 
 commanded by Derar, the second by Rafi Ibn Omeirah, the third 
 by Abda'lrahman, and the fourth led by himself. He gave orders
 
 204 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 that the squadrons should make their appearance successively, one 
 at a time, to deceive the enemy as to their force, and that there 
 should be no pillaging until the victory was complete. 
 
 Having offered up a prayer, he gave the word to his division, 
 "In the name of Allah and the prophet ! " and led to the attack. 
 The -Christians were roused from their repose on beholding a 
 squadron rushing down from the mountain. They were deceived 
 at first by the Greek dresses, but were soon aware of the truth; 
 though the small number of the enemy gave them but little dread. 
 Thomas hastily marshalled five thousand men to receive the shock 
 of the onset., with such weapons as had been left them. Another 
 and another division came hurrying down from the mountain ; and 
 the fight was furious and well contested. Thomas and Khaled 
 fought hand to hand ; but the Christian champion was struck to 
 the ground. Abda'lrahman cut off his head, elevated it on the 
 spear of the standard of the cross which he had taken at Damas- 
 cus, and called upon the Christians to behold the head of their 
 leader. 
 
 Rafi Ibn Omeirah penetrated with his division into the midst of 
 the encampment to capture the women. They stood courageously 
 on the defensive, hurling stones at their assailants. Among them 
 was a female of matchless beauty, dressed in splendid attire, with 
 a diadem of jewels. It w : as the reputed daughter of the emperor, 
 the wife of Thomas. Rafi attempted to seize her, but she hurled 
 a stone that struck his horse in the head and killed him. The Arab 
 drew his scimetar, and would have slain her, but she cried for 
 mercy, so he took her prisoner, and gave her in charge to a trusty 
 follower. 
 
 In the midst of the carnage and confusion, Jonas hastened in 
 search of his betrothed. If she had treated him with disdain as a 
 renegade, she now regarded him with horror, as the traitor who 
 had brought this destruction upon his unhappy countrymen. All 
 his entreaties for her to forgive and be reconciled to him, were of 
 no avail. She solemnly vowed to repair to Constantinople and 
 end her days in a convent. Finding supplication fruitless, he 
 seized her, and after a violent struggle, threw her on the ground 
 and made her prisoner. She made no further resistance, but 
 submitting to captivity, seated herself quietly on the grass. The 
 lover flattered himself that she relented ; but, watching her oppor- 
 tunity, she suddenly drew forth a poniard, plunged it in her breast, 
 and fell dead at his feet. 
 
 "While this tragedy was performing the general battle, or rather 
 carnage, continued. Khaled ranged the field in quest of Herbis, 
 but, while fighting pell-mell among a throng of Christians, that 
 commander came behind him and dealt a blow that severed his 
 helmet, and would have cleft his skull but for the folds of his 
 turban. The sword of Herbis fell from his hand with the violence 
 of the blow, and before he could recover it, he was cut in pieces 
 by the followers of Khaled. The struggle of the unhappy Chris- 
 tians was at an end : all were slain, or taken prisoners, except 
 one, who was permitted to depart, and who bore the dismal tidings 
 of the massacre to Constantinople,
 
 ABU BEKER. 205 
 
 The renegade Jonas was loud in his lamentations for the loss of 
 his betrothed, but his Moslem comrades consoled him with one of 
 the doctrines of the faith he had newly embraced. "It was written 
 in the book of fate," said they, "that you should never possess 
 that woman ; but be comforted, Allah has doubtless greater bles- 
 sings in store for you ;" and, in fact, Rafi Ibn Omeirah, out of 
 compassion for his distress, presented him with the beautiful prin- 
 cess he had taken captive. Khaled consented to the gift, provided 
 the emperor did not send to ransom her. 
 
 There was now no lime to be lost. In this headlong pursuit 
 they had penetrated above a hundred and fifty miles into the heart 
 of the enemy's country, and might be cut off in their retreat. "To 
 horse and away," therefore, was the word. The plunder was 
 hastily packed upon the mules, the scanty number of surviving 
 exiles were secured, and the marauding band set off on a forced 
 march for Damascus. While on their way they were one day 
 alarmed by a cloud of dust, through which their scouts descried 
 the banner of the cross. They prepared for a desperate conflict. 
 It proved, however, a peaceful mission. An ancient bishop, fol- 
 lowed by a numerous train, sought from Khaled, in the emperor's 
 name, the liberation of his daughter. The haughty Saracen re- 
 leased her without ransom. "Take her," said he, "but tell your 
 master I intend to have him in exchange ; never will I cease this 
 war until I have wrested from him every foot of territory." 
 
 To indemnify the renegade for this second deprivation, a large 
 sum of gold was given him, wherewith to buy a wife from among 
 the captives ; but he now disclaimed for ever all earthly love, and, 
 like a devout Mahometan, looked forward for consolation among 
 the black-eyed Houris of paradise. He continued more faithful to 
 his new faith and new companions than he had been to the religion 
 of his fathers and the friends of his infancy ; and after serving the 
 Saracens in a variety of ways, earned an undoubted admission to 
 the paradise of the prophet, being shot through the breast at the 
 battle of Yermouk. 
 
 Thus perished this apostate, says the Christian chronicler ; but 
 Alwakedi, the venerable Cadi of Bagdad, adds a supplement to the 
 story, for the encouragement of all proselytes to the Islam faith. 
 He states that Jonas, after his death, was seen in a vision by Rafi 
 Ibn Omeirah, arrayed in rich robes and golden sandals, and walk- 
 ing in a flowery mead ; and the beatified renegade assured him 
 that, for his exemplary services, Allah had given him seventy of 
 the black-eyed damsels of paradise, each of resplendent beauty, 
 sufficient to throw the sun and moon in the shade. Rafi related 
 his vision to Khaled, who heard it with implicit faith. "This it 
 is," said that Moslem zealot, "to die a martyr to the faith. Happy 
 the man to whose lot it falls ! " * 
 
 Khaled succeeded in leading his adventurous band safely back to 
 Damascus, where they were joyfully received by their companions 
 
 i The story of Jonas and Eudocea has been made the subject of an English tragedy by 
 Hughes, entitled The Siege of Damascus; but the lover's name is changed to Phocyas, 
 the incidents are altered, and the catastrophe is made entirely different.
 
 206 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 in arms, who had entertained great fears for their safety. He now 
 divided the rich spoils taken in his expedition ; four parts were 
 given to the officers and soldiers, a fifth he reserved for the public 
 treasury, and sent it off to the Caliph, with letters informing him 
 of the capture of Damascus ; of his disputes with Abu Obeidah as 
 to the treatment of the city and its inhabitants, and lastly of his 
 expedition in pursuit of the exiles, and his recovery of the wealth 
 they were bearing away. These missives were sent in the con- 
 fident expectation that his policy of the sword would far outshine, 
 in the estimation of the Caliph, and of all true Moslems, the more 
 peaceful policy of Abu Obeidah. 
 
 It was written in the book of fate, say the Arabian historians, 
 that the pious Abu Beker should die without hearing of the bright- 
 est triumph of the Islam faith ; the very day that Damascus sur- 
 rendered, the Caliph breathed his last at Medina. Arabian authors 
 differ as to the cause of his death. Abulfeda asserts that he was 
 poisoned by the Jews, in his frugal repast of rice ; but his daughter 
 Ayesha, with more probability, ascribes his death to bathing on 
 an unusually cold day, which threw him into a fever. AMiile 
 struggling with his malady, he directed his chosen friend Omar to 
 perform the religious functions of his office in his stead. 
 
 Feeling his end approaching, he summoned his secretary, Oth- 
 man Ibu Affan, and in presence of several of the principal Moslems, 
 dictated as follows : "I, Abu Beker Ibn Abu Kahafa, being on the 
 point of leaving this world for the next, and at that moment when 
 infidels believe, when the wicked cease to doubt, and when liars 
 speak the truth, do make this declaration of my will to the Moslems. 
 
 I nominate, as my successor/' Here he was overtaken with 
 
 faintness so that he could not speak. Othman, who knew his in- 
 tentions, added the name of Omar Ibn al Khattab. "When Abu 
 Beker came to himself, and saw what his secretary had written, 
 "God bless thee," said he, "for this foresight!" He then con- 
 tinued to dictate. " Listen to him, and obey him, for, as far as I 
 know him, and have seen him, he is integrity itself. He is compe- 
 tent to every thing he undertakes. He will rule with justice ; if 
 not, God, who knows all secrets, will reward him according to his 
 works, I mean all for the best, but I cannot see into the hidden 
 thoughts of men. Farewell. Act uprightly, and the blessing of 
 Allah be upon you." 
 
 He ordered this testament to be sealed with his seal, and copies 
 of it to be sent to the principal authorities, civil and military. 
 Then, having sent for Omar, he told him of his having nominated 
 him as his successor. 
 
 Omar was a stern and simple-minded man ; unambitious of 
 posts and dignities. "Oh successor to the apostle of God !" said 
 he, "spare me /rom this burthen. I have no need of the Ca- 
 liphat." "But the Caliphat has need of you!" replied the dying 
 Abu Beker. 
 
 He went on to claim his acceptance of the office as a proof of 
 friendship to himself, and of devotion to the public good, for he 
 considered him eminently calculated to maintain an undivided rule 
 over the restless people so newly congregated into an empire.
 
 OMAR. 207 
 
 Having brought him to accept, he gave him much dying counsel, 
 and after he had retired, prayed fervently for his success, and that 
 the dominion of the faith might be strengthened and extended 
 during his reign. Having thus provided for a quiet succession to 
 his oilice, the good Caliph expired in the arms of his daughter 
 Ayesha, in the sixty-fourth year of his age, having reigned two 
 years, three months, and nine days. At the time of his death his 
 father and mother were still living, the former ninety-seven years 
 of age. When the ancient Moslem heard of the death of his son, 
 he merely said, in Scriptural phrase : "The Lord hath given, and 
 the Lord hath taken away. Blessed be the name of the Lord!" 
 
 Abu Beker had four wives ; the last had been the widow of 
 Jaafar, who fell in the battle of Muta. She bore him two sons 
 after his sixtieth year. He does not appear, however, to have had 
 the same fondness for the sex as the prophet, notwithstanding his 
 experience in wedlock. "The women," he used to say, "are all 
 an evil ; but the greatest evil of all is, that they are necessary." 
 
 Abu Beker was universally lamented by his subjects,, and he 
 deserved their lamentations, for he had been an excellent ruler, 
 just, moderate, temperate, frugal, and disinterested. His reign 
 was too short to enable him to carry out any extensive schemes ; 
 but it was signalized by the promptness and ability with which, 
 through the aid of the sword, he quelled the wide-spreading insur- 
 rections on the death of the prophet, and preserved the scarcely 
 launched empire of Islam from perfect shipwreck. He left behind 
 him a name dear to all true Moslems, and an example which, 
 Omar used to say, would be a difficult pattern for his successors 
 to imitate. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Election of Omar, second Caliph. Khaled superseded in command by Obeidab. 
 Magnanimous conduct of those generals. Expedition to the convent of Abyla. 
 
 The nomination of Omar to the succession was supported by 
 Ayesha, and acquiesced in by AH, who saw that opposition would 
 be ineffectual. The election took place on the day of the decease 
 of Abu Beker. The character of the new Caliph has already, 
 through his deeds, been made known in some measure to the reader; 
 yet a sketch of him may not be unacceptable. He was now about 
 fifty-three years of age; atall dark man, with a grave demeanour and 
 a bald head. He was so tall, says one of his biographers, that 
 when he sat, he \vas higher than those who stood. His strengh was 
 uncommon, and he used the left as adroitly as the right hand. 
 Though so bitter an enemy of Islamism at first as to seek the life of 
 Mahomet, he became from the moment of his conversion one of its 
 most sincere and strenuous champions. He had taken an active 
 part in the weightiest and most decisive events of the prophet's ca-
 
 208 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 reer. His name stands at the head of the weapon companions at 
 Beder, Ohocl, Khaibar, Honein, and Tabuc, at the defence of Me- 
 dina, and the capture of Mecca, and indeed he appears to have been 
 the soul of most of the early military enterprises of the faith. His 
 zeal was prompt and almost fiery in i(s operations. He expounded 
 and enforced the doctrines of Islam like a soldier; when a question 
 was too knotty for his logic, he was ready to sever it with the 
 sword, and to strike off the head of him who persisted in false 
 arguing and unbelief. 
 
 In the administration of affairs, his probity and justice were pro- 
 verbial. In private life he was noted for abstinence and frugality, 
 and a contempt for the false grandeur of the world. Water was 
 his only beverage. His food a few dates, or a few bits of barley 
 bread and salt; but in time of penance, even salt was retrenched 
 as a luxury. His austere piety and self-denial, and the simplicity 
 and almost poverty of his appearance, Avere regarded with reverence 
 in those primitive days of Islam. He had shrewd maxims on which 
 hesquared his conduct, of which the following is a specimen. " Four 
 things come not back: the spoken word; the sped arrow; the past 
 life, and the neglected opportunity." 
 
 During his reign mosques were erected without number for the 
 instruction and devotion of the faithful, and prisons for the punish- 
 ment of delinquents. He likewise put in use a scourge with twisted 
 thongs for the correction of minor offences, among which he in- 
 cluded satire and scandal, and so potently and extensively was it 
 plied, that the word went round, "Omar's twisted scourge is more 
 to be feared than his sword." 
 
 On assuming his office, he was saluted as Caliph of the Caliph of 
 the apostle of God, in other words, successor to the successor of the 
 prophet. Omar objected, that such a title must lengthen with every 
 successor, until it became endless; upon which it was proposed and 
 agreed that he should receive the title of Emir-al-Moumenin, that 
 is to say, Commander of the Faithful. This title altered into Mira- 
 mamolin, was subsequently borne by such Moslem sovereigns as 
 held independent sway, acknowledging no superior, and is equi- 
 valent to that of emperor. 
 
 One of the first measures of the new Caliph was with regard to 
 the army in Syria. His sober judgment was not to be dazzled by 
 daring and brilliant exploits in arms, and he doubted the fitness of 
 Rivaled for the general command. He acknowledged his valour and 
 military skill, but considered him rash, fiery and prodigal; prone 
 to hazardous and extravagant adventure, and more fitted to be a 
 partisan than a leader. He resolved, therefore, to take the prin- 
 cipal command of the army out of such indiscreet hands, and re- 
 store it to Abu Obeidah, who, he said, had proved himself worthy 
 of it by his piety, modesty, moderation, and good faith. He ac- 
 cordingly wrote on a skin of parchment, a letter to Abu Obeidah, 
 informing him of the death of Abu Beker, and his own elevation 
 as Caliph, and appointing him commander-in-chief of the army of 
 Syria. 
 
 The letter was delivered to Abu Obeidah at I he time that Khaled 
 was absent in pursuit of the caravan of exiles. The good Obeidah
 
 OMAR. 203 
 
 was surprised, but sorely perplexed by the contents. His own mo- 
 desty made him unambitious of high command, and his opinion of 
 the signal valour and brilliant services of Khaledmade him loth to 
 supersede him, and doubtful whether the Caliph would not feel 
 disposed to continue him as commander-in-chief when he should 
 hear of his recent success at Damascus. He resolved, therefore, to 
 keep for the present, the contents of the Caliph's letter to himself; 
 and accordingly on Khaled's return to Damascus continued to treat 
 him as commander, and suffered him to write his second letter to 
 Abu Bekcr, giving him an account of his recent pursuit and plun- 
 dering of the exiles. 
 
 Omar had not been long installed in office, when he received the 
 first letters of Khaled announcing the capture of Damascus. These 
 tidings occasioned the most extravagant joy at Medina, and the 
 valour of Khaled was extolled by the multitude to the very skies. In 
 the midst of their rejoicings they learnt with astonishment, that the 
 general command had been transferred to Abu Obeidah. The ad- 
 mirers of Khaled were loud in their expostulations. "What!" 
 cried they, "dismiss Khaled when in the full career of victory? 
 Remember the reply of Abu Beker, when a like measure was urged 
 upon him. 'I will not sheathe the sword of God, drawn for the 
 promotion of the faith. ' ' 
 
 Omar revolved their remonstrances in his mind, but his resolution 
 remained unchanged. "Abu Obeidah," slid he, "is tender and 
 merciful; yet brave. He will be careful of his people, not lavishing 
 their lives in rash adventures and plundering inroads ; nor will ke be 
 the less formidable in battle for being moderate when victorious." 
 
 In the meantime came the second despatches of Khaled, ad- 
 dressed to Abu Beker, announcing the success of his expedition in 
 pursuit of the exiles; and requesting his decision of the matters in 
 dispute between him and Abu Obeidah. The Caliph was perplexed 
 by this letter, which showed that his election as Caliph was yet 
 unknown to the army, and that Abu Obeidah had not assumed the 
 command. He now wrote again to the latter reiterating his ap- 
 pointment ; and deciding upon the matters in dispute. He gave it 
 as his opinion, that Damascus had surrendered on capitulation, and 
 had not been taken by the sword, and directed that the stipulations 
 of the covenant should be fulfilled. He declared the pursuit of the 
 exiles iniquitous and rash ; and that it would have proved fatal, but 
 for the mercy of God. The dismissal of the emperor's daughter 
 free of ransom, he termed a prodigal action; as a large sum might 
 have been obtained and given to the poor. He counselled Abu 
 Obeidah, of whose mild and humane temper he was well aware, 
 not to be too modest and compliant, but at the same time, not to 
 risk the lives of the faithful in the mere hope of plunder. This 
 latter hint was a reproof to Khaled. 
 
 Lest this letter should likewise be suppressed through the mo- 
 desty of Abu Obeidah, he despatched it by an officer of distinction, 
 Shaded Ibn Aass, whom he appointed his representative in Syria, 
 with orders to have the letter read in presence of the Moslems, and 
 to cause him to be proclaimed Caliph at Damascus. 
 
 Shaded made good his journey, and found Khaled in his teut, 
 
 14
 
 210 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 still acting as commander-in-chief, and the army ignorant of the 
 death of Abu Beker. The tidings he brought struck every one with 
 astonishment. The first sentiment expressed was grief at the death 
 of the good Abu Beker, who was universally lamented as a father ; 
 the second was surprise at the deposition of Khaled from the com- 
 mand, in the very midst of such signal victories ; and many of his 
 officers and soldiers were loud in expressing their indignation. 
 
 If Khaled had been fierce and rude in his career of triumph, he 
 proved himself magnanimous in this moment of adversity, 
 know," said he, " that Omar does not love me ; but since Abu 
 Beker is dead, and has appointed him his successor, I submit to his 
 commands." He accordingly caused Omar to be proclaimed Caliph 
 at Damascus, and resigned his command to Abu Obeidah. The 
 latter accepted it with characteristic modesty; but evinced a fear 
 lhat Khaled would retire in disgust, and his signal services be lost 
 10 the cause of Islam. Khaled, however, soon let him know, that he 
 was as ready to serve as to command, and only required an occa- 
 sion to prove that his zeal for the faith was unabated. His personal 
 submission extorted admiration even from his enemies, and gained 
 him the fullest deference, respect, and confidence of Abu Obeidah. 
 
 About this time one of the Christian tributaries, a base-spirited 
 wretch, eager to ingratiate himself with Abu Obeidah, came and 
 informed him of a fair object of enterprise. " At no great distance 
 from this, between Tripoli and Harran there is a convent called 
 Daiz Abil Kodos, or the monastery of the Holy Father, from being 
 inhabited by a Christian hermit, so eminent for wisdom, piety and 
 mortification of the flesh, that he is looked up to as a saint; so that 
 young and old, rich and poor, resort from all parts to seek his ad- 
 vice and blessing, and not a marriage takes place among the no- 
 bles of the country, but the bride and bridegroom repair to receive 
 from him the nuptial benediction. At Easter there is an annual 
 fair held at Abyla in front of the convent, to which are brought the 
 richest manufactures of the surrounding country; silken stuffs, 
 jewels of gold and silver, and other precious productions of art ; 
 and as the fair is a peaceful congregation of people, unarmed and 
 unguarded, it will afford ample booty at little risk or trouble." 
 
 \bu Obeidah announced the intelligence to his troops. "Who," 
 said he, "will undertake this enterprise?" His eye glanced invo- 
 luntarily upon Khaled ; it was just such a foray as he was wont to 
 delight in ; but Khaled remained silent. Abu Obeidah could not 
 ask a service from one so lately in chief command ; and while he 
 hesitated, Abdallah IbnMaafar, step-son to Abu Beker, came for- 
 ward. A banner was given him, and five hundred veteran horse- 
 men, scarred in many a battle, sallied with him from the gates of 
 Damascus, guided by the traitor Christian. They halted to rest 
 before arriving at Abyla, and sent forward the Christian as a scout. 
 As he approached the place he was astonished to see it crowded 
 with an immense concourse of Greeks, Armenians, Copts and Jews, 
 in their various garbs ; beside these there was a grand procession 
 of nobles and courtiers in rich attire, and priests in religious 
 dresses, with a guard of five thousand horse ; all, as he learned, 
 escorting the daughter of the prefect of Tripoli, who was lately
 
 OMAR. 211 
 
 married, and had come with her husband to receive the blessing of 
 the venerable hermit. The Christian scout hastened back to the 
 Moslems, and warned them to retreat. 
 
 "I dare not," said Abdallah, promptly; "I fear the wrath of 
 Allah, should I turn my back. I will fight these infidels. Those 
 who help me, God will reward; those whose hearts fail them, are 
 welcome to retire." Not a Moslem turned his back. " Forward !" 
 said Abdallah to the Christian, and thou shall behold what the 
 companions of the prophet can perform." The traitor hesitated, 
 however, and was with difficulty persuaded to guide them on a 
 service of such peril. 
 
 Abdallah led his band near to Abyla, where they lay close until 
 morning. At the dawn of day, having performed the customary 
 prayer, he divided his host into five squadrons of a hundred each ; 
 they were to charge at once in five different places, with the shout 
 of Allah Achbar ! and to slay or capture without stopping to pillage 
 until the victory should be complete. He then reconnoitred the 
 place. The hermit was preaching in front of his convent to a mul- 
 titude of auditors ; the fair teemed with people in the variegated 
 garbs of the Orient. One house was guarded by a great number 
 of horsemen, and numbers of persons, richly clad, were going m 
 and out, or standing about it. In this house evidently was the 
 youthful bride. 
 
 Abdallah encouraged his followers to despise the number of these 
 foes. "Remember," cried he, "the words of the prophet. * Pa- 
 radise is under the shadow of swords!' If we conquer, we shall 
 have glorious booty; if we fall, paradise awaits us!" 
 
 The five squadrons charged as they had been ordered, with the 
 well-known war-cry. The Christians were struck with disuiay, 
 thinking the whole Moslem army upon them. There was a direful 
 confusion ; the multitude flying in all directions ; women and chil- 
 dren shrieking and crying ; booths and tents overturned, and pre- 
 cious merchandise scattered about the streets. The troops, how- 
 ever, seeing the inferior number of the assailants, plucked up spirits 
 and charged upon them. The merchants and inhabitants recovered 
 from their panic and flew to arms, and the Moslem band, hemmed 
 in among such a host of foes, seemed, say the Arabian writers, like 
 a white spot on the hide of a black camel. A Moslem trooper, 
 seeing the peril of his companions, broke his way out of the throng, 
 and throwing the reins on the neck of his steed, scoured back to 
 Damascus for succour. 
 
 In this moment of emergency Abu Obeidah forgot all scruples of 
 delicacy, and turned to the man he had superseded in office. " Fail 
 us not," cried he, "in this moment of peril; but, for God's sake, 
 hasten to deliver thy brethren from destruction." 
 
 " Had Omar given the command of the army to a child," re- 
 plied the gracious Khaled, " I should have obeyed him ; how much 
 more thee, my predecessor in the faith of Islam !" 
 
 He now arrayed himself in a coat of mail, the spoil of the false 
 prophet Mosellma; he put on a helmet of proof, and over it a skull- 
 cap, which he called the blessed cap, and attributed to it wonder- 
 ful virtues, having received the prophet's benediction. Then
 
 212 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 springing on his horse, and putting himself at the head of a chosen 
 band, he scoured off towards Abyla, with the bold Derar at his side. 
 In the meantime the troops, under Abdallah, had maintained 
 throughout the day a desperate conflict; heaps of the slain testified 
 their prowess ; but their ranks were sadly thinned, scarce one of 
 the survivors but had received repeated wounds, and they w r ere 
 ready to sink under heat, fatigue, and thirst. Towards sunset a 
 cloud of dust is seen : is it a reinforcement of their enemies ? A 
 troop of horsemen emerge. They bear the black eagle of Khaled. 
 The air resounds with the shout of Allah Achbar. The Christians 
 are assailed on either side ; some fly and are pursued to the river by 
 the unsparing sword of Khaled ; others rally round the monastery. 
 Derar engages hand to hand with the prefect of Tripoli ; they grap- 
 ple ; they struggle ; they fall to the earth ; Derar is uppermost, and, 
 drawing a poniard, plunges it into the heart of his adversary. He 
 springs upon his feet; vaults into the saddle of the prefect's horse, 
 and, with the shout of Allah Achbar, gallops in quest of new op- 
 ponents. 
 
 The battle is over. The fair is given up to plunder. Horses, 
 mules, and asses are laden with silken stuffs, rich embroidery, 
 jewels of gold and silver, precious stones, spices, perfumes, and 
 other wealthy plunder of the merchants ; but the most precious 
 part of the spoil is the beautiful bride, with forty damsels, who 
 formed her bridal train. 
 
 The monastery was left desolate, with none but the holy ancho- 
 rite to inhabit it. Khaled called upon the old man, but received 
 no answer ; he called again, but the only reply was, to invoke the 
 vengeance of heaven upon his head for the Christian blood he had 
 spilt. The fierce Saracen paused as he was driving off the spoil, 
 and laying his hand upon the hilt of his scimetar, looked back 
 grimly upon the hermit. ""What we have done," said he, "is in 
 obedience to the law of God, who commands us to slay all unbe- 
 lievers; and had not the apostle of God commanded us to let such 
 men as thee alone, thoushouldst have shared the fate of thy fellow- 
 infidels!" 
 
 The old man saw his danger in time, and discreetly held his 
 peace, and the sword of Islam remained within its scabbard. 
 
 The conquerors bore their booty and their captives back in 
 triumph to Damascus. One-fifth of the spoil was set apart for the 
 public treasury : the rest was distributed among the soldiery. 
 Derar, as a trophy of his exploit, received the horse of the prefect 
 of Tripoli, but he made it a present to his Amazonian sister Cau- 
 lali. The saddle and trappings were studded with precious stones; 
 these she picked out and distributed among her female compa- 
 nions. 
 
 Among the spoils was a cloth curiously wrought with a likeness 
 of the blessed Saviour ; which, from the exquisite workmanship or 
 the sanctity of the portrait, was afterwards sold in Arabia Felix for 
 ten times its weight in gold. 
 
 Abdallah, for his part of the spoil, asked for the daughter of the 
 prefect, having been smitten with her charms. His demand was 
 referred to the Caliph Omar and granted, and the captive beauty
 
 OMAR. 213 
 
 lived with him many years. Obeidah, in his letters to the Caliph, 
 generously set forth the magnanimous conduct and distinguished 
 prowess of Khaled on this occasion ; and entreated Omar to write 
 a letter to that general expressive of his sense of his recent services ; 
 as it might soothe the mortification he must experience from his 
 late deposition. The Caliph, however, though he replied to every 
 other part of the letter of Obeidah, took no notice, either by word 
 or deed, of that relating to Khaled, from which it was evident 
 that, in secret, he entertained no great regard for the unsparing 
 sword of Islam. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Moderate measures of Abu Obeidah. Reproved by the Caliph for his slowness. 
 
 The alertness and hardihood of the Saracens in their rapid cam- 
 paigns, have been attributed to their simple and abstemious habits . 
 They knew nothing of the luxuries of the pampered Greeks, and 
 were prohibited the use of wine. Their drink was water, their 
 food principally milk, rice, and the fruits of the earth, and their 
 dress the coarse raiments of the desert. An army of such men 
 was easily sustained ; marched rapidly from place to place ; and 
 was fitted to cope with the vicissitudes of war. The interval of 
 repose, however, in the luxurious city of Damascus, and the gene- 
 ral abundance of the fertile regions of Syria began to have their 
 effect upon the Moslem troops, and the good Abu Obeidah was es- 
 pecially scandalized at discovering that they were lapsing into the 
 use of wine, so strongly forbidden by the prophet. He mentioned 
 the prevalence of this grievous sin in his letter to the Caliph, who 
 read it in the mosque in presence of his officers. " By Allah, ex- 
 claimed the abstemious Omar; "these fellows are only fit for 
 poverty and hard fare; what is to be done with these wine- 
 bibbers?" 
 
 "Let him who drinks wine," replied AH, promptly, "receive 
 twenty bastinadoes on the soles of his feet." 
 
 "Good, it shall be so," rejoined the Caliph : and he wrote to 
 that effect to the commander-in-chief. On receiving the letter, 
 Abu Obeidah forthwith summoned the offenders, and had the pu- 
 nishment publicly inflicted for the edification of his troops ; he took 
 the occasion to descant on the enormity of the offence, and to ex- 
 hort such as had sinned in private to come forward like good 
 Moslems, make public confession, and submit to the bastinado in 
 token of repentance ; whereupon many, who had indulged in secret 
 potations, moved by his paternal exhortation, avowed their crime 
 and their repentance, and were set at ease in their consciences by 
 a sound bastinadoing and the forgiveness of the good Abu Obeidah. 
 
 That worthy commander now left a garrison of five hundred 
 liorse at Damascus, and issued forth with his host to prosecute the
 
 214 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 subjugation of Syria. He had a rich field of enterprise before him. 
 The country of Syria, from the amenity of its climate 5 tempered 
 by the vicinity of the sea and the mountains, from the fertility of 
 its soil, and the happy distribution of woods and streams, was pe- 
 culiarly adapted for the vigorous support and prolific increase of 
 animal life; it accordingly teemed with population, and was 
 studded with ancient and embattled cities and fortresses. Two of 
 the proudest and most splendid of these were Emessa (the modern 
 Hems), the capital of the plains; and Baalbec, the famous city of 
 the Sun, situated between the mountains of Lebanon. 
 
 These two cities, with others intermediate, were the objects of 
 Abu Obeidah's enterprise, and he sent Khaled in advance, with 
 Derar and Rafi Ibn Omeirah, at the head of a third of the army, 
 to scour the country about Emessa. In his own slower march, 
 with the main body of the army, he approached the city of Jushe- 
 yah, but was met by the governor, who purchased a year's truce 
 with the payment of four hundred pieces of gold and fifty silken 
 robes; and the promise to surrender the city at the expiration of 
 a year, if in that interval Baalbec and Emessa should have been 
 taken. 
 
 "When Abu Obeidah came before Emessa he found Khaled in 
 active operation. The governor of the place had died on the day 
 on which the Moslem force appeared, and the city was not fully pro- 
 visioned for a siege. The inhabitants negotiated a truce for one 
 year by the payment of ten thousand pieces of gold and two hun- 
 dred suits of silk, with the engagement to surrender at the end of 
 that term, provided he should have taken Aleppo, Alhadir, and 
 Kennesrin, and defeated the army of the emperor. Khaled would 
 have persevered in the siege, but Abu Obeidah thought it the 
 wisest policy to agree to these golden terms, by which he provided 
 himself with the sinews of war, and was enabled to proceed more 
 surely in his career. 
 
 The moment the treaty was concluded, the people of Emessa 
 threw open their gates ; held a market or fair beneath the walls, 
 and began to drive a lucrative trade; for the Moslem camp was 
 full of booty, and these marauding warriors, flushed with sudden 
 wealth, squandered plunder of all kinds, and never regarded the 
 price of any thing that struck their fancy. In the meantime pre- 
 datory bands foraged the country both far and near, and came 
 driving in sheep and cattle, and horses and camels, laden with 
 household booty of all kinds ; besides multitudes of captives. The 
 piteous lamentations of these people, torn from their peaceful 
 homes and doomed to slavery, touched the heart of Abu Obeidah. 
 He told them that all who would embrace the Islam faith should 
 have their lives and property. On such as chose to remain in infi- 
 delity, he imposed a ransom of five pieces of gold a head, besides 
 an annual tribute ; caused their names and places of abode to be 
 registered in a book, and then gave them back their property, their 
 wives, and children, on condition that they should act as guides 
 and interpreters to the Moslems in case of need. 
 
 The merciful policy of the good Abu Obeidah promised to pro- 
 mote the success of Islam, even more potently than the sword.
 
 OMAR. 215 
 
 The Syrian Greeks came in, in great numbers, to have their names 
 enregistered in the book of tributaries ; and other cities capitulated 
 for a year's truce on the terms granted to Emessa. Khaled, 
 however, who was no friend to truces and negotiations, murmured 
 at these peaceful measures, and offered to take these cities in less 
 time than it required to treat with them; but Abu Obeidah was not 
 to be swerved from the path of moderation ; thus, in a little time 
 the whole territories of Emessa, Alhadir and Kennesrin were 
 rendered sacred from maraud. The predatory warriors of the 
 desert were somewhat impatient at being thus hemmed in by pro- 
 hibited boundaries, and on one occasion had well nigh brought 
 the truce to an abrupt termination. A party of Saracen troopers, 
 in prowling along the confines of Kennesrin, came to where the 
 Christians, to mark their boundary, had erected a statue of the 
 emperor Heraclius, seated on his throne. The troopers, who had 
 a Moslem hatred of images, regarded this with derision, and amused 
 themselves with careering round and tilting at it, until one of 
 them, either accidentally or in sport, struck out one of the eyes 
 with his lance. 
 
 The Greeks were indignant at this outrage. Messengers were 
 sent to Abu Obeidah, loudly complaining of it as an intentional 
 breach of the truce, and a flagrant insult to the emperor. .Abu 
 Obeidah mildly assured them that it was his disposition most 
 rigorously to observe the truce ; that the injury to the statue must 
 have been accidental, and that no indignity to the emperor could 
 have been intended. His moderation only increased the arrogance 
 of the ambassadors; their emperor had been insulted; it was for 
 the Caliph to give redress according to the measure of the law : 
 "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth." "What! " cried som<- 
 of the over-zealous Moslems; "do the infidels mean to claim ail 
 eye from the Caliph ? " In their rage they would have slain the 
 messengers on the spot; but the quiet Abu Obeidah stayed their 
 wrath. "They speak but figuratively," said he; then taking the 
 messengers aside, he shrewdly compromised the matter, and satis- 
 fied their wounded loyalty, by agreeing that they should set up ft 
 statue of the Caliph, with glass eyes, and strike out one of them in 
 retaliation. 
 
 While Abu Obeidah was pursuing this moderate course, and 
 subduing the country by clemency rather than by force of arms, 
 missives came from the Caliph, who was astonished at receiving no 
 tidings of further conquests, reproaching him with his slowness, 
 and with preferring worldly gain to the pious exercise of the sword. 
 The soldiers when they heard of the purport of this letter, took the 
 reproaches to themselves, and wept with wexation. Abu Obeidah 
 himself was stung to the quick, and repented him of the judicious 
 truces he had made. In the excitement of the moment, he held a 
 council of war, and it was determined to lose not a day, although 
 the truces had but about a month to run. He accordingly left 
 Khaled with a strong force in the vicinity of Emessa to await tho 
 expiration of the truce, while he marched with the main host, 
 against the city of Baalbec.
 
 21G MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Siege and capture of Baalbee. 
 
 Baalbec, so called from Baal, the Syrian appellation of the Sun, 
 or Apollo, to which deity it was dedicated, ""was one of the proudest 
 cities of ancient Syria. It was the metropolis of the great and 
 fertile valley of Bekaa, lying between the mountains of Lebanon, 
 and Anti Lebanon. During the Grecian domination it was called 
 Heliopolis, which likewise means the City of the Sun. It was 
 famous for its magnificent temple of Baal, which, tradition affirms, 
 was built by Solomon the "Wise, to please one of his wives, a native 
 of Sidon and a worshipper of the Sun. The immense blocks of 
 stone of which it was constructed, were said to have been brought 
 by the genii, over whom Solomon had control by virtue of his 
 talismanic seal. Some of them remain to this day objects of 
 admiration to the traveller, and perplexity to the modern engineer. * 
 
 On his march against Baalbec, Abu Obeidah intercepted a caravan 
 of four hundred camels laden with silks and sugars, on the way to 
 that city. "With his usual clemency he allowed the captives to 
 ransom themselves ; some of whom carried to Baalbec the news of 
 his approach, and of the capture of the caravan. Herbis, the 
 governor, supposing the Saracens to be a mere marauding party, 
 sallied forth with six thousand horse and a multitude of irregular 
 foot, in hope to recover the spoils, but found to his cost that he had 
 an army to contend with, and was driven back to the city with 
 great loss, after receiving seven wounds. 
 
 Abu Obeidah set himself down before the city, and addressed 
 a letter to the inhabitants, reminding them of the invincible arms 
 of the faithful, and inviling them to profess Islamism, or pay tri- 
 bute. This letter he gave in charge to a Syrian peasant, and with 
 it a reward of twenty pieces of silver, "for Allah forbid," said the 
 conscientious general, " that I should employ thee without pay. 
 The labourer is worthy of his hire." 
 
 The messenger was drawn up by a cord to the battlements, and 
 delivered the letter to the inhabitants, many of whom, on hearing 
 the contents, were inclined to surrender. Herbis, the governor, 
 however, who was still smarting with his wounds, tore the letter 
 in pieces, and dismissed the messenger without deigning a reply. 
 
 Abu Obeidah now ordered his troops to the assault, but the gar- 
 rison made brave defence, and did such execution with their engines 
 from the walls, that the Saracens were repulsed with considerable 
 loss. The weather was cold; so Abu Obeidah, who was ever 
 mindful of the welfare of his men, sent a trumpeter round the 
 camp next morning, forbidding any man to take the field until he 
 
 i Among these huge blocks some measure fifty-eight, and one sixty-nine feet in length.
 
 OMAR. 217 
 
 had made a comfortable meal. All were now busy cooking, when, 
 in the midst of their preparations, the city gates were thrown 
 open, and tne Greeks came scouring upon them, making great 
 slaughter. They were repulsed with some difficulty, but carried 
 off prisoners and plunder. 
 
 Abu Obeidah now removed his camp out of reach of the engines, 
 and where his cavalry would have more room. He threw out 
 detachments also, to distract the attention of the enemy and oblige 
 them to fight in several places. Saad Ibn Zeid, with five hundred 
 horse and three hundred foot, was to show himself in the valley 
 opposite the gate looking towards the mountains ; while Derar, 
 with three hundred horse and two hundred foot, was stationed in 
 front of the gate on the side toward Damascus. 
 
 Herbis, the governor, seeing the Saracens move back their tents, 
 supposed them to be intimidated by their late loss. "These 
 Arabs," said he, " are half-naked vagabonds of the desert, who 
 fight without object ; we are locked up in steel, and fight for our 
 wives and children, our property and our lives. " He accordingly 
 roused his troops to make another sally, and an obstinate battle 
 ensued. One of the Moslem officers, Sohail Ibn Sabah, being 
 disabled by a sabre cut in the right arm, alighted from his horse, 
 and clambered a neighbouring hill which overlooked the field, the 
 city and its vicinity. Here he sat watching the various fortunes of 
 the field. The sally had been made through the gate before which 
 Abu Obeidah was posted, who of course received the whole brunt 
 of the attack. The battle was hot, and Sohail perceived from his 
 hill that the Moslems in this quarter were hard pressed, and that 
 the general was giving ground, and in imminent danger of being 
 routed ; while Derar and Saad remained inactive at their distant 
 posts ; no sally having been made from the gates before which they 
 were stationed. Upon this Sohail gathered together some green 
 branches, and set fire to them, so as to make a column of smoke ; 
 a customary signal by day among the Arabs, as fire was by night. 
 Derar and Saad beheld the smoke and galloped with their troops 
 in that direction. Their arrival changed the whole fortune of the 
 field. Herbis, who had thought himself on the eve of victory, now 
 found himself beset on each side and cut off from the city ! Nothing 
 but strict discipline and the impenetrable Grecian phalanx saved 
 him. His men closed shield to shield, their lances in advance, and 
 made a slow and defensive retreat, the Moslems wheeling around 
 and charging incessantly upon them. Abu Obeidad, who knew 
 nothing of the arrival of Derar and Saad, imagined the retreat of 
 the Christians a mere feint, and called back his troops; Saad, 
 however, who heard not the general's order, kept on in pursuit, 
 until he drove the enemy to the top of a hill, where they ensconced 
 themselves in an old deserted monastery. 
 
 "When Abu Obeidah learnt the secret of this most timely aid, and 
 that it was in consequence of a supposed signal from him, he 
 acknowledged that the smoke was an apt thought, and saved his 
 camp from being sacked; but he prohibited any man from re- 
 peating such an act without orders from the general. 
 
 In the meantime Herbis, the governor, finding the small number
 
 218 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 that invested the convent, sallied forth with his troops, in hopes 
 of cutting his way to the city. Never did men fight more va- 
 liantly, and they had already made great havoc, when the arrival 
 of a fresh swarm of Moslems drove them back to their forlorn 
 fortress, where they were so closely watched, that not a Grecian 
 eye could peer from the old walls without being the aim of a 
 Moslem arrow. 
 
 Abu Obeidah now invested the city more closely than ever, 
 leaving Saad, with his forces, to keep the governor encaged in the 
 monastery. The latter perceived it would be impossible to hold 
 out longer in this shattered edifice, destitute of provisions. His 
 proud spirit was completely broken, and, throwing off his silken 
 robes, and clothing him in a worn woollen garb, as suited to his 
 humble situation, he sought a conference with Saad to treat on 
 terms of capitulation. The Moslem captain replied, that he could 
 only treat for the party in the convent, whom he would re- 
 ceive as brothers, if they would acknowledge God and the pro- 
 phet, or would let them free on the pledge not to bear arms against 
 the Moslems. He proffered to lead Herbis to the general, if he 
 wished to treat for the city also; and added, that, should the ne- 
 gotiation fail, he and his Greeks might return into their convent, 
 and let God and the sword decide. 
 
 Herbis was accordingly led through the besieging camp into the 
 presence of Abu Obeidah, and gnawed his lip when he saw the in- 
 considerable number of the Moslem host. He offered, as a ransom 
 for the city, one thousand ounces of gold, two thousand of silver, 
 and one thousand silken robes; but Abu Obeidah demanded that he 
 should double the amount, and add thereto one thousand sabres, 
 and all the arms of the soldiers in the monastery ; as well as engage 
 in behalf of the city to pay an annual tribute; to engage to erect no 
 more Christian churches, nor ever more act in hostility against the 
 Moslem power. 
 
 These harsh terms being conceded, Herbis was permitted to en- 
 ter the city alone, and submit them to the inhabitants, all his atten- 
 dants being detained as hostages. The townsmen at first refused 
 to capitulate, saying their city was the strongest in all Syria; but 
 Herbis offered to pay down one-fourth of the ransom himself, and 
 they at length complied. One point was conceded to the people 
 of Baalbec to soothe their wounded pride. It was agreed that 
 Rafi Ibn Abdallah, who was to remain with five hundred men, 
 acting as lieutenant of Baalbec for Abu Obeidah, should encamp 
 without the Walls, and not enter the city. These matters being 
 arranged, Abu Obeidah marched with his host on other enter- 
 prises. 
 
 The Saracen troops, under Rafi Ibn Abdallah, soon ingratiated 
 themselves with the people of Baalbec. They pillaged the surrounding 
 country, and sold their booty for low prices to the townsfolk, who 
 thus grew wealthy on the spoils of their own countrymen. Herbis, 
 the governor, felt a desire to participate in these profits. He re- 
 minded his fellow-citizens how much he had paid for their ransom, 
 and what good terms he had effected for them; and then pro- 
 posed that he should have one-tenth of what they gained in traffic
 
 OMAR. 219 
 
 with the Moslems, to reimburse him.' They consented, though with 
 extreme reluctance. In a few days he found the gain so sweet 
 that he thirsted for more; he therefore told them that his reim- 
 bursement would be tedious at this rate, and proposed to receive 
 one-fourth. The people, enraged at his cupidity, rushed on him 
 with furious outcries, and killed him on the spot. The noise of the 
 tumult reached the camp of Rafi Ibn Abdallah, and a deputation of 
 the inhabitants coming forth, entreated him to enter the city and 
 govern it himself. He scrupled to depart from the terms of the 
 treaty until he had written to Abu Obeidah; but on receiving per- 
 mission from the general, he entered and took command. Thus 
 did the famous Baalbec, the ancient Heliopolis, or City of the Sun, 
 fall under the Saracen sway on the 20th of January, A. n. 636, 
 being the fifteenth year of the Hegira. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Siege of Emessa. Stratagems of the Moslems. Fanatic devotion of Ikremah. 
 Surrender of the city. 
 
 The year's truce with the city of Emessa having now expired, 
 Abu Obeidah appeared before that place, and summoned it in the 
 following form : 
 
 "In the name of the most merciful God. Abu Obeidah Ibn 
 Aljerah, general of the armies of the Commander of the Faithful, 
 Omar al KhattAb, to the people of Emessa. Let not the loftiness 
 of your walls, the strength of your bulwarks, nor the robustness of 
 your bodies, lead you into errour. Allah hath conquered stronger 
 places through the means of his servants. Your city would be of 
 no more consideration against us than a kettle of pottage set in the 
 midst of our camp. 
 
 "I invite you to embrace our holy faith, and the law revealed to 
 our prophet Mahomet; and we will send pious men to Instruct you, 
 and you shall participate in all our fortunes. 
 
 "If you refuse, you shall still be left in possession of all your 
 property on the payment of annual tribute. If you reject both 
 conditions, come forth from behind your stone walls, and let 
 Allah, the supreme judge, decide between us." 
 
 This summons was treated with scorn; and the garrison made a 
 old s ally, and handled their besiegers so roughly, that they were 
 glad when night put an end to the conflict. In the evening a crafty 
 old Arab sought the tent of Abu Obeidah; he represented the strength 
 of the place, the intrepidity of the soldiers, and the ample stock of 
 provisions, which would enable it to stand a weary siege. He 
 suggested a stratagem, however, by which it might be reduced : 
 and Abu Obeidah adopted his counsel. Sending a messenger into 
 the city, he offered to the inhabitants to strike his tents, and lead 
 his troops to the attack of other places, provided they would 
 furnish him provisions for five days' march. His offer was promptly 
 accepted, and the provisions were furnished. Abu Obeidah now
 
 220 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 pretended that, as his march would be long, a greater supply 
 would be necessary : he continued to buy, therefore, as long as 
 the Christians had provisions to sell, and in this manner ex- 
 hausted their magazines; and as the scouts from other cities beheld 
 the people of Emessa throw open their gates and bring forth provi- 
 sions, it became rumoured throughout the country that the city had 
 surrendered. 
 
 Abu Obeidah, according to promise, led his host against other 
 places. The first was Arrestan, a fortified city, well watered, pro- 
 visioned, and garrisoned. His summons being repeated, and re- 
 jected, he requested the governor of the place to let him leave 
 there twenty chests of cumbrous articles, which impeded him in 
 his movements. The request was granted with great pleasure at 
 getting clear so readily of such marauders. The twenty chests, 
 secured with padlocks, were taken into the citadel, but every chest 
 had a sliding bottom, and contained an armed man. Among the 
 picked warriors thus concealed, were Derar, Abda'lrahman, and 
 Abdallah Ibn Jaafar; while Khaled, with a number'of troops, was 
 placed in ambush to co-operate with those in the chests. 
 
 The Moslem host departed. The Christians went to church 
 to return thanks for their deliverance, and the sounds of their 
 hymns of triumph reached the ears of Derar and his comrades. 
 Upon this they issued forth from their chests, seized the wife of the 
 governor, and obtained from her the keys of the gates. Abdallah, 
 with fourteen men, hastened to the church and closed the doors 
 upon the congregation ; while Derar, with four companions, threw 
 open the gates with the cry of Allah Achbar; upon which Khaled 
 and his forces rushed from their ambuscade, and the city was taken 
 almost without bloodshed. 
 
 The city of Shaizar was next assailed, and capitulated on favourable 
 terms; and now Abu Obeidah returned before Emessa, and once 
 more summoned it to surrender. The governor remonstrated 
 loudly, reminding the Moslem general of his treaty, by which he 
 engaged to depart from Emessa, and carry the war against other 
 places. " I engaged to depart," replied Abu Obeidah, " but I did 
 not engage not to return. I have carried the war against other 
 places, and have subdued Arrestan and Shaizar." 
 
 The people of Emessa now perceived how they had been cir- 
 cumvented. Their magazines had been drained of provisions, and 
 they had not wherewithal to maintain them against a siege. The 
 governor, however, encouraged them to try the chance of a battle 
 as before. They prepared for the fight by prayers in the churches ; 
 and the governor took the sacrament in the church of St. George : 
 but besought to enhearten himself by grosser means, for we are 
 told he ate the whole of a roasted kid for his supper, and caroused 
 on wine until the crowing of the cock. In the morning, early, he 
 arrayed himself in rich apparel, and sallied forth at the head of five 
 thousand horsemen, all men of strength and courage, and well 
 armed. They charged the besiegers so bravely, and their archers 
 so galled them from the walls, that the Moslem force gave way. 
 
 Khaled now threw himself in front of the battle, and enacted 
 wondrous feats to rally his soldiers and restore the fight. In an
 
 OMAR. 221 
 
 encounter, hand to hand, with a Greek horseman, his scimetar broke, 
 and he was weaponless, but closing with his adversary, he clasped 
 him in his arms, crushed his ribs, and drawing him from his 
 saddle, threw him dead to the earth. The imminent peril of the 
 fight roused a frantic valour in the Moslems. In the heat of en- 
 thusiasm Ikremah, a youthful cousin of Khaled, galloped about the 
 field, fighting with reckless fury, and raving about the joys of para- 
 dise promised to all true believers who fell in the battles of the 
 faith. " I see," cried he, " the black-eyed Houris of Paradise. 
 One of them, if seen on earth, would make mankind die of love. 
 They are smiling on us. One'of them waves a handkerchief of 
 green silk, and holds a cup of precious stones. She beckons me; 
 come hither quickly, she cries, my well-beloved ! " In this way 
 he went, shouting Al Jennah! Al Jennah! Paradise! Paradise! 
 charging into the thickest of the Christians, and making fearful 
 havoc, until he reached the place where the governor was fighting, 
 who sent a javelin through his heart, and despatched him in quest 
 of his vaunted Elysium. 
 
 Night alone parted the hosts, and the Moslems retired ex- 
 hausted to their tents, glad to repose from so rude a fight. Even 
 Khaled counselled Abu Obeidah, to have recourse to stratagem, 
 and make a pretended fight the next morning ; to draw the Greeks, 
 confident through this day's success, into disorder, for while col- 
 lected, their phalanx presented an impenetrable wall to the Moslem 
 horsemen. 
 
 Accordingly, at the dawning of the day, the Moslems retreated ; 
 at first with a show of order; then with a feigned confusion, for it 
 was an Arab stratagem of war to scatter and rally again in the 
 twinkling of an eye. The Christians, thinking their flight unfeigned, 
 broke up their steady phalanx, some making headlong pursuit, 
 while others dispersed to plunder the Moslem camp. 
 
 Suddenly the Moslems faced about, surrounded the confused 
 mass of Christians, and fell upon it, as the Arabian historian says, 
 " like eagles upon a carcass." Khaled and Derar and other chiefs 
 spirited them on with shouts of Allah Achbar, and a terrible rout 
 and slaughter ensued. The number of Christian corpses on that 
 field exceeded .sixteen hundred. The governor was recognized 
 among the slain by his enormous bulk, his bloated face, and his 
 costly apparel, fragrant with perfumes. 
 
 The city of Emessa surrendered as a sequel to that fight, but the 
 Moslems could neither stay to take possession, nor afford to leave 
 a garrison. Tidings had reached them of the approach of an im- 
 mense army, composed of the heavily armed Grecian soldiery and 
 the light troops of the desert, that threatened completely to over- 
 whelm them. Various and contradictory were the counsels in this 
 moment of agitation and alarm. Some advised that they should 
 hasten back to their native deserts, where they would be reinforced 
 by their friends, and where the hostile army could not find suste- 
 nance ; but Abu Obeidah objected that such a retreat would be at- 
 tributed to cowardice. Others cast a wistful eye upon the stately 
 dwellings, the delightful gardens, the fertile fields , and green pas- 
 tures, which they had just won by the sword, and chose rather to
 
 222 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 stay and fight for this land of pleasure and abundance, than return 
 to famine and the desert. Khaled decided the question. It would 
 not do to linger there, he said ; Constantino, the emperor's son, 
 being not far off, at Caesarea, with forty thousand men ; he advised, 
 therefore, that they should march to Yennouk, on the borders of 
 Palestine and Arabia, where they would be within reach of assis- 
 tance from the Caliph , and might await, with confidence, the at- 
 tack of the Imperial army. The advice of Khaled was adopted. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Advance of a powerful Imperial army. Skirmishes of Khaled. Capture of Derar. 
 Interview of Khaled and Manuel. 
 
 The rapid conquests of the Saracens, had alarmed the emperor 
 Heraclius for the safety of his rich province of Syria. Troops had 
 been levied both in Europe and Asia, and transported by sea and 
 land to various parts of the invaded country. The main body, 
 consisting of eighty thousand men, advanced to seek the Moslem 
 host, under the command of a distinguished general, called IMahan, 
 by the Arabian writers, and Manuel by the Greeks. On its way, 
 the Imperial army was joined by Jabalah Ibn al Aynham, chief or 
 king of the Christian tribe of Gassan. This Jabalah had professed 
 the Mahometan faith, but had apostatized in consequence of the 
 following circumstance. He had accompanied the Caliph Omar on 
 a pilgrimage to Mecca, and was performing the religious ceremony 
 of the Towah, or sacred walk seven times round the Caaba, when 
 an Arab of the tribe of Fezarah accidentally trod on the skirt of his 
 Ihram or pilgrim scarf, so as to draw it from his shoulders. Turn- 
 ing fiercely upon the Arab, " Woe be unto thee," cried he, " for 
 uncovering my back in the sacred house of God." The pilgrim 
 protested it was an accident, but Jabalah buffeted him in the face, 
 bruising him sorely, and beating out four of his teeth. The pilgrim 
 complained to Omar, but Jabalah justified himself, stating the in- 
 dignity he had suffered. " Had it not been for my reverence for 
 the Caaba, and for the prohibition to shed blood within the sacred 
 city, I would have slain the offender on the spot." " Thou hast 
 confessed thy fault," said Omar, " and unless forgiven by thy 
 adversary, must submit to the law of retaliation, ' an eye for an 
 eye, and a tooth for a tooth.'" " I am a king," replied Jabalah, 
 proudly, " and he is but a peasant." " Ye are both Moslems," 
 rejoined Omar, " and in the sight of Allah, who is no respecter of 
 persons, ye are equal." Theutaiost that Jabalah could obtain from 
 the rigid justice of Omar was, that the execution of the sentence 
 might be postponed until the next day. In the night he made his 
 escape and fled to Constantinople, were be abjured Islamism, 
 resumed the Christian faith, and went over to the service of the 
 emperor Heraclius. He bad now brought sixty thousand Arabs to
 
 OMAR. 223 
 
 the aid of Manuel. Such was the powerful host, the approach of 
 which had compelled the Moslems to abandon Emessa on the very 
 moment of surrender. They had marched to Yermouk, a place 
 noted for its pleasant groves, and the sweet salubrity of its air, and 
 lay encamped on the banks of a little stream of the same name, 
 heretofore obscure, but now destined to become famous by a 
 battle decisive of the fate of Syria. 
 
 Manuel advanced slowly and deliberately with his heavily armed 
 Grecian soldiery ; but he sent Jabalah in the advance, to scour the 
 country with his light Arab troops, as best fitted to cope with the 
 skirmishing warriors of the desert ; thus, as he said, " using diamond 
 to cut diamond." The course of these combined armies was marked 
 with \vaste, rapine, and outrage, and they inflicted all kinds of 
 injuries and indignities on those Christian places which had made 
 treaties with or surrendered to the Moslems. 
 
 While Manuel with his main army was yet at a distance, he sent 
 proposals of peace to Abu Obeidah, according to the commands of 
 the emperor. His proposals were rejected ; but Obeidah sent 
 several messengers to Jabalah, reproaching him with his apostasy, 
 and his warfare against his countrymen, and endeavouring to per- 
 suade him to remain neutral in the impending battle. Jabalah 
 replied, however, that his faith was committed to the emperor, and 
 he was resolved to fight in his cause. 
 
 Upon this Khaledcame forward, and offered to take this apostate 
 in his own hands. " He is far in the advance of the main army," 
 said he, " let me have a small body of picked men chosen by 
 myself, and I will fall upon him and his infidel Arabs before Manuel 
 can come up to their assistance." 
 
 His proposal was condemned by many as rash and extravagant. 
 " By no means," cried Khaled, with zealous zeal ; " this infidel 
 force is the army of the devil, and can do nothing against the army 
 of Allah, who will assist us with his angels." 
 
 So pious an argument was unanswerable. Khaled was permitted 
 to choose his men, all well-seasoned warriors whose valour he had 
 proved. "With them he fell upon Jabalah, who was totally unpre- 
 pared for so hair-brained an assault, threw his host into complete 
 confusion, and obliged him, after much slaughter to retreat upon 
 the main body. The triumph of Khaled, however, was damped 
 by the loss of several valiant officers, among whom were Yezed, 
 Rali, and Derar , who were borne off captives by the retreating 
 Christians. 
 
 In the meantime a special messenger, named Abdallah Ibn Kort, 
 arrived at Medina, bringing letters to the Caliph from Abu Obeidah, 
 describing the perilous situation of the Moslem army, and entreat- 
 ing reinforcements. The Caliph ascended the pulpit of Mahomet, 
 and preached up the glory of fighting the good fight of faith for 
 God and the prophet. He then gave Abdallah an epistle for Abu 
 Obeidah, filled with edifying texts from the Koran, and ending with 
 an assurance that he would pray for him, and would, moreover, 
 send him a speedy reinforcement. This done, he pronounced a 
 blessing on Abdallah, and bade him depart with all speed. 
 
 Abdallah was well advanced on his return , when he called to
 
 234 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 mind that he had omitted to visit the tomb of the prophet. Shocked 
 at his forgetfulness, he retraced his steps, and sought the dwelling 
 of Ayesha, within which the prophet lay interred. He found the 
 beautiful widow reclining beside the tomb, and listening to AH and 
 Abbas, who were reading the Koran, while Hassan and Hosein, the 
 two sons of AH and grandsons of the prophet, were sitting on their 
 knees. 
 
 Having paid due honours to the prophet's tomb, the considerate 
 messenger expressed his fears that this pious visit might prevent his 
 reaching the army before the expected battle ; whereupon the holy 
 party lifted up their hands to heaven, and Ali put up a prayer for 
 his speedy journey. Thus inspirited, he set out anew, and tra- 
 velled with such unusual and incredible speed, that the army looked 
 upon it as miraculous, and attributed it to the blessing of Omar and 
 the prayer of Ali. 
 
 The promised reinforcement was soon on foot. It consisted of 
 eight thousand men under the command of Seid Ibn Amir ; to whom 
 the Caliph gave a red sil&banner, and a word of advice at parting ; 
 cautioning him to govern himself as well as his soldiers, and not 
 to let his appetites get the better of his self-command. 
 
 Seid, with Moslem frankness, counselled him, in return, to fear 
 God and not man ; to love all Moslems equally with his own kindred ; 
 to cherish those at a distance equally with those at hand ; finally to 
 command nothing but what was right and to forbid nothing but 
 what was wrong. The Caliph listened attentively, his forehead 
 resting on his staff and his eyes cast upon the ground. "When Seid 
 had finished, he raised his head and the tears ran down his cheek. 
 " Alas !" said he, who can do all this without the aid of God!" 
 
 Seid Ibn Amir led his force by the shortest route across the 
 deserts, and hurrying forward with more rapidity than heed, lost 
 his way. While he halted one night, in the vicinity of some springs, 
 to ascertain his route, he was apprised by his scouts, that the prefect 
 of Ammon, with five thousand men, was near at hand. He fell 
 upon him instantly, and cut the infantry to pieces. The prefect 
 fled with his cavalry, but encountered a foraging party from the 
 Moslem camp, the leader of which, Zobeir, thrust a lance through 
 his body, and between the two parties not a man of his troop 
 escaped. The Moslems then placed the heads of the Christians on 
 their lances, and arrived with their ghastly trophies at the camp; 
 to the great encouragement of Abu Obeidah and his host. 
 
 The imperial army had now drawn near, and Manuel, the ge- 
 neral, attempted again to enter into negotiations. Khaled offered 
 to go and confer with him ; but his real object was to attempt the 
 release of his friends and brethren in arms, Abu Sofian, Derar, 
 Rafi, and the two other officers captured in the late skirmish with 
 the apostate Jabalah. 
 
 When Khaled reached the outpost of the Christian army, he was 
 required to leave his escort of one hundred chosen wariors, and 
 proceed alone to the presence of the general; but he refused. He 
 equally refused a demand that he and his men should dismount and 
 deliver up their scimetars. After some parley, he was permitted 
 to enter into the presence of the general in his own way.
 
 OMAR. 225 
 
 .Manuel was seated in state on a kind of throne, surrounded by 
 his officers, all splendidly arrayed, while Khaled entered with his 
 hundred war-worn veterans, clad in the simplest guise. Chairs 
 were set out for him and his principal companions, but they pushed 
 them aside and seated themselves cross-legged on the ground, 
 after the Arabic manner. "When Manuel demanded the reason, 
 Khaled replied by quoting a verse from the twentieth chapter of 
 the Koran. "Of earth ye are created, from earth ye came, and 
 unto earth ye must return." "God made the earth," added he, 
 "and what God has made for men to sit upon, is more precious 
 than your silken tapestries.'" 
 
 The conference was begun by Manuel, Avho expostulated on the 
 injustice of the Moslems in making an unprovoked inroad into the 
 territories of their neighbours, molesting them in their religious 
 worship, robbing them of their wives and property, and seizing on 
 their persons as slaves. Khaled retorted, that it was all owing to 
 their own obstinacy, in refusing to acknowledge that there was but 
 one God, without relation or associate, and that Mahomet was his 
 prophet. Their discussion grew violent, and Khaled, in his heat, 
 told Manuel that he should one day see him dragged into the 
 presence of Omar with a halter round his neck, there to have his 
 head struck off as an example to all infidels and for the edification 
 of true believers. 
 
 Manuel replied in wrath, that Khaled was protected by his 
 character of ambassador; but that he would, punish his insolence 
 by causing the five Moslem captives, his friends, to be instantly 
 beheaded. Khaled defied him to execute his threat, swearing by 
 Allah, by his prophet, and by the holy Caaba, that if a hair of their 
 heads were injured, he would slay Manuel with his own hand on 
 the spot, and that each of his Moslems present, should slay his 
 man. So saying, he rose and drew his sciraetar, as did likewise 
 his companions. 
 
 The imperial general was struck with admiration at his intre- 
 pidity. He replied calmly, that what he had said was a mere 
 threat, which his humanity and his respect for the mission of Khaled 
 would not permit him to fulfil. The Saracens were pacified and 
 sheathed their swords, and the conference went on calmly. 
 
 In the end, Manuel gave up the five prisoners to Khaled as a 
 token of his esteem ; and in return Khaled presented him with a 
 beautiful scarlet pavilion, which he had brought with him, and 
 pitched in the Christian camp, and for which Manuel had expressed 
 a desire. Thus ended this conference, and both parties retired 
 from it with soldier-like regard for each other.
 
 226 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 The Battle of Yermouk. 
 
 The great battle was now at hand that was to determine the 
 fate of Syria, for the emperor had staked the fortunes of this fa- 
 vourite province on a single, but gigantic blow. Abu Obeidah, 
 conscious of the momentous nature of the conflict, and diffident of 
 his abilities in the field, gave a proof of his modesty and magna- 
 nimity, by restoring to khaled the command of the whole army. 
 For himself, he took his station with the women in the rear, that 
 Tie might rally the Moslems should any of them be inclined to fly the 
 field. Here he erected his standard, a yellow flag, given him by 
 Ahu Beker, being the same which Mahomet had displayed in the 
 battle of Khaibar, 
 
 Before the action commenced Khaled rode among his troops, 
 making a short but emphatic speech. "Paradise," cried he, "is 
 before you; the devil and hell behind. Fight bravely, and you 
 will secure the one ; fly, and you will fall into the other." 
 
 The armies closed, but the numbers of the Christians and the 
 superiority of Greek and Roman discipline bore down the right 
 wing of the Moslems. Those, however, who turned their backs 
 and attempted to fly, were assailed with reproaches and blows by 
 the women, so that they found it easier to face the enemy than 
 such a storm. Even Abu Sofian himself received a blow over the 
 face with a tent-pole Irom one of those viragos, as he retreated 
 before the enemy. 
 
