UC-NRLF ' ^ ' , fcv V. ^ '■■• ''f, C8*" ^Jru^ /mj ^^j^ J LI BRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. GIRT OK Received i^y^^^.^^A^, i8&d. . Accessions No J^ O /y_ Shelf No, . Z^ ^$ ■^ ?^? Digitized by tine Internet Arcinive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/analysisofletterOOtownrich ANALYSIS OP LETTER-WRITING A LAKGE NUMBEK OF EXAMPLES OF MODEL BUSINESS LETTERS, CALVIN TOWNSEND, COUNSELLOR AT LAW, AUTHOR OF "analysis OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED "analysis OF CIVIL GOVERNMENT," "ANALYSIS OF COMMERCIAL LAW," ETC., ETC. PUBLISHED BY IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR, & CO. NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. 1873. IJ." rtf^^l Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, BY CALVIN TOWNSEND, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, University Prkss: Welch, Bigrlow, & Co., CAMnRIDGF. PREFACE. IjlOK several years past the author has been engaged in the Rochester Business University as lecturer on Commercial Law, and instructor in Business Cowespondence. His method of pre- senting these subjects on the blackboard is peculiar. The favor with which his work on Commercial Law, analytically and top- ically arranged, published in 1871,* has been received both by business colleges and the legal profession, has encouraged him to the preparation of this work on a plan similar to that. It is designed chiefly for the use of pupils in normal and high schools, business colleges, the advanced classes of the common schools, and especially for business men, and young persons of both sexes preparing for business Hfe. It is hoped it will be found useful also to teachers and instructors of every grade. No attempt, so far as the author is aware, has hitherto been made to teach letter-writing topically and analytically, as to form or matter, in the schools of any grade in this country. So far as his knowledge extends, this is the first effort of the kind in that direction. He has long felt the want of a good text-book for the use of his own classes. * Published by Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor, & Co., New York. iv PREFACE. This little volume makes no pretensions to teaching the pupil how to compose a letter. That can hardly be done by itself, either as an art or as a science. But all the arts and all the sciences contribute to that end. To give a finished literary character to a letter requires superior literary qualifications on the part of the writer. These cannot be acquired through the study of this or any other work on letter- writing. They are the fruits of broad culture in all departments of learning. The ability, therefore, to write a scholarly letter implies that the writer is a person of scholarly attainments. But literary culture does not always enable one to give the proper details of mechanical arrangement to a letter. It may have all the literary poHsh and rhetorical finish that might be expected from the pen of a Milton, an Addison, or a Chesterfield, yet the manuscript may present a very uncouth and shabby appearance. Were it to fortunately fall into the hands of a printer who was master of his art, on him would devolve the labor of correcting all its mechanical blunders, and of bringing order out of chaos. Many a printer has saved, or at least pro- tected, the reputation of an author. The manuscript letters of not a few of the most gifted literary characters would, in mechanical arrangement, be a discredit to an ordinary schoolboy or merchant's clerk of fifteen or sixteen years of age. Thousands of letters are written every day, faultless in composition, but abounding with errors in mechanical detail. They read well to the ear, but are horrid deformities to the eye. Few, indeed, of the letters of our best business men, taken just as they are written, are fit for the press. Their authors would be PREFACE. y ashamed of them, were they to be published, perchance, with all their errors. The composition may be excellent, — perhaps not a word need be omitted or added, — the penmansliip may be good, but the entire appearance and dress are faulty in the extreme. And the faults are purely of a mechanical character, and such as any schoolboy could learn in a few hours to avoid. i' This work is intended as a correct guide in the matter of me- chanical detail, and in the combinations of th6 parts of a letter, whether, in its composition, it be a good one or a poor one. This is its chief end and aim. If the student will attentively study it, he will readily learn to avoid all that class of common errors in letter- writing. It will cost him the labor of but a few lessons at most. DIEECTIONS TO THE TEACHER XN teaching according to the plan of this work, the blackboard and slate must be brought into constant use. It will be idle to attempt to teach this subject, as herein arranged, without them. With them, that pupil who can write a tolerably fair hand must be dull indeed that cannot learn perfectly in a few lessons how to give to a letter its proper mechanical form, dress, and features. A little careful blackboard practice, following the models and ex- amples, will be found to be all that is necessary. The author, therefore, hopes the teacher will not attempt to use this work without the blackboard. CONTENTS PART I. STRUCTURE OF A LETTER. PA0B INTRODUCTION 3 CHAPTER I. THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. SECTION I. Materials. Paper; Size, Quality, Color. Pen : Quill, Gold, Steel. Envelope: Quality, Size, Shape, Color. Ink 5-11 II. Penmanship. Legibility. Uniformity : Capital Letters, Small Letters, Slope, Fin- ish. Spaces. Directions to the Teacher. Key to the Diagram. Diagram of the Structure of a Letter 1 1 - 28 III. Heading or Date. Position. Items. Punctuation 28-34 IV. Left Margin. Diagram of Guide-Line 36 V. Address. Position. Names and Additions. Punctuation. Examples of Punc- tuation 37-50 VI. Body of the Letter. Where to begin. Para^mjo^s ; When to be used, Where to begin 50-55 VII. Conclusion. Position. Language. Signature. Punctuation . . . .55-60 VIIL Folding. From the Bottom. Right to Lejl. Lefi to Right . . . . 60-62 IX. Insertion 62-63 X. Superscription. Position. Items. Legibility. Punctuation 63-73 XI. Postage-Stamp 73-75 viii CONTENTS. CHAPTEK II. THINGS TO BE AVOIDED. SECTION I. Inexcusable Blemishes. Interlineations: Of Words, Of Letters. Blots. Flourishes. Cross- Lines. Underlinings. Erasures. Postscripts. The Character Sf. Figures for Words. Lead-Pencil Writing 76-89 PAET II. LITERATURE OF A LETTER. INTRODUCTION . .93-95 CHAPTER I. THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. I. Capital Letters. Paragraphs. Sentences. Poetry. Names: Of Persons, Of Places, Geographical. Initials: Names of Persons, Names of Places, Literary Titles, Abbreviations. Titles. Proper Adjectives. Heaven. Supreme Being. Direct Quotation. Titles of Books : '^ouns, Yerhs, Adjectives. Titles of Essays ; Names of Newspapers. Pronoun 1. Interjection O. Days of Week. Months 96-99 II. Punctuation. Period. Colon. Semicolon Comma. Interrogation, Exclamation. Dash. Parentheses. Quotation. Hyphen , . . ,100-107 III. Literary Items. Arrangement of Items. Spelling. Grammatical Accuracy. Brevity. Style. Short Sentences. Abbreviations 108-118 CHAPTER II. Things to be Avoided. Bombast. Slang Words. Foreign Words and Phrases. Tautology : Of Meaning, Of Words. Parentheses 119-127 GENERAL EXERCISES. Directions to the Teacher 128-139 APPENDIX 141-170 VOCABULARY AND MERCANTILE TERMS . . . 171-180 ABBREVIATIONS AND CHARACTERS 180, 181 PAET FIRST. STETJOTimE OE A UETTEE. ANALYSIS OF LETTER- WEITING. INTEODUCTION. AS the phrase is here used, the structure of a letter means sim- ply the mechanical form and arrangement of its several parts. It has no reference to the literary character or subject-matter. Every business man knows that the structure of a letter may be such as to present to the eye a pleasing appearance, though it be wholly destitute of grammatical or rhetorical merit. The letter may have such a faultless mechanical form and dress that it will make a favorable impression upon the mind of the reader at a glance. Even if the handwriting is clumsy to an extreme, and according to no approved system of penmanship, it may exhibit skill of arrangement, and apparent experience in letter- writing as an art, which is most acceptable to the business man. The man of business usually has what is called a business air ; so the business letter may have an air of neatness and finish, depending on no one, but many, little things. Any one of these little things can be easily taught, and easily learned, so that all the necessary parts may be mastered without difficulty. First learn perfectly the several parts, one by one, and then the com- binations can easily be made. The structure of a letter can be as easily taught as the rudi- ments of drawing or penmanship. One who can write a promis- sory note, or even his own name, legibly, can learn in a very short time to construct a letter, in the mechanical sense of the word, so that it shall be liable to no just criticism, except, per- haps, in regard to the handwriting. Indeed, this is the only difficult thing about the structure of a letter ; while it really con- 4 QUESTIONS ON THE INTRODUCTION. [Part I. tributes about as little, perhaps, to the dress of it as any one of a dozen things that require no labor at all ; simply attention. For want of a few little things to be observed or omitted, a letter of unexceptionable style of language is often most repulsive in appearance. It seems to have been written by one who has no mechanical taste, and no proper ideas of order. Moreover, the chirography may be elegant beyond criticism; but, somehow or other, the lines seem to be pitched together, as though the writer were fully resolved to make good penmanship look as bad as possible. A lady may be clothed in expensive costume, yet not be elegantly dressed. Each article by itself may be faultless, but the combination hideous in the extreme. So each part of a letter, standing by itself, may be well done, but, taken together, it seems a collection of mere patchwork. The better the hand>;vTiting of such a letter, the worse the sheet appears to the eye of cultivated taste. In treating of the structure of a letter, it will be convenient to divide the subject into two chapters, — the first embracing Things to he observed, and the second. Things to he avoided. QUESTIONS ON THE INTRODUCTION. 1. What is meant by the structure of a letter? 2. What does every business man know about it? 3. Wliat impression does a letter, faultless in structure, produce on the mind of the reader? 4. What is the effect of skill in arrangement? 6. "What kind of an air should a business letter present? 6. On what does this depend ? 7. What should be first learned? 8. What is said about learning the several parts? 9. Wliat is the most difficult thing to learn? 10. How much, comparatively, does this add to the dress of a letter? 1 1 . Wliat makes some letters repulsive in appearance ? 12. How may a letter look, though in a good handwriting? 13. Why is this so? 14. When may a good handwriting add to the bad appearance of a letter? 15. Into how many chapters is the structure of a letter divided? 16. What does the first embrace? 17. What does the second? Chap. I.] SELECTION OF MATERIALS. CHAPTEE I. THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. THE student should be required, without the aid of the book, to place all tables on the hlackhoard, and to briefly explain them himself, before the teacher gives his lecture or makes his remarks. If the student does not possess confidence sufiicient to give the explanations, the teacher can aid him a little at first by asking the questions appended hereto, or any others that may suggest themselves to his mind. 1. Materials. BLACKBOARD EXERCISE. ( 1. Size. . 1. Paper. . . . j 2. Quality. ( 3. Color. 1. QuUl. 2. Pen ^2. Gold. 3. Steel. 1. Quality. 2. Size. 3. Shape. 4. Color. . 3. Envelope. ;i. Length. ; 2. Width. 1. Length. 2. Width. 1. White. 2. Buff. 4. Ink. SECTION I. MATERIALS. The first, and one of the most important things to be observed in the structure of a letter is, to secure the proper materials for that purpose. To make the subject plain, the foregoing analysis has been presented for your exercise on the blackboard. Every one who has had any practice in letter-writing knows that good materials are essential to the proper structure of a 6 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part L letter. The writer's work may be spoiled in appearance for the want of good paper, a good pen, good ink, and a suitable en- velope. You cannot do your very best work on a letter — and you should always do your best — without all these. The best is the cheapest, all things considered. 1. PAPER. — In regard to paper, the subject is divided into 1. Size; 2. Quality; 3. Color. 1« Size. — For a business letter of any importance, especially if it is a long one, the full-sized letter sheet is generally preferable. A commercial note sheet may properly be used for a short business letter of no special importance, and one which it may not be necessary to file for future reference. But most merchants and business men, it is believed, prefer the sheet of letter size. Never use cap paper for this purpose. It is awkward, clumsy, and vulgar. 1. Length. — The length of the full-sized business letter sheet is about ten inches. Some are a little longer ; but this is not far from the usual length. 2. Width. — The width corresponding to this length is about eight inches. The size of the paper, however, whether letter or note, should be adapted to the size of the envelope to be used. 2. Quality. — Wliile paper is as cheap as it is at present, there can be no good excuse for using a poor article. Get the very best, and no other on any account whatever; and for the sake of economy, buy by the quarter, half, or whole ream. It is difficult enough, if you have had but little experience in the business, to give your letter the desirable appearance even with the best materials, and without good paper a failure is certain. Good paper will generally inspire more care in your work, and more of a painstaking disposition than a poor article. We are always more careful with "a good material than with a poor one. A tailor will do his part of a garment better, even at the same price, if his customer furnishes good fine cloth for the job. A jeweler will be more careful of a fine watch or bracelet than of a coarse one. Chap. I.] SELECTION OF MATERIALS. 7 Thick, heavy paper is not always, nor generally, the best for letter-writing. It should have a smooth surface, and be fine and flexible. Some prefer a glazed, others a cold-pressed, dead sur- face. Take your choice. 3. Color. — White paper, or that which is very slightly tinged with blue, should be used for business letters. JSTo one but a fop or dandy will use any other color. Ladies may, perhaps, indulge their taste in the use of tinted, or even perfumed paper, if they like, in their social correspondence ; but the gi-avity of business is quite inconsistent with such childish display. A solid mer- chant or business man would probably reject an application for a situation, even if he deigned to answer it at all, were it written on scented and tinted paper. 2. PEN. — This is made of the goose-quill, or of gold or steel. 1. Quill. — The old-fashioned goose-quill pen has so nearly gone out of use that nothing need be said about it here. It is pre- ferred, however, by some writing-masters for some particular branches of ornamental penmanship ; and once in a while you may find an old gentleman -who will use no other kind of pen. But the goose-quill pen is nearly forgotten. 2. Gold. — The gold pen is by far the most durable, — lasting, as it does, by careful usage, almost a lifetime. It is preferred to any other by many professional bookkeepers. Wlien the writer has once become accustomed to his favorite gold pen, he can write with almost absolute uniformity. The chief objection to it is its cost; though writing-masters claim that it is not equal to the steel pen in its capacity to make the fine hair marks. But these are not very essential to the good appearance of the business letter, especially not in any such degree as in ornamental penmanship. 3. Steel. — The steel pen is now in almost universal use in this country. It is manufactured in great variety and perfection. The expense is but trifling, as a box containing a quarter of a gross, three dozens, can be obtained at almost any stationer's for fifty or seventy-five cents, — only a cent or two each, at the highest prices. By trial you can ascertain the kind, size, and quality best 8 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Paxt I. adapted to your hand, — the breadth of nib, the flexibility, and fineness required. Steel pens are known by letters, as A, B, C, etc., or by num- bers. When you have ascertained the letter or number best suited to your hand, you can, of course, order accordingly. Some persons must have a much larger, heavier, stronger pen than others. One manufacturer's pen may not suit your hand at all, while for another person he makes just the pen wanted. 3. ENVELOPE. — A few years ago envelopes were very rarely used. But now scarcely a letter is mailed that is not inclosed in an envelope. In selecting them, a few things should be observed. 