 Thrice were the Moslems beaten back by the steady bearing of 
 the Grecian phalanx, and thrice were they checked and driven back 
 to battle by the women. Night at length brought a cessation of 
 the bloody conflict; when Abu Obeidah went round, among the 
 wounded, ministering to them with his own hands, while the 
 women bound up their wounds with tender care. 
 
 The battle was renewed on the following morning, and again tlie 
 Moslems were sorely pressed. The Christian archers made fearful 
 havoc, andsucli was their dexterity, that, among the great number 
 of Moslems who suffered from their arrows on that day, seven 
 hundred lost one or both eyes. Hence it was commemorated as 
 "the Day of the Blinding;" and those who had received such 
 wounds gloried in them, in after years, as so many trophies of their 
 having struggled for the faith in that day of hard fighting. There 
 were several single combats of note; among others, Serjabil was 
 engaged hand to hand with a stout Christian; but Serjabil, having 
 signalized his piety by excessive watching and fasting, was so 
 reduced in flesh and strength, that he was no match for his adver- 
 sary, and would infallibly have been overpowered, had not Derar 
 come behind the Christian, and stabbed him to the heart. Both 
 warriors claimed the spoil, but it was adjudged to him who slew
 
 OMAR. 227 
 
 the enemy. In the course of this arduous day, the Moslems more 
 than once wavered, but were rallied back by the valour of the 
 women. Caulah, the heroic sister of Derar, mingling in the light, 
 was wounded and struck down; but Offeirah, her female friend, 
 smote off the head of her opponent, and rescued her. The battle 
 lasted as long as there was light enough to distinguish friend from 
 foe ; but the night was welcome to the Moslems, who needed all 
 their enthusiasm and reliance on the promises of the prophet to 
 sustain them, so hard was the struggle and so overwhelming the 
 numbers of the enemy. On this night, the good Abu Obeidah 
 repeated at once the prayers belonging to two separate hours, that 
 his weary soldiers might enjoy uninterruted sleep. 
 
 For several successive days this desperate battle, on which hung 
 the fate of Syria, was renewed with various fortunes. In the end 
 the fanatic valour of the Moslems prevailed; the Christian host was 
 completely routed and fled in all directions. Many were overtaken 
 and slain in the difficult passes of the mountains; others perished in 
 a deep part of the river to which they were decoyed by one of their 
 own people, in revenge for an injury. Manuel, the imperial ge- 
 neral, fell by the hand of a Moslem named Noman Ibn Alkamah. 
 
 Abu Obeidah went over the battle-field in person, seeing that 
 the wounded Moslems were well taken care of, and the slain de- 
 cently interred. He was perplexed for a time on finding some 
 heads without bodies, to know whether they were Moslems or in- 
 fidels, but finally prayed over them at a venture and had them 
 buried like the rest. 
 
 In dividing the spoils; Abu Obeidah, after setting aside one-fifth 
 for the Caliph and the public treasury, allotted to each foot soldier 
 one portion and to each horseman three; two for himself and one 
 lor his steed; but for each horse of the pure Arabian breed, he 
 allowed a double portion. This last allotment met with opposition, 
 but was subsequently confirmed by the Caliph, on account of the 
 superior value of true Arabian horses. 
 
 Such was the great battle fought on the banks of the Yermouk, 
 near the city of that name, in the month of November, A. D. 636, 
 and in the 15th year of the Hegira. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Siege and capture of Jerusalem. 
 
 The Moslem invaders reposed for a month at Damascus from 
 the toil of conquest, during which time Abu Obeidah sent to the 
 Caliph to know whether he should undertake the siege ofCaesarea, 
 or Jerusalem. All was with Omar at the time, and advised the 
 instant siege of the latter; for such, he said, had been the intention 
 of the prophet. The enterprise against Jerusalem was as a holy 
 war to the Moslems, for they reverenced it as an ancient seat of
 
 2-; 8 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 prophecy and revelation, connected with the histories of Moses, 
 Jesus, and Mahomet, and sanctified by containing the tombs of 
 several of the ancient prophets. The Caliph adopted the advice of 
 Ali, and ordered Abu Obeidah to lead his army into Palestine, and 
 lay siege to Jerusalem. 
 
 On receiving these orders, Abu Obeidah sent forward Yezed Abu 
 Sofian, with five thousand men, to commence the siege, and for 
 five successive-days detached after him considerable reinforcements. 
 The people of Jerusalem saw the approach of these portentous in- 
 vaders, who were spreading such consternation throughout the 
 East, but they made no sally to oppose them, nor sent out any one 
 to parley, but planted engines on their walls, and prepared for 
 vigorous defence. Yezed approached the city and summoned it 
 by sound of trumpet, propounding the customary terms, profession 
 of the faith or tribute : both were rejected with disdain. The 
 Moslems would have made instant assault, but Yezed had no such 
 instructions : he encamped, therefore, and waited until orders 
 arrived from Abu Obeidah to attack the city, when he made the 
 necessary preparations. 
 
 At cock-crow in the morning the Moslem host was marshalled, 
 the leaders repeated the matin prayer each at the head of his 
 battalion, and all, as if by one consent, with a loud voice gave the 
 verse from the Koran: 1 "Enter ye, oh people! into the holy 
 land which Allah hath destined for you." 
 
 For ten days they made repeated but unavailing attacks ; on the 
 eleventh day Abu Obeidah brought the whole army to their aid. 
 He immediately sent a written summons requiring the inhabitants 
 to believe in the unity of God, the divine mission of Mahomet, the 
 resurrection and final judgment : or else to acknowledge allegiance, 
 and pay tribute to the Caliph : " otherwise," concluded the letter, 
 " I will bring men against you, who love death better than you 
 love wine or swine's flesh ; nor will I leave you, God willing, until 
 I have destroyed your fighting men, and made slaves of your 
 children." 
 
 The summons was addressed to the magistrates and principal 
 inhabitants of ^Elia, for so Jerusalem was named after the emperor 
 JElius Adrian, when he rebuilt that city. 
 
 Sophronius, the Christian patriarch, or bishop of Jerusalem, 
 replied that this was the holy city, and the holy land, and that 
 whoever entered either, for a hostile purpose, was an offender in 
 the eyes of God. He felt some confidence in setting the invaders 
 at defiance, for the walls and towers of the city had been diligently 
 strengthened, and the garrison had been reinforced by fugitives 
 from Yermouk, and from various parts of Syria. The city, too, 
 was strong in its situation, being surrounded by deep ravines and 
 a broken country; and above all there was a pious incentive to 
 courage and perseverance in defending the sepulchre of Christ. 
 
 Four wintry months elapsed ; every day there were sharp skir- 
 mishings ; the besiegers were assailed by sallying parties, annoyed 
 
 i These words are from Hie fifth chapter of the Koran, where Mahomet puts Ihem into 
 the momh of Moses, as addressed to the children of Israel.
 
 OMAR. 229 
 
 by the engines on the walls, and harassed by the inclement weather ; 
 still they carried on the siege with undiminished spirit. At length 
 the Patriarch Sempronius held a parley from the walls with Abu 
 Obeidah. "Do you not know," said he, "that this city is holy; 
 and that whoever offers violence to it, draws upon his head the 
 vengeance of heaven?" 
 
 " We know it," replied Abu Obeidah, " to be the house of the 
 prophets, where their bodies lie interred ; we know it to be the 
 place whence our prophet Mahomet made his nocturnal ascent to 
 heaven ; and we know that we are more worthy of possessing it than 
 you are, nor will we raise the siege until Allah has delivered it into 
 our hands, as he has done many other places." 
 
 Seeing there was no further hope, the patriarch consented to give 
 up the city, on condition that the Caliph would come in person to 
 take possession and sign the articles of surrender. 
 
 When this unusual stipulation was made known to the Caliph, he 
 held a -council with his friends. Othman despised the people of 
 Jerusalem, and was for refusing their terms, but AH represented 
 the sanctity and importance of the place in the eyes of the 
 Christians, which might prompt them to reinforce it, and to make 
 a desperate defence if treated with indignity. Besides, he added, 
 the presence of the Caliph would cheer and inspirit the army in 
 their long absence, and after the hardships of a wintry campaign. 
 
 The words of AH had their weight with the Caliph : though cer- 
 tain Arabian writers pretend that he was chiefly moved by a tra- 
 dition handed down in Jerusalem from days of yore, which said, 
 that a man of his name, religion, and personal appearance, should 
 conquer the holy city. Whatever may have been his inducements, 
 the Caliph resolved to receive, in person, the surrender of Jerusa- 
 lem. He accordingly appointed AH to officiate in his place during 
 his absence from Medina ; then, having prayed at the mosque, and 
 paid a pious visit to the tomb of the prophet, he set out on his 
 journey. 
 
 The progress of this formidable potentate, who already held the 
 destinies of empires in his grasp, and had the plunder of the Orient 
 at his command, is characteristic of the primitive days of Mahome- 
 tanism, and reveals, in some measure, the secret of its success. 
 He travelled on a red or sorrel camel, across which was slung an 
 alforja, or wallet, with a huge sack or pocket at each end, some- 
 thing like the modern saddle-bags. One pocket contained dates 
 and dried fruits, the other a provision called sawik, which was 
 nothing more than barley, rice, or wheat, parched or sodden. 
 Before him hung a leathern bottle, or sack, for water, and behind 
 him a wooden platter. His companions, without distinction of 
 rank, ate with him out of the same dish, using their fingers ac- 
 cording to Oriental usage. He slept at night on a mat spread out 
 under a tree, or under a common Bedouin 'tent of hair-cloth, and 
 never resumed his march until he had offered up the morning 
 prayer. 
 
 As he journeyed through Arabia in this simple way, he listened 
 to the complaints of the people, redressed their grievances, and 
 administered justice with sound judgment and a rigid hand. Infor-
 
 230 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 mation was brought to him of an Arab who was married to two 
 sisters, a practice not unusual among idolaters, but the man was 
 now a Mahometan. Omar cited the culprit and his two wives into 
 his presence, and taxed him roundly with his offence ; but he de- 
 clared his ignorance that it was contrary to the law of the prophet. 
 
 "Thou liest!" said Omar, "thou shall part with one of them 
 instantly, or lose thy head." 
 
 " Evil was the day that I embraced such a religion," muttered the 
 culprit. "Of what advantage has it been tome?" 
 
 "Come nearer to me," said Omar : and on his approaching, 
 the Caliph bestowed two wholeshome blows on his head with his 
 walking-si aff. 
 
 "Enemy of God and of thyself," cried he, "let these blows 
 reform thy manners, and teach thee to speak with more reverence 
 of a religion ordained by Allah, and acknowledged by the best of his 
 creatures." 
 
 He then ordered the offender to choose between his wives, 
 and finding him at a loss which to prefer, the matter was de- 
 termined by lot, and he was dismissed by the Caliph with this 
 parting admonition : " Whoever professes Islam, and afterwards 
 renounces it, is punishable with death ; therefore take heed to 
 your faith. And as to your wife's sister, whom you have put 
 away, if ever I hear that you have meddled with her, you shall be 
 stoned." 
 
 At another place he beheld a number of men exposed to the 
 burning heat of the sun by their Moslem conquerors, as a punishment 
 for failing to pay their tribute. Finding, on inquiry, that they were 
 entirely destitute of means, he ordered them to be released ; and 
 turning reproachfully to their oppressors, "Compel no men," said 
 he, " to more than they can bear; for I heard the apostle of God 
 say, he who afflicts his fellowmanin this world, will be punished with 
 the fire of Jehennam." 
 
 While yet within a day's journey of Jerusalem, Abu Obeidah 
 came to meet him and conduct him to the camp. The Caliph 
 proceeded with due deliberation, never forgetting his duties 
 as a priest and teacher of Islam. In the morning he said the 
 usual prayers, and preached a sermon, in which he spoke of 
 the security of those whom Gd should lead in the right way ; 
 but added , that there was no help for such as God should lead 
 into errour. 
 
 A gray-headed Christian priest, Mho sat before him, could not 
 resist the opportunity to criticise thelanguage oftheCaliph preacher. 
 " God leads no man into errour," said he aloud. 
 
 Omar deigned no direct reply, but, turning to those around, 
 "Strike off that old man's head," said he, "if he repeats his 
 words." 
 
 The old man was discreet, and held his peace. There was no 
 arguing against the sword of Islam. 
 
 On his way to the camp Omar beheld a number of Arabs, who 
 had thrown 'by the simple garb of their country, and arrayed 
 themselves in the silken spoils of Syria. He saw the danger of 
 this luxury and effeminacy, and ordered that they should be drag-
 
 OMAR. 231 
 
 ged with their faces in the dirt, and their silken garments torn from 
 their backs. 
 
 When he came in sight of Jerusalem he lifted up his voice and 
 exclaimed, " Allah Achbar! God is mighty! God grant us an easy 
 conquest!" Then commanding his tent to be pitched, he dis- 
 mounted from his camel and sat down within it on the ground. 
 The Christians thronged to see the sovereign of this new and ir- 
 resistible people, who were overrunning and subduing the earth. 
 The Moslems, fearful of an attempt at assassination, would have kept 
 them at a distance, but Omar rebuked their fears. " Nothing will 
 befall us but what God hath decreed. Let the faithful trust in him."' 
 
 The arrival of the Caliph was followed by immediate capitulation. 
 When the deputies from Jerusalem were admitted to a parley, 
 they were astonished to find this dreaded potentate a bald- 
 headed man, simply clad, and seated on the ground in a tent 
 of hair-cloth. 
 
 The articles of surrender were drawn up in writing by Omar, 
 and served afterwards as a model for the Moslem leaders in other 
 conquests. The Christians were to build no new churches in the 
 surrendered territory. The church doors were to be set open to 
 travellers, and free egress permitted to Mahometans by day and 
 night. The bells should only toll, and not ring, and no crosses 
 should be erected on the churches, nor shown publicly in the 
 streets. The Christians should not teach the Koran to their chil- 
 dren; nor speak openly of their religion; nor attempt to make 
 proselytes ; nor hinder their kinsfolk from embracing Islam. They 
 should not assume the Moslem dress, either caps, slippers, or 
 turbans, nor part their hair like Moslems, but should always be 
 distinguished by girdles. They should not use the Arabian language 
 in inscriptions on their signets, nor salute after the Moslem manner, 
 nor be called by Moslem surnames. They should rise on the en- 
 trance of a Moslem, and remain standing until he should be seated. 
 They should entertain every Moslem traveller three days gratis. 
 They should sell no wine, bear no arms } and use no saddle in 
 riding; neither should they have any domestic who had been in 
 Moslem service. 
 
 Such were the degrading conditions imposed upon the proud city 
 of Jerusalem, once the glory and terror of the East, by the leader of 
 a host of wandering Arabs. They were the conditions generally 
 imposed by the Moslems in their fanatical career of conquest. Utter 
 scorn and abhorrence of their religious adversaries formed one of 
 the main pillars of their faith. 
 
 The Christians having agreed to surrender on these terms, the 
 Caliph gave them under his own hand, an assurance of protection 
 in their lives and fortunes, the use of their churches, and the exer- 
 cise of their religion. 
 
 Omar entered the once splendid city of Solomon on foot, in his 
 simple Arab garb, with his walking-staff in his hand, and accom- 
 panied by the venerable Sophronius, with whom he talked fami- 
 liarly, inquiring about the antiquities and public edifices. Th 
 worthy patriarch treated the conqueror with all outward deference, 
 but, if we may trust the words of a Christian historian, he loathed
 
 23? MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 the dirty Arab in his heart, and was particulary disgusted with his 
 garb of coarse woollen, patched with sheepskin. His disgust was 
 almost irrepressible when they entered the church of the Resur- 
 rection, and Sophronius beheld the Caliph in his filthy attire, seated 
 in the midst of the sacred edifice. "This, of a truth," exclaimed he, 
 " is the abomination of desolation predicted by Daniel the prophet, 
 standing in the holy place." 
 
 It is added that, to pacify the cleanly scruples of the patriarch, 
 Omar consented to put on clean raiment which be offered him, until 
 his own garments were washed. 
 
 An instance of the strict good faith of Omar is related as occurring 
 on this visit to the Christian temples. "While he was standing with 
 the patriarch in the church of the Resurrection, one of the stated 
 hours for Moslem worship arrived, and he demanded where he 
 might pray. "Where you now are," replied the patriarch. Omar, 
 however, refused, and went forth. The patriarch conducted him to 
 the church of Constantine, and spread a mat for him to pray there ; 
 but again he refused. On going forth, he knelt, and prayed on the 
 flight of steps leading down from the east gate of the church. This 
 done, he turned to the patriarch, and gave him a generous reason 
 for his conduct. " Had I prayed in either of the churches," said he, 
 " the Moslems would have taken possession of it, and consecrated 
 it as a mosque." 
 
 So scrupulous was he in observing his capitulations respecting the 
 churches, that he gave the patriarch a writing, forbidding the Mos- 
 lems to pray upon the steps where he had prayed, except one person 
 at a time. The zeal of the faithful, however, outstripped their 
 respect for his commands, and one-half of the steps and porch was 
 afterwards included in a mosque built over the spot which he had 
 accidentally sanctified. 
 
 The Caliph next sought the place where the temple of Solomon 
 had stood, where he founded a mosque ; which, in after times, being 
 enlarged and enriched by succeeding Caliphs, became one of the 
 noblest edifices of Islam worship, and second only to the magni- 
 ficent mosque of Cordova. 
 
 The surrender of Jerusalem took place in the seventeeth year of 
 the Hegira, and the six hundred and thirty-seventh year of the Chris- 
 tian era. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Progress of the Moslem arms in Syria. Siege of Aleppo. Obstinate defence by You- 
 kenna. -Exploit of Damas. Capture of the castle. -Conversion of Youkenna. 
 
 The Caliph Omar remained ten days in Jerusalem, regulating 
 the great scheme of Islam conquest. To complete the subjugation 
 of Syria, he divided it into two parts. Southern Syria, consist- 
 ing of Palestine and the maritime towns, lie gave in charge to Yezed 
 Ibn Abu Sofian, with a considerable portion of the army to enable
 
 OMAR. 233 
 
 him (o master it ; while Abu Obeidah, with a larger force, had orders 
 promptly to reduce all Northern Syria, comprising the country 
 lying between Hauran and Aleppo. At the same time, Amru Ibn 
 al Aass, with a body of Moslem troops, was ordered to invade 
 Egypt, which venerable and once mighty empire was then in a state 
 of melancholy decline. Such were the great plans of Islam con- 
 quest in these regions; while at the same time, Saad Ibn Abi 
 AVakkas, another of Omars generals, was pursuing a career of vic- 
 tories in the Persian territories. 
 
 The return of Omar to Medina was hailed with joy by the inha- 
 bitants, for they had regarded with great anxiety and apprehension 
 his visit to Jerusalem. They knew the salubrity of the climate, the 
 fertility of the country, and the sacred character of the city ; con- 
 taining the tombs of the prophets, and being the place, according 
 to Moslem belief, where all mankind were to be assembled in the 
 day of the resurrection. They had feared, therefore, that he 
 would be tempted to fix his residence, for the rest of his days, in 
 that consecrated city. Great was their joy, therefore, when they 
 saw their Caliph re-enter their gates in his primitive simplicity, 
 clad in his coarse Arab garb, and seated on his camel with his 
 wallets of dried fruits and sodden corn ; his leathern bottle and his 
 wooden platter. 
 
 Abu Obeidah departed from Jerusalem shortly after the Caliph, 
 and marched with his army to the north, receiving in the course of 
 his process through Syria, the submission of the cities of Kennesrin 
 and Alhadir, the inhabitants of which ransomed themselves and 
 their possessions, for five thousand ounces of gold, the like quan- 
 tity of silver, two thousand suits of silken raiment, and as much 
 figs and aloes as would load five hundred mules; he then pro- 
 ceeded towards the city of Aleppo, which the Caliph had ordered 
 him to besiege. The inhabitants of this place were much given 
 to commerce, and had amassed great wealth ; they trembled, there- 
 fore, at the approach of these plundering sons of the desert, who 
 had laid so many cities under contribution, 
 
 The city of Aleppo was walled and fortified ; but it depended 
 chiefly for defence upon its citadel, which stood without the walls 
 and apart from the city, on an artificial hill or mound, shaped like 
 a truncated cone or sugar-loaf, and faced with stone. The citadel 
 was of great sjze, and commanded all the adjacent country ; it was 
 encompassed by a deep moat, which could be filled from springs 
 of water, and was considered the strongest castle in all Syria. The 
 governor, who had been appointed to this place by the emperor 
 Heraclius, and who had held all the territory between Aleppo and 
 the Euphrates, had lately died, leaving two sons, Youkenna and 
 Johannas, who resided in the castle and succeeded to his com- 
 mand. They were completely opposite in character and conduct. 
 Youkenna, the elder of the two, was a warrior and managed the 
 government, while Johannas passed his life in almost monkish re- 
 tirement, devoting himself to study, to religious exercices, and to 
 acts of charity. On the approach of the Moslems Johannas sym- 
 pathized with the fears of the wealthy merchants, and advised his 
 brother to compound peaceably with the enemy for a ransom in
 
 
 834 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 money. "You talk like a monk," replied the fierce Youkenna; 
 " you know nothing that is clue to the honour of a soldier. Have 
 we not strong walls, a brave garrison, and ample wealth to sustain 
 us, and shall we meanly buy a peace without striking a blow ? 
 Shut yourself up with your books and beads; study and pray, and 
 leave the defence of the place to me." . 
 
 The next day he summoned his troops, distributed money among 
 them, and having thus roused their spirit, "The Arabs, "said he, 
 "have divided their forces ; some are in Palestine, some have gone 
 to Egypt, it can be but a mere detachment that is coming against 
 us; I am for meeting them on the way, and giving them battle be- 
 fore they come near to Aleppo." His troops answered his harangue 
 with shouts, so he put himself at the head of twelve thousand men, 
 and sallied forth to encounter the Moslems on their march. 
 
 Scarcely had this reckless warrior departed with his troops, when 
 the timid and trading part of the community gathered together, and 
 took advantage of his absence to send thirty of the most important 
 and opulent of the inhabitants to Abu Obeidah, with an offer of a 
 ransom for the city. These worthies, when they entered the 
 Moslem camp, were astonished at the order and tranquillity that 
 reigned throughout, under the wise regulations of the commander- 
 in-chief They were received by Abu Obeidah with dignified 
 composure, and informed him that they had come without the 
 knowledge of Youkenna, their warlike governor, who had sallied 
 out on a foray, and whose tyranny they found insupportable 
 After much discussion, Abu Obeidiih offered indemnity to the city 
 of Aleppo, on condition that they should pay a certain sum of money, 
 furnish provisions to his army, make discovery of every thing within 
 their knowledge prejudicial to his interests, and prevent Youkenna 
 from returning to the castle. They agreed to all the terms except 
 that relating to the castle, which it was impossible for them to 
 execute. 
 
 Abu Obeidah dispensed with that point, but exacted from them 
 all an oath to fulfil punctually the other conditions; assuring them 
 of his protection and kindness, should they observe it; but adding 
 that, should they break it, they need expect no quarter. He then 
 offered them an escort, which they declined, preferring to return 
 quietly by the way they had come. 
 
 In the meantime Youkenna, on the day after his sallying forth, 
 fell in with the advance guard of the Moslem army, consisting of 
 one thousand men under Caab Ibn Damarrah. He came upon them 
 by surprise while watering their horses, and resting themselves on 
 the grass in negligent security. A desperate fight was the conse- 
 quence; the Moslems at first were successful, but were over- 
 powered bynumbers. One hundred and seventy were slain, most of 
 the rest wounded, and their frequent cries of " Ya Mahommed ! 
 Ya Mahommed!" (Oh Mahomet! Oh Mahomet!) showed the ex- 
 tremiiy of their despair. Night alone saved them from total mas- 
 sacre; but Youkenna resolved to pursue the work of extermination 
 with the morning light. In the course of the night, however, one 
 of his scouts brought him word of the peaceful negotiation carried 
 on by the citizens of Aleppo during his absence. Boiling with rage,
 
 OMAR. 235 
 
 he gave up all further thought about Caab and his men, and 
 hastening back to Aleppo, drew up his forces, and threatened to 
 put every thing to fire and sword unless the inhabitants renounced 
 the treaty, joined him against the Moslems and gave up the devisers 
 of the late traitorous schemes. On their hesitating to comply with 
 his demands, he charged on them wite his troops, and put three 
 hundred to the sword. The cries and lamentations of the multi- 
 tude reached the pious Johannas in his retirement in the castle. 
 He hastened to the scene of carnage, and sought by prayers and 
 supplications, and pious remonstrances, to stay the fury of his bro- 
 ther. " \Vhat!" cried the fierce Youkenna, "shall I spare traitors 
 who are leagued with the enemy, and selling us for gold?" 
 
 " Alas!" replied Johannas, '-they have only sought their own 
 safety ; they are not fighting men." 
 
 "Base wretch! " cried Youkenna in a frenzy, "'tis thou hast 
 been the contriver of this infamous treason." 
 
 His naked sword was in his hand ; his actions were even more 
 frantic than his words, and in an instant the head of his meek and 
 pious brother rolled on the pavement. 
 
 The people of Aleppo were in danger of suffering more from the 
 madness of the army than they had apprehended from the sword 
 of the invader, when a part of the Moslem army appeared in sight 
 led on by Khaled. A bloody battle ensued before the walls of the 
 town, three thousand of Youkcnna's troops were slain, and he was 
 obliged to take refuge with a considerable number within the castle, 
 where he placed engines on the walls, and prepared to defend 
 himself to the last extremity. 
 
 A council w r as held in the Moslem camp. Abu ObeJdah was 
 disposed to besiege the citadel, and starve out the garrison, but 
 Khaled. with his accustomed promptness, was for instant assault, 
 before the emperor could send reinforcements and supplies. As 
 usual his bold counsel prevailed : the castle was stormed, and he 
 headed the assault. The conflict was one of the fiercest in the 
 wars of Syria. The besieged hurled huge stones from the battle- 
 ments ; many of the assailants were slain, many maimed, and 
 Khaled was compelled to desist from the attack. 
 
 In the dead of that very night, when the fires of the camp were 
 extinguished, and the Moslems were sleeping after their hard-fought 
 battle, Youkenna sallied forth with his troops, fell on the enemy 
 sword in hand, killed sixty, and bore off fifty prisoners : Khaled, 
 however, was hard on his traces, and killed above a hundred of 
 his men before they could shelter themselves wilhin the castle. 
 On the next morning Youkenna paraded his fifty prisoners on the 
 walls of the citadel, ordered them to be beheaded, and threw their 
 heads among the besiegers. 
 
 Learning from his spies that a detachment of Moslems were 
 foraging the country, Youkenna sent out, secretly, a troop of 
 horse in the night,-who fell upon the foragers, killed nearly seven 
 score of them, slew or hamstrung their camels, mules, and horses, 
 and then hid themselves in the recesses of the mountains, awaiting 
 the night to get back to the castle. 
 Some fugitives carried tidings of this skirmish to the camp, and
 
 236 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Khaled and Derar, with a troop of horse, were soon at the scene 
 of combat. They found the ground strewed with the dead bodies 
 of men and animals, learnt from some peasants whither the enemy 
 had retreated, and were informed of a narrow defile by which 
 they must return to the castle. Khaled and Derar stationed their 
 troops in ambush in this defile. Late in the night they perceived 
 the enemy advancing. They suffered them to get completely 
 entangled in the defile, when, closing suddenly upon them on 
 every side, they slew a number on the -spot, and took three 
 hundred prisoners. These were brought in triumph to the Moslem 
 camp, where they would have redeemed themselves with ample 
 ransom, but their heads were all stricken off in front of the castle, 
 by way of retaliation. 
 
 For five months did the siege of this fortress continue ; all the 
 attacks of the Moslems were repulsed, all their stratagems dis- 
 covered and circumvented ; for Youkenna had spies in the very 
 camp of the enemy, who gave him intelligence by word, or signal, 
 of every plan and movement. Abu Obeidah despaired of reducing 
 this impregnable castle, which impeded him in his career of con- 
 quest, and wrote to the Caliph, proposing to abandon the siege 
 and proceed against Antioch. The Caliph, in reply, ordered him 
 by no means to desist, as that would give courage to the enemy, 
 but to press the siege hard, and trust the event to God. As an 
 additional reliance, he sent him a reinforcement of horse and foot, 
 with twenty camels to facilitate the march of the infantry. Not- 
 withstanding all this aid, the siege was continued for seven-and- 
 forty days, with no greater prospect of success. 
 
 While in this state of vexatious impediment and delay, Abu 
 Obeidah was one day accosted by one of the newly arrived soldiers, 
 who told him that, if he would give him thirly men, all strong and 
 valiant, he would pledge his head to put him in possession of the 
 castle. The man who made this singular application was named 
 Damas ; he was of herculean strength and gigantic size, a brave 
 soldier, and of great natural sagacity, although unimproved by 
 education, as he was born a slave. Khaled backed his application, 
 having heard of great exploits performed by him in Arabia. Abn 
 Obeidah, in his perplexities, was willing to adopt any expedient to 
 get possession of this obstinate castle, and the Arabs were always 
 prone to strange and extravagant stratagems in their warfare. 
 He accordingly placed thirty of his bravest men under command of 
 Damas, charging them to obey him implicitly, notwithstanding his 
 base condition ; at the same time, in compliance with his request, 
 he removed with his army to the distance of a league, as though 
 about to abandon the siege. 
 
 It was now night, and Damas concealed his thirty men near to 
 the castle, charging them not to stir, nor utter a sound. He then 
 went out alone and brought in six Christian prisoners, one after 
 another. He questioned them in Arabic, but they were ignorant 
 of the language, and replied in their own tongue. "The curse of 
 Allah on these Christian dogs and their barbarous jargon, which 
 no man can understand," cried the rude Arab, and in his rage he 
 smote off their heads.
 
 OMAR. 237 
 
 He went forth again, and saw a man sliding down the wall, 
 whom he seized the moment he touched the ground. He was a 
 Christian Arab, and was endeavouring to escape from the tyranny 
 of Youkenna, and from him Damds obtained the information he 
 desired. He instantly despatched two men to Abu Obeidah, re- 
 questing him to send him some horse about sunrise. He then took 
 a goat-skin from his wallet, with which he covered his back and 
 shoulders, and a dry crust of bread in his hand, and crept on all- 
 fours close to the wall of the castle. His men crept silently after 
 him. "When he heard a noise he gnawed his crust with a sound 
 like that of a dog gnawing a bone, and his followers remained 
 motionless. In this way he reached a part of the castle wall which 
 was easiest of access. Then seating himself on the ground, he 
 made one of his men seat himself on his shoulders, and so on until 
 seven were thus mounted on each other. Then he who was up- 
 permost stood upright, and so did the others in succession, until 
 Dauias rose from the ground upon his feet, and sustained the 
 whole by his wondrous strength, each rendering such aid as he 
 could by bearing against the wall. The uppermost man was now 
 enabled to scramble upon the battlement, where he found a Chris- 
 tian sentinel drunk and asleep. He seized and threw him down to 
 the Moslems below the wall, who instantly despatched him. He 
 then unfolded his turban and drew up the man below him, and 
 they two the next, and so on until Damds was also on the wall. 
 
 Darn a" s now enjoined silence on them all and left them. He 
 found two other sentinels sleeping, whom he despatched with his 
 dagger, and then made his way to an aperture for the discharge of 
 arrows, looking through which he beheld Youkenna in a spacious 
 chamber, richly clad, seated on tapestry of scarlet silk, flowered 
 with gold, drinking and making merry with a large company ; for 
 it would seem as if, on the apparent departure of the besieging 
 army, the whole castle had been given up to feasting and carousing. 
 Darnas considered the company too numerous to be attacked ; 
 returning to his men, therefore, he explored cautiously with them 
 the interior of the castle. Coming suddenly upon the guards at 
 the main entrance, who had no apprehension of danger from 
 within, they killed them, threw open the gate, let down the draw- 
 bridge, and were joined by the residue of their party. The castle 
 was by this time alarmed : the garrison, half drunk and half 
 asleep, came rushing from all quarters in wild confusion. The 
 Moslems defended themselves stoutly on the draw-bridge and in 
 the narrow pass of the barbican until the dawn of day, when a 
 shout of Allah Achbar was heard, and Khaled, with a troop of 
 horse, came thundering through the gate. 
 
 The Christians threw down their arms and cried for mercy. 
 Khaled offered them their choice, death or the faith of Islam. 
 Youkenna was the first to raise his finger and pronounce the 
 formula ; his example was followed by several of his leading men, 
 whereupon their wives and children and property were secured to 
 them. The castle having been taken by storm, was completely 
 plundered, and the spoils were divided among the army, excepting 
 the usual fifth part reserved for the Caliph. Damas and his brave
 
 238 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 companions, who had been almost cut to pieces in the fight, were 
 praised to the skies, nor would Abu Obeidah stir with his host 
 until those of them who survived were out of danger from their 
 wounds. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Perfidy of Youkenna to his former friends. Attempts the castle of Aazaz by treachery 
 Capture of the castle. 
 
 It is a circumstance worthy of remark in the history both of 
 Mahomet and his successors, that the most inveterate enemies of 
 the Islam faith, when once converted to it, even though their con- 
 version were by the edge of the sword, that great Moslem instru- 
 ment of persuasion, became its faithful defenders. Such was the 
 case with Youkenna, who, from the time he embraced Islam with 
 the Arab scimetar at his throat, became as determined a champion 
 of its doctrines as he had before been an opponent. Like all new 
 converts, he was anxious to give striking proofs of his zeal : he had 
 slain a brother in supporting his old faith , he now proposed to 
 betray a cousin in promoting the interests of the new. This cousin, 
 whose name was Theodorus, was governor of an important town 
 and fortress, named Aazaz, situated at no great distance from 
 Aleppo, and which it was necessary for the Moslems to secure 
 before they left that neighbourhood. The castle was of great 
 strength, and had a numerous garrison, but Youkenna offered to 
 put it into the hands of Abu Obeidah by stratagem. His plan was, 
 to have one hundred Moslems disguised as Christian soldiers : with 
 these he would pretend to fly to the fortress of Aazaz for refuge; 
 being pursued at a distance by a large body of Arabs, who, after 
 coming in sight of the place, would appear to retire in despair, 
 but would conceal themselves in the neighbourhood. His cousin 
 Theodorus, who knew nothing of his conversion, would receive 
 him with perfect confidence : at a concerted hour of the night he 
 and his men would fall suddenly upon the garrison, and at the same 
 time throw open the gates to the party without the walls, and 
 between them both, he had no doubt of carrying the place without 
 difficulty. 
 
 Abu Obeidah held counsel with Khaled, who pronounced the stra- 
 tagem apt and feasible, provided the sincerity of Youkenna's con- 
 version might be depended upon. The new proselyte managed to 
 obtain their confidence, and was despatched on his enterprise with 
 one hundred chosen men, selected by tens from ten tribes of 
 Arabs. After they had departed a sufficient time, one thousand 
 men were sent in pretended pursuit, headed by Malec Alashtar, 
 who was instructed in the whole stratagem. 
 
 'Ihese Moslem wars were always a tissue of plot and counterplot, 
 of which this whole story of Youkenna is a striking example. 
 Scarce had this scheme of treachery been devised in the Moslem
 
 OMAR. 239 
 
 camp, when the distant governor of Aazaz was apprised of it, with 
 a success and celerity that almost seemed like magic. He had at 
 that time a spy in the Moslem camp, an Arab of the tribe of Gassan, 
 who sent him a letter, tied under the wing of a carrier pigeon, in- 
 forming him of the apostasy of Youkenna, and of his intended 
 treachery; though the spy was ignorant of that part of the plan 
 relating to the thousand men under Malec Alashtar. On receiving 
 this letter, Theodorus put his town and castle in a posture of 
 defence, called in the Christian Arabs of the neighbouring villages 
 capable of bearing arms, and despatched a messenger named Tarik 
 al Gassani to Lucas the prefect of Arrawendan, urging him to 
 repair with troops to his assistance. 
 
 Before the arrival of the latter, Youkenna appeared with his 
 pretended fugitives before the gates of Aazaz, announcing that his 
 castle was taken, and that he and his band were flying before 
 pursuers. Theodorus sallied forth on horseback, at the head of 
 many of his troops, as if to receive his cousin with all due honours, 
 He even alighted from his steed, and, approaching Youkenna in a 
 reverential manner, stooped as if to kiss his stirrup ; but suddenly 
 cutting the saddle girlh, he pulled him with his face on the ground, 
 and in an instant his hundred followers were likewise unhorsed 
 and made prisoners. Theodorus then spat in the face of the pro- 
 strate Youkenna, and reproached him with his apostasy and 
 treachery ; threatening to send him to answer for his crimes before 
 the emperor Heraclius, and to put all his followers to the sword. 
 
 In the meantime Tarik al Gassani, the Christian Arab, who had 
 been sent by Theodorus to summon the prefect of Arrawendan to 
 his aid, had executed his errand, but on the way back fell into the 
 hands of Malec, who was lying in ambuscade with his thousand 
 men. The sight of a naked scimetar drew from Tarik information 
 that the plot of Youkenna had been discovered ; that he had been 
 sent after aid, and that Lucas, the prefect of ArraweiMldn, must be 
 actually on his way with five hundred cavalry. 
 
 Profiting by this information, Malec placed his thousand men so 
 advantageously, as completely to surprise and capture Lucas and 
 his reinforcement, as they were marching in the night. He then 
 devised a stratagem still to outwit the governor of Aazaz. First he 
 disguised his five hundred men in dresses taken from their Christian 
 prisoners, and gave them the Christian standard of the prefect of 
 Arrawendan. Then summoning Tarik the messenger before him, 
 and again displaying the scimetar, he exhorted him most earnestly 
 to turn Mahometan. There was no resisting his arguments, and 
 Tarik made a full and hearty profession of the faith. Malec then 
 ordered him to prove his zeal for the good cause by proceeding to 
 Aazaz and informing Theodorus, that the prefect of Arraweudfin 
 was at hand with a reinforcement of five hundred men. The 
 double-faced courier departed on his errand, accompanied by a 
 trusty Moslem, who had secret orders to smite off his head, if he 
 should be found to waver; but there were still other plots at work 
 in this tissue of stratagems. 
 
 As Tarik and his companion approached Aaznz, they heard great 
 shouting and the sound of trumpets, and this was the cause of the
 
 240 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 change. Theodoras, the governor, had committed Youkenua and 
 his men into the custody of his son Leon. Now it so happened, 
 that the youth having frequently visited his father's kinsmen at the 
 castle of Aleppo, had become violently enamoured of the daughter 
 of Youkenna, but had met strong opposition to his love. The pre- 
 sent breach between his father and Youkenna, threatened to place 
 an inseparable barrier between him and the gratification of his 
 passion. Maddened by his desires, the youth now offered to You- 
 kenna, if he would give him his daughter to wife, to embrace 
 Mahometanism, and to set him and his companions at liberty. The 
 offer was accepted. At the dead of the night, when the prisoners 
 were armed and liberated, they fell upon the sleeping garrison ; 
 a tumultuous fight ensued, in the course of which Theodorus was 
 slain, by the hand, it is said, of his unnatural son. 
 
 It was in the height of this conflict, that Tarik and his companion 
 arrived at the place, and learning the situation of affairs, hastened 
 back to Malec Alashtar with the news. Tiie latter hurried on with 
 his troops and came in time to complete the capture of the place. 
 He bestowed greet praises on Youkenna, but the latter taking him 
 by the hand, exclaimed, " Thank Allah and this youth." He then 
 related the whole story. The pious Malec lifted up his eyes and 
 hands in wonder. " When Allah wills a thing," exclaimed he, " he 
 prepares the means." 
 
 Leaving Seid Ibn Amir in command of the place, with Youkenua's 
 band of a hundred men, as a garrison, Malec Alashtar returned to 
 the main army with great booty and many prisoners. Youkenna, 
 however, refused to accompany him. He was mortified at the 
 questionable result of his undertaking against Aazaz, the place 
 having been taken by other means than his own, and vowed not to 
 show himself in the Moslem camp until he had retrieved his credit 
 by some signal blow. Just at this time, there arrived at Aazaz, a 
 foraging party of a thousand Moslems, that had been ravaging the 
 neighbouring country ; among them were two hundred renegades, 
 who had apostatized with Youkenna, and whose families and effects 
 were in the castle of Aleppo. They were the very men for his pur- 
 pose, and with these he marched off to execute one of his charac- 
 teristic stratagems at Antioch. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 Intrigues of Youkenna at Antioch. Siege of lhat city by the Moslems. Flight of the 
 emperor to Constantinople. Surrender of Anlioch. 
 
 The City of Antioch was at that time Ihe capital of Syria and the 
 seat of the Roman government in the East. It was of great extent, 
 surrounded by stone walls and numerous towers, and stood in the 
 midst of a fertile country, watered by wells and fountains and 
 abundant streams. Here Heraclius held his court, and here the
 
 OMAR. 54 1 
 
 Greeks, sunk hi luxury and effeminacy, had lost all the military 
 discipline and heroism that had made them conquerors in Asia. 
 
 Towards this capital Youkcnna proceeded with his band of two 
 hundred men; but in the second watch of the night he left them, 
 after giving them orders to keep on in the high way of the caravans, 
 and on arriving at Antioch, to give themselves out as fugitives from 
 Aleppo. In the meantime, he with two of his relatives, struck into 
 a by-road, and soon fell into the hands of one of the emperor's 
 outposts. On announcing himself Youkenna, late governor of 
 Aleppo, he was sent under a guard of horse to Anlioch. 
 
 The emperor Heraclius, broken in spirit by his late reverses and 
 his continual apprehensions, wept at the sight of Youkenna, and 
 meekly upbraided him with his apostasy and treason, but the latter, 
 with perfect self-possession and effrontery, declared that whatever 
 he had done was for the purpose of preserving his life for the em- 
 peror's service ; and cited the obstinate defence he had made at 
 Aleppo, and his present voluntary arrival at Antioch, as proofs of 
 his fidelity. The emperor was easily deceived by a man he had 
 been accustomed to regard as one of his bravest and most devoted 
 officers; and indeed the subtle apostate had the address to incline 
 most of the courtiers in his favour. To console him for what was 
 considered his recent misfortunes, he was put in command of the 
 two hundred pretended fugitives of his former garrison, as soon as 
 they arrived at Anlioch: he had thus a band of kindred renegades, 
 ready to aid him in any desperate treachery. Furthermore, to show 
 his entire confidence in him, the emperor sent him with upwards 
 of two thousand men, to escort his youngest daughter from a 
 neighbouring place to the court at Antioch. He performed his 
 mission with correctness ; as he and his troop were escorting the 
 princess about midnight, the neighing of their horses put them on 
 the alert, and sending out scouts they received intelligence of a 
 party of Moslems asleep, with their horses grazing near them. They 
 proved to be a body of a thousand Christian Arabs, under Haim, sou 
 of the apostate Jabalah Ibn al Ayam, who had made captives of 
 Derar Ibn al Azwar and a foraging parly of two hundred Moslems. 
 They all proceeded together to Antioch, where the emperor re- 
 ceived his daughter with great joy, and made Youkenna one of his 
 chief counsellors. 
 
 Derar and his men were brought into the presence of the em- 
 peror, and commanded to prostrate themselves before him, but 
 they held themselves erect and took no heed of the command. It 
 was repeated more peremptorily. "\Ve bow to no created being," 
 replied Derar, "the prophet bids us to yield adoration to God 
 alone." 
 
 The emperor, struck with this reply, propounded several ques- 
 tions touching Mahomet and his doctrines, but Derar, whose pro- 
 vince did not lie in words, beckoned to Kaislbn Amir, an old gray- 
 headed Moslem, to answer them. A long and edifying conference 
 ensued, in which, in reply to the searching questions of the em- 
 peror, the venerable Kais went into a history of the prophet, and 
 of the various modes in which inspiration came upon him. Some- 
 times like the sound of a bell ; sometimes in the likeness of an 
 
 16
 
 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 angel in human shape; sometimes in a dream; sometimes like the 
 brightness of the dawning'day; and that when it was upon him 
 great drops of sweat rolled from his forehead, and a tremor .seized 
 upon his limbs. He furthermore descanted with eloquence upon 
 the miracles of Mahomet, of his nocturnal journey to heaven, and 
 his conversation with the Most High. The emperor listened with 
 seeming respect to all these matters, but they roused the indigna- 
 tion of a bishop who was present, and who pronounced Mahomet 
 an impostor. Derar took fire in an instant; if he could not argue, 
 he could make use of a soldier's vocabulary, and he roundly gave 
 the bishop the lie, and assailed him with all kinds of epithets. In- 
 stantly a number of Christian swords flashed from their scabbards, 
 blows were aimed at him from every side; and according to Moslem 
 accounts, he escaped death only by miracle; though others attri- 
 bute it to the hurry and confusion of his assailants, and to the in- 
 terference of Youkcnna. The emperor was now for having him 
 executed on the spot; but here the good offices of Youkenna again 
 saved him, and his execution was deferred. 
 
 In the meantime Abu Obeidah, with his main army, was making 
 his victorious approaches, and subjecting all Syria to his arms. 
 The emperor,. in his miserable imbecility and blind infatuation, put 
 the treacherous Youkenna in full command of the city and army. 
 He would again have executed Derar and his fellow-prisoners, but 
 Youkenna suggested that they had belter be spared to be ex- 
 changed for any Christians that might be taken by the enemy. 
 They were then, by advice of the bishops, taken to one of the 
 churches, and exhorted to embrace the Christian faith, but they 
 obstinately refused. The Arabian writers, as usual, give them 
 sententious replies to the questions put to them. ""What hinders 
 ye/' demanded the patriarch, "from turning Christians?" "The 
 truth of our religion,'' replied they. Heraclius had heard of the 
 mean attire of the Caliph Omar, and asked them why, having gained 
 so much wealth by his conquests, he did not go richly clad like 
 other princes? They replied, that he cared not for this world, but 
 for the world to come, and sought favour in the eyes of God alone. 
 "In what kind of a palace does he reside?" asked the emperor. 
 "In a house built of mud." "\Vhoare his attendants?" "Beggars 
 and the poor." -"What tapestry does he sit upon ? " " Justice and 
 equity." "What is his throne?" "Abstinence and true know- 
 ledge/' "\Vhatishistreasure?" "Trust in God." "And who 
 are his guard ?" "The bravest of the Unitarians/' 
 
 Of all the prisoners one only could be induced to swerve from 
 his faith; and he was a youth fascinated by the beauty and the un- 
 veiled charms of the Greek women. He was baptized wilh triumph ; 
 the bishops strove who most should honour him, and the emperor 
 gave him a horse, a beautiful damsel to wife, and enrolled him in 
 the army of Christian Arabs, commanded by the renegade Jabalah ; 
 but he was upbraided in bitter terms by his father, who was one of 
 the prisoners, and ready to die in the faith of Islam. 
 
 The emperor now reviewed his army, which was drawn up 
 outside of the w r alls, and at the head of every battalion was a W 7 ood- 
 en oratory with a crucifix; while a precious crucifix out of the
 
 OMAR. 243 
 
 main church, exhibited only on extraordinary occasions, \vas borne 
 as a sacred standard, before the treacherous Youkenna. One of 
 the main dependencies of Heraclius for the safety of Antioch, was 
 in the Iron Bridge, so called from its great strength. It was a 
 bridge of stone across the river Orontes, guarded by two towers 
 and garrisoned by a great force, having not less than three hun- 
 dred officers. The fate of this most important pass shows the de- 
 generacy of Greek discipline and the licentiousness of the soldiery, 
 to which in a great measure has been attributed the rapid successes 
 of the Moslems. An officer of the court was charged to visit this 
 fortress each day, and see that every thing was in order. On one 
 of his visits, he found those who had charge of the towers, drink- 
 ing and revelling, whereupon he ordered them to be punished with 
 fifty stripes each. They treasured the disgrace in their hearts; the 
 Moslem army approached to lay siege to that formidable fortress, 
 and when the emperor expected to hear of a long and valiant re- 
 sistance, he was astonished by the tidings that the Iron Bridge had 
 been surrendered without a "blow. 
 
 Heraclius now lost heart altogether. Instead of calling a council 
 of his generals, he assembled the bishops and wealthiest citizens 
 in the cathedral, and wept over the affairs of Syria. It was a time 
 for dastard counsel; the apostate Jabalah proposed the assassina- 
 tion of the Caliph Omar, as a means of throwing the affairs of the 
 Saracens into confusion. The emperor was weak enough to con- 
 sent, and Vathek Ibn Mosapher, a bold young Arab of the tribe of 
 Jabalah, was despatched to Medina to effect the treacherous deed. 
 The Arabian historians give a miraculous close to this undertaking. 
 Arriving at Medina, Vathek concealed himself in a tree, without the 
 walls, at a place where the Caliph was accustomed to walk after 
 the hour of prayers. After a lime Omar approached the place, 
 and lay down to sleep near the foot of the tree. The assassin 
 drew his dagger, and was descending, when he beheld a lion 
 walking round the Caliph, licking his feet and guarding him as he 
 slept. When he woke the lion went away, upon which Vathek. 
 convinced that Omar was under the protection of heaven, hasten- 
 ed down from the tree, kissed his hand in token of allegiance, 
 revealed his treacherous errand and avowed his conversion to the 
 Islam faith. 
 
 The surrender of the Iron Bridge had laid open Antioch to the 
 approach of Abu Obeidah, and he advanced in battle array to where 
 the Christian army was drawn up benealh its walls. Nestorius, one 
 of the Christian cemmanders, sallied forth from among the troops 
 and defied the Moslems to single combat. Damfis, the herculean 
 warrior, who had taken the castle of Aleppo, spurred forward to 
 meet him, but his horse stumbled and fell with him, and he was 
 seized as the prisoner of Nestorius, and conveyed to his Lent, where 
 he was bound hand and foot. Dehac, another Moslem, took his 
 place, and a brave fight ensued between him and Nestorius, The 
 parties, however, were so 'well matched, that, after fighting for a 
 long time until both were exhausted, they parted by mutual con- 
 sent. While this fight was going on the soldiers, horse and foot, of 
 either army, thronged to see it, and in the tumult, the tent of >es-
 
 244 MAHOMET AiND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 torius was thrown down. There were but three servants left in 
 charge of it. Fearful of the anger of their master, they hastened 
 to set it up again, and loosened the bands of Damas that he might 
 assist them ; but the moment he was free, he arose in his giant 
 strength, seized two of the attendants, one in each hand dashed their 
 heads against the head of the third, and soon laid them all lifeless 
 on the ground. Then opening a chest he arrayed himself in a dress 
 belonging to Nestorius, armed himself with a sabre, sprang on a 
 horse that stood ready saddled, and cut his way through the Chris- 
 tian Arabs of Jabalahto the Moslem host. 
 
 While these things were happening without the walls, treason 
 was at work in the city. Youkenna, who commanded there, set 
 free Derar and his fellow-prisoners, furnished them with weapons, 
 and joined to them his own band of renegadoes. The tidings of 
 this treachery, and the apprehension of revolt among his own 
 troops, struck despair to the heart of Heraclius He had been ter- 
 rified by a dream, in which he had found himself thrust from his 
 throne, and his crown falling from his head ; the fulfilment ap- 
 peared to be at hand. Without wailing to withstand the evil, he 
 assembled a few domestics, made a secret retreat to the sea-shore, 
 and set sail for Constantinople. 
 
 The generals of Heraclius, more brave than their emperor, fought 
 a pilched battle beneath the walls : but the treachery of Youkenna, 
 and the valour of Derar and his men, who fell on them unawares, 
 rendered their gallant struggle unavailing; the people of Antioch 
 seeing the battle lost, capitulated for the safety of their city at the 
 cost of three hundred thousand golden ducats, and AbuObeidah en- 
 tered the ancient capital of Syria in triumph. This event took place 
 on the 21st of August, in the year of redemption 638. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Expedition into the mountains of Syria. Story of a miraculous cap. 
 
 The discreet Abu Obeidah feared to expose his troops to the 
 enervating delights of Antioch, and to the allurements of the Greek 
 women, and, after three clays of repose and refreshment, marched 
 forth from that luxurious city. He wrote a letter to the Caliph, re- 
 lating his important conquest, and the flight of the emperor Hera- 
 clius ; and added, that he discovered a grievous propensity among 
 his troops to intermarry with the beautiful Grecian females, which 
 he had forbidden them to dp, as contrary to the injunctions of the 
 Koran. 
 
 Te epistle was delivered to Omar, just as he was departing on a 
 pilgrimage to Mecca, accompanied by the widows of the prophet. 
 "When he had read the letter, he offered prayers and thanksgiving 
 to Allah, but wept over Abu Obeidah's rigour to his soldiers. Seat- 
 ing himself upon the ground, he immediately wrote a reply to his
 
 OMAR. ?45 
 
 general, expressing his satisfaction at his success, but exhorting 
 him to more indulgence to his soldiers. Those who had fought the 
 good fight ought to be permitted to rest themselves, and to enjoy 
 the good things they had gained. Such as had no wives at home, 
 might marry in Syria, and those who had a desire for female 
 slaves, might purchase as many as they chose. 
 
 "While the main army reposed after the taking of Antioch, the in- 
 defatigable Khaled, at the head of a detachment, scoured the coun- 
 try as far as to the Euphrates; took Membege, the ancient Hiera- 
 polis, by force, and Berali and Bales, and other places, by capitula- 
 tion, receiving a hundred thousand pieces of gold by way of ransom, 
 besides laying the inhabitants under annual tribute. 
 
 Abu Obeidah, in an assemblage of his officers, now proposed an 
 expedition to subdue the mountains of Syria; but no one stepped 
 forward to volunteer. The mountains were rugged and sterile, and 
 covered with ice and snow for the greater part of the year, and the 
 troops already began to feel the effects of the softening climate and 
 delights of Syria. At length a candidate presented himself, named 
 Meisara Ibn Mesroud ; a numerous body of picked men was placed 
 under his command, and a black flag was given him, bearing ihe 
 inscription, "There is no God but God. Mahomet is the mes- 
 senger of God.'' Dam As accompanied him at the head of one thou- 
 sand black Ethiopian slaves. The detachment suffered greatly in 
 the mountains, for they were men of sultry climates, unaccustomed 
 to ice and snow, and they passed suddenly from a soft Syrian 
 summer to the severity of frozen winter, and from the midst of 
 abundance to regions of solitude and sterility. The inhabitants, 
 too, of the scanty villages, fled at their approach. At length they 
 captured a prisoner, who informed them that an imperial army of 
 many thousand men was lying in wait for them in a valley about 
 three leagues distant, and that all the passes behind them were 
 guarded. A scout, despatched in search of intelligence, confirmed 
 this news : whereupon they intrenched themselves in a commanding 
 position, and despatched a fleet courier to Abu Obeidah, to inform 
 him of their perilous situation. 
 
 The courier made such speed, that when he reached the pre- 
 sence of Obeidah, he fainted through exhaustion. Khaled, who 
 had just returned from his successful expedition to the Euphrates, 
 instantly hastened to the relief of Meisara with three thousand men, 
 and was presently followed by Ayad Ibn Ganam, with two thousand 
 more. 
 
 Khaled found Meisara and his men making desperate stand 
 against an overwhelming force. At the sight of this powerful rein- 
 forcement, with the black eagle of Khaled in the advance, the 
 Greeks gave over the attack and returned to their camp, but se- 
 cretly retreated in the night, leaving their tents standing, and 
 bearing ofT captive Abdallah Ibn Hodafa, a near relative of the pro- 
 phet, and a beloved friend to the Caliph Omar, whom they straight- 
 way sent to the emperor at Constantinople. 
 
 The Moslems forbore to pursue the enemy through these diffi- 
 cult mountains, and, after plundering the deserted tents, returned 
 to the main nrmy. \Vhen the r.aliph Omar received tidings from
 
 246 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Abu Obeidah of the capture of Abdallah Ibn Hodafa, he was grieved 
 at heart, and despatched instantly an epistle to the emperor Hera- 
 clius at Constantinople. 
 
 "Bismillah ! " In the name of the all merciful God ! 
 
 " Praise be to Allah, the Lord of this world, and of that which 
 is to come, who has neither companion, wife, nor son; and blessed 
 be Mahomet his apostle. Omar Ibn all Khatlab, servant of God, 
 to Heraclius, emperor of the Greeks. As soon as thou shall receive 
 this epistle, fail not to send to me the Moslem captive, whose name 
 is Abdallah Ibn Hodafa. If thou doest this, I shall have hope 
 that Allah will conduct thee in the right path. If thou dost refuse, 
 I will not fail to send thee such men as traffic and merchandise 
 have not turned from the fear of God. Health and happiness to 
 all those who tread in the right way! " 
 
 In the meantime the emperor had treated his prisoner with great 
 distinction, and as Abdallah was a cousin-german to the prophet, 
 the sou of one of his uncles, he was an object of great curiosity at 
 Constantinople. The emperor proffered him liberty if he would 
 only make a single sign of adoration to the crucifix, and magnifi- 
 cent rewards if he would embrace the Christian faith ; but both 
 proposals were rejected. Heraclius, say the Arab writers, then 
 changed his treatment of him ; shut him up for three days, with 
 nothing to eat and drink -but swine's flesh and wine, but on the 
 fourth day found both untouched. The faith of Abdallah w r as put 
 to no further proof, as by this lime the emperor received Ihe stern 
 leller from Ihe Caliph. The lelter had its effect. The prisoner 
 was dismissed, with costly robes and rich presents, and Heraclius 
 sent to Omar a diamond of greal size and beauly : but no jeweller 
 at Medina could estimale its value. The abstemious Omar refused 
 to appropriate it to his own use, though urged to do so by the 
 Moslems. He placed it in the public treasury, of which, from his 
 office, he was the guardian and manager. It was afterwards sold 
 for a great sum. 
 
 A singular story is relaled by a Moslem wriler, bul not sup- 
 ported by any rumour or surmise among Christian historians. It is 
 said that the emperor Heraclius wavered in his faith, if he did not 
 absolutely become a secret convert of Mahometanism, and this is 
 stated as the cause. He was afflicted with a violent pain in l'ie 
 head, for which he could iind no remedy, until Ihe Caliph Omar 
 sent him a cap of mysterious virtue. So long as he wore this cap 
 he was at ease, but the moment he laid it aside the pain returned. 
 Heraclius caused the cap lo be ripped open, and found within Ihe 
 lining a scrap of paper, on which was wrilten, in Arabic character, 
 Bismillah! Arrajimany Arrahimi ! In the name of the all-merciful 
 God. This cap is said to have been preserved among the Christians 
 until the year 833, when it was givrn up by the governor of a be- 
 sieged town to the Caliph Almotassem, on condilion of his raising 
 the siege. II was found slill lo retain, its medicinal virtues, which 
 the pious Arabians ascribed to the efficacy of Ihe devout inscription, 
 An unbelieving Christian will set it down among the charms and 
 incantations which have full effect on imaginative persons inclined 
 to credulity, but upon none others; such persons abounded among 
 the Arabs.
 
 OMAP. 247 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 Expedition of Amru Ibn al Aass against Prince Constantine in Syria. Their conference. 
 Capture of Tripoli and Tyre. Flight of Constantine. Dealh of Khaled. 
 
 The course of our history now turns to record the victories of 
 Amru Ibn al Aass, to whom, after the capture of Jerusalem, the 
 Caliph had assigned the invasion and subjugation of Egypt. Amru, 
 however, did not proceed immediately to that country, but re- 
 mained for some time with his division of the army, in Palestine, 
 where some places still held out for the emperor. The natural 
 and religious sobriety of the Arabs was still sorely endangered 
 among the temptations of Syria. Several of the Moslem officers 
 being seized while on the march, with chills and griping pains in 
 consequence of eating unripe grapes, were counselled by a -crafty 
 old Christian Arab, to .drink freely of wine which he produced, and 
 which he pronounced a sovereign remedy. They followed his 
 prescriptions so lustily, that they all came reeling into the camp to 
 the great scandal of Amru. The punishment for drunkenness, 
 recommended by Ali and adopted by the Caliph, was administered 
 to the delinquents ; who each received a sound bastinado on the - 
 soles of the feet This sobered them completely, but so enraged 
 them with the old man who had recommended the potations, that 
 they would have put him to death, had it not been represented to 
 them that he was a stranger and under Moslem protection. 
 
 Amru now advanced upon the city of Caesarea, where Constau- 
 tine, son of the emperor, was posted with a large army. The 
 Moslems were beset by spies, sent by the Christian commander to 
 obtain intelligence. These were commonly Christian Arabs, whom 
 it was almost impossible to distinguish from those of the faith of 
 Islam. One of these, however, after sitting one day by the camp 
 fires, as he rose trod on the end of his own robe and stumbled ; in 
 his vexation, he uttered an oath "by Christ!" He was immediately 
 detected by his blasphemy to be a Christian and a spy, and was cut 
 to pieces by the bystanders. Amru rebuked them for their preci- 
 pitancy, as he might have gained infor ration from their victim; 
 and ordered (hat in future all spies should be brought to him. 
 
 The fears of Constantine increased with the approach of the 
 army, and he now despatched a Christian priest to Amru, soliciling 
 him to send some principal officer to confer amicably with him. 
 An Ethiopian negro named Belal Ibn Rebah, offered to undertake 
 the embassy. He was a man of powerful frame and sonorous 
 voice, and had been employed by Mahomet as a Muezzin or crier, 
 to summon the people to prayers. Proud of having officiated 
 underthe prophet, he retired from office at his death, and had 
 raised his voice but once since that event, and that was on the 
 taking possession of Jerusalem, the city of the prophets, when at
 
 248 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 the Caliph Omar's command, he summoned the true believers to 
 prayers with a force of lungs, that astonished the Jewish inha- 
 bitants. 
 
 Amru would have declined the officious offer of the vociferous 
 Ethiopian, representing to him that such a mission required a 
 smooth-spoken Arab, rather than one of his country ; but, on Belal 
 conjuring him in the name of Allah and the prophet, to let him go, 
 he reluctantly consented. "When the priest saw who was to ac- 
 company him back to Constantine, he objected stoutly to such an 
 ambassador, and glancing contemptuously at the negro features of 
 the Ethiopian, observed that Constantine had not sent for a slave 
 but for an officer. The negro ambassador, however, persisted in 
 his diplomatic errand, but was refused admission and returned mor- 
 tified and indignant. 
 
 Amru now determined to undertake the conference in person. 
 Repairing to the Christian camp, he was conducted to Constantine, 
 whom he found seated in state, and who ordered a chair to be 
 placed for him; but he put it aside, and seated himself cross-legged 
 on the ground after the Arab fashion, with his scimetar on his thigh 
 and his lance across his knees. -The curious conference that ensued 
 is minutely narrated by that pious Iman and Cadi, the Moslem 
 historian Alwakedi, in his chronicle of the conquest of Syria. 
 
 Constautine remonstrated against the invasion, telling Amru that 
 the Romans and Greeks and Arabs were brethren, as being all the 
 children of Noah, although, it was true, the Arabs were misbegotten, 
 as being the descendants of Ishmael, the son of Hagar, a slave and 
 a concubine, yet being thus brethren, it was sinful for them to war 
 against each other. 
 
 Amru replied that what Constantine had said was true, and that 
 the Arabs gloried in acknowledging Ishmael as their progenitor, 
 and envied not the Greeks their forefather Esau, who had sold his 
 birthright for a mess of pottage. He added that their difference 
 related Jo their religion, upon which ground even brothers were 
 justified in warfare. 
 
 Amru proceeded to state that Noah, after the deluges divided the 
 earth into three parts, between his sons Sheni, Ham, and Japhet, 
 and that Syria was in the portion assigned to Shem, which con- 
 tinued down through his descendants Kathan and Tesm, and Jodais 
 to Amalek, the father of the Amelekite Arabs; but that the Arabs 
 had been pushed from their fertile inheritance of Syria into the 
 stony and thorny deserts of Arabia. 
 
 "Ve come now," continued Amru, "to claim our ancient 
 inheritance, and resume the ancient partition. Take you the 
 stones and the thorns and the barreti deserts we have occupied, 
 and give us back the pleasant land of Syria, with its groves, its 
 pastures, its fair cities and running streams." 
 
 To this Constantine replied, that the partition was already made; 
 that time and possession had confirmed it; and that the groves 
 had been planted, and the cities built by the present inhabitants. 
 Each, therefore, ought to be contented with the lot that had fallen 
 to him. 
 
 " There are two conditions," rejoined Amru, " on which the
 
 OMAR. 249 
 
 land may remain with its present inhabitants. Let them profess 
 the religion of Islam, or pay tribute to the Caliph, as is due from 
 all unbelievers." 
 
 "IS'otso," said Constantine, "but let each continue to possess 
 the land he has inhabited, and enjoy the produce of his own toil, 
 and profess the faith he believes,in his own conscience, to be true." 
 
 Upon this Amru sternly rose. " One only alternative," said he, 
 " remains. Since you obstinately refuse the conditions I propose, 
 even as your ancestor Esau refused obedience to his mother, let 
 God*and the sword decide between us." 
 
 As he was about to depart, he added : "We will acknowledge 
 no kindred with you, while ye continue unbelievers. Ye are the 
 children of Esau, we of Ishmael, through whom alone the seal and 
 gift of prophecy descended from father to son, from our great 
 forefather Adam, until it reached the prophet Mahomet. Now 
 Ishmael was the best of the sons of his father, and made the tribe 
 of Kenanah, the best tribe of Arabia; and the family of Koreish is 
 the best of the tribe of Kenanah; and the children of Haschem 
 are the best of the family of Koreish; and Abdallah Molalleb, 
 grandsire of Mahomet, was the best of the sons of Haschem ; and 
 Abdallah, the youngest and best of the thirteen sons of Abu 
 Motalleb, was the father of Mahomet, (on w r hom be peace !) who 
 was the best and only issue of his sire ; and to him the angel 
 Gabriel descended from Allah, and inspired him with the gift of 
 prophecy. " 
 
 Thus terminated this noted conference, and Amru returned to 
 his host. The armies now remained in sight of each other, pre- 
 pared for battle, but without coming to action. One day an 
 officer richly arrayed came forth from the Christian camp, defying 
 the Moslems to single combat. Several were eager to accept the 
 challenge in hopes of gaining such glittering spoil; but Amru 
 rebuked their sordid motives. " Let no man fight for gain," said 
 he, " but for the truth. He who loses his life fighting for the love 
 of God, will have paradise as a reward ; but he who loses it fighting 
 for any other object, will lose his life and all that he fights for." 
 
 A stripling now advanced, an Arab from Yemen, or Arabia the 
 Happy, who had sought these wars not, as he said, for the delights 
 of Syria, or the fading enjoyments of this world, but to devote 
 himself to the service of God and his apostle. His mother and 
 sister had in vain opposed his leaving his peaceful home, to seek a 
 life of danger. " If I fall in the service of Allah," said he, "I shall 
 be a martyr; and the prophet has Said, that the spirits of the mar- 
 tyrs shall dwell in the crops of the green birds that eat of the fruits 
 and drink of the rivers of paradise." Finding their remonstrances 
 of no avail, his mother and sister had followed fiim to the wars, and 
 they now endeavoured to dissuade him from fighting with an adver- 
 sary so much his superior in strength and years; but the youthful 
 enthusiast was not to be moved. < Farewell, mother and sister! " 
 cried he, ' we shall meet again by that river of joy provided in 
 paradise, for the apostle and his followers." 
 
 The youth rushed to the combat, but obtained almost instantly 
 the crown of martyrdom he sought. Another, and another sue-
 
 250 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 ceeded him, but shared the same fate. Serjabil Ibn Hasanah 
 stepped forth. As on a former occasion, in purifying the spirit, 
 he had reduced the flesh ; and a course of watching and fasting 
 had rendered him but little competent to face his powerful ad- 
 versary. After a short combat the Christian bore him to the earth, 
 and selling his foot upon his breast, was about to take his life, when 
 his own hand was suddenly severed from his body. The prostrate 
 Serjabil looked up with surprise at his deliverer; for he was in 
 Grecian attire, and had come from the Grecian host. He an- 
 nounced himself as the unhappy Tule'ia Ibn Chowailed, formerly a 
 pretended prophet and an associate of Moseilma. After the death 
 of thai impostor, he had repented of his false prophecies, and be- 
 come a Moslem in heart, and had sought an opporlunity of 
 signalizing his devolion to the Islam cause. 
 
 " Oh brother ! " cried Serjabil, " the mercy of Allah is infinite, 
 and repentance wipes away all crimes."- 
 
 Serjabil would now have taken him to the Moslem host, but 
 Tuleia hung back ; and at length confessed that he would long since 
 have joined the.standard of Islam, but that he was afraid of Khaled, 
 that terror and scourge of false prophets,, who had killed his friend 
 Moseilma, and who might pul him to death out of resentmenl for 
 pasl misdeeds. Serjabil quieted his fears, by assuring him Ihat 
 Khaled was not in the Moslem camp; he then conducted him to 
 Amru, who received him with great favour, and afterwards gave 
 him a leller to the Caliph setting forih the signal service he had 
 performed, and his sincere devotion to the cause of Islam. He was 
 subsequently employed in the wars of the Moslems against the 
 Persians. 
 
 The weather was cold and tempestuous, and the Christians 
 disheartened by repeated reverses, began daily to desert their 
 colours. The prince Constantino dreaded, with his diminished and 
 discouraged troops, to encounter an enemy flushed Avilh success, 
 and continually augmenting in force. Accordingly, he took ad- 
 vantnge of a tempestuous night, and abandoning his camp, to be 
 plundered by the Moslems, retreated with his army to Caesarea, 
 and shut himself up within its Avails. Hither he AA as soon followed 
 by Amru, AT ho laid close siege to the place, but the Avails were 
 strong, the garrison was numefous, and Constantine hoped to be 
 able to hold out until the arrival of reinforcements. The tilings of 
 further disasters and disgraces to the imperial cause, however, 
 destroyed this hope ; and these were brought about by the strata- 
 gems and treacheries of that arch deceiver Youkenna. After the 
 surrender of Anlioch, that wily traitor still kept up his pretended 
 devotion to the Christian cause, and retreated with his band of 
 renegadoes to the toAvn of Tripoli, a sea-port in Syria, situated on 
 the Mediterranean. Here he was cordially admitted, as his 
 treachery Avas still unknoAvn. Watching his opporlunity, he rose 
 with his devoted band, seized on the town and citadel Avithout noise 
 or tumult, and kept the standard of the cross still flying, Avhile he 
 sent secret intelligence of his exploillo Abu Obeidah. Just at this 
 time, a fleet of fifty ships from Cyprus and Crete put in there, laden 
 Avith arms and provisions for Constantino's army. Before notice
 
 OMAR. 251 
 
 could be given of the posture of affairs, Youkenna gained posses- 
 sion of the ships, and embarked on board of them with his renega- 
 does and other troops, delivering the city of Tripoli into the hands 
 of the force sent by Abu Obeidah to receive it. 
 
 Bent on new treacheries, Youkenna now sailed with the fleet to 
 Tyre, displaying the Christian flag, and informing the governor that 
 he was come with a reinforcement for the army of the emperor. 
 He was kindly received, and landed with nine hundred of his troops, 
 intending to rise on the garrison in the night. One of his own 
 men, however, betrayed the plot, and Youkenna and his followers 
 were seized and imprisoned in the citadel. 
 
 In the meantime Yezed Ibn Abu Sofian, who had marched with 
 two thousand men against Caesarea, but had left Amru to subdue 
 it, came with his troops into the neighbourhood of Tyre, in hopes to 
 find it in possession of Youkenna. The governor of the city de- 
 spising so slender a force, sallied forth with the greater part of his 
 garrison, and the inhabitants mounted on the walls to see the battle. 
 
 It was Hie fortune of Youkenna, which he derived from his con- 
 summate skill in intrigue, that his failure and captivity on this 
 occasion, as on a former one in the castle of Aazaz, served only as 
 a foundation for his success. He contrived to gain over a Christian 
 officer named Basil, to whose keeping he and the other prisoners 
 wer.e intrusted, and who was already disposed to embrace the 
 Islam faith ; and he sent information of his plan by a disguised 
 messenger to Yezed, and to those of his own followers who remai- 
 ned on board of the fleet. All this was the work of a few hours, 
 while the opposing forces were preparing for action. 
 
 The battle was hardly begun when Youkenna and his nine hun- 
 dred men, set free by the apostate Basil, and conducted to the 
 arsenal, armed themselves and separated in different parties. Some 
 scoured the streets, shouting La ilaha Allah ! and Allah Achbar I 
 Others stationed themselves at the passages by which alone the guard 
 could descend from the walls. Others ran to the port, where they 
 were joined by their comrades from the fleet, and others threw 
 wide the gates to a detachment of the army of Yezed. All this was 
 suddenly effected, and with such co-operation from various points, 
 that the place was presently in the hands of the Moslems. Most of 
 the inhabitants embraced the Islam faith ; the rest were pillaged 
 and made slaves. 
 
 It' was the tidings of the loss of Tripoli and Tyre, and of the cap- 
 ture of the fleet, with its munitions of war, that struck dismay into 
 the heart of the prince Constantino, and made him quake within the 
 walls of Caesarea. He felt as if Amru and his besieging army were 
 already within the walls, and, taking disgraceful counsel from his 
 fears, and example from his father's flight from Antioch, he removed 
 furtively from Caesarea with his family and vast treasure, gained 
 promptly a convenient port, and set all sail for Constantinople. 
 
 The people of Caesarea finding one morning that the son of their 
 sovereign had fled in the night, capitulated with Amru, offering to 
 deliver up the city, with all the wealth belonging to the family of 
 the late emperor, and two hundred thousand pieces of silver, as 
 ransom for their own property. Their terms were promptly ac
 
 252 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 cepted, Amru being anxious to depart on the invasion of Egypt. 
 
 The surrender of Caesarea was followed by the other places in 
 the province which had still held out, and thus, after a war of six 
 years, the 3Ioslem conquest of Syria was completed, in the 5th 
 year of the Caliph Omar, the 29th of the reign of the emperor 
 Heraclius, the 17th of the Hegira, and the 639th year of our 
 redemption. 
 
 The conquest was followed by a pestilence, one of the customary 
 attendants upon war. Great numbers of the people of Syria pe- 
 rished, and with them twenty-five thousand of their Arabian con- 
 querors. Among the latter was Abu Obeidah, the commander-in- 
 chief, then fifty-eight years of age ; also Yezed Ibn Abu Sofian, 
 Serjabil, and other distinguished generals, so that the 18th year of 
 the Hegira became designated as "The year of the mortality." 
 
 In closing this account of the conquest of Syria, we must note 
 the fate of one of the most efficient of its conquerors, the invincible 
 Khaled. He had never been a favourite of Omar, who considered 
 him rash and headlong; arrogant in the exercise of command; 
 unsparing in the use of the sword, and rapacious in grasping the 
 spoils of victory. His brilliant achievements in Irak and Syria, 
 and the magnanimity with which he yielded the command to Abu 
 Obeidah, and zealously fought under his standard, had never suf- 
 ficed' to efface the prejudice of Omar. 
 
 After the capture of Emessa, which was mainly effected by the 
 bravery of Khaled, he received congratulations on all hands as the 
 victor. Eschaus, an Arabian poet, sang his exploits in lofty verse, 
 making him the hero of the whole Syrian conquest. Khaled, who 
 was as ready to squander as to grasp, rewarded the adulation of 
 the poet with thirty thousand pieces of silver. All this, when 
 reported to Omar, excited his quick disgust ; he was indignant at 
 Khaled for arrogating to himself, as he supposed, all the glory of 
 the war; and he attributed the lavish reward of the poet to grati- 
 fied vanity. "Even if the money came from his own purse/' said 
 he, "it was shameful squandering; and God, says the Koran, loves 
 not a squanderer." 
 
 He now gave faith to a charge made against Khaled of em- 
 bezzling the spoils set apart for the public treasury, and forthwith 
 sent orders for him to be degraded from his command in presence 
 ofthe assembled army ; it is even said his arms were tied behind 
 his back with his turban. 
 
 A rigid examination proved the charge of embezzlement to be 
 unfounded, but Khaled was subjected to a heavy fine. The sen- 
 tence causing great dissatisfaction in the army, the Caliph wrote to 
 the commanders : "I have punished Khaled not on account of 
 fraud or falsehood, but for his vanity and prodigality ; paying poets 
 for ascribing to him alone all the successes of the holy war. Good 
 and evil come from God, not from Khaled !" 
 
 These indignities broke the heart of the veteran, who was al- 
 ready infirm from the wounds and hardships of his arduous cam- 
 paigns, and he gradually sank into the grave, regretting in his last 
 moments that he had not died in the field of battle. He left a 
 name idolized by the soldiery, and beloved by his kindred;
 
 OMAR. 253 
 
 at his sepulture, all the women of his race cut off their hair 
 in token of lamentation. When it was ascertained, at his death, 
 that instead of having enriched himself by the wars, his whole pro- 
 perty consisted of his war-horse, his arms, and a single slave, 
 Omar became sensible of the injustice he had done to his faithful 
 general, and shed tears over his grave. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 Invasion of Egypt by Amru. Capture of Memphis. Siege and surrender of Alexandria. 
 Burning of the Alexandrian library. 
 
 A proof of the religious infatuation, or the blind confidence in 
 destiny, which hurried the Moslem commanders of those days into 
 the most extravagant enterprises, is furnished in the invasion of 
 the once proud empire of the Pharaohs, the mighty, the mysterious 
 Egypt, with an army of merely five thousand men. The Caliph, 
 himself, though, he had suggested this expedition, seems to have 
 been conscious of its rashness ; or rather to have been chilled by 
 the doubts of his prime counsellor Othman; for, while Amru was 
 on the march, he despatched missives after him to the following 
 effect : " If this epistle reach thce before thou hast crossed (he 
 boundary of Egypt, come instantly back; but if it find thee within 
 the Egyptian territory, march on with the blessing of Allah, and be 
 assured I will send thee all necessary aid." 
 
 The bearer of the letter overtook Amru while yet within the 
 bounds of Syria ; that wary general either had secret information, 
 or made a shrewd surmise, as to the purport of his errand, and 
 continued his march across the border without admitting him to an 
 audience. Having encamped at the Egyptian village of Arish, he 
 received the courier with all due respect, and read the letter aloud 
 in the presence of his officers. "When he had finished, he demanded 
 of those about him whether they were in Syria or Egypt. " la 
 Egypt," was the reply. "Then," said Amru, " we will proceed, 
 with the blessing of Allah, and fulfil the commands of the 
 Caliph." 
 
 The first place to which he laid siege was Farwak, or Pelusium 
 situated on the shores of the Mediterranean, on the Isthmus which 
 separates that sea from the Arabian Gulf, and connects Egypt with 
 Syria and Arabia. It was therefore considered the key to Egypt. 
 A month's siege put Amru in possession of the place ; he then exa- 
 mined the surrounding country with more forethought than was 
 generally manifested by the Moslem conquerors, and projected a 
 canal across the Isthmus, to connect the waters of the lied Sea and 
 the Mediterranean. His plan, however, was condemned by the 
 Caliph, as calculated to throw open Arabia to a maritime invasion 
 of the Christians. 
 
 Amru now proceeded to Misrah, the Memphis of the ancients,
 
 254 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 and residence of the early Egyptian kings. This city was at that 
 time the strongest fortress in Egypt, except Alexandria, and still 
 retained much of Us ancient magnificence. It stood on the west- 
 ern bank of the Nile, above the Delta, and a little east of the 
 Pyramids. The citadel was of great strength, and well garrisoned, 
 and had recently been surrounded with a deep ditch, into which 
 nails and spikes had been thrown, to impede assailants. 
 
 The Arab armies, rarely provided with the engines necessary 
 for the attack of fortified places, generally beleaguered them; cutoff 
 all supplies ; attacked all foraging parties that sallied forth, and thus 
 destroyed the garrison in detail, or starved it to a surrender. This 
 was the reason of the long duration of their sieges. This of Misrah, 
 or Memphis, lasted seven months : in the course of which the little 
 army of Amru was much reduced by frequent skirmishings. At 
 the end of this time he received a reinforcement of four thousand 
 men, sent to him at his urgent entreaties by the Caliph. Still his 
 force would have been insuflicient for the capture of the place, 
 had he not been aided by the treachery of its governor Mo- 
 kawkas. 
 
 This man, an original Egyptian, or Copt, by birth, and of noble 
 rank, was a profound hypocrite. Like most of the Copts he was 
 of the Jacobite sect, who denied the double nature of Christ. He 
 had dissembled his sectarian creed, however, and deceived the em- 
 peror Heraclius by a show of loyalty ; so as to be made prefect of 
 his native province, and governor of the city. Most of the inha- 
 bitants of Memphis were Copts and Jacobite Christians; and held 
 their Greek fellow-citizens, who were of the regular Catholic church 
 of Constantinople, in great antipathy. 
 
 Mokawkas, in the course of his administration, had collected, 
 by taxes and tribute, an immense amount of treasure, which he 
 had deposited inte citadel. He saw that the power of the emperor 
 was coming to an end in this quarter, and thought the present a 
 good opportunity to provide for his own fortune. Carrying on a 
 secret correspondence with the Moslem general, he agreed to 
 betray the place into his hands, on condition of receiving the trea- 
 sure as a reward for his treason. He accordingly, at an appointed 
 time, removed the greater part of the garrison from the citadel to 
 an island in the Nile. The fortress was immediately assailed by 
 Amru, at the head of his fresh troops, and was easily carried by 
 assault, the Copts rendering no assistance. The Greek soldiery, 
 on the Moslem standard being hoisted on the citadel, saw through 
 the treachery, and, giving up all as lost, escaped in their ships to 
 the main land; upon which the prefect surrendered the place by 
 capitulation. An annual tribute of two ducats a head was levied 
 on all the inhabitants of the district, with the exception of old 
 men, women, and boys under the age of sixteen years. It was 
 further conditioned, that the Moslem army should be furnished v* ith 
 provisions, for which they would pay, and that the inhabitants of 
 the country should, forthwith, build bridges over all the streams 
 on the way to Alexandria. It was also agreed that every Mus- 
 sulman travelling through the country should be entitled to three 
 days' hospitality, free of charge.
 
 OMAR. 255 
 
 The traitor Mokawkas was put in possession of his ill-gotten 
 wealth. He begged of Amru to be taxed with the Copts, and 
 always to be enrolled among them; declaring his abhorrence of 
 the Greeks and their doctrines; urging Amru lo persecute them 
 with unremitting violence. He extended his sectarian bigotry 
 even into the grave, stipulating that, at his death, he should be 
 buried in the Christian Jacobite church of St. John, at Alexandria. 
 
 Amru, who was politic as Well as brave, seeing the irrecon- 
 cilable hatred of the Coptic or Jacobite Christians to the Greeks, 
 shew r ed some favour to that sect, in order lo make use of them in 
 his conquest of the country. He even prevailed upon their pa- 
 triarch Benjamin to emerge frpm his desert and hold a conference 
 with him; and subsequently declared that "he had never con- 
 versed with a Christian priest of more innocent manners or vener- 
 able aspect.'' This piece of diplomacy had its effect, for we are 
 told that all the Copts above and below Memphis swore allegiance 
 to the Caliph. 
 
 Amru noAV pressed on for the city of Alexandria, distant about 
 one hundred and twenty-five miles. According to stipulation, the 
 people of the country repaired the roads and erected bridges lo 
 facilitate his inarch; the Greeks, however, driven from various 
 quarters by the progress of their invaders, had collected at dif- 
 ferent posts on the island of the Delta, and the channels of the 
 Nile, and disputed with desperate but fruitless obstinacy, the 
 onward course of the conquerors. The severest check was given 
 at Keraui al Shoraik, by the late garrison of Memphis, who had 
 fortified themselves there after retreating from the island of the 
 Nile. For three days did they maintain a gallant conflict with the 
 Moslems, and then retired in good order to Alexandria. "With all 
 the facilities furnished to them on their march, it cost the Moslems 
 two-and-twenty days to fight their way to that great city. 
 
 Alexandria now lay before them, the metropolis of wealthy 
 Egypt, the emporium of the East, a place strongly fortified, stored 
 with all the munitions of war, open by sea to all kinds of supplies 
 and reinforcements, and garrisoned by Greeks, aggregated from 
 various quarters, who here were to make lhe*last stand for their 
 Egyptian empire. It would seem that nothing short of an en- 
 thusiasm bordering on madness, could have led Amru and his host 
 on an enterprise against this powerful city. 
 
 The Moslem leader, on planting his standard before the place, 
 summoned it to surrender on the usual terms, which being 
 promptly refused, he prepared for a vigorous siege. The garrison 
 did not wait to be attacked, but made repeated sallies, and fought 
 with desperate valour. Those who gave greatest annoyance to the 
 Moslems, were their old enemies, the Greek troops from Memphis. 
 Amru, seeing that the greatest defence was from a main lower, or 
 citadel, made a gallant assault upon it, and carried it sword in 
 hand. The Greek troops, however, rallied lo that point from all 
 parts of the cily; ihe Moslems, after a furious struggle, gave way, 
 and Amru, his faithful slave \Verdan, and one of his generals, 
 named Moslema Ibn al Mokalled, fighting to the last, were sur- 
 rounded, overpowered, and taken prisoners.
 
 256 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 The Greeks, unaware of the importance of their captives, led 
 them before the governor. He demanded of them, haugtily, what 
 was their object in thus overrunning the world and disturbing the 
 quiet of peaceable neighbours. Amru made the usual reply, that 
 they came to spread the faith of Islam ; and that it was their inten- 
 tion, before they laid by the sword, to make the Egyptians either 
 converts or tributaries. The boldness of his answer, and the lofti- 
 ness of his demeanour, awakened the suspicions of the governor, 
 who, supposing him to be a warrior of note among the Arabs, or- 
 dered one of his guards to strike off his head. Upon this Werdan, 
 the slave, understanding the Greek language, seized his master by 
 the collar, and, giving him a buffet on the cheek, called him an 
 impudent dog, and ordered him to hold his peace, and let his su- 
 periors speak. Moslema, perceiving the meaning of the slave, 
 now interposed, and made a plausible speech to the governor; 
 telling him that Amru had thoughts of raising the siege, having 
 received a letter to that effect from the Caliph, who intended to 
 send ambassadors to treat for peace, and assuring the governor 
 that, if permitted to depart, they would make a favourable report 
 to Amru. 
 
 The governor, who, if Arabian chronicles may be believed on iliis 
 point, must have been a man of easy faith, ordered the prisoners to 
 beset at liberty; but the shouts of the besieging army on the safe 
 return of their general soon showed him how completely he had 
 been duped. 
 
 But scanty details of the siege of Alexandria have reached the 
 Christian reader, yet it was one of the longest, most obstinately 
 contested and sanguinary, in the whole course of the Moslem wars. 
 It endured fourteen months with various success ; .the Moslem army 
 was repeatedly reinforced, and lost twenty-three thousand men; 
 at length their irresistible ardour and perseverance prevailed ; the 
 capital of Egypt was conquered, and the Greek inhabitants were 
 dispersed in all directions. Some retreated in considerable bodies 
 into the interior of the country, and fortified themselves in strong- 
 holds; others took refuge in the ships, and put to sea. 
 
 Amru, on taking possession of the city, found it nearly aban- 
 doned; he prohibited his troops from plundering; and leaving a 
 small garrison to guard the place, hastened with his main army in 
 pursuit of the fugitive Greeks. In the meantime the ships which 
 had taken off a part of the garrison were still lingering on the 
 coast, and tidings reached them that the Moslem general had de- 
 parted, and had left the captured city nearly defenceless. They 
 immediately made sail back for Alexandria, and entered the port 
 in the night. The Greek soldiers surprised the sentinels, got pos- 
 session of the city, and put most of the Moslems they found there to 
 the sword. 
 
 Amru was in full pursuit of the Greek fugitives, whenhe heard of 
 the recapture of the city. Mortified at his own negligence in leav- 
 ing so rich a conquest with so slight a guard, he returned in all 
 haste, resolved to retake it by storm. The Greeks, however, had 
 fortified themselves strongly in the castle, and made stout re- 
 sistance. Amru was obliged, therefore, to besiege it a second
 
 OMAR. 257 
 
 time, but the siege was short. The castle was carried by assault ; 
 many of the Greeks were cut to pieces, the rest escaped once more 
 to their ships, and now gave up the capital as lost. All this occurred 
 in the nineteenth year of the Hegira, and the year 640 of the Chris- 
 tian era. 
 
 On this second capture of the city by force of arms, and without 
 capitulation, the troops were clamorous to be permitted to plunder. 
 Amru again checked their rapacity, and commanded that all persons 
 and property in the place, should remain inviolate, until the will of 
 the Caliph could be known So perfect was his command over 
 his troops, that not the most trivial article was taken. His letter to 
 the Caliph shows what must have been the population and splendour 
 of Alexandria, and the luxury and effeminacy of its inhabitants, at 
 the time of the Moslem conquest. It states the city to have con- 
 tained four thousand palaces ; five thousand baths ; four hundred 
 theatres and places of amusement; twelve thousand gardeners 
 which supply it with vegetables, and forly thousand tributary Jews, 
 t was impossible, he said, to do justice to its riches and magnificence. 
 He had hitherto held it sacred from plunder, but his troops having 
 won it by force of arms, considered themselves entitled to the spoils 
 of victory. 
 
 The Caliph Omar in reply, expressed a high sense of his important 
 services, but reproved him for even mentioning the desire of the 
 soldiery to plunder so rich a city, one of thegreatest emporiums o/ 
 the East. He charged him, therefore, most rigidly to watch over 
 the rapacious propensities of his men ; to prevent all pillage, vio- 
 lence and waste ; to collect and make out an account of all moneys, 
 jewels, household furniture, and every thing else that was valuable, 
 to be appropriated towards defraying the expenses of this war of 
 the faith. He ordered the tribute also, collected in the conquered 
 country, to be treasured up at Alexandria, for the supplies of the 
 Moslem troops. 
 
 The surrender of all Egypt followed the capture of its capital. A 
 tribute oftwoducais was laid on every male of mature age, beside 
 a tax on all lands in proportion to their value, and the revenue 
 which resulted to the Caliph is estimated at twelve millions of 
 ducats. 
 
 We have shown that Amru was a poet in his youth ; and throughout 
 all his campaigns he manifested an intelligent and inquiring spirit, 
 if not more highly informed, at least more liberal and extended in 
 its views than was usual among the early Moslem conquerors He 
 delighted, in his hours of leisure, to converse with learned men, 
 and acquire through their means such knowledge as had been 
 denied to him by the deficiency of his education. Such a companion 
 he found at Alexandria in a native of the place, a Christian of the 
 sect of the Jacobites, eminent for his philological researches, his 
 commentaries on Moses and Aristotle, and his laborious treatises of 
 various kinds, surnamed Philoponus from his love of study, but 
 commonly known by the name of John the Grammarian. An 
 intimacy soon arose between the Arab conqueror and the Christian 
 philologist ; an intimacy honourable to Amru, but destined to be 
 
 17
 
 258 MAHOMET A^D HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 lamentable in its result to the cause of letters. In an evil hour, 
 
 John the Grammarian, being encouraged by the favour shown him 
 
 by the Arab general, revealed to him a treasure hitherto unnoticed, 
 
 or rather unvalued by the Moslem conquerors. This was a vast 
 
 collection of books or manuscripts, since renowned in history as the 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY. Perceiving that in taking an account of 
 
 every thing valuable in the city , and sealing up all its treasures, 
 
 Amru had taken no notice of the books, John solicited that they 
 
 might be given to him. Unfortunately, the learned zeal of the 
 
 Grammarian gave a consequence to the books in the eyes of Amru, 
 
 and made him scrupulous of giving them away without permission 
 
 of the Caliph. He forthwith wrote to Omar, stating the merits of 
 
 John, and requesting to know whether the books might begiven to 
 
 him. The reply of Omar was laconic, but fatal ' The contents 
 
 of those books," said he, " are in conformity with the Koran, or 
 
 they are not. If they are, the Koran is sufficient without them , 
 
 if they are not, they are pernicious. Let them, therefore, be 
 
 destroyed. 
 
 Amru, it is said, obeyed the order punctually. The books and 
 manuscripts were distributed as fuel among the five thousand baths 
 of the city; but so numerous were they that it took six months to 
 consume them. This act of barbarism, recorded byAbulpharagius, 
 is considered somewhat doubtful by Gibbon, in consequence of its 
 not being mentioned by two of the most ancient chroniclers, 
 Elmacin in his Saracenic history, and Eutychius in his annals, the 
 latter of whom was patriarch of Alexandria, and has detailed the 
 conquest of that city. It is inconsistent, too, with the character of 
 Amru, as a poet and a man of superior intelligence; and it has 
 recently been reported, we know not on what authority, that many 
 of the literary treasures thus said to have been destroyed, do ac- 
 tually exist in Constantinople. Their destruction, however, is gen- 
 erally credited and deeply deplored by historians. Amru, as a man 
 of genius and intelligence, may have grieved at the order of the 
 Caliph ; while, as a loyal subject and faithful soldier, he felt bound 
 to obey it. 1 
 
 The fall of Alexandria decided the fate of Egypt and like- 
 wise that of the emperor Heraclius. He was already afflicted 
 with a dropsy, and took the loss of his Syrian, and now that of 
 his Egyptian dominions, so much to heart, that he underwent a 
 paroxysm, which ended in his death, about seven weeks after 
 the loss of his Egyptian capital. He was succeeded by his son 
 Constantine. 
 
 "While Amru was successfully extending his conquests, a great 
 
 i The Alexandrian Library was formed by Ptolemy Soler, and placed in a building 
 called the Bruchion. It was augmented in successive, reigns to 4oo,ooo volumes, and 
 an additional 300,000 volumes were placed in a temple called the Serapeon. The 
 Bruchion, wilh the books it contained, was burnt in the war of Crcsar, but the Serapeon 
 was preserved. Cleopatra, it is said, added to it the library of Per^arnas, given to her 
 by Marc Antony, consisting of 1200,000 volumes t sustained repealed injuries during 
 various subsequent revolutions, but was always restored to its ancient splendour, and 
 numerous additions made to it. Such was its state the capture of Alexandria by the 
 Moslems.
 
 OMAR. 259 
 
 dearth and famine fell upon all Arabia, insomuch that the Caliph 
 Omar had to call upon him for supplies from the fertile plains of 
 Egypt ; whereupon Amru despatchedsuch a train of camels laden with 
 grain, that it is said, when the first of the line had reached the city 
 of Medina, the last had not yet left the land of Egypt. But this 
 mode of conveyance proving too tardy, at the command of the 
 Caliph, he dug a canal of communication from the Nile to the Red 
 Sea,adistance of eighty miles; by which provisions mighthe conveyed 
 to the Arabian shores. This canal had been commenced by Trajan, 
 the Roman emperor. 
 
 The able and indefatigable Amru went on in this manner, execut- 
 ing the commands and fulfilling the wishes of the Caliph; and 
 governed the country he had conquered, with such sagacity and 
 justice, that he rendered himself one of the most worthily renowned 
 among the Moslem generals. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 Enterprises of the Moslems in Persia. Defence of the kingdom by Queen Arzemia. 
 Her death Elevation of Yezdegird to the throne. Battle of the Bridge. 
 
 For the sake of perspicuity, we have recorded the Moslem con- 
 quests in Syria and Egypt in a continued narrative, without pausing 
 to notice events which were occurring at the same time in other 
 quarters; we now recede several years, to take up the course of 
 affairs in Persia, from the time that Khaled, in the thirteenth year 
 of the Hegira, in obedience to the orders of Abu Beker, left his 
 victorious army on the banks of the Euphrates, to take the general 
 command in Syria. The victories of Khaled had doubtless been 
 owing in part to the distracted state of the Persian empire. In the 
 course of an inconsiderable number of years, the proud sceptre of 
 the Khosrus had passed from hand to hand ; Khosru II, surnamed 
 Parviz, having been repeatedly defeated by Heraclius, was deposed 
 in 628, by a party of his nobles, headed by his own son Siroes (or 
 Shiruyah), and was put to death by the latter in a vault under the 
 palace, among the treasures he had amassed. To secure posses- 
 sion of the throne, Siroes followed up the parricide by the mas- 
 sacre of seventeen of his brothers. It was not ambition alone that 
 instigated these crimes. He was enamoured of a sultana in the 
 harem of his father ; the matchless Shireen. While yet reeking with 
 his father's blood, he declared his passion to her. She recoiled 
 from him \vilh horror, and when he would have used force, gave 
 herself instant death to escape from his embraces. The disap- 
 pointment of his passion ; the upbraidings of his sisters for the 
 murders of their father and their brothers ; and the stings of his 
 own conscience, threw Siroes into a moody melancholy, and either
 
 260 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 caused, or added acuteness to a malady, of which he died in the 
 course of eight months. 
 
 His infant son Ardisheer, was placed on the throne about the 
 end of 628, but was presently slain, and the throne usurped by 
 Sheriyar a Persian noble, who was himself killed after a very short 
 reign. Turan-Docht, a daughter of Khosru Parviz, was now 
 crowned and reigned eighteen months, when she was set aside by 
 her cousin Shah Shenandeh, who was himself deposed by the 
 nobles, and Arzemi-Docht 1 or Arzemia, as the name is commonly 
 given, another daughter of Khosru Parviz, was placed on the 
 throne in the year 632 of the Christian era. The Persian seat of 
 government, which had been often changed, was at this time held 
 in the magnificent city of Madam or Madayn,on the Tigris, where 
 was the ancient Gtesiphon. 
 
 Arzemia was distinguished alike for masculine talents and fe- 
 minine beauty ; she had been carefully instructed under her father 
 Khosru, and had acquired sad experience, during the series of 
 conspiracies and assassinations which had beset the throne for the 
 last four years. Rejecting from her council the very traitors who 
 had placed the crown upon her head, she undertook to wield the 
 sceplre without the aid of a vizir, thereby giving mortal offence to 
 the most powerful nobles of her realm. She was soon called upon 
 to exert her masculine spirit by the continued aggressions of the 
 Moslems. 
 
 The reader will recollect that the Moslem army on the Eu- 
 phrates, at the departure of Khaled, was left under the command 
 of Mosenna Ibn Haris (or Muthenna Ibn Harith, as the name is 
 sometimes rendered). On the accession of Omar to the Caliphat, 
 he appointed Mosenna emir or governor of Sewad, the country 
 recently conquered by Khaled, lying about the lower part of the 
 Euphrates and the Tigris, forming a portion of the Persian province 
 of Irak-Arabi. This was in compliance with the wishes and in- 
 tentions of Abu Beker; though Omar does not appear to have had 
 great confidence in the military talents of Mosenna, the career of 
 conquest having languished in his hands since the departure of 
 Khaled. He accordingly sent Abu Obeidah Sakfi, one of the most 
 important disciples of the prophet, at the head of a thousand 
 chosen men, to reinforce the army under Mosenna, and to take 
 the lead in military enterprises. 2 He was accompanied by Sabit 
 Ibn Kais, one of the veterans of the battle of Beder. 
 
 The Persian Queen, hearing of the advance of the Moslem army 
 thus reinforced, sent an able general, Rustam Ibn Ferukh-Zad (or 
 Feruchsad), with thirty thousand more, to repel them. Rustam 
 halted on the confines of Irak, and sent forward strong detachments 
 under a general named Dschaban, and a Persian prince named 
 Narsi (or Narsis\ These were so roughly handled by the Moslems, 
 that Rustam found it necessary to hasten with his main force to 
 
 1 Docht or Dokhl, diminutive of dukhter, signifies the unmarried or maiden slate. 
 
 2 This Abu Obeidali has sometimes been confounded with the general of (he same 
 name, who commanded in Syria ; Hie latter, however, was Abu Obeidah Ibn Aljerak (the 
 son of Aljerah).
 
 OMAR. ?fil 
 
 their assistance. He arrived too late; they had been severally 
 defeated and put to flight, and the whole country of Sewad was 
 in the hands of the Moslems. 
 
 Queen Arzemia, still more aroused to the danger of her king- 
 dom, sent Rustam a reinforcement led by Behman Dschadu, sur- 
 named the Veiled, from the shaggy eyebrows which overshadowed 
 his visage. He brought with him three thousand men and thirty 
 elephants. These animals, of little real utility- in warfare, were 
 formidable in the eyes of those unaccustomed to them, and were 
 intended to strike terror into the Arabian troops. One of them 
 was the white elephant IMahmoud, famous for having been rid- 
 den by Abraha, the Ethiopian king, in foregone times, when he in- 
 vaded Mecca and assailed the Caaba. It was considered a har- 
 binger of victory, all the enterprises in which it had been employed 
 having proved successful. 
 
 With Behman, the heavy-browed, came also the standard of 
 Kaoh, the sacred standard. It was originally the leathern apron 
 of the blacksmith Kaoh, which he reared as a banner when he 
 roused the people, and delivered Persia from the tyranny of 
 Sohak. It had been enlarged from time to time, with costly silk, 
 embroidered with gold, until it was twenty-two feet long and fifteen 
 broad ; and was decorated with gems of inestimable value. With 
 this standard the fate of the kingdom was believed, by supersti- 
 tious Persians, to be connected. 
 
 The Moslem forces, even with the reinforcement brought by 
 Abu Obeidab Sakfi, did not exceed nine thousand in number; the 
 Persians, encamped near the ruins of Babylon, were vastly supe- 
 rior". It was the counsel of Mosenna and the veteran Sabit, that 
 they should fall back into the deserts, and remain encamped there 
 until reinforcements could be obtained from the Caliph. Abu 
 Obeidah, however, was for a totally different course. He under- 
 valued the prowess of the Persians; he had heard Mosenna cen- 
 sured for want of enterprise, and Khaled extolled to the skies for 
 his daring achievements in this quarter. He was determined to 
 emulate them, to cross the Euphrates and attack the Persians in 
 their encampment. In vain Mosenna and Sabit remonstrated. 
 He caused a bridge of boats to be thrown across the Euphrates, 
 and led the way to the opposite bank. His troops did not follow, 
 with their usual alacrity, for they felt the rashness of the enter- 
 prise. While they were yet crossing the bridge, they were severely 
 galled by a body of archers, detached in the advance by Rustam ; 
 and were met at the head of the bridge by that warrior with his 
 vanguard of cavalry. 
 
 The conflict was severe. The banner of Islam passed from hand 
 to hand of seven brave champions, as one after another fell in its 
 defence. The Persians were beaten back, but now arrived the 
 main body of the army with the thirty elephants. Abu Obeidah 
 breasted fearlessly the storm of war which he had so rashly pro- 
 voked. He called to his men not to fear the elephants, but to strike 
 at their trunks. He himself severed, with a blow of his scimetar, 
 the trunk of the famous white elephant, but in so doing his foot
 
 2(i2 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 slipped, he fell to the earth, and was trampled to death by the en- 
 raged animal. 
 
 The Moslems, disheartened by his loss, and overwhelmed by 
 numbers, endeavoured to regain the bridge. The enemy had 
 thrown combustibles into the boats on which it was constructed, 
 and had set them on fire. Some of the troops were driven into the 
 water and perished there ; the main body retreated along the 
 river, protected in the rear by Mosenna, who now displayed the 
 skill of an able general, and kept the enemy at bay until a slight 
 bridge could be hastily thrown across another part of the river. 
 He was the last to cross the bridge, and caused it to be broken 
 behind him. 
 
 Four thousand Moslems were either slain or drowned in this 
 rash affair : two thousand fled to Medina, and about three thousand 
 remained with Mosenna ; who encamped and intrenched them, 
 and sent a fleet courier to the Caliph, entreating instant aid.' No- 
 thing saved this remnant of the army from utter destruction but a 
 dissension which took place between the Persian commanders ; 
 who, instead of following up their victory, returned to Madayn, 
 the Persian capital. 
 
 This was the severest and almost the only severe check that 
 Moslem audacity had for a long time experienced. It took place 
 in the 13lh year of the Hegira, and the year 634 of the Christian 
 era ; and was long and ruefully remembered by the Arabs as the 
 battle of "El Jisir," or The Battle of the Bridge. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 Mosenna Ibn Haris ravages the country along the Euphrates. Death of Arzemia. 
 Yezdegird III. raised lo the throne. Saad Ibn Abu \Vakk3s given the general com- 
 mand. Death of Mosenna. Embassy to Yezdegird. Its reception. 
 
 Having received moderate reinforcements, Mosenna again took 
 the field in Arab style, hovering about the confines of Babylonia, 
 and sending detachments in different directions to plunder and lay 
 waste the country bordering on the Euphrates. It was an instance 
 of the vicissitude of human affairs, and the instability of earthly 
 grandeur, that this proud region, which once held the world in 
 awe, should be thus marauded and insulted by a handful of pre- 
 datory Arabs. 
 
 To check their ravages, Queen Arzemia sent out a general named 
 Mahran, with twelve thousand chosen cavalry. Mosenna, hearing 
 of their approach, called in his plundering parties and prepared for 
 battle. The two hosts met near Hirah, on the borders of the de- 
 sert. Mosenna, who in the battle of the bridge had been the last 
 man to retire, was now the foremost man to charge. In the fury 
 of the fight he made his way, almost alone, into the heart of the
 
 OMAR. 263 
 
 Persian army, and with difficulty fought his way out again and back 
 to his own men. The Persians, as we have noted, were chosen 
 troops, and fought with unusual spirit. The Moslems, in some 
 parts of the field, began to give way. Mosenna galloped up and 
 threw himself before them ; he expostulated, he threatened, he 
 tore his beard in the agony of his feelings; he succeeded in leading 
 them back to the fight; which endured from noon until sunset; 
 and still continued doubtful. At the close of the day Mosenna en- 
 countered Mahran hand to hand, in the midst of his guards, and 
 received a powerful blow, which might have proved fatal, but for 
 his armour. In return he smote the Persian commander with his 
 scimetar just where the neck joins to the shoulder, and laid him 
 dead. The Persians, seeing their leader fall, took to flight, nor 
 stopped until they reached Madayn. 
 
 The Moslems next made a plundering expedition to Bagdad, at 
 that time a mere village, but noted for a great fair, the resort of 
 merchants from various parts of the East. An Arab detachment 
 pounced upon it at the time of the fair, and carried off many cap- 
 tives and immense booty. 
 
 The tidings of the defeat of Mahran, and the plundering of the 
 fair, spread consternation in the Persian capital. The nobles and 
 priests, who had hitherto stood in awe of the spirit of the queen, 
 now raised a tumult. "These are the fruits," said they, "of 
 having a woman to reign over us." 
 
 The fate of the beautiful Arzemia was hastened by private re- 
 venge. Faruch-Zad, one of the most powerful of her nobles, and 
 governor of Khorassan, incited by love and ambition, had aspired 
 to her hand. At' first, it is said, she appeared to favour his ad- 
 dresses, fearing to provoke his enmity, but afterwards slighted 
 them; whereupon he entered the palace by night, and attempted to 
 get possession of her person. His attempt failed, and, by her com- 
 mand, he received instant death at the hands of her guards, ac- 
 companied by some indignities. 
 
 His son, Rustam, who had been left by him in the government of 
 Khorassan, hastened, at the head of an armed force, to avenge his 
 death. He arrived in the height of the public discontent ; entered 
 the city without opposition, stormed the palace, captured the young 
 and beautiful queen, subjected her to degrading outrages, and put 
 her to death in the most cruel manner. She was the sixth of the 
 usurping sovereigns, and had not yet reigned a year. 
 
 A remaining son of Khosru Parviz was now brought forward and 
 placed on the slippery throne, but was poisoned within forty days, 
 some say by his courtiers, others by a slave. 
 
 The priests and nobles now elevated a youth about fifteen years 
 of age to this perilous dignity. He was a grandson of Khosru 
 Parviz, and had been secluded, during the late period of anarchy 
 and assassination, in the city of Istakar, the ancient Persepolis. 
 He is known by the name of Yezdegird III, though some histo- 
 rians call him Hermisdas IV, from his family, instead of his per- 
 sonal appellation. He was of a good natural disposition, but weak 
 and irresolute, and apt, from his youth and inexperience, to be-
 
 2o4 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 come a passive instrument in the hands of the faction which had 
 placed him on the throne. 
 
 One of the first measures of the new reign was to assemble a 
 powerful army and place it under the command of Rustam, the 
 same general who had so signally revenged the death of his father. 
 It was determined, by a signal blow, to sweep the Arabian marau- 
 ders from the land. 
 
 Omar, on his part, hearing of the changes and warlike prepara- 
 tions in the Persian capital, made a hasty levy of troops, and would 
 have marched in person to carry the war into the heart of Persia. 
 It was with great difficulty he was dissuaded from this plan by his 
 discreet counsellors, Othman and Ali, and induced to send in his 
 place Saad Ibn Abu Wakkds. This was a zealous soldier of the 
 faith who used to boast that he was the first who had shed the 
 blood of the unbelieving : and, moreover, that the prophet, in the 
 first holy war, had intrusted to him the care of his household du- 
 ring his absence; saying, "To you, oh Saad, who are to me as 
 my father and my mother, I confide my family." To have been 
 a favoured and confidential companion of the prophet, was fast 
 growing to be a title of great distinction among the faithful. 
 
 Saad was invested with the general command of the forces in 
 Persia; and Mosenna, though his recent good, conduct and signal 
 success entitled him to the highest consideration, was ordered to 
 serve under him. 
 
 Saad set out from Medina with an army of but six or seven 
 thousand men ; among these, however, were one thousand well- 
 tried soldiers who had followed the prophet in his campaigns, and 
 one hundred of the veterans of Beder. They were led on also bj 
 some of the most famous champions of the faith. The army was 
 joined on its march by recruits from all quarters, so that by the 
 time it joined the troops under Mosenna, it amounted to upwards 
 of thirty thousand men. 
 
 Mosenna died three days after the arrival of his successor in the 
 camp; the cause and nature, of his death are not mentioned. He 
 left behind him a good name, and a wife remarkable for her beauty. 
 The widow was easily brought to listen to the addresses of Saad, 
 who thus succeeded to Mosenna in his matrimonial as well as his 
 military capacity. 
 
 The Persian force, under Rustam, lay encamped at Kadesia (or 
 Khadeslyah), on the frontier of Sawad or Irak-Arabi, and was 
 vastly superior in numbers to the Moslems. Saad sent expresses 
 to the Caliph entreating reinforcements. He was promised them, 
 but exhorted in the meantime to doubt nothing ; never to regard 
 the number of the foe, but to think always that he vas fighting 
 under the eye of the Caliph He was instructed, however, before 
 commencing hostilities, to send a delegation to Yezdegird inviting 
 him to embrace the faith. 
 
 Saad accordingly sent several of his most discreet and veteran 
 officers on this mission. They repaired to the magnificent city of 
 Madayn, and were ushered through the sumptuous halls and 
 saloons of the palace of the Khosrus, crowded with guards and
 
 OMAR. 265 
 
 attendants all richly arrayed, into the presence of the youthful 
 monarch, whom they found seated in state on a throne, supported 
 by silver columns, and surrounded by the dazzling splendour of an 
 Oriental Court. 
 
 The appearance of the Moslem envoys, attired in simple Arab 
 style, in the striped garments of Yemen, amidst the gorgeous throng 
 of nobles arrayed in jewels and embroidery, was but little cal- 
 culated to inspire deference in a young and inconsiderate prince, 
 brought up in pomp and luxury, and accustomed to consider 
 dignity inseparable from splendour. He had no doubt, also, been 
 schooled for the interview by his crafty counsellors. 
 
 The audience opened by a haughty demand on his part, through 
 his interpreter, as to the object of their embassy. Upon this, one 
 of their number, Na'man Ibn Muskry, set forth the divine mission 
 of the prophet and his dying command to enforce his religion by 
 the sword, leaving no peaceable alternative to unbelievers, but 
 conversion or tribute. He concluded by inviting the king to 
 embrace the faith ; if not, to consent to become a tributary ; if he 
 should refuse both, to prepare for battle. 
 
 Yezdegird restrained his indignation, and answered in words 
 which had probably been prepared for him. '* You Arabs," said 
 he, " have hitherto been known to us by report, as wanderers of 
 the desert; your food dates, and sometimes lizards and serpents; 
 your drink brackish water; your garments coarse hair cloth. 
 Some of you, who by chance have wandered into our realms, have 
 found sweet water, savoury food, and soft raiment. They have 
 carried back word of the same to their brethren in the desert, and 
 now you come in swarms to rob us of our goods and our very land. 
 Ye are like the starving fox, to whom the husbandman afforded 
 shelter in his vineyard, and who in return, brought a troop of his 
 brethren to devour his grapes. Receive from my generosity what- 
 ever your wants require; load your camels with corn and dates, 
 and depart in peace to your native land ; but if you tarry in Persia, 
 beware the fate of the fox who was slain by the husbandman." 
 
 The most aged of the Arab envoys, the Sheikh Mukair Ibn 
 Zarrarah, replied with great gravity and decorum, and an unaltered 
 countenance. "Oh king! all thou hast said of the Arabs is most 
 true. The green lizard of the desert was their sometime food; 
 the brackish water of wells their drink; their garments were of hair 
 cloth, and they buried their infant daughters to restrain the increase 
 of their tribes. All this was in the days of ignorance. They knew 
 not good from evil. They were guilty, 'and they suffered. But 
 Allah in his mercy sent his apostle Mahomet, and his sacred Koran 
 among them. He rendered them wise and valiant. He commanded 
 them to war with infidels until all should be converted to the true 
 faith. On his behest we come. All we demand of thee is to 
 acknowledge that there is no God but God, and that Mahomet is 
 his apostle, and to pay from thy income the customary contribution 
 of the Zacat, paid by all true believers, in charity to the poor, and 
 for the support of the family of the prophet. Do this, and not a 
 Moslem shall enter the Persian dominions, without thy leave ; but
 
 266 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 if thou refuse it, and refuse to pay the tribute exacted from all 
 unbelievers, prepare for the subjugation of the sword." 
 
 The forbearance of Yezdegird was at an end. " Were it not 
 unworthy of a great Padischah," said he, "to put ambassadors to 
 death, the sword should be the only tongue with which I would 
 reply to your insolence. Away ! ye robbers of the lands of others ! 
 take with ye a portion of the Persian soil ye crave." So saying, 
 he caused sacks of earth to be bound upon their shoulders; to be 
 delivered by them to their chiefs as symbols of the graves they 
 would be sure to find at Kadesia. 
 
 "When beyond the limits of the city, the envoys transferred the 
 sacks of earth to the backs of their camels, and returned with them 
 to Saad Ibn Abu Wakkas; shrewdly interpreting into a good 
 omen what had been intended by the Persian monarch as a scornful 
 taunt. "Earth," said they, "is the emblem of empire. As 
 surely, oh Saad, as we deliver thee these sacks of earth, so surely 
 will Allah deliver the empire of Persia into the hands of true 
 believers." 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 Tfce Battle of Kadesia. 
 
 The hostile armies came in presence of each other on the plains 
 of Kadesia (or Kadesiyah), adjacent to a canal derived from the 
 Euphrates. The huge mass of the Persian army would have been 
 sufficient to bear down the inferior number of the Moslems, had it 
 possessed the Grecian or Roman discipline ; but it was a tumultuous 
 multitude, unwieldy from its military pomp, and encumbered by its 
 splendid trappings. The Arabs, on the contrary, were veteran 
 skirmishers of the desert ; light and hardy horsemen ; dexterous 
 with the bow and lance, and skilled to wheel and retreat, and to 
 return again to the attack. Many individual acts of prowess took 
 place between champions of either army, who dared each other to 
 single combat in front of the hosts when drawn out in battle array. 
 The costly armour of the Persians, wrought with gold, and their 
 belts or girdles studded with gems, made them rich prizes to their 
 Moslem victors; while the Persians, if victorious, gained nothing 
 from the rudely clad warriors of the desert, but honour and hard 
 blows. 
 
 Saad Ibn Abu Wakkas was in an unfortunate plight for a leader of 
 an army on such a momentous occasion. He was grievously af- 
 flicted with boils in his reins, so that he sat on his horse with 
 extreme difficulty. Still he animated his troops" by his presence, 
 and gave the tcklrif or battle- cry Allah Achbar ! 
 
 The Persian force came on with great shouts ; their elephants in 
 the van. The horses of the Moslem cavalry recoiled at sight of the
 
 OMAR. 267 
 
 latter, and became unmanageable. A great number of the horse- 
 men dismounted; attacked the unwieldy animals with their swords, 
 and drove them back upon their own host. Still the day went hard 
 with the Moslems ; their force being so inferior, and their general 
 unable to take the lead and mingle in the battle. The arrival of a 
 reinforcement from Syria, put them in new heart, and they fought 
 on until the approach of night, when both parties desisted, and 
 drew off to their encampments. Thus ended the first day's fight, 
 which the Persians called the battle of Arrnalh ; but the Moslems. 
 The Day of Succour, from the timely arrival of reinforcements. 
 
 On the following morning the armies drew out again in battle ar- 
 ray, but no general conflict took place. Saad was unable to 
 mount his horse and lead his troops into action, and the Persians, 
 aware of the reinforcements received by the Moslems, were not 
 disposed to provoke a battle. The day passed in light skirmishes 
 and single combats between the prime warriors of either host, who 
 defied each other to trials of skill and prowess. These combats, 
 of course, were desperate, and commonly cost the life of one, if not 
 both of the combatants. 
 
 Saad overlooked the field from the shelter of a tent, where he sat 
 at a repast with his beautiful bride beside him. Her heart swelled 
 with grief at seeing so many gallant Moslems laid low; a thought 
 of the valiant husband she had lost passed across her mind, and 
 the unwary ejaculation escaped her, "Alas! Mosenna Ibn Haris, 
 where art thou?" Saad was stung to the quick by what he con- 
 ceived a reproach on his courage or activity, and, in the heat of 
 the moment, struck her on the face with his dagger. "To-Mor- 
 row," muttered he to himself, "I will mount my horse." 
 
 In the night he secretly sent out a detachment in the direction of 
 Damascus, to remain concealed until the two armies should be en- 
 gaged on the following day, and then to come with banners dis- 
 played, and a great sound of drum and trumpet, as though they were 
 a reinforcement hurrying to the field of action. 
 
 The morning dawned, but still, to his great mortification, Saad 
 was unable to sit upon his horse, and had to intrust the conduct of 
 the battle to one of his generals. It w r as a day of bloody and 
 obstinate conflict ; and from the tremendous shock of the encoun- 
 tering hosts, was celebrated among the Arabs as "The day of the 
 Concussion." 
 
 The arrival of the pretended reinforcement inspirited the Mos- 
 lems, who were ignorant of the stratagem, and dismayed the enemy. 
 Rustam urged on his elephants to break down the Arab host, but 
 they had become familiar with those animals, and attacked them 
 so ^vigorously that, as before, they turned upon their own em- 
 ployers, and trampled them down in their unwieldy flight from 
 the field. 
 
 The battle continued throughout the day with varying fortune ; 
 nor did it cease at nightfall, for Rustam rode about among his troops 
 urging them to fight until morning. That night w as called by some 
 the night of delirium ; for in the dark and deadly struggle the comba- 
 tants struck at random, and often caught each other by the beard :
 
 268 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 by others it was called the night of howling and lamentation, from 
 the cries of the wounded. 
 
 The battle ceased not even at the dawning, but continued until 
 the heat of the day. A whirlwind of dust hid the armies from each 
 other for a time, and produced confusion on the field, but it aided 
 the Moslems, as it blew in the faces of the enemy. During a pause 
 in the conflict, Rustam, panting* with heat and fatigue, and half 
 blinded with dust, took shelter from the sun under a tent which 
 had been pitched near the water, and was surrounded by camels 
 laden with treasure, and with the luxurious furniture of the camp. 
 A gust of wind whirled the tent into the water. He then threw 
 himself upon the earth in the shade of one of the camels. A band 
 of Arab soldiers came upon him by surprise. One of them, Hellftl 
 Ibn Alkameh by name, in his eagerness for plunder, cut the cords 
 which bound the burthen on the camel. A package of silver fell 
 upon Rustam and broke his spine. In his agony he fell, or threw 
 himself into the water, but was drawn out by the leg, his head 
 stricken off, and elevated on the lance of HeMl. The Persians re- 
 cognized the bloody features, and fled amain, abandoning to the 
 victors their camp, with all its rich furniture and baggage, and 
 scores of beasts of burden, laden with treasure and with costly gear. 
 The amount of booty was incalculable. 
 
 The sacred standard, too, was among the spoils. To the soldier 
 who had captured it, thirty thousand pieces of gold are said to have 
 been paid at Saad's command ; and the jewels, with which it was 
 studded, were put with the other booty, to be shared according 
 to rule. Heliai, too, who brought the head of Rustam to Saad, 
 was allowed as a reward, to strip the body of his victim. Never 
 did Arab soldier make richer spoil. The garments of Rustam were 
 richly embroidered, and he wore tw r o gorgeous belts, ornamented 
 with jewels, one worlh a thousand pieces of gold, the other seventy 
 thousand dirhems of silver. 
 
 Thirty thousand Persians are said to have fallen in this battle, and 
 upwards of seven thousand Moslems. The loss most deplored by 
 the Persians, was that of their sacred banner, with which they con- 
 nected the fate of the realm. 
 
 This battle took place in the fifteenth year of the Hegira, and 
 the six hundred and thirty-sixth year of the Christian era, and is 
 said to be as famous among the Arabs as that of Arbela among the 
 Greeks. 
 
 Complaints having circulated among the troops that Saad had 
 not mingled in the fight, he summoned several of the old men to 
 his tent, and, stripping himself, showed the boils by which he was 
 so grievously afflicted ; after which there were no further expres- 
 sions of dissatisfaction. It is to be hoped he found some means, 
 equally explicit, of excusing himself to his beautiful bride for the 
 outrage he had committed upon her.
 
 OMAR. 269 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 Founding of Bassora. Capture of the Persian capital. Flight of Yezdegird to 
 
 Holwdn. 
 
 After the signal victory of Kadesia, Saad Ibn Abu AVakkas, by 
 command of the Caliph, remained for some months in the neigh- 
 bourhood, completing the subjugation of the conquered coun-try, 
 collecting tax and tribute, and building mosques in every direction 
 for the propagation of the faith. About the same time Omar caused 
 the city of Basra, or Bassora, to be founded in the lower part of 
 Irak Arabi, on that great river formed by the junction of the Eu- 
 phrates and the Tigris. This city was intended to protect the re- 
 gion conquered by the Moslems about the mouth of the Euphrates ; 
 to cut on" the trade of India from Persia, and to keep a check upon 
 Ahwaz (a part of Susiana or Khusestan) , the prince or satrap of 
 which- Hormusan by name, had taken an active part in the late 
 battle of Kadesia. The city of Bassora was founded in the four- 
 teenth year of the Hegira, by Orweh Ibn Otbeh. It soon gathered 
 within its walls great numbers of inhabitants from the surrounding 
 country ; rose rapidly in importance, and has ever since been dis- 
 tinguished as a mart for the Indian commerce. 
 
 Having brought all the country in the neighbourhood of Kadesia 
 into complete subjection, Saad Ibn Abu AVakkas, by command of 
 the Caliph, proceeded in the conquest of Persia. The late victories, 
 and the capture of the national banner, had struck despair into the 
 hearts of the Persians. They considered the downfall of their re- 
 ligion and empire at hand, and for a time made scarcely any re- 
 sistance to the invaders. Cities and strongholds surrendered 
 almost without a blow. Babel is incidentally enumerated among 
 the captured places; but the once all-powerful Babylon was now 
 shrunk into such insignificance, that its capture seemed not worthy 
 of a boast. Saad crossed the Tigris and advanced upon Madayn, 
 the Persian capital. His army, on departing from Kadesia, had 
 not exceeded twenty thousand men, having lost many by battle, 
 and more by disease. Multitudes, however, from the subjugated 
 cities, and from other parts, joined his standard while on the march, 
 so that, as he approached Madayn, his forces amounted to sixty 
 thousand men. 
 
 There was abundance of troops in Madayn, the wrecks of van- 
 quished armies and routed garrisons, but there was no one capable 
 or willing to take the general command. All seemed paralyzed 
 by their fears. The king summoned his counsellors about him, 
 but their only advice was to fly. " Khorasan and Kerman are still
 
 270 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 yours," said they, " let us depart while we may do so in safety ; 
 why should we remain here to be made captives?" 
 
 Yezdegird hesitated to take this craven advice ; but more from 
 weakness and indecision of character than from any manly repug- 
 nance. He wavered and lingered, until what might have been an 
 orderly retreat became a shameful flight. "When the invaders 
 were within one day's march of his capital, he ordered his va- 
 luables to be packed upon beasts of burthen, and set off, with a 
 worthless retinue of palace minions, attendants, and slaves, male 
 and female, for Holwan, at the foot of the Medean hills. His 
 example was followed throughout the city. There was hurry and 
 tumult in every part. Fortunate was he who had a camel, or a 
 horse, or an ass, to load with his most valuable effects ; such as were 
 not so provided, took what they could on their shoulders ; but, in 
 such a hasty and panic-striken flight, where personal safety was 
 the chief concern, little could be preserved ; the greater part of 
 their riches remained behind. Thus the wealthy Madayn, the 
 once famous Ctesiphon, which had formerly repulsed a Roman 
 army, though furnished with battering rams and other warlike 
 engines, was abandoned without a blow at the approach of these 
 nomad warriors. 
 
 As Saad entered the deserted city, he gazed with wonder and 
 admiration at its stately edifices, surrounded by vineyards and 
 gardens, all left to his mercy by the flying owners. In pious 
 exultation he repeated aloud a passage of the Koran, alluding to 
 the abandonment by Pharaoh and his troops of their habitations, 
 when they went in pursuit of the children of Israel. ' ' How many 
 gardens and fountains, and fields of corn and fair dwellings, and 
 other sources of delight did they leave behind them! Thus we 
 dispossessed them thereof, and gave the same for an inheritance to 
 another people. Neither heaven nor earth wept for them. They 
 were unpitied " * 
 
 The deserted city was sacked and pillaged. One may imagine 
 the sacking of such a place by the ignorant hordes of the desert. 
 The rude Arabs beheld themselves surrounded by treasures beyond 
 their conception; works of art, the value of which they could not 
 appreciate, and articles of luxury which moved their ridicule rather 
 than their admiration. In roving through the streets they came to 
 the famous palace of the Khosrus, begun by Kobad Ibn Firuz, and 
 finished by his son Nushirwau, constructed of polished marble, and 
 called the white palace, from its resplendent appearance. As they 
 gazed at it in wonderment, they called to mind the prediction of 
 Mahomet, when he heard that the haughty monarch of Persia had 
 torn his letter : " Even so shall Allah rend his empire in pieces." 
 " Behold the white palace of Khosru," cried the Moslems to one 
 another! " This is the fulfilment of the prophecy of the apostle 
 of God!" 
 
 Saad entered the lofty portal of the palace with feelings of de- 
 votion. His first act was to make his salaam and prostrations, and 
 
 1 Koran, chapter xxiv.
 
 OMAR. 271 
 
 pronounce the confession of faith in its deserted halls. He then 
 took note of its contents, and protected it from the ravage of the 
 soldiery, by making it his headquarters. It was furnished throughout 
 with oriental luxury. It had wardrobes filled with gorgeous apparel. 
 In the armory were weapons of all kinds, magnificently wrought : 
 a coat of mail and sword, for state occasions, bedecked with 
 jewels of incalculable value; a silver horseman on a golden horse, 
 and a golden rider on a silver camel, all likewise studded with 
 jewels. 
 
 In the vaults were treasures of gold and silver and precious 
 stones ; with money, the vast amount of which, though stated by 
 Arabian historians, we hesitate to mention. 
 
 In some of the apartments were gold and silver vessels filled with 
 oriental perfumes. In the magazines were stored exquisite spices, 
 odoriferous gums, and medicinal drugs. Among the latter were 
 quantities of camphor, which the Arabs mistook for salt, and mixed 
 with their food. 
 
 In one of the chambers was a silken carpet of great size, which 
 the king used in winter. Art and expense had been lavished upon 
 it. It w r as made to represent a garden. The leaves of the plants 
 were emeralds; the flowers were embroidered in their natural 
 colours, with pearls and jewels and precious stones ; the fountains 
 v.ere wrought with diamonds and sapphires, to represent the 
 sparkling of their waters. The value of the whole was beyond 
 calculation. 
 
 Ihe hall of audience surpassed every other part in magnificence. 
 The vaulted roof, says D'Herbelot, resembled a firmament decked 
 with golden spheres, each with a corresponding movement, so as 
 to represent the planets and the signs of the Zodiac. The throne 
 was of prodigious grandeur, supported on silver columns. Above 
 it was the crown of Khosru Nushirwan, suspended by a golden chain 
 to bear the immense weight of its jewels, but contrived to appear as 
 if on the head of the monarch when seated. 
 
 A mule is said to have been overtaken, on which a trusty officer 
 of the palace was bearing away some of the jewels of the crown, 
 the tiara or diadem of Yezdegird, with his belt ant! scimetar and 
 bracelets. 
 
 Saad appointed Omar Ibn Muskry to take charge of all the spoils 
 for regular distribution, and criers were sent about to make pro- 
 clamation that the soldiers should render in their booty to that 
 officer. Such was the enormous -amount that, after a fifth had 
 been set apart for the Caliph, the remainder, divided "among sixty 
 thousand men, gave each of them twelve hundred dirhems of 
 silver. 
 
 It took nine hundred heavily laden camels to convey to Medina 
 the Caliph's fifth of the spoil, among which the carpet, the clothing, 
 and regalia of the king were included. The people of Medina, 
 though of late years accustomed to the rich booty of the armies, 
 were astonished at such an amount of treasure. Omar ordered 
 that a mosque should be built of part of the proceeds. A con- 
 sultation was held over the royal carpet, whether it should be
 
 2/2 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 stored away in the public treasury to be used by the Caliph on state 
 occasions, or whether it should be included in the booty to be 
 shared. 
 