1 . Quality. — As in making your selections of paper, get the best. The difference in cost between a good and a poor envelope is not worthy of a moment's thought. For safety in the transmission of your letter through the mail, it should be of firm, strong mate- rial Thin, flimsy, porous envelopes often become mutilated through the rough fare of the mail-bags, especially when sent a great distance. 2. Size. — The size of the envelope should correspond to the size and shape of the sheet to be inclosed. 1. Length. — If you use commercial note paper for your letter, the length of the envelope should exceed the width of the note sheet by about a quarter of an inch, so that, when the letter is inserted, there shall be but little, if any, perceptible vacant space .about the edges. If letter size is used, which is generally preferable, the length of the envelope should exceed by about an eighth of an inch one half the length of the sheet of paper. 2. Width. — The width of the envelope should be a little over one half its length ; say, as three is to five and a half ; about three inches by five and a half, or in that proportion. This is one of the regular forms for ordinary business envelopes. 3« Shape. — The shape of the envelope should be oblong, as already defined; the corners, right angles. Avoid the use of envelopes of irregular and fancy shape, such as have two obtuse and two acute angles, or of triangular form. They are unbusi- Chap. L] SELECTION OF MATERIALS. 9 ness-like, and necessitate irregularity in folding the letter to be inclosed. Their use stamps the writer with dandyism and fop- pishness, not to say puerility. 4« Color. — No fancy-colored envelopes are suitable for business letters. To the business man they are offensive, if not disgust- ing. A few years since a veteran Boston merchant declined to comply with an order for goods, or to open negotiations on the subject, for no reason only that the order was inclosed in a pink- colored envelope. Perhaps this was extra fastidiousness. He professed to read character through small things; and he said, that no man that was a man and had a business mind would do such a foolish, childish thing. The color of the business envelope should be pure white, or huff. Light buflp is preferable to the deeper and more positive shades. The best usage sanctions either of these colors, and these only. Either may be used according to your choice. 4. INK. — But, no matter how good your paper, pen, and envelope may be, if you write with poor ink, you will be certain to spoil your letter. A letter can never make an acceptable appearance written with anything but the best of ink. It should be selected with the greatest care, and with reference to its complexion and generous flow from the pen. It should be positively dark — nearly black — and free from sediment, so that the flow wiU be uniform ; not leaving an occasional blot among the heavy strokes. Who has not puzzled his eyes and taxed his patience in the effort to decipher a letter written with pale ink, filled with sediment ? The writer of a letter does himself injustice in the use of such ink, and needlessly inflicts an unpleasant task on his reader. The sediment gives an appearance of two or more kinds of ink hav- ing been used in the same line or word, and marks the author for carelessness. Said an old, experienced bookkeeper, "I must have ink that makes the pen talk ; that makes it speak for itself, and with uni- form tone. I want the writing to look just the same the moment the ink is put on, as it will ten years afterwards. I cannot bear to wait a few hours to see what I have written." 1* 10 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part L Nearly all good ink, however, will become more positive in complexion a few hours after being applied. But none should be used that does not afford a feeling of satisfaction, the moment it is put on, that you have done what you intended. Pale ink is insipid, — almost abominable. A little Enghsh work, called the " Model Letter-Writer," says, " It is a good plan to keep a common nail in the inkstand. It must be free from rust when put in, so that the action of the acid in the ink may be expended on it. The ink will not then destroy the pens so much." Never leave the pen in the ink after writing ; wipe it carefully, and it will keep pleasant for use, and last twice as long. QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER L Section I. — Materials, 1. What is the subject of this chapter? 2. What is the subject of this section? 3. What kind of materials is necessary? 4. ^VTiatis the blackboard exercise presented for? 5. How may the work of a letter be spoiled ? 6. What should you always do in letter- writing? 7. Which are the cheapest materials ? 8. Which is the first of these? 9. "W^iat are the divisions in regard to paper? 10. What quality of paper should you use? 11. In what quantity should you buy it ? 12. What is the result of poor materials ? 13. How does good paper affect the writer? 14. What are we always most careful of? 15. What is said of the tailor and jeweler? 16. What, about the surface of paper? 17. What sized sheet is generally preferable for business letters? 18. What size do business men prefer? 19. What is generally the length? 20. What, the width? 21. ^'liat color should be used ? 22. What kinds of pens are used? 23. AVlio prefer the quill? 24. What are the advantages of a gold pen? 25. What, of a steel pen ? Chap. L] PENMANSHIP. 11 26. How should you select your pen? 27. How are steel pens known ? 28. What is the need of a variety of pens ? 29. How long have envelopes been used? 30. AVliat kind should you get ? 31. Why not use a cheap article? 32. What should the size correspond to? 33. In using note paper, what should be the length of the envelope? 34. What, in using letter paper? 35. What should be the width compared with the length? 36. What, its shape? 37. What is said of irregular shapes? 38. W^hat, of the color of a business envelope? 39. How did the Boston merchant like a pink envelope ? 40. A^liat is said about ink ? 4 1 . What two qualities are essential ? 42. What color is preferable? 43. Why is sediment objectionable? 44. What did the old bookkeeper say? 45. What is said of pale ink? 46. ^Tiat, of leaving your pen in the ink ? BLACKBOARD EXERCISE. fl. Legibility. 1. Capitals. 2. Penmanship. 2. Uniformity. 3. Spaces. 1. Minimum. 2. Small Letters. \ 2. Extended Loop. 3, Extended Stem. 3. Slope. 4. Finish. (1. Dottir 2. Crossi 3. Loop. 1. Dotting the t. Crossing the L Loop. SECTION II. PENMANSHIP. With good materials for the execution of the work there is no reason why any man or woman having one healthy hand and one eye that can see should not be able, by a reasonable amount of practice and painstaking, to write a hand that will not be particu- 12 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part I. larly objectionable. Culpable indifference, laziness, or, to speak a little more mildly, indolence and downright carelessness, according to the uniform testimony of all experienced teachers of penman- ship, are, in nineteen cases out of twenty, the only obstacles in tlie way of a good, fair, legible handwriting. A little earnestness, industry, carefulness, and perseverance will overcome all difficulties. Elegant penmanship is not the subject here proposed ; but a good, readable, business handwiiting. In accomplishing this, three essential particulars must be ob- served. The writing-master will tell you of many more, but all his minutiae of instruction will be covered by these three heads, — Legibility, Uniformity, and Spaces. 1. LEGIBILITY. — Were it necessary, everything else should be sacrificed to Legibility. Every teacher knows that children just beginnmg to write, make much plainer work than the more ad- vanced pupils. Indeed, their whole aim is to so form their letters that they can be read. They do not seem to think of anything else ; especially when their efforts are entirely voluntary, unaided by the teacher. This demonstrates that it is nonsense to contend, as many persons do, that they could never learn to write a legible hand. There are those who, from mere snobbishness, affect to despise legibility, and who even boast that nobody can read what they write without a severe test of patience. They have heard that such and such a distinguished man wrote a miserable, tangled scrawl that nobody could read, — not even the writer himself, after the ink was dry, — and they seem to fancy that if they can exhibit the same ridiculous and barbarous peculiarity, they estab- lish that they too are great. This is a kind of apishness that is insipid in the extreme, not to say idiotic. Perhaps it is of little consequence, however, whether such attempts at imitation of bad examples succeed or not, as the silly imitator will hardly be likely to ever write any- thing worth reading. It is coveting blemishes and deformities, because some great man has them. It would be just as sensible for the poetic aspirant to desire a club foot because Lord Byron had one. Chap. L] PENMANSHIP. 13 Through all the years of your pupilage, and for years after its close, it should be your aim to write with such legibility that not one word can be mistaken for another, nor one letter of a word for another. Do not impose the necessity upon the person with whom you have business relations and correspondence, of making fruitless efforts to decipher your awkward hieroglyphics, until his patience shall be completely exhausted. Such scrawls are utterly inexcusable, and may reasonably provoke resentment. Lord Palmerston said, " People have no business to save their own time at the expense of mine." A merchant in Baltimore, who probably believed in imitating some great man's horrid chirography, wrote an order to a New Orleans business house, asking them to send him by express one hundred boxes of collars. He was greatly surprised and chagrined at receiving in a few days one hundred bales of cotton. He pro- tested that he gave no order for bales of cotton, and resisted pay- ment. But, in a lawsuit brought to recover, he lost his case ; for neither bench, bar, witness, nor jury could make anything of it but an order for cotton. A merchant wrote to the Indies for a lot of mangoes. He re- ceived by return ship a fine lot of monkeys. A wine merchant on the Hudson Eiver sent an order to New York for three barrels of beer. He received by first steamer a lai'ge black bear, with the assurance that the other two should be forthcoming as soon as the cubs were old enough to leave their mother. The sermon of a clergyman who was careless in his penman- ship was in the hands of the printer. In the document was this passage : " JVo cross, no crown." But the printer read it and printed it, " JVo cow, no cream.'' The legibility of writing is sometimes spoiled by making the letters too small A very fine, dehcate hand detracts very much from the business appearance of your letter. Besides, the words and parts of words will be less likely to be made perfectly if the hand is very small and delicate. The character of such penman- ship is merely negative ; that is, there is no character to it. Of course it is less easily read than a bolder hand. Ladies seldom 14 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part L write a good business hand, because they make their letters too small. On this account, they do not easily obtain positions requiring a bold business hand. 2. UNIFORMITY. — Under this head may properly be included Capital Letters, Small Letters, Slope, and Finish. 1. Capital Letters. — The proper distribution of capital letters will not be considered in this place. That subject may be found farther on. Capitals should be written of uniform size, — that is, the same letters. Not that /, for instance, should occupy as much space as W OT M; but one of these letters should occupy the same space in one part of your letter as in another. Again, those capitals that are projected below the line, such as J, Z, and Y, should be uniform in the length of that projection. The height above the line should also be uniform with all capitals, whether they reach below or not. No capital should be longer or shorter above the line than the others. Should your address be Dear Sir, for instance, do not make the capitals D and S any larger there than in any other part of the letter, if you have occa- sion to use them again. An exception is, perhaps, allowable in the case of capitals used for the heading and signature, they being somewhat detached from the main body of the letter. But in no case should your capitals interfere or blend with the writing on the line above or below them. Hence all flourishes, requiring extra space, are to be carefully avoided. In a letter, at best, they are conspicuous deformities. 2. Small Letters. — The small letters are divisible into three classes, — the Minimum, the Extended Loop, and the Extended Stem. They are not, except as classes, of uniform length above or below the line. 1. Minimum. — The minimum letter is of the smallest class, and may be used as a measure for the others. This class includes a, c, e, i, m, n, o, u, v, w, and x. All minimum letters should be made to exactly correspond in length with the i or u. Extend them to the same height, precisely, as these two letters. By a little practice you will be able to reach perfection in the length Chap. L] PENMANSHIP. 15 of this class of letters. The letters r and s extend one fourth higher than the minimum letters. 2. Extended Loop. — The extended loop letters are h, f, g, h, j, k, I, y, and z. They are called extended loop letters because they extend above or below the minimum letters, and are made with a loop. The professional penman's rule is to extend these letters above or below the line on which you write, so as to make them just three times the length of the minimum letters. They should correspond precisely to the length of the capitals above or below the line, as the case may be. 3. Extended Stem. — The extended stem letters are d, p, q, and t. They should extend above or below the line of writing, twice the distance of the minimum letters, with the exception of p. That letter should extend above the line but once and a half the length of the i ; below the line the same as the other stems. 3. Slope. — Some, especially left-handed persons, prefer to slope their letters to the left, forming what is called the Italian or back hand, thus, eyta.Cui.rx, ftoa^. But this is a perplexing hand to read, unless every letter is made with perfect distinctness. Others write nearly perpendicular to the line of writing. Generally, however, the slope to the right, at an angle of about fifty degrees, a little more or less, is preferred by good penmen. But whichever slope you adopt, whether to the right or left, or if you make your letters perpendicular to the line of writing, you should be careful to make every letter correspond with every other letter in its angle to the line of writing. The dress of any letter will be spoiled by zigzag slopes, or, indeed, by any depart- ure from uniformity in this respect. Take the following as an example of the staggering hand, too often practised. 16 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part L Now let us change this letter to uniformity of slope, and see how much more pleasant it is to the eye, though by no means written with artistic elegance. Chap. I] PENMANSHIP. yi 18 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part L All the letters of a word, and all the words of the line and paragi'aph, should be adjusted to the same angle with absolute precision. Such adjustment will cover, in some degree, other defects. In business letter- writing, or in letter- writing of any- kind, this matter of uniform slope is of no small importance. It has almost everything to do in giving dress to the letter ; or, at least, there is no such thing as an attractive appearance without it, whatever other qualities it may possess. The student should give his attention to it and industriously practise it until no further effort is necessary. 4t Finish. — By want oi finish one letter, or part of a letter of a word, is often mistaken for another. Particular attention is called to the careless practice of omitting to dot the i, to cross the t, and to loop such letters as require looping, as well as the practice of looping the stems. If your pen, ink, and paper are good, this blending the stem into a loop and loop into a stem, with a little care, can always be avoided. Such mistakes are the results of downright carelessness. If the minimum i and e are connected, and the former is not dotted, nor the latter looped, they may be easily mistaken for u, a, n, T, or even for a part of an m or w. If the upper part of the c is not pointed it may be mistaken for e, i, or a part of some other letter. Should the t standing next to I in the same w^ord be looped and not crossed, or be so crossed as to involve the I, con- fusion will result. Filter might thus be made to read fille7% or fitter. A young man wrote to his father from New Orleans that the weather was so hot there in January that everybody was becoming half wilted. The father read it half wilted, and wrote his boy to come home immediately. By careful practice the student will acquire a settled habit of giving perfection to each letter and w^ord. The experienced teacher of penmanship will tell you that by patient practice aU difficulties can be surmounted, and that it will soon be found as easy to make your letters and words perfect as imperfect, espe- cially so far as legibility is concerned ; for this quality does not at all depend on what may be called elegance. Stiff and awk- Cliap.!.] PENMANSHIP. 