 Omar hesitated to decide with his usual promptness, and referred 
 the matter to AH. " Oh prince of true believers ! " exclaimed the 
 latter; "how can one of thy clear perception doubt in this matter. 
 In the world nothing is thine but what thou expendest in well- 
 doing. What thou wearest will be worn out; what thou eatest will 
 be consumed; but that which thou expendest in well-doing, is sent 
 before thee to the other world." 
 
 Omar determined that the carpet should be shared among his 
 chiefs. He divided it literally, with rigid equity, cutting it up 
 without regard to the skill and beauty of the design, or its value as 
 an entire piece of workmanship. Such was the richness of the 
 materials, that the portion alloted to All alone, sold for eight 
 thousand dirhems of silver. 
 
 This signal capture of the capital of Persia took place in the 
 month Safar, in the sixteenth year of the Hegira, and the year 637 
 of the Christian era; the same year with the capture of Jerusalem. 
 The fame of such immense spoil, such treasures of art in the hands 
 of ignorant Arab soldiery, summoned the crafty and the avaricious 
 from all quarters. All the world, it is said, flocked from the 
 West, from Yemen, and from Egypt, to purchase the cosily stuffs 
 captured from the Persians. It was like the vultures, winging 
 their way from all parts of the heavens, to gorge on the relics of 
 a hunting camp. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 Capture of Jalula. Flight of Vezdegird to Rei. Founding of Cufa. Saad receives a 
 severe rebuke from Hie Caliph for his magnificence. 
 
 Saad Ibn Abu "Wakkfis would fain have pursued Yezdegird to 
 Holwan, among the hills of ancient Media, where he had taken re- 
 fuge ; but he was restrained by the Caliph Omar, who kept a 
 cautious check from Medina upon his conquering generals; fearful 
 that in the flush and excitement of victory, they might hurry 
 forward beyond the reach of succour. By the command of Omar, 
 therefore, he remained with his main army in Madayn, and sent 
 his brother Hashem with twelve thousand men in pursuit of the 
 fugitive monarch. Hasheni found a large force of Persians, relics 
 of defeated armies, assembled in JAlula, not far from Holwan, 
 where they were disposed to make a stand. He laid siege to the 
 place, but it was of great strength and maintained a brave and 
 obstinate defence for six months, during which there were eighty 
 assaults. At length, the garrison being reduced by famine and 
 incessant fighting, and the commander slain, it surrendered.
 
 OMAR. 273 
 
 Yezdegird on hearing of the capture of Jalula" abandoned the 
 city of Holwdn, leaving troops there under a general named Habesh, 
 to check the pursuit of the enemy. The place of refuge which he 
 now sought was the city of Rei, or Ral, the Rhages of Arrian ; the 
 Rhaga and Rhageia of the Greek geographers ; a city of remote 
 antiquity, contemporary, it is said, with Nineveh and Ecbatana, and 
 mentioned in the book of Tobit ; who, we are told, travelled from 
 Nineveh to Rages, a city of Medea. It was a favourite residence of 
 the Parthian kings in days of yore. In his flight through the 
 mountains, the monarch was borne on a chair or litter between 
 mules; travelling a station each day , and sleeping in the litter. 
 Habesh, whom he had left behind, was soon defeated, and followed 
 him in his flight. 
 
 Saad again wrote to the Caliph, urging that he might be per- 
 mitted to follow the Persian king to his place of refuge among the 
 mountains, before he should have time to assemble another army -, 
 but he again met with a cautious check. "You have this year," 
 said the Caliph, "taken Sawaad and Irak; for Holwan is at the 
 extremity of Irak. That is enough for the present. The welfare 
 of true believers, is of more value than booty." So ended the 
 sixteenth year of the Hegira. 
 
 The climate of Madayn proving unhealthy to his troops, and 
 Saad wishing to establish a fortified camp in the midst of his vic- 
 tories, was ordered by the Caliph to seek some favourable site on 
 the western side of the Euphrates, where there was good air, a 
 well watered plain and plenty of grass for the camels; things highly 
 appreciated by the Arabs. 
 
 Saad chose for the purpose the village of Cufa, which, according 
 to Moslem tradition, was the spot where Noah embarked in the 
 Ark. The Arabs further pretend that the serpent after tempting 
 Eve was banished to this place. Hence, they say, the guile and 
 treachery for which the men of Cufa are proverbial. This city 
 became so celebrated that the Euphrates was at one time generally 
 denominated Nahar Cufa, or the river of Cufa. The most ancient 
 characters of the Arabic alphabet are termed Cufic to the pre- 
 sent day. 
 
 In building Cufa, much of the stone, marble and timber for the 
 principal edifices were furnished from the ruins of Madayn; there 
 being such a scarcity of those materials in Babylonia and its vicinity, 
 that the houses were generally constructed of bricks baked in the 
 sun and cemented with bitumen. It used to be said, therefore, 
 that the army on its remove took with it all the houses of Sawad. 
 Saad Ibn Abu AVakkas, who appears to have imbibed a taste for 
 Persian splendour, erected a sumptuous Kiosk or summer residence, 
 and decorated it with a grand portal taken from the palace of the 
 Khosrus at Madayn. When Omar heard of this he was sorely 
 displeased, his great apprehension being that his generals would 
 lose the good old Arab simplicity of manners in the luxurious 
 countries they were conquering. He forthwith despatched a trusty 
 envoy, Mahomet Ibn Muslemah, empowered to give Saad a salutary 
 rebuke. On arriving at Cufa, Mahomet caused a great quantity of 
 wood to be heaped against the door of the Kiosk, and set fire to 
 
 18
 
 374 . MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 it. When Saad came forth in amazement at this outrage, Mahomet 
 put into his hands, the following letter from the Caliph : 
 
 " I am told thou hast built a lofty palace, like to that of the 
 Khosrus, and decorated it with a door taken from the latter; with 
 a view to have guards and chamberlains stationed about it to keep 
 off those who may come in quest of justice or assistance, as was the 
 practice of the Khosrus before Ihee. In so doing thou hast de- 
 parted from the ways of the prophet (on whom be benedictions), 
 and hast fallen into the ways of the Persian monarchs. Know that 
 the Khosrus have passed from their palace to the tomb ; while the 
 prophet, from his lowly habitation on earth, has been elevated to 
 the highest heaven. I have sent Mahomet Ibn Muslemah to burn 
 thy palace. In this world two houses are sufficient for Ihee ; one 
 to dwell in, the other to contain the treasure of the Moslems." 
 
 Saad was too wary to make any opposition to the orders of the 
 stern-minded Omar; so he looked on without a murmur as his 
 stately Kiosk was consumed by the flames. He even offered Ma- 
 homet presents, which the latter declined, and returned to Medina. 
 Saad removed to a different part of the city, and built a more 
 modest mansion for himself, and another for the treasury. 
 
 In the same year with the founding of Cufa, the Caliph Omar 
 married Omm Kolsam, the daughter of AH and Fatima, and grand- 
 daughter of the prophet. This drew him in still closer bonds of 
 friendship and confidence with Ali; who with Othman shared his 
 councils, and aided him in managing from Medina the rapidly 
 accumulating affairs of the Moslem empire. 
 
 It must be always noted, that however stern and strict may 
 appear the laws and ordinances of Omar, he was rigidly impartial 
 in enforcing them; and one of his own sons, having been found 
 intoxicated, received the twenty bastinadoes on the soles of the 
 feet, which he had decreed for offences of the kind. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 War with Hormuzan, the Satrap of Ahwaz. His conquest and conversion. 
 
 The founding of the city of Bassora had given great annoyance 
 and uneasiness to Hormuzan, the satrap or viceroy of Ahwfiz, or 
 Susianu. His province lay between Babylonia and Farsislan, and 
 he saw that this rising city of the Arabs was intended as a check 
 upon him. His province w : as one of the richest and most important 
 of Persia, producing cotton, rice, sugar, and wheat. It was studded 
 with cities, which the historian Tabari compared to a cluster of 
 stars. In the centre stood the metropolis Susa; one of the royal 
 resorts of the Persian kings, celebrated in scriptural history, and 
 said to possess the tomb of the prophet Daniel. It was once adorned 
 with palaces and courts, and parks of prodigious extent, though now
 
 OMAR. 575 
 
 all Is a waste, " echoing only to the roar of the lion, or yell of the 
 hyaena." 
 
 Here Hormuzan, the satrap, emulated the state and luxury of a 
 king. He was of a haughty spirit, priding himself upon his descent, 
 his ancestors having once sat on the throne of Persia. For 
 this reason his sons, being of the blood royal, were permitted 
 to wear crowns, though of smaller size than those worn by 
 kings, and his family was regarded with great deference by the 
 Persians. 
 
 This haughty satrap, not rendered wary by the prowess of the 
 Moslem arms, which he had witnessed and experienced at Kadesia, 
 made preparations to crush the rising colony of Bassora. The 
 founders of that city called on the Caliph for protection, and troops 
 were marched to their assistance from Medina, and from the head- 
 quarters of Saad at Cufa. Hormuzan soon had reason to repeat 
 hishaving provoked hostilities. He was defeated in repealed battles, 
 and at length was glad to make peace with the loss of half of his 
 territories, and all but four of his cluster of cities. He was not 
 permitted long to enjoy even this remnant of domain. Yezdegird, 
 from his retreat at Rei, reproached Hormuzan and the satrap 
 of the adjacent province of Farsistan, for not co-operating to 
 withstand the Moslems. At his command they united their forces, 
 and Hormuzan broke the treaty of peace which he had so recently 
 concluded. 
 
 The devotion of Hormuzan to his fugitive sovereign ended in his 
 ruin. The Caliph ordered troops to assemble from the different 
 Moslem posts, and complete the conquest of Ahwaz. Hormuzan 
 disputed his territory bravely, but was driven from place to place, 
 until he made his last stand in the fortress of Ahwaz, or Susa. For 
 six months he was beleaguered, during which time there were many 
 sallies and assaults, and hard fighting on both sides. At length, 
 Bara Ibn Maiek was sent to take command of the besiegers. He 
 had been an especial favourite of the prophet, and ther was a 
 superstitious feeling concerning him. He manifested at all times 
 an indifference to life or death ; always pressed forward to the 
 place of danger, and every action in which he served was suc- 
 cessful. 
 
 On his taking the command , the troops gathered round him. 
 "Oh Bara! swear to overthrow these infidels, and the Most High 
 will favour us." 
 
 Bara swore that the place would betaken, and the infidels put to 
 flight, but that he would fall a martyr. 
 
 In the very next assault, he was killed by an arrow sped 
 by Hormuzan. The army took his death as a good omen. 
 " One-balf of his oath is fulfilled," said they, " and so will be 
 the other." 
 
 Shortly afterward a Persian traitor came to Abu Shebrah, who 
 had succeeded to the Moslem command, and revealed a secret 
 entrance by a conduit under the castle, by which it was supplied 
 with water. A hundred Moslems entered it by night, threw open 
 the outward gates, and let in the army into the court-yards. 
 Hormuzan was ensconced, however, in a strong tower, or keep,
 
 276 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 from the battlements of which he held a parley with the Moslem 
 commander. "I have a thousand expert archers with me," said 
 he, " who never miss their aim. By every arrow they discharge, you 
 will lose a man. Avoid this useless sacrifice. Let me depart in 
 honour; give me safe conduct to the Caliph, and let him dispose of 
 me as he pleases." 
 
 It was agreed. HormuzAn was treated with respect as he is- 
 sued from his fortress, and was sent under an escort to Medina. 
 He maintained the air of one not conducted as a prisoner, but 
 attended by a guard of honour. As he approached the city he 
 halted, arrayed himself in sumptuous apparel, with his jewelled 
 belt and regal crown,and in this guise entered the gates. The inhabi- 
 tants gazed in astonishment at such unwonted luxury of attire. 
 
 Omar was not at his dwelling ; he had gone to the mosque. 
 HormuzAn was conducted thither. On approaching the sacred 
 edifice, the Caliph's cloak was seen hanging against the wall, 
 while he himself, arrayed in patched garments , lay asleep with 
 'his staff under his head. The officers of the escort seated 
 themselves at a respectful distance until he should awake. 
 "This," whispered they to HormuzAn, "is the prince of true 
 believers." 
 
 "This the Arab king!" said the astonished satrap; "and is this 
 his usual attire?" "It is." "And does he sleep thus without 
 guards?" "He does; he comes and goes alone; and lies down and 
 sleeps where he pleases." "And can he administer justice, and 
 conduct affairs without officers and messengers and attendants?" 
 * Evenso," was the reply. "This," exclaimed HormuzAn, at length, 
 "is the condition of a prophet, but not of a king." "He is not a pro- 
 phet," was the reply, " but he acts like one." 
 
 As the Caliph awoke he recognized the officers of the escort. 
 " What tidings do you bring?" demanded he. "But who is this 
 so extravagantly arrayed?" rubbing his eyes as they fell upon the 
 embroidered robes and jewelled crown of the satrap. " This is 
 Hormuzan, the king of AhwAz." ' Take the infidel out of this place," 
 cried he, turning away his head. " Strip him of his riches, and put 
 on him the riches of Islam." 
 
 HormuzAn was accordingly taken forth, and in a little time was 
 brought again before the Caliph, clad in a simple garb of the striped 
 cloth of Yemen. 
 
 The Moslem writers relate various quibbles by which HormuzAn 
 sought to avert the death with which he was threatened, for having 
 slain Bara Ibn MAlek. He craved water to allay his thirst. A vessel 
 of water was brought. Affecting to apprehend immediate execution : 
 "Shall I be spared until I have drunk this?" Being answered by 
 the Caliph in the affirmative, he dashed the vessel to the ground 
 "Now," said he, "you cannot put me to death, for I can never 
 drink the water. " 
 
 The straightforward Omar, however, was not to be caught by a 
 quibble. " Your cunning will do you no good," said he. " Nothing 
 will save you but to embrace Islamism." The haughty HormuzAn 
 was subdued. He made the profession of faith in due style, and was 
 at once enrolled among true believers.
 
 
 OMAR. 2/7 
 
 He resided thenceforth in Medina; received rich presents from 
 the Caliph, and subsequently gave him much serviceable infor- 
 mation and advice in his prosecution of the war with Persia. The 
 conquest of AhwSz was completed in the nine teenth year of the 
 Hegira. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 Saad suspended from the command. A Persian army assembled atNehavend. 
 Council at the mosque of Medina.- Battle of Nehivend. 
 
 Omar, as we have seen, kept a jealous and vigilant eye upon his 
 distant generals ; being constantly haunted by the fear that they 
 would become corrupted in the rich and luxurious countries they 
 were invading, and lose that Arab simplicity which he considered 
 inestimable in itself, and all-essential to the success of the cause 
 of Islam. Notwithstanding the severe reproof he had given to 
 Saad Ibn Abu Wakkds in burning down his palace at Cufa, com- 
 plaints still reached him that the general affected the pomp of a 
 Caliph, that he was unjust and oppressive ; unfair in the division of 
 spoils, and slow in conducting military concerns. These charges 
 proved, for the most part, unfounded, but they caused Saad to be 
 suspended from his command until they could be investigated. 
 
 AVhen the news reached Tfezdegird at Rei that the Moslem 
 general who had conquered at Kadesia, slain Rustam, captured 
 Madayn, and driven himself to the mountains, was deposed from 
 the command, he conceived fresh hopes, and wrote letters to all 
 the provinces yet unconquered, calling on the inhabitants to take 
 up arms and make a grand effort for the salvation of the empire. 
 Nelulvend was appointed as the place where the troops were to 
 assemble. It was a place of great antiquity, founded, says tradi- 
 tion, by Noah, and called after him, and was about fifteen leagues 
 from Hamadan, the ancient Ecbatana. Here troops gathered 
 together to the number of one hundred and fifty thousand. 
 
 Omar assembled his counsellors at the mosque of Medina, and 
 gave them intelligence, just received, of this great armament. 
 "This," said he, "is probably the last great effort of the Persians. 
 If we defeat them now they will never be able to unite again. " 
 He expressed a disposition, therefore, to take the command in 
 person. Strong objections were advanced. "Assemble troops 
 from various parts," said Othman ; " but remain, yourself, either 
 at Medina, Cufa, or HolwSn, to send reinforcements if required, or 
 to form a rallying point for the Moslems, if defeated." Others 
 gave different counsel. At length the matter was referred to Abbas 
 Ibn Abd al Motaileb, who was considered one of the sagest heads 
 for counsel in the tribe of Koreish. He gave it as his opinion that 
 the Caliph should remain in Medina, and give the command of the 
 campaign to Nu'man Ibn Mukry, who was already in AhwSz, where 
 he had been ever since Saad had sent him thither from Irak. It
 
 278 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 is singular to see the fate of the once mighty and magnificent 
 empires of the Orient, Syria, Chaldea, Babylonia, and the domi- 
 nions of t'ie Medes anjl Persians, thus debated and decided in the 
 mosque of Medina, by a handful of gray-headed Arabs, who but a 
 few years previously had been homeless fugitives. 
 
 Orders were now sent to Nu'man to march to Nehdvend, and 
 reinforcements joined him from Medina, Bassora, and Cufa. His 
 force, when thus collected, was but moderate, but it was made 
 up of men hardened and sharpened by incessant warfare, rendered 
 daring and confident by repeated victory, and led by able officers. 
 He was afterwards joined by ten thousand jnen from Sawad, 
 Holwan, and other places,, many of whom were tributaries. 
 
 The Persian army now collected at Nebavend was commanded 
 by Firuzan ; he was old and infirm, but full of intelligence and 
 spirit, and the only remaining general considered capable of taking 
 charge of such a force, the best generals having fallen in battle. 
 The veteran, knowing the impetuosity of the Arab attack, and 
 their superiority in the open field, had taken a strong position, 
 fortified his camp, and surrounded it with a deep moat filled with 
 water. Here .he determined to tire out the patience of the Mos- 
 lems, and await an opportunity to strike a decisive blow. 
 
 ISu'man displayed his forces before the Persian camp, and 
 repeatedly offered battle, but the cautious veteran was not to be 
 drawn out of his intrenchments. Two months elapsed without 
 any action, and the Moslem troops, as Firu/an had foreseen, began 
 to grow discontented, and to murmur at their general. 
 
 A stratagem was now resorted to by Nu'man to draw out the 
 enemy. Breaking up his camp, he made a hasty retreat, leaving 
 behind him many articles of little value. The stratagem succeeded. 
 The Persians sallied, though cautiously, in pursuit. Nu'man con- 
 tinued his feigned retreat for another day, still followed by the 
 enemy. Having drawn them to a sufficient distance from their 
 fortified camp, he took up a position at nightfall. '-To-morrow," 
 said he to his troops, "before the day reddens, be ready for battle. 
 I have been with the prophet in many conflicts, and he always 
 commenced battle after the Friday prayer." 
 
 The following day, when the troops were drawn out in order of 
 battle, he made this prayer in their presence. - " Oh Allah! sustain 
 this day the cause of Islamism ; give us victory over the infidels, 
 and grant me the glory of martyrdom." Then turning to his offi- 
 cers, he expressed a presentiment that he should fall in the battle, 
 and named the person who, in such case, should take thecommand. 
 
 He now appointed the signal for battle. " Three times," said 
 he, "I will cry the tekbir, and each time will shake my standard. 
 At the third time let every one fall on as I shall do. ' He gave the 
 signal, Allah Achbar! Allah Achbar ! Allah Achbar ! At the 
 third shaking of the standard, the tekbir was responded by the army, 
 and the air was rent by the universal shout of Allah Achbar ! 
 
 The shock of the two armies was terrific; they were soon enve- 
 loped in a cloud of dust, in which the sound of scimetars and 
 batfle-axes told the deadly work that was going on ; while the 
 shouts of Allah Achbar continued, mingled with furious cries and
 
 OMAR. 279 
 
 execrations of the Persians, and dismal groans of the wounded. 
 In an hour the Persians were completely routed. "Oh Lord ! " 
 exclaimed Nu'man in pious ecstasy, "my prayer for victory has 
 been heard ; may that for martyrdom be likewise favoured ! " 
 
 He advanced his standard in pursuit of the enemy, but at the 
 same moment a Parthian arrow from the flying foe gave him the 
 death he coveted. His body, with the face covered, was conveyed 
 to his brother, and his standard given to Hadifeh, whom he had 
 named to succeed him in the command. 
 
 The Persians were pursued with great slaughter. Firuz^n fled 
 towards Hamadau, but was overtaken at midnight as he was 
 ascending a steep hill, embarrassed among a crowd of mules and 
 camels laden with the luxurious superfluities of a Persian camp. 
 Here he and several thousand of his soldiers and camp-followers 
 were cut to pieces. The booty was immense. Forty of the mules 
 were found to be laden with honey; which made the Arabs say 
 with a sneer, that Firuzan's army was clogged with its own honey, 
 until overtaken by the true believers. The whole number of Per- 
 sians slain in this battle, whkh sealed the fate of the empire, is 
 said to have amounted to one hundred thousand. It took place in 
 the twenty-first year of the Hegira, and the year 641 of the Chris- 
 tian era, and was commemorated among Moslems, as "The Victory 
 of Victories. " 
 
 On a day subsequent to the battle, a man mounted on an ass, 
 rode into the camp of Hadifeh. He was one who had served in 
 the temples of the fire-worshippers, and was in great consternation, 
 fearing to be sacrificed by the fanatic Moslems. "Spare my life," 
 said he to Hadifeh, " and the life of another person whom I shall 
 designate, and I will deliver into your hands a treasure put under 
 my charge by Yezdegird when he fled to Rei." His terms being 
 promised, he produced a sealed box. On breaking the seal, 
 Hadifeh found it filled with rubies and precious stones of various 
 colours, and jewels of great price. He was astonished at the sight 
 of what appeared to him incalculable riches. " These jewels," 
 said he, " have not been gained in battle, nor by the sword ; we 
 have, therefore, no right to any share in them." AVith the con- 
 currence of his officers, therefore, he sent the box to the Caliph to 
 be retained by himself or divided among the true believers as he 
 should think proper. The officer who conducted the fifth part of 
 the spoils to Medina, delivered the box, and related its history to 
 Omar. The Caliph, little skilled in matters of luxury, and holding 
 them in supreme contempt, gazed with an ignorant or scornful eye 
 at the imperial jewels, and refused to receive them. "You know 
 not what these things are," said he. "Neither do I; but they 
 justly belong to those who slew the infidels, and to no one else." 
 He ordered the officer, therefore, to depart forthwith and carry 
 the box back to Hadifeh. The jewels were sold by the latter to 
 the merchants who followed the camp, and when the proceeds were 
 divided among the troops, each horseman received for his share 
 four thousand pieces of gold. 
 
 Far other was the conduct of the Caliph when ha received the 
 letter giving an account of the victory at Nehavend. His first inquiry
 
 280 MAUOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 was after his old companion in the faith, Nu'man. " May God grant 
 you and him mercy ! " was the reply. " He has become a martyr ! " 
 Omar, it is said, wept. He next inquired who also were mar- 
 tyrs. Several were named with whom he was acquainted; but 
 many who were unknown to him " If I know them not," said he. 
 piously quoting a text of the Koran, " God doesl" 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 Capture of Ramadan ; of Rei. Subjugation of Tabarislan; of Azerbtjan. Campaign 
 among the Caucasian mountains. 
 
 The Persian troops who had survived the signal defeat of Firuzan, 
 assembled their broken forces near the city of Hamadan; but were 
 soon routed again by a detachment sent against them by Hadlfeh, 
 who had fixed his headquarters at Nehavend. They then look 
 refuge in Hamadan, and ensconced themselves in its strong fortress 
 or citadel. 
 
 Hamadan was the second city in Persia for grandeur, and 
 was built upon the site of Ecbatana, in old times the principal 
 city of the Medes. There were more Jews among its inhabitants 
 than were to be found in any other city of Persia, and it boasted 
 of possessing the tombs of Esther and Mordecai. It was situated 
 on a steep eminence, down the sides of which it descended into 
 a fruitful plain, watered by streams gushing down from the lofty 
 Orontes, now Mount Elwand. The place was commanded by 
 Habesh, the same general who had been driven from Holwan after 
 the flight of Yezdegird. Habesh sought an interview with Hadifeh, 
 at his encampment at Nehavend, and made a treaty of peace with 
 him ; but it was a fraudulent one, and, 'intended merely to gain 
 time. Returning to Hamadan, he turned the whole city into a for- 
 tress, and assembled a strong garrison, being reinforced from the 
 neighbouring province of Azerbijan. 
 
 On being informed of this want of good faith on the part of the 
 governor of Hamadan, the Caliph Omar despatched a strong force 
 against the place, led by an able officer named Nu'haim Ibn Mukrin. 
 Habesh had more courage than caution. Confident in the large 
 force he had assembled, instead of remaining within his strongly 
 fortified city, he sallied forth and met the Moslems in open field, 
 The battle lasted for three days and was harder fought than even 
 that of Nehavend, but ended in leaving the Moslems triumphant 
 masters of the once formidable capital of Media. 
 
 Nu'haim now marched against Rei, late the place of refuge of 
 Yezdegird. That prince, however, had deserted it on the ap- 
 proach of danger, leaving it in charge of a noble named Siyawesh 
 Ibn Barbara. Hither the Persian princes had sent troops from the 
 yet uaconquered provinces, for Siyawesh had nobly offered to 
 make himself as a buckler to them, and conquer or fall in their 
 dt-fence. His patriotism was unavailing; treachery and corruption
 
 OMAR. 581 
 
 were too prevalent among the Persians. Zaiu, a powerful noble 
 resident in Rei, and a deadly enemy of Siydwesh, conspired to 
 admit two thousand Moslems in at one gate of the city, at the time 
 when its gallant governor was making a sally by another. A scene 
 of tumult and carnage took place in the streets, where both armies 
 engaged in deadly conflit. The patriot Siyawesh was slain with a 
 great part of his troops; the city was captured and sacked, and its 
 citadel destroyed, and the traitor Zain was rewarded for his 
 treachery by being made governor of the ruined place. 
 
 Nu'haim now sent troops in different directions against Kumish, 
 and Dameghan, and Jurgan (the ancient Hircania), and Tabaristan. 
 They met with feeble resistance. The national spirit was broken ; 
 even the national religion was nearly at an end. " This Persian 
 religion of ours has become obsolete," said Farkham, a military 
 sage, to an assemblage of commanders, .who asked his advice ; 
 " the new religion is carrying every thing before it ; my advice 
 is to make peace and pay tribute." His advice was adopted. 
 All Tabaristan became tributary in the annual sum of five hundred 
 thousand dirhems, with the condition that the Moslems should levy 
 no troops in that quarter. 
 
 Azerbijan was next invaded ; the country which had sent troops 
 to the aid of Hamaddn. This province lay north of Rei and Ha- 
 maddn, and extended to the Rocky Caucasus. It was the stronghold 
 of the Magians or Fire-worshippers, where they had their temples, 
 and maintained their perpetual fire. Hence the name of the 
 country, Azer signifying fire. The princes of the country made an 
 ineffectual stand; their army was defeated; the altars of the fire- 
 worshippers were overturned; their temples destroyed, and Azer- 
 bijan won. 
 
 The arms of Islam had now been carried triumphantly to the 
 very defiles of the Caucasus; those mountains were yet to be 
 subdued. Their rocky sierras on the east separated Azerbijan 
 from Haziz and the shores of the Caspian, and on the north from 
 the vast Sarmatian regions. The passes through these mountains 
 were secured of yore, by fortresses and walls and iron gates, to bar 
 against irruptions from the shadowy land of Gog and Magog, the 
 terror of the olden time, for by these passes had poured in the bar- 
 barous hordes of the north, " a mighty host all riding upon horses," 
 who lived in tents, worshipped the naked sword planted in the 
 earth, and decorated their steeds with the scalps of their enemies 
 slain in battle. 1 
 
 i By some Gog and Magog are taken in an allegorical sense, signifying the princes ol 
 heathendom, enemies of saints and the church. 
 
 According lo the prophet Ezt-kiel, Gog was the king of Magog; Magog signifying the 
 people, and Gog the king of the country. They are names that loom vaguely and fear- 
 fully in the dark denunciations of the prophets ; and in the olden time inspired awe 
 throughout the eastern world. 
 
 The Arabs, says Lane, call Gog and Magog, Yajuj and Majuj, and say they are two 
 nations or tribes descended from Japhel, the son of Noah ; or, as others write, Gog is 
 a tribe of the Turks, and Magog those of Gilau; the Geli and the Gelae of Ptolemy and 
 Sirabo. They madellieir irruptions into the neighbouring countries in the spring, and 
 carried off all the fruits of the earth. Sale't Koran, note to ch. 18. 
 
 According lo Moslem belief, a great irruption of Gog and Magog is to be one of ihc; 
 signs of the latler days, forerunning the resurrection and final judgment. They are to
 
 282 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Detachments of Moslems under different leaders penetrated the 
 defiles of these mountains and made themselves masters of Ihe Der- 
 bends, or mountain barriers. One of the most important, and which 
 cost the greatest struggle, was a city or fortress called by the Persians 
 Der-bend ; by the Turks Demir-Capi or the Gale of Iron, and by 
 the Arabs Bab-el-abwab- ithe Gate of Gates). It guards a defile 
 between a promontory of Mount Caucasus and the Caspian Sea. 
 A superstitious belief is still connected with it by the Moslems. 
 Originally it had three gates ; two only are left ; one of these has 
 nearly sunk into the earth ; they say when it disappears the day 
 of judgment will arrive. 
 
 Abda'lrahman Ibn Rabiah, one of the Moslem commanders who 
 penetrated the defiles of the Caucasus, was appointed by Omar to 
 the command of the Derbends or passes, with orders to keep vigi- 
 lant watch over them ; for the Caliph was in continual solicitude 
 about the safety of the Moslems on these remote expeditions, and 
 was fearful that the Moslem troops might be swept away by some 
 irruption from the north. 
 
 Abda'lrahman, with the approbation of the Caliph, made a com- 
 pact with Shahr-Zad, one of the native chiefs, by which the latter, 
 in consideration of being excused from paying tribute, undertook 
 to guard the Derbends against the northern hordes. The Arab 
 general had many conversations with Shahr-Zad about the moun- 
 tains, which are favoured regions of Persian romance and fable. 
 His imagination was fired with what he was told about the people 
 beyond the Derbends, the Allan! and the Rus; and about the 
 great wall or barrier of Yajuj and Majuj, built to restrain their 
 inroads. 
 
 In one of the stories told by Shahr-Zad, the reader will perceive 
 the germ of one of the Arabian tales of Sindbad the Sailor. It is 
 recorded to the following purport, by Tabari, the Persian historian : 
 " One day as Abda'lrahman was seated by Sharh-Zad, conversing 
 
 come from (he north in a mighty host, covering the land as a cloud; so that when 
 subdued, their shields and bucklers, their bows and arrows and quivers, and the staves 
 of their spears, shall furnish the faithful with fuel for seven years. All which is 
 evidently derived from the book of Ihe prophet Ezekiel ; with which Mahomet had been 
 made acquainted by his Jewish instructors. 
 
 The Koran makes mention of a wall built as a protection against these fearful people 
 of the north by Dhu'lkarneim, or the 'I wo Horned; by whom some suppose is meant 
 Alexander the Great, others a Persian king of the lirst race, contemporary with 
 Abraham. 
 
 And they said, Dhu'lkarneim, verily, Gog and Magog waste the land He 
 
 answered, I will set a strong wall between you and them. Bring me iron in large 
 pieces, until it fill up the space between the two sides of these mountains^ And he said 
 to the workmen. Blow with your bellows until it make the iron red hot; and hi ing me 
 molten brass, that I may pour upon it. Wherefore, when this wall w.is finished, Gog 
 and Magog could not scale it, neither could they dig through it. Sale't Koran, chap. 18 
 
 The Czar Peter the Great, in his expedition against the Persians, saw in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Ihe city of Deibend, which was then besieged, the ruins of a wall which 
 went up hill and down dale, along the Caucasus, and was said lo extend from the 
 Euxine to the Caspian. It was fortified from ptace to place, by lowers or castles. It 
 was eighteen Russian stades in height: built of stones laid up dry; some of them three 
 ells long and very wide. The colour of the stones, and the traditions of the counlry, 
 showed it to be of great antiquity. The Arabs and Persians said that it was built 
 against the invasions of Gog and Magog. See Travel* in the Eait, by Sir /,' illiam 
 Ou$ley.
 
 OMAR. }8ft 
 
 with him, he perceived upon his finger a ring decorated with a 
 ruby, which burned like fire in (he daytime, but at night was of 
 dazzling brilliancy. ' It came,' said Shahr-zad, ' from the wall of 
 Yajiij and Majuj ; from a king whose dominions between the moun- 
 tains is traversed by the wall. 1 sent him many presents, and asked 
 but ony ruby in return." Seeing the curiosity of Abda'lrahman 
 aroused, he sent for the man who had brought the ring, and com- 
 manded him to relate the circumstances of his errand. 
 
 " ' When I delivered the presents and the letter of Shahr-Zad to 
 that king,' said the man, ' he called his chief falconer, and ordered 
 him to procure the jewel required. The falconer kept an eagle 
 for three days without food, until he was nearly starved ; he then 
 took him up into the mountains near the wall, and I accompanied 
 him. From the summit of one of these mountains, we looked down 
 into a deep dark chasm like an abyss. The falconer now produced 
 a piece of tainted meat ; threw it into the ravine, and let loose the 
 eagle. He swept down after it ; pounced upon it as it reached the 
 ground, and returning with it, perched upon the hand of the fal- 
 coner. The ruby which now shines in that ring was found adhering 
 to the meat.' 
 
 " Abda'lrahman asked an account of the wall. e It is built,' 
 replied the man, ' of stone, iron, and brass, and extends down one 
 mountain and up another.' 'This,' said the devout and all- 
 believing Abda'lrahman, 'must be the very wall of which the 
 Almighty makes mention in the Koran.' 
 
 " He now inquired of Shahr-Zad what was the value of the ruby. 
 ' No one knows its value.' was the reply ; ' though presents to an 
 immense amount had been made in return for it.' Sharh-Zad now 
 drew the ring from his finger, and offered it to Abda'lrahman, Hut 
 the latter refused to accept it, saying that a gem of that value was 
 not suitable to him. ' Had you been one of the Persian kings', 
 said Shahr-Zad, ' you would have taken it from me by force ; but 
 men who conduct like you will conquer all the world.' ' 
 
 The stories which he had heard, had such an effect upon Abd- 
 a'lrahman, that he resolved to make a foray into the mysterious 
 country beyond the Derbends. Still it could only be of a partial 
 nature, as he was restrained from venturing far by the cautious 
 injunctions of Omar. " Were I not fearful of displeasing the 
 Caliph," said he, " I would push forward even to Yajuj andMSjuj, 
 and make converts of all the infidels." 
 
 On issuing from the mountains, he found himself among a barba- 
 rous people, the ancestors of the present Turks, who inhabited a 
 region of country between the Euxine and the Caspian seas. A 
 soldier who followed Abda'lrahman in this foray gave the following 
 account of these people to the Caliph on his return to Medina. 
 " They were astonished," said he, " at our appearance, so diffe- 
 rent from their old enemies the Persians, and asked us, * Are you 
 angels, or the sons of Adam ?' to which we replied, we are sons of 
 Adam ; but the angels of heaven are on our side and aid us in our 
 warfare." 
 
 The infidels forbore to assail men thus protected ; one, however, 
 more shrewd or dubious than the rest, stationed himself behind a
 
 284 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 tree, sped an arrow and slew a Moslem. The delusion was at an 
 end ; the Turks saw that the strangers Avere mortal, and from that 
 time there was hard fighting. Abda'lrahman laid siege to a place 
 called Belandscher, the city or strong-hold of the Bulgarians or 
 Huns, another semi -barbarous and warlike people like the Turks, 
 who, like them had not yet made themselves world-famous by their 
 conquering migrations. The Turks came to the aid of their neigh- 
 bours ; a severe battle took place, the Moslems were defeated, and 
 Abda'lrahman paid for his daring enterprise and romantic curiosity 
 with his life. The Turks, who still appear to have retained a su- 
 perstitious opinion of their unknown invaders, preserved the body 
 of the unfortunate general as a relic, and erected a shrine in honour 
 of it, at which they used to put up their prayers for rain in time of 
 drought. 
 
 The troops of Abda'lrahman retreated within the Derbends ; his 
 brother Seluian Ibn Rabiah was appointed to succeed him in the 
 command of the Caucasian passes, and thus ended the unfortunate 
 foray into the land of God and Magog. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 The Calipb Omar assassinated by a fire- worshipper. His character. Othman elected 
 
 Caliph. 
 
 The life and reign of the Caliph Omar, distinguished by such great 
 and striking events, were at length brought to a sudden and sin- 
 guinary end. Among the Persians who had been brought as slaves 
 to Medina, was one named Firuz, of the sect of the Magi, or fire- 
 worshippers. Being taxed daily by his master two pieces of silver 
 out of his earnings he complained of it to Omar as an extortion. 
 The Caliph inquired into his condition, and, finding that he was a 
 carpenter, and expert in the construction of windmills, replied, that 
 . the man who excelled in such a handicraft could well afford to pay 
 two dirhems a day. " Then, muttered Firuz, " I'll construct a 
 windmill for you that shall keep grinding until the day of judgment. " 
 Omar was struck with his menacing air. " The slave threatens 
 me," said he, calmly. " If I were disposed to punish any one on 
 suspicion, I should lake off his head ;'' he suffered him, however, 
 to depart without further notice. 
 
 Three days afterwards, as he was praying in the mosque, Firuz 
 entered suddenly and stabbed him thrice with a dagger. The 
 attendants rushed upon the assassin. He made furious resistance, 
 slew some and wounded olhers, until one of his assailants threw 
 his vest over him and seized him, upon which he stabbed himself 
 to the heart and expired. Religron may have had some share in 
 prompting this act of violence ; perhaps revenge for the ruin brought 
 upon his native country. " God be thanked," said Omar, "that 
 he by whose hand it was decreed I should fall, was not a Moslem ! "
 
 OMAR. 285 
 
 The Caliph gathered strength sufficient to finish the prayer in 
 which he had been interrupted ; " for he who deserts his prayers," 
 said he, "is not in Islam." Being taken to his house, he lan- 
 guished three days without hope of recovery, but could not be 
 prevailed upon to nominate a successor. "I cannot presume to 
 do that," said he, ( - which the prophet himself did not do." Some 
 suggested that he should nominate his son Abdallah. "Omar's 
 family," said he, " has had enough in Omar, and needs no more." 
 He appointed a council of six persons to determine as to the suc- 
 cession after his decease ; all of whom he considered worthy of the 
 Caliphat; though he gave it as his opinion that the choice would 
 be either AH or Olhuian. "Shouldst thou become Caliph," said 
 he to AH, " do not favour thy relatives above all others, nor place 
 the house of Haschem on the neck of all mankind ;" and he gave 
 the same caution to Othtnan in respect to the family of Omeya. 
 
 Calling for ink and paper, he wrote a letter as his last testament, 
 to whosoever might be his successor, full of excellent counsel for 
 the upright management of affairs, and the promotion of the faith. 
 He charged his son Abdallah in the most earnest manner, as one of 
 the highest duties of Islamism, to repay eighteen thousand dirhems 
 which he had borrowed out of the public treasury. All present 
 protested against this as unreasonable, since the money had been 
 expended in relief of the poor and destitute, but Omar insisted 
 upon it as his last will. He then sent to Ayesha and procured per- 
 mission of her to be buried next to her father Abu Beker. 
 
 Ibn Abbas and AH now spoke to him in words of comfort, setting 
 forth the blessings of Islam, which had crowned his administration, 
 and that he would leave no one behind him who could charge him 
 with injustice. "Testify this for me," said he, earnestly, "at the 
 clay of judgment." They gave him their hands in promise : but he 
 exacted that they should give him a written testimonial, and that 
 it should be buried with him in the grave. 
 
 Having settled all his worldly affairs, and given directions about 
 his sepulture, he expired, the seventh day after his assassination, 
 in the sixty-third year of his age, after a triumphant reign of ten 
 years and six months. 
 
 His death was rashly and bloodily revenged. Mahomet Ibn Abu 
 Beker, the brother of Ayesha, and imbued with her mischief- 
 making propensity, persuaded Abdallah, the son of Omar, that his 
 father's murder was the result of a conspiracy ; Firuz having been 
 instigated to the act by his daughter Lulu, a Christian named 
 Dschofeine, and Hormuzan, the once haughty and magnificent 
 Satrap of Susiana In the transport of his rage, and instigated by 
 the old Arab principle of blood revenge, Abdallah slew all three of 
 the accused ; without reflecting on the improbability of Hormuzftn, 
 at least, being accessory to the murder ; being, since his conver- 
 sion, in close friendship with the late Caliph ; and his adviser, on 
 many occasions, in the prosecution of the Persian war. 
 
 The whole history of Omar shows him to have been a man of 
 great powers of mind, inflexible integrity, and rigid justice. He 
 was, more than any one else, the founder of the Islam empire ; 
 confirming and carrying out the inspirations of the prophet ; aiding
 
 J8 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Abu Beker with his counsels during his brief Caliphat ; and esta- 
 blishing wise regulations for the strict administration of the laws 
 throughout the rapidly-extending bounds of the Moslem conquests. 
 The rigid hand whirh he kept upon his most popular generals in the 
 midst of their armies, and in the most distant scenes of their 
 triumphs, give signal evidence of his extraordinary capacity to rule. 
 In the simplicity of his habits, and his contempt for all pomp and 
 luxury, he emulated the example of the prophet and Abu Boker. 
 He endeavoured incessantly to impress the merit and policy of the 
 same in his letters to his generals. " Beware," he would say, 
 "of Persian luxury both in food and raiment. Keep to the simple 
 habits of your country, and Allah will continue you victorious; 
 depart from them, and he will reverse your fortunes." It was his 
 strong conviction of the truth of this policy, which made him so 
 severe in punishing all ostentatious style and luxurious indulgence 
 in his officers. 
 
 Some of his ordinances do credit to his heart as well as his head. 
 He forbade that any female captive who had borne a child should 
 be sold as a slave. In his weekly distributions of the surplus money 
 of his treasury, he proportioned them to the wants, not the merits 
 of the applicants. "God," said he, "has bestowed Jhe good 
 things of this world to relieve our necessities, not to reward our 
 virtues : those will be rewarded in another world." 
 
 One of the early measures of his reign was the assigning pensions 
 to the most faithful companions of the prophet, and those who had 
 signalized themselves in the early service of the faith. Abbas, the 
 uncle of the prophet, had a yearly pension of 200,000 dirhems; 
 others of his relatives in graduated proportions ; those veterans 
 who had fought in the battle of Beder 5000 dirhems ; pensions of 
 less amount to those who had distinguished themselves in Syria, 
 Persia, and Egypt. Each of the prophet's wives was allowed ten 
 thousand dirhems yearly, and Ayesha twelve thousand. Hasan and 
 Ilosdii, the sons of AH and grandsons of the prophet, had each a 
 pension of five thousand dirhems. On any one who found fault 
 with these disbursements out of the public wealth, Omar invoked 
 the curse of Allah. 
 
 He was the first to establish a chamber of accounts or exche- 
 quer ; the first to date events from the Hegira or flight of the 
 prophet; and the first to introduce a coinage into the Moslem 
 dominions; stamping the coins with the name of the reigning 
 Caliph, and the words, "There is no God but God." 
 
 During his reign, we are told, there were thirty-six thousand 
 towns, castles, and strong-holds taken ; but he was not a wasteful 
 conqueror. He found new cities; established important marts; 
 built innumerable mosques, and linked the newly acquired pro- 
 vinces into one vast empire by his iron inflexibility of purpose. As 
 has well been observed, "his Caliphat, crowned with the glories 
 of its triple conquest of Syria, Persia, and Egypt, deserves to be 
 distinguished as the heroic age of Saracen history. The gigantic 
 foundations of the Saracenic power were perfected in the short 
 space of less than ten years." Let it be remembered, moreover, 
 that this great conqueror, this great legislator, this magnanimous
 
 OTHMAN. 187 
 
 sovereign, was originally a rude half-instructed Arab of Mecca. 
 Well may we say in regard to the early champions of Islam, "there 
 were giants in those days." 
 
 After the death of Omar, the six persons met together whom he 
 had named as a council to elect his successor. They were Ali, 
 Othman, Telha, Ibn Obeid'allah (Mahomet's son-in-law), Zobeir, 
 Abda'lrahman Ibn Awf, and Saad Ibn Abu WakkSs. They had all 
 been personally intimate with Mahomet, and were therefore styled 
 
 THE COMPANIONS. 
 
 After much discussion and repeated meetings the Caliphat was 
 offered to Ali, on condition that he would promise to govern ac- 
 cording to the Koran and the traditions of Mahomet, and the regu- 
 lations established by the two seniors or elders ; meaning the two 
 preceding Caliphs Abu Beker and Omar. 
 
 Ali replied, that he would govern according to the Koran and 
 the authentic traditions ; but would, in all other respects, act ac- 
 cording to his own judgment, without reference to the example of 
 the seniors. This reply not being satisfactory to the council, they 
 made the same proposal to Othman Ibn Affan, who assented to all 
 the conditions, and was immediately elected, and installed three 
 days after the death of his predecessor. He was seventy years of 
 age at the time of his election. Fie was tall and swarthy, and his 
 long gray beard was tinged with henna. He-was strict in his reli- 
 gious duties ; fasting, meditating, and studying the Koran ; not so 
 simple in his habits as his predecessors, but prone to expense and 
 lavish of his riches. His bountiful spirit, however, was evinced at 
 times in a way that gained him much popularity. In a time of 
 famine he had supplied the poor of Medina with corn. He had 
 purchased at great cost the ground about the mosque of Medina, to 
 give room for houses for the prophet's wives. He had contributed 
 six hundred and fifty camels and fifty horses for the campaign 
 against Tabuc. 
 
 He derived much respect among zealous Moslems for having 
 married two of the prophet's daughters; and for having been in 
 both of the Hegiras, or flights, the first into Abyssinia, the second, 
 the memorable flight to Medina. Mahomet used to say of him, 
 "Each thing has its male, and each man his associate : my associate 
 in paradise is Othman." 
 
 Scarcely was the new Caliph installed in office, when the retalia- 
 tory punishment prescribed by the law was in voked upon Obeid'allah, 
 the son of Omar, for the deaths so rashly inflicted on those whom 
 he had suspected of instigating his father's assassination. Othman 
 was perplexed between the letter of the law and the odium of 
 following the murder of the father by the execution of the son. He 
 was kindly relieved from his perplexity by the suggestion, that as 
 the act of Obeid'allah took place in the interregnum between the 
 Caliphats of Omar and Olhman, it dirl not come under the cogni- 
 zance of either. Othman gladly availed himself of the quibble ; 
 Obeid'allah escaped unpunished, and the sacrifice of the once mag- 
 nificent Hormuzan and his fellow -victims remained unavenged,
 
 288 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 Conclusion of the Persian conquest. Flight and death of Yezdegird. 
 
 The proud empire of the Khosrus had received its death-blow 
 during the vigorous Caliphat of Omar; what signs of life it yet gave 
 were but its dying struggles. The Moslems, led by able generals, 
 pursued their conquests in different directions. Some, turning to 
 the west, urged their triumphant way through ancient Assyria; 
 crossed the Tigris by the bridge of Mosul, passing the ruins of 
 mighty Nineveh as unheedingly as they had passed those of Babylon ; 
 completed the subjugation of Mesopotamia, and planted their stan- 
 dards beside those of their brethren who had achieved the conquest 
 of Syria. 
 
 Others directed their course into the southern and eastern pro- 
 vinces, following the retreating steps of Yezdegird. A fiat issued 
 by the late Caliph Omar had sealed the doom of that unhappy mo- 
 narch. " Pursue the fugitive king wherever he may go, until you 
 have driven him from the face of the earth ! " 
 
 Yezdegird, after abandoning Rei, had led a wandering life, shift- 
 ing from city to city and province to province, still flying at the 
 approach of danger. At one time we hear of him in the splendid city 
 of Ispahan ; next among the mountains of Farsistan, the original 
 Persis, the cradle of the conquerors of Asia; and it is another of 
 the lessons furnished by history, to see the last of the Khosrus a fu- 
 gitive among those mountains whence, in foregone limes, Cyrus had 
 led his hardy but frugal arid rugged bands to win, by force of arms, 
 that vast empire which was now falling to ruin through its effemi- 
 nate dege neracy. 
 
 For a time the unhappy monarch halted in Istakar, the pride of 
 Persia, where the tottering remains of Persepolis, and its hall of a 
 thousand columns, speak of the ancient glories of the Persian kings. 
 Here Yezdegird had been fostered and concealed during his youth- 
 ful days, and here he came near being taken among the relics of 
 Persian magnificence. 
 
 From Farsistan he was driven to Kerman, the ancient Carmania ; 
 thence into Korassan; in the northern part of which vast province 
 he took breath at the city of Merv, or Merou, on the remote boun- 
 dary of Baclriana. In all his wanderings he was encumbered by 
 the shattered pageant of an oriental court, a worthless throng which 
 had fled with him from Madayn, and which he had no means of 
 supporting. At Merv he had four thousand persons in his train; 
 all minions of the palace, useless hangers-on, porters, grooms, and 
 slaves; together wilh his wives and concubines, and their female 
 attendants. 
 
 In this remote halting-place he devoted himself to building a fire- 
 temple ; in the meantime he wrote letters to such of the cities and
 
 OTI1UAN. 589 
 
 provinces as were yet unconquered, exhorting his governors and 
 generals to defend, piece by piece, the fragments of empire which 
 he had deserted. 
 
 The city of Ispahan, one of the brightest jewels of his crown, 
 was well garrisoned by wrecks of the army of Nehavend, and might 
 have made brave resistance ; but its governor, Kadeskan, staked 
 the fortunes of the place upon a single combat with the Moslem 
 commander who had invested it, and capitulated at the first shock 
 of lances; probably through some traitorous arrangement. 
 
 Ispahan has never recovered from that blow. Modern travellers 
 speak of its deserted streets, its abandoned palaces, its silent ba- 
 zaars. " I have ridden for miles among its ruins," says one, '* with- 
 out meeting any living creature, excepting, perhaps, a jackal peeping 
 over a wall, or a fox running into his hole. Now and then an in- 
 habited house was to be seen, the owner of which might be assi- 
 milated to Job's forlorn man dwelling in desolate cities, and in 
 houses which no man inhabiteth ; which are ready to become 
 heaps." 
 
 Istakar made a nobler defence. The national pride of the Per- 
 sians was. too much connected with this city, once their boast, to 
 let it fall without a struggle. There was another gathering of 
 troops from various parts; one hundred and twenty thousand are 
 said to have united under the standard of Shah-reg, the patriotic 
 governor. It was all in vain. The Persians were again defeated in 
 a bloody battle; Shah-reg was slain, and Istakar, the ancient Per- 
 sepolis, once almost the mistress of the Eastern world, was com- 
 pelled to pay tribute to the Arabian Caliph 
 
 The course of Moslem conquest now turned into the vast pro- 
 vince of Khorassan; subdued one part of it after another, and ap- 
 proached the remote region where Yezdegird had taken refuge. 
 Driven to the boundaries of his dominions, the fugitive monarch 
 crossed the Oxus (the ancient Gihon) and the sandy deserts beyond, 
 and threw himself among the shepherd hordes of Scyihia. His 
 wanderings are said to have extended to the borders of Tshin, or 
 China, from the emperor of which he sought assistance. 
 
 Obscurity hangs over this part of his story : it is affirmed that he 
 succeeded in obtaining aid from the great Khan of the Tartars, 
 and, re-crossing the Gihon. was joined by the troops of Balkh or 
 Bactria, which province was still unsubdued and loyal. With 
 these he endeavoured to make a stand against his unrelenting pur- 
 suers. A slight reverse, or some secret treachery, put an end to 
 the adhesion of his barbarian ally. The Tartar chief returned with 
 his troops to Turkestan. 
 
 Yezdegird's own nobles, tired of following his desperate for- 
 tunes, now conspired to betray him and his treasures into the hands 
 of the Moslems as a price for their own safety. He was at that 
 time at Merv, or Merou, on the Oxus, called Merou al Roud, or 
 ' Merou of the River,' to distinguish it from Merou in Khorassan. 
 Discovering the intended treachery of his nobles, and of the go- 
 vernor of the place, he caused his shves to let him down with cords 
 from a window of his palace, and fled, alone and on foot, under 
 cover of the night. At the break of day he found himself near a 
 
 19
 
 290 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 rm\\ } on the banks of the river, only eight miles from the city, and 
 offered the miller his rjng and bracelets, enriched with gems, if he 
 would ferry him across the stream. The boor, who knew nothing 
 of jewels, demanded four silver oboli, or drachms, the amount of 
 a day's earnings, as a compensation for leaving his work. While 
 they were debating, a party of horsemen, who were in pursuit of 
 the king, came up and clove him with their scimetars. Another 
 account stales that, exhausted and fatigued with the weight of his 
 embroidered garments, he sought rest and concealment in the mill, 
 and that the miller spread a mat, on which he laid down and slept. 
 His rich attire, however, his belt of gold studded with jewels, his 
 rings and bracelets, excited the avarice of the miller, who slew 
 him with an axe while he slept, and, having stripped the body, 
 threw it into the water. In the morning several horsemen, in 
 search of him, arrived at the mill, where discovering, by his 
 clothes and jewels, that he had been murdered, they put the miller 
 to death. 
 
 This miserable catatastrophe to a miserable career is said to 
 have occurred on the 23d August, in the year 651 of the Chris- 
 tian era. Yczdegird was in the thirty- fourth year of his age ; 
 having reigned nine years previous to the battle of Nehavend, and 
 since that event having been ten years a fugitive. History lays 
 no crimes to his charge, yet his hard fortunes and untimely 
 end have failed to awaken the usual interest and sympathy. He 
 had been schooled in adversity from his early youth, yet he 
 failed to profit by it. Carrying about with him the wretched relics 
 of an effeminate court, he sought only his personal safety, and 
 wanted the courage and magnanimity to throw himself at the head 
 of his armies, and battle for his crown and country like a great 
 sovereign and a patriot prince. 
 
 Empires, however, like all other things, haver their allotted 
 time, and die, if not by violence, at length of imbecility and old 
 age. That of Persia had long since lost its stamina, and the 
 energy of a Cyrus would have been unable to infuse new life into 
 its gigantic but palsied limbs. At the death of Yezdegird it fell 
 under the undisputed sway of the Caliphs, and became little better 
 than a subject province. * 
 
 i According lo popular traditions in Persia, Yezdegird, in Ihe course of his wander- 
 ings, took refuge Tor a lime in the castle of Fahender, near Schiraz, and buried the crown 
 jewels and treasures of Nushirwan, in a deep pit or well under the castle, where they 
 still remain guarded by a talisman, so that they cannot be found or drawn forth. 
 Others say that he had them removed and deposited in trust with the Khacan, or 
 emperor of Chin or Tarlary. After the extinction of the royal Persian dynasty, those 
 treasures and the crown remained in Chin. Sir William Outeley't Traveltin theEcut, 
 vol. ii. p. 34.
 
 OTHMAN. 291 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 Amru displaced from the government of Egypt. -Revolt of the inhabitants. Alexandria 
 retaken by the imperialists. Amru reinstated in command. Retakes Alexandria, 
 and tranquillizes Egypt. Is again displaced. Abdallah Ibn Saad invades the north of 
 Africa. 
 
 " In the conquests of Syria, Persia, and Egypt," says a modern 
 writer, "the fresh and vigorous enthusiasm of the personal com- 
 panions and proselytes of Mahomet was exercised and expended, 
 and the generation of warriors whose simple fanaticism had been 
 inflamed by the preaching of the pseudo prophet, was in a great 
 measure consumed in the sanguinary and perpetual toils of ten 
 arduous campaigns." 
 
 \Ve shall now see the effect of those conquests on the national 
 character and habits; the avidity of place and power and wealth, 
 superseding religious enthusiasm; and the enervating luxury 
 and soft voluptuousness of Syria and Persia sapping the rude but 
 masculine simplicity of the Arabian desert. Above all, the single- 
 mindeduess of Mahomet and his two immediate successors is 
 at end. Other objects beside the mere advancement of Islamism 
 distract the attention of its leading professors ; and the struggle for 
 worldly wealth and worldly sway, for the advancement of private 
 ends, and the aggrandizement of particular tribes and families, 
 destroy the unity of the empire, and beset the Caliphat with in- 
 trigue, treason, and bloodshed. 
 
 It was a great matter of reproach against the Caliph Othman that 
 he was injudicious in his appointments, and had an inveterate 
 propensity to consult the interests of his relatives and friends before 
 that of the public. One of his greatest errours in this respect was 
 the removal of Amru Ibn Al Aass from the government of Egypt, and 
 the appointment of his own foster brother Abdallah Ibn Saad in 
 his place This was the same Abdallah who, in acting as ama- 
 nuensis to Mahomet, and writing down his revelations, had inter- 
 polated passages of his own, sometimes of a ludicrous nature. 
 For this, and for his apostasy, he had been pardoned by Mahomet 
 at the solicitation of Othman, and had ever since acted with ap- 
 parent zeal ; his interest coinciding with his duty. 
 
 He was of a courageous spirit, and one of the most expert horse- 
 men of Arabia; but what might have fitted him to command a 
 horde of the desert, was insufficient for the government of a con- 
 quered province. He was new and inexperienced in his present 
 situation; whereas Amru had distinguished himself as a legislator 
 as well as a conqueror, and had already won the affections of the 
 Egyptians by his attention to their interests, and his respect for 
 their customs and habitudes. His dismission was, therefore, re- 
 sented by the people, and a disposition was manifested to revolt 
 against the new governor.
 
 292 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 HThe emperor Constantine, who had succeeded to his father Hera- 
 clius, hastened to take advantage of these circumstances. A fleet 
 and array were sent against Alexandria under a prefect named 
 Manuel. The Greeks in the city secretly co operated with him, 
 and the metropolis was, partly by force of arms, partly by treach- 
 ery, recaptured by the imperialists without much bloodshed. 
 
 Olhman, made painfully sensible of the errour he had committed, 
 hastened to revoke the appointment of his foster brother, and 
 reinstated Amru in the command in Egypt. That able general 
 went instantly against Alexandria with an army, in which were 
 many Copts, irreconcilable enemies of the Greeks. Among these 
 was the traitor Makawkas, who, from his knowledge of the country, 
 and his influence among its inhabitants, was able to procure 
 abundant supplies for the army. 
 
 The Greek garrison defended the city bravely and obstinately. 
 Amru, enraged at having thus again to lay siege to a place which 
 he had twice already taken, swore, by Allah, that if he should 
 master it a third time, he would render it as easy of access as a 
 brothel. He kept his word, for when he took the city he threw 
 down the walls and demolished all the fortifications. He was 
 merciful, however, to the inhabitants, and checked the fury of the 
 Saracens, who were slaughtering all they met. A mosque was 
 afterwards erected on the spot at which he stayed the carnage, 
 called the Mosque of Mercy. Manuel, the Greek general, found it 
 expedient to embark with all speed with such of his troops as he 
 could save, and make sail for Constantinople. 
 
 Scarce, however, had Amru quelled every insurrection and se- 
 cured the Moslem domination in Egypt, when he was again dis- 
 placed from the government, and Abdallah Ibn Saad appointed a 
 second time in his stead. 
 
 Abdallah had been deeply mortified by the loss of Alexandria, 
 which had been ascribed tp his incapacity; he was emulous too of 
 the renown of Amru, and felt the necessity of vindicating his claims 
 to command by some brilliant achievement. The north of Africa 
 presented a new field for Moslem enterprise. We allude to that 
 vast tract extending west from the desert of Libya or Barca, to 
 Cape Non, embracing more than two thousand miles of sea-coast; 
 comprehending the ancient divisions of Mamarica, Cyrenaica, Car- 
 thage, Numidia, and Mauritania; or, according to modern geogra- 
 phical designations, Barca, Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco. 
 
 A few words respecting the historical vicissitudes of this once 
 powerful region may not be inappropriate. The original inhabit- 
 ants are supposed to have come at a remote time from Asia ; or 
 rather, it is said that an influx of Arabs drove the original inhabitants 
 from the sea-coast to the mountains, and the borders of the interior 
 desert, and continued their nomade and pastoral life along the 
 shores of the Mediterranean. About nine hundred years before 
 the Christian era, the Phoenicians of Tyre founded colonies along 
 the coast; of these Carthage was the greatest. By degrees it ex- 
 tended its influence along the African shores and the opposite coast 
 of Spain, and rose in prosperity and power until it became a rival 
 republic to Rome. On the wars between Rome and Carthage it
 
 0111MAN. 293 
 
 is needless to dilate. They ended in the downfall of the Cnrthagi- 
 nian republic and the domination of Rome over Northern Africa. 
 
 This domination continued for about four centuries, until the 
 Roman prefect Bonifacius invited over the Vandals from Spain to 
 assist him in a feud with a political rival. The invitation proved 
 fatal to Roman ascendency. The Vandals, aided by the Moors and 
 Berbers, and by numerous Christian sectarians recently expelled 
 from the Catholic church, aspired to gain possession of the coun- 
 try, and succeeded. Genseric, the Vandal general, captured and 
 pillaged Carthage, and having subjugated Northern Africa, built a 
 navy, invaded Italy and sacked Rome. The domination of the 
 Vandals by sea and land lasted above half a century. In 533 and 
 534, Africa was regained by Belisarius for the Roman empire, and 
 the Vandals were driven out of the land. After the departure of 
 Belisarius, the iMoors rebelled and made repeated attempts to get 
 the dominion, but were as often defeated with great loss, and the 
 Roman sway was once more established. 
 
 All these wars and changes had a disastrous effect on the African 
 provinces. The Vandals had long disappeared; many of the 
 Moorish families had been extirpated ; the wealthy inhabitants had 
 fled to Sicily and Constantinople, and a stranger might wander 
 whole days over regions, once covered with towns and cities, and 
 teeming with population, without meeting a human being. 
 
 For near a century the country remained sunk in apathy and 
 inaction, until now it was to be roused from its torpor by the all- 
 pervading armies of Islam. 
 
 Soon after the reappointment of Abdallah to the government of 
 Egypt he set out upon the conquest of this country, at the head of 
 forty thousand Arabs. After crossing the western boundary of 
 Egypt he had to traverse the desert of Libya, but his army was 
 provided with camels accustomed to the sandy wastes of Arabia, 
 and, after a toilsome march, he encamped before the walls of Tri- 
 poli ; then as now, one of the most wealthy and powerful cities of 
 the Barbary coast. The place was well fortified and made good 
 resistance. A body of Greek troops which were sent to reinforce 
 it, were surprised by the besiegers on the sea-coast, and dispersed 
 with great slaughter. 
 
 The Roman prefect Gregorius having assembled an army of one 
 hundred and twenty thousand men, a great proportion of whom 
 were the hastily levied and undisciplined tribes of Barbary, ad- 
 vanced to defend his province. He was accompanied by an Ama- 
 zonian daughter of wonderful beauty, who had been taught to 
 manage the horse, to draw the bow and wield the scimetar, and 
 who was always at her father's side in battle. 
 
 Hearing of the approach of this army, Abdallah suspended the 
 siege and advanced to meet it. A brief parley took place between 
 the hostile commanders. Abdallah proposed the usual alterna- 
 tives, profession oflslamism, or payment of tribute Both were 
 indignantly rejected. The armies engaged before the walls of Tri- 
 poli. Abdallah, whose fame was staked on this enterprise, stimu- 
 lated his troops by word and example, and charged the enemy 
 repeatedly at the head of his squadrons. Wherever he pressed,
 
 294 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 the fortune of the day would incline in favour of the Moslems ; but 
 on the other hand Gregorius fought with desperate bravery, as 
 the fate of the province depended on this conilict ; and wherever 
 he appeared, his daughter was at his side, dazzling all eyes by the 
 splendour of her armour and the heroism of her achievements. The 
 contest was long, arduous, and uncertain, It Avas not one drawn 
 battle, but a succession of conflicts, extending through several 
 days, beginning at early dawn, but ceasing toward noon, when the 
 intolerable heat of the sun obliged both armies to desist, and seek 
 the shade of their tents. 
 
 The prefect Gregorius was exasperated at being in a manner 
 held at bay by an inferior force, which he had expected to crush 
 by the superiority of numbers. Seeing that Abdallah was the life 
 and soul of his army, he proclaimed a reAvard of one hundred thou- 
 sand pieces of gold and the hand of his daughter to the warrior 
 who should bring him his head. 
 
 The excitement caused among the Grecian youth by this tempting 
 prize, made the officers of Abdallah tremble for his safety. They 
 represented to him the importance of his life to the army and the 
 general cause, and prevailed upon him to keep aloof from the field 
 of battle. His absence, hoAvever, produced an immediate change, 
 and the valour of his troops, hitherto stimulated by his presence, 
 began to languish. 
 
 Zobeir, a noble Arab of the tribe of Koreish, arrived at the field 
 of battle with a small reinforcement, in the heat of one of the en- 
 gagements. He found the troops fighting to a disadvantage, and 
 looked round in vain for the general. Being told that he Avas in . 
 his tent, he hastened thither and reproached him with his inactivity. 
 Abdallah blushed , but explained the reason of his remaining 
 passive. " Retort on the infidel commander his perfidious bribe," 
 cried Zobeir; "proclaim that his daughter as a captive, and one 
 hundred thousand pieces of gold, shall be the reAvard of the Moslem 
 who brings his head." The advice was adopted, as well as the 
 following stratagem suggested by Zobeir. On the next morning, 
 Abdallah sent forth only sufficient force to keep up a defensive 
 fight ; but, when the sun had reached its noontide height, and the 
 panting troops retired as usual to their tents, Abdallah and Zobeir 
 sallied forth at the head of the reserve, and charged furiously 
 among the fainting Greeks. Zobeir singled out the prefect, and 
 slew him after a well contested fight. His daughter pressed for- 
 ward to avenge his death, but was surrounded and made prisoner. 
 The Grecian army was completely routed, and fled to the opulent 
 town of Safetula, which was taken and sacked by the Moslems. 
 
 The battle was over, Gregorius had fallen, but no one came 
 forward to claim the reward set upon his head. His captive 
 daughter, however, on- beholding Zobeir, broke forth into tears 
 and exclamations, and thus revealed the modest victor. Zobeir 
 refused to accept the maiden or the gold. He fought, he said, for 
 the faith, not for earthly objects; and looked for liis reward in pa- 
 radise. In honour of his achievements, he was sent Avith tidings of 
 this victory to the Caliph ; but Avhen he announced it, in the great 
 mosque at Medina, in presence of the assembled people, he made
 
 OTtlMAN. 295 
 
 no mention of his own services. His modesty enhanced his me- 
 rits in the eyes of the public, and his name was placed by the 31 os- 
 lems beside those of Khaled and Amru. 
 
 Abdallah found his forces too much reduced and enfeebled by 
 battle and disease to enable him to maintain possession of the 
 country he had subdued ; and, after a campaign of fifteen months, 
 he led back his victorious, but diminished army into Egypt, en- 
 cumbered with captives and laden with booty. 
 
 He afterwards, by the Caliph's command, assembled an army in 
 the Thebaid or Upper Egypt, and thence made numerous successful 
 excursions into Nubia, the Christian king of which was reduced to 
 make a humiliating treaty, by which he bound himself to send an- 
 nually to the Moslem commander in Egypt a great number of Nu- 
 bian or Ethiopian slaves by way of tribute. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 
 
 Moawyah, Emir of Syria. --His naval victories. Othtnan loses the prophet's ring. 
 Suppresses erroneous copies of the Koran. Conspiracies against him. His death. 
 
 Among the distinguished Moslems who held command of the dis- 
 tant provinces during the Caliphat of Othman, was Moawyah Ibn 
 Abu Sofian. As his name denotes, he was the son of Abu Sofian, 
 the early foe and subsequent proselyte of Mahomet. On his 
 father's death he had become chief of the tribe of Koreish, and head 
 of the family of Omeya or Ommiah. The late Caliph Omar, about 
 four years before his death, had appointed him emir, or governor 
 of Syria, and he was continued in that office by Olhinan. He was 
 between thirty and forty years of age, enterprising, courageous, of 
 quick sagacity, extended views, and lofty aims. Having the ma- 
 ritime coast and ancient ports of Syria under his command, he as- 
 pired to extend the triumphs of the Moslem arms by sea as well as 
 land- He had repeatedly endeavoured, but in vain, to obtain per- 
 mission from Omar to make a naval expedition, that Caliph being 
 always apprehensive of the too wide and rapid extension of the en- 
 terprises of his generals. Under Othman he was more successful, 
 and in the twenty-seventh year of the Hegira was permitted to fit 
 out a fleet, with which he launched forth on the sea of Tarshish, or 
 the Phoenician Sea, by both which names the eastern part of the 
 Mediterranean Sea was designated in ancient times. 
 
 His first enterprise was against the island of Cyprus, which was 
 still held in allegiance to the emperor of Constantinople. The Chris- 
 tian garrison was weak and the inhabitants of the island soon sub- 
 mitted to pay tribute to the Caliph, 
 
 His next enterprise was against the island of Aradus, where he 
 landed his troops and besieged the city or fortress ; battering it with 
 military engines. The inhabitants ^nade vigorous resistance, re- 
 pelled him from the island, and it was only after he had come ase-
 
 296 MAHOMKT AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 cond time, with superior force that he was able to subdue it. He 
 then expelled the natives, demolished the fortifications, and set fire 
 to the city. 
 
 His most brilliants achievement, however, was a battle with a 
 large fleet, in which the emperor was cruising in the Phoenician Sea. 
 It was called in Arab history The Battle of Masts, from the forest 
 of masts in the imperial fleet. The Christians went into action sing- 
 ing psalms and elevating the cross; the Moslems repeating texts of 
 the Koran, shouting Allah Achbar, and waving the standard of 
 Islam. The battle was severe; the imperial fleet dispersed, and 
 the emperor escaped by dint of sails and oars. 
 
 Moawyah now swept the seas victoriously, made landings on 
 Crete and Malta, captured the island of Rhodes, demolished its fa- 
 mous colossal statue of brass, and, having broken it to pieces, trans- 
 ported the fragments to Alexandria, where they were sold to a 
 Jewish merchant of Kdissa, and were sufficient to load nine hundred 
 camels. He had another fight with a Christian fleet in the bay of 
 Feneke, by Caslel Rosso, in which both parties claimed the victory. 
 He even carried his expeditions along the coasts of Asia Minor, and 
 to the very port of Constantinople 
 
 Ihese naval achievements, a new feature in Arab warfare, ren- 
 dered Moawyah exceedingly popular in Syria, and laid the foun- 
 dation for that power and importance to which he subsequently 
 attained. 
 
 It is worthy of remark how the triumphs of an ignorant people, 
 who had heretofore dwelt obscurely in the midst of their deserts, 
 were overrunning all the historical and poetical regions of antiquity. 
 They had invaded and subdued the once mighty empires on land, 
 they had now launched forth from the old Scriptural ports of Tyre 
 and Sidon, swept the Sea of Tarshish and were capturing the isles 
 rendered famous by classic fable. 
 
 In the midst of these foreign successes an incident, considered 
 full of sinister import, happened to Othman. He accidentally 
 dropped in a brook a silver ring, on which was inscribed, " Ma- 
 homet the apostle of God." It had originally belonged to Maho- 
 met, and since his death had been worn by Abu Beker, Omar and 
 Othman, as the symbol of command, as rings had been considered 
 throughout the East from the earliest times. The brook was 
 searched with the most anxious care, but the ring was not to be 
 found. This was an ominous loss in the eyes of the superstitious 
 Moslems. 
 
 It happened about this time that, scandalized by the various 
 versions of the Koran, and the disputes that prevailed concerning 
 their varying texts, he decreed, in a council of the chief Moslems, 
 that all copies of the Koran which did not agree with the genuine 
 one in the hands of Hafza, the widow of Mahomet, should be burnt. 
 Seven copies of Hafza's Koran were accordingly made; six were 
 sent to Mecca, Yemen, Syria, Bahrein, Bassora, and Cufa, and one 
 was retained in Medina. All copies varying from these were to be 
 given to the flames. This measure caused Othman to be called the 
 Gatherer of the Koran. It, gt any rate, prevented any further 
 vitiation of the sacred Scripture of Islam, which has remained
 
 OTHMAJV. 297 
 
 unchanged from that time to the present. Besides this pious act, 
 Olhman caused a wall to be built round the sacred house of the 
 Caaba, and enlarged and beautified the mosque of the prophet in 
 Medina. 
 
 Notwithstanding all this, disaffection and intrigue were spring- 
 ing up round the venerable Caliph in Medina. He was brave, 
 open-handed, and munificent, but he wanted shrewdness and 
 discretion ; was prone to favoritism ; very credulous and easily 
 deceived. 
 
 Murmurs rose against him on all sides, and daily increased in 
 virulence. His conduct, both public and private, was reviewed, 
 and circumstances, which had been passed by as trivial, were 
 magnified into serious offences. He was charged with impious 
 presumption in having taken his stand, on being first made Caliph, 
 on the uppermost step of the pulpit, where Mahomet himself used 
 to stand, whereas Abu Bekcr had stood one step lower, and Omar 
 two. A graver accusation, and one too well merited, was that he 
 had displaced men of worth, eminent for their services, and given 
 their places to his own relatives and favourites. This was especially 
 instanced in dismissing Amru Ibn al Aass from the government of 
 Egypt, and appointing in his stead his own brother Abdallah Ibn 
 Saad, who had once been proscribed by Mahomet. Another accu- 
 sation was, that he had lavished the public money upon parasites, 
 giving one hundred thousand dinars to one, four hundred thousand 
 to another, and no less than five hundred and four thousand upon 
 his secretary of state, Merwan Ibn Hakem, who had, it was said, 
 an undue ascendency over him, and was, in fact, the subtle and 
 active spirit of his government. The last sum, it was alleged, was 
 taken out of a portion of the spoils of Africa, which had been set 
 apart for the family of the prophet. 
 
 The ire of the old Caliph was kindled at having his lavish libe- 
 rality thus charged upon him as a crime. He mounted the pulpit 
 and declared that the money in the treasury belonged to God, the 
 distribution to the Caliph at his own discretion, as successor of the 
 prophet; and he prayed God to confound whoever should gainsay 
 what he had set forth. 
 
 Upon this Ammar Ibn Yaser, one of the primitive Moslems, of 
 whom Mahomet himself had said that he was filled with faith from 
 the crown of his head to the sole of his foot, rose and disputed the 
 words of Othman, whereupon some of the CaUph's kindred of the 
 house of Ommiah fell upon the venerable Ammar and beat him 
 until he fainted. 
 
 The outrage offered to the person of one of the earliest disciples 
 and especial favourites of the prophet was promulgated far and 
 wide, and contributed to the general discontent which now assumed 
 the aspect of rebellion. The ringleader of the disaffected, was Ibn 
 Caba, formerly a Jew. This son of mischief made a factious tour 
 from Yemen to Hidschaf, thence to B:\ssora, to Cufa, to Syria and 
 Egypt, decrying the Caliph and the emirs he had appointed: de- 
 claring that the Caliphat had been usurped by Othman from Ali, to 
 whom it rightly belonged, as the nearest relative of the prophet and 
 suggesting by word of mouth and secret correspondence, that the
 
 298 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 malcontents should assemble simultaneously in various parts under 
 pretext of a pilgrimage to Mecca. 
 
 The plot of the renegade Jew succeeded. In the fulness of time 
 deputations arrived from all parts. One mounting to a hundred 
 and fifty persons from Bassora; another of two hundred under 
 Malec Alashtar from Cufa; a third of six hundred from Egypt 
 headed by Mahomet, the son of Abu Beker, and brother of Ayesha, 
 together with numbers of a sect of zealots called Karegites, who 
 took the lead. These deputies encamped like an army within a 
 league of Medina, and summoned the Caliph by message either to 
 redress their grievances or to abdicate. 
 
 Othman in consternation applied to Ali to go forth and pacify the 
 multitude. He consented on condition that Othman would pre- 
 viously make atonement for his errours from the pulpit. Harassed 
 and dismayed, the aged Caliph mounted the pulpit, and with a 
 voice broken by sobs and tears, exclaimed, "My God, I beg 
 pardon of thee, and turn to thee, with penitence and sorrow." 
 The whole assemblage were moved and softened, and wept with 
 the Caliph. 
 
 MerwSn, the intriguing and well-paid secretary of Othman, and 
 the soul of his government, had been absent during these occur- 
 rences, and on returning reproached the Caliph with what he 
 termed an act of weakness. Having his permission, he addressed 
 the populace in a strain that soon roused them to tenfold ire. 
 Ali, hereupon, highly indignant, renounced any further interference 
 in the matter. 
 
 Naile, the wife of Othman, who had heard the words of Merwa"u, 
 and beheld the fury of the people, warned her husband of the 
 storm gathering over his head, and prevailed upon him again to 
 solicit the mediation of Ali. The latter suffered himself to be 
 persuaded and went forth, among the insurgents. Partly by good 
 words and liberal donations from the treasury, partly by a written 
 promise from the Caliph to redress all their grievances, the insur- 
 gents were quieted, all but the deputies from Egypt who came to 
 complain against the Caliph's foster-brother Abdallah Ibn Saad, 
 who they said had oppressed them with exactions, and lavished 
 their blood in campaigns in Barbary, merely for his own fame and 
 profit, without retaining a foothold in the country. To pacify 
 these complainants, Othman displaced Abdallah from the govern- 
 ment, and left them to name his successor. They unanimously 
 named Mahomet, the brother of Ayesha; who had in fact been 
 used by that intriguing woman as a firebrand to kindle this insur- 
 rection; her object being to getTelha appointed to the Caliphat. 
 
 The insurgent camp now broke up. 31ahomet with his followers 
 set out to take possession of his post, and the aged Caliph flattered 
 himself he would once more be left in peace. 
 
 Three days had Mahomet and his train been on their journey, 
 when they were overtaken by a black slave on a dromedary. They 
 demanded who he was, and whither he was travelling so rapidly. 
 He gave himself out as a slave of the secretary Merwdn bearing a 
 message from the Caliph to his emir in Egypt. "I am the emir," 
 said Mahomet. " My errand," said the slave, " is to the emir Abdallah
 
 OTHMAN. 299 
 
 Ibn Saad." He was asked if he had a letter, and on his prevari- 
 cating was searched. A letter was found concealed in a water-flask. 
 It was from the Caliph, briefly ordering the emir, on the arrival of 
 Mahomet Ibn Abu Beker, to make way with him secretly, destroy 
 his diploma, and imprison, until further orders, those who had 
 brought complaints to Medina. 
 
 Mahomet Ibn Abu Beker returned furious to Medina, and showed 
 the perfidious letter to Ali, Zobeir, and Tclha, who repaired with 
 him to Othman. The latter denied any knowledge of the letter. 
 It must then, they said, be a forgery of Merwan's, and requested 
 that he might be summoned. Othman would not credit such 
 treason on the part of his secretary, and insisted it must have been 
 a treacherous device of one of his enemies. Medina was now in a 
 ferment. There was a gathering of the people. All were in- 
 censed at such an atrocious breach of faith, and insisted that if the 
 letter originated with Othman, he should resign the Caliphat, if 
 with Merwdn, that he should receive the merited punishment. 
 Their demands had no effect upon the Caliph. 
 
 Mahomet Ibn Abu Beker now sent off swift messengers to recall 
 the recent insurgents from the provinces, who were returning home, 
 and to call in aid from the neighbouring tribes. The dwelling of 
 Othman was beleaguered; the alternative was left him to deliver 
 up Merwdn or to abdicate. He refused both. His life was now 
 threatened. He barricadoed himself in his dwelling. The supply 
 of water was cut off. If he made his appearance on the terraced 
 roof, he was assailed with stones. Ali, Zobeir, and Telha, en- 
 deavoured to appease the multitude, but they were deaf to their 
 entreaties. Saad Ibn al Aass advised the Caliph, as the holy month 
 was at hand, to sally forth on a pilgrimage to Mecca, as the piety of 
 the undertaking and the sanctity of the pilgrim garb would protect 
 him. Othman rejected the advice. " If they seek my life," said 
 he, "they will not respect the pilgrim garb." 
 
 Ali, Zobeir, and Telha, seeing the danger imminent, sent their 
 three sons, Hassan, Abdallah, and Mahomet, to protect the house. 
 They stationed themselves by the door, and for some time kept the 
 rebels at bay ; but the rage of the latter knew no bounds. They 
 stormed the house ; Hassan was wounded in its defence. The rebels 
 rushed in; among the foremost was Mahomet, the brother of Ayesha, 
 and Ammar Ibn Yaser, whom Othman had ordered to be beaten. 
 They found the venerable Caliph seated on a cushion, his beard 
 flowing on his breast ; the Koran open on his lap, and his wife Naile 
 beside him. 
 
 One of the rebels struck him on the head, another stabbed 
 him repeatedly with a sword, and Mahomet Ibn Abu Beker 
 thrust a javelin into his body after he was dead. flis wife was 
 wounded in endeavouring to protect him, and her life was only 
 saved through the fidelity of a slave. His house was plundered, 
 as were some of the neighbouTinghouses, and two chambersof the 
 treasury. 
 
 As soon as the invidious Ayesha heard that the murder was 
 accomplished, she went fortii in hypocritical guise loudly bewail- 
 ing the death of a man to whom she had secretly been hostile.
 
 800 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 and joining with the Ommiah family in calling for blood revenge. 
 
 The noble and virtuous AH wilh greater sincerity, was in- 
 censed at his sons for not sacrificing their lives in defence of 
 the Caliph, and reproached the sons of Telha and Zobeir with 
 being lukewarm. ""Why are you so angry, father of Hassan?" 
 said Telha; ."had Olhman given up Merwan this evil would not 
 have happened." 
 
 In fact it has been generally affirmed that the letter really was 
 written by Merwan without the knowledge of the Caliph , and was 
 intended to fall into the hands of Mahomet, and produce the effect 
 which resulted from it. Merwan, it is alleged having the charge of 
 ihe correspondence of the Caliphat, had repeatedly abused the con- 
 fidence of the weak and superannuated Othinan in like manner, but 
 not wilh such a nefarious aim. Of late he had secretly joined the 
 cabal against the Caliph. 
 
 The body of Othman lay exposed for three days, and was then 
 buried in the clothes in which he was slain, unwashed and without 
 any funeral ceremony. He was eighty-two years old at the time 
 of his death , and had reigned nearly twelve years. The event 
 happened in the thirty-fifth year of the Hegira, in the year 655 of 
 the Christian era. Notwithstanding his profusion and the sums 
 lavished upon his favourites, immense treasures were found in his 
 dwelling, a considerable part of which he had set apart for chari- 
 table purposes. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 Candidates for the Caliphat. Inauguration of Ali, fourth Caliph. He undertakes 
 measures of reform. Their consequences. Conspiracy of Ayesha. She gets posses- 
 sion of Bassora. 
 
 We have already seen that the faith of Islam had begun to lose 
 its influence in binding together the hearts of the faithful, and 
 uniting their feelings and interests in one common cause. The 
 factions which sprang up at the very death of Mahomet, had in- 
 creased with the- election of every successor, and candidates for 
 the succession multiplied as the brilliant successes of the Moslem 
 arms elevated victorious generals to popularity and renown. On 
 the assassination of Othman, four candidates were presented for 
 the Caliphat; and the fortuitous assemblage of deputies from the 
 various parts of the Moslem empire threatened to make the election 
 difficult and tumultuous. 
 
 The most prominent candidate was Ali, who had the strongest 
 natural claim, being cousin and son-in-law of Mahomet, and his 
 children by Falima being the only posterity of the prophet. He 
 was of the noblest branch of the noble race of Koreish. He pos- 
 sessed the three qualities most prized by Arabs : courage, eloquence, 
 and munificence. His intrepid spirit had gained him from the
 
 ALL 301 
 
 prophet, the appellation of The Lion of God; specimens of his elo- 
 quence remain in some verses and sayings preserved among the 
 Arabs; and his munificence was manifested in sharing among others, 
 every Friday, what remained in the treasury. Of his magnanimity, 
 we have given repeated instances; his noble scorn of every thing 
 false and mean, and the absence in his conduct of every thing like 
 selfish intrigue. 
 
 His right to the Caliphat was supported by the people of Cufa, 
 the Egyptians, and a great part of the Arabs who were desirous of 
 a line of Caliphs of the blood of Mahomet. He was opposed, how- 
 ever, as formely, by the implacable Ayesha, who, though well- 
 stricken in years, retained an unforgiving recollection of his having 
 once questioned her chastity. 
 
 A second candidate was Zobeir, the same warrior who dis- 
 tingtiisheld himself by his valour, in the campaign of Barbary, by 
 his modesty in omitting to mention his achievements, and in de- 
 clining to accept their reward. His pretensions to the Caliphat 
 were urged by the people of Bassora. 
 
 A third candidate was Telha, who had been one of the six 
 electors of Olhman, and who had now the powerful support of 
 Ayesha. 
 
 A fourth candidate was Moawyah, the military governor of Syria, 
 and popular from his recent victories by sea and land. He had, 
 moreover, immense wealth to back his claims, and was head of 
 the powerful tribe of Koreish ; but he was distant from the scene 
 of election, and in his absence, his partisans could only promote 
 confusion and delay. 
 
 It was a day of tumult and trouble in Medina. The body of 
 Othman was still unburied. His wife Naile, at the instigation of 
 Ayesha, sent off his bloody vest to be carried through the distant 
 provinces, a ghastly appeal to the passions of the inhabitants. 
 
 The people, apprehending discord and disunion, clamoured for 
 the instant nomination of a Caliph. The deputations, which had 
 come from various parts with complaints against Othman became 
 impatient. There were men from Babylonia, and Mesopotamia, 
 and other parts of Persia ; from Syria and Egypt, as well as from 
 the three divisions of Arabia ; these assembled tumultuously, and 
 threatened the safety of the three candidates, Ali, Telha, and 
 Zobeir, unless an election were made in four and twenty hours. 
 
 In this dilemma, some of the principal Moslems repaired to Ali, 
 and entreated him to accept the office. He consented with reluc- 
 tance, but would do nothing clandestinely, and refused to take 
 their hands, the Moslem mode at that time of attesting fealty, 
 unless it were in public assembly at the mosque ; lest he should 
 give cause of cavil or dispute to his rivals. He refused, also, to 
 make any promises or conditions. "If I am elected Caliph," said 
 he, " I will administer the government with independence, and 
 deal with you all according to my ideas of justice. If you elect 
 another, I will yield obedience to him, and be ready to serve him 
 as his vizier." They assented to every thing he said, and again 
 entreated him to accept, for the good of the people and of the 
 faith.
 
 302 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 On the following morning there was a great assemblage of the 
 people at the mosque, and All presented himself at the portal. 
 He appeared in simple Arab style, clad in a thin cotton garb girded 
 round his loins, a coarse turban, and using a bow as a walking- 
 staff. He took off his slippers in reverence of the place, and 
 entered the mosque bearing them in his left hand. 
 
 Finding that Telha and Zobeir were not present, he caused them 
 to be sent for. They came, and knowing the state of the public 
 mind, and that all immediate opposition would be useless, offered 
 their hands in token of allegiance. AH paused, and asked them if 
 their hearts went with their hands ; "speak frankly," said he; "if 
 you disapprove of my election, and will accept the office, I will 
 give my hand to either of you." They declared their perfect sa- 
 tisfaction, and gave their hands. Telha's right arm had been 
 maimed in the battle of Ohod, and he stretched it forth with diffi- 
 culty. The circumstance struck the Arabs as an evil omen. "It 
 is likely to be a lame business, that is begun with a lame hand," 
 muttered a bystander. Subsequent events seemed to justify the 
 foreboding. 
 
 Moawyah, the remaining candidate, being absent at his govern- 
 ment in Syria, the whole family of Ommiah, of which he was the 
 head, withdrew from the ceremony. This, likewise, boded future 
 troubles. 
 
 After the inauguration, Telha and Zobeir, with a view, it is said, 
 to excite disturbance, applied to AH to investigate and avenge the 
 death of Othman AH, who knew that such a measure w r ould call 
 up a host of enemies, evaded the insidious proposition. It was 
 not the moment, he said, for such an investigation. The event 
 had its origin in old enmities and discontents instigated by the 
 devil, and when the devil once gained a foothold, he never relin- 
 quished it willingly. The very measure they recommended was 
 one of the devil's suggesting, for the purpose of fomenting distur- 
 bances. However," added he, "if you will point out the assassins 
 of Olhman, I will not fail to punish them according to their guilt." 
 
 "While AH thus avoided the dangerous litigation, he endeavoured 
 to cultivate the good will of the Koreishites, and to strengthen 
 himself against apprehended difficulties with the family of Ommiah. 
 Telha and Zobeir, being disconcerted in their designs, now applied 
 for important commands. Telha for the government of Cufa, and 
 Zobeir for that of Bassora; but AH again declined complying with 
 their wishes; observing that he needed such able counsellors at 
 hand in his present energencies. They afterwards separately ob- 
 tained permission from him to make a pilgrimage to Mecca ; and 
 set off on that devout errand with piety on their lips, but crafty 
 policy in their breasts; Ayesha had already repaired to the holy 
 city, bent upon opposition to the government of the man she hated. 
 
 AH was now Caliph, but did not feel himself securely fixed in his 
 authority. Many abuses had grown up during the dotage of his 
 predecessor, which called for redress, and most of the governments 
 of provinces were in the hands of persons in whose affection and 
 fidelity he felt no confidence. He determined upon a general re- 
 form ; and as a first step, to remove from office all the governors who
 
 ALT. 303 
 
 had been appointed by the superannuated Othman. This measure 
 was strongly opposed by some of his counsellors. They represented 
 to him that he was not yet sufficiently established to venture upon 
 such changes; and that he would make powerful enemies of men, 
 who, if left in office, would probably hasten to declare allegiance to 
 him, now that he was Caliph. 
 
 AH was not to be persuaded. " Sedition," he said, "like fire, 
 is easily extinguished at the commencement ; but the longer it burns 
 the more fiercely it blazes." 
 
 He was advised, at least, to leave his formidable rival Moawyah, 
 for the present, in the government of Syria, as he was possessed of 
 great wealth and influence, and a powerful army, and might rouse 
 that whole province to rebellion; and in such case might be joined 
 by Telha and Zobeir, who were both disappointed and disaffected 
 men. He had recently shown his influence over the feelings of the 
 people under his command ; when the bloody vest of Othman ar- 
 rived in the province, he had displayed it from the pulpit of the 
 mosque in Damascus. The mosque resounded with lamentations 
 mingled with clamours for the revenge of blood ; for Othman had 
 won the hearts of the people of Syria by his munificence. Some of 
 the noblest inhabitants of Damascus sw ore to remain separate from 
 their wives, and not to lay their heads on a pillow until blood for 
 blood had atoned for the death of Othman . Finally the vest had been 
 hoisted as a standard, and had fired the Syrian army with a desire 
 for vengeance. 
 
 AH's counsellor represented all these things to him. " Suffer 
 Moawyah, therefore," added he, "to remain in command until he 
 has acknowledged your government, and then he maybe displaced 
 without turmoil. Nay, I will pledge myself to bring- him bound 
 hand and foot into your presence." 
 
 Ali spurned at this counsel, and swore he would practise no such 
 treachery, but would deal with Moawyah with the sword alone. 
 He commenced immediately his plan of reform, with the nomi- 
 nation of new governors devoted to his service. Abdallah Ibn Abbas 
 was appointed to Arabia Felix, Ammar Ibn Sahel to Cufa, Othman 
 Ibn Hanif to Bassora, Sahel Ibn Hanif to Syria, and Saad Ibn Kais 
 to Egypt. These generals lost no time in repairing to their re- 
 spective governments, but the result soon convinced Ali that he had 
 been precipitate. 
 
 Jaali, the governor of Arabia Felix, readily resigned his post to 
 Abdallah Ibn Abbas, and retired to Mecca ; but he took with him 
 the public treasure, and delivered it into the hands of Ayesha, and 
 her confederates Telha and Zobeir, who were already plotting 
 rebellion. 
 
 Othman Ibn Hanif on arriving at Bassora to take the command, 
 found the people. discontented and rebellious, and having no force 
 to subjugate them, esteemed himself fortunate in escaping from their 
 hands and returning to the Caliph. 
 
 When Ammar Ibn Sahel reached the confines of Cufa, he learnt 
 thatthe people were unanimous in favour of Abu Musa Alashari, their 
 present governor, and determined to support him by fraud or force. 
 Ammar had no disposition to contend with them, the Cufians being
 
 304 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 reputed the most treacherous and perfidious people of the East ; 
 so he turned the head of his horse, and journeyed back mortified and 
 disconcerted to AH. 
 
 Saad Ibn Kais was received in Egypt with murmurs by the inha- 
 bitants, who were indignant at the assassination of Othman, and 
 refused to submit to the government of Ali, until justice was done 
 upon the perpetrators of that murder. Saad prudently, therefore, 
 retraced his steps to Medina. 
 
 Sahel Ibn Hanif had no better success in Syria, he was met at 
 Tabuc, by a body of cavalry , who demanded his name and business. 
 "For my name," said he, "I am Sahel, the son of Hanif; and for 
 my business, I am governor of this province, as lieutenant of the 
 Caliph Ali, Commander of the Faithful." They assured him in 
 reply, that Syria had already an able governor in Moawyah, son of 
 Abu Sofian, and that to their certain knowledge there was not room 
 in the province for the sole of his foot; so saying, they unsheated 
 their scimetars. 
 
 The new governor, who was not provided with a body of 
 troops sufficient to enforce his authority, returned also to the 
 Caliph with this intelligence. Thus of the five governors, so 
 promptly sent forth by Ali in pursuance of his great plan of reform, 
 Abdallah Ibn Abbas was the only one permitted to assume his 
 post. 
 
 AVhen Ali received tidings of the disaffection of Syria, he wrote 
 a letter to Moawyah, claiming his allegiance, and transmitted it by 
 an especial messenger. The latter was detained many days by the 
 Syrian commander, and then sent back, accompanied by another 
 messenger, bearing a sealed letter superscribed, ''From Moawyah 
 to Ali." The two couriers, arrived at Medina in the cool of the 
 evening, the hour of concourse, and passed through the multitude 
 bearing the letter aloft on a staff, so that all could see the super- 
 scription. The people thronged after the messengers into the 
 presence of Ali. On opening the letter it was found to be a perfect 
 blank, in token of contempt and defiance. 
 
 Ali soon learned that this was no empty bravado. He was ap- 
 prised by his own courier that an army of sixty thousand men was 
 actually on foot in Syria, and that the bloody garment of Othman, 
 the standard of rebellion, was erected in the mosque at Damascus. 
 Upon this he solemny called Allah and the prophet to witness that 
 he was not guilty of that murder; but made active preparations to 
 put down the rebellion by force of arms ; sending missives into all 
 the provinces, demanding the assistance of the faithful. 
 
 The Moslems were now divided into two parties : those who 
 adhered to Ali, among whom were the people of Medina gene- 
 rally ; and the Motazeli, or Separatists, who were in the opposition. 
 The latter were headed by the able and vindictive Ayesha, who 
 had her headquarters at Mecca, and with the aid of Telha and 
 Zobeir, was busy organizing an insurrection. She had induced 
 the powerful family of Ommiah to join her cause, and had sent 
 couriers to all the governors of provinces whom Ali had superseded, 
 inviting them to unite in the rebellion. The treasure brought to 
 her by Jaali, the displaced governor of Arabia Felix, furnished
 
 A 1.1. SOS 
 
 her with the means of war, and the bloody garment of Othinan 
 proved a powerful auxiliary. 
 
 A council of the leaders of this conspiracy was held at Mecca. 
 Some inclined to join the insurgents in Syria, but it was objected, 
 that Moawyah was sufficiently powerful in that country without 
 their aid. The intrepid Ayesha was for proceeding immediately to 
 Medina and attacking Ali in his capital, but it was represented that 
 the people of Medina were unanimous in his favour, and too 
 powerful to be assailed with success. It was finally determined to 
 march for Bassora, Telha assuring them that he had a strong party 
 in that city, and pledging himself for its surrender. 
 
 A proclamation was accordingly made by sound of trumpet 
 through the streets of Mecca to the following effect : 
 
 "In the name of the most high God. Ayesha, Mother of the 
 Faithful, accompanied by the chiefs Telha and Zobeir, is going in 
 person to Bassora. All those of the faithful who burn with a desire 
 to defend the faith and avenge the death of the Caliph Olhman, 
 have only to present themselves and they shall be furnished with 
 all necessaries for the journey." 
 
 Ayesha sallied forth from one of the gates of Mecca, borne in a 
 litter placed on the back of a strong camel named Alascar. Telha 
 and Zobeir attended her on each side, followed by six hundred 
 persons of some note, all mounted on camels, and a promiscuous 
 multitude of about six thousand on foot. 
 
 After marching some distance, the motley host slopped to refresh 
 themselves on the bank of a rivulet near a village. Their arrival 
 aroused the dogs of the village, who surrounded Ayesha and 
 barked at her most clamorously. Like all Arabs, she was super- 
 stitious, and considered this an evil omen. Her apprehensions 
 were increased on learning that the name of the village was Jowab, 
 "My trust is in God," exclaimed she, solemnly. "To him do I 
 turn in lime of trouble," a text from the Koran, used by Moslems 
 in time of extreme danger. In fact, she called to mind some 
 proverb of the prophet about the dogs of Jowab, and a prediction 
 that one of his wives would be barked at by them when in a situa- 
 tion of imminent peril. " I will go no further," cried Ayesha, " I 
 will halt here for the night." So saying, she struck her camel on 
 the leg to make him kneel that she might alight. 
 
 Telha and Zobeir, dreading any delay, brought some peasants 
 whom they had suborned to assign a different name to Ihe village, 
 and thus quieted her superslilious fears. About the same time 
 some horsemen, likewise instructed by them, rode up with a false 
 report that Ali was not far dislant with a body of troops. Ayesha 
 hesitated no longer, but mounting nimbly on her camel, pressed to 
 the head of her lillle army, and they all pushed forward wilh in- 
 creased expedition towards Bassora. Arrived before the city, 
 they had hoped, from the sanguine declarations of Telha, to see it 
 throw open its gates to receive them ; Ihe gates, however, remained 
 closely barred. Olhman Ibn Hanef, whom Ali had senl without 
 success to assume the government of Cufa, was now in command 
 at Bassora, whither he had been invited by a part of the in- 
 habitants. 
 
 20
 
 306 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Ayesha sent a summons to the governor to come forth and join 
 the standard of the faithful, or at least to throw open his gates; 
 tut he was a timid, undecided man, and confiding the defence of 
 the city to his lieutenant Ammar, retired in great tribulation within 
 his own dwelling in the citadel, and went to prayers. 
 
 Ammar summoned the people to arms, and called a meeting of 
 the principal inhabitants in the mosque. He soon found out, to 
 his great discouragement, that the people were nearly equally 
 divided into two fac'ions, one for Ah', since he was regularly elected 
 Caliph, the other composed of partisans of Telha. The parties, 
 instead of deliberating, fell to reviling, and ended by throwing 
 dust in each others' faces. 
 
 In the meantime Ayesha and her host approached the walls, and 
 many of the inhabitants went forth to meet her. Telha and Zobeir 
 alternately addressed the multitude, and were followed by Ayesha, 
 who harangued them from her camel. Her voice, which she 
 elevated that it might be heard by all, became shrill and sharp, 
 instead of intelligible, and provoked the merriment of some of the 
 crowd. A dispute arose as to the justice of her appeal; mutual 
 rollings again took place between the parties ; they gave each 
 other the lie, and again threw 7 dust in each others' faces. One of 
 the men of Bassora then turned and reproached Ayesha. ''Shame 
 on thee, oh Mother of the Faithful!'' said he. ' The murder of 
 the Caliph was a grievous crime, but was a less abomination than 
 thy forgelfulness of the modesty of thy sex. therefore dost thou 
 abandon thy quiet home, and thy protecting veil, and ride forth 
 like a man barefaced on that accursed camel, to foment quarrels 
 and dissensions among the faithful ? " 
 
 Another of the crowd scoffed at Telha and Zobeir. " You have 
 brought your mother with you," cried he, "why did you not also 
 bring your wives?" 
 
 Insults were soon followed by blows, swords were drawn, a 
 skirmish ensued, and they fought until the hour of prayer separated 
 them. 
 
 Ayesha sat down before Bassora with her armed host, and some 
 days passed in alternate skirmishes and negotiations. At length 
 a truce was agreed upon, until deputies could be sent to Medina to 
 learn the cause of these dissensions among the Moslems, and 
 whether Telha and Zobeir agreed voluntarily to the election of 
 Ali, or did so on compulsion : if the former, they should be con- 
 sidered as rebels; if the latter, their partisans in Bassora should be 
 considered justified in upholding them 
 
 The insurgents, however, only acquiesced in this agreement to 
 get the governor in their power, and so gain possession of the 
 city. They endeavoured to draw him to their camp by friendly 
 messages, but he apparently suspected their intentions, and re- 
 fused to come forth until the answer should be received from 
 Medina, Cpon this Telha and Zobeir, taking advantage of a 
 stormy night, gained an entrance into the city with a chosen band, 
 and surprised the governor in the mosque, where they took him 
 prisoner, after killing forty of his guard. They sent to Ayesha to 
 know what they should do with their captive. "Let him be put
 
 ALL 307 
 
 to death," was her fierce reply. Upon this one of her women 
 interceded. "I adjure thee." said she, "in the name of Allah and 
 the companions of the apostle, do not slay him." Ayesha was 
 moved by this adjuration, and commuted his punishment in to forty 
 stripes and imprisonment. He was doomed, however, to suffer 
 still greater evils before he escaped from the hands of his captors. 
 His beard was plucked out hair by hair, one of the most disgraceful 
 punishments that can be inflicted on an Arab. His eyebrows were 
 served in the same manner, and he was then contemptuously set 
 at liberty. 
 
 The city of Bassora was now taken possession of without further 
 resistance. Ayesha entered it in state, supported by Telha and 
 Zobeir, and followed by her troops and adherents. The inhabitants 
 were treated with kindness, as friends who had acted through 
 errour ; and every exertion was made to secure their good- will, and 
 to incense them against All, who was represented as a murderer 
 and usurper. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 AH defeats the rebels under Ayesha. His treatment of her. 
 
 When All heard of the revolt at Mecca, and the march against 
 Bassora, he called a general meeting in the mosque, and en- 
 de.avoured to stir up the people to arm and follow him in pursuit 
 of the rebels: but, though he spoke with his usual eloquence, and 
 was popular in Medina, a coldness and apathy pervaded the as- 
 sembly. Some dreaded a civil war; others recollected that the 
 leader of the rebels, against whom they were urged to take up 
 arms, was Ayesha, the favourite wife of the prophet, the Mother 
 of the Faithful ; others doubted whether All might not, in some 
 degree, be implicated in the death of Otlmian, which had been so 
 artfully charged against him. 
 
 At length a Moslem of distinction, Ziyad Ibn Hantelah, rose with 
 generous warmth, and, stepping up to All, " Let whosoever will, 
 holdback," cried he, " we will go forward." 
 
 At the same time two Ansars, or doctors of the law, men of 
 great weight, pronounced with oracular voice, " The Imam 
 Oihman, master of the two testimonies, did not die by the hand of 
 the master of the two testimonies ; " l that is to say, " Oihman was 
 not slain by Ali." 
 
 The Arabs are a mercurial people, and acted upon by sudden 
 impulses. The example of Ziyad, and the declaration of the two 
 Ansars, caused an immediate excitement. Abu Kotada, an Ansar 
 
 * The two testimonies mean the two fundamental beliefs of the Moslem creed : "There 
 is but one God. Mahomet is the apostle of God." The Caliph, as Imam or pontifl of 
 the Mussulman mligion, is master of the two testimonies.
 
 308 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 of distinction, drew his sword. " The apostle of God," said he, 
 " upon whom he peace, girt me with this sword. -It has long 
 heen sheathed. I now devote it to the destruction of these decei- 
 vers of the faithful." 
 
 A matron in a transport of enthusiasm exclaimed, " Oh Com- 
 mander of the Faithful, if it were permitted hy our law, I myself 
 would go with thee ; but here is my cousin, dearer to me than my 
 own life, he shall follow thee and partake of thy fortunes." 
 
 All profited by the excitement of the moment, and making a 
 hasty levy, marched out of Medina at the head of about nine hundred 
 men, eager to overtake the rebels before they should reach Bas- 
 sora. Hearing, however, that Ayesha was already in possession 
 of that city, he halted at a place called Arrabdah until he should 
 3)e joined by reinforcements : sending messengers to Abu Musa 
 Alashair, governor of Cufa, and to various other commanders, 
 ordering speedy succour. He was soon joined by his eldest son 
 Hassan, who undertook to review his conduct, and lecture him 
 on his policy. " I told you," said he, " when the Caliph 
 Othman was besieged, to go out of the city, lest you should be 
 implicated in his death. I told you not to be inaugurated until 
 deputies from the Arabian tribes were present. Lastly, I told you 
 vi hen Ayesha and her two confederates took Ihe field, to keep at 
 home until they should be pacified; so that, should any mischief 
 result, you might not be made responsible. You have not heeded 
 my advice, and the consequence is that you may now be murdered 
 to-morrow, with nobody to blame but yourself." 
 
 Ali listened with impatience to this filial counsel, or rather, 
 censure : when it was finished, he replied, " Had I left the city 
 when Othman was besieged, I should myselfhavebeen surrounded. 
 Had I waited for my inauguration until all the tribes came in, I 
 should have lost the votes of the people of Medina, the Helpers,' 
 who have the privilege of disposing of the government. Had I 
 remained at home after my enemies had taken the field, like a 
 wild beast lurking in its hole, I should like a wild beast have been 
 digged out and destroyed. If I do not look after my own affairs, 
 who will look after them? If I do not defend myself, who will 
 defend me ? Such are my reasons for acting as I have acted ; and 
 now, my son, hold your peace." We hear of no further counsels 
 from Hassan. 
 
 Ali had looked for powerful aid from Abu Musa Alashair, go- 
 vernor of Cufa, but he was of a lukewarm spirit, and cherished no 
 good will to the Caliph, from his having sent Othman Ibn Hanef to 
 supplant him, as has been noticed. He therefore received his 
 messengers with coldness, and sent a reply full of evasions. Ali 
 was enraged at this reply; and his anger was increased by the ar- 
 rival about the same time of the unfortunate Othman Ibn Hanef, 
 who had been so sadly scourged and maltreated and ejected from 
 his government at Bassora. What most grieved the heart of the 
 ex-governor was the indignity that had been offered to his person. 
 " Oh Commander of the Faithful," said he, " mournfully, " when 
 you sent me to Bassora I had a beard, and now, alas, I have not a 
 hair on my chin ! "
 
 AU. 309 
 
 All commiserated the unfortunate man who thus deplored the 
 loss of his beard more than of his government; but comforted him 
 with the assurance that his sufferings would be counted to him as 
 merits. He then spoke of his own case ; the Caliphs, his prede- 
 cessors, had reigned without opposition ; but, for his own part, 
 those who had joined in electing him, had proved false to him. 
 " Tellha and Zobeir," said he," have submitted to Abu Beker, Omar, 
 andOthman, why have they arrayed themselves against me? By Allah 
 they shall find that I am not one jot inferior to my predecessors ! " 
 
 AH now sent more urgent messages to Abu Musa, governor of 
 Cufa, by his son Hassan and Ammar Ibn Yaser, his general of the 
 horse, a stern old soldier, ninety years of age, the same intrepid 
 spokesman who, for his hardihood of tongue, had been severely 
 maltreated by order of the Caliph Othman. They were reinforced 
 by Alashtar, a determined officer, who had been employed in the 
 previous mission, and irritated by the prevarications of Abu Musa. 
 
 Hassan and Ammar were received with ceremonious respect by 
 the governor, and their mission was discussed, according to usage, 
 in the mosque, but Alashlar remained with the guard that had es- 
 corted them. The envoys pressed their errand with warmth, 
 urging the necessity of their sending immediate succour to the 
 Caliph. Abu Musa, however, who prided himself more upon 
 words than deeds, answered them by an evasive harangue; sig- 
 nifiying his doubts of the policy of their proceeding; counselling 
 that the troops should -return to Medina, that the whole matter in 
 dispute should be investigated, and the right to rule amicably 
 adjusted. " It is a bad business," added he, " and he that 
 meddles least with it, stands less chance of doing wrong. For 
 what says the prophet touching an evil affair of the kind ? He 
 who sleepeth in it is more secure than he that wakelh ; he that lyeth 
 than he that silteth ; he that sitteth than he that standeth ; he that 
 standelh than he that walketh ; and he that walketh than he that 
 rideth. Sheathe, therefore, your swords, take the heads from 
 your lances, and the strings from your bows, and receive him 
 that is injured into your dwellings, until all matters are adjusted 
 and reconciled. 
 
 The ancient general, Ammar, replied to him tartly, that he had 
 misapplied the words of the prophet, which w ere meant to rebuke 
 such servants as himself, who were better sitting than standing, 
 and sleeping than awake. Abu Musa would have answered him 
 with another long harangue in favour of non-resistance, but was 
 interrupted by the sudden entrance of a number of his soldiers, 
 bearing evidence of having been piteously beaten. While Abu 
 Musa had been holding forth at the mosqne, Alashtar, the hardy 
 officer who remained with the escort, had seized upon the castle 
 of Cufa, caused the garrison to be soundly scourged, and sent 
 them to the mosque to cut short the negotiation. This prompt 
 measure of Alashtar placed the cold-spirited conduct of Abu Musa 
 in so ridiculous a light that the feelings of the populace were 
 instantly turned against him. Hassan, the son of Ali, seized upon 
 the moment to address the assembly. He maintained the innocence 
 of his father in regard to the assassination of Othman. " His
 
 310 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 father," he said, " had either done wrong, or had suffered 
 wrong. If he had done wrong, God would punish him. If he 
 had suffered wrong, God would help him. The case was in the 
 hand of the Most High. Telha and Zobeir, who were the first to 
 inaugurate him, were the first to turn against him. What had he 
 done, as Caliph, to merit such opposition? What injustice had he 
 committed? What covetous or selfish propensity had he manifested? 
 '" I am going back to my father," added Hassan, " those who are 
 disposed to render him assistance, may follow me." 
 
 His eloquence was powerfully effective, and the people of Gufa 
 followed him to the number of nearly nine thousand. In the 
 meantime the army of Ali had been reinforced from other quarters, 
 and now amounted to thirty thousand men, all of whom had seen 
 service. When he appeared with his force before Bassora, Ayesha 
 and her confederates were dismayed, and began to treat of conci- 
 liation. Various messages passed between the hostile parties, 
 and Telha and Zobeir, confiding in the honourable faith of Ali, had 
 several interviews with him. 
 
 When these late deadly enemies were seen walking backward 
 and forward together, in sight of either army, and holding long 
 conversations, it was confidently expected that a peace would be 
 effected; and such would have been the case had no malign in- 
 fluence interfered ; for Ali, with his impressive eloquence, touched 
 the hearts of his opponents when he reproached them with their 
 breach of faith, and warned them against the judgments of heaven. 
 "Dost thou not remember," said he to Zobeir, " how Mahomet 
 once "asked thee if thou didst not love his dear son Ali ? and when 
 thou answered yea, dost thou not remember his reply : * Never- 
 theless a day will come when thou wilt rise up against him. and 
 draw down miseries upon him and upon all the faithful? ' " 
 
 " I remember it well," replied Zobeir, "and had I remembered 
 it before, never would I have taken up arms against you." 
 
 He returned to his camp determined not to fight against Ali, 
 but was overruled by the vindictive Ayesha. Every attempt 
 at pacification was defeated by that turbulent woman, and 
 the armies were at length brought lo battle. Ayesha took the 
 field on that memorable occasion, mounted in a lilter on her 
 great camel Alascar, and rode up and down among her troops, 
 animating them by her presence and her voice. The fight 
 was called, from that circumstance, The Battle of the Camel, 
 and also The Battle of Karibah, from the field on which it was 
 fought 
 
 It was an obstinate and bloody conflict, for Moslem was arrayed 
 against Moslem, and nothing is so merciless and unyielding as civil 
 war. In the heat of the fight Merwan Ibn Hakem, who stood near 
 Ali, noticed Telha endeavouring to goad on the flagging valour of his 
 troops. " Behold the traitor Telha," cried he, " but lately one 
 of the murderers of Othman now the pretended avenger of his 
 blood." So saying, he let fly an arrow and wounded him in the 
 leg. Telha writhed with the pain, and at the same moment his 
 horse reared and threw him. In the dismay and anguish of the 
 moment, he imprecated the vengeance of Allah npon his own head
 
 ALL 311 
 
 for the death of Othman. Seeing his boot full of blood, he made 
 one of his followers take him up behind him on his horse and 
 convey him to Bassora. Finding death approaching, he called to 
 one of Ali's men who happened to be present, " Give me your 
 hand," said the dying penitent, "that I may put mine in it, and 
 thus renew my oath of fealty to Ali."' With these words he ex- 
 pired. His dying speech was reported to Ali, and touched his ge- 
 nerous heart. " Allah." said he, " would not call him to heaven 
 until he had blotted out his first breach of his word by this last 
 vow of fidelity." 
 
 Zobeir, the other conspirator, had. entered into the battle with 
 a heavy heart. His previous conversation with Ali had awakened 
 compunction in his bosom. He now saw that old Ammar Ibn 
 Yaser, noted for probity and rectitude, was in Ike Caliph's host ; 
 and he recollected hearing Mahomet say that Ammar Ibn Yaser 
 would always be found on the side of truth and justice. With a 
 boding spirit he drew out of the battle and took the road towards 
 Mecca. As he was urging his melancholy way, he came to a val- 
 ley crossed by the brook Sabaa, where HaneflbnKais was en- 
 camped with a horde of Arabs, awaiting the issue of the battle, 
 ready to join the conqueror and share the spoil. Hanef knew him 
 at a distance. " Is there no one," said he, "to bring me tidings 
 of Zobeir?" One of his men, Amru Ibn Jarmuz, understood the 
 hint, and spurred to overtake Zobeir. The latter suspecting his 
 intentions, bade him keep at a distance. A short conversation 
 put them on friendly terms, and they both dismounted and con- 
 versed together. The hour of prayers arrived. "Salat" (to 
 prayers!) cried Zobeir. " : Salat " replied Amru; but as Zobeir 
 prostrated himself in supplication, Amru struck off his head, and 
 hastened with it, as a welcome trophy, to Ali.- That generous 
 conqueror shed tears over the bleeding head of one who was once 
 his friend. Then turning to his slayer, " Hence, miscreant!" cried 
 he, " and carry thy tidings to Ben Safiah in hell." So unexpected 
 a malediction, where he expected a reward, threw Amru into a 
 transport of rage and desperation; he uttered a rhapsody of abuse 
 upon Ali, and then, drawing his sword, plunged it into his own 
 bosom. 
 
 Such was the end of the two leaders of the rebels. As to 
 Ayesha, the implacable soul of the revolt, she had mingled that 
 day in the hottest of the fight. Tabari, the Persian historian, with 
 national exaggeration, declares that the heads of threescore and 
 ten men were cut off that held the bridle of her camel, and that the 
 inclosed litter in which she rode, was bristled all over. with darts 
 and arrows. At last her camel was hamstringed, and sank with 
 her to the ground, and she remained there until the battle was 
 concluded, 
 
 Ayesha might have looked for cruel treatment at the hands of 
 Ali, having been his vindictive and persevering enemy, but he was 
 too magnanimous to triumph over a fallen foe. It is said some 
 reproachful words passed between them, but he treated her with 
 respect; gave her an attendance of forty females, and sent his sons 
 Hassan and Hosein to escort her a day's journey toward Medina,
 
 312 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 where she was confined to her own house and forbidden to inter- 
 meddle any more with affairs of slate. He then divided the spoils 
 among the heirs of his soldiers who were slain, and appointed 
 Abdallah Ibn Abbas governor of Bassora. This done, he repaired 
 to Cufa, and in reward of the assistance he had received from its 
 inhabitants, made that city the seat of his Caliphat. These occur- 
 rences took place in the thirty-fifth year of the Hegira, the 655th 
 of the Christian era. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX. 
 
 Battles between All and Moawyah. Their claims to the Caliphat left to arbitration; the 
 result. Decline of the power of All Loss of Egypt. 
 
 The victory at Karibah had crushed the conspiracy of Ayesha, 
 and given All quiet dominion over Egypt, Arabia, and Persia; 
 still his most formidable adversary remained unsubdued. Moawyah 
 Ibn Abu Sofian held sway over the wealthy and populous province 
 of Syria ; he had immense treasures and a powerful army at his 
 command ; he had the prejudices of the Syrians in his favour, who 
 had been taught to implicate AH in the murder of Othman, and 
 refused to acknowledge him as Caliph. Still further to strengthen 
 himself in defiance of the sovereign power, he sought the alliance 
 of Amru, who had been displaced from the government of Egypt 
 by Ali, and was now a discontented man in Palestine. Restoration 
 to that command, was to be the reward of his successful co-ope- 
 ration with Moawyah in deposing Ali : the terms were accepted : 
 Amru hastened to Damascus at the head of a devoted force ; and 
 finding the public mind ripe for his purpose, gave the hand of 
 allegiance to Moawyah in presence of the assembled army, and 
 proclaimed him Caliph, amid the shouts of the multitude. 
 
 Ali had in vain endeavoured to prevent the hostility of Moawyah, 
 by all conciliatory means; when he heard of this portentous al- 
 liance, he took the field and inarched for Syria, at the head of 
 ninety thousand men. The Arabians, with their accustomed fond- 
 ness for the marvellous, signalize his entrance into the confines of 
 Syria with an omen. Having halted his army in a place where 
 there was no water, he summoned a Christian hermit, who lived 
 in a neighbouring cave, and demanded to be shown a well. The 
 anchorite assured him that there was nothing but a cistern, in which 
 there were scarce three buckets of rain water. Ali maintained 
 that certain prophets of the people of Israel had abode there in 
 times of old, and had digged a well there. The hermit replied, 
 that a well did indeed exist, there, but it had been shut up for ages, 
 and all traces of it lost, and it was only to be discovered and 
 reopened by a predestined hand. He then, s:iys the Arabian tra- 
 dition, produced a parchment scroll written by Simeon ben Safa 
 .Simon Cephas), one of the greatest apostles of Jesus Christ, pre-
 
 ALL 313 
 
 'dieting the coming of Mahomet, the last of the prophets, and that 
 this well would be discovered and reopened by his lawful heir and 
 successor. 
 
 AH listened with becoming reverence to this prediction ; then 
 turning to his attendants and pointing to a spot, "Dig there," said 
 he. They digged, and after a time came to an immense stone, 
 which having removed with difficulty, the miraculous well stood 
 revealed, affording a seasonable supply to the army, and an un- 
 questionable proof of the legitimate claim of Ali to the Galiphat. 
 The venerable hermit was struck with conviction; he fell at the 
 feet of Ali, embraced his knees, and never afterwards vould leave 
 him. 
 
 It was on the first day of the thirty-seventh year of the Hegira 
 (18th June, A. D. 657), that Ali came in sight of the army of 
 Moawyah, consisting of eighty thousand men, encamped on the 
 plain of Seffein, on the banks of the Euphrates, on the confines of 
 Babylonia and Syria. Associated with Moawyah was the redoub- 
 table Amru, a powerful ally both in council and in the field. The 
 army of Ali was superior in number; in his host, too, he had several 
 veterans who had fought under Mahomet in the famous battle of 
 Beder, and thence prided themselves in the surname of Shahabah ; 
 that is to say, Companions of the Prophet. The most distinguished 
 of these was old Ammar Ibn Yaser, Ali's general of horse, who had 
 fought repeatedly by the side of Mahomet. He was ninety years 
 of age, yet full of spirit and activity, and idolized by the Moslem 
 soldiery. 
 
 The armies lay encamped in sight of each other, but as it was 
 the first month of the Moslem year, a sacred month, when all war- 
 fare is prohibited, it was consumed in negotiations ; for Ali still 
 wished to avoid the effusion of kindred blood. His efforts were 
 in vain, and in the next month hostilities commenced; still Ali drew 
 his sword with an unwilling hand; he charged his soldiers never to 
 be the first to fight; never to harm those who fled, and never to do 
 violence to a woman. Moawyah and Amru were likewise sensible 
 of the unnatural character of this war; the respective leaders, 
 therefore, avoided any general action, and months passed in mere, 
 skirmishings. These, however, were sharp and sanguinary, and 
 in the course of four months Moawyah is said to have lost five and 
 forty thousand men, and Ali more than half that number. 
 
 Among the slain on the part of Ali, were five and twenty of the 
 Shahabah, the veterans of Beder, and companions of the prophet. 
 Their deaths were deplored even by the enemy ; but nothing caused 
 greater grief than the fall of the brave old Ammar Ibn Yaser, Ali's 
 general of horse, and the patriarch of Moslem chivalry. Moawyah 
 and Amru beheld him fall. "Do you see," cried Moawyah, 
 "\Vhatpreciouslivesare lost in our dissensions?" "See," ex- 
 (laimcd Amru; "would to God I had died twenty years since! " 
 
 Ali forgot his usual moderation on beholding the fate of his brave 
 old general of the horse ; and putting himself at the head of twelve 
 thousand cavalry, made a furious charge to avenge his death. The 
 ranks of the enemy were broken by the shock ; but the heart of 
 All soon relented at the sight of carnage. Spurring within call of
 
 314 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Moawyah, "How long," cried he, "shall Moslem blood be shed 
 like water in our strife? Come forth, and let Allah decide between 
 us. Which ever is victor in the fight, let him be ruler." 
 
 Amru was struck with the generous challenge, and urged 
 Moawyah to accept it; but the latter shunned an encounter with 
 an enemy surnamed "The Lion," for his prowess, and who had 
 always slain his adversary in single fight. Amru hinted at the 
 disgrace that would attend his refusal; to which Moawyah answered 
 with a sneer, "You do wisely to provoke a combat that may make 
 you governor of Syria." 
 
 A desperate battle at length took place, which continued 
 throughout the night. Many were slain on both sides ; but most 
 on the part of the Syrians. Alashtar was the hero of this fight; he 
 was mounted upon a piebald horse, and wielded a two-edged 
 SM r ord ; every stroke of that terrible weapon clove down a warrior, 
 and every stroke was accompanied by the shout of Allah Achbar! 
 He was heard to utter that portentous exclamation, say the Ara- 
 bian historians, four hundred times during the darkness of the night. 
 
 The day dawned disastrously upon the Syrians. Alashtar was 
 pressing them to their very encampment, and Moawyah was in 
 despair ; when Amru suggested an expedient, founded on the re- 
 ligious scruples of the Moslems. On a sudden, the Syrians elevated 
 the Koran on the points of their lances. " Behold the book of 
 God," cried they. "Let that decide our differences." The sol- 
 diers of Ali instantly dropped the points of their weapons. It was 
 in vain Ali represented that this was all a trick, and endeavoured to 
 urge them on. "What!" cried they, "do you refuse to submit 
 to the decision of the book of God ! " 
 
 Ali found that to persist would be to shock their bigot prejudices, 
 and to bring a storm upon his own head ; reluctantly, therefore, 
 he sounded a retreat ; but it required repeated blasts to call off 
 Alashtar, who came, his scimetar dripping with blood, and mur- 
 muring at being, as he said, tricked out of so glorious a victory. 
 
 Umpires were now appointed to settle this great dispute accor- 
 ding to the dictates of the Koran. Ali would have nominated on 
 his part Abdallah Ibn Abbas, but he was objected to, as being his 
 cousin german. He then named the brave Alashtar, but he was 
 likewise set aside, and Abu Musa pressed upon him ; an upright, 
 but simple and somewhat garrulous man, as has already been shown. 
 As to Moawyah, he managed on his part to have Amru Ibn al Aass 
 appointed, the shrewdest and most sagacious man in all Arabia. 
 The two rival leaders then retired, Ali to Cufa, and Moawyah 
 to Damascus, leaving generals in command of their respective 
 armies. 
 
 The arbitrators met several months afterwards at Jumat al 
 Joudel in presence of both armies, who were pledged to support 
 their decision. Amru, who understood the weak points of Musa's 
 character, treated him with great deference, and after having won 
 his confidence, persuaded him that, to heal these dissensions, and 
 prevent the shedding of kindred blood, it would be expedient to 
 set aside both candidates and let the faithful elect a third. This 
 beeing agreed upon, a tribunal was erected between the armies,
 
 ALL 315 
 
 and Amru, through pretended deference, insisted that Musa should 
 be the first to ascend it and address the people- Abu Musa accord- 
 ingly ascended, and proclaimed with a loud voice, " I depose Ali 
 and Moawyah from the office to which they pretend, even as I draw 
 this ring from my finger." So saying he descended. 
 
 Amru now mounted in his turn. " You have heard," said he, 
 " how Musa on his part has deposed Ali ; I on my part depose him 
 also ; and I adjugo the Caliphat to Moawyah, and invest him with 
 it, as I invest my finger with this ring : and I do it with justice, for 
 he is the rightful successor and avenger of Othman." 
 
 Murmurs succeeded from the partisans of Ali, and from Abu 
 Musa, who complained of the insincerity of Amru. The Syrians ap- 
 plauded the decision, and both parties, being prevented from 
 hostilities by a solemn truce, separated without any personal vio- 
 lence ; but with mutual revilings and augmented enmity. A kind 
 of religious feud sprang up, which continued for a longtime between 
 the house of Ali and that of Ommiah ; they never mentioned each 
 other without a curse, and pronounced an excommunication upon 
 each other whenever they harangued the people in the mosque. 
 
 The power of Ali now began to wane ; the decision pronounced 
 against him influenced many of his own party, and a revolt was at 
 length stirred up among his followers, by a set of fanatic zealots 
 called Karigites or seceders ; who insisted that he had done wrong 
 in referring to the judgment of men what ought to be decided by 
 God alone ; and, that he had refused to break the truce and mas- 
 sacre his ennemies when in his power, though they had proved 
 themselves to be the enemies of God ; they therefore renounced 
 allegiance to him ; appointed Abdallah Ibn Waheb as their leader, 
 and set up their standard at Naharwan, a few miles from Bagdad, 
 whither the disaffected repaired from all quarters, until they 
 amounted to twenty-five thousand. 
 
 The appearance of Ali with an army brought many of them to 
 their senses. AVilling to use gentle measures, he caused a standard 
 to be erected outside of his camp, and proclaimed a pardon to such 
 of the malcontents as should rally round it. The rebel army im- 
 mediately began to melt away, until Abdallah Ibn Waheb was left 
 with only four thousand adherents. These, however, were fierce 
 enthusiasts, and their leader was a fanatic. Trusting that Allah and 
 the prophet would render him miraculous assistance, he attacked 
 the army of Ali with his handful of men, who fought with such 
 desperation that nine only escaped. These served as firebrands 
 to enkindle future mischief. 
 
 Moawyah had now recourse to a stratagem to sow troubles in 
 Egypt, and ultimately to put it in the hands of Amru. Ali, on as- 
 suming the Caliphat, had appointed Saad Ibn Kais to the govern- 
 ment of that province, who administered its affairs with ability. 
 Moawyah now forged a letter from Saad to himself, professing 
 devotion to his interests, and took measures to let it fall into the 
 hands of Ali. The plan was successful. The suspicions of Ali were 
 excited ; he recalled Saad and appointed in his place Mahomet, 
 son of Abu Beker, and brother of Ayesha. Mahomet began to 
 govern with a high hand ; proscribing and exiling the leaders of the
 
 316 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Othman faction, who made the murder of the late Caliph a question 
 of party. This immediately produced commotions and insurrec- 
 tions, and all Egypt was getting into a blaze. AH again sought to 
 remedy the evil by changing the governor, and despatched Malec 
 Shutur, a man of prudence and ability, to take the command. In 
 the course of his journey Malec lodged one night at the house of a 
 peasant, on the confines of Arabia and Egypt. The peasant was a 
 creature of Moawyah's, and poisoned his unsuspecting guest with a 
 pot of honey. 31oawyah followed up this treacherous act by sending 
 Amru with six thousand horse to seize upon Egypt in its present 
 stormy state. Amru hastened with joy to the scene of his former 
 victories, made his way rapidly" to Alexandria, united his force with 
 that of Ibn Sharig, the leader of the Othman party, and they together 
 routed Mahomet Ibn Abu Beker and took him prisoner. The 
 avengers of Othman reviled Mahomet with his assassination of that 
 Caliph, put him to death, enclosed his body in the carcass of an ass, 
 and burnt both to ashes. Then Amru assumed the government 
 of Egypt as lieutenant of Moawyah. 
 
 "When Ayesha heard of the death of her brother, she knelt down 
 in the mosque, and in the agony of her heart invoked a curse upon 
 Moawyah and Amru, an invocation which she thenceforth repeated 
 at the end of all her prayers. All, also, was afflicted at the death 
 of .Mahomet, and exclaimed, " The murderers will answer for this 
 before God." 
 
 CHAPTER XL. 
 
 Preparations of AH for the invasion of Syria. His Assassination. 
 
 The loss of Egypt was a severe blow to the fortunes of Ali, and 
 he had the mortilication subsequently to behold his active rival 
 make himself master of Hejaz, plant his standard on the sacred 
 cities of Mecca and Medina, and ravage the fertile province of 
 Yemen. The decline of his power affected his spirits, and he sank 
 at times into despondency. His melancholy was aggravated by the 
 conduct of his own brother Okail, who, under pretence that Ali 
 did not maintain him in suitable shle, deserted him in his sinking 
 fortunes, and went over to Moawyah, who rewarded his unnatural 
 desertion with ample revenues. 
 