19 ward writing may, nevertheless, be made plain as print, simply by an observance of these rules. 3. SPACES. — There are rules in regard to spaces between words, and letters standing for words. And first, the distance between one word and another, whether the words are of one or several syllables, and between letters standing for words, should be uniform. The rule is the same in reference to letters standing for words ; as a, the pronoun /, and the interjection 0. No matter with what elegance you may make each letter or word, the eye of the reader will be confused if they are set too close together, or if the spaces between them are unequal. Each word should be made to stand out distinctly by itself Some persons write their words so close together that the reader becomes perplexed as to where one word ends and another begins. The rule is, to leave space sufficient to write the minimum m between the words, of the same size of that letter used in the body of your writing. As already stated, the same spaces must be left between words of one, two, or three letters as between words of any number of letters or syllables ; as, to, of, in, hut, and, etc. " The letter a standing by itself, as a dollar, must have just as much space on each side of it as the longest word in our language. It would be difficult to read even a printed book, were there no more space between the words than between the letters of a word. After an interrogation or exclamation point, and following the period, space enough should be left to write a double m. The colon and semicolon should be allowed nearly or quite the same. When the dash is used, let it occupy about as much room as would be required to write the word and. Notice the following examples of proper and improper spa- cing: — 20 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part I. {Properly spaced.) ^Z)eaf^ Q/c'P, — Q/ dnouu/ V6 Tntccn' couaec/ cou/c/ 'uoic d^ze ^de /cid't voca^ne 0/ " ^/uime'd- (§%m^zu 0/ Sna^ lanc^" a /eio c/aud /o7i^6Z, ad- a Tnem^ez c/ me <^wzatu Q^ddocui^ion tataned ^o nave a dian^ 0/ t'^yudl noza, moti^d €de (Moac €L?fie c/ ae^yn^ion dad ex/iczec/. ^'^oaz oaeaten^ aezvan^, (2/a?nue/ ^^U9ini?ia. <^£c^zazcan. {Improperly spaced.) ^Oea^P (S^i'P Q/ddoumveniacdo^uaeacoaui you d/iazeme ^d^vo/wfneo/ *' (k^wm^e' d (k/CM^zuo/ 0nacana'' a/eziA aayd ^naez,ad a?ne7nvezo/ me^^^imazuQ^ddocca^contotdded ^odave adiad^ou^md^nota, ^doaad^deudo^v^^cTneouie^n^wnn^dex/iczea, ^^ouzoveacen^dezvan^, &oZodn &rmtM<^ziozazian. PENMANSHIP. 21 DIRECTIONS TO THE TEACHER. The teacher cannot teach this work with facility, especially that part of it which relates to the mechanical structure and appearance of a letter, without almost constant use of the Diagram, on page 23. The author has used it several years in his instructions on this subject, and knows well its advan- tages. It is indispensable. Not only must the ear hear the teacher's words, but the eye must be presented with the plan. It serves a far better purpose, though the same in kind, than maps in the study of geography. The Diagram should be placed on the blackboard, enlarged to the size of 16 by 20, or 20 by 25 inches, so that every member of the class can easily see it. The heading should be carefully written where it belongs, giving to it its exact position, adopting such items as the teacher may choose. One set of items after another may be used, until a great variety has been presented to the class. The items constituting the names and additions, the address and the con- clusion, may likewise be varied by the ingenious and skiKul teacher. Minute instructions are given on all these subjects a little farther on in this work. The punctuation of all these parts of a letter should be practiced by every pupil in the class. The teacher can do his work on the blackboard, requir- ing the pupils to do theirs on their slates. False examples of position, items, and punctuation of the several parts of a letter may be given to good advantage by the teacher, requiring the pupils to make the proper corrections. The author objects to being held responsible for any want of success in teaching this work, unless his plan of instruction is strictly followed. 22 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part L KEY TO THE DIAGRAM. 2. 2. Hyphen. See Sec. H., Part Second, Chap. I. 3. Heading. Sec. HI., Part Fu-st, Chap. I. 4. 4, 4, 4. Left margin. Sec. IV., Part First, Chap. I. 5. Names and address. Sec. V., Part First, Chap. I. 6. Where to begin. Sec. VI., Part Fu-st, Chap. I. 7. Conclusion. Sec. VH., Part First, Chap. I. a, a, a, a, a. Paragraphs. Sec. VI., Part First, Chap. I. Chap. L] PENMAN SH, DIAGRAM OF THE STRUCTURE OP A LETTER. nopU. , Ice-water. .Constanti' 24 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part I. 16^^ '^ ^^U-^yz^-z-iC.-dd/ Chap. L] PENMANSHIP. 25 y^^^^ '^^^€Zy^.^2^^^ld-€^^^i^^^>^ J^^^^y^x^ ^;;:::i!^:^^>:^>^^^?^^^^^:^^:^^.^^t^ 26 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part I. By reference to the diagram you will see that a letter consists of several parts, which are designated by figures and letters. Figures 2, 2 show the hyphen ; 3 is the heading, generally called the date ; 4 shows the space that should be allow^ed for the left margin ; 5, 5, the place where the names of the parties to be ad- dressed, and the address are written ; 6, the place for the begin- ning of the letter immediately following the address ; a, a, a, a, a, the beginning of paragraphs ; and 7, the close or conclusion of the letter. Each part of the letter is discussed in the section correspondingly numbered. A sample letter follows this diagram, written out in full by an excellent and experienced business penman, di, facsimile of which is here furnished by the engraver. You should study this letter in connection with the diagram, as thereby you will see how well all parts of it correspond each with the other. As every circle, whether its diameter be an inch or hundreds of millions of miles, must have three hundred and sixty degrees, so every letter, large or small, important or unimportant, is incomplete in mechanical structure, if wanting in any of these parts. After you shall have answered the following questions, we will look at these parts, beginning with the first. QUESTIONS ON SECTION IL Penmanship. 1. What is the subject of this section? 2. What is said of ability to write well ? 3. What prevents writing a good hand ? 4. What will overcome all difficulties? 6. What particulars are to be observed? 6. What is meant by legibility? 7. How do children write? 8. What is their only aim? 9. What does this demonstrate ? 10. What do some persons boast of ? 11. Wliat is their motive for it ? 12. AVhat is said of this kind of boasting? 13. How plain should your writing be? 14. What did Lord Palmerston say ? Chap. L] QUESTIONS ON PENMANSHIP. 27 15. For what did the Baltimore merchant suffer? 16. What did a merchant receive on an order for mangoes 1 1 7. What did the wine merchant receive on his order for heer f 18. What mistake was made with a sermon? 19. How is legibility sometimes spoiled? 20. What objection to a fine, delicate handwriting? 21. What is a common fault with ladies' writing ? 22. What are the divisions under the head of uniformity ? 23. What should govern the size of capitals? 24. What about their projection above and below the line ? 25. What exceptions to uniformity in their size ? 26. What about blending letters into each other ? 27. What about flourishes in business letters? 28. What is said about flourishes ? 29. How many classes of small letters are there ? 30. Wliat are they called ? 31. Of what class is the minimum letter ? 32. W^hat are the names of them? 33. Which may be taken as a measure of the others? 34. What good will it do to practise on them? 35. What are the ejciended loop letters? 36. Why are they so called? 37. What should be their length ? 38. What, with reference to the capitals? 39. What are the extended stem letters ? 40. What should be their length above or below the line ? 41. What exception to this rule ? 42. What is meant by slope ? 43. What objection to the back hand ? 44. About what is the usual slope to the right? 45. What is said about uniformity of slope? 46. How may the dress of a letter be spoiled? 47. If you do not easily acquire it, how long should you practise uniformity of slope? 48. How does want oi finish affect letters? 49. W^hat is the effect of not dotting the i or crossing the tl 50. What, of neglecting to loop the I ? 61. How ma,y filler be made to read filler or fitter ? 52. Why was the boy ordered home from New Orleans? 53. How may perfection be given to every letter ? 54. What will the teacher of penmanship tell you? 65. What is said about legibility depending on elegance? 56. WTiat is the rule about spaces? 57. What, when letters stand for words? 28 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part I. 68. How may the reader be confused by spaces? 59. How should each word be made to stand out? 60. How do some persons write in reference to spaces? 61. Wliat is the rule about spaces between small words? 62. What about spaces with pauses ? 63. How much room should the dash occupy? 64. What does figure 2 refer to in the diagram? 65. What, figure 3? 66. What, figures 4, 4, 4, 4? 67. Wliat, figures 5, 5? figure 6? figure 7? 68. What do a, a, a, a, a represent? 69. What does a letter consist of? 70. By what names are the parts known? SECTION III. HEADING OR DATE. ' BLACKBOARD EXERCISE. i 1. Position. 3. Heading. \ 2. items. ( 3. Punctuation. 1. POSITION. — If your letter is to consist of less than a page, the position of the heading should be selected with reference to the probable number of lines that will be required. Suppose there are twenty-six lines on your page, and you do not intend to write more than twelve or fifteen ; say, fifteen is the probable number. Your heading, including date, will occupy, perhaps, two lines. In such case the proper place to begin the heading is on the third line from the top. Having used two lines, beginning on the third, the next line is the fifth, on which the names will be written ; the sixth being appropriated to the residence. The address wiU be written on the seventh line, following which, on the same line, you will begin the body of your letter. That, occupying, say, fifteen lines, will end on the twenty-second. Following this will be the conclusion, which includes the usual terms of respect, and the signature, Chap. I.] HEADING OR DATE. 29 which will occupy two lines more, ending on the twenty-fourth. Now you have just as much space on your paper below the signa- ture as there is above your heading ; that is, measuring space by the line. There will be a httle more space above, however, as the first line on your letter-sheet is usually an inch and a half below the upper edge. The place for the heading is on this first line, however, when you intend to completely fill the page, or to write more than a page. If you are about to write a letter of but seven to ten or twelve lines, more or less, of course the heading should be placed cor- respondingly lower, and the signature will be proportionally higher on the page. If .your letter is to consist of two or more pages, of course the heading may be placed on the first or second line from the top, as already suggested. By observing these directions, you give your sheet a much better mechanical arrangement and appearance. If your letter is to occupy more than one page, and a copy is to be taken by a letter-press before mailing, it will be ne- cessary to write only on alternate pages; as it will not do. to write on opposite pages of the same leaf for copying by this means. With business men generally, it is now usual to cut the sheet at the folding into two leaves, and to use only a single page of each for writing, whether the letter be longer or shorter. Unless the heading is necessarily long, it should not begin much to the left of the middle of the line on which it is written. If it is too long to come conveniently within the limit of a half, or a little more than half a line, let it be extended for completion to the next line below ; dropping a little to the right of the be- ginning of the first line, thus : — Gy^eu, ^ozd, Q^uyua 5, ^^7 2, If the heading is short, it may begin at the right of the middle 30 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part I. of the line on which it is written ; especially if it is not necessary to extend to the next line, thus : — The heading of a letter that occupies nearly a whole line has an awkward appearance. Give it a part of two lines, when necessary, beginning, as before stated, at the right of the mid- dle of the first. 2. ITEMS. — Of course the items used for a heading depend on the place where, and the time when, the letter is written. If a letter were written in New York, and is to be sent to any place within the United States, it would not be necessary to give the county, nor even the State, as a part of the heading ; for there is but one New York on this continent, if on the globe. But if you are writing from an obscure place, or from one the name of which belongs to cities or villages of other States also, the name of the State, or its abbreviation, in wliich your letter is written, should be included in the heading. For instance, there are several places in the United States having the name of Springfield. Were you writing from Springfield, Illinois, there- fore, Illinois must be included in the heading ; else your corre- spondent may not know into what State to send his reply. The post-mark on the envelope will not always help him out of the difficulty ; for that is often nothing but a series of blots. Again, unless the place where you are writing is sufficiently conspicuous to be well known aU over the State, as Albany, Syra- cuse, Eochester, or Buffalo, the name of the county should be included in the heading, thus : — If you are writing from a city, the name and number of your street should be a part of the heading of your letter, unless you Chap. I.] HEADING OR DATE. 31 receive your mail tlirougli a post-office box, in wMch case the number of your box should be given, thus : — Q^uaad€ 5, /^7J>. Or, in case you have a post-office box, thus : — Q^ar^a^^ 3, /^JS. You must bear in mind that your correspondent may be obliged to follow the heading of your letter in directing to you his answer. If your heading is imperfect or indistinct, the superscription on the return letter may be equally so, and you may fail to receive the expected answer. The Post-Office Department makes bitter complaint on account of blunders of this kind. Thousands of letters are sent to the Dead Letter Office every year for want of proper superscriptions or directions, and in which this want has arisen from the imperfect headings of other letters to which these dead letters were answers. 3. PUNCTUATION. — Several general rules for punctuation may be found in Part Second. But a few examples may properly be given here for the punctuation of headings, for the use of those who may not be familiar with those rules, or who may be unac- quainted with the science of grammar. It requires but a moment's attention to learn by rote to punctuate the heading of a letter. There is, therefore, no excuse for negligence in this particular. A little discretion may be allowable in punctuating the head- ing, as well as other parts of a letter; but if you follow the examples here given, you wiU not be chargeable with mistakes. 32 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part I. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. 2 (mnoP (Pad ^7/a, ^one/on, Sy., QA^oi^. pd, /c^/J^. In writing the date to a letter, by which is meant here the month, day of the month, and year, it is not uncommon to suffix to the figures giving the day of the month certain letters, making ordinal adjectives of the figures, thus : August 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 11th, 12th, 22d, 25th, etc., etc. This may be done, and is by no means improper ; but good usage does not require it. Wlien it is done, however, the letters suffixed to the figures must be Chap. I.] QUESTIONS ON HEADING OR DATE. 33 placed in line with the figures, as in the foregoing examples. Never place these letters above the line, thus : August 1^*, 2^, 4^**, 10*^ etc. Mistakes of this kind are frequent. The practice is quite out of date now, and never was proper. QUESTIONS ON SECTION IIL Heading or Date. 1. What is the subject of this section? 2. Into how many parts is it divided? 3. What should be the position of the heading? 4. How should it be determined ? 5. If your sheet has twenty-six lines, and the body of your letter is to have fifteen, where would you begin the heading? 6. What is to be written on the fifth? 7. What on the sixth? 8. What on the seventh? 9. What should follow the address on the same line? 10. What follows the body of the letter? 11. How many lines does the conclusion occupy? 12. How much space should be left below the conclusion of your letter? 13. If your letter takes a whole page, where should the heading begin? 14. If your letter is to be short, where? 15. Where will the signature then be? 16. Where should the heading be if the letter is to occupy more than one page? 17. Wliat is the object of these rules? 18. When are you to write on alternate pages? 19. What is usual with business men about cutting letter sheets? 20. Where on the line should the heading begin ? 21 . If the heading is too long for half a line, what is to be done? 22. If the heading is short, where? 