 Still Ali meditated one more grand effort. Sixty thousand de- 
 voted adherents pledged themselves to stand by him to the death, 
 and with these he prepared to march into Syria. While prepara- 
 tions were going on, it chanced that three zealots, of the sect of 
 Karigites, met as pilgrims in the mosque of Mecca, and fell into 
 conversation about the battle of Naharwan, wherein four thousand 
 of their brethren had lost their lives. This led to lamentations over 
 the dissensions and dismemberment of the Moslem empire, all which 
 they attributed to the ambition of Ali, Moawyah, and Amru. The
 
 ALL 817 
 
 Karigites were a fanatic sect, and these men were zealots of that 
 dangerous kind who are ready to sacrifice their lives in the ac- 
 complishment of any bigot plan. Jn their infuriate zeal they deter- 
 mined that the only way to restore peace and unity to Islam, would 
 be to destroy those three ambitious leaders, and they devoted 
 themselves to the task, each undertaking to despatch his victim. 
 The several assassinations were to be effected at the same time, on 
 Friday, the seventeenth of the month Ramadan, at the hour of 
 prayer ; and that their blows might be infallibly mortal, they were 
 to use poisoned weapons. 
 
 The names of the conspirators were Barak Ibn Abdallah, Amru 
 Ibn Asi, and Abda'lrahman Ibn Melgem. Barak repaired to Da- 
 mascus and mingled in the retinue of Moawyah on the day ap- 
 pointed, which was the Moslem Sabbath ; then, as the usurper was 
 officiating in the mosque as pontiff, Barak gave him what he con- 
 sidered a fatal blow. The wound was desperate, but the life of 
 Moawyah was saved by desperate remedies; the assassin was mu- 
 tilated of hands and feet and suffered to live ; but was slain in after 
 years by a friend of Moawyah. 
 
 Amru Ibn Asi, the second of these fanatics, entered the mosque 
 in Egypt on the same day and hour, and with one blow killed 
 Karijah the Imam, who officiated, imagining him to be Amru Ibn 
 al Aass, who was prevented from attending the mosque through 
 illness. The assassin being led before his intended victim, and 
 informed of his errour, replied with the resignation of a predestina- 
 rian : "I intended Amru; but Allah intended Karijah." He was 
 presently executed. 
 
 Abda'lrahman, the third assassin, repaired to Cufa, where Ali 
 held his court. Here he lodged with a woman of the sect of the 
 Karigites, whose husband had been killed in the battle of NeharwSn. 
 To this woman he made proposals of marriage, but she replied she 
 would have no man who could not bring her, as a dowry, three 
 thousand drachms of silver, a slave, a maid-servant, and the head 
 of Ali. He accepted the conditions, and joined two other Karigites, 
 called Derwan and Shabib, with him in the enterprise. They 
 stationed themselves in the mosque to await the coming of the 
 Caliph. 
 
 Ali had recently been afflicted with one of his fits of despondency, 
 and had uttered ejaculations which were afterwards considered 
 presages of his impending fate. In one of his melancholy moods 
 he exclaimed, with a heavy sigh, "Alas, my heart! there is need 
 of patience, for there is no remedy against death ! " In parting 
 from his house to go to the mosque, there was a clamour among his 
 domestic fowls, which he interpreted into a fatal omen. As he 
 entered the mosque the assassins drew their swords, and pretended 
 to be fighting among themselves; Derwan aimed a blow at the 
 Caliph, but it fell short, and struck the gate of the mosque ; a 
 blow from Abda'lrahman was better aimed, and wounded Ali in 
 the head. The assassins then separated and fled. Derwan was 
 pursued and slain at the threshold of his home ; Shabib distanced 
 his pursuers and escaped. Abda'lrahman, after some search, was 
 discovered hidden in a corner of the mosque, his sword still in his
 
 318 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 hand. He was dragged forth and brought before the Caliph. 
 The wound of AH was pronounced mortal ; he consigned his mur- 
 derer to the custody of his son Hassan, adding, with his accustomed 
 clemency, "Let him want for nothing; and, if I die of my wound, 
 let him not be tortured; let his death be by a single blow." His 
 orders, according lo the Persian writers, were strictly complied 
 with, but the Arabians declare that he was killed by piecemeal ; 
 and the Moslems opposed to the sect of All hold him up as a 
 martyr. f 
 
 The death of All happened within three days after receiving his 
 wound : it was in the fortieth year of the Hegira, A. D. 660. He 
 was about sixty-three years of age, of which he had reigned not 
 quite five. His remains were interred about five miles from Cufa; 
 and, in after times, a magnificent tomb, covered by a mosque, 
 with a splendid dome, rose over his grave, and it became the site 
 of a city called Meshed AH, or, the Sepulchre of AH, and was 
 enriched and beautified by many Persian nionarchs. 
 
 We make no concluding comments on the noble and generous 
 character of AH, which has been sufficiently illustrated throughout 
 all the recorded circumstances of his life. He was one of the last 
 and worthiest of the primitive Moslems, who imbibed his religious 
 enthusiasm from companionship with the prophet himself; and who 
 followed, to the last, the simplicity of his example. He is honour- 
 ably spoken of as the first Caliph who accorded some protection 
 to Belles-Lettres. He indulged in the poetic vein himself, and 
 many of his maxims and proverbs are preserved, and have been 
 translated into various languages. His signet bore this inscription : 
 "The kingdom belongs to God." One of his sayings shows the 
 little value he set upon the transitory glories of this world. "Life 
 is but the shadow of a cloud; the dream of a sleeper." 
 
 By his first wife, Fatima, the daughter of Mahomet, he had three 
 sons, Mohassan, who died young, and Hassan and Hosein, who 
 survived him. After her death he had eight other wives, and his 
 issue, in all, amounted to fifteen sons and eighteen daughters. 
 His descendants, by Fatima, are distinguished among Moslems as 
 descendants of the prophet, and are very numerous, being reckoned 
 both by the male and female line. They wear turbans of a pe- 
 culiar fashion, and twist their hair in a different manner from other 
 Moslems. They are considered of noble blood, and designated in 
 different countries by various titles, such as Sheriffs, Fatimites, 
 and Emirs. The Persians venerate AH as next to the prophet, and 
 solemnize the anniversary of his martyrdom. The Turks hold him 
 in abhorrence, and, for a long time, in their prayers, accompanied 
 his name with execrations ; but subsequently abated in their vio- 
 lence. It is said that AH was born in the Caaba, or holy temple 
 of Mecca, where his mother was suddenly taken in labour, and 
 that he was the only person of such distinguished birth.
 
 HASSAN. 319 
 
 CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 Succession of Hassan, fifth Caliph. He abdicates in favour of Moawyah. 
 
 In his dying moments AH had refused to nominate a successor, 
 but his eldest son Hassan, then in his 37th year, was elected 
 without opposition. He stood high in the favour of the people, 
 partly from his having been a favourite with his grandfather, the 
 prophet, to whom in his features he bore a strong resemblance ; 
 but chiefly from the moral excellence of his character, for he was 
 upright, sincere, benevolent and devout. He lacked, however, 
 the energy and courage necessary to a sovereignly, where the 
 sceptre was a sword; and he was unfitted to command in the civil 
 wars which distracted the empire, for he had a horror of shedding 
 Moslem blood. He made a funeral speech over his father's re- 
 mains, showing that his death was coincident with great and 
 solemn events. "He was slain," said he, "on the same night of 
 the year, in whicli the Koran was transmitted to earth ; in which 
 Jsa (Jesus) was taken up to heaven, and in which Joshua, the son 
 of Nun, was killed. By Allah! none of his predecessors surpassed 
 him, nor will he ever be equalled by a successor." 
 
 Then Kais, a trusty friend of the house of AH, commenced the 
 inauguration of the new Caliph. " Stretch forth thy hand," said 
 he to Hassan, "in pledge that thouwilt stand by the book of God, 
 and the tradition of the apostle, and make war against all op- 
 posers." Hassan complied with the ceremonial, and was pro- 
 claimed Caliph, and the people were called upon to acknowledge 
 allegiance to him, and engage to maintain peace with his friends, 
 and war with his enemies. Some of the people, however, with the 
 characteristic fickleness of Babylonians, murmured at the sugges- 
 tion of further warfare, and said, we want no fighting Caliph. 
 
 Had Hassan consulted his own inclination, he would willingly 
 have clung to peace, and submitted to the usurpations of Moawyah ; 
 but he was surrounded by valiant generals eager for action, and 
 stimulated by his brother Hosein, who inherited the daring cha- 
 racter of their father ; beside, there were sixty thousand fighting 
 men, all ready for the field, and who had been on the point of 
 marching into Syria under Ali. Unwillingly, therefore, he put 
 himself at the head of this force and commenced his march. Re- 
 ceiving intelligence that Moawyah had already taken the field and 
 was advancing to meet him, he sent Kais in the advance, with 
 12,000 light troops, to hold the enemy in check, while he followed 
 with the main army. Kais executed his commission with spirit, 
 had a smart skirmish with the Syrians, and having checked them in 
 their advance, halted and put himself in a position to await the 
 coming of the Caliph.
 
 320 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Hassan, however, had already become sensible of his incompe- 
 tency to military command. There was disaffection among some 
 of his troops, who were people of Irak or Babylonia, disinclined 
 to this war. On reaching the city of Madayn, an affray took place 
 among the soldiers in which one was slain ; a fierce tumult suc- 
 ceeded; Hassan attempted to interfere, but was jostled and 
 wounded in the throng, and obliged to retire into the citadel. He 
 had taken refuge from violence, and was in danger of treason, for 
 the nephew of the governor of Madayn proposed to his uncle, now 
 that he had Hassan within his castle, to make him his prisoner, and 
 send him in chains to Moawyah. " A curse upon thce for a traitor 
 and an infidel!" cried the honest old governor; "wouldst thou 
 betray the son of the daughter of the Apostle of God ! " 
 
 The mild-tempered Caliph, who had no ambition of command, 
 was already disheartened by its troubles. He saw that he had an 
 active and powerful enemy to contend with, and fickleness and 
 treachery among his own people ; he sent proposals to Moawyah, 
 offering to resign the Caliphat to him, on condition that he should 
 be allowed to retain the money in the public treasury at Cufa, and 
 the revenues of a great estate in Persia, and that Moawyah would 
 desist from all evil-speaking against his deceased father. Moawyah 
 assented to the two former of these stipulations, but would only 
 consent to refrain from speaking evil of AH in presence of Hassan ; 
 and indeed, such was the sectarian hatred already engendered 
 against Ali, that, under the sway of Moawyah, his naoie was never 
 mentioned in the mosques without a curse, and such continued to 
 be the case for several generations under the dominion of the 
 house of Ommiah. 
 
 Another condition exacted by Hassan, and which ultimately 
 proved fatal to him, was that he should be entitled to resume the 
 Caliphat on the death of Moawyah, who was above a score of years 
 his senior. These terms being satisfactorily adjusted Hassan abdi- 
 cated in favour of Moawyah, to the great indignation of his brother 
 Hosein, who considered the memory of their father Ali dis- 
 honoured by this arrangement. The people of Cufa refused to 
 comply with that condition relative to the public treasury ; insisting 
 upon it that it was their property. Moawyah, however, allowed 
 Hassan an immense revenue, with which he retired with his brother 
 to Medina, to enjoy that ease and tranquillity which he so much 
 prized. His life was exemplary and devout, and the greater part 
 of his revenue was expended in acts of charity. 
 
 Moawyah seems to have been well aware of the power of gold 
 in making the most distasteful things palatable. An old beldame 
 of the lineage of Haschem, and branch of Ali, once reproached him 
 with having supplanted that family, who were his cousins, and with 
 having acted toward them as Pharaoh did toward the children of 
 Israel. Moawyah gently replied, " May Allah pardon what is past," 
 and inquired what were her wants. She said two thousand pieces 
 of gold for her poor relations, two thousand as a dower for her 
 children, and two thousand as a support for herself. The money 
 was given instantly, and the tongue of the clamorous virago was 
 silenced.
 
 MOAWYAH I. 
 
 CHAPTER XLII. 
 
 Reign of Moawyah I., sixth Caliph.- Account of his illegitimate brother Ziyad. Death 
 
 of Amru. 
 
 Moawyah now, in the forty-first year of the Hegira, assumed 
 legitimate dominion on the whole Moslem empire. The Karigites, 
 it is true, a fanatic sect opposed to all regular government, spiri- 
 tual or temporal, excited au insurrection in Syria, but IMoawyah 
 treated them with more thorough rigour than his predecessors, and 
 finding the Syrians not sufficient to cope with them, called in his 
 new subjects, the Babylonians, to show their allegiance by rooting 
 out this pestilent sect; nor did he slay his hand, until they were 
 almost exterminated. 
 
 With this Caliph commenced the famous dynasty of the Om- 
 miades or Omeyades, so called from Ommiah his great grandfather ; 
 a dynasty which lasted for many generations, and gave some of the 
 most brilliant names to Arabian history, Moawyah himself gave 
 indications of intellectual refinement. He surrounded himself with 
 men distinguished in science or gifted with poetic talent, and from 
 the Greek provinces and islands which he had subdued, the Greek 
 sciences began to make their way, and under his protection to 
 exert their first influence on the Arabs. 
 
 One of the measures adopted by Moawyah to strengthen himself 
 in the Caliphat excited great sensation, and merits particular de- 
 tail. At the time of the celebrated flight of Mahomet, Abu Sofian, 
 father of Moawyah, at that time chief of the tribe of Koreish, and 
 as yet an inveterate persecutor of the prophet, halted one day for 
 refreshment at the house of a publican in Tayef. Here he became 
 intoxicated with wine, and passed the night in the arms of the wife 
 of a Greek slave, named Somyah, who in process of time made him 
 the father of a male child. Abu Sofian, ashamed of this amour, 
 would not acknowledge the child, but left him to his fate ; hence 
 he received the name of Ziyad Ibn Abihi, that is to say, Ziyad the 
 son of nobody. 
 
 The boy, thus deserted, gave early proof of energy and talent. 
 \Vhen scarce arrived at manhood, he surprised Amru Ibn al Aass, 
 .by his eloquence and spirit in addressing a popular assembly. 
 Amru, himself illegitimate, felt a sympathy in the vigour of this 
 spurious offset. " By the prophet ! " exclaimed he, " if this youth 
 were but of the noble race of Koreish, he would drive all the 
 tribes of Arabia before him with his staff!" 
 
 Ziyad was appointed cadi or judge, in the reign of Omar, and 
 was distinguished by his decisions. On one occasion, certain wit- 
 nesses came before him accusing Mogeirah Ibn Seid, a distinguished 
 person of unblemished character, with incontinence, but failed to 
 establish the charge; whereupon, Ziyad dismissed the accused with 
 
 21
 
 322 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 honour, and caused his accusers to be scourged with rods for bear- 
 ing false witness. This act was never forgotten by Mogeirah, who, 
 becoming afterwards one of the counsellors of the Caliph Ali, in- 
 duced him to appoint Ziyad lieutenant or governor of Persia, an 
 arduous post of high trust, the duties of which he discharged with 
 great ability. 
 
 After the death of Ali and the abdication of Hassan, events which 
 followed hard upon each other, Ziyad, who still held sway over 
 Persia, hesitated to acknowledge Moawyah as Caliph. The latter 
 was alarmed at this show of ppposition, fearing lest Ziyad should 
 join with the family of Haschem, the kindred of the prophet, who 
 desired the elevation of Hosein ; he, therefore, sent for Mogeirah, 
 the former patron of Ziyad, and prevailed upon him to mediate 
 between them. Mogeirah repaired to Ziyad in person, bearing a 
 letter of kindness and invitation from the Caliph, and prevailed on 
 him to accompany him to Cufa. On their arrival Moawyah em- 
 braced Ziyad, and received him wi(h public demonstrations of 
 respect and affection, as his brother by Hie father's side. The fact 
 of their consanguinity was established on the following day, in full 
 assembly, by the publican of Tayef, who bore testimony to the in- 
 tercourse between Abu Sofian and the beautiful slave. 
 
 This decision, enforced by the high hand of authority, elevated 
 Ziyad to the noblest blood 'of Koreish, and made him eligible to 
 the highest offices; though in fact, the strict letter of the Mahometan 
 law would have pronounced him the son of the Greek slave, who 
 was husband of his mother. 
 
 The family of the Ommiades were indignant at having the base- 
 born offspring of a slave , thus introduced among them ; but 
 Moawyah disregarded these murmurs ; he had probably gratified 
 his own feelings of natural affection, and he had firmly attached to 
 his interest, a man of extensive influence, and one of the ablest 
 generals of the age. 
 
 Moawyah found good service in his valiant, though misbegotten 
 brother. Under the sway of incompetent governors the country 
 round Bassora had become overrun with thieves and murderers, 
 and disturbed by all kinds of tumults. Ziyad was put in the com- 
 mand, and hastened to take possession of his turbulent post. He 
 found Bassora a complete den of assassins ; not a night but was 
 disgraced by riot and bloodshed, so that it was unsafe to walk the 
 streets after dark. Ziyad was an eloquent man, and he made a 
 public speech terribly to the point. He gave notice that he meant 
 to rule with the sword, and to wreak unsparing punishment on all 
 offenders ; he advised all such, therefore, to leave the city. He 
 warned all persons from appearing in public after evening prayers, 
 as a patrol would go the rounds and put every one to death who 
 should be found in the streets. He carried this measure into effect. 
 Two hundred persons were put to death by the patrol during the 
 first night, only five during the second, and not a drop of blood 
 was shed afterwards, nor was there any further tumult or dis- 
 turbance. 
 
 Moawyah then employed him to effect the same reforms in 
 Korassan and many other provinces, and the more he had to era-
 
 MOAVVYAH I. 323 
 
 cute, the more was his ability evinced ; until his mere name would 
 quell commotion, and awe the most turbulent into quietude. Yet 
 he was not sanguinary nor cruel, but severely rigid in his disci- 
 pline, and inflexible in the dispensation of justice. It was his 
 custom, wherever he held sway, to order the inhabitants to leave 
 their doors open at night, with merely a hurdle at the entrance to 
 exclude cattle, engaging to replace any thing that should be stolen : 
 and so effective was his police, that no robberies were committed* 
 
 Though Ziyad had whole provinces under his government, he felt 
 himself not sufficiently employed; he wrote to the Caliph, there- 
 fore, complaining that, while his left hand was occupied in govern- 
 ing Babylonia, his right hand was idle; and he requested the 
 government of Arabia Petrea also, which the Caliph gladly granted 
 him, to the great terror of its inhabitants, who dreaded so stern a 
 ruler. But the sand of Ziyad was exhausted. He was attacked 
 with the plague when on the point of setting out for Arabia, The 
 disease made its appearance with an ulcer in his hand, and the 
 agony made him deliberate whether to smite it off. As it was a 
 case of conscience among predeslinarians, he consulted a venerable 
 cadi. " If you die," said the old expounder of the law, " you go 
 before God without that hand, which you have cut off to avoid ap- 
 pearing in his presence. If you live, you give a bye-name to your 
 children, who will be called the sons of the cripple. I advise you, 
 therefore, to let it alone." The intensity of the pain, however, 
 made him determine on amputation, but the sight of the fire and 
 cauterizirfg irons again deterred him. He was surrounded by the 
 most expert physicians, but, say the Arabians, " ILwas not in their 
 power to reverse the sealed decree." He died in the forty -fifth 
 year of the Hegira and of his own age, and the people he had 
 governed with so much severity, considered his death a deliverance. 
 His son Obeidallah, though only twenty-five years of age, was im- 
 mediately invested by the Caliph with the government of Korassan, 
 and gave instant proofs of inheriting the spirit ojf his father. On 
 his way to his government he surprised a large Turkish force, and 
 put them to such sudden flight, that their queen left one of her 
 buskins behind, which fell into the hands of her pursuers, and was 
 estimated, from the richness of its jewels, at two thousand pieces 
 of gold. 
 
 Ziyad left another son named Salem, who was, several years 
 afterwards, when but twenty-four years of age, appointed to the 
 government of Korassan, and rendered himself so beloved by the 
 people, that upwards of twenty thousand children were named after 
 him. He had a third son called Kameil, who was distinguished for 
 sagacity and ready wit, and he furthermore left from his progeny 
 a dynasty of princes in Arabia Felix, who ruled under the denomi- 
 nation of the children of Ziyad. 
 
 The wise measures of Moawyah produced a calm throughout his 
 empire, although his throne seemed to .be elevated on the surface 
 of a volcano. He had reinstated the famous Amru Ibn al Aass in 
 the government of Egypt, allowing him to enjoy the revenues of 
 that opulent province, in gratitude for his having proclaimed him 
 Caliph during his contest with AH ; but stipulating that he should
 
 324 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 maintain the forces stationed there. The veteran general did not 
 long enjoy this post, as he died in the forty-third year of the He- 
 gira, A. D. 663, as full of honours as of years. In him the cause of 
 Islam lost one of its wisest men and most illustrious conquerors. 
 " Show me," said Omar to him on one occasion, " the sword with 
 which you have fought so many battles and slain so many infidels," 
 The Caliph expressed surprise when he unsheathed an ordinary 
 scimetar. "Alas!" said Amru, "the sword, without the arm of 
 the master, is no sharper nor heavier than the sword of Farezdak 
 the poet " 
 
 Mahomet, whose death preceded that of Amru upward? of thirty 
 years, declared that there was no truer Moslem than he would 
 prove to be ; nor one more steadfast in the faith. Although Amru 
 passed most of his life in the exercise of arms, he found time to 
 cultivate the softer arts which belong to peace. \Ve have already 
 shown that he was an orator and a poet. The witty lampoons, 
 however, which he wrote against the prophet in his youth, he 
 deeply regretted in his declining age. He sought the company of 
 men of learning and science, and delighted in the conversation of 
 philosophers. He has left some proverbs distinguished for pithy 
 wisdom, and some beautiful poetry, and his dying advice to his 
 children was celebrated for manly sense and affecting pathos. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIIL 
 
 Siege of Constantinople. Truce with the emperor. Murder of Hassan. Death of 
 
 Ayesha. 
 
 The Caliph Moawyah being thoroughly established in his sov- 
 ereignty, was ambitious of foreign conquests, which might shed 
 lustre on his name, and obliterate the memory of these civil wars. 
 He was desirous, also, of placing his son Yezid in a conspicuous 
 light, and gaining for him the affections of the people; for he 
 secretly entertained hopes of making him his successor. He de- 
 termined, therefore, to send him with a great force to attempt the 
 conquest of Constantinople, at that time the capital of the Greek 
 and Roman empire. This indeed was a kind of holy war; for it 
 was fulfilling one of the most ardent wishes of Mahomet; who had 
 looked forward to the conquest of the proud capital of the Caesars 
 as one of the highest triumphs of Islam ; and had promised full 
 pardon of all their sins to the Moslem army that should achieve it. 
 
 The general command of the army in this expedition was given 
 to a veteran named Sophian, and he was accompanied by several 
 of those old soldiers of the faith, battered in the wars, and almost 
 broken down by years, who had fought by the side of the prophet 
 at Beder and Ohod, and were, therefore, honoured by the title of 
 " Companions," and who now showed, among the ashes of age,
 
 MOAVYYAH I. 325 
 
 the sparks of youthful lire, as they girded on their swords for this 
 sacred enterprise . 
 
 Hosein, the valiant son of Ali, also accompanied this expedition; 
 in which, in fact, the flower of Moslem chivalry engaged. Great 
 preparations were made by sea and land, and sanguine hopes en- 
 tertained of success; the Moslem troops were numerous and hardy, 
 inured to toil and practised in warfare, and they were animated 
 by the certainty of paradise, should they be victorious. The 
 Greeks, on the other hand, were in a state of military decline, and 
 their emperor, Constantine, a grandson of Heraclius, disgraced his 
 illustrious name by indolence and incapacity. 
 
 It is singular and to be lamented, that of this momentous expe- 
 dition we have very few particulars, notwithstanding that it lasted 
 long, and must have been checkered by striking vicissitudes. The 
 Moslem fleet passed without impediment through the Dardanelles, 
 and the army disembarked within seven miles of Constantinople. 
 For many days they pressed the siege with vigour, but the city was 
 strongly garrisoned by fugitive troops from various quarters, who 
 had profited by sad experience in the defence of fortified towns ; 
 the walls were strong and high; and the besieged made use of 
 Greek lire, to the Moslems a new and terrific agent of destruction. 
 
 Finding all their efforts in vain, the Moslems consoled themselves 
 by ravaging the neighbouring coasts of Europe and Asia, and on 
 the approach of winter retired to the island of Cyzicus, about 
 eighty miles from Constantinople, where they had established their 
 headquarters. 
 
 Six years were passed in this unavailing enterprise; immense 
 sums were expended ; thousands of lives were lost by disease ; ships 
 and crews, by shipwreck and other disasters, and thousands of 
 Moslems were slain, gallantly fighting for paradise under the walls 
 of Constantinople. The most renowned of these was the venerable 
 Abu Ayub, in whose house Mahomet had established his quarters 
 when he first fled to Medina, and who had fought by the side of 
 the prophet at Beder and Ohod. He won an honoured grave ; for 
 though it remained for ages unknown, yet nearly eight centuries 
 after this event, when Constantinople was conquered by Ma- 
 homet II, the spot was revealed in a miraculous vision, and con- 
 secrated by a mausoleum and mosque, which exist to this day, 
 and to which the grand seignors of the Ottoman empire repair to 
 be belted with the scimetar on their accession to the throne. 
 
 The protracted war with the Greeks revived their military ardour, 
 and they assailed the Moslems in their turn. Moawyah found the 
 war which he had provoked threatening his own security. Other 
 enemies were pressing on him ; age, also, had sapped his bodily and 
 mental vigour, and he became so anxious for safety and repose, 
 that he in a manner purchased a truce of the emperor for thirty 
 years, by agreeing to pay an annual tribute of three thousand 
 pieces of gold, fifty slaves, and fifty horses of the noblest Arabian 
 blood. 
 
 Yezid, the eldest son of Moawyah, and his secretly- intended suc- 
 cessor, had failed to establish a renown in this enterprise, and if 
 Arabian historians speak true, his ambition led him to a perfidious
 
 326 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 act sufficient to stamp his name with infamy. He is accused of 
 instigating the murder of the virtuous Hassan, the son of Ali, who 
 had abdicated in favour of Moawyah, but who was to resume the 
 Caliphat on the death of that potentate. It is questionable whether 
 Hassan would ever have claimed this right, for he was of quiet, 
 retired habits, and preferred the security and repose of a private 
 station. He was strong, however, in the affection of the people, 
 and to remove out of the way so dangerous a rival, lezid, it is said, 
 prevailed upon one of his wives to poison him, promising to marry 
 her in reward of her treason. The murder took place in the forty- 
 ninth year of the Hegira, A. D. 669, when Hassan was forty-seven 
 years of age. In his last agonies, his brother Hosein inquired at 
 whose instigation he supposed himself to have been poisoned, that 
 he might avenge his death, but Hassan refused to name him. 
 "This world," said he, "is only a long night; leave him alo*ne 
 until he and I shall meet in open daylight, in the presence of the 
 Most High." 
 
 Yezid refused to fulfil his promise of taking the murderess to 
 wife, alleging that it would be madness to intrust himself to the 
 embraces of such a female ; he, however, commuted the engage- 
 ment for a large amount in money and jewels. Moawyah is ac- 
 cused, of either countenancing, or being pleased with a murder, 
 which made his son more eligible to the succession, for it is said 
 that when he heard of the death of Hassan, "he fell down and 
 worshipped." 
 
 Hassan had been somewhat uxorious; or rather, he had numerous 
 wives, and was prone to change them when attracted by new 
 beauties. One of them was the daughter of Yezdegird, the last 
 king of the Persians, and she bore him several children. Fie had, 
 altogether, fifteen sons and five daughters, and contributed greatly 
 to increase the race of Sheriffs, orFatimites, descendants from the 
 prophet. In his testament he left directions that he should be 
 buried by the sepulchre of his grandsire Mahomet ; but Ayesha, 
 whose hatred for the family of Ali went beyond the grave, declared 
 that the mansion was hers, and refused her consent; he was, 
 therefore, interred in the common burial-ground of the city. 
 
 Ayesha, herself, died some time afterwards, in the fifty-eighth 
 year of the Hegira, having survived the prophet forty-seven years. 
 She was often called the Prophetess, and generally denominated 
 the Mother of the Faithful, although she had never borne any issue 
 to Mahomet, and had employed her widowhood in intrigues to 
 prevent Ali and his children, who were the only progeny of the 
 prophet, from sitting on the throne of the Caliphs. All the other 
 wives of Mahomet who survived him, passed the remainder of their 
 lives in widowhood; but none, save her, seem to have been held 
 in especial reverence.
 
 MOAWYAH I. 327 
 
 CHAPTER XLIV. 
 
 Moslem conquests in Northern Africa. Achievements of Acbab ; his death. 
 
 The conquest of Northern Africa, so auspiciously commenced by 
 Abdallah Ibn Saad, had been suspended for a number of years by 
 the pressure of other concerns, and particularly by the siege of 
 Constantinople, which engrossed a great part of the Moslem forces ; 
 in the meantime Cyrene had shaken off the yoke, all Cyrenaica 
 was in a state of insurrection, and there was danger that the places 
 which had been taken, and the post which had been established by 
 the Arab conquerors would be completely lost. 
 
 The Caliph Moawyah now looked round for some active and 
 able general, competent to secure and extend his sway along the 
 African sea-coast. Such a one he found in Acbah Ibn Nafe el 
 Fehri, whom he despatched from Damascus with ten thousand 
 horse. Acbah made his way with all speed into Africa, his forces 
 augmenting as he proceeded, by the accession of barbarian troops. 
 He passed triumphantly through Cyrenaica ; laid close siege to the 
 city of Cyrene, and retook it, notwithstanding its strong walls and 
 great population ; but in the course of the siege many of its ancient 
 and magnificent edifices were destroyed. 
 
 Acbah continued his victorious course westward , traversing 
 wildernesses sometimes barren and desolate ; sometimes entangled 
 with forests, and infested by serpents and savage animals, until he 
 reached the domains of ancient Carthage, the present territory of 
 Tunis. Here he determined to found a city to serve as a strong- 
 hold, and a place of refuge in the heart of these conquered regions. 
 The site chosen was a valley closely wooded, and abounding with 
 lions, tigers, and serpents. The Arabs give a marvellous account 
 pf the founding of the city. Acbah, say they, went forth into the 
 forest, and adjured its savage inhabitanis. " Hence ! avaunt ! wild 
 beasts and serpents ! Hence, quit this wood and valley !" This 
 solemn adjuration he repeated three several times, on three seve- 
 ral days, and not a lion, tiger, leopard, nor serpent, but departed 
 from the place. 
 
 Others, less poetic, record that he cleared away a forest which 
 had been a lurking place not merely for wild beasts and serpents, 
 but for rebels and barbarous hordes ; that he used the wood in 
 constructing walls for his new city, and when these were completed, 
 planted his lance in the centre, and exclaimed to his followers, 
 " Ibis is your Caravan." Such was the origin of the city of Kairwau 
 or Caerwan, situated thirty-three leagues southeast of Carthage, 
 and twelve from the sea on the borders of the great desert. Here 
 Acbah fixed his seat of government, erecting mosques and other 
 public edifices, and holding all the surrounding country in sub- 
 jection.
 
 328 MAUOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 While Acbah was thus honourably occupied, the Caliph Moawyah, 
 little aware of the immense countries embraced in these recent 
 conquests, united them with Egypt under one command, as if they 
 had been two small provinces, and appointed Muhrgir Ibn Onim 
 Dinar, one of the Ansari, as emir or governor. Muhegir was an 
 ambitious, or rather an envious and perfidious man. Scarce had 
 he entered upon his government, when he began to sicken with 
 envy of the brilliant fame of Acbah and his vast popularity, not 
 merely with the army, but throughout the country ; he accordingly 
 made such unfavourable reports of the character and conduct of 
 that general, in his letters to the Caliph, that the latter was induced 
 to displace him from the command of the African army, and recall 
 him to Damascus. 
 
 The letter of recall being sent under cover to Muhegir, he 
 transmitted it by Muslama Ibn Machlad, one of his generals, to 
 Acbah, charging his envoy to proceed with great caution, and to 
 treat Acbah with profound deference, lest the troops, out of their 
 love for him, should resist the order for his deposition. Muslama 
 found Acbah in his camp at Gyrene, and presented him the Caliph's 
 letter of recall, and a letter from Muhegir as governor of the pro- 
 vince, letting him know that Muslama and the other generals were 
 authorized to arrest him should he hesitate to obey the command 
 of the Caliph. 
 
 There was no hesitation on the part of Acbah. He at once dis- 
 cerned whence the blow proceeded. " Oh God!" exclaimed he, 
 " spare my life until I can vindicate myself from the slanders of 
 Muhegir Ibn Omm Dinar." He then departed instantly, without 
 even entering his house ; made his way with all speed to Damascus, 
 and appeared before Moawyah in the presence of his generals and 
 the officers of his court. Addressing the Caliph with noble indig- 
 nation, " I have traversed deserts," said he, " and encountered 
 savage tribes ; I have conquered towns and regions, and have 
 brought their infidel inhabitants to the knowledge of God and his 
 law. I have built mosques and palaces, and fortified our dominion 
 over the land, and in reward I have been degraded from my post, 
 and summoned hither as a culprit. l t appeal to your justice , 
 whether I have merited such treatment?" 
 
 Moawyah felt rebuked by the magnanimous bearing of his gene- 
 ral, for he was aware that he had been precipitate in condemning 
 him on false accusations. " I am already informed," said he, " of 
 the true nature of the case. I now know who is Muhegir, and who 
 is Acbah ; return to the command of the army, and pursue your 
 glorious career of conquest. " 
 
 Although it was not until the succeeding Caliphat, that Acbah 
 resumed the command in Africa, we will anticipate dates in order 
 to maintain unbroken the thread of his story. In passing through 
 Egypt he deposed Muslama from a command, in which he had been 
 placed by Muhegir, and ordered him to remain in one of the Egyp- 
 tian towns a prisoner at large. 
 
 He was grieved to perceive the mischief that had been done in 
 Africa, during his absence, by Muhegir, who, out of mere envy 
 and jealousy, had endeavoured to mar and obliterate all traces of
 
 MOANVYAH I. 329 
 
 liis good deeds ; dismantling the cities he had built ; destroying his 
 public edifices at Caerwan, and transferring the inhabitants to 
 another place. Acbah stripped him of his command, placed him 
 in irons, and proceeded to remedy the evils he had perpetrated. 
 The population was restored to Caerwan; its edifices were rebuilt, 
 and it rose from its temporary decline more prosperous and 
 beautiful than ever. Acbah then left Zohair Ibn Kais in command 
 of this metropolis, and resumed his career of western conquest, 
 carrying Muhegir with him in chains. He crossed the kingdom of 
 Numidia, now Algiers, and the vast regions of Mauritania, now 
 Morocco, subduing their infidel inhabitants or converting them 
 with the sword, until coining to the western shores of Africa, he 
 spurred his charger into the waves of the Atlantic, until they rose 
 to his saddle girths; then raising his scimetar towards heaven, 
 "Oh Allah!" cried the zealous Moslem, "did not these profound 
 waters prevent me, still further would I carry the knowledge of 
 thy law, and the reverence of thy holy name ! " 
 
 While Acbah was thus urging his victorious way to the uttermost 
 bounds of .Mauritania, tidings overtook him that the Greeks and 
 barbarians were rising in rebellion in his rear ; that the mountains 
 were pouring down their legions, and that his city of Caerwan was 
 in imminent danger. He had in fact incurred the danger against 
 which the late Caliph Omar had so often cautioned his too ad- 
 venturous generals. Turning his steps he hastened back, marching 
 at a rapid rate. As he passed through Zab or Numidia, he was 
 harassed by a horde of Berbers or Moors, headed by Aben Cahina, 
 a native chief of daring prowess, who had descended from the 
 fastnesses of the mountains, in which he had taken refuge from the 
 invaders. This warrior, with his mountain band, hung on the rear 
 of the army, picking off stragglers, and often carrying havoc into 
 the broken ranks, but never venturing on a pitched bailie. He 
 gave over his pursuit as they crossed the bounds of Numidia. 
 
 On arriving at Caerwan, Acbad found every thing secure ; the 
 rebellion having been suppressed by the energy and bravery of 
 Zohair, aided by an associate warrior, Omar Ibn Ali, of the tribe 
 of Koreish. 
 
 Acbah now distributed a part of his army about the neigh- 
 bourhood, formed of the residue a Hying camp of cavalry, and 
 leaving Zohair and his brave associate to maintain the safety of the 
 metropolis, returned to scour the land of Zab, and take vengeance 
 on the Berber chief, who had harassed and insulted him when on 
 the march. 
 
 He proceeded without opposition as far as a place called T^huda ; 
 when in some pass or defile, he found himself surrounded by a 
 great host of Greeks and Berbers, led on by the mountain chief 
 Aben Cahina. In fact, both Christians and Moors, who had so 
 often been in deadly conflict in these very regions, had combined 
 to drive these new intruders from the land. 
 
 Acbah scanned the number and array of the advancing ejiemy, 
 And saw there was no retreat, and that destruction was inevitable. 
 He marshalled his little army of horsemen, however, with great 
 calmness; put up the usual prayers, and exhorted his men to fight
 
 330 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 valiantly. Summoning Muhegir to his presence, " This," said he, 
 fl is a day of liberty and gain for all true Moslems, for it is a day 
 of martyrdom. I would not deprive you of so great a chance for 
 paradise." So saying, he ordered his chains to be taken off. 
 
 Muhegir thanked him for the favour, and expressed his determi- 
 nation to die in the cause of the failh. Acbah then gave him arms 
 and a horse, and both of them drawing their swords, broke the 
 scabbards in token that they would fight until victory or death. 
 The battle was desperate, and the carnage terrible. Almost all 
 the Moslems fought to the very death, asking no quarter. Acbah 
 was one of the last of his devoted band, and his corpse was found 
 scimetar in hand, upon a heap of the enemy whom he had slain. 
 
 CHAPTER XLV. 
 
 Moawyah names his successor.- His last acts and death. Traits of his character. 
 
 Moawyah was now far advanced in years, and aware that he had 
 not long to live; he sought therefore, to accomplish a measure 
 which he had long contemplated, and which was indicative of his 
 ambitious character and his pride of family. It was to render the 
 Caliphat hereditary, and to perpetuate it in his line. For this 
 purpose he openly named his son Yezid as his successor, and 
 requested the different provinces to send deputies to Damascus to 
 perform the act of fealty to him. The nomination of a successor 
 was what the prophet himself had not done, and what Abu Beker, 
 Omar, and Olhman had therefore declined to do ; the attempt to 
 render the Caliphat hereditary was in direct opposition to the 
 public will manifested repeatedly in respect to AH ; Yezid, to whom 
 he proposed to bequeath the government, was publicly detested, 
 yet, notwithstanding all these objections, such influence had 
 Moawyah acquired over the public mind, that delegates arrived at 
 Damascus from all parts, and gave their hands to Yezid in pledge 
 of future fealty. Thus was established the dynasty of the Ommiades, 
 which held the CaJiphat for nearly a hundred years. There were 
 fourteen Caliphs of this haughty line, known as the Pharaohs of the 
 house of Omaya (or rather Ommiah). The ambition of rule mani- 
 fested in Moawyah, the founder of the dynasty, continued even 
 among his remote descendants, who exercised sovereignty nearly 
 four centuries afterwards in Spain. One of them, anxious to 
 ascend the throne in a time of turbulence and peril, exclaimed: 
 " Only make me king to-day, and you may kill me to-morrow ! " 
 
 The character of the Caliph had mu<fh changed in the hands of 
 Moawyah, and in the luxurious city of Damascus assumed more 
 and more the slate of the oriental sovereigns which it superseded. 
 The frugal simplicity of the Arab, and the stern virtues of the pri- 
 mitive disciples of Islam, were softening down and disappearing
 
 MOAWYAH I. 331 
 
 among the voluptuous delights of Syria. Moawyah, however, 
 endeavoured to throw over his favourite city of Damascus some of 
 the sanctity with which Mecca and Medina were invested. For this 
 purpose he sought to transfer to it, from Medina, the pulpit of the 
 prophet, as also his walking-staff; " for such precious relics of the 
 apostle of God," said he, " ought not to remain among the mur- 
 derers of Othman." 
 
 The staff was found after great search, but when the pulpit was 
 about to be removed, there occurred so great an eclipse of the sun, 
 that the stars became visible. The superstitious Arabs considered 
 this a signal of divine disapprobation, and the pulpit was suffered 
 to remain in Medina. 
 
 Feeling his end approaching, Moawyah summoned his son Yezid 
 to his presence, and gave advice full of experience and wisdom. 
 u Confide in the Arabs," said he, " aslhe sure foundation of your 
 power. Prize the Syrians, for they are faithful and enterprising, 
 though prone to degenerate when out of their own country. Gra- 
 tify the people of Irak in all their demands, for they are restless 
 and turbulent, and would unshealh a hundred thousand scinjetars 
 against thee on the least provocation." 
 
 "There are four rivals, my son,'' added he, "on whom thou 
 must keep a vigilant eye; the first is Hosein, the son of Ali, who 
 has great influence in Irak, but he is upright and sincere, and thy 
 own cousin ; treat him, therefore, with clemency, if he fall within 
 thy power. The second is Abdallah Ibn Omar ; but he is a devout 
 man, and will eventually come under allegiance to thee. The 
 third is Abda'lrahman ; but he is a man of no force of mind, and 
 merely speaks from the dictates of others ; he is, moreover, incon- 
 tinent, and a gambler; he is not a rival to be feared. The fourth 
 is Abdallah Ibn Zobeir; he unites the craft of the fox with the 
 strength and courage of the lion. If he appear against thee, 
 oppose him valiantly ; if he offer peace, accept it, and spare the 
 blood of thy people. If he fall within your power, cut him to 
 pieces! " 
 
 Moawyah was gathered to his fathers in the sixtieth year of the 
 Hegira, A D. 679, at the age of seventy, or, as some say, seventy- 
 five years, of which he had reigned nearly twenty. He was 
 interred in Damascus, which he had made the capital of the Moslem 
 empire, and which continued to be so during the dynasty of the 
 Ommiades. The inscription of his signet was, " Every deed hath its 
 meed ; " or, according to others, " All power rests with God." 
 
 Though several circumstances in his reign savour of crafty, and 
 even treacherous policy, yet he bears a high name in Moslem his- 
 tory. His courage was undoubted, and of a generous kind ; for 
 though fierce in combat, he was clement iu victory. He prided 
 himself greatly upon being of the tribe of Koreish, and was highly 
 aristocratical before he attained to sovereign power; yet he -was 
 affable and accessible at all times, and made himself popular 
 among his people. His ambition was tempered with some consi- 
 derations of justice. He assumed the throne, it is true, by the aid 
 of the scimetar, without regular election; but he subsequently 
 bought off the right of his rival Hassan, the legitimate Caliph ; and
 
 332 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 transcended munificently all the stipulations of his purchase, pre- 
 senting him, at one time, with four million pieces of gold. One 
 almost regards with incredulity the stories of immense sums passing 
 from hand to hand among these Arab conquerors, as freely as bags 
 of dates in their native deserts ; but it must be recollected they had 
 the plundering of the rich empires of the East, and as yet were flush 
 with the spoils of recent conquests. 
 
 The. liberality of Moawyah is extolled as being beyond all 
 bounds ; one instance on record of it, however, savours of policy. 
 He gave Ayesha a bracelet valued at a hundred thousand pieces of 
 gold, that had formerly, perhaps, sparkled on the arm of some 
 Semiramis; but Ayesha, he knew, was a potent friend and a dan- 
 gerous enemy. 
 
 Moawyah was sensible to the charms of poetry, if we may judge 
 from the following anecdotes : 
 
 A robber, who had been condemned by the Cadi to have his 
 head cut off, appealed to the Caliph in a copy of verses, pleading 
 the poverty and want by which he had been driven. Touched by 
 the poetry, Moawyah reversed the sentence, and gave the poet a 
 purse of gold, that he might have no plea of necessity for repeating 
 the crime. 
 
 Another instance was that of a young Arab, who had married a 
 beautiful damsel, of whom he was so enamoured, that he lavished all 
 his fortune upon her. The governor of Cufa happening to see her, 
 was so struck with her beauty, that he took her from the youth by 
 force. The latter made his complaint to the Caliph in verse, 
 poured forth with Arab eloquence, and with all the passion of a 
 lover, praying redress or death. Moawyah, as before, was moved 
 by the poetic appeal, and sent orders to the governor of Cufa to 
 restore the wife to her husband. The governor, infatuated with 
 her charms, entreated the Caliph to let him have the enjoyment of 
 her for one year, and then to lake his head. The curiosity of the 
 Caliph was awakened by this amorous contest; and he caused the 
 female to be sent to him. Struck with her ravishing beauty, with 
 the grace of her deportment, and the eloquence of her expres- 
 sions, he could not restrain his admiration ; and in the excitement 
 of the moment told her to choose between the young Arab, the 
 governor of Cufa, and himself. She acknowledged the honour prof- 
 fered by the Caliph to be utterly beyond her merit ; but avowed 
 that affection and duty still inclined her to her husband, Her 
 modesty and virtue delighted Moawyah even more than her 
 beauty ; he restored her to her husband, and enriched them both 
 with princely munificence.
 
 YEZID. 333 
 
 CHAPTER XL VI. 
 
 Succession of Yezid, seventh Caliph. Final fortunes ol'Hosein, the son of Ali. 
 
 Yezid, the son of Moawyah, succeeded to the Caliphat without 
 the ceremony of an election. His inauguration took place in the 
 new moon of the month Rajeb, in the sixtieth year of the Hegira; 
 coincident with the seventh day of April, in the year of our Lord 
 680. He was thirty-four years of age, and is described as tall and 
 thin ; with a ruddy countenance pitted with the small-pox, black 
 eyes, curled hair, and a comely beard. He was not deficient in 
 talent, and possessed the popular gift of poetry. The effect of his 
 residence among the luxuries and refinements of Syria, was evinced 
 in a fondness for silken raiment and the delights of music; but he 
 was stigmatized as base-spirited, sordid and covetous; grossly sen- 
 sual, and scandalously intemperate. 
 
 Notwithstanding all this, he was readily acknowledged as Caliph 
 throughout the Moslem empire, excepting by Mecca, Medina, and 
 some cities of Babylonia. His first aim was to secure undisputed 
 possession of the Caliphat. The only competitors from whom he 
 had danger to apprehend, were Hosein, the son of Ali, and Abdal- 
 lah. the son of Zobeir. They were both at Medina, and he sent 
 orders to AValed Ibn Otbah, the governor of that city, to exact from 
 them an oath of fealty. Waled, who was of an undecided cha- 
 racter, consulted Merwzin Ibn Hakem, formerly secretary of Olh- 
 inan, and suspected of forging the letter which effected the ruin of 
 that Caliph. He was in fact one of the most crafty, as well as able 
 men of the age. His advice to the governor was to summon Hosein 
 and Abdallah to his presence, before they should hear of the death 
 of Moawyah, and concert any measures of opposition; then to 
 tender to them the oath of fealty to Yezid, and, should they refuse, 
 to smite off their heads. 
 
 Hosein and Abdallah discovered the plot in time to effect their 
 escape with their families to Mecca ; where they declared them- 
 selves openly in opposition to Yezid. In a little while Hosein 
 received secret messages from the people of Cufa, inviting him to 
 their city, assuring him not merely of protection, but of joyful 
 homage as the son of Ali, the legitimate successor of the prophet. 
 He had only, they said, to show himself in their city, and all Baby- 
 lonia would rise in arms in his favour. 
 
 Hosein sent his cousin, Muslim Ibn Okail, to ascertain the truth 
 of these representations, and to foment the spirit of insurrection 
 should it really exist among the people of Cufa. Muslim made his 
 way, almost unattended, and with great peril and hardship across 
 the deserts of Irak. On arriving at Cufa, he was well received by 
 the parly of Hosein ; they assured him that eighteen thousand men 
 were ready to sacrifice their blood and treasure in casting down the
 
 334 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 usurper and upholding the legitimate Caliph. Every day aug- 
 mented the number of apparent zealots in the cause, until it 
 amounted to one hundred and forty thousand. Of all this,, Muslim 
 sent repeated accounts to Hosein ; urging him to come on, and 
 assuring him that the conspiracy had been on with such secrecy, 
 that Nu'man Ibn Baschir, the governor of Cufa., had no suspicion 
 of it 
 
 But though the conspiracy had escaped the vigilance of Xu'man, 
 intimation of it had reached the Caliph Yezid at Damascus, who 
 sent instant orders to Obeid'allah, the Emir of Bassora, to repair 
 with all speed to Cufa, displace its negligent governor, and take 
 that place likewise under his command. 
 
 Obeid'allah was the son of Ziyad, and inherited all the energy of 
 his father. Aware that the moment was critical, he set off from 
 Bassora with about a score of fleet horsemen. The people of Cufa 
 were on the look out for the arrival of Hosein, which was daily 
 expected, when Obeid'allah rode into the city in the twilight at the 
 head of his troopers. He wore a black turban, as was the custom 
 likewise with Hosein. The populace crowded round him, hailing 
 the supposed grandson of the prophet. 
 
 "Stand off!" cried the horsemen fiercely. < It is the emir 
 Obeid'allah." 
 
 The crowd shrank back abashed and disappointed, and the emir 
 rode on to the castle. The popular chagrin increased when it was 
 known that he had command of the province ; for he was reputed 
 a second Ziyad in energy and decision. His measures soon proved 
 his claims to that character. He discovered and disconcerted the 
 plans of the conspirators ; drove Muslim to a premature outbreak; 
 dispersed his hasty levy, and took him prisoner. The latter shed 
 bitter tears on his capture; not on his own account, but on the ac- 
 count of Hosein, whom he feared his letters and sanguine repre- 
 sentations had involved in ruin, by inducing him to come on to 
 Cufa. The head of Muslim was struck off and sent to the Caliph. 
 
 His letters had indeed produced the dreaded effect. On receiving 
 them Hosein prepared to comply with the earnest invitation of the 
 people of Cufa. It was in vain his friends reminded him of the pro- 
 verbial faithlessness of these people; it was in vain they urged him 
 to wait until they "had committed themselves, by openly taking the 
 field. It was in vain that his near relative Abdallah Ibn Abbas 
 urged him at least, to leave the females of his family at Mecca ; 
 lest he should be massacred in the midst of them, like the Caliph 
 Olhman. Hosein in the true spirit of a Moslem and predeslinarian 
 declared he would leave the event to God ; and accordingly set out 
 with his wives and children, and a number of his relatives, escorted 
 by a handful of Arab troops. 
 
 , Arrived in the confines of Babylonia, he was met by a body of a 
 thousand horse, led on b\ Harro, an Arab of the tribe of Temimah. 
 He at first supposed them to be a detachment o/his partisans, sent 
 to meet him, but was soon informed by Harro, that he came from 
 the emir Obeid'allah to conduct him and all the people with him 
 to Cufa. 
 
 Hosein haughtily refused to submit to the emir's orders ; and
 
 YEZID. 335 
 
 represented that he came in peace, invited by the inhabitants of 
 Cufa, as the rightful Caliph. He set forth at the same time, the 
 justice of his claims, and endeavoured to enlist Harro in his cause, 
 but the latter, though in no wise hostile to him, avoided com- 
 mitting himself, and urged him to proceed quietly to Cufa under 
 his escort. 
 
 While they were yet discoursing, four horsemen rode up accom- 
 panied by a guide. One of these named Thirmah was known to 
 Hosein, and was reluctantly permitted by Harro to converse with 
 him apart. Hosein inquired about the situation of things at Cufa. 
 " The nobles," replied the other, " are now against you to a man ; 
 some of the common people are still with you, by to-morrow, 
 however, not a scimetar but will be unsheathed against you." 
 
 Hosein inquired about Kais, a messenger whom he had sent in 
 advance to apprise his adherents of his approach. He had been 
 seized on suspicion; ordered as a test by Obeid'allah to curse 
 Hosein and his father Ali, and on his refusing had been thrown 
 headlong from the top of the citadel. 
 
 Hosein shed tears at hearing the fate of his faithful messenger. 
 "There be some," said he, in the words of the Koran, "who are 
 already dead, and some who living expect death. Let their man- 
 sions, Oh God, be in the gardens of paradise, and receive us with 
 them to thy mercy." 
 
 Thirmah represented to Hosein that his handful of followers 
 would be of no avail against the host prepared to oppose him in the 
 plains of Cufa, and offered to conduct him to the impregnable 
 mountains of Aja, in the province of Naja, where ten thousand men 
 of the tribe of Tay might soon be assembled to defend him. He 
 declined his advice, however, and advanced towards Kadesia, the 
 place famous for the victory over the Persians. Harro and his ca- 
 valry kept pace with him, watching every movement, but offering 
 no molestation. The mind of Hosein, however, was darkened by 
 gloomy forebodings. A stupor at times hung over his faculties as 
 he rode slowly along ; he appeared to be haunted with a presenti- 
 ment of death. "\\e belong to God and to God we must return," 
 exclaimed he as he roused himself at one time from a dream or 
 reverie. He had beheld in his phantasy, a horseman who had 
 addressed him in warning words, " men travel in the night, and their 
 destiny travels in the night to meet them." This he pronounced a 
 messenger of death. 
 
 In this dubious and desponding mood he was brought to a halt, 
 near the banks of the Euphrates, by the appearance of four thou- 
 sand men, in hostile array, commanded by Amar Ibn Saad. These, 
 likewise, had been sent out by the emir Obeid'allah, who was full 
 of uneasiness lest there should be some popular movement in favour 
 of Hossein. The latter, however, was painfully convinced by this 
 repeated appearance of hostile troops, without any armament in 
 his favour, that the fickle people of Cufa were faithless to him. 
 He held a parley with Amar, who was a pious and good man, and 
 had come out very unwillingly against a descendant of the prophet, 
 stated to him the manner in which he had been deceived by the 
 people of Cufa, and now offered to return to Mecca. Amar des-
 
 336 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 patched a fleet messenger to apprise the emir of this favourable offer, 
 hoping to be excused from using violence against Hosein. Obeid'- 
 allah wrote in reply: "Get between him and the Euphrates, cut 
 him off from the water as he did Othman ; force him to acknow- 
 ledge allegiance to Yezid, and then we will treat of terms." 
 
 Amar obeyed these orders with reluctance, and the little camp 
 of Hosein suffered the extremities of thirst. Still he could not be 
 brought to acknowledge Yezid as Caliph. He now offered three 
 things, either to go to Damascus and negotiate matters personally 
 with Yezid; to return into Ar..bia ; or to repair to some frontier post 
 in Khorassan and fight against the Turks. These terms were like- 
 wise transmitted by Amar to Obeid'allah. 
 
 The emir was exasperated at these delays, which he considered as 
 intended to gain time for tampering with the public feeling. His 
 next letter to Amar was brief and explicit. "If Hosein and his men 
 submit and take the oath of allegiance, treat them kindly; if they 
 refuse, slay them ride over them trample them under the 
 feet of thy horses !" This letter was sent by Shamar, a w : arrior 
 of note, and of a fierce spirit. He had private instructions. "If 
 Amar fail to do as I have ordered, strike off his head and take com- 
 mand of his troops." He was furnished also with a letter of pro- 
 tection, and passports for four of the sons of A15, who had accom- 
 panied their brother Hosein. 
 
 Amar, on receiving the letter of the emir, had another parley 
 with Hosein. He found him in front of his tent conversing with his 
 brother Al Abbas, just after the hour of evening prayer, and made 
 known to him the peremptory demand of the emir and its alterna- 
 tive. He also produced the letter of protection and the passports 
 for his brothers, but they refused to accept them. 
 
 Hosein obtained a truce until the morning to consider the de- 
 mand of the emir; but his mind was already made up. He saw that 
 all hope of honourable terms was vain, and he resolved to die. 
 
 After the departure of Amar, he remained seated nlone at the 
 door of his tent, leaning on his sword, lost in gloomy cogitation on 
 the fate of the coming day. A heaviness again came over him, with 
 the same kind of portentous fantasies that he had already expe- 
 rienced. The approach of his favourite sister, Zenaid, roused him. 
 He regarded her with mournful significance. "I have just seen," 
 said he, "in a dream, our grandsire the prophet, and he said, 
 ' Thou wilt soon be with me in paradise.' " 
 
 The boding mind of Zenaib interpreted the portent. "Woe 
 unto us and our family," cried she, smiling her breast ; <<our mo- 
 ther Fatima is dead, and our father Ali and our brother Hassan! 
 Alas for the desolation of the past and the destruction that is to 
 come!" So saying her grief overcame her, and she fell into a 
 swoon. Hosein raised her tenderly, sprinkled water in her face, 
 and restored her to consciousness. He entreated her to rely with 
 confidence on God, reminding her that all the people of the earth 
 must die, and every thing that exists must perish, but that God, 
 who created them, would restore them and take them to himself. 
 "My father, and my mother, and my brother," said he, "were 
 better than I, yet they died, and every Moslem has had an example
 
 YEZID. 337 
 
 in the death of the apostle of God. " Taking her then by the hand, 
 he led her into the tent, charging her, in case of his death, not to 
 give way thus to immoderate sorrow. 
 
 He next addressed his friends and followers. "These troops by 
 whom we are surrounded," said he, "seek no life but mine, and 
 will be contented with my death. Tarry not with me, therefore, to 
 your destruction, but leave me to my fate." 
 
 "God forbid," cried Al Abbas,- "that we should survive your 
 fall;" and his words were echoed by the rest. 
 
 Seeing his little band thus determined to share his desperate for- 
 tunes, Hosein prepared to sell their lives dear, and make their 
 deaths a memorable sacrifice. By his orders all the tents were 
 disposed in two lines, and the cords interwoven so as to form bar- 
 riers on both sides of the camp, while a deep trench in the rear 
 was filled with wood, to be set on fire in case of attack. It was 
 assailable, therefore, only in front. This done, the devoted band, 
 conscious that the next day w r as to be their last, passed the night in 
 prayer ; while a troop of the enemy's horse kept riding round to 
 prevent their escape. 
 
 AVhen the morning dawned, Hosein prepared for battle. His whole 
 force amounted only to two-score foot soldiers, and two-and-thirty 
 horse; but all were animated with the spirit of maityrs. Hosein 
 and several of his chief men washed, anointed, and perfumed them- 
 selves; "for in a little while," said they, "we shall be with the 
 blackeyed Houris of paradise." 
 
 His steadfastness of soul, however, was shaken by the loud la- 
 mentations of his sisters and daughters, and the thought of the ex- 
 posed and desolate slate in which his death would leave them. 
 He called to mind, too, the advice which he had neglected of 
 Abdallah Ibn Abbas, to leave his women in safety at Mecca. "God 
 will reward thee, Abdallah ! " exclaimed he in the fulness of his 
 feelings. 
 
 A squadron of thirty horse, headed by Harro, now wheeled up, 
 but they came as friends and allies. Harro repented him of hav- 
 ing given the first check to Hosein, and now came in atonement to 
 fight and die for him. " Alas for you, men of Cufa ! " cried he, as 
 Amar and his troops approached; "you have invited the descen- 
 dant of the prophet to your city, and now 7 you come to fight against 
 him. You have cut off from him and his family the waters of the 
 Euphrates, which are free even to infidels and the beasts of the field, 
 and have shut him up like a lion in the toils." 
 
 Amar began to justify himself and to plead the orders of the emir; 
 but the fierce Shamar cut short all parley by letting fly an arrow 
 into the camp of Hosein; calling all to witness that he struck the 
 first blow. A skirmish ensued, but the men of Hosein kept within 
 their camp, where they could only be reached by the archers, 
 From time to time there were single combats in defiance, as w r as 
 customary with the Arabs. In these the greatest loss was on the 
 side of the enemy, for Hoseiu's men fought with the desperation o 
 men resolved on death. 
 
 Amar now made a general assault, but the camp being open 
 only in front, was successfully defended. Shamar and his fol- 
 
 22
 
 333 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 lowers attempted to pull down the tents, but met with vigorous re- 
 sistance. He thrust his lance through the tent of Hosein, and called 
 for fire to burn it. The women ran out shrjeking. " The fire of 
 Jehennam be thy portion!" cried Hosein "wouldst thou destroy 
 my family?" 
 
 Even the savage Shamar stayed his hand at the sight of defence- 
 less women, and he and his band drew 7 off with the loss of several 
 of their number. 
 
 Both parties desisted from the light at the hour of noontide 
 prayer ; and Hosein put up the prayer of Fear, which is only used 
 in time of extremity. 
 
 "When the prayers were over the enemy renewed the assault, 
 but chiefly with arrows from a distance. The faithful followers of 
 Hosein were picked off one by one, until he was left almost alone ; 
 yet no one ventured to close upon him. An arrow from a distance 
 pierced his little son Abdallah, whom he had upon his knee. 
 Hosein caught his blood in the hollow of his hand and threw it to- 
 ward heaven. "Oh God," exclaimed he, " if thou withhoklest 
 help from us, at least take vengeance on the wicked for this inno- 
 cent blood." 
 
 His nephew, a beautiful child with jewels in his ears, was likewise 
 wounded in his arms. "Allah will receive thee, my child," said 
 Hosein; "thou wilt soon be with thy forefathers in paradise." 
 
 At this moment Zeinab rushed forth imprecating the vengeance 
 of Heaven upon the murderers of her family. Her voice was over- 
 powered by the oaths and curses of Shamar, who closed with his 
 men upon Hosein. The latter fought desperately, and laid many 
 dead around him, but his strength was failing him ; it became a 
 massacre rather than a fight : he sank to the earth, and was stripped 
 ere life was extinct. Thirty wounds were counted in his body, 
 and four-and-thirty bruises. His head was then cut off to be sent 
 to Obeid'allah, and Shamar, with his troops, rode forward and 
 backward over the body, as he had been ordered, until it was 
 trampled into the earth. 
 
 Seventy- two followers of Hosein were slain in this massacre ; 
 seventeen of whom were descendants from Fatima. Eighty-eight 
 of the enemy were killed, and a great number wounded. All the 
 arms and furniture of Hosein and his family were taken as lawful 
 spoils, although against the command of Amar. 
 
 Shamar despatched one of his troopers to bear the head of Hosein 
 to the emir Obeid'allah. He rode with all speed, but arrived at 
 Cufa after the gates of the castle were closed. Taking the gory 
 trophy to his own house until morning, he showed it with triumph 
 to his wife ; but she shrank from him with horror, as one guilty of 
 the greatest outrage to the family of the prophet ; and from that 
 time forward renounced all intercourse with him, 
 
 When the head was presented to Obeid'allah, he smote it on the 
 mouth with his staff. A venerable Arab present was shocked at 
 his impiety. "By Allah!" exclaimed he, "I have seen those lips 
 pressed by the sacred lips of the prophet ! " 
 
 As Obeid'allah went forth from the citadel, he beheld several 
 women, meanly attired and seated disconsolately on the ground at
 
 YEZID. 339 
 
 the threshold. He had to demand three times who they were, be- 
 fore he was told that it was Zeinab, sister of Hosein, and her mai- 
 dens. " Allah be praised," cried he with ungenerous exultation, 
 "who has brought this proud woman to shame, and wrought death 
 upon her family." "Allah be praised," retorted Zeinab haughti- 
 ly, "who hath glorified our family by his holy apostle Mahomet. 
 As to my kindred, death was decreed to them, and they have gone 
 to their resting-place ; but God will bring you and them together, 
 and will judge between you." 
 
 The wrath of the emir was inflamed by this reply, and his 
 friends, fearful he might be provoked to an act of violence, re- 
 minded him that she was a woman and unvorthy of his anger. 
 
 "Enough," cried he, "let her revile ; Allah has given my soul 
 full satisfaction in the death of her brother, and the ruin of her re- 
 bellious race." 
 
 "True ! " replied Zeinab, " you have indeed destroyed our men, 
 and cut us up root and branch. If that be any satisfaction to your 
 soul, you have it." 
 
 The emir looked at her with surprise. "Thou art indeed," 
 said he, "a worthy descendant of Ali, who was a poet and. a man 
 of courage. " 
 
 " Courage," replied Zeinab, (e is not a woman's attribute ; but 
 what my heart dictates, my tongue shall utter." 
 
 The emir cast his eyes on Ali, the son of Hosein, a youth just 
 approaching manhood, and ordered him to be beheaded. The 
 proud heart of Zeinab now gave way. Bursting into tears she flung 
 her arms round her nephew. fi Hast thou not drunk deep enough 
 of the blood of our family? " cried she to Obeid'allah ; " and dost 
 thou thirst for the blood of this youth ? Take mine too with it ; 
 and let me die with him." 
 