23. Why not let a heading occupy a whole line? 24. On what do the items of the heading depend? 25. When is it unnecessary to give county and State? 26. When is it necessary to give the State? 27. Why is this necessary? 28. Wlien should the county be given also? 29. When should name and number of street be given? 30. Why should they be given? 31. Of what does the Post-Office Department complain? 32. WTiy are letters often sent to the Dead Letter Office ? 2* 34 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED, [Part L 33. Wliat is meant by punctuation ? 34. How long does it take to learn to punctuate the heading? 35. How many commas are there in example No. 1? 36. Where are they ? 37. IIow many periods ? 38. Where are they? 39. How many periods in No. 2? 40. Where are they? 41. How many commas, and where, in No 3? 42. How many periods, and where? 43. Answer the same questions about No. 4. 44. Also about No. 5. . 45. W^here should letters be placed when suffixed to the day of the month? 46. What is said about the necessity of suffixing these letters? SECTION IV. LEFT MARGIN. On the left of your page there should be given a broad, liberal margin ; say, of three quarters of an inch, or a little more, with which the writing is not to interfere. The mechanical dress and appearance of a letter are injured by extending the writing to the extreme left edge, or by leaving but a narrow, stingy space of a quarter or half an inch. Let this margin be of uniform width. If it is half an inch on some lines, three fourths on others, and an inch on some others, in the same letter, the page would present a better appearance with none at all. Lawyers are accused, as a class, of writing a shockingly poor, illegible hand. As a general rule, the accusation is quite groundless ; but, whether true or false, it can hardly be denied that their papers generally present a very neat mechanical appearance. Even though the handwriting be illegible and in- elegant, there is a fine dress to their papers, which is not excelled, if equalled, by the papers of any other class of business men. Much of the business air of the lawyer's court papers is due to his left margin, and the open frequent paragraphs, with which his briefs and other legal documents are dressed. The lawyer rarely writes anything, scarcely a letter, without the aid of a mar- Chap. I] LEFT MARGIN. 35 ginal guide-line at the left. Knowing this habit of the profession, paper dealers furnish a kind of paper called legal cap, which has a marginal perpendicular red line at the left, that serves as a guide. If the lawyer does not happen to have this kind of paper on his table, he takes the plain cap or letter paper, and laps it over from the left edge, and breaks it down so as to form the necessary guide-line. If any one thing makes a letter look mean and stingy, it is a narrow margin at the left ; and if any one thing stamps the writer as a careless sloven, it is an unequal, zigzag margin. Either of these faults will spoil the appearance of the finest letter ever written by the most practiced hand. The unpracticed letter- writer will find it convenient to furnish himself with a marginal guide-line, on a separate leaf, which he can place under the page on which he writes. Draw a deep, heavy black line on the leaf, at the desired distance from the left edge ; and this, placed under the sheet to be written on, will answer the purpose perfectly. It will show faintly through the thickest letter paper used. By reference to the diagram on the following page, you will see what is intended. So much does a uniform and liberal margin contribute to the good appearance of a letter, that no apology is necessary for press- ing the subject upon the attention of the student. Though every- thing else may be done unexceptionably well, a stingy or zigzag margin will utterly destroy the appearance of mechanical finish in your work. It will be like a broad street without a sidewalk, or a magnificent edifice without towers, turrets, or cornice. Unlike almost any other part of your letter, this requires neither labor, skill, nor long practice, — simply attention. It can be done as well by the school boy or girl of twelve years as by the experienced correspondent of forty. 36 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED, [Part I. DIAGRAM OF GUIDE-LINE. It is hardly probable that you will find it necessary to make use of such a line a long time, as the eye soon learns to measure so limited a space with almost absolute accuracy. QUESTIONS ON SECTION IV. Left Margin. 1. What is the subject of this section? 2. IVhat should be the width of the margin ? 3. AVhy is a left margin necessary ? 4. What spoils the appearance of the margin ? 5. ^Vhat is the appearance of lawyers' papers ? 6. Wliy do they present a neat appearance ? 7. What gives them their business air ? Chap. I.j ADDRESS.— POSITION. 37 8. What do paper dealers do for the legal profession ? 9. How does the lawyer furnish a marginal line for himself ? 10. What gives a letter a stingy look? 11. What makes it look slovenly ? 1 2. How may the appearance of a letter be spoiled ? 1 3. How can the unpractised writer furnish a marginal line for himself ? 14. Do you give a broad margin to your letters ? SECTION V. ADDRESS. BLACKBOARD EXERCISE. ( 1. Position. 5. Address. < 2. Names and Additions. ( 3. Punctuation. The subject of this section will be most easily taught under the three following divisions : Position ; Names and Additions ; and Punctuation. 1. POSITION. — In business letters, or in any other kind, you should be careful to give the proper position to the name or names of the persons to be addressed. Some, especially those who have had but little practice in. writing letters, make awkward work in locating these names. They, or some of them, are often placed on the hne with the heading ; sometimes they will be dropped a single line below, and be placed directly under the heading ; then, again, they will be dropped two, three, or even four or five lines below ; thrown entirely away from the heading, as though they were in no way related to it. In some instances they are thrown to the right of the middle of the line on which they are written. All such blunders give a shabby appearance to a letter, though written in Spencer's or Payson and Dunton's most elegant style. The names of the persons to be addressed should always com- mence on the first line below the heading, at the right of, and near to the guide-line of the left margin. Thus they will begin even with all the Lines of the page, except those of the heading and those that commence paragraphs. If a title is to be prefixed, as, Messrs., Mr., or General, that, instead of the name, is to begin 38 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part L at the marginal line. See diagram of the structure of a letter, figure 5. Any deviation from this rule is a departure from good usage among the best business correspondents. The student is too apt to imitate the mistakes or blunders of those whom he thinks are models in letter- writing. If, in a sin- gle instance, they have given the wrong position to the names to be addressed, he will point to that error as a precedent to justify his own mistakes. It should be borne in mind that the writer may have -been careless in the case cited, and that, were his atten- tion called to it, he might admit the mistake, and object to its use as a model. Mechanically, a letter may be perfectly elegant in many respects, though a failure in some others. Although a business firm may consist of many partners, it is unusual for more than three names to appear in their business correspondence ; the others being represented by the abbreviation, Co. When there is not room to write all the names, on account of their number, or the length of each, without extending beyond the middle of the line to the right, one or more may be brought down to the next line below ; thus, — '.enue?nen, — The address. Gentlemen, should begin the same distance from the marginal guide-line as you commence all the paragraphs of your letter ; for the places of their beginning should be uniform. The names may be entirely omitted at the beginning if you choose, in which case they must be written in the corresponding place at the close of your letter ; that is, at the left. This is generally the English style ; and in this country it is done thus in all letters of an ofl&cial character ; as, for instance, — To Hon. Hamilton Fish, Secretary of State, Washington, D. C. Chap. I.] ADDRESS.— NAMES AND ADDITIONS. 39 But business men in the United States generally seem to prefer that the names appear at the beginning, though the practice, even here, does not seem to be uniform. But the complimentary ad- dress — as, Gentlemen, Dear Sir, &c., — is always placed there. Perhaps no very important reason can be given in favor of one place over the other. But the American practice, as already stated, rather decides in favor of placing the names at the beginning, while the English practice favors placing them at the end. Grammatically, there can be no doubt that the Eng- lish practice is the correct one, as will appear presently. 2. NAMES AND ADDITIONS. — As already stated, the names, as weU as the additions, if any, must appear at the beginning or at the end of the letter. By additions, we mean words of respect, titles of honor, &c., as Rev., Prof., Gen., Hon., and the like, as well as the place of residence. The addition of the residence is necessary for two reasons : — First, there may be other persons, or other firms of like names, with whom you have correspondence, but not residing in the same place; and if a copy of your letter is preserved, by reference to your letter-book, if the residence is given, you will have no trouble in determining the party addressed. Second, the envelope may become mutilated or torn off during the transit of the letter to its destination ; and if the residence is not added to the name or names, it will not appear to whom it is vn-itten, or, rather, to what place it should be forwarded. Whereas, if the place of residence be added to the names, the letter can be inclosed in a new envelope, and re-directed to that place. Strictly speaking, the names and additions, whether written at the beginning or at the end of the letter, are no part of the address proper, except so far as they show who are addressed. The names and address have this remote connection, and no other. Grammatically, the names to be addressed are in the third person, governed by the preposition to understood, and should be followed by a period. The address — as, Mr. Speaker, Dear Sir, Gentlemen — are in the second person, in the nominative case independent, and should be followed by a colon, or its 40 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED, [Part L equivalent; as, Mr, Speaker: — Mr. President , — Dear Sir, — Gentlemen : — etc., etc. The language of the names and additions is elliptical, and, supplying the words omitted, but understood, it would read thus : Tills letter is written to Messrs. Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor, & Co., who reside in the city of Neio York. Take a single name, as an instance : John Smith, Esq., 500 Broadway, New York. Written out in full, it would read thus : This letter is addressed to John Smith, who is an Esquire, and resides at Number five hundred Broadway, in the city of New York. If this were written out in full, and placed at the head of the page, and before the date, no question of punctuation could possibly arise. It is obviously the same in construction, if these words are written before the address proper, or at the foot of the letter. If this view be correct, when the title Messrs. is placed before the names of several persons constituting a business firm, these names may properly be followed by the word Gentlemen, as the word of address. Otherwise the word Gentlemen would be clearly tautological, as the abbreviation Messrs. has the same signification, and is in the same sentence, unless separated from the names, by a period. Then, again, if the names are in the third person, as clearly they are, and the address is in the second, which is equally obvious, and they are not separated by a period, we have the awkward arrangement of third and second person in the same sentence, and each referring to the same individuals. This is never to be tolerated. For the same reasons, it is proper to address Sir, or Dear Sir, after having prefixed the title Mr., or suffixed the title Esquire, to the name of the person to be addressed. It is not tautological, because the name and address are not in the same person nor in the same sentence. The English practice is to place a period after the name or names to be addressed, and is unquestionably correct. As to the American practice in pointing after the names, there is no uniformity. Some place a comma there, some a semicolon, and others a colon. Hardly two authors agree, in practice, on the Chap. L] ADDRESS.— NAMES AND ADDITIONS. 41 subject, though they say nothing about it. This disparity, undoubtedly, results from the erroneous idea that the names are as much a part of the address as the complimentary words that follow them. If it be correct to place any point less than a period at the end of the names, the complimentary address that follows is quite out of place and superfluous. It is but a bungUng repetition at best. Therefore, either place a period after the name or names, or omit the complimentary address altogether. The former is decidedly preferable ; in fact, the only correct course, when the names are written at the beginning. Esquire, usually abbreviated to Esq. or Esqr., is a very common title of respect in this country. It is much used in business correspondence, in connection with a single name to be addressed. It is rarely used for this purpose in the plural number. This title is now entirely perverted from its original signification by its indis- criminate popular use. Originally a title of respect, it now signi- fies just nothing at all. Yet its omission might, in some cases, give offense, though the person addressed could lay no claim to it. In England, several hundred years ago, there were five classes of dignitaries to whom this title belonged. They were : — 1. The eldest sons of knights, and their eldest sons in perpetual succession. 2. Such as were created Esquires by the king's letters patent, or other investiture, and their eldest sons. 3. The eldest sons of younger sons of peers, and their eldest sons in perpetual succession. 4. Such as were Esquires by virtue of their offices ; as, justices of the peace, and others who bore any office under the crown. 5. Later than the origin of these classes, and, it is said, by usurpation, the members of the legal profession were universally recognized by this title. But they have enjoyed it so long that it has become, both in England and this country, an established distinction.* The word gentleman was originally significant of wealth and education, and that the bearer of the title was able to live in idle- ness, or, at least, without personal exertion to support himself -|* * Blackstone's Commentaries, Vol. I. p. 406. f ^i^-? P- ^^^^ 42 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part L But custom, in this country, sanctions the use of Esquire as a title for any man without discrimination, unless he is entitled to something higher and more honorable. Indeed, it is now recognized propriety to address any man as Esquire who is entitled to be called Mister {Mr) ; but you must not address as both; for in common parlance, especially in letter- writing, one signifies the same as the other. All male citizens are Esquires ! So every man in this country, whether he wears hat and boots, or goes bareheaded and barefooted, is called a gentleman. As an address, it is never used in the singular number. The historic significance of the term was long since lost through its in- discriminate application to all men, whether boors and rowdies or persons of culture and refinement. When a word becomes applicable to all men, or is used as though it were, it necessarily ceases to be in any sense complimentary. This is precisely the condition of the two words Esquire and Gentlemen, as used in the United States, in business or other correspondence. But, as it costs nothing to write these words, and as they have a sort of traditional or historic importance, their use will probably be continued until a few leaders in the literary world shall effectually protest against the foolish practice. Of course it is improper to write Mr. John Smith, Esqr. Either the Mr. or the Esq. should be omitted. In writing to persons of distinction, who have no proper claim to any other title, the word Esquire should be written in full ; and it is usual and proper to add, &c., (Sec, &c. ; as, Wendell Phillips, Esquire, (Sec., &c., &c. ; James Gordon Bennett, Esquire, &c., &c., &c. It is highly improper to prefix a term of endearment to the name addressed when no such endearment is, or has been established between the parties ; as, Eear Hopkins, or Friend Johnson. It is offensive assumption of familiarity, where no particular friendship has been recognized by the other party. Even Dear Sir, or Mi/ dear Sir, is not the proper language to be used in the commencement of a business correspondence. After an exchange of a few letters by the parties, more famiharity may be indulged. At first it should be, Edivard Hopkins, Sir, — dropping the Sir down a line, and writing it as Chap. I.] ADDRESS.— NAMES AND ADDITIONS. 43 far to the left as you intend to begin all your paragraphs. If there is considerable difference of age and position of the parties, let the older and more prominent of the two lead in the use of such expressions. The title Bev. belongs as a prefix to the name of a clergyman, and should not be omitted ; and if he has received the degree of Doctor of Divinity from any literary institution authorized to confer this degree, Bev. Dr. is the proper prefix, even though your letter be of a business character. If a person holds a professional or military position, the appro- priate title should be prefixed to the name ; thus, Pres. Francis Waylancl ; Prof. Samuel Olmsted; Dr. George Sherwood; Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott ; Col. George Clark ; Ca^t. E. S. Curtis. His Excellency is the proper style of prefix to the name of the President of the United States, the Governor of any State, an Am-" bassador from this to any foreign country, or from a foreign coun- try to this country ; thus, His Excellency U. S. Grant, President of the United States ; His Excellency John T. Hoffman, Governor of the State of New York. The title Honorable, usually abbreviated to Hon., is properly prefixed to the names of members of either House of Congress, the members of any State Senate, Judges of Courts of Eecord, and Mayors of cities. Following the name with title prefixed will be the word or words of address, placed on the line below that on which the name is written. The proper words to be used for the address will depend on the official or professional position of the party addressed. If he is a president of a college, for instance, it would be proper to address by the word Sir ; if a clergyman, Bev. Sir ; if a military character. General, Colonel, Captain ; if a governor. Your Excellency, or Governor, or Sir ; if the President of the United States, Your Excellency, or Mr. President ; if a member of Con- gi'ess, Sir would be proper. Although this work is designed more especially as a guide for the business student, it may be well to give a few forms of address proper to be used in social and friendly correspondence. For this purpose, the following remarks and copious list are copied from 44 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED, [Part I. pages 212, 213 of Kerl's Composition and Ehetoric, — a most ex- cellent work, and one whicli ought to be in the hands of every business student. The author says : " Much nice judgment can sometimes be dis- played in regard to the complimentary address and the closing expression of regard ; and most of your correspondents will be apt to scrutinize these items carefully, in judging of your regard for them. The introductory address [the address proper] and the closing compliment should correspond to each other, without being tautological or inconsistent ; and the introductory address should not be inconsistent with the address on the envelope. For in- stance, if I should write My dear Friend, I would rather close with Yours tridij than with Your friend, or Yours respectfully. " Betwixt relatives, the names denoting the relationship are gen- erally preferred for the complimentary address and the compli- mentary close, though some persons frequently use other familiar expressions. " In writing to persons with whom you are not well acquainted, say Sir, Madam, Mrs. A. B., Miss C. D., rather than Dear Sir, Dear Madam, etc. Dear implies that the parties are at least acquainted; though an overflowing philanthropy or admiration sometimes justifies the use of it in other cases. " My, when fixed to any complimentary address, adds a delicate shade of meaning to it, and suggests greater intimacy or affection. Between equals of the different sexes a little more reserve seems to be proper than between equals of the same sex. " Such forms as Sir, Dear Sir, My dear Sir, Madam, Dear Madam, Dear Miss, Gentlemen, Ladies, My dear Father, My dear Mother, My dear Brother, My dear Sister, Dear Henry, Dear Mary, My dear Mary, Dearest Kate, Friend Jones, Dear Jones, My dear Aunt, My dear Cousin, My dear Husband, My dear Wife, Dear Mrs. Jones, Dear Miss Jones, My dear and honored Father, My dearly beloved Mother, are the most common." Custom, convenience, and safety of transmission of letters re- quire that, in addressing married women, the titles and Christian names of their husbands should be used ; as, Mrs. Daniel Hoi- brook ; Mrs, Dr. S. M. Campbell ; Mrs. Gen. John C. Fremont, Chap. L] ADDRESS.— NAMES AND ADDITIONS. 45 The following extracts from a little English work on letter- writing, giving the style of address to distinguished persons in Great Britain, though of not much practical consequence in this country, may interest the student. I. THE QUEEN. /■ To the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty. ■I Most Gracious Sovereign : — ( May it please your Majesty : — II. THE SONS AND DAUGHTERS, BROTHERS AND SISTERS, OF SOVEREIGNS. { To His Koyal Highness, the Prince of Wales. •< To Her Royal Highness, the Duchess of Cambridge. ( Sir : — Madam : — May it please your Royal Highness : — III. OTHER BRANCHES OF THE ROYAL FAMILY. /■ To His Royal Highness, the Duke of Cambridge. ■} To Her Highness, the Princess Mary of Cambridge. ( Sir : — Madam : — May it please your Highness : — IV. THE NOBILITY. 1. A Duke or Duchess. To His Grace the Duke of Bedford. To Her Grace the Duchess of Bedford. My Lord: — My Lady: — May it please your Lordship: — May it please your Grace : — 2. A Marquis or Marchioness, To the Most Noble^ the Marquis of Westminster. To the Most Noble, the Marchioness of Westminster. My Lord: — My Lady: — May it please your Lordship: — May it please your Ladyship, — 3. An Earl or Countess. The same as a Marquis or Marchioness, only prefixing Right Honorable. 4. A Viscount or Viscountess. ' To the Right Honorable Viscount Lifford. To the Right Honorable Viscountess Lifford. My Lord, — My Lady, — May it please your Lordship, — May it please your Ladyship, — 46 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part I. The widow of a Nobleman is addressed in the same style, with the addition of the word Dowager , as, To the Right Honorable, the Dowager Countess of Chesterfield. The sons of Dukes or Marquises, and the oldest sons of Earls, have, by- courtesy, the titles of Lord, and Right Honorable ; and all the daughters have those of Lady, and Right Honorable. The younger sons of Earls, and the sons and daughters of Viscounts and Barons, are styled Honorable. V. OFFICIAL MEMBERS OF THE STATE. 1. A member of Her Majesty's Most Honorable Privy Council. C To the Right Honorable, the Earl of Winchelsea, Her Majesty's Principal < Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. ( Sir, ^-My Lord, -^ Right Honorable Sir, — 2. Ambassadors and Governors under Her Majesty. ( To His Excellency the French (or other) Ambassador. \ Sir, — if a lord, Aly Lord, — May it please your Excellency, — 3. Judges. ( To the Right Honorable Lord Chief Justice of England. ( My Lord, — May it please your Lordship, — 4. Lord Mayors, The Lord Mayor of London, York, and Dublin, and the Lord Provost of Edinburgh, are to be addressed in the same manner as the judges, prefixing Right Honorable to the name, and then giving the official position. Address : My Lord, — May it please your Lordship, — The Lord Provost of every other town in Scotland is styled Honorable. Excepting the Lord Mayors and Provosts already mentioned, Mayors of all corporations, the Sheriffs, Aldermen, and Recorder of London, are addressed Right Worshipful. The Aldermen and Recorders of other corporations, and Justices of the Peace, are addressed Worshipful. 3. PUNCTUATION. — For the purpose of defining the distinction between the names and additions placed before the address, and the words of address themselves, considerable has already been said on the subject of punctuating these items. In a large pro- portion of the letters to be seen in any merchant's counting-room, these items are either not punctuated at all, or are punctuated in- Chap. I] EXAMPLES OF PUNCTUATION, 47 correctly. Some persons make no attempt whatever to punctuate them, — others make an unintelligible and inappropriate dash or two, — and others still place a comma where a semicolon, colon, or a period belongs. It is not intended to give in this place rules for punctuating these items; but to furnish the student with a few examples, and such as, it is believed, the best usage sanctions. It may be proper to remark, however, that, as already stated, there is a dis- crepancy between the English and American style of punctuating these items. So there is some latitude of discretion allowable. The author prefers, altogether, the English style ; and for reasons already given. But they differ only in the point placed after the names, before the address ; the English placing a period there, which implies that they regard the name or names, grammatically, in the third person, and consequently no part of the address. EXAMPLES OF PUNCTUATION. No.l. No. 2. No. 3. 9W, No. 4 No. 5. Oh-tinaiittJ, «jLl/. No. 6. o/fcciv. cnw oeo/t/ iji'v, —— 48 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part I. No. 7. No. 8. g^iof. q). ^\D. cTvooo-ie, ^iuv. drotnta£ SPoLo^, ^mi^tEaa^ailL, dS*. %■ @ &a/t ai-t/: If the title Jlfr., Messrs., or JIfrs. be used, the period must be suffixed, to show that it is an abbreviation of a word for which it stands. Mess, should never be used for Messrs. It is in bad taste. It is but an abbreviation of an abbreviation. If you cannot afford to write Gentlemen or Sir in full, omit them altogether. N'ever write Gent, nor Gents., nor Sr. for Sir. Although Gent, is used occasionally, and even justified by good authority, it is abrupt, and often offends. Never write Dr. for Bear, before Sir. Your correspondent will hardly believe himself very dear to you, if you cannot afford to write so short a word in full QUESTIONS ON SECTION V. Address. 1. What is the subject of this section? 2. How is it divided ? 3. Where do some persons place the names ? 4. Give examples of mistakes. 5. What appearance do such blunders give ? 6. On what line should the names commence ? 7. Where should they be placed with reference to the marginal guide-line? 8. If a title is prefixed, where should it be placed ? 9. What is a departure from good usage ? 10. What is the student apt to imitate ? 11. What should be borne in mind ? 12. What is an unusual number of partnership names? 13. If more than three, by what are they represented ? 14. WTiat if there are too many names for one line ? 15. Where should the word gentlemen begin ? 16. What is the rule about beginning paragraphs? 1 7. If the names are omitted at the beginning, where should they be placed ? 18. Wliat is the English style generally? Chap. I] QUESTIONS ON THE ADDRESS. /-^ 49 19. What the American, in official letters? 20. Give an example. ., : 21. Where do business men in this country place the names? ' 22. What is said about uniformity of practice? 23. Where is the complimentary address always placed ? 24. What is the complimentary address ? 25. What is meant by additions to names ? 26. Why is it necessary to give the residence ? 27. What is said about the names being any part of the address proper? 28. What do they show? 29. In what person, grammatically, are the names ? 30. By what point should they be followed ? 31. In what person is the address? 32. By what point should it be followed ? 33. What is understood in writing the names ? 34. Give an example, supplying what is understood ? 35. Give another having but one name ? 36. What is the word of address after two or more names ? 37. What is the meaning of Messrs. ? 38. Why should the names have a period after them ? 39. When is it proper to address Sir, or Dear Sir? 40. Why is it not tautological ? 41. What point do the English place after the names? 42. Wliat is the American practice ? 43. Which is preferable ? 44. Why? 45. Why is this difference ? 46. If you do not place a period at the end of the names, what about the complimentary address ? 47. What is the only correct course ? 48. What is Esquire used for ? 49. Is it used in the plural ? 50. What did it signify in its origin ? 51. What does it now signify? 52. Wliy not omit it altogether? 53. How many classes in England are entitled to it ? 54. What is the first class? The second? Third? Fourth? Fifth? 55. What did the word gentleman originally signify ? 56. What is the custom in this country in using the word Esquire t 57. Why not prefix Mr. and suffix Esquire ? 58. Who are called gentlemen in this country ? 59. Why has it ceased to be really complimentary? 60. Why is Esquire complimentary in form only? 61. When is it improper to prefix the word friend to the address? 50 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part I. 62. When, the word dear before sir or the name ? 63. To whom does the title Reverend belong ? 64. Name some other titles. 65. What is the proper prefix to the name of the President, or a governor ? 66. To the name of an ambassador? 67. To the name of a member of Congress, State Senate, or a Judge? 68. After the name and title of the President of the United States, or a governor, how is he to be addressed ? 69. In punctuating the names, what is the English style? 70. What the American ? 71. Go to the blackboard, and write and punctuate example No. 1. 72. How many commas are there ? 73. Where are they ? * 74. How many periods, and where ? 75. How is the address punctuated ? 76. Write each of the other examples, and answer the same questions about them? 77. Why do you sufiix a period to Mr., Messrs., or Mrs.? 78. What abbreviations are you not to use? SECTION VI. BODY OF THE LETTER. BLACKBOARD EXERCISE. i 1. Where to begin. 6. Body of theXetter. j i. Definition. ( 2. Paragraphs. | 2. "When to be used. ( 3. "Where to begin. Two things with regard to the hody of the letter require special attention, as they modify, in a great degree, its mechanical appearance. These are : The place to begin, and the Paragraphs. 1. WHERE TO BEGIN If the names and additions occupy two or more lines, the address, we have seen, should be placed on the first line below them. Immediately after this, and on the same line, the body of the letter should begin. The first letter of the address should be written the same distance to the right of the marginal line that you intend to commence all the other Chap. L] BODY OF TEE LETTER. 5I paragraphs; say, about three quarters of an inch, or an inch. Your address, bear in mind, is the beginning of a paragrapli. Thus: — If there is but a single name, and the residence is written on the same hne with it, write the address on the next line below. In such case, begin the body of the letter on the next line below that, or the third from the heading. Begin it as far to the right as you would if it followed on the same line with the address, regarding the address always as the beginning of a paragraph. Thus : The object of this arrangement is, to leave a liberal space at the right, under the heading, so as to make the name and address conspicuous. The open space under the heading will thus be the same as it would if two lines were given to names and additions, and the address and beginning were both on the next line below them. If the names and additions are not placed near the head of your letter, but at the foot, according to the English style, and that of official letters in this comitry, place the words of address on the first line below the heading, and begin your letter on the line below that. 52 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part I. Thus: — As the names and additions are grammatically in the third person, it is improper to omit words of address ; as, Gentlemen, Sir, Dear Sir, &c. They belong in every letter, whether the names are placed at the head or the foot. It is abrupt to begin without them. Never extend the words of address so far to the right that you cannot get more than a word or two of the body of the letter on the same, or the next line. The following would be a very awkward arrangement: — o^ -t^e j9u^^ u^. nod iefnacneco unan^tueiec/ tc^i^t, ^c. Look at the following arrangement, and decide as to which you prefer, — the one above or this. Q4eiu- ^7u/a?2/, ^onn., Q^u^aa^J^, ^§7^. Chap. I.] BODY OF THE LETTER, 53 2. PARAGRAPHS. — 1. Definition. — A paragraph indicates thq be- ginning of a new subject, or a distinctive division of the same general subject. In published essays they are often numbered, either by figures or letters ; as, 1, 2, 3, 4 ; or, I, II, III, IV. The figures are usually used to mark the minor divisions, or paragraphs of paragraphs ; the letters marking the more important or chief divisions of the main subject. You can find an illustration of this in almost any school-book. But paragraphs are not always marked by figures or letters, even in printed matter ; and very rarely in business letters. The printers usually call them indentations or breaks. 