 The emir gazed on her again, and with greater astonishment ; 
 he mused for awhile, debating with himself, for he was disposed to 
 slay the lad ; but was moved by the tenderness of Zeinab. At 
 length his better feelings prevailed, and the life of Ali was spared. 
 
 The head of Hosein was transmitted to the Caliph Yezid, at Da- 
 mascus, in charge of the savage-hearted Shamar ; and with it were 
 sent Zeinab and her women, and the youth Ali. The latter had a 
 chain round his neck, but the youth carried himself proudly, and 
 would never vouchsafe a word to his conductors. 
 
 "When Shamar presented the head with the greetings of 
 Obeid'allah, the Caliph shed tears, for he recalled the dying 
 counsel of his father with respect to the son of Ali. " Oh Hosein ! " 
 ejaculated he, "hadst thou fallen into my hands thou wouldst not 
 have been slain." Then giving vent to his indignation against the 
 absent Obeid'allah, "The curse of God," exclaimed he, "be upon 
 the son of Somyah." * 
 
 He had been urged by one of his courtiers to kill Ali, and ex- 
 tinguish the whole generation of Hosein, but milder counsels pre- 
 vailed. When the women and children were brought before him, 
 
 i A sneer al Obeid'allah's illegitimate descent from Somyah, the wife of a Greek 
 slave.
 
 340 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 in presence of the Syrian nobility, he was shocked at their mean 
 attire, and again uttered a malediction on Obeid'allah. In con- 
 versing with Zeinab, he spoke with disparagement of her father 
 Ah' and her brother Hosein, but the proud heart of this intrepid 
 woman again rose to her lips, and she replied with a noble scorn 
 and just invective, that shamed him to silence. 
 
 Yezid now had Zeinab and the other females of the family of 
 Hosein treated wilh proper respect ; baths were provided for them, 
 and apparel suited to their rank ; they were entertained in his pa- 
 lace, and the widowed wives of his father Moawy ah came and kept 
 them company, and joined with them in mourning for Hosein. 
 Yezid acted also with great kindness toward Ali and Amru, the 
 sons of Hosein, taking them with him in his walks. Amru was as 
 yet a mere child. Yezid asked him one day jestingly, " Wilt 
 thou fight with my son Khaled ? " The urchin's eye flashed fire. 
 "Give him a knife," cried he, "and give me one!" "Beware 
 of this child," said a crafty old courtier who stood by, and who 
 was an enemy to the house of Ali. " Beware of this child, depend 
 upon it, one serpent is the parent of another." 
 
 After a time when the family of Hosein wished to depart for 
 Medina, Yezid furnished them abundantly with every comfort for 
 the journey, and a safe convoy under a careful officer, who treated 
 them with all due deference. When their journey was accom- 
 plished, Zeinab and Fatirna, the young daughter of Hosein, would 
 have presented their conductor with some of their jewels, but the 
 worthy Syrian declined their offer. "Had I acted for reward," 
 said he, less than these jewels would have sufficed ; but what I have 
 done, was for the love of God, and for the sake of your relation- 
 ship to the prophet." 
 
 The Persians hold the memory of Hosein in great veneration, 
 entitling iiim Shaded or the Martyr, and Seyejed or Lord; and he 
 and his lineal descendants for nine generations are enrolled among 
 the twelve Imams or Pontiffs of the Persian creed. The anni- 
 versary of his martyrdom is called Rus Hosein (the day of Hosein) , 
 and is kept with great solemnity. A splendid monument was 
 erected in after years on the spot where he fell, and was called in 
 Arabic Meshed Hosein, The Sepulchre of Hosein. The Shyites, or 
 sectaries of Ali, relate divers prodigies as having signalized his 
 martyrdom. The sun withdrew his light, the stars twinkled at 
 noonday and clashed against each other, and the clouds rained 
 showers of blood. A supernatural light beamed from the head of 
 the martyr, and a flock of white birds hovered around it. These 
 miracles, however, are all stoutly denied by the sect of Moslems 
 called Sonnites, who hold Ali and his race in abomination.
 
 YEZID. 341 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII. 
 
 lasurreclion of Abdallah Ibn Zobeir. Medina taken and sacked. Mecca besieged. 
 Death of Yezid. 
 
 The death of Hosein had removed one formidable rival of Yezid ; 
 but gave strength to the claims of another, who was scarcely less 
 popular. This was Abdallah., the son of Zobeir; honoured for his 
 devotion to the faith; beloved for the amenity of his manners, and 
 of such adroit policy, that he soon managed to be proclaimed Ca- 
 liph, by the partisans of the house of Haschem, and a large portion 
 of the people of Medina and Mecca. The martyrdom, as he termed 
 it, of Hosein furnished him a theme for public harangues, with 
 which, after his inauguration, he sought to sway the popular 
 feelings. He called to mind the virtues of that grandson of the 
 prophet, his pious watchings, fastings, and prayers ; the perfidy of 
 the people of Cufa, to which he had fallen a victim; the lofty he- 
 roism of his latter moments, and the savage atrocities which had 
 accompanied his murder. The public mind was heated by these 
 speeches; the enthusiasm awakened for the memory of Hosein was 
 extended to his politic eulogist. An Egyptian soothsayer, famed 
 for skill in divination, and who had studied the prophet Daniel, 
 declared that Abdallah would live and die a king ; and this operated 
 powerfully in his favour among the superstitious Arabs, so that his 
 party rapidly increased in numbers. 
 
 The Caliph Yezid, although almost all the provinces of the em- 
 pire were still in .allegiance to him, was alarmed at the movements 
 of this new rival. He affected, however to regard him with con- 
 tempt, and sent a silver collar to Merwan Ibn Hakein, then go- 
 vernor of Medina, directing him to put it round the neck of the 
 " mock Caliph," should he persist in his folly, and send him in 
 chains to Damascus. Merwan, however, who was of a wily cha- 
 racter himself, and aware of the craft and courage of Abdallah and 
 his growing popularity in Medina, evaded the execution of the 
 order. 
 
 Yezid had no better success in his endeavours to crush the 
 rising power of Abdallah at Mecca. In vain he repeatedly changed 
 his governors of that city ; each in his turn was outwitted by the 
 superior sagacity of Abdallah, or overawed by the turbulent dis- 
 content of the people. 
 
 Various negotiations took place between Yezid and these disaf- 
 fected cities, and despatches were sent from the latter to Damascus : 
 but these only rendered the schism in the Caliphat more threatening 
 The deputies brought back accounts of the dissolute life of Yezid ;< 
 which shocked the pious and abstemious Arabs of the sacred cities. 
 They represented him as destitute of religion and morality; ne- 
 glectful of the hours of worship ; a gross sensualist addicted to
 
 345 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 wine and banqueting ; an effeminate voluptuary, passing his time 
 amid singing and dancing women, listening to music and loose 
 minstrelsy, and surrounded by dogs and eunuchs. 
 
 The contempt and loathing caused by their representations 
 were fomented by the partisans of Abdallah Urn Zobeir, and 
 extended to the whole house of Ommiah, of which Yezid was a 
 member. Open rebellion at length broke out in a manner cha- 
 racteristic of the Arabs. During an assemblage in the mosque of 
 Medina, one of the conspirators threw his turban on the ground, 
 exclaiming, " i cast off Yezid as I cast off this turban." Another 
 seconded him with the exclamation, " I cast off Yezid as I cast 
 off this shoe." Heaps of shoes and turbans soon showed that the 
 feeling was unanimous. 
 
 The next move was to banish the house of Ommiah and all its 
 dependents ; but these, to the number of a thousand, took refuge 
 in the palace of MerwAn Ibn Hakem, the governor, who was of 
 that race. Here they were closely besieged and sent off to Yezid, 
 imploring instant succour. 
 
 It was with difficulty Yezid could prevail upon any of his gene- 
 rals to engage in so unpopular a cause. Meslem Ibn Okbah, a 
 stout-hearted but infirm old general, at length undertook it ; but 
 observed, with contempt, that a thousand men who suffered them- 
 selves to be cooped up like fowls, without fighting, scarce deserved 
 assistance. 
 
 \Vhen the troops were about to depart, Yezid rode about among 
 them, his scimetar by his side, and an Arab bow across his shoul- 
 der, calling upon them to show their loyalty and courage. His 
 instructions to Meslem were to summon the city of Medina, three 
 days in succession, before he made any assault ; if it refused to 
 surrender, he should, after taking it, give it up to three days', 
 pillage. He charged him, however, to be careful of the safety of 
 the youth Ali, son of Hosein, who was in the city, but had taken 
 no part in the rebellion. 
 
 Meslem departed at the head of twelve thousand horse and five 
 thousand foot. >Vhcn he arrived before Medina he found a huge 
 trench digged round the city, and great preparations made for 
 defence. On three successive days he summoned it to surrender, 
 and on each day received a refusal. On the fourth day he attacked 
 it by storm, making his assault on the east side, that the besieged 
 might be blinded by the rising sun. The city held out until most 
 of its prime leaders were slain ; it would then have capitulated, 
 but the stern old general compelled an unconditional surrender. 
 
 Meslem entered the city sword in hand, and sent instantly for 
 Ali, the youthful son of Hosein, whom he placed on his own camel, 
 and furnished with a trusty guard. His next care was to release 
 the thousand men of the house of Ommiah from confinement, lest 
 they should be involved in the sacking cf the city; this done, he 
 abandoned the place for three days to his soldiery, and a scene of 
 slaughter, violence, and rapine ensued, too horrible to be detailed. 
 Those of the inhabitants Mho survived the massacre were compelled 
 to submit as slaves and vassals of Yezid. The rigid severity of 
 old Meslem, which far surpassed his orders, gained him the appel-
 
 YEZID. 343 
 
 lation of Musreph, or, The Extortionate. His memory has ever 
 been held in odium by the Moslems, for the outrages which he 
 permitted in this sacred city. This capture of Medina took place 
 at night, in the sixty-third year of the Hegira, and the year 682 of 
 the Christian era. 
 
 The old general now marched on to wreak the same fate upon 
 Mecca; but his fires were burnt out; he died on the march of fa- 
 tigue, infirmity, and old age. and the command devolved on a 
 Syrian general named Hozein Ibn Thamir. The latter led his 
 force up to the walls of Mecca, where Abdallah Ibn Zobeir com- 
 manded in person. For the space of forty days he besieged the 
 city; battering the walls with engines brought from Syria. In the 
 course of the siege a part of the Caaba was beaten down and the 
 rest burnt. Some ascribe the fire to the engines of the besiegers ; 
 others affirm that Abdallah, hearing a shouting in the night, caused 
 a flaming brand to be elevated on a lance to discover the cause, 
 and that the fire communicated to the veil which covered the edifice. 
 
 Mecca was reduced to extremity, and the inhabitants began to 
 dread the fate of Medina, when a swift messenger brought to Ab- 
 dallah Ibn Zobeir the joyful tidings of the death of Yezid. He 
 immediately mounted the walls and demanded of the besiegers 
 why they continued to fight, seeing that their master Yezid was no 
 more. They regarded his words as a mere subterfuge, and conti- 
 nued the attack with increased vigour. The intelligence, however, 
 was speedily confirmed. 
 
 Hozein now held a conference with Abdallah ; he expressed an 
 ardent desire to put an end to all further effusion of kindred 
 blood; and proffered the allegiance of himself and his army, in 
 which were some of the leading men of Syria. Abdallah, for once, 
 was too cautious for his own good. He shrank from trusting him- 
 self with Hozein and his army; he permitted them, however, at 
 their earnest request, to walk in religious procession round the 
 ruins of the Caaba, of course without arms ; after which Hozein 
 and his host departed on the march homeward ; -and the late be- 
 leaguered family of Otnmiah accompanied them to Syria. 
 
 The death of the Caliph Yezid took place at Hawwarin, in Syria, 
 in the sixty-fourth year of the Hegira, A. D. 683, in the thirty-ninth 
 year of his age, after a reign of three years and six months. He 
 was cut down in the flower of his days, say the Moslem writers, in 
 consequence of his impiety in ordering the sacking of Medina, the 
 burial-place of the prophet; for the latter had predicted, "Whoever 
 injureth Medina, shall melt away even as salt melteth in water." 
 The Persian writers also, sectarians of AH, hold the memory of 
 Yezid in abhorrence, charging him with the death of Hassan and 
 Hosein, and accompany his name with the imprecation, " May he 
 be accursed of God!"
 
 MAHOMET AM) HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII. 
 
 Inauguration of Moawyah II, eighth Caliph. His abdication and death. -Merwan Ibn 
 Hakem and Abdallah Ibn Zobeir, rival Caliphs. Civil wars in Syria. 
 
 On the death of Yezid, his son , Moawyah II, was proclaimed 
 at. Damascus, being the third Caliph of the house of Ommiah. 
 He was in the twenty-first year of his age, feeble in mind and body, 
 and swayed in his opinions and actions by his favourite teacher Omar 
 Almeksus, of the sect of the Kadarii, who maintain the free- 
 will of men, and that a contrary opinion would make God the 
 author of sin. 
 
 Moawyah assumed the supreme authority with extreme re- 
 luctance, and felt his incompetency to its duties ; for the state 
 of his health obliged him to shun daylight, and keep in dark- 
 ened rooms; whence the Arabs, in their propensity to bynames, 
 gave him the derisive appellation of Abuleilah, "Father of the 
 Night." 
 
 He abdicated at the end of six months, alleging his incom- 
 petency. The Ommiades were indignant at his conduct ; they at- 
 tributed it, and probably with reason, to the counsels of the sage 
 Omar Almeksus, on whom they are said to have wreaked their rage 
 by burying him alive. 
 
 Moawyah refused to nominate a successor. His grandfather 
 Moawyah, he said, had wrested the sceptre from the hands of a 
 better man ; his father Yezid had not merited so great a trust, and 
 he himself, being unworthy and unfit to Avield it, was equally 
 unworthy to appoint a successor; he left the election, therefore, 
 to the chiefs of the people. In all which he probably spake accord- 
 ing to the dictates of the sage Omar Almeksus. 
 
 As soon as he had thrown off the cares of government, he shut 
 himself up in the twilight gloom of his chamber, whence he never 
 stirred until his death ; which happened soon after : caused, some 
 say, by the plague, others by poison. His own diseased frame and 
 morbid temperament, however, account sufficiently for his dis- 
 solution. 
 
 The election of a Caliph again distracted the Moslem empire. 
 The leading men at Damascus determined upon Merwfln Ibn 
 Hafcem, of the family of Ommiah, and once the secretary of state 
 of Othman, who had so craftily managed the correspondence of 
 that unfortunate Caliph. He was now well stricken in years; tall 
 and meagre, with, a pale face and yellow beard, doubtless tinged 
 according to oriental usage. Those who elected him took care to 
 stipulate that he should not nominate any of his posterity as his 
 successor; but should be succeeded by Khaled, the son of Yezid; 
 as yet a minor. Mervdn, in his eagerness, for power, pledged himself 
 without hesitation ; how faithfully he redeemed his pledge will be 
 seen hereafter.
 
 MERWAN AND ABDALLAH. 345 
 
 While this election was held at Damascus, Abdallah Ibn Zobeir 
 Was acknowledged as Caliph in Mecca, Medina, and throughout 
 Arabia, as also in Korassan, in Babylonia, and in Egypt. 
 
 Another candidate for the supreme power unexpectedly arose 
 in Obeid'allah Ibn Ziyad, the emir of Bassora ; the same who had 
 caused the massacre of Hosein. He harangued an assemblage of 
 the people of Bassora on the state of the contending factions in 
 Syria and Arabia; the importance of their own portion of the em- 
 pire, so capable of sustaining itself in independence, and the policy 
 of appointing some able person as a protector to watch over the 
 public weal, until these dissensions should cease, and a Caliph be 
 unanimously appointed. The assembly was convinced by his reason- 
 ing, and urged him to accept the appointment. He declined it 
 repeatedly with politic grace, but was at length prevailed upon ; 
 and the leaders gave him their hands, promising allegiance to him 
 as a provisional chief, until a Caliph should be regurlarly elected. 
 His authority, however, was but of short duration. The people of 
 Cufa, who had experienced his tyranny as governor, rejected with 
 scorn his election as protector ; their example reacted upon the 
 fickle Bassorians, who suddenly revoked their late act of allegiance, 
 rose in tumultuous opposition to the man they had so recently 
 honoured, and Obeid'allah was fain to disguise himself in female 
 attire, and take refuge in the house of an adherent. During his 
 sway, however, he had secured an immense amount of gold from 
 the public treasury. This he now shared among his partisans, and 
 distributed by handsful among the multitude : but though he 
 squandered in this way above two hundred thousand pieces of gold 
 upon the populace, and raised a few transient tumults in his favour, 
 he was ultimately obliged to fly for his life, and his effects were pil- 
 laged by the rabble. So fared it with the temporary tyrant who 
 smote the gory head of the virtuous Hosein. 
 
 He fled by night at the head of only a hundred men ; after a time 
 weariness compelled him to exchange the camel on which he was 
 mounted for an ass. In this humble plight, with drooping head, 
 and legs dangling to the ground, journeyed the imperious Obeid'- 
 allah, who, but the day before, was governor of Babylonia, and 
 aspired to the throne of the Caliphs. One of his attendants no- 
 ticing his dejection, and hearing him mutter tohimself, supposed him 
 smitten with contrition, and upbraiding himself with having incurred 
 these calamities, as a judgment for the death of Hosein : he ventured 
 to suggest his thoughts and to offer consolation ; but Obeid'allah 
 quickly let him know that his only repentance and self-reproach 
 were for not having attacked the faithless Bassorians, and struck 
 off their heads at the very outbreak of their revolt. Obeid'allah 
 effected his escape into Syria, and arrived at Damascus in time 
 to take an active part in the election of Merwa"n to the Caliph at : 
 in the meantime Bassora declared its allegiance to Abdallah Ibn 
 Zobeir. 
 
 The claims of Merwan to the Caliphat were acknowledged in 
 Syria alone, but Syria, if undivided, was an empire in itself. It 
 was divided, however. A powerful faction headed by Dehac Ibn 
 Kais, late governor of Cufa, disputed the pretensions "of Merwan,
 
 346 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 and declared for Abdallah. They appeared in arms in the plain 
 near Damascus. Merwan took the field against them in person; a 
 great and sanguinary battle took place ; Dehac and fourscore of the 
 flower of Syrian nobility \vere slain, and an immense number of 
 their adherents. Victory declared for Merwan. He called off 
 his soldiers from the pursuit, reminding them that the fugitives 
 were their brethren. 
 
 "When the head of Dehac was brougth to him he turned from it 
 with sorrow. " Alas ! " exclaimed he, " that an old and worn -out 
 man like myself, should occasion the young and vigorous to be cut 
 to pieces ! " 
 
 His troops hailed him as Caliph beyond all dispute ; and bore 
 him back in triumph to Damascus. He took up his abode in 
 the palace of his predecessors Moawyah andYezid; but now 
 came a harder part of his task. It had been stipulated that at 
 his death, Khaled the son of Yezid should be his successor; 
 it was now urged that he should marry the widow of Yezid, 
 the mother of the youth, and thus make himself his legitimate 
 guardian. 
 
 The aged Merwdn would fain have evaded this condition, but it 
 was forced upon him as a measure of policy, and he complied ; no 
 sooner, however, was the marriage solemnized than he left his 
 capital and his bride, and set off with an army for Egypt, to put 
 down the growing ascendency of Abdallah in that region. He sent 
 in advance, Amru Ibn Saad, who acted with such promptness and 
 vigour, that while the Caliph was yet on the march, he received 
 tidings that the lieutenant of Abdallah had been driven from the 
 province, and the Egyptians brought under subjection; whereupon, 
 MerwJin turned his face again toward Damascus. 
 
 Intelligence now overtook him that an army under Musab, brother 
 of Abdallah, was advancing upon Egypt. The old Caliph again faced 
 about, and resumed his march in that direction, but again was an- 
 ticipated by Amru, who routed Musab in a pitched battle, and 
 completely established the sway of Merwan over Egypt. The Caliph 
 now appointed his son Abd'alaziz to the government of that im- 
 portant country, and once more returned to Damascus, whither he 
 was soon followed by the victorious Amru. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 Stale of affairs in Khorassan.-Conspiracy at Cufa. Faction of the Penitents; their 
 fortunes. Death of the Caliph Merwan. 
 
 In the present divided state of the Moslem empire, the people of 
 Khorassan remained neuter, refusing to acknowledge either Caliph. 
 They appointed Salem, the son of Ziyad, to act as regent, until the 
 unity of the Moslem government should be restored. He continued 
 for a length of time in this station, maintaining the peace of the
 
 MERWAN AND ABDALLAH. 347 
 
 province, and winning the hearts of the inhabitants by his justice, 
 equity, and moderation. 
 
 About this time, there was a sudden awakening among the sect 
 of AH, in Babylonia. The people of Cufa, proverbially fickle and 
 faithless, were seized with tardy remorse for the fate of Hosein, of 
 which they were conscious of being the cause. Those who had not 
 personally assisted in his martyrdom, formed an association to 
 avenge his death. Above ahundred of tfi e chief men of the country 
 joined them ; they took the name of The Penitents, to express their 
 contrition for having been instrumental in the death of the martyr, 
 and they chose for their leader one of the veteran companions of 
 the prophet, the venerable Solyman Ibn Sorad, who devoted his 
 gray hairs to this pious vengeance. 
 
 The awakening spread far and wide ; in a little while upwards 
 of sixteen thousand names were enrolled ; a general appeal to arms 
 was anticipated throughout the country, and the veteran Solyman 
 called upon all true Moslems disposed to prosecute this " holy 
 war," to assemble at a place called Nochaila. Before the appointed 
 time, however, the temporary remorse of the people of Gufa had 
 subsided; the enthusiasm for the memory of Hosein had cooled 
 throughout the province ; intriguing meddlers, jealous of the ap- 
 pointment of Solyman, had been at work, and when the veteran 
 came to the place of assemblage, he found but an inconsiderable 
 number prepared for action. 
 
 He now despatched two horsemen to Cufa, who arrived there at 
 the hour of the last evening prayer, galloped through the streets to 
 the great mosque, rousing the Penitents with the war cry of " Ven- 
 geance for Hosein." The call was not lost on the real enthusiasts; 
 a kind of madness seized upon many of the people, who thronged 
 after the couriers, echoing the cry of vengeance. The cry pene- 
 trated into the depths of the houses. One man tore himself from 
 the arms of a beautiful and tenderly beloved wife, and began to 
 arm for battle, She asked him if he were mad. "No!" cried he, 
 " but I hear the summons of the herald of God, and I fly to avenge 
 the death of Hosein." "And in whose protection do you leave our 
 child?" " I commend him and thee to the protection of Allah ! " 
 So saying he departed. 
 
 Another called for a lance and steed; told his daughter that he 
 fled from crime to penitence ; took a hurried leave of his family 
 and galloped to the camp of Solyman. 
 
 Still, when the army of Penitents was mustered on the following 
 day it did not exceed four thousand. Solyman flattered himself, 
 however, that reinforcements, promised him from various quarters 
 would join him when on the march. He harangued his scanty 
 host, roused their ardour, and inarched them to the place of Hosein's 
 murder, where they passed a day and night in prayer and lamen- 
 tation. They then resumed their march. Their intention was to 
 depose both Caliphs, Merwan and Abdallah ; to overthrow the family 
 of Ommiali, and restore the throne to (he house of Ali ; but their 
 first object was vengeance on Obeid'allah, the son of Ziyad, to 
 whom they chiefly ascribed the murder of Hosein. The aged Soly- 
 man led his little army of enthusiasts through Syria, continually
 
 348 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 disappointed of recruits, but unabated in their expectation of aid 
 from heaven, until they were encountered by Obeid'allah with an 
 army of twenty thousand horsemen, and cut in pieces. 
 
 In the midst of these internal feuds and dissensions, a spark of 
 the old Saracen spirit was aroused by the news of disastrous reverses 
 in Northern Africa. We have recorded in a former chapter, the 
 heroic but disastrous end of Acbah on the plains of Numidia, where 
 he and his little army were massacred by a Berber host, led on by 
 Aben Cahiua. That Moorish chieftain, while flushed with victory, 
 had been defeated by Zohair before the walls of Gaerwan, and the 
 spirits of the Moslems had once more revived ; especially on the 
 arrival of reinforcements sent by Abd'alaziz from Egypt. A sad 
 reverse, however, again took place. A large force of imperialists, 
 veteran and well armed soldiers from Constantinople, were landed 
 on the African coast to take advantage of the domestic troubles of 
 the Moslems, and drive them from their African possessions. Being 
 joined by the light troops of Barbary, they attacked Zobeir in open 
 field. He fought long and desperately, but being deserted by the 
 Egyptian reinforcements, and overpowered by numbers, was com- 
 pelled to retreat to Barca, while the conquering foe marched on to 
 Caerwan, captured that city, and made themselves masters of the 
 surrounding country. 
 
 It was the tidings of this disastrous reverse, and of the loss of 
 the great outpost of Moslem conquest in Northern Africa, that 
 roused the Saracen spirit from its domestic feuds. Abd'almalec, 
 the eldest son of the Caliph Merwan, who had already served in 
 Africa, was sent with an army to assist Zobeir. He met that ge- 
 neral in Barca, where he was again collecting an army. They 
 united their forces; retraced the westward route of victory, defeated 
 the enemy in every action, and replaced the standard of the faith 
 on the walls of Caerwan. Having thus wiped out the recent dis- 
 graces, Abd'almalec left Zobeir in command of that region, and 
 returned covered with glory to sustain his aged father in the 
 Caliphat at Damascus. 
 
 The latter days of Merwan had now arrived. He had been in- 
 triguing and faithless in his youth ; he was equally so in his age. In 
 his stipulations on receiving the Caliphat, he had promised the suc- 
 cession to Khaled, the son of Yezid ; he had since promised it to 
 his nephew Amru, who had fought his battles and confirmed his 
 power; in his latter days he caused his own son Abd'almalec, fresh 
 from African exploits, to be proclaimed his successor, and allegiance 
 to be sworn to him. Khaled, his step-son, reproached him with 
 his breach of faith ; in the heat of reply, Merwan called the youth 
 by an opprobrious epithet ; which brought in question the chastity 
 of his mother. This unlucky word, is said to have caused the sud- 
 den death of Merwan. His wife, the mother of Khaled, is charged 
 with having given him poison; others say that she threw a pillow 
 on his face while he slept, and sat on it until he was suffocated. 
 He died in the 65th year of the Hegira, A. D. 68ft, after a brief 
 reign of not quite a year.
 
 ABD'ALMALEC. 349 
 
 CHAPTER L. 
 
 Inauguration of Abd'almalec, the eleventh Caliph. Story of Al Moktdr, the Avenger. 
 
 On the death of Merw^n, his son Abd'almalec was inaugurated 
 Caliph at Damascus, and acknowledged throughout Syria and 
 Egypt, as well as in the newly-conquered parts of Africa. He 
 was in the full vigour of life, being about forty years of age; his 
 achievements in Africa testify his enterprise, activity, and valour, 
 and he was distinguished for wisdom and learning. From the 
 time of his father's inauguration he had been looking forward to 
 the probability of becoming his successor, and ambition of sway 
 had taken place of the military ardour of his early youth. When 
 the intelligence of his father's death reached him, he was sitting 
 cross-legged, in oriental fashion, with the Koran open on his knees. 
 He immediately closed the sacred volume and rising exclaimed, 
 "Fare thee well, I am called to other matters." 
 
 The accession to sovereign power is said to have wrought a 
 change in his character. He had always been somewhat supersti- 
 tious ; he now became attentive to signs, omens and dreams, and 
 grew so sordid and covetous, that the Arabs, in their propensity 
 to give characteristic and satirical surnames, used to call him Raf- 
 hol Hejer, that is to say, Sweat-Stone ; equivalent to our vulgar 
 epithet of skin-flint. 
 
 Abdallah Ibn Zobeir was still acknowledged as Caliph by a 
 great portion of the Moslem dominions, and held his seat of go- 
 vernment at Mecca ; this gave him great influence over the true 
 believers, who resorted in pilgrimage to the Caaba. Abd'almalec 
 determined to establish a rival place of pilgrimage within his own 
 dominions. For this purpose he chose the temple of Jerusalem, 
 sacred in the eyes of the Moslems, as connected with the acts and 
 revelations of Moses, of Jesus, and of Mahomet, and as being sur- 
 rounded by the tombs of the prophets. He caused this sacred 
 edifice to be enlarged so as to include within its walls the steps 
 upon which the Caliph Omar prayed on the surrender of that city. 
 It was thus converted into a mosque, and the venerable and sanc- 
 tified stone called Jacob's pillow, on which the patriarch is said to 
 have had his dream, was presented for the kisses of pilgrims, in like 
 manner as the black stone of the Caaba. 
 
 There was at this time a general of bold, if not ferocious cha- 
 racter, who played a sort of independent part in the troubles and 
 commotions of the Moslem empire. He was the son of Abu 
 Obeidah, and was sometimes called Al Thakifi, from his native 
 city Thayef, but won for himself the more universal appellation 
 of Al Moktar, or the Avenger. The first notice we find of him is 
 during the short reign of Hassan, the son of Ali, being zealously 
 devoted to the family of that Caliph. We next find him at Cufa,
 
 350 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 harbouring and assisting Muslem, the emissary of Hosein, and se- 
 cretly fomenting the conspiracy in favour of the latter. When the 
 emir Obeid'allah came to Cufa, he was told of the secret practices 
 of Al Moktar, and questioned him on the subject. Receiving a 
 delusive reply, he smote him over the face with his staff and struck 
 out one of his eyes. He then cast him into prison, where he lay 
 until the massacre of Hosein. Intercessions were made in his 
 favour with the Caliph Yezid, w T ho ordered his release. The emir 
 executed the order, but gave Al Moktar notice, that if, after the 
 expiration of three days, he were found within his jurisdiction, his 
 life should be forfeit. 
 
 Al Moktar departed, uttering threats and maledictions. One of 
 his friends who met him, inquired concerning the loss of his eye. 
 " It was the act of that son of a wanton, Obeid'allah," said he, 
 bitterly, " but may Allah confound me if I do not one day cut him 
 in pieces." Blood revenge for the death of Hosein became now 
 his ruling thought. " May Allah forsake me," he would say, 
 " if I do not kill as many in vengeance of that massacre, as were 
 destroyed to avenge the blood of John, the son of Zacharias, on 
 whom be peace ! " 
 
 He now repaired to Mecca, and presented himself before Abdallah 
 Ibn Zobeir, who had recently been inaugurated; but he would not 
 take the oath of allegiance until the Caliph had declared his dispo- 
 sition to revenge the murder of Hosein. " Never," said he, " will 
 the affairs of Abdallah prosper, until I am at the head of his army 
 taking revenge for that murder. " 
 
 Al Moktar fought valiantly in defence of the sacred city while 
 besieged ; but when the siege was raised in consequence of the 
 death of Yezid, and Abdallah became generally acknowledged, he 
 found the Caliph growing cold towards him, or towards the constant 
 purpose of his thoughts; he left him therefore, and set out for 
 Cufa, visiting all the mosques on the way haranguing the people 
 on the subject of the death of Hosein and declaring himself his 
 avenger. 
 
 On arriving at Cufa, he found his self-appointed office of avenger 
 likely to be forestalled by the veteran Solyman, who was about 
 to depart on his mad enterprise with his crazy Penitents. Calling 
 together the sectaries of Ali, he produced credentials from 
 Mahomet, the brother of Hosein, which gained for him their con- 
 fidence ; and then represented to them the rashness and futility of 
 the proposed expedition ; and to his opposition may be ascribed 
 the diminished number of volunteers that assembled at the call of 
 Solyman. 
 
 "While thus occupied he was arrested on a charge of plotting an 
 insurrection with a view to seize upon the province, and was 
 thrown into the same prison in which he had been confined by 
 Obeid'allah. During his confinement he kept up a correspondence 
 with the sectaries of Ali by letters conveyed in the lining of a cap. 
 On the death of the Caliph Merwan he was released from prison, 
 and found himself head of the Allans, or powerful sect of Ali; 
 who even offered their adhesion to him as Caliph, on condition that 
 he would govern according to the Koran, and the Sonna or tradi-
 
 ABD'ALMALEC. 351 
 
 lions, and would destroy the murderers of Hosein and his family. 
 
 Al Moktar entered heartily upon the latter part of his duties, and 
 soon established his claim to the title of Avenger. The first on 
 whom he wreaked his vengeance was the ferocious Shamar, who 
 had distinguished himself in the massacre of Hosein. Him he 
 overcame and slew. The next was Caulah, who cut off the head of 
 Hosein and conveyed it to the emir Obeid'allah. Him he beleaguered 
 in his dwelling, and killed, and gave his body to the flames. His 
 next victim was Amar Ibn Saad, the commander of the army that 
 surrounded Flosein ; with him he slew his son ; and sent both of 
 their heads to Mahomet, the brolher of Hosein. He then seized 
 Adi Ibn Hathem, who had stripped the body of Hosein while the 
 limbs were yet quivering with life. Him he handed over to some of 
 the sect of AH, who stripped him, set him up as target, and discharged 
 arrows at him until they stood out from his body like the quills of a 
 porcupine. In this way Al Moktar went on, searching out the 
 murderers of Hosein wherever they were to be found, and inflicting 
 on them a diversity of deaths. 
 
 Sustained by the Allans, or sect of Ali, he now maintained a mi- 
 litary sway in Cufa, and held, in fact, a sovereign authority over 
 Babylonia ; he felt, however, that his situation was precarious ; an 
 army out of Syria, sent by Abd'almaiec, was threatening him on one 
 side; and Musab, brother of the Caliph Abdallah, was in great 
 force at Bassora menacing him on the other. He now had recourse 
 to stratagems to sustain his power, and accomplish his great 
 scheme of vengeance. He made overtures to Abdallah, offering 
 to join him with his forces. The wary Caliph suspected his sin- 
 cerity, and required, as proofs of it, the oath of allegiance from 
 himself and his people, and a detachement to proceed against the 
 army of Abd'almaiec. 
 
 Al Moktar promptly sent off an officer, named Serjabil, with 
 three thousand men, with orders to proceed to Medina. Abdallah, 
 still wary and suspicious, despatched a shrewd general, Abbas Ibn 
 Sahel, with a competent force to meet Serjabil and sound his inten- 
 tions, and if he were convinced there was lurking treachery, to act 
 accordingly. 
 
 Abbas and Serjabil encountered at the head of their troops on 
 the highway to Medina. They had an amicable conference, in 
 which Abbas thought he discovered sufficient proof of perfidy. 
 He took measures accordingly. Finding the little army of Serjabil 
 almost famished for lack of provisions, he killed a great number of 
 fat sheep and distributed them among the hungry troops. A scene 
 of hurry and glad confusion immediately took place. Some scat- 
 tered themselves about the neighbourhood in search of fuel; some 
 were cooking, some feasting. In this unguarded moment Abbas 
 set upon them with his troops, slew Serjabil, and nearly four hundred 
 of his men , but gave quarter to the rest, most of whom enlisted 
 under his standard. 
 
 Al Moktar, finding that his good faith was doubted by Abdallah, 
 wrote privately to Mahomet, brolher of Hosein, who was permitted 
 by the Caliph lo reside in Mecca, where he led a quiet, inoffensive 
 life, offering to bring a powerful army to his assistance if he would
 
 352 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 take up arms. Mahomet sent a verbal reply, assuring Al Moktar 
 of his belief in the sincerity of his offers ; but declining all appeal 
 to arms, saying he was resolved to bear his lot with patience, and 
 leave the event to God. As the messenger was departing he gave 
 him a parting word : " Bid Al Moktar fear God and abstain from 
 shedding blood." 
 
 The pious resignation and passive life of Mahomet were of no 
 avail. The suspicious eye of Abdallah was fixed upon him. The 
 Cufians of the sect of Ali, and devotees to the memory of Hosein, 
 who yielded allegiance to neither of the rival Caliphs, were still 
 permitted to make their pilgrimages to the Caaba, and when in 
 Mecca, did not fail to do honour to Mahomet Ibn Ali and his family. 
 The secret messages of Al Moktar to Mahomet were likewise known. 
 The Caliph Abdallah, suspecting a conspiracy, caused Mahomet 
 and his family, and seventeen of the principal pilgrims from Cufa, 
 to be arrested, and confined in the edifice by the sacred well Zem 
 Zem, threatening them with death, unless by a certain time they 
 gave the pledge of allegiance. 
 
 From their prison they contrived to send a letter to Al Moktar, 
 apprising him of their perilous condition. He assembled the Allans 
 or sect of Ali, at Cufa and read the letter. "This comes," said he, 
 "from Mahomet, the son of Ali, and brother of Hosein. He and his 
 family, the purest of the house of your prophet, are shut up like 
 sheep destined for the slaughter. AVill you desert them in their 
 extremity, and leave them to be massacred as you did the martyr 
 Hosein and his family ? " 
 
 The appeal was effectual ; the Allans cried out to be led to Mecca. 
 Al Moktar marshalled out seven hundred and fifty men, bold riders, 
 hard fighters, well armed and fleetly mounted, arranged them in 
 small troops to follow each other at considerable intervals , troop 
 after troop like the waves of the sea ; the leader of the first troop, 
 composed of a hundred and fifty men, was Abu Abdallah Aljodali. 
 He set off first ; the others followed at sufficient distance to be out 
 of sight, but all spurred forward, for no time was to be lost. 
 
 Abu Abdallah was the first to enter Mecca. His small troop 
 awakened no alarm. He made his way to the w r ell of Zem Zem, 
 crying "Vengeance for Hosein;" drove off the guard and broke 
 open the prison house, where he liberated Mahomet Ibn Ali and 
 his family. 
 
 The tumult brought the Caliph and his guard. Abu Abdallah 
 would have given them battle, but Mahomet interfered, and re- 
 presented that it was impious to fight within the precincts of the 
 Caaba. The Caliph, seeing the small force that was with Abdallah, 
 would on his part have proceeded to violence, when lo, the second 
 troop of hard riders spurred up ; then the third, and presently all 
 the rest ; shouting "Allah Achbar," and "Vengeance for Hosein." 
 
 The Caliph, taken by surprise, lost all presence of mind. He 
 knew the popularity of Mahomet Ibn Ali and his family, and 
 dreaded an insurrection. Abu Abdallah in the moment of 
 triumph would have put him to death, but his hand was stayed by 
 the pious and humane Mahomet. The matter was peaceably 
 adjusted. The Caliph was left unmolested ; Mahomet distributed
 
 ABD'ALMALEC. 35S 
 
 among his friends and adherents a great sum of money, which had 
 been sent to him by Al Moktar, and then with his family departed 
 in safety from Mecca. 
 
 Al Moktar had now to look to his safety at home; his old enemy 
 Obeid'allah, former emir of Cufa, was pressing forward at the head 
 of an army of the Caliph Abd'almalec, to recover that city, holding 
 out to his troops a promise of three days' sack and pillage. Al 
 Moktar called on the inhabitants to take arms against their former 
 tyrant and the murderer of Hosein. A body of troops sallied forth 
 headed by Ibrahim, the son of Alashtar. To give a mysterious 
 sanctity to the expedition, Al Moktar caused a kind of throne 
 covered with a veil to be placed on a mule, and led forth with 
 the army ; to be to them what the ark was to the children of 
 Israel, a sacred safeguard. On going into battle, the following 
 prayer was to be offered up at it : "Oh God ! keep us in obedience 
 to thee; and help us in our need." To which all the people were 
 to respond, "Amen!" 
 
 The army of Ibrahim encountered the host of Obeid'allah on the 
 plains, at some distance from Cufa. They rushed forward with a 
 holy enthusiasm inspired by the presence of their ark. " Vengeance 
 for Hosein ! " was their cry, and it smote upon the heart of 
 Obeid'allah. The battle was fierce and bloody ; the Syrian force, 
 though greatly superior, was completely routed ; Obeid'allah was 
 killed, fighting with desperate valour, and more of his soldiers were 
 drowned in the flight than were slaughtered in the field. This 
 signal victory was attributed , in a great measure, to the presence 
 of the ark or veiled throne, which thenceforward was regarded 
 almost with idolatry. 
 
 Ibrahim caused the body of Obeid'allah to be burnt to ashes, 
 and sent his head to Al Moktar. The gloomy heart of the Avenger 
 throbbed with exultation, as he beheld this relic of the man who 
 had oppressed , insulted , and mutilated him ; he recollected the 
 blow ower the face which had deprived him of an eye, and smote 
 the gory head of Obeid'allah, even as he had been smitten. 
 
 Thus, says the royal and pious historian Abulfeda, did Allah 
 make use of the deadly hate of Al Moktar, to punish Obeid'allah, 
 the son of Ziyad, for the martyrdom of Hosein. 
 
 The triumph of Al Moktar was not of long duration. He ruled 
 over a fickle people, and he ruled them with a rod of iron. He 
 persecuted all who were not, or whom he chose to consider as 
 not, of the Hosein party, and he is charged with fomenting an 
 insurrection of the slaves against the chief men of the city of Cufa. 
 A combination was at length formed against him, and an invitation 
 was sent to Musab Ibn Zobeir, who had been appointed emir of 
 Bassora, by his brother, the Caliph Abdallah. 
 
 The invitation was borne by one Shebet, an enthusiast who made 
 his entrance into Bassora on a mule with cropt ears and tail, his 
 clothes rent, exclaiming with a loud voice, " Ya gautha ! Ya 
 gaulha ! Help ! help !" He delivered his message in a style suited 
 to hisgarb, but accompanied it by letters from the chief men of 
 Cufa, which stated their grievances in a more rational manner. 
 Musab wrote instantly to Al Mohalleb, the emir of Persia, one of
 
 354 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 the ablest generals of the time, to come to his aid with men and 
 money ; and on his arrival, joined forces with him to attack the 
 Avenger in his seat of power. 
 
 Al Moktar did not wait to be besieged. He took the field with 
 his accustomed daring, and gave battle beneath the walls of his 
 capital. It was a bloody fight ; the presence of the mysterious 
 throne had its effect upon the superstitious minds of the Cufians, 
 but Al Moktar had become hateful from his tyranny, and many of 
 the first people were disaffected to him. His army was routed ; 
 he retreated into the royal citadel of Cufa, and defended it bravely 
 and skilfully, until he received a mortal wound. Their chief being 
 killed, the garrison surrendered at discretion, and Musab put 
 every man to the sword, to the number of seven thousand. 
 
 Thus fell Al Moktar Ibn Abu Obeidah, in his sixty-seventh year, 
 after having defeated the ablest generals of three Caliphs, and by 
 the sole power of his sword, made himself the independent ruler 
 of all Babylonia. He is said never to have pardoned an enemy ; 
 to have persecuted with inveterate hate all who were hostile to the 
 family of Ali, and in vengeance of the massacre of Hosein, to have 
 shed the blood of nearly fifty thousand men, exclusive of those 
 who were slain in battle. Well did he merit the title of the 
 Avenger, 
 
 CHAPTER LI. 
 
 Musab Ibn Zobeir takes possession of Babylonia. Usurpation of Amru Ibn Saad ; his 
 death. Expedition of Abd'ulnuilec against Musab. The result. Omens ; their effect 
 upon Abd'almalec. Exploits of Al Mohalleb. 
 
 The death of Al Moktar threw the province of Babylonia, with 
 its strong capital, Cufa, into the hands of Musab Ibn Zobeir, 
 brother to the Caliph Abdallah. Musab was well calculated to 
 win the favour of the people. He was in the flower of his days, 
 being but thirty-six years of age, comely in person, engaging in 
 manners, generous in spirit, and of consummate bravery, though 
 not much versed in warfare. He had been an intimate friend of 
 Abd'almalec before the latter was made Caliph, but he was brother 
 to the rival Caliph, and connected by marriage with families in 
 deadly opposition to the house of Ommiah. Abd'almalec, there- 
 fore, regarded him as a formidable foe, and warned by the disasters 
 of his army under Obeid'allah, resolved now to set out at the head 
 of a second expedition in person, designed for the invasion of 
 Babylonia. 
 
 In setting forth on this enterprise, he confided the government 
 of Damascus to his cousin, Amru Ibn Saad ; he did this in consi- 
 deration of the military skill of Amru, though secretly there was a 
 long nourished hate between them. The origin of this hatred 
 shows the simplicity of Saracen manners in those days. When 
 boys, Abd'almAlec and Amru were often under the care of an old
 
 ABD'ALMALEC. 355 
 
 beldame of their family, who used to prepare their meals, and 
 produce quarrels between them in the allotment of their portions. 
 These childish disputes became fierce quarrels and broils as they 
 grew up together, and were rivals in their youthful games and 
 exercises. In manhood they ripened into deadly jealousy and 
 envy, as they became conquering generals ; but the elevation of 
 Abd'almalec to the Caliphat, sank deep into the heart of Amru, as 
 a flagrant wrong ; the succession having been promised to him by 
 his uncle, the late Caliph Merwan, as a reward for having subju- 
 gated Egypt. As soon, therefore, as Abd'almalec had departed 
 from Damascus, Amru, not content with holding the government 
 of the city, aspired to the sovereignty of Syria, as his rightful do- 
 minion. 
 
 Abd'almdlec heard of (he usurpation while on the march, re- 
 turned rapidly in his steps, and a bloody conflict ensued between 
 the forces of the rival cousins in the streets of Damascus. The 
 women rushed between them; held up their children and implored 
 the combatants to desist from this unnatural warfare. Amru laid 
 down his arms and articles of reconciliation were drawn up and 
 signed by the cousins. 
 
 Abd'almalec proved faithless to his engagements. Getting 
 Amru into his power by an artful stratagem, he struck off his head; 
 put to death the principal persons who had supported him in his 
 usurpation, and banished his family. As the exiles were about to 
 depart, he demanded of the widow of Amru, the written articles of 
 pacification which he had exchanged with her husband. She re- 
 plied that she had folded them up in his winding sheet, to be at 
 hand at the final day of judgment. 
 
 Abd'almalec now resumed his inarch for Babylonia. He had 
 sent agents before him to tamper with the fidelity of the principal 
 persons. One of these, Ibrahim Ibn Alashtar, he had offered .to 
 make emir if he would serve his cause. Ibrahim, who was of 
 incorruptible integrity, showed the letter to Musab, warned him 
 that similar attempts must have been made to 'sap the fidelity of 
 other persons of importance and advised him to use the scimetar 
 freely, wherever he suspected disaffection; but Musab was too just 
 and merciful to act thus upon mere suspicion. The event showed 
 that Ibrahim understood the fickle and perfidious nature of the 
 people of Irak. 
 
 A battle took place on the margin of the desert, not far from 
 Palmyra. It commenced with a gallant charge of cavalry, headed 
 by Ibrahim Ibn Alashtar, which broke the ranks of the Syrians and 
 made great havoc. Abd'almalec came up with a reinforcement, 
 and rallied his scattered troops. In making a second charge, how- 
 ever, Ibrahim was slain, and now the perfidy of the Cufians be- 
 came apparent. Musab's general of horse wheeled round and 
 spurred ignominiously from the field ; others of the leaders refused 
 to advance. Musab called loudly for Ibrahim ; but seeing his life- 
 less body on the ground, "Alas!" he exclaimed, "there is no 
 Ibrahim for me this day." 
 
 Turning to his son Isa, a mere stripling, yet who had fought with 
 manly valour by his side, "Fly my son," cried he; "fly to thy
 
 356 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 uncle Abdallah at Mecca; tell him of my fate, and of the perfidy 
 of the men of Irak. " Isa, who inherited the undaunted spirit of the 
 family of Zobeir, refused to leave his father. "Let us retreat," 
 said he, " to Bassora, where you will still find friends, and may 
 thence make good your return to Mecca. 
 
 "No, my son!" replied Musab, "never shall it be said among 
 the men of Koreish, that I fled the field of battle, or entered the 
 temple of Mecca, a vanquished general! " 
 
 During an interval of the battle, Abd'almalec sent Musab an offer 
 of his life. His reply was, he had come to conquer or to die. The 
 conflict was soon at an end. The troops who adhered to Musab 
 were cut to pieces, his son Isa was slain by his side, and he him- 
 self, after being repeatedly wounded with arrows was stabbed to 
 the heart, and his head struck off. 
 
 When Abd'almalec entered Cufain triumph, the fickle inhabitants 
 thronged to welcome him and take the oath of allegiance, and he 
 found himself in quiet possession of both Babylonia and Persian 
 Irak. He distributed great sums of money to win the light affec- 
 tions of the populace, and ga\e a sumptuous banquet in the citadel 
 to which all were welcome. 
 
 In the height of the banquet, when all was revelry, a thought 
 passed through the mind of the Caliph, as to the transient duration 
 of all human grandeur. "Alas!" he ejaculated, "how sweetly 
 we might live, if a shadow would but last!" The same vein of 
 melancholy continued when the banquet was over, and he walked 
 about the castle with an old gray-headed inhabitant, listening to 
 his account of its antiquities and traditions. Every reply of the old 
 man to his questions about things or persons, began with the 
 words, "This was, That was, He was." 
 
 "Alas! " sighed the Caliph, repeating a verse from an Arabian 
 poet; " every thing new soon runneth to decay, and of every one 
 that is, it is soon said, He was!" 
 
 "While thus conversing, the head of Musab was brought to him, 
 and he ordered a thousand dinars of gold to the soldier who 
 brought it, but he refused the reward. "I slew him," he said, 
 "not for money, but to avenge a private wrong." The old 
 chronicler of the castle now broke forth on the wonderful succes- 
 sion of events. " I am fourscore and ten years old," said he, 
 " and have outlived many generations. In this very castle I have 
 seen the head of Hosein presented to Obeid'allah, the son of Ziyad; 
 then the head of Obeid'allah to Al Moktar; then the head of Al 
 Moktar to Musab, and now that of Musab to yourself." The 
 Caliph was superstitious, and the words of the old man sounded 
 ominously as the presage of a brief career to himself. He deter- 
 mined that his own head should not meet with similar fate within 
 that castle's walls, and gave orders to raze the noble citadel of Cufa 
 to the foundation. 
 
 Abd'almalec now appointed his brother Bcsher Ibn MerwAn to 
 the government of Babylonia ; and as he was extremely young, he 
 gave him, as chief counsellor, or vizier, a veteran named Musa Ibn 
 Nosseyr, who had long enjoyed the confidence of the family of 
 Merwau. as had his father before him. It is said by some that his
 
 ABb'ALMALEC. 357 
 
 father Nosseyr was a liberated slave of the Caliph's brother 
 Abd'alaziz, and employed by him in high functions. So great was 
 the confidence of the Caliph in 31usa, that he intrusted him with 
 all the military rolls of the province, and signified to him that in 
 future the responsibility would rest upon him. On taking posses- 
 sion of his government, Besher delivered his seal of office into the 
 hands of Musa, and intrusted him with' the entire management of 
 affairs. This Musa, it will be found, rose afterwards to great, 
 renown. 
 
 The Caliph also appointed Khaled Ibn Abdallah to the command 
 at Bassora, after which he returned to his capital of Damascus. 
 The province of Babylonia, however, was not destined to remain 
 long at peace. There was at this time a powerful Moslem sect in 
 Persia, a branch of the Motalazites, called Azarakites from the 
 name of their founder Ibn Al Azarak, but known also by the name 
 of Separatists. They were enemies of all regular government, and 
 fomenters of sedition and rebellion. During the sway of the un- 
 fortunate Musab, they had given him great trouble by insurrections 
 in various parts of the country, accompanied by atrocious cruel- 
 ties. They had been kept in check, however, by Mohalleb, the 
 lieutenant of Musab, and one of the ablest generals of the age, 
 who was incessantly on the alert at the head of the army, and never 
 allowed their insurrections to come to any head. 
 
 Mohalleb was on a distant command at the time of the invasion 
 and conquest. As soon as he heard of the defeat and death of 
 Musab, and the change in the government of Irak, he hastened to 
 Bassora to acknowledge allegiance to Abd'almalec. Khaled ac- 
 cepted his services, in the name of the Caliph, but instead of 
 returning him to the post he had so well sustained at the head of 
 the army, appointed him supervisor or collector of tributes, and 
 gave the command of the forces to his own* brother, named 
 Abd'alaziz. The change was unfortunate. The Azarakites had 
 already taken breath, and acquired strength during the temporary 
 absence of their old adversary, Mohalleb ; but as soon as they 
 heard he was no longer in command, they collected all their forces 
 and made a rapid inroad into Irak. 
 
 Abd'alaziz advanced to meet them ; but he was new to his own 
 troops, being a native of Mecca, and he knew little of the character 
 of the enemy. He was entirely routed, and his wife, a woman of 
 great beauty, taken captive. A violent dispute arose among the 
 captors as to the ransom of their prize, some valuing her at one 
 hundred thousand dinars : until a furious zealot, indignant that 
 her beauty should cause dissension among them, struck off her 
 head. 
 
 The Caliph Abd'almalec was deeply grieved when he heard of 
 this defeat, and wrote to Khaled, emir of Bassora, reproving him 
 for having taken the command of the army from Mohalleb, a man 
 of penetrating judgment, and hardened in war, and given it to 
 Abd'alaziz, " a mere Arab of Mecca." He ordered him, therefore, 
 to replace Mohalleb forthwith, and wrote also to his brother, 
 Besher, emir of Babylonia, to send the general reinforcements. 
 
 Once more Mohalleb proved his generalship, by defeating the
 
 358 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Azarakites in a signal and bloody battle near the city of Ahwaz ; nor 
 did he suffer them to rally, but pursued them over the borders 
 and into the heart of the mountains, until his troops lost almost 
 all their horses, and returned crowned with victory, but wayworn 
 and almost famished. 
 
 The effect of all these internal wars was to diminish, for a time, 
 the external terror of the Moslem name. -The Greek emperor, 
 during the recent troubles, had made successful incursions into 
 Syria ; and Abd'almalec, finding enemies enough among those of 
 his own faith, had been fain to purchase a humiliating truce of the 
 Christian potentate by an additional yearly tribute of fifty thousand 
 ducats. 
 
 CHAPTER LII. 
 
 Abd'almalee makes war upon his rival Caliph in Mecca.- Siege of the sacred city. 
 Death of Abdullah. Demolition and reconstruction of the Caaba. 
 
 Abd'almalec, by his recent victories, had made himself sover- 
 eign of all the eastern part of the Moslem dominions; he had pro- 
 tected himself also from the Christian emperor by a disgraceful 
 augmentation^ tribute; he now determined to carry a war against 
 his rival, Abdallah, to the very gates of Mecca; and make himself 
 sovereign of an undivided empire. ^ 
 
 The general chosen for this important enterprise was Al Hejagi 
 (or Hedjadgi) Ibn lusef, who rose to renown as one of the ablest 
 and most eloquent men of that era. He set off from Damascus 
 with but two thousand men; but was joined by Taric Ibn A mar 
 with five thousand more. Abd'almalec had made proclamations 
 beforehand, promising protection and favour to such of the ad- 
 herents of Abdallah as should come unto his allegiance, and he 
 trusted that many of the inhabitants of Mecca would desert to the 
 standard of Al Hejagi. 
 
 Abdallah sent forth troops of horse to waylay and check the 
 advance of the army, but they were easily repulsed, and Al Hejagi 
 arrived without much difficulty before the sacred city. Before 
 proceeding to hostilities he discharged arrows over the walls car- 
 rying letters, in which the inhabitants were assured that he came 
 merely to release them from the tyranny of Abdallah ; and were 
 invited to accept the most favourable terms, and abandon a man 
 who would fain die with the title of Caliph, though the ruins of 
 Mecca should be his sepulchre. 
 
 The city was now assailed with battering-rams and catapultas ; 
 breaches were made in the walls; the houses within were shattered 
 by great stones, or set on fire by flaming balls of pitch and 
 naphtha. 
 
 A violent storm of thunder and lightning killed several of the 
 besiegers, and brought them to a pause. "Allah is wreaking his 
 anger upon us," said they, " for assailing his holy city. " Al Hejagi
 
 ABD'ALMALEC. 359 
 
 rebuked their superstitious fears and compelled them to renew the 
 attack ; setting them an example by discharging a stone with his 
 own hands. 
 
 On the following day there was another storm which did most 
 injury to the garrison. "You perceive," said Al Hejagi, "the 
 thunder strikes your enemies as well as yourselves. " 
 
 The besieged held out valiantly, and repulsed every assault. 
 Abdallah. though now aged and infirm, proved himself a worthy 
 son of Zobeir. During the early part of the siege, he resided 
 chiefly in the Caaba; that sacred edifice, therefore, became an 
 object of attack; a part of it was battered down by stones, and it 
 was set on fire repeatedly by the balls of naphtha. He therefore 
 abandoned it, and retired to his own dwelling. He was sustained 
 throughout all this time of peril by the presence and counsels of 
 his mother ; a woman of masculine spirit and unfailing energy, 
 though ninety years of age. She was the granddaughter of Abu 
 Beker, and proved herself worthy of her descent. She accom- 
 panied her son to the ramparts ; caused refreshments to be distri- 
 buted among the fighting men; was consulted in every emergency 
 and present in every danger. 
 
 The siege continued with unremitting strictness; many of Ab- 
 dallah's most devoted friends were killed ; others became disheart- 
 ened ; nearly ten thousand of the inhabitants deserted to the 
 enemy; even two of the Caliph's sons, Hamza and Koheib, forsook 
 him, and made terms for themselves with the besiegers. 
 
 In this forlorn state, his means of defence almost exhausted, 
 and those who ought to have been most faithful deserting him ; 
 Abdallah was tempted by an offer of his own terms on condition of 
 surrender. 
 
 He turned to his aged mother for advice. " Judge for yourself, 
 my son," said the resolute descendant of Abu Beker. " If you feel 
 that your cause is just, persevere. Your father Zobeir died for it, 
 as did many of your friends. Do not bend your neck to the scorn 
 of the haughty race of Ommiah. How much better an honour- 
 able death, than a dishonoured life for the brief term you have yet 
 to live.'' 
 
 The Caliph kissed her venerable forehead. " Thy thoughts are 
 my own," said he, "nor has any other motive than zeal for God 
 induced me thus far to persevere. From this moment, consider 
 thy son as dead ; and refrain from immoderate lamentation." (t My 
 trus is in God," replied she, " and I shall have comfort in thee, my 
 son, whether I go before or follow thee." 
 
 As she took a parting embrace, she felt a coat of mail under the 
 outer garments of Abdallah, and told him to put it off, as unsuited 
 to a martyr prepared to die. " I have worn it, replied he, "that 
 I might be the better able to defend thee, my mother." He added 
 that he had little fear of death, but a horror of the insults and ex- 
 posures to which his body might be subjected after death. 
 
 " A sheep once killed, iny son, feels not the flaying." "With these 
 words she gave him to rouse his spirits, a cordial draught in which 
 was a strong infusion of musk, and Abdallah went forth a self- 
 devoted martyr.
 
 360 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 This last sally of the veteran Caliph struck terror and astonish- 
 ment into the enemy. At the head of a handful of troops he re- 
 pulsed them from the breach; drove them into the ditch, and slew 
 an incredible number with his OAvn hand; others, however, 
 thronged up in their place : he fought until his followers were 
 slain, his arrows expended, and he had no weapon but sword and 
 lance. He now retreated, step by step, with his face to the foe, 
 disputing every inch of ground, until he arrived in a narrow place 
 where he could only be assailed in front. Here he made his last 
 stand. His opponents, not daring to come within reach of his 
 weapons, assailed him from a distance with darts and arrows, and 
 when these missiles were expended, with bricks, and tiles and 
 stones. A blow on the head from a stone made him totter, and 
 the blood streamed down his face and beard. His assailants gave 
 a shout ; but he recovered himself and uttered a verse of a poet, 
 " The blood of our wounds falls on our instep, not on our heels ;" 
 implying that he had not turned his back upon the foe. At length 
 he sank under repeated wounds and bruises, and the enemy closing 
 upon him cut off his head. Thus died Abdallah the son of Zobeir, 
 in the seventy-third year of the Hegira, and the seventy-second 
 year of his own age, after a stormy and disastrous reign of nine 
 years. 
 
 Taric Ibn Amar, struck with admiration of his persevering valour, 
 exclaimed, "Never did woman bear a braver son!" "How is 
 this," cried Al Hejagi, "do you speak thus of an enemy of the 
 Commander of the Faithful ?" But Abd'almaiec, when the speech 
 was reported to him, concurred in the praise of his fallen rival. 
 " By Allah ! " exclaimed he, " what Taric hath spoken is the truth." 
 When the tidings of Abdallah's death were brought to his aged 
 mother, she experienced a revulsion of nature which she had not 
 known for fifty years, and died of hemorrhage. 
 
 Abdallah was said to unite the courage of the lion with the Craf- 
 tiness of the fox. He was free from any glaring vice, but reputed 
 to be sordidly covetous and miserly, insomuch that he wore the 
 same garment for several years. It was a saying in Arabia, that he 
 was the first example of a man being at the same time brave and 
 covetous; but the spoils of foreign conquest were fast corrupting 
 the chivalrous spirit of the Arab conquerors. He was equally 
 'renowned for piety, being according to tradition so fixed and im- 
 movlble in prayer, that a pigeon once perched upon his head mis- 
 taking him for a statue. 
 
 With the death of Abdallah ended the rival Caliphat, and the 
 conquering general received the oaths of allegiance of the Arabs 
 for Abd'almaiec. His conduct, however, toward the people of 
 Mecca and Medina, was as cruel and oppressive as his military 
 operations had been brilliant. He inflicted severe punishments for 
 trivial offences, sometimes on mere suspicion ; and marked many 
 with stamps of lead uoon the neck, to disgrace them in the public 
 eye. His most popular act was the reconstruction of the dila- 
 pidated Caaba on the original form which it had borne before the 
 era of the prophet. 
 
 For a time the people of Mecca and Medina groaned under his
 
 ABD'ALMALEC. 361 
 
 tyranny, and looked back with repining to the gentler sway of Ab- 
 dallah; and it was a cause of general joy throughout those cities, 
 when the following circumstances caused him to be removed from 
 their government and promoted to a distant command. 
 
 Though the death of Abdallah had rendered Abd'almalec sole 
 sovereign of the Moslem empire, the emir of Khorassan, Abdallah 
 Ibn Hazem, who had been appointed by his rival, hesitated to give 
 in his allegiance. His province, so distant and great in extent, 
 might make him a dangerous rebel ; Abd'almalec, therefore, sent 
 a messenger, claiming his oath of fealty, and proffering him in 
 reward, the government of Khorassan for seven years, with the 
 enjoyment of all its revenues; at the same time, he sent him the 
 head of the deceased Caliph, to intimate the fate he might expect 
 should he prove refractory. 
 
 The emir, instead of being intimidated, was filled with horror, 
 and swore never to acknowledge Abd'almalec as Commander of 
 the Faithful. He reverently washed and embalmed the head, folded 
 it in fine linen, prayed over it, and sent it to the family of the de- 
 ceased Caliph at Medina. Then summoning the messenger, he made 
 him eat the epistle of Abd'almalec in his presence, and dismissed 
 him with the assurance that his sacred character of herald alone 
 saved his head. 
 
 It was to go against this refractory but high-minded emir, that 
 Al Hejagi was called off from his commmand in Arabia. He entered 
 Khorassan with a powerful army, defeated the emir in repeated 
 battles, and at length slew him and reduced the province to 
 obedience. 
 
 The vigour, activity, and indomitable courage displayed by Al 
 Hejagi in these various services, pointed him out as the very man 
 to take charge of the government of Babylonia, or Irak, recently 
 vacated by the death of the Caliph's brother Besher ; and he was 
 accordingly sent to break that refractory province into more 
 thorough obedience. 
 
 The province of Babylonia, though formerly a part of the Per- 
 sian empire, had never been really Persian in character. Governed 
 by viceroys, it had partaken of the alien feeling of a colony : 
 forming a frontier between Persia and Arabia, and its population 
 made up from both countries, it was deficient in the virtues of 
 either. The inhabitants had neither the simplicity and loyalty of 
 the Arabs of the desert, nor the refinement and cultivation of the 
 Persians of the cities. Restless, turbulent, factious, they were ever 
 ready to conspire against their rulers ; to desert old faiths ; and to 
 adopt new sects and heresies. Before the conquest by the Mos- 
 lems, when Irak was governed by a Persian Satrap, and Syria by 
 an imperial prefect, a spirit of rivalry and hostility existed between 
 these frontier provinces ; the same had revived during the division 
 of the Caliphat ; and while Syria was zealous in its devotion to the 
 house of Ommiah, Irak had espoused the cause of Ali. Even since 
 the reunion and integrity of the Caliphat, it still remained a rest- 
 less, unsteady part of the Moslem empire ; the embers of old sedi- 
 tions still lurked in its bosom, ready at any moment once more to 
 burst forth into flame. We shall see how Al Hejagi fared in his 
 government of that combustible province.
 
 362 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 CHAPTER LIII. 
 
 Administration of Al Hejagi as Emir of Babylonia. 
 
 Al Hejagi, aware of the nature of the people over whom he was 
 to rule, took possession of his government in military style. Riding 
 into Cufa at the head of four thousand horse, he spurred on to the 
 mosque, alighted at the portal, and ascending the pulpit, delivered 
 an harangue to the multitude, that let them know the rigorous rule 
 they were to expect. He had come, he said, " to make the wicked 
 man bear his own burden, and wear his own shoe ; " and, as he 
 looked round on the densely-crowded assemblage, he intimated 
 he saw before him turbaned heads ripe for mowing, and beards 
 which required to be moistened with blood. 
 
 His sermon was carried out in practice ; he ruled with a rigorous 
 hand, swearing he would execute justice in a style that should 
 put to shame all who had preceded, and serve as an example to 
 all who might follow him. He was especially severe, and even 
 cruel, towards all who had been in any way implicated in the as- 
 sassination of the Caliph Othman. One person, against whom he 
 came prepared to exercise the utmost severity, was the veteran 
 Musa Ibn Nosseyr, who had officiated as prime minister to the de- 
 ceased emir Besher. He had been accused of appropriating and 
 squandering the taxes collected in the province, and the Caliph 
 had lent a too ready ear to the accusation. Fortunately, the 
 following letter, from a friend in Damascus, apprised Musa in time 
 of his danger : 
 
 "Thy deposition is signed; orders have been despatched to Al 
 Hejagi to seize on thy person and inflict on thee the most severe 
 punishment : so away ! away ! thy safety depends on the fleetness 
 of thy horse. If thou succeed in placing thyself under the protec- 
 tion of Abd'alaziz Ibn MerwSn, all will go well with thee." 
 
 Musa lost no time, but mounted his steed and fled to Damascus, 
 where Abd'alaziz was then sojourning, having arrived with the tri- . 
 bute of Egypt. Abd'alaziz received with protecting kindness the 
 veteran adherent of the family, and accompanied him before the 
 Caliph. "How darest thou show thy beard here," exclaimed 
 Abd'almaiec?" "Why should I hide it?" replied the veteran; 
 "what have I done to offend the Commander of the Faithful?" 
 "Thou hast disobeyed my orders, and squandered my treasures." 
 "I did no such thing," replied Musa, firmly; " I have always acted 
 like a faithful subject; my intentions have been pure; my actions 
 true." "By Allah," cried the Caliph, "thou shall make thy de- 
 falcation good fifty times over." The veteran was about to make 
 an angry reply, but at a sign from Abd'alaziz, he checked himself, 
 and bowing his head, "Thy will be done," said he, "oh, Com- 
 mander of the Faithful." He was fined fifty thousand dinars of
 
 AKD'ALMALEC. 363 
 
 gold ; which, however, Abd'alaziz enabled him to pay ; and, on 
 his return to his government in Egypt, took his old favourite with 
 him. How he further indemnified Musa for his maltreatment will 
 be shown hereafter. 
 
 To resume the affairs of Al Hejagi in Irak. Having exercised the 
 rod of government in Cufa, he proceeded to Bassora, where he 
 was equally sharp with this tongue, and heavy with his hand, The 
 consequence was, as usual, an insurrection. This suited his hu- 
 mour. He was promptly in the field; defeated the rebels in a 
 pitched battle ; sent the heads of eighteen of their leaders to the 
 Caliph, and then returned to the administration of affairs at Bassora. 
 He afterwards sent two of his lieutenants to suppress a new move- 
 ment among the Azarakite sectaries, who were defeated and dri- 
 ven out of the province. 
 
 - In the 76th year of the Hegira, a conspiracy was formed against 
 the life of Abd'almalec, by two Karegite fanatics, named Shebib 
 Ibn Zeid and Saleh Ibn Mari. Their conspiracy was discovered 
 and defeated, but they made their escape and repaired to the town 
 of Daras, in Mesopotamia, where they managed to get together 
 adherents to the number of one hundred and twenty men. Saleh 
 was smooth-tongued and seductive; having a melodious voice and 
 a great command of figurative language. He completely fascinated 
 and bewildered his companion Shebib, and their infatuated fol- 
 lowers, mingling his inflammatory harangues with pious precepts 
 and expositions of the Koran. In the end he was hailed Comman- 
 der of the Faithful by the motley crew, and gravely accepted tbe 
 office. His men were all armed, but most of them were on foot ; 
 he therefore, led them, to a neighbouring village, where they seized 
 upon the best horses in the name of Allah and the prophet, to 
 whom they referred the owners for payment. 
 
 Mahomet, brother of Abd'almalec, who was at that time emir of 
 Mesopotamia, was moved to laughter when he heard of this new 
 Caliph and his handful of rabble followers ; and ordered Adi, one 
 of his officers, to take five hundred men and sweep them from the 
 province. 
 
 Adi shook his head doubtfully, "One madman," said he, "is 
 more dangerous than five soldiers in their senses." 
 
 "Take one thousand then," said the emir; and with that num- 
 ber well armed and mounted, Adi set out in quest of the fana- 
 tics. He found them and their pseudo Caliph living in free quarters 
 on the fat of the land, and daily receiving recruits in straggling 
 parties of two, and three, and four at a time, armed with such 
 weapons as they could catch up in their haste. On the approach 
 of Adi they prepared for battle, having full confidence that a legion 
 of angels would fight on their side. 
 
 Adi held a parley, and endeavoured to convince them of the 
 absurdity of their proceedings, or to persuade them to carry their 
 marauding enterprises elsewhere ; but Saleh, assuming the tone of 
 Caliph as well as sectarian, admonished Adi and his men to con- 
 form to his doctrines, and come into his allegiance. The con- 
 ference ended while it was yet morning hour. Adi still forbore to 
 attack such a handful of misguided men, and paid dearly for his
 
 364 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 forbearance. At noontide, when he and his men were engaged 
 in the customary prayer, and their steeds were feeding, the en- 
 thusiast band charged suddenly upon them with the cry of Allah 
 Achbar ! Adi was slain in the onset, and his body was trampled 
 under foot; his troops were slaughtered or dispersed, and his camp 
 and horses, with a good supply of arms, became welcome booty to 
 the victors. 
 
 The band of sectarians increased in numbers and in daring after 
 this signal exploit. Al Hejagi sent five thousand veteran troops 
 against them, under Al Hareth Alamdani. These came by surprise 
 upon the two leaders, Salch and Shebib, with a party of only 
 ninety men, at a village on the Tigris not far from Mosul, the ca- 
 pital of Mesopotamia. The fanatic chiefs attacked the army with 
 a kind of frantic courage, but Saleh, the mock Caliph, was instantly 
 killed, with a score of his followers. Shebib was struck from his 
 horse, but managed to keep together the remnant of his party ; 
 made good his retreat with them into Montbagi, a dismantled fort- 
 ress, and swung to and secured the ponderous gate. 
 
 The victors kindled a great fire against the gate, and waited 
 patiently until it should burn down, considering their prey secure. 
 
 As the night advanced, Shebib, who from his desolate retreat 
 watched anxiously for some chance of escape, perceived, by the 
 light of the fire, that the greater part of the besiegers, fatigued by 
 their march, were buried in deep sleep. He now exacted from 
 his men an oath of implicit obedience, which they took between 
 his hands. He then caused them to steep most of their clothing in 
 a tank of water within the castle, after which, soflly drawing the 
 bolts of the flaming gate, they threw it down on the fire kindled 
 against it ; flung their wet garments on the burning bridge thus 
 suddenly formed, and rushed forth scimetar in hand. 
 
 Instead of contenting themselves with an escape, the crazy 
 zealots charged into the very heart of the sleeping camp, and 
 wounded the general before an alarm was given. The soldiers 
 started awake in the midst of havoc and confusion ; supposing 
 themselves surprised by a numerous army, they fled in all direc- 
 tions, never ceasing their flight until they had taken refuge in 
 Mosul or Jukhi, or some other walled city. 
 
 Shebib established himself amid the abundance of the deserted 
 camp ; scarce any of his men had been killed or wounded in this 
 midnight slaughter ; be considered himself therefore invincible ; 
 proclaimed himself Commander of the Faithful, and partisans 
 crowded to his standard. Strengthened by numbers, he led his 
 fanatic horde against Cufa, and had the address and good fortune 
 to make himself master of it, Al Hejagi, the emir, being absent at 
 Bassora. He was soon joined by his wife Gazala ; established him- 
 self as Caliph with some ceremonial, and doubtless his vagabond 
 sway was more acceptable to the people of Cufa, than the iron 
 rule of Al Hejagi. 
 
 The mock Caliphat, however, was of brief duration. Al Hejagi, 
 reinforced by troops from Syria, marched in person against' Cufa. 
 He was boldly met in the plains near that city by Shebib, at the 
 head of four thousand men. The fanatics were defeated, and Ga-
 
 ABD'ALMALEC. 365 
 
 zala, the wife of the mock Caliph, who had accompanied her hus- 
 band to the field, was slain. Shebib with a remnant of his force 
 cut his way through the Syrian army; crossed and recrossed the 
 Tigris, and sought refuge and reinforcements in the interior of 
 Persia. He soon returned into Irak, with a force inconsiderable 
 in numbers, but formidable for enthusiasm and desperate valour. 
 He was encountered at the bridge of Dojail al Awaz. Here a sudden 
 and unexpected end was put to his fanatic career. His horse 
 struck his forefeet on some loose stones on the margin of the bridge, 
 and threw his rider into the stream. He rose twice to the surface, 
 and each time uttered a pious ejaculation. "What God decrees 
 is just!" was the first exclamation. "The will of God be done!" 
 was the second, and the waters closed over him. His followers 
 cried with loud lamentations, "The Commander of the Faithful is 
 no more!" and every man betook himself to flight. The water was 
 dragged with a net, the body was found and decapitated, and the 
 head sent to Al Hejagi, who transmitted it to the Caliph. The 
 heart of this enthusiast was also taken out of his breast, and is said 
 to have been as hard as stone. He was assuredly a man of extraor- 
 dinary daring. 
 
 Arabian writers say that the manner of Shebib's death was pre- 
 dicted before his birth. His mother was a beautiful Christian cap- 
 tive, purchased at a public sale by Yezid Ibn Nairn for his harem. 
 Just before she gave birth so Shebib, she had a dream that a coal 
 of fire proceeded from her, and after enkindling a flame over the 
 firmament, fell into the sea and was extinguished. This dream was 
 interpreted that she would give birth to a man-child, who would 
 prove a distinguished warrior, but would eventually be drowned. 
 So strong was her belief in this omen, that when she heard, on one 
 occasion, of his defeat and of his alleged death on the battle-field, 
 she treated the tidings as an idle rumour, saying it was by water 
 only her son would die. At the time of Shebib's death he had just 
 passed his fiftieth year. 
 
 The emir Al Hejagi was destined to have still farther commotions 
 in his turbulent and inconstant province. A violent feud existed 
 between him and Abda'lrahman Ibn Mohammed, a general subject 
 to his orders. To put an end to it, or to relieve himself from the 
 presence of an enemy, he sent him on an expedition to the fron- 
 tiers against the Turks. Abda'lrahman set out on his march, but 
 when fairly in the field, with a force at his command, conceived a 
 project either of revenge or ambition. 
 
 Addressing his soldiers in a spirited harangue, he told them that 
 their numbers were totally inadequate to the enterprise ; that the 
 object of Al Hejagi in sending him on such a dangerous service with 
 such incompetent means, was to effect his defeat and ruin, and that 
 they "had been sent to be sacrificed with him. 
 
 The harangue produced the desired effect. The troops vowed de- 
 votion to Abda'lrahman and vengeance upon the emir. "Without 
 giving their passion time to cool, he led them back to put their 
 threats in execution. Al Hejagi heard of the treason, and took the 
 field to meet them, but probably was not well seconded by the 
 people .of Babylonia, for he was defeated in a pitched battle.
 
 366 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Abda'lrahman then marched to the city of Bassora; the inha- 
 bitants welcomed him as their deliverer from a tyrant, and, capti- 
 vated by his humane and engaging manners, hailed him as Caliph. 
 Intoxicated by his success, he gravely assumed the title, and pro- 
 ceeded toward Cufa. Encountering Al Hcjagi on the way, with a 
 hastily levied army, he gave him another signal defeat, and then en- 
 tered Cufa in triumph, amid the shouts of its giddy populace, who 
 were delighted with any change that released them from the yoke 
 of Al Hejagi. 
 
 Abda'lrahman was now acknowledged Caliph throughout the 
 territories bordering on the Euphrates and the Tigris, a mighty em- 
 pire in ancient days, and still important from its population, for he 
 soon had on foot an army of one hundred thousand men. 
 
 Repeated defeat had but served to rouse the energy of Al Hejagi. 
 He raised troops among such of the people of Irak as remained 
 faithful to Abd'almalec; received reinforcements from the Caliph, and . 
 by dint of indefatigable exertions was again enabled to take the field. 
 
 The two generals, animated by deadly hate, encamped their ar- 
 mies at places not far apart. Here they remained betveen three 
 and four mouths, keeping vigilant eye upon each other, and en- 
 gaged in incessant conflicts, though never venturing upon a 
 pitched battle. 
 
 The object of Al Hejagi was to gain an advantage by his superior 
 military skill, and he succeeded. By an artful manoeuvre he cut 
 off Abda'lrahman, with a body of five thousand men, from his main 
 army ; compelled him to retreat, and drove him to take refuge in a 
 fortified town; where, being closely besieged, and having no hope 
 of escape, he threw himself headlong from a lofty tower, rather than 
 fall into the hands of his cruel enemy. 
 
 Thus terminated the rebellion of this second mock Caliph, and 
 Al Hejagi, to secure the tranquillity of Irak, founded a strong city 
 on the Tigris, called Al Wazab, or the Centre, from its lying at 
 equal distance from Cufa, Bassora, Bagdad, and Ahwaz, about fifty 
 leagues from each. 
 
 Al Hejagi, whom we shall have no further occasion to mention, 
 continued emir of Irak until his death, which took place under the 
 reign of the next Caliph, in the ninety-fifth year of the Hegira, and 
 the fifty-fourth of his own age. He is said to have caused the death 
 of one hundred and twenty thousand persons, independent of those 
 who fell in battle, and that, at the time of his death, he left fifty 
 thousand confined in different prisons. Can we wonder that he 
 was detested as a tyrant? 
 
 In his last illness, say the Arabian historians, he sent for a noted 
 astrologer, and asked him whether any great general was about to 
 end his days. The learned man consulted the stars, and replied, 
 that a great captain named Kotaib, or 'The Dog,' was at the point 
 of death. '-That," said the dying emir, "is the name my mother 
 used to call me when a child." He inquired of the astrologer if he 
 was assured of his prediction. The sage, proud of his art, declared 
 that it was infallible. " Then," said the emir, I will take you with 
 me, that I may have the benefit of your skill in the other world." 
 So saying, he caused his head to be struck off.
 
 ABD'ALMALEC. 367 
 
 The tyranny of this general was relieved at times by displays of 
 great magnificence and acts of generosity, if not clemency. He 
 spread a thousand tables at a single banquet, and bestowed a mil- 
 lion dirhems of silver at a single donation. 
 
 On one occasion, an Arab, ignorant of his person, spoke of him, 
 in his presence, as a cruel tyrant. "Do you know me? "said Al He- 
 jagi, sternly." "I do not," replied the Arab. "1 am Al Hejagi!" 
 "That may be," replied the Arab, quickly; "but do you know me? 
 I am of the family of Zobeir, who are fools in the full of the moon ; 
 and if you look upon the heavens you will see that this is my day." 
 The emir laughed at his ready wit, and dismissed him with a pre- 
 sent. 
 
 On another occasion, when separated from his party while hunt- 
 ing, he came to a spring where an Arab was feeding his camels, 
 and demanded drink. The Arab bade him, rudely, to alight and 
 help himself. It was during the rebellion of Abda'lrahman. After 
 he had slaked his thirst, he demanded of the Arab whether he was 
 for the Caliph Abd'ahnalec. The Arab replied " no ; forthe Caliph 
 had sent the worst mnn in the world to govern the province." Just 
 then a bird, passing over head, uttered a croaking note. The Arab 
 turned a quick eye upon the emir: "Who art thou?" cried he, 
 with consternation. "Wherefore the question?" " Because I un- 
 derstand the language of birds, and he says that thou art chief of 
 yon horsemen that I see approaching." 
 
 The emir smiled, and when his attendants came up, bade them 
 to bring the camel-driver with them. On the next day, he sent 
 for him ; had meat set before him, and bade him eat. Before he 
 complied, the Arab uttered a grace, "Allah grant that the end of 
 this meal be as happy as the beginning." 
 
 The emir inquired if he recollected their conversation of yester- 
 day. " Perfectly ! but I entreat thee to forget it, for it was a secret 
 which should be buried in oblivion. " 
 
 "Here are two conditions for thy choice," said the emir; "re- 
 cant what thou hast said and enter into my service, or abide the de- 
 cision of the Caliph, to whom thy treasonable speech shall be re- 
 peated." "There is a third course," replied the Arab, "which is 
 better than either. Send me to my own home, and let us be 
 strangers to each other as heretofore." 
 
 The emir was amused by the spirit of the Arab, and dismissed 
 him with a thousand dirhems of silver. 
 
 There were no further troubles in Irak during the lifetime of Al 
 Hejagi, and even the fickle, turbulent and faithless people of Cufa 
 became submissive and obedient. Abulfaragius says that this ge- 
 neral died of eating dirt. It appears that he was subject to dys- 
 pepsia or indigestion, for which he used to eat Terra Lemnia, and 
 other medicinal or absorbent earths. Whether he fell a victim to 
 the malady or the medicine, is not clearly manifest.
 
 368 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 CHAPTER HV. 
 
 Renunciation of tribute to the emperor. Battles in Northern Africa. The prophet 
 queen Cahlna; her achievements and fate. 
 
 The seventy-second year of the Hegira, saw the Moslem domi- 
 nions at length free from rebellion and civil war, and united under 
 one Caliph. Abd'almMec now looked abroad, and was anxious 
 to revive the foreign glories of Islam, which had declined during 
 the .late vicissitudes. His first movement was to throw off the 
 galling tribute to the Greek emperor. This, under Moawyah I, 
 had originally been three thousand dinars of gold, but had been 
 augmented to three hundred and sixty-five thousand ; being one 
 thousand for every day in the Christian year. It was accompanied 
 by three hundred and sixty-five female slaves, and three hundred 
 and sixty-five Arabian horses of the most generous race. 
 
 Not content with renouncing the payment of tribute, Abd'almaiec 
 sent Alid one of his generals on a ravaging expedition into the im- 
 perial dominions, availing himself of a disaffection evinced to the 
 new emperor Leontius. Alid returned laden with spoils. The 
 cities of Lazuca and Baruncium were likewise delivered up to the 
 Moslems through the treachery of Sergius, a Christian general. 
 
 Abd'almftlec next sought to vindicate the glory of the Moslem 
 arms along the norlhern coast of Africa. There, also, the impe- 
 rialists had taken advantage of the troubles of the Caliphat, to 
 reverse the former successes of the Moslems, and to strengthen 
 themselves along the sea-coast, of which their navy aided them to 
 hold possession. Zohair, who had been left by Abd'almaiec in 
 command of Barca, had fallen into an ambush and been slain with 
 many of his men, and the posts still held by the Moslems were 
 chiefly in the interior. 
 
 In the seventy-seventh year of the Hegira, therefore, Abd'- 
 almalec sent Hossan Ibn An-no'man, at the head of forty thousand 
 choice troops, to carry out the scheme of African conquest. That 
 general pressed forward at once with his troops against the city of 
 Carthage, which, though declined from its ancient might and glory, 
 was still an important seaport, fortified with lofty walls, haughty 
 towers and powerful bulwarks, and had a numerous garrison of 
 Greeks and other Christians, Hossan proceeded according to the 
 old Arab mode ; beleaguering it and reducing it by a long siege ; 
 he then assailed it by storm, scaled its lofty walls with ladders, and 
 made himself master of the place. Many of the inhabitants fell by 
 the edge of the sword; many escaped by sea to Sicily and Spain. 
 The walls were then demolished; the city was given up to be 
 plundered by the soldiery, the meanest of whom was enriched by 
 booty. Particular mention is made among the spoils of victory of 
 a great number of female captives of rare beauty.
 
 ABD'ALMALEC. 369 
 
 The triumph of the Moslem host was suddenly interrupted. 
 "While they were revelling in the ravaged palaces of Carthage, a 
 fleet appeared before the port; snapped the strong chain which 
 guarded the entrance, and sailed into the harbour. It was a 
 combined force of ships and troops from Constantinople and 
 Sicily ; reinforced by Goths from Spain ; all under the command 
 of the prefect John, a patrician general of great valour and expe- 
 rience. 
 
 Hossan felt himself unable to cope with such a force ; he with- 
 drew, however, in good order, arid conducted his troops laden 
 with spoils to Tripoli and CaerwSn, and having strongly posted 
 them, he awaited reinforcements from the Caliph. These arrived 
 in the course of time , by sea and land. Hossan again took the 
 field ; encountered the prefect John, not far from Utica, defeated 
 him in a pitched battle, and drove him to embark the wrecks of 
 his army, and make all sail for Constantinople. 
 
 Carthage was again assailed by the victors, and now its desola- 
 tion was "complete, for the vengeance of the Moslems gave that 
 majestic city to the flames. A heap of ruins and the ' remains of a 
 noble aqueduct, are all the relics of a metropolis that once valiantly 
 contended for dominion with Rome, the mistress of the world. 
 
 The imperial forces were now expelled from the coasts of 
 Northern Africa, but the Moslems had not yet achieved the con- 
 quest of the country. A formidable enemy remained in the person 
 of a native and heroic queen, who was revered by her subjects as 
 a saint or prophetess. Her real name was Dhabba, but she is ge- 
 nerally known in history by the surname,, given to her by the 
 Moslems, of Cahina or the Sorceress. She has occasionally been 
 confounded with her son Aben, or rather Ibn Cahina, of whom 
 mention has been made in a previous chapter. 
 
 Under the sacred standard of this prophet queen were combined 
 the Moors of Mauritania and the Berbers of the mountains, and of 
 the plains bordering on the interior deserts. Roving and inde- 
 pendent tribes, which had formerly warred with each other, now 
 yielded implicit obedience to one common leader, whom they re- 
 garded with religious reverence. The character of marabout or 
 saint has ever had vast influence over the tribes of Africa. Under 
 this heroic woman the combined host had been reduced to some 
 degree of discipline, and inspired with patriotic ardour, and were 
 now prepared to make a more effective struggle for their native 
 land than they had yet done under their generals. 
 
 After repeated battles, the emir Hossan was compelled to retire 
 with his veteran but diminished army to the frontiers of Egypt. 
 The patriot queen was not satisfied with this partial success. Call- 
 ing a council of war of the leaders and principal warriors of the 
 different hordes : " This retreat of the enemy," said she, "is but 
 temporary; they will return in greater force, \\hat is it that at- 
 tracts to our land these Arab spoilers ? The wealth of our cities ; 
 the treasures of silver and gold digged from the bowels of the 
 earth; the fruits of our gardens and orchards; the produce of our 
 fields. Let us demolish our cities ; return these accursed treasures 
 into the earth; fell our fruit trees; lay waste our fields, and spread 
 
 24
 
 370 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 a barrier of desolation between us and the country of these 
 robbers!" 
 
 The words of the royal prophetess were received with fanatic 
 enthusiasm by her barbarian troops; the greater part of whom, 
 collected from the mountains and from distant parts, had little 
 share in the property to be sacrificed. \Valled towns were forth- 
 with dismantled ; majestic edifices were tumbled into ruins ; groves 
 of fruit trees were hewn down, and the whole country from Tan- 
 giers to Tripoli was converted from a populous and fertile region 
 into a howling and barren waste. A short time was sufficient to 
 effect a desolation, which centuries have not sufficed to remedy. 
 
 This sacrificial measure of Queen Cahina, however patriotic its 
 intention, was fatal in the end to herself. The inhabitants of the 
 cities and the plains, who had beheld their property laid waste by 
 the infuriated zeal of their defenders, hailed the return of the 
 Moslem invaders as though they had been the saviours of the land. 
 
 The Moslems, as Cahina predicted, returned with augmented 
 forces : but when she took the field to oppose them, the ranks of 
 her army were thinned ; the enthusiasm which had formerly ani- 
 mated them was at an end : they were routed, after a sanguinary 
 battle, and the heroine fell into the hands of the enemy. Those 
 who captured her spared her life, because she was a woman and a 
 queen. "When brought into the presence of Hossan she maintained 
 her haughty and fierce demeanor. He proposed the usual con- 
 ditions, of conversion or tribute. She refused both with scorn, 
 and fell a victim to her patriotism and religious constancy, being 
 beheaded in presence of the emir. 
 
 Hossan Ibn An-no'man now repaired to Damascus, to give the 
 Caliph an account of his battles and victories; bearing an immense 
 amount of booty, and several signal trophies. The most important 
 of the latter was a precious box, containing the embalmed head of 
 the slaughtered Cahina. He was received with great distinction, 
 loaded with honours, and the government of Barca was added to 
 his military command. 
 
 This last honour proved fatal to Hossan. Abd'alaziz Ibn Merwan, 
 the Caliph's brother, was at that time emir of Egypt, and considered 
 the province of Barca a part of the territories under his govern- 
 ment. He had, accordingly, appointed one of his officers to com- 
 mand it as his lieutenant. He was extremely displeased and 
 disconcerted, therefore, when he was told that Hossan had solicited 
 and obtained the government of that province. Sending for the 
 latter, as he passed through Egypt on his way to his post, he 
 demanded whether it was true that in addition to his African com- 
 mand, he was really appointed governor of Barca. Being answered 
 in the affirmative, he appeared still to doubt ; whereupon Hossan 
 produced the mandate of the Caliph. Finding it correct, Abd'alaziz 
 urged him to resign the office. " Violence only," said Hossan, 
 " shall wrest from me an honour conferred by the Commander of 
 the Faithful." "Then I deprive Ihee of both governments," 
 exclaimed the emir, in a passion, "and will appoint a belter man 
 in thy stead ; and my brother will soon perceive the benefit he 
 derives from the change. " So saying, he tore the diploma in pieces.
 
 ABD'AUULEC. 371 
 
 It is added that, not content with depriving Hossan of his 
 command, he despoiled him of all his property, and carried his 
 persecution so far, that the conqueror of Carthage, the slayer of 
 the patriot queen, within a hrief time after her death, and almost 
 amid the very scenes of -his triumphs, died of a broken heart. His 
 cruel treatment of the heroic Cahina reconciles us to the injustice 
 wreaked upon himself. 
 
 CHAPTER LV. 
 
 Mua Ibn Nosseyr made emir of Northern Africa. His campaigns against the Berber*. 
 
 The general appointed by the Caliph's brother, Abd'alaziz Ibn 
 Merwan, to the command in Northern Africa, was Musa Ibn 
 Nosseyr, the same old adherent of the Merwan family that had 
 been prime counsellor of the Caliph's brother Besher, when emir 
 of Irak, and had escaped by dint of hoof from the clutches of Al 
 Hejagi, when the latter was about to arrest him on a charge of 
 squandering the public funds. Abd'alaziz, it will be remembered, 
 assisted him to pay the fifty thousand dinars of gold, in which he 
 was mulcted by the Caliph, and took him with him to Egypt ; and 
 it may have been with some view to self-reimbursement, that the 
 Egyptian emir now took the somewhat bold step of giving him the 
 place assigned to Hossan, by Abd'almaiec. 
 
 At the time of his appointment, Musa was sixty years of age. 
 He was still active and vigorous; of noble presence, and concealed 
 his age by tinging his hair and beard with henna. He had three 
 brave sons who aided him in his campaigns, and in whom he took 
 great pride. The eldest he had named Abd'alaziz, after his 
 patron ; he was brave and magnanimous, in the freshness of his 
 youth and his father's right hand in all his enterprises. Another 
 of his sons, he had called Merwan, the family name of Abd'alaziz 
 and the Caliph. 
 
 Musa joined the army at its African encampment, and addressed 
 his troops in frank and simple language. "I am a plain soldier 
 like yourselves," said he; "whenever I act well, thank God, and 
 endeavour to imitate me. "When I do wrong, reprove me, that I 
 may amend ; for we are all sinners and liable to err. If any one 
 has at any time a complaint to make, let him state it frankly, and 
 it shall be attended to. I have orders from the emir Abd'aln?iz 
 (to whom God be bountiful !) to pay you three times the amount of 
 your arrears. Take it, and make good use of it." It is needless 
 to say, that the address, especially the last part, was received with 
 acclamations. 
 
 While Musa was making his harangue, a sparrow fluttered into 
 his bosom. Interpreting it as a good omen, he called for a knife ; 
 cut off the bird's head ; besmeared the bosom of his vest with the
 
 372 AUIIO.iJET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 blood, and scattering the feathers in the air above his head 
 "Victory! Victory!" he cried, "by the master of the Caaba, vic- 
 tory is ours ! " 
 
 It is evident that Musa understood the character and foibles of 
 his troops ; he soon won their favour by his munificence, and still 
 more by his affability; always accosting them with kind words and 
 cheerful looks ; carefully avoiding the errour of those reserved 
 commanders, shut up in the fancied dignity of station, who looked, 
 he said, " as if God had tied a knot in their throats, so that they 
 could not utter a word." 
 
 "A commander," he used to say, "ought to consult wise and 
 experienced men in every undertaking ; but when he has made up 
 his mind, he should be firm and steady of purpose. He should be 
 brave, adventurous, at times even rash, confiding in his good for- 
 tune, and endeavouring to do more than is expected of him. He 
 should be doubly cautious after victory ; doubly brave after 
 defeat." 
 
 Musa found a part of Eastern Africa, * forming the present states 
 of Tunis and Algiers, in complete confusion and insurrection. A 
 Berber chief, AVarkattaf by name, scoured night and day the land 
 between Zaghwan and Caerwan. The Berbers had this advantage ; 
 if routed in the plains they took refuge in the mountains, which 
 ran parallel to the coast, forming part of the great chain of Atlas ; 
 in the fastnesses of these mountains they felt themselves secure ; 
 but should they be driven out of these, they could plunge into the 
 boundless deserts of the interior, and bid defiance to pursuit. 
 
 The energy of Musa rose with the difficulty of his enterprise. 
 " Take courage," would he say to his troops. " God is on our 
 side, and will enable us to cope with our enemies, however strong 
 their holds. By Allah ! I'll carry the war into yon haughty 
 mountains, nor cease until we have seized upon their passes, sur- 
 mounted their summits, and made ourselves masters of the country 
 beyond." 
 
 His words were not an empty threat. Having vanquished the 
 Berbers in the plains, he sent his sons Abd'alaziz and Merwfoi with 
 troops in different directions, who attacked the enemy in their 
 mountain-holds, and drove them beyond to the borders of the 
 Southern desert. Warkattaf was slain with many of his warriors, 
 and Musa had the gratification of seeing his sons return triumphant 
 from their different expeditions, bringing to the camp thousands of 
 captives and immense booty. Indeed the number of prisoners of 
 both sexes, taken in these campaigns, is said to have amounted to 
 three hundred thousand ; of whom one-fifth, or sixty thousand, 
 formed the Caliph's share. 
 
 Musa hastened to write an account of his victories to his patron 
 Abd'alaziz Ibn MerwAn, and as he knew covetousness to be the 
 prime failing of the emir, he sent him, at the same time, a great 
 share of the spoils, with choice horses and female slaves of sur- 
 passing beauty. 
 
 i Northern Africa, extending from Egypt lo the extremity of Mauritania, wassubdivided 
 into Eastern and Western Africa.
 
 ABD'ALMALEC. 3*3 
 
 The letter and the present came most opportunely. AM'alaziz 
 had just received a letter from his brother, the Caliph, rebuking 
 him for having deposed Hossan, a brave, experienced and fortunate 
 officer, and given his office to Musa, a man who had formerly 
 incurred the displeasure of the government ; and he was ordered 
 forthwith to restore Hossan to his command. 
 
 In reply, Abd'alaziz transmitted the news of the African vic- 
 tories. "I have just received from Musa," writes he, "the letter 
 which I inclose, that thou mayest peruse it, and give thanks 
 to God." 
 
 Other tidings came to the same purport, accompanied by a great 
 amount of booty. The Caliph's feelings toward Musa immediately 
 changed. He at once saw his fitness for the post he occupied, and 
 confirmed the appointment of Abd'alaziz, making him emir of 
 Africa. He, moreover, granted yearly pensions of two hundred 
 pieces of gold to himself and one hundred to each of his sons, and 
 directed him to select from among his soldiers five hundred of 
 those who had most distinguished themselves in battle, or received 
 most wounds, and give them each thirty pieces of gold. Lastly, 
 he revoked the fine formerly imposed upon him of fifty thousand 
 dinars of gold, and authorized him to reimburse himself out of the 
 Caliph's share of the spoil. 
 
 This last sum Musa declined to receive for his own benefit, but 
 publicly devoted it to the promotion of the faith and the good of 
 its professors. "Whenever a number of captives were put up for 
 sale after a victory, he chose from among them those who were 
 young, vigorous, intelligent, of noble origin, and who appeared 
 disposed to be instructed in the religion of Islam. If they were 
 converted, and proved to have sufficient talent, he gave them their 
 liberty, and appointed them to commands in his army ; if other- 
 wise, he returned them to the mass of captives, to be disposed of 
 in the usual manner. 
 
 The fame of Musa's victories, and of the immense spoil collected 
 by his troops, brought recruits to his standard from Egypt and 
 Syria, and other distant parts : for rapine was becoming more and 
 more the predominant passion of the Moslems. The army of Musa 
 was no longer composed, like the primitive armies of the faith, 
 merely of religious zealots. The campaigns in foreign countries, 
 and the necessity, at distant points, of recruiting the diminished 
 ranks from such sources as were at hand, had relaxed the ancient 
 scruples, as to unity of faith, and men of different creeds now 
 fought under the standard of Islam without being purified by con- 
 version. The army was, therefore, a motley host of every country 
 and kind; Arabs and Syrians, Persians and Copts, and nomadic 
 Africans ; arrayed in every kind of garb, and armed with every 
 kind of weapon. Musa had succeeded in enlisting in his service 
 many of the native tribes; a few of them were Christians, a greater 
 proportion idolaters, but the greatest number professed Judaism. 
 They readily amalgamated with the Arabs, having the same nomad 
 habits, and the same love of war and rapine. They even traced 
 their origin to the same Asiatic stock- According to their tradi- 
 tions five colonies, or tribes, came in ancient times from Sabaea, in
 
 374 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Arabia the Happy ; being expelled thence with their king Ifrique. 
 From these descended the five most powerful Berber tribes, the 
 Zenhagians, Muzanmdas, Zenetes, Gomeres and Hoares. 
 
 Musa artfully availed himself of these traditions; addressed the 
 conquered Berbers as Aulad-arabi (sons of the Arabs), and so 
 soothed their pride by this pretended consanguinity, that many 
 readily embraced the Moslem faith, and thousands of the bravest 
 men of Numidia enrolled themselves, of their own free will, in the 
 armies of Islam. 
 
 Others, however, persisted in waging stubborn war with the 
 invaders of their country, and among these, the most powerful and 
 intrepid, were the Zeiietes. They were a free, independent and 
 haughty race. Marmol, in his description of Africa, represents 
 them as inhabiting various parts ot the country. Some leading a 
 roving live about the plains, living in tents like the Arabs; others 
 having castles and strongholds in the mountains; others, very tro- 
 glodytes, infesting the dens and caves of Mount Atlas, and others 
 wandering on the borders of the Libyan desert. 
 
 The Gomeres were also a valiant and warlike tribe, inhabiting 
 the mountains of the lesser Atlas, in Mauritania, bordering the 
 frontiers of Ceuta, while the Muzamudas lived in the more western 
 part of that extreme province, where the great Atlas advances into 
 the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 In the eighty-third year of the Hegira, Musa made one of his 
 severest campaigns against a combined force of these Berber tribes, 
 collected under the banners of their several princes. They had 
 posted themselves in one of the fastnesses of the Atlas mountains, to 
 which the only approach was through different gorges and defiles. 
 All these were defended with great obstinacy, but were carried, 
 one after the other, after several days of severe fighting. 
 
 The armies at length found themselves in presence of each other, 
 when a general conflict was unavoidable. As they were drawn 
 out, regarding each other with menacing aspect, a Berber chief 
 advanced, and challenged any one of the Moslem cavaliers to 
 single combat. There was a delay in answering to the challenge; 
 whereupon Musa turned to his son MerwSn, who had charge of the 
 banners, and told him to meet the Berber warrior. The youth 
 handed his banner to his brother Abd'alaziz, and stepped forward 
 with alacrity. The Berber, a stark and seasoned warrior of the 
 mountains, regarded with surprise and almost scorn, an opponent 
 scarce arrived at manhood. "Return to the camp," cried he, ''! 
 would not deprive thine aged father of so comely a son." MerwSn 
 replied but with his weapon, assailing his adversary so vigorously, 
 that he retreated and sprang upon his horse. He now urged his 
 steed upon the youth, and made a thrust at him with a javelin, but 
 Merwfin seized the weapon with one hand, and with the other 
 thrust his own javelin through the Berber's side, burying it in the 
 flanks of the steed; so that both horse and rider were brought to 
 the ground and slain. 
 
 The two armies now closed in a general struggle; it was bloody 
 and desperate, but ended in the complete defeat of the Berbers. 
 Kasleyah. their king. foil, fighting to the last. A vast number of
 
 ABD'ALMALEC. 37S 
 
 captives were taken; among them were many beautiful maidens, 
 daughters of princes and military chiefs. At the division of the 
 spoil, Musa caused these high-born damsels to stand before him, 
 and bade Merw3n, his son, who had so recently distinguished 
 himself, to choose among them. The youth chose one who was a 
 daughter of the late king Kasleyah. She appears to have found 
 solace for the loss of her father in the arms of a youthful husband ; 
 and ultimately made Merwan the father of two sons, Musa and 
 Abd'almiilec. 
 
 CHAPTER LVI. 
 
 Naval enterprises of Musa. Cruisings of his son Abdolola. Dealt) of Abd'almalee. 
 
 The bold and adventurous spirit of Musa Ibn Nosseyr was not 
 content with victories on land. "Always endeavour to do more 
 than is expected of thee," was his maxim, and he now aspired to 
 achieve triumphs on the sea. He had ports within his province, 
 whence the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, in the days of their 
 power, had fitted out maritime enterprises. "Why should he not 
 do the same? 
 
 The feelings of the Arab conquerors had widely changed in re- 
 gard to naval expeditions. "When Amru, the conqueror of Egypt, 
 was at Alexandria, the Caliph Omar required of him a description 
 of the Mediterranean. "It is a great pool," replied Amru, "which 
 some foolhardy people furrow; looking like ants on logs of wood." 
 The answer was enough for Omar, who was always apprehensive 
 that the Moslems would endanger their conquestsby rashly-extended 
 enterprises. He forbade all maritime expeditions. Perhaps he 
 feared that the inexperience of the Arabs would expose them to 
 defeat from the Franks and Romans, who were practised navigators. 
 
 Moawyah, however, as we have shown, more confident of the 
 Moslem capacity for nautical warfare, had launched the banner of 
 Islam on the sea from the ancient ports of Tyre and Sidon, and had 
 scoured the eastern waters of the Mediterranean. The Moslems 
 now had armaments in various ports of Syria and Egypt, and 
 warred with the Christians by sea as well as by land. Abd'almdlec 
 had even ordered Musa's predecessor, Hossan, to erect an arsenal 
 at Tunis; Musa now undertook to carry those orders into effect; 
 to found dock-yards, and to build a fleet for his proposed enter- 
 prise. 
 
 At the outset he was surrounded by those sage doubters who are 
 ever ready to chill the ardour of enterprise. They pronounced the 
 scheme rash and impracticable. A gray-headed Berber, who had 
 been converted to Islam, spoke in a different lone. " I am one 
 hundred and twenty years old," said he, " and I well remember 
 hearing my father say, that when the Lord of Carthage thought of 
 building his city, the people all, as at present, exclaimed against
 
 376 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 it as impracticable ; one alone rose and said, oh king, put thy hand 
 to the work and it will be achieved ; for the kings thy predecessors 
 persevered and achieved every thing they undertook, whatever 
 might be the difficulty. And I say to thee, oh emir, put thy hand 
 to this work, and God will help thee ! " 
 
 Musa did put his hand to the work, and so effectually, that by 
 the conclusion of the eighty-fourth year of the Hegira, A. D. 703, 
 the arsenal and dock-yard were complete, and furnished with 
 maritime stores, and there was a numerous 'fleet in the port of 
 Tunis. 
 
 About this time a Moslem fleet, sent by Abd'alaziz, the emir of 
 Egypt, to make a ravaging descent on the coast of Sardinia, 
 entered the port of Susa, which is between Caerwan and Tunis. 
 Musa sent provisions to the fleet, but wrote to the commander, 
 Atta Ibn Rali, cautioning him that the season was too late for his 
 enterprise, and advising him to remain in port until more favourable 
 time and weather. 
 
 Atta treated his letter with contempt, as the advice of a landsman : 
 and having refitted his vessels, put to sea. He landed on an island, 
 called by the Arab writers, Salsalah, probably Linosa or Lam- 
 pedosa; made considerable booty of gold, silver, and precious, 
 stones, and again set sail on his plundering cruise. A violent storm 
 arose,, his ships were dashed on the rocky coast of Africa, and he 
 and nearly all his men were drowned. 
 
 Musa, hearing of the disaster, despatched his son, Abd'alaziz, 
 with a troop of horse to the scene of the shipwreck, to render all 
 the assistance in his power ; ordering that the vessels and crews 
 which survived the storm> should repair to the port of Tunis ; all 
 which was done. At the place of the wreck Abd'alaziz found a 
 heavy box cast up on the sea-shore ; on being opened, its contents 
 proved to be the share of spoil of one of the warriors of the fleet, 
 who had perished in the sea. 
 
 The author of the tradition from which these facts are gleaned, 
 adds, that one day he found an old man sitting on the sea-shore 
 with a reed in his hand, which he attempted to take from him. A 
 scuffle ensued; he wrested the reed from his hands, and struck 
 him with it over his head; when lo, it broke, and out fell gold 
 coins and pearls and precious stones Whether the old man, thus 
 hardly treated, was one t)f the wrecked cruisers, or a wrecker, 
 seeking to profit by their misfortunes, is not specified in the tra- 
 dition. The anecdote shows in what a random way the treasures 
 of the earth were in those days scattered about the world by the 
 predatory hosts of Islam. 
 
 The surviving ships having been repaired, and added to those 
 recently built at Tunis, and the season having become favourable, 
 Musa, early in the eighty r fifth year of the Hegira, declared his 
 intention to undertake, in person, a naval expedition. There was 
 a universal eagerness among the troops to embark; Musa selected 
 about a thousand of the choicest of his warriors, especially those 
 of rank and family, so that the enterprise was afterwards designated 
 The Expedition of the Nobles. He did not, however, accompany 
 it as he had promised; he had done so merely to enlist his bravest
 
 ABD'ALMALEC. 37? 
 
 men in the undertaking ; the command was given to his son, Abdo- 
 lola, to give him an opportunity to distinguish himself; for the. 
 reputation of his sons was as dear to Musa as his own. 
 
 It was, however, a mere predatory cruise 5 a type of the 
 ravaging piracies from the African ports in after ages. Abdolola 
 coasted the fair island of Sicily with his ships, landed on the western 
 side, and plundered a city which yielded such abundant spoil, that 
 each of the thousand men embarked in the cruise received one 
 hundred dinars of gold for his share. This done, the fleet returned 
 to Africa. 
 
 Soon after the return of his ships, Musa received news of the 
 death of his patron Abd'alaziz, which was followed soon after by 
 tidings of the death of the Caliph. On hearing of the death of the 
 latter, Musa immediately sent a messenger to Damascus to take the 
 oath of allegiance, in his name, to the new Caliph ; to inform him 
 of the naval achievements of his son Abdolola, and to deliver to 
 him his share of the immense booty gained. The effect of course 
 was to secure his continuance in office as emir of Africa. 
 
 The malady which terminated in the death of Abd'almalec is 
 supposed to have been the dropsy. It was attended in its last 
 stages with excessive thirst, which was aggraved by the prohibi- 
 tion of his physicians that any water should be given to him, lest 
 it should cause certain death. In the paroxysms of his malady the 
 expiring Caliph demanded water of his son Waled; it was withheld 
 through filial piety. His daughter, Fatima, approached with a 
 flagon, but Waled interfered and prevented her ; whereupon the 
 Caliph threatened him with disinheritance and his malediction. 
 Fatima handed to him the flagon, he drained it at a draught, and 
 almost instantly expired. He was about sixty years old at the time 
 of his death, and had reigned about twenty years. Abulfeda gives 
 him a character for learning, courage, and foresight. He certainly 
 showed ability and management in reuniting, under his sway, the 
 dismembered portions of the Moslem empire, and quelling the 
 various sects that rose in arms against him. His foresight with 
 regard to his family also, was crowned with success, as four of his 
 sons succeeded him, severally, in the Caliphat. 
 
 He evinced an illiberal spirit of hostility to the memory of Ali, 
 carrying it to such a degree that he would not permit the poet 
 Ferazdak to celebrate in song the virtues of any of his descendants. 
 Perhaps this may have gained for Abd'almalec another by-name 
 with which some of the Arab writers have signalized his memory, 
 calling him the " Father of Flies; " for so potent, say they, was 
 his breath, that any fly which alighted on his lips died on the spot.
 
 378 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 CHAPTER LVJI. 
 
 Inauguration of Waled, 12th Caliph. Revival of the arts under his reign. His taste 
 for architecture. Erection of mosques. Conquests of his generals. 
 
 "Waled, the eldest son of Abd'ahMlec, was proclaimed Caliph at 
 Damascus immediately on the death of his father, in the eighty- 
 sixth year of the Hegira, and the year 705 of the Christian era. He 
 was about thirty-eight years of age ; and is described as being tall 
 and robust, with a swarthy complexion, a face much pitted with 
 the small-pox, and a broad flat nose ; in other respects, which are 
 left to our conjecture, he is said to have been of a good countenance. 
 His habits were indolent and voluptuous, yet he was of a choleric 
 temper, and somewhat inclined to cruelty. 
 
 During the reign of Waled the arts began to develope themselves 
 under the Moslem sway; finding a more genial home in the luxu- 
 rious city of Damascus, than they had done in the holy cities of 
 Mecca or Medina. Foreign conquests had brought the Arabs in 
 contact with the Greeks and the Persians. Intercourse with them, 
 and residence in their cities, had gradually refined away the gross 
 habits of the desert; had awakened thirst for the sciences, and a 
 relish for the elegancies of cultivated life. Little skilled in the 
 principles of government, accustomed in their native deserts to the 
 patriarchal rule of separate tribes, without any extended scheme of 
 policy, or combined system of union, the Arabs, suddenly masters 
 of a vast and continually widening empire, had to study the art of 
 governing in the political institutions of the countries they con- 
 quered. Persia, the best organized monarchy in Asia, held out a 
 model by which they were fain to profit; and in their system of 
 emirs vested with the sway of distant and powerful provinces, but 
 strictly responsible to the Caliph, we see a copy of the satraps or 
 viceroys, the provincial depositaries of the power of the Khosrus. 
 
 Since Moawyah had moved the seat of the Caliphat to Damascus, 
 a change had come over the style of the Moslem court. It was no 
 longer, as in the days of Omar, the conference of a poorly clad 
 Arab chieftain with his veteran warriors and graybeard companions, 
 seated on their mats in the corner of a mosque : the Moslem Caliph 
 at Damascus had now his divan, in imitation of the Persian monarch ; 
 and his palace began to assume somewhat of oriental state and 
 splendour. 
 
 In nothing had the Moslem conquerors showed more ignorance 
 of affairs than in financial matters. The vast spoils acquired in their 
 conquests, and the tribute and taxes imposed on subjugated coun- 
 tries, had for a lime been treated like the chance booty caught up 
 in predatory expeditions of the deserts. They were amassed in 
 public treasuries without register or account, and shared and ap- 
 portioned without judgment and often without honesty. Hence
 
 WALED. 379 
 
 continual frauds and 'peculations ; hence those charges so readily 
 brought and readily believed, against generals and governors in 
 distant stations, of enormous frauds and embezzlements, and hence 
 that grasping avarice, that avidity of spoil and treasure, which were 
 more and more destroying the original singleness of purpose of the 
 soldiers of Islam. 
 
 Moawyah was the first of the Caliphs who ordered that registers 
 of tribute and taxes, as well as of spoils, should be kept in the 
 Islamite countries, in their respective languages; that is to say, in 
 the Greek language in Syria, and in the Persian language in Irak; 
 but Abd'almalec went further, and ordered that they should all 
 be kept in Arabic. Nothing, however, could effectually check the 
 extortion and corruption which was prevailing more and more in 
 the administration of the conquered provinces. Even the rude 
 Arab soldier, who in his desert would have been content with his 
 tent of hair-cloth, now aspired to the possession of fertile lands, or 
 a residence amid the voluptuous pleasures of the city. 
 
 AValed had grown up amid the refinements and corruptions of the 
 transplanted Caliphat. He was more of a Greek and Persian than 
 an Arab in his tastes ; and the very opposite of that primitive Mos- 
 lem, Omar, in most of his habitudes. On assuming the sovereign 
 power, he confirmed all the emirs or governors of provinces, and 
 also the generals appointed by his father. On these he devolved 
 all measures of government and warlike duties; for himself, he led 
 a soft luxurious life amidst the delights of his harem. Yet, though 
 he had sixty-three wives, he does not appear to have left any issue. 
 Much of his time was devoted to the arts, and especially the art of 
 architecture, in which he left some noble monuments to perpetuate 
 his fame. 
 
 He caused the principal mosque at Cairo to be demolished, and 
 one erected of greater majesty, the pillars of which had gilded 
 capitals. He enlarged and beautified the grand mosque erected 
 on the site of the temple of Solomon, for he was anxious to per- 
 petuate the pilgrimage to Jerusalem established by his father. He 
 gave command that the bounds of the mosque at Medina should be 
 extended ; so as to include the tomb of the prophet, and the nine 
 mansions of his wives. He furthermore ordered, that all the build- 
 ings round the Caaba at Mecca should be thrown down, and a 
 magnificent quadrangular mosque erected, such as is to be seen at 
 the present day. For this purpose, he sent a body of skilful Syrian 
 architects from Damascus. 
 
 Manyoflhe faithful were grieved, particularly those well-stricken 
 in years, the old residents of Mecca, to see the ancient simplicity 
 established by the prophet, violated by the splendour of this edifice ; 
 especially as the dwellings of numerous individuals were demolished 
 to furnish a vast square for the foundations of (he new edifice ; which 
 now inclosed within its circuit, the Caaba, the well of Zem Zem, 
 and the stations of different sects of Moslems, which came in pil- 
 grimage. 
 
 All these works were carried on under the supervision of his 
 emirs, but the Caliph attended in person to the erection of a grand 
 mosque in his capital of Damascus. In making arrangements for
 
 380 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 this majestic pile he cast his eyes on the superb church of St. John 
 the Baptist, which had been embellished by the Roman emperors 
 during successive ages, and enriched with the bones and relics of 
 saints and martyrs. He offered the Christians forty thousand 
 dinars of gold for this holy edifice ; but they replied, gold was 
 of no value in comparison with the sacred bones enshrined within 
 its walls. 
 
 The Caliph , therefore, took possession of the church on his own 
 authority, and either demolished or altered it, so as.to suit his 
 purpose in the construction of his mosque, and did not allow the 
 Christian owners a single dirhem of compensation. He employed 
 twelve thousand workmen constantly, in this architectural enterprise, 
 and one of his greatest regrets in his last moments was that he should 
 not live to see it completed. 
 
 The architecture of these mosques was a mixture of Greek and 
 Persian, and gave rise to the Saracenic style, of which Waled may 
 be said to be founder. The slender and graceful palm-tree, may 
 have served as a model for its columns ; as the clustering trees and 
 umbrageous forests of the north are thought to have thrown their 
 massive forms and shadowy glooms into Gothic architecture. These 
 two kinds of architecture have often been confounded, but the 
 Saracenic lakes the precedence ; the Gothic borrowed graces and 
 embellishments from it in the times of the Crusades. 
 
 "While the Caliph Waled lived indolently and voluptuously at 
 Damascus, or occupied himself in erecting mosques, his generals 
 extended his empire in various directions. Moslema Ibn Abd'al- 
 maiec, one of his fourteen brothers, led an army into Asia Minor, 
 invaded Cappadocia, and laid siege to Tyana , a strong city gar- 
 risoned with imperial troops. It was so closely invested, that it 
 could receive no provisions ; but the besiegers were equally in 
 want of supplies. The contest was fierce on both sides, for both 
 were sharpened and irritated hy hunger, and it became a contest 
 which could hold out longest against famine. 
 
 The duration of the siege enabled the emperor to send reinforce- 
 ments to the place, but they were raw undisciplined recruits, who 
 were routed by the hungry Moslems, their camp captured and their 
 provisions greedily devoured. The defeat of these reinforcements 
 rendered the defence of the city hopeless, and the pressure of 
 famine hastened a capitulation, the besieged not being aware that 
 the besiegers were nearly as much famished as themselves. Mos- 
 lema is accused by Christian writers, of having violated the con- 
 ditions of surrender; many of the inhabitants were driven forth 
 into the deserts, and many of the remainder were taken for slaves. 
 In a subsequent year Moslema made a successful incursion into 
 Ponlus and Armenia, a great part of which he subjugated, and took 
 the city of Ainasia, after a severely contested siege. He after- 
 wards made a victorious campaign into Galatia, ravaging the whole 
 province, and bearing away rich spoils and numerous captives. 
 
 While Moslema was thus bringing Asia .Minor into subjection, 
 his son Khatiba, a youth of great bravery, was no less successful in 
 extending the empire of the faith toward the East. Appointed to 
 the government of Khorassan, he did not content himself with at-
 
 MALED. 381 
 
 tending to the affairs of his own province, but crossing the Oxus, 
 ravaged the provinces of Turkistan, defeated a great army of Turks 
 and Tartars, by which he had been beleaguered and reduced to 
 great straits, and took the capital city of Bochara, with many others 
 of inferior note. 
 
 He. defeated also Magourek, the Khan of Charism, and drove 
 him to take refuge in the great city of Samarcand. This city, 
 anciently called Marcanda, was one of the chief marts of Asia, as 
 well for the wares imported from China, and Tangut across the 
 desert of Gobi, as of those brought through the mountains of the 
 great Thibet, and those conveyed from India to the Caspian Sea. 
 It was, therefore, a great resort and resting-place for caravans from 
 all quarters. The surrounding country was renowned throughout 
 the East for fertility, and ranked among the paradises, or gardens, 
 of Asia. 
 
 To this city Khatiba laid siege, but the inhabitants set him at 
 defiance, being confident of the strength of their walls, and 
 aware that the Arabs had no battering-rams, nor other engines 
 necessary for the attack of fortified places. A long and close siege, 
 however, reduced the garrison to great extremity, and finding 
 that the besiegers were preparing to carry the place by storm, they 
 capitulated, agreeing to pay an annual tribute of one thousand 
 dinars of gold and three thousand slaves. 
 
 Khatiba erected a magnificent mosque in that metropolis, and 
 officiated personally in expounding the doctrines of Islam, which 
 began soon to supersede the religion of the Magians, or Ghebers. 
 
 Extensive victories were likewise achieved in India during the 
 reign of >Valed, by Mohamed Ibn Casern, a native of Thayef, 
 one of his generals, who conquered the kingdom of Sinclia, or 
 Sinde, killed its sovereign in battle, and sent his head to the 
 Caliph ; overran a great part of Central India, and first planted the 
 standard of Islam on the banks of the Ganges, the sacred river of 
 the Hindoos. 
 
 CHAPTER LYIII. 
 
 Further triumphs of Musa Ibn Nosseyr. Naval enterprises Descents in Sicily, Sar- 
 dinia, and Mallorca. Invasion of Tingitania. Projects for theiinvasion of Spain. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 To return to affairs in Africa. During the first years of the 
 Caliphat of Waled, the naval armaments fitted out by Musa in the 
 ports of Eastern Africa, continued to scour the Mediterranean, and 
 carry terror and devastation into its islands. One of them coasted 
 the island of Sicily in the eighty-sixth year of the Hegira, and 
 attaked the city of Syracuse ; but the object appears to have been 
 mere plunder, not to retain possession. Another ravaged the 
 island of Sardinia, sacked its cities, and brought off a vast number 
 of prisoners and immense booty. Among the captives were Christian
 
 382 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 women of great beauty, and highly prized in the Eastern harems. 
 The command of the sea was ultimately given by Musa to his son 
 Ahdolola, who added to his nautical reputation by a descent upon 
 the island of Mallorca. 
 
 \Vhile Abdolola was rejoicing his father's heart by exploits and 
 triumphs on the sea, Abd'alaziz contributed no less to his pride 
 and exultation by his achievements on land. Aided by this favourite 
 son, Musa carried the terror of the Moslem arms to the western 
 extremity of Mount Atlas, subduing Fez, Duquella, Morocco, and 
 Sus. The valiant tribes of the Zenetes at length made peace, and 
 entered into compact with him; from other tribes Musa took 
 hostages; and by degrees the sway of the Caliph was established 
 throughout western Almagreb to Capo Non on the Atlantic. 
 
 Musa was not a ferocious conqueror. The countries subjected 
 by his arms became objects of his paternal care. He introduced 
 law and order; instructed the natives in the doctrines of Islam, 
 and defended the peaceful cultivators of the fields and residents 
 in the cities against the incursions of predatory tribes. In return 
 they requited his protection by contributing their fruits and flocks 
 to the support of the armies, and furnishing steeds matchless for 
 speed and beauty. 
 
 One region, however, yet remained to be subjugated before the 
 conquest of Northern Africa would be complete; the ancient Tingis, 
 or Tingitania, the northern extremity of Almagreb. Here the con- 
 tinent of Africa protruded boldly to meet the continent of Europe; 
 a narrow strait intervened ; the strait of Hercules, the gate of the 
 Mediterranean Sea. Two rocky promontories appeared to guard 
 it on each side, the far-famed pillars of Hercules. Two rock-built 
 cities, Ceuta and Tangiers, on the African coast, were the keys of 
 this gate, and controlled the neighbouring seaboard. These had 
 been held in ancient times by the Berber kings, who made this 
 region their stronghold, and Tangiers their seat of power ; but the 
 keys had been wrested from their hands at widely-separated, 
 periods, first by the Vandals, and afterwards by the Goths, the 
 conquerors of the opposite country of Spain ; and the Gothic 
 Spaniards had now held military possession Tor several genera- 
 lions. 
 
 Musa seems to have reserved this province for his last African 
 campaign. He stationed his son Merwin, with ten thousand men, 
 hi a fortified camp on the frontier, while Taric Ibn Zeyad a veteran 
 general scarred in many a battle, scoured the country from the 
 fountains or head waters of the river Moluya, to the mountains of 
 Aldaran. The province was bravely defended by a Gothic noble, 
 Count Julian by name; but he was gradually driven to shut 
 himself up in Ceuta. Meantime Tangiers yielded to the Moslem 
 arms after an obstinate defence, and was strongly garrisoned by 
 Arab and Egyptian troops, and the command given to Taric. An 
 attempt was made to convert the Christian inhabitants to the faith 
 of Islam; the Berber part easily conformed, but the Gothic per- 
 sisted in unbelief, and rather than give up their religion, abandoned 
 their abodes, and crossed over to Andaluz with the loss of all their 
 property.
 
 WALED. .18 3 
 
 Musa now advanced upon Geuta, into which Count Julian had 
 drawn all his troops. He attempted to carry it by storm, but was 
 gallantly repulsed, with the loss of many of his best troops. 
 Repeated assaults were made with no belter success; the city was 
 situated on a promontory, and strongly fortified. Musa now laid 
 waste the surrounding country, thinking to reduce the place by 
 famine, but the proximity of Spain enabled the garrison to receive 
 supplies and reinforcements across the straits, 
 
 Months were expended in this protracted and unavailing siege, 
 According to some accounts Musa retired personally from the at- 
 tempt, and returned to his seat of government at Caerwan, leaving 
 the army and province in charge of his son Merwftn, and Taric in 
 command of Tangiers. 
 
 And now occurred one of the most memorable pieces of treason 
 in history. Count Julian, who had so nobly defended his post, 
 and checked the hitherto irresistible arms of Islam, all at once 
 made secret offers, not merely to deliver up Ceuta to the Moslem 
 commander, but to betray Andaluz itself into his hands. The 
 country he represented as rife for a revolt against Roderick the 
 Gothic king, who was considered an usurper ; and he offered to 
 accompany and aid the Moslems in a descent upon the coast, where 
 he had numerous friends ready to flock to his standard. 
 
 Of the private wrongs received by Count Julian from his 
 sovereign, which provoked him to this stupendous act of treason, 
 we shall here say nothing. Musa was startled by his proposition. 
 He had long cast a wistful eye at the mountains of Andaluz, 
 brightening beyond the strait, but hitherto the conquest of Northern 
 Africa had tasked all his means. Even now he feared to trust too 
 readily to a man whose very proposition showed an utter want of 
 faith. He determined, therefore, to despatch Taric Ibn Zeyad on 
 a reconnoitering expedition to coast the opposite shores, accom- 
 panied by Count Julian, and ascertain the truth of his repre- 
 sentations. Taric accordingly embarked with a few hundred men 
 in four merchant vessels, crossed the straits under the guidance of 
 Count Julian, Mho, on landing, despatched emissaries to his friends 
 and adherents, summoning them to a conference at Jesirah al 
 Khadra, or the Green Island, now Algeziras. Here, in presence of 
 Taric, they confirmed all that Julian had said of the rebellious dis- 
 position of the country, and of their own readiness to join the 
 standard of an invader. A plundering cruise along the coast con- 
 vinced Taric of the wealth of the country, and he returned to the 
 African shores with ample spoils and female captives of great 
 beauty. 
 
 A new career of conquest seemed thus opening upon Musa. His 
 predecessor, Acbah, had spurred his steed into the waves of the 
 Atlantic, and sighed that there were no further lands to conquer ; 
 but here was another quarter of the world inviting the triumphs of 
 Islam. He forthwith wrote to the Caliph, giving a glowing ac- 
 count of the country thus held out for conquest ; a country abound- 
 ing in noble monuments and wealthy cities; rivalling Syria in the 
 fertility of its soil and the beauty of its climate ; Yemen, or Arabia 
 the happy, in its temperature ; India in its flowers and spices ;
 
 384 MAHOMET AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Hegiaz in its fruits and its productions; Cathay in its precious and 
 abundant mines; Aden in the excellence of its ports and harbours. 
 "With the aid of God," added he, "I have reduced to obedience 
 the Zenetes and the other Berber tribes of Zab and DerSr, Zaara, 
 Mazamuda, and Sus : the standard of Islam floats triumphant on the 
 walls of Tangiers ; thence to the opposite coast of Andaluz is but a 
 space of twelve miles. Let but the Commander of the Faithful give 
 the word, and the conquerors of Africa will cross into that land, 
 there to carry the knowledge of the true God and the law of the 
 Koran." 
 
 The Arab spirit of the Caliph was roused by this magnificent 
 prospect of new conquests. He called to mind a tradition that 
 Mahomet had promised the extension of his law to the uttermost 
 regions of the West; and he now gave full authority to Musa to 
 proceed in his pious enterprise, and carry the sword of Islam into 
 the benighted land of Andaluz. 
 
 "We have thus accomplished our self-allotted task. We have set 
 forth, in simple and succinct narrative, a certain portion of this 
 wonderful career of fanatical conquest. We have traced the pro- 
 gress of the little cloud which rose out of the deserts of Arabia, 
 "no bigger than a man's hand," until it has spread out and over- 
 shadowed the ancient quarters of the world and all their faded 
 glories. We have shown the handful of proselytes of a pseudo 
 prophet, driven from city to city, lurking in dens and caves of the 
 earth ; but at length rising to be leaders of armies and mighty con- 
 querors; overcoming in pitched battle the Roman cohort, the 
 Grecian phalanx, and the gorgeous hosts of Persia; carrying their 
 victories from the gates of the Caucasus, to the western descents of 
 Mount Atlas ; from the banks of the Ganges to the Sus, the ultimate 
 river in Mauritania ; and now planting their standard on the pil- 
 lars of Hercules, and threatening Europe with like subjugation. 
 
 Here, however, we stay our hand. Here we lay down our pen. 
 Whether it will ever be our lot to resume the theme, to cross with 
 the Moslem hosts the strait of Hercule^, and narrate their memorable 
 conquest of Gothic Spain, is one of those uncertainties of mortal 
 life and aspirations of literary zeal, which beguile us with agree- 
 able dreams, but too often end in disappointment. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 PARIS. PRINTED BY T. THCSOT AND CO,, 26, HUE RACINE.

 
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