2. Wlien to be used. — The paragraph should always be used when there is a reasonable excuse for it. It is like a mile-post, landmark, or stopping-place on a journey. It makes a letter look much better; giving to the page an open, cheerful appearance. It bears the same relation to a letter that a head does to a sermon or a room does to a house. Lord Chesterfield says: "Every paragraph should contain within it the complete relation of an incident, or a distinct statement of some kind, having no relation to the statement which follows, and which latter wiU properly form another paragTaph." In modern practice the paragraph is used with more frequency than the foregoing rule would require. It is often used, or the break is made, where the incident or statement does have rela- tion to what follows, and forms the matter for another para- graph. The advantage of frequent paragraphs is realized by reference to any letter of considerable length containing them. If one desires to refer to his correspondent's letter to ascertain what he said on some particular point, if the letter is unbroken by para- graphs, he may have to read all through it before finding what he looks for. Care should be taken, however, that proper discrimination be exercised in the use of the paragraph. It may be used with too great frequency; giving your letter a broken, fragmentary ap- pearance of disjointed and disconnected sentences. 54 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED, [Part I. 3. Where to begin. — The first word of a paragrapli, as we have seen, begins farther to the right than the beginning of the other lines, leaving a little space at the left, between the first letter and the true margin. What is printed here is a paragraph of five lines. All paragTaphs should begin at the same distance from the marginal line. That distance may be greater or less, according to your taste. An inch looks very well on a page of usual letter size. An inch and a half, or even two inches, does not look bad. The address is the beginning of a paragraph. If note-paper is used, of course the distance may be less. But whatever the dis- tance, let it be uniform. Your sheet looks much neater when this distance is carefully observed in every paragraph. If you will write a page of letter- sheet, dividing it into three, four, or five paragraphs, following these directions ; and then wTite the same matter, making no paragi-aphs, or beginning them at unequal distances, the contrast wdll convince you that this subject is one that deserves attention. By a little practice the eye will measure the distance with tol- erable accuracy. QUESTIONS ON SECTION VL Body of the Letter. 1. What is the subject of this section ? 2. What are its two divisions ? 3. How do you place it on the blackboard ? 4. Where should the address be placed? 5. Wliere should the body of the letter begin in such case ? 6. Wliere should the first letter of the address be? 7. If the address is on the second line below the heading, where do you begin the body ? 8. How far to the right of the address? 9. Wliat begins the first paragraph ? 10. Place an example on the blackboard. 11. What is the object of this arrangement? 1 2. If the names are at the foot, where is the address ? 13. Then where do you begin the body? 14. Give an example on the blackboard. Chap. L] CONCLUSION. 55 1 5. Wliat belongs in every letter ? 16. Why? 17. What is said about extending the address far to the right? 18. Give an objectionable example. 19. Give a proper one. 20. Which do you prefer ? 21. What is a paragraph? 22. How are they sometimes marked in print? 23. What do printers call them ? 24. When should you use the paragraph ? 25. What is the paragraph compared to ? 26. How does it improve a page ? 27. What is Lord Chesterfield's rule ? 28. What is said about this rule ? 29. What is the advantage of frequent paragraphs ? 30. What care should be taken about their use ? 31. If used too frequently, what is the appearance ? 32. Where should the first word of a paragraph begin? 33. What should be their distances from the marginal line, with reference to each other ? 34. What their absolute distance ? 35. What is the beginning of the first paragraph of a letter? 36. If note-paper is used, what is the rule? 37. Of what will a letter written with, and another without paragraphs convince one? SECTION VII. CONCLUSION. BLACKBOARD EXERCISE. 1. Position. 7. Conclusion. 2. Language. 3. Signature. 4. Punctuation. This subject may be considered under the following divisions : 1. Position ; 2. Language ; 3. Signature ; and 4. Punctuation. 1. POSITION. — The Conclusion should be placed at the foot of the letter, and to the right, corresponding, in horizontal arrange- ment, somewhat to that of the heading. It should begin a little 56 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part I. to the right, but near the middle of the first line below the body of the letter, provided there are but two or three words of regard, thus: — •^c/ei/u'' -^u/u/ 'uouia. It does not look well, to sidle off in the following manner, occupying four or five lines before the signature : — Such a display has the appearance of affectation and extreme formality. It seems to almost disconnect the signature from the body of the letter. It is allowable in official letters only, where strict formality is generally adopted. If detached from the body of the letter, the expressions of regard should occupy but a line or two ; and, if extended to the second line, the words on that line should begin a little to the right of the beginning on the first ; the signature reaching nearly to the end of the third line, thus : — of aim,, (S^V The closing words of esteem need not necessarily be broken into several lines at aU. They may, if there are enough to make a line or two, form the concluding paragraph by themselves, giv- ing the appearance of being a part of the body of the letter, thus : — Chap. I.] CONCLUSION. 57 Never run down through the middle of the sheet with the closing words of respect, and the signature, thus : — e/ani, (Ml, ^czme ©acetteaou/ oJoltn/ tJ . tTVicWmarv, ©xecu/tuve AfilmmlicV, No. 8. P.S. 0. vjayMo. SBa^v, Si(|^., ^07 dS'oVt^ 3^(m.U^ SFueet, y^awtb =lc(HW/5j vJMIvCi^j>oii/ii'. No. 9. P.S. W^arv. ST. Q49. JXuxHt, atcttberv ^ountu., dTeio- 0||^X. No. 10. P.S. ^V5. £g^ is something added to a letter af- ter it has passed through the forms of finish. When it contains an account of something that has taken place since the letter was completed, or something that has come to the knowledge of the writer since, it is serving its proper purpose. Though this is the proper use of a postscript, it is not the general use. It is more generally used to supply that which the writer knew just as well before he had subscribed his name to his letter as he did after- wards. He simply did not think to put it in where it belonged ; so he patches up, as it were, the holes of the garment, in which there should have been none left. Some letters are half postscript. It is not unusual, with some persons, to add one after another, until there are as many as there are paragraphs in the body of the letter. This is a kind of gen- eral interlineation. To add something, by way of postscript, which properly belongs in the body of the letter, and which ought to constitute one of the principal paragraphs, is a very awkward way out of an un- necessary difficulty. It shows a kind of slip-shod carelessness, loose habits of composition, or a want of practice in writing. It has been said that " a lady's letter is never complete without a postscript." But ladies certainly do not monopolize this fault. It is quite a common one with the other sex. To avoid postscripts, the items to be embraced in a letter should 84 THINGS TO BE AVOIDED. [Part I. be noted down on a scrap of paper before commencing. They should also be arranged in their proper order ; so that those that are related to each other shall have their proper connection in the letter. Let them be next-door neighbors. It is not desirable, as a general rule, that a business letter should embrace a great variety of topics. It is better to make each the subject of a letter by itself. Especially, no topic of im- portance should be the subject of a postscript. It is preferable to rewrite, or make the afterthought the subject of another letter. 8. THE CHARACTER &. — The character & is generaUy used too freely. It has its places and uses, but they are few. By some persons the word and is seldom written. They nearly always use the character & instead. Except in the following cases, and perhaps a very few others, this character should not be employed to take the place of the word for which it stands. It may be used, — 1. As a connective of the surnames of a business firm ; as, Jones & Smith ; Dunn & Brown ; Inman, White, & Raymond. 2. The surname and some word expressive of relationship, the two signifying a business firm ; as, Brown & Brothers ; Bannister &Son. 3. As a connective of Christian names, or initial letters of them, to a surname in common ; as, J. H. & S. B. Perkins ; M. L.y A., & D. Emmons ; John & George Hihhard. 4. As a connective of one or more names of a firm to the abbreviation Co., which signifies Company ; as, John Smith <& Co. ; Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor, & Co. 5. It is properly used with the letter c ; thus, &c., signifying and so forth. It is so generally used in these classes of cases, that it might be regarded in bad taste to substitute the word and for it. But before using it in any other, be sure that you have the sanction of good authority. 9. FIGURES FOR WORDS. — Proper discrimination should be exer- cised in the use of figures in the body of a letter. Like the Chap. II.] LEAD-PENCIL WRITING. 85 character oint ^ig^qAj belongs at the end of every interrogative sentence, or sentence asking a question; as, Are we to hegin our journey to-morrow morning 1 It should be used also after an interrogative clause abruptly thrown into a sentence ; as. The failure of the enterprise was com- plete, {and who could not have foretold it ?) causing, as it did, the hanhruptcTf of the projector. 6. THE EXCLAMATION POINT. — The exclamation point is used immediately after an exclamatory sentence, clause, phrase, or word ; as. What a fall was that ! the folly of sinners ! Fire ! Fire in the forest ! 7. THE DASH. — The dash is thrown in as a mark of separa- tion between the main sentence and parts abruptly introduced ; as. We are victorious — witness our trophies — in this hloody contest. It denotes a break or suspension of the sense, and is often used instead of the comma, semicolon, -colon, or even the period. 104 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part II. It is often used after, and in connection with, the other points, in which cases it signifies that a longer pause is to be observed than those points indicate. Generally, in this country, it is used after the address in letter-writing, in connection with the comma or colon ; thus. Dear Sir, — Gentlemen, — ■■ It is frequently placed after the colon, when the writer is about to particularize ; as, The following is the programme of exercises : — 1. Music hy the Band. 2. Prayer hy the Chaplain. 3. Oration hy the Orator of the Day. The dash is used to indicate the omission of something, as fig- ures, letters, names, or words; ?iS,Aho2it the year 18 — my friend Mr. and I commenced our journey, &c. On our way we met Esq. B n. The dash is often used instead of marks of parenthesis ; as. We distinctly saia one or the other — and we are not certain which — pass our door about sunset. 8. THE PARENTHESIS. — Webster says: "The parenthesis is a word or sentence inserted, by way of comment or explanation, in the midst of another sentence, of which it is independent in con- struction, and which is complete without it." It is like a by-path, into which the traveler steps a moment, while on his journey. Take the following examples : / have now lived in this world (as the Family Bihle testifies) a little over eighty years. All Chris- tians (of whatever sect) believe that the Bible contains the revealed vjill of God. We can promise you (including those shipped to-day) five hundred barrels. It will be seen that, if the phrases included in the marks of parenthesis in the foregoing examples were entirely omitted, the sentences would nevertheless be complete. They have no gram- matical connection with the sentences. The words included are not necessary to make sense, but are merely explanatory. 9. QUOTATION MARKS. — The quotation marks consist of two inverted commas placed at the beginning of words, clauses, or Chap. I.J PUNCTUATION. 205 sentences which are taken from some other author or speaker, and two commas not inverted placed at the end; thus, A quaint writer observes that "Satan never proposes partnership with one who is profitably and pleasantly employed" "An idle man's brains are Satan s work-shop." You must observe that when you give the sense or substance of what another has said, and not the exact words, you are not to use the marks of quotation ; as, ITenry Clay often said he would rather be right than be President of the United States. 10. THE HYPHEN. — The hyphen signifies under one, into one, together, and is a sign used for joining two simple words into one compound word, or for uniting two syllables of the same word. There are several classes of cases where the hyphen is generally used. These are, first, for joining two or more simple words so as to form but one, called a compound word. The simple words are united by the hyphen ; thus, two is a simple word, and so is thirds. United by a hyphen, we have two-thirds, a compound word. In speaking of compound words, Kerl says, in his Comprehen- sive English Grammar : — " A compound word should denote one idea rather than two or more; or it should have a meaning different from that of the separated words ; or it should imply a change in the parts of speech ; or it should be known as the familiar term for a certain object or attribute." He gives as examples the compound words : Horse-fly, orang-outang, goose-berry, to-night, wild-rose, slippery-elm, apple-orchard, &c. In the second place, in simple words of two or more sylla- bles, the hyphen is used only at the end of a line at the right, to connect the part of the word written there with the part that is carried forward to be finished on the next line. In such cases it connects syllables only. It must not be used to con- nect parts of syllables. Here is a correct use of it : The Let- ters of Junius are anonymous. Incorrect use of it : This commun- ication is confidential. A third class of cases is when " the hyphen is used to distin- 5* 106 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part H. guish words of similar spelling, but different pronunciation and meaning ; also, to form one compound term of words which, if not thus united, would have a different signification. " Thus, re-creation means the act of creating again ; and when the word is so written the first e is long, as in me. If we omit the hyphen, we have recreation, — quite a different word, equivalent to relaxation, amusement; and we must give the first vowel the sound of e in met!' — Quackenbos's Composition and Bhetoric, pp. 143, 144. Fourth, it is also used between two vowels to show that they belong to different syllables ; as, co-operate, re-enter. The hyphen is not to be used as a connective of the letters of a word of one syllable. Such a word must not be written partly on one line and finished on the other. If there is not room to write the entire word at the end of the line at the right, carry it to the next line. Inequality of spaces at the right does not hurt the appearance of your page. QUESTIONS ON SECTION 11. 1. What is the subject of this section? 2. How is punctuation defined? 3. How may it be learned? 4. How do most persons learn it? 5. How do printers learn it? 6. What is necessary in order to understand it as a science? 7. How long since it was introduced? 8. How does a letter appear without it? 9. Who can easily learn it ? 10. What would be a useful exercise? 11. How should you do this? 1 2. What satisfaction will this afford ? 13. What work can be selected for this? 14. What does the period indicate ? 15. Where is it placed ? 16. What are the exceptions? 17. Where should it first be placed in a letter? 18. Where, next? 19. In what other places? 20. Where, on the envelope ? Chap. I.] QUESTIONS ON SECTION 11. 107 21. How is it used with initials? 22. AVhen is the colon used? 23. How is it made ? 24. How is it used with quotations? 25. How, in particularizing items ? 26. Describe a semicolon. 27. What is the pause indicated by it? 28. What does it generally show? 29. What does the comma mark ? 30. What does it signify? 31. How much is it used? 32. Where can rules be found for its use? 33. Where does the interrogation-point belong ? 34. In what clauses should it be used ? 35. Where is the exclamation-point used? 36. Wliere is the dash used ? 37. What does it denote? 38. What is it often used instead of? 39. When used with other points, what does it indicate? 40. How is it used with the address in a letter? 41. How is it used with the colon? 42. How is it used for omissions? 43. What is the parenthesis? 44. What is it compared with ? 45. What do the quotation-marks consist of? 46. What are they used for ? 47. When are they not used, though referring to the language of another? 48. What does the hyphen signify ? 49. What is it used for? 50. What is the first class of cases? 51. What does Kerl say about compound words? 52. What examples does he give? 53. What is the second class of cases for its use? 54. What does it connect in such cases ? 55. What is the third class of cases for its use ? 56. The fourth? 57. What is said of its use as a connective of letters in words of one syl- lable? Things to be observed. 103 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part 11. SECTION III. LITERARY ITEMS. BLACKBOARD EXERCISE. From section 3 to 9 inclusive. 1. Capital Letters.* 2. Punctuation.* 3. Arrangement of Items. 4. Spelling. 5. Grammatical Accuracy. 6. Brevity. 7. Style. 8. Short Sentences. 9. Abbreviations. 3. ARRANGEMENT OF ITEMS. — When a letter is to contain several business items, these items should be noted down, and arranged according to their proper order of presentation, before beginning the letter. Particularly this should be done by those who have had but little practice in letter- writing. If this preparation for the letter is not made, some item may be overlooked, or you may be compelled to make it the subject of an awkward postscript, or the arrangement of the items in the letter may be without sys- tem, and such as to bring things together which have no rela- tion whatever to each other. This advice is especially applicable when your letter is to be an answer to one which you have received. Itemize the points, and arrange them in the proper order, before beginning your answer. Business men often receive letters in answer to their own in which there is no mention of the very thing of most importance for them to know. By next mail, perhaps, or two or three days later, the omission may happen to be discovered by the writer, and he * These sections have been analyzed, but are included here as belonging to the general division of " Things to he observed.** Cliap. I.] LITERARY ITEMS. 109 despatches a supplementary letter, covering the subject which belonged in, but was left out of, the first. But, in the mean time, business of importance had to be transacted, in ignorance of the very item of information contained in the supplementary letter. Hundreds or thousands of dollars may have been lost, on account of the correspondent's neglect. Jotting down the heads or items before beginning your letter will effectually guard against these omissions. 4. SPELLING. — If you are prone to incorrect spelling, that bad habit must be corrected, no matter what the cost of labor and attention. Some persons learn to spell by the eye, some by sound, and others by both. Printers and educated deaf and dumb persons, as classes, are among the very best spellers ; and they learn chiefly, if not en- tirely, to spell by sight. Spelled wrong, the word does not look right, whether written or printed. The deaf mute has no idea of sound, and cannot be taught any- thing about it. Yet write or print any word incorrectly, which his eye has once seen written or printed, and he detects the error at once. Take as an example the word until, on which so many persons blunder, and write it untill, and he does not know what it means. To his eye, it is a strange word ; he knows no such in our language. So take the word hright, and write it hrite ; the word hrilliant, and write it hriliant ; the word gone, and write it gon ; and he who spells by sight will observe the error at a glance. Nearly all our knowledge of spelling comes by sight ; and, therefore, correct spelling is the result of practice in reading and writing. The old-fashioned method of learning this art by stand- ing in a class, and receiving the words from the teacher, and then spelling at them, never made a good speller since the first speU- ing-book was published. Careful reading and careful writing, with close attention to the rules of orthography, will, in the course of time, make a good speller of almost any person. These rules may be found in the spelling-book and dictionary. 110 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part IL Every student should have a dictionary at his elbow ; and it should be consulted with frequency. Indeed, every family ought to have a dictionary in every occupied room. There should be one in the parlor, one in the sitting-room, one in the dining-room, one in the nursery, one in the kitchen, and one in every bedroom. The dictionary is an article of necessity. No child of ten years old should be allowed to be without one. A copy can be procured for a few shillings at any bookstore. It is the cheapest book sold, and the best, except the Bible. Indeed, you need the one to un- derstand the other. Webster's and Worcester s are the standard authorities in this country ; some give preference to the one, and some to the other ; and although they differ in the orthography of some words, if one spells according to either author, he will at least escape ridicule. They can be obtained at all prices, from fifty cents each to ten or twelve dollars ; and of all sizes, containing from five thousand to a hundred thousand words. A letter having in it a single word misspelled stamps the writer with gross ignorance or with unpardonable carelessness. He should never use a word on paper that he does not know how to spell correctly. A mistake of this kind is sure to excite contempt for the writer, unless the reader is himself an igno- ramus. In letter-writing bad spelling is the very climax of blunders. Do unexceptionably well whatever else you may, if you have misspelled a word in your letter, you have spoiled it. Unless you can properly mend it, rewrite your letter. 5. GRAfflATICAL ACCURACY. — Whoever writes correctly writes grammatically, whether he knows anything of the rules of gram- mar or not. Undoubtedly one may learn by long practice to con- struct sentences that shall be strictly grammatical, though he be ignorant of the rules of syntax. But if he intends to become a business man, and aspires to take rank with the intelligent of his class, as a matter of economy he should make himself well acquainted with the principles of English grammar. He will find this the shortest path to correctness in epistolary composi- tion. He will not only know when he has constructed a sen- Chap. I.] LITERARY ITEMS, HI tence properly or improperly, but he will be able to subject it to the gTammatical rules, and thereby know why it is right or wrong. The unpracticed writer should submit his letters to the inspec- tion of some friend, competent to criticise, before committing them to the mail, or forwarding them to their destination. He will be enabled to learn much in regard to his faults in composi- tion, and how to correct them. He must not lose his patience if his manuscript is severely handled, — not even if he finds it necessary to rewrite the whole. Our best friends are those whoi, in the proper spirit, show us our faults. 6. BREVITY. — A business letter should be brief, and its sen- tences should go direct to the point. With the exception of the usual complimentary formalities, it should not contain a single superfluous word. This is by no means necessarily inconsistent with a long letter. Wliatever is said should be hriefly said. You may find it neces- sary to include many topics in one letter, though generally in a business letter this will hardly be advisable. But when it is necessary, though everything be said in the fewest possible words, you will be obliged to write a long one, perhaps several pages. But as a long letter may be too short, so a short one may be too long. The time to close is, just when you have said exactly what you intend, and in words that will convey to the party addressed your precise intention, and nothing more. To say more will be likely to weaken what you have said, and shed darkness rather than light on your subject. Some persons have a propensity to write long letters, as others have to make long speeches. They seem to think that the strength of their productions must be in exact proportion to their length. The Widow Bedott said she always made her poetry long enough to be worth reading. The widow's idea is practically adopted by some letter- writers. They seem to think the length of a letter decides its ability. As already stated, except the usual complimentary features, not a superfluous sentence, clause, or word should be inserted in 112- THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part II. a business letter. The author should bear in mind that he is responsible for what he writes ; and if his letter is unnecessarily- long, a critical construction of his language may lead the reader to a different conclusion from what was intended. If a lawsuit fol- lows, the reader may be a juror in the box, or a judge on the bench. There is always danger in over-saying or saying too much. Business men prefer that business letters should be brief, and to the point. " A waste of words is a waste of time both to him who writes and to him who reads a letter." If a letter is properly divided into paragraphs, and is properly punctuated, there will be little if any danger of redundancy of language. Hence the im- portance of writing out the chief points or heads, the subjects of the paragraphs, as already recommended, before giving form to the letter. But, while brevity is recommended as the soul of a business letter, it is equally important that your letter should give " all the necessary particulars of the transaction to which it refers." Let nothing be omitted or left to inference or the discretion of the reader, unless it is already well understood by the parties, or is a matter of well-settled business usage. 7. STYLE. — When we speak of the style of a letter, we mean simply the manner of the writer, in his use of language to express his thoughts or meaning. We are often directed to ^vrite just as we would talk ; for it is said writing is only talking on paper. In other words we are told that a letter should be conversational in style, — one should write to his correspondent as he would converse with him face to face. This advice is easy to give, but not always easy to foUow. Besides, it is hardly desirable to follow it unless we are good talkers. Very few persons talk with the same grammatical and rhetorical accuracy that might be expected of them in writing. Some persons talk more acceptably than they write ; while others write more acceptably than they talk. While, to a certain extent, the advice to write as you would talk may be followed, it is utterly impracticable to follow it fully or even generally. You might as well endeavor to convert Chap. I.] LITERARY ITEMS. 113 an essay into a dialogue or colloquy. When you write, there is one to read, and who will read without interrupting you. But when you talk, there is usually at least one to " talk back." If that one would keep silence, you might talk as you would write ; or if, when you write, your correspondent were present, to deal in suggestions and interruptions, and talk back, you might write as you would talk. When you are advised to write as you would talk, you should be sure that you talk correctly, before concluding to follow the advice ; for, while mistakes and blunders in conversation will be overlooked, they will be set down against you in a letter. Yes ; if we always thoroughly considered what we were about to say, and our auditor kept silence while we were talking, then the advice to write as we would talk might be judicious. All that can be intended by this advice is, that your writing shall be as destitute of pomp, mock-dignity, and bombast, as model con- versation would be on the same subject. A business letter should always be dignified and respectful, but without effort at spread- eagle display. A great deal is said about style in writing, as though it were something to be adopted or rejected, as a tailor would adopt or reject a fashion-plate. The best advice to the student is to make no attempt whatever at style ; and if he follows this advice, no one will be likely to find fault with his style. Let him say what he has to say with all possible simplicity of language, avoiding all effort at ostentatious display of words. Blair says that good style consists of perspicuity and orna- ment ; and this is only saying, in other words, that it consists in expressing clearly what one has to say, and in the best words that can be selected for that purpose. Perspicuity is all-important in a business letter. To secure this, never crowd into one sentence what may properly be the subject of two or more. Compounding ideas in a single sentence will generally lead to confusion. Ornament, in the rhetorical sense of the word, has no proper place in the ordinary business letter. It may do in official or state papers ; but the style of a business letter, if it may be caUed 114 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part IL style, should be clear, compact, and even commonplace. Write as you talk when you have well considered what you are about to say, and when you talk correctly. 8. SHORT SENTENCES. — In business letters short sentences are preferable to long ones. They are generally clearer and more forcible. Long sentences usually require more skill in construc- tion than short ones, and are more liable to be misunderstood by the reader. Dr. Blair says : " Long periods require, evidently, more atten- tion than short ones, in order to perceive clearly the connection of the several parts, and to take in the whole at one view." Take the following example of a long period, and then let it be divided into several : — " Sir, — In announcing the opening of a Wine, Spirit, and Beer Store on these premises, for the sale of these articles, wholesale and retail, in casks and bottles, I beg leave to acquaint you with my determination to select none but the choicest and most ap- proved quahties of the different descriptions of each ; by which means I shall, at all times, have it in my power to insure to my friends and customers such articles as will, I trust, merit their approbation, and obtain for me a continuance of their favors." ISow let us divide this long sentence so as to make several sen- tences of it, each complete in itself ; and we shall see how much easier it is, not only to read it, but to understand the writer. " Sir, — I take pleasure in announcing that I have just opened on these premises a store for the sale of Wine, Spirits, and Beer, at wholesale and retail. These articles will be put up in casks and bottles. I beg to acquaint you with my determination to select none but the choicest and most approved qualities of the different descriptions of each. By this means I shall, at all times, have it in my power to insure to my friends and customers such articles as will, I trust, merit their approbation and secure a con- tinuance of their favors." When you have written a business letter containing sentences of considerable length, it will be well to review it, and see if it cannot be improved by dividing them, as in the example just given. Chap. L] QUESTIONS ON SECTION IIL 115 9. ABBREVIATIONS. — There are well-known ahhreviations proper to be used in business letters. The student should take care to use them correctly, and to punctuate them properly. All abbre- viations require punctuation. If not punctuated, they may be mistaken for some other words than those that are intended. For instance, we read that " Brown & Co have failed in business" As here written, we must understand that there were two men in business together, — one by the name of Mr. Brown, and the other by the name of Mr. Co, — and that they have failed. But if you place a period after the letter o, you have written Brown and Com- pany ; the last word signifying, perhaps, a dozen persons more or less. Abbreviations of Christian names are quite usual in letter- writing ; for instance, Geo. for George ; Chas. for Charles ; Wm. for William, &c. But in letter- writing never abbreviate surnames ; as, Mr. Geo. for Mr. George ; Mr. Chas. for Mr. Charles ; Mr. Wms. for Mr. Williams. In law books, where there are usually numer- ous citations of authorities, the surnames of authors are generally abbreviated ; as, Cow. B. for Cowen's Beports ; Johns. B. for John- son's Beports, &c. Punctuation gives the character, so to speak, to the abbrevia- tion. For instance, cwt. without being followed by a period would mean nothing. With the period, we have written a hundred weight ; so lb., pound ; yd., yard. In every counting-room may be seen letters in which abbreviations are profusely used, but unaccom- panied by marks of punctuation. Do not write, in your business letters, nox in any others, cant for can not ; sha' n't for shall not; dont for do not; wont for will not ; would n't for would not. This sort of slipshod writing may do for colloquies in novels ; but such contractions have a bad look in business correspondence. QUESTIONS ON SECTION IIL Arrangement of Items. 1. What is the subject of this section? 2. What should you do before writing a letter consisting of several items? 3. What is said about their arrano-ement ? 116 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part II. 4. What reason is given for this ? 5. To whom is this direction specially applicable ? 6. How are business men often troubled ? 7. When is a supplementary letter necessary ? 8. What losses may arise on account of this ? 9. How can you guard against these omissions ? Spelling. 1. What is the subject of this section ? 2. If you are prone to incorrect spelling, what must be done ? 3. How do some persons learn to spell? 4. Who are among the best spellers ? 5. How do they learn to spell ? 6. How do the)' detect misspelling ? 7. What idea of sound has the deaf mute? 8. Then how does he detect errors in spelling ? 9. What examples can you give ? 10. What is a misspelt word to his eye ? 11. How does nearly all our knowledge of speUing come? 12. AYhat is correct spelling the result of? 13. What is said of the old-fashioned method? 14. What will make a good speller of almost any one? 15. Where may rules for spelling be found ? 16. What should every student have? 1 7. How often should he consult it ? 18. Where ought every family to have a dictionary? 19. What is it an article of? 20. "Where can a copy be obtained ? 21. What is its cost? 22. What authors are the standard authorities ? 23. What do they differ in ? 24. What is said about spelling according to either ? 25. What, about prices and sizes ? 26. What is the effect of a single misspelt word in a letter? 27. What words should the writer not use ? 28. What is a mistake in spelling sure to excite ? 29. What is the climax of blunders in letter-writing ? 30. What is the effect on your letter ? Grammatical Accuracy, 1. What is the subject of this section? 2. Who writes grammatically ? 3. What may long practice enable one to do without a knowledge of the rules of syntax ? Chap. I.] QUESTIONS ON SECTION IIL 117 4. What is said of the economy of studying grammar? 5. Why is this economical ? 6. Of what use are grammatical rules ? 7. To whom should the unpracticed writer submit his letters ? 8. Why should he do this ? 9. What if his manuscript is severely handled ? 10. Who are our best friends ? Brevity. 1. What is the subject of this section? 2. What is said about this as to business letters ? 3. What, about superfluous words ? 4. How can a short letter be too long ? 5. What is said about many topics in one letter ? 6. When is the time to close your letter ? 7. Why not say more ? 8. What is the propensity of some persons ? 9. What do they seem to think ? 10. What did the Widow Bedott say about her poetry? 1 1 . Who practically adopt her idea ? 12. What should the letter-writer bear in mind? 13. What may be the result of too long a letter? 14. In case of a lawsuit, who may be the reader? 15. Of what is there danger? 16. What is a waste of words ? 1 7. How may redundancy of language be avoided? 18. What does this show the importance of? 1 9. What is as important as brevity ? 20. WTiat is said in reference to omissions ? ^ Style. 1. What is the subject of this section? 2. What do we mean by style ? 3. How are we often directed to write ? 4. Why are we so directed ? 6. In style, what should a business letter be ? 6. Is it easy to follow this advice ? 7. Why is it not desirable to always follow it ? 8. Which is the more common, to talk or to write grammatically ? 9. How is it with some persons ? 10. What might as well be attempted as to attempt to write as you would talk? 11. Why cannot one write as he talks ? 1 2. Under what circumstances could one write as he would talk ? 118 THINGS TO BE OBSERVED. [Part 11. 13. Before following the advice to write as you would talk, what should you be sure of ? 14. How will mistakes in conversation be regarded? 15. How, in writing ? 16. What is meant, then, by the advice to write as you would talk? 1 7. How should a business letter be as to style ? 18. What is the best advice as to attempting style? 19. How should one say what he has to say? 20. Wliat does Blair say style consists of ? 21. What does this really mean? 22. What is all-important in a business letter? 23. How may this be secured ? 24. Why not compound ideas in a single sentence ? 25. What is said about ornament in a business letter? 26. Where is it appropriate ? 2 7. What is the conclusion about writing as you talk ? SJiort Sentences. 1. What is the subject of this section? 2. Which kind of sentence is preferable in a business letter ? 3. Why is it preferable ? 4. What do long sentences require ? 5. What are they liable to ? 6. What does Dr. Blair say about them? 7. What mistake did the wine-merchant make in his letter ? 8. When is it well to review your business letter ? 9. For what purpose ? Ahhreviations. 1. What is the subject of this section ? 2. What care should you take about their use ? 3. What do they all require ? 4. What, if they are not punctuated? 5. What might Co. be taken for if not ? . 6. What does the addition of a period do? 7. What does punctuation give to the abbreviation ? 8. What names should not be abbreviated ? 9. What about the abbreviation ciot. ? 10. What, if not punctuated? 11. What, of other abbreviations? 12. What is said about contractions? Chap. ILJ LITERARY FAULTS. II9 CHAPTEE II. ' THINGS TO BE AVOIDED. BLACKBOARD EXERCISE. To be avoided. 1. Bombast. 2. Slang Words. 3. Foreign Words and Phrases. 4. Tautology. I ^:°J-;^-- 5. Parentheses. THE fact that there are Tilings to he ohserved in the Literature of a letter logically implies that tliere are Things to he avoided. If one ohserves correct spelling, grammatical accuracy, brevity, and short sentences, he will of course avoid incorrect spelling, grammatical inaccuracy, prolixity, and long sentences. But it is proposed to notice a few things to be avoided, the avoidance of which is not necessarily implied in the observance of the things included in Chapter I., of Part Second of this work. They are the more common errors into which unpractised letter- writers are liable to faU. 1. BOMBAST. — Bomhast is directly the opposite of simplicity of language. Highflown words, pompous expressions, and parade of language are out of place in almost any kind of composition ; but in a business letter they are simply ridiculous, inspiring con- tempt, and even pity, for the writer. The simplest language, provided it convey your meaning, is the very best that you can employ in writing a business letter. By tills, it is not meant that one should employ low, mean, and childish expressions. There is scarcely any subject, especially of a business nature, that cannot be properly presented in plain and simple words. 120 THINGS TO BE AVOIDED. [Part IL Dr. Blair says : " It will be found to hold without exception, that the most sublime authors are the simplest in their style; and wherever you find a writer who affects a more than ordinary pomp and parade of words, and is always endeavoring to magnify his subject by epithets, there you may immediately suspect that, feeble in sentiment, he is studying to support himself by mere expression." The same eminent writer says of bombast, that it "lies in forcing an ordinary or trivial object out of its rank, and endeavor- ing to raise it into the sublime ; or in attempting lo exalt a sub- lime object beyond all natural and reasonable bounds." Young persons are more prone to such attempts than those who are older. Some are not satisfied to walk on the earth's sur- face, but must travel among the clouds and stars, or not travel at all. Bear in mind that the language of simplicity should characterize the business letter. Bombast is ridiculous and dis- gusting. 2.. SLING WORDS AND PHRASES. — AU slang words and phrases should be avoided in business letters, however familiar you may be with your correspondent, or however appropriate, in special in- stances, they might seem to be. Your letter will be accepted as a tjrpe of your mind and an index to your thoughts. If you wish to escape the charge of coarseness and vulgarity, avoid the use of those expressions that originate in prize-rings and circuses, not to speak of places lower still, and that are peculiar to professional boxers, clowns, and libertines. Chaste and pure language can be employed to as good advan- tage in business correspondence as in the learned professions, or as in writing letters of a literary, scientific, or sentimental char- acter. Indeed, slang phraseology is less excusable in business letters, as no possible apology for its use there can be invented ; while it is barely possible that, from the nature of some other subjects, or from the familiarity of the parties with each other, a little latitude of liberty for its use might be assumed in some instances without giving offence. Chap, n.] LITERARY FAULTS. 121 A business letter should indulge in no departure from the line of true dignity. Slang phrases are utterly inconsistent with true dignity of thought or word, and, when used, can hardly fail to inspire sentiments of disrespect, not to say disgust, for the writer or speaker who uses them. The true business man should be, not a dandy, not a fop, not a boor, nor a clown, but a gen- tleman. The language of his letters, no less than his conver- sation and entire demeanor, wiU demonstrate to which class he belongs. 3. FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. — Some persons who have ac- quired the merest smattering of Latin, French, Italian, or some other foreign language are prone to make display of this cheap literature in their letters. They evidently imagine that these dis- plays create the impression that they have "much learning." They little dream, however, of the truth in the case, — that such demonstrations mark their authors as pedants and coxcombs. No man of common sense ever reads a letter thus interlarded with foreign words and phrases, without feelings of mingled pity and contempt for the writer. These remarks apply as properly to other kinds of letters, as a general rule, as to those of a business nature. A native-born American, who cannot write or speak his own language so as to be understood by those who are acquainted with it, may rest assured that he will not improve the matter much by resort to a foreign tongue, of which he and his reader or hearer know little or nothing. If you are writing to a foreigner who does not understand English, and you can address him in his own language, of course you will do so. This gives no appearance of simpering and offensive pedantry. But if you write to one who may be pre- sumed to understand your own language as well as yourself, by all means use that language, and that only. A quotation in this connection from Blair's Rhetoric may not be out of place. The author says : — " The introduction of foreign and learned words, unless where necessity requires them, should always be avoided. Barren lan- 6 122 THINGS TO BE AVOIDED. [Part II. guages may need sucli assistances ; but ours is not one of these. Dean Swift, one of our most correct writers, valued himself much on using no words but such as were of native growth ; and his language may, indeed, be considered as a standard of the strictest purity and propriety in the choice of words." 4. TAUTOLOGY. — 1. ^ "^tmVL^,, — Tautology of meaning is de- fined by Webster to be "a repetition of the same meaning in different words, or a needless repetition of a thing in different words or phrases." This is a common fault with inexperienced writers, and with those who have unusual flow of language. They seem to abhor eimplicity and singleness of statement. When they have made their point clearly and distinctly, they show a proneness to make it over and over again ; until, by some slight and unintentional variation in the statement, their meaning becomes confused, if not contradictory. This is one of the chief dangers arising from tautology of mean- ing in business letter- writing. There is an intention of tautology, which is itself a fault ; but it sometimes ends in inconsistency with what has already been said. While the writer may think he is stating the very same matter, though a little more clearly, and in somewhat different language, he may by an unskilful or careless use of a preposition or conjunction, or of some term of negation or afl&rmation, mislead the reader of his letter as to what is really intended. When you have stated a proposition, and feel certain that you have stated it clearly, it is a good rule to make no attempt at mending or improving it by restatement. A strict observance of this rule will not, however, prevent any necessary explanations regarding the subject-matter of your letter. 2. Of Words. — Tautology of words, as far as possible, should be avoided in business letters. It consists in the frequent and un- necessary repetition of the principal word or words in the same sentence or paragraph. This objection does not apply to the fre- quent use of such words as are called ^particles, — the smaller and Cliap. IL] LITERARY FAULTS. 123 less important ones necessarily used with frequency in almost every English sentence ; such as, hy, with, in, to, of, hut, the, etc. Tautology of words may be avoided by the use of synonymes, or words which are nearly or quite equivalents of those already used, the repetition of which it is desirable to avoid. Webster s and Worcester's Unabridged Dictionary furnish an abundant sup- ply of synonymes. The following are examples of tautology of words : — " If you will allow me a short time to think, I think that I can think of an example which you will think is quite similar to this." By substituting synonymes, the tautology of this sentence dis- appears. " If you will allow me a short time to consider, I be- lieve that I can think of an example that you will regard as quite similar to this." " We went in an omnibus to the depot, and then went to De- troit in the cars that went that day to Chicago." The repetition of went is avoided by the substitution of syno- nymes. " We rode in an omnibus to the depot, and then pro- ceeded to Detroit in the cars that went that day to Chicago." Another example, — "I believe that you believe that he believes the Fathers believed that the Apostles believed in this doctrine. Synonymes, — "I am convinced that you think that he believes that the Fathers were persuaded that the Apostles held this doc- trine." In modifying sentences so as to avoid tautology, it is not necessary that the substituted words shall be exact equivalents or synonymes. Indeed, it is held by critical scholars that there are no two words in our language which convey precisely the same idea. But no one denies that there are thousands that so approx- imate each other in identity of signification as to allow their use interchangeably, or the substitution of one for the other. In law papers and documents, always wordy instruments, there is often, and even generally, tautology both of meaning and words. But these would hardly be accepted as models of rhetoric and elegant composition. In works of a didactic nature, or such as are written for the purpose of teaching, tautology is quite unavoidable. 124 THINGS TO BE AVOIDED. [Part II. 5. PARENTHESES. — The parenthesis has been briefly noticed in another place, page 104. The marks which inclose it are two curved lines, each curving inward, the one placed at the begin- ning and the other at the end of the member, clause, or sentence inclosed by them ; thus, ( ). The words included within these lines constitute the parenthesis. The frequent use of the marks of parenthesis is not favored at the present day in composition of any kind, and especially in letter- writing. If a sentence is properly constructed, the comma, semicolon, or other marks of punctuation, will generally answer every purpose. The parenthetic clauses or sentences inclosed by them are usually explanatory, and may often be omitted entirely ; or, more properly, they may become the subjects of a sentence or sentences by themselves. Take the following example from KerVs Grammar: — " The good man {arid good men not only think good thoughts^ hut do good deeds) lives more in a year than a selfish, covetous man in a century." By making two sentences or periods of this, the parenthesis is avoided, and the statement becomes, not only clearer, but more forcible. " The good man lives more in a year than the selfish, covetous man in a century. He not only thinks good thoughts, but he does good deeds." Or transpose the sentence thus : " The good man not only thinks good thoughts, but he does good deeds ; and he lives more in a year than the selfish, covetous man in a century." On the use of parentheses. Dr. Blair, the distinguished rheto- rician, says : " For the most part, their effect is extremely bad ; being a sort of wheels within wheels, sentences in the midst of sentences, the perplexed method of disposing of some thought which a writer wants art to introduce in its proper place. It were needless to give many instances, as they occur so often among incorrect writers. " I shall produce one from Lord Bolingbroke, the rapidity of whose genius and manner of writing betrays him frequently into inaccuracies of this sort. It is in the introduction to his idea of a patriot king, where he writes thus : — Chap. IL] QUESTIONS ON ^^®^^^^ T^QT)^^ V^ 125 " ' It seems to me, that, in order to maintain the system of the world at a certain point, far below that of ideal perfection (for we are made capable of conceiving what we are incapable of attaining), but, however, sufficient, upon the whole, to constitute a state easy and happy, or, at the worst, tolerable ; I say it seems to me that the Author of Nature has thought fit to mingle, from time to time, among the societies of men, a few, and but a few, of those on whom he is graciously pleased to bestow a larger por- tion of the ethereal spirit than is given, in the ordinary course of his government, to the sons of men/ " A very bad sentence this : into which, by the help of the parenthesis, and other interjected circumstances, his lordship had contrived to thrust so many things, that he is forced to begin the construction again with the phrase, / say ; which, whenever it occurs, may be always assumed as a sure mark of a clumsy, ill- constructed sentence, — execrable in speaking, where the greatest accuracy is not expected, but in polished writing, unpardonable." The sentence of Lord Bolingbroke is clumsy indeed, as Dr. Blair says ; but the criticism on it, if one may presume to criti- cise such eminent authority, is but little better. If Dr. Blair had made four or five sentences of his own very long one, he could hardly have failed to express himself more forcibly. QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER IL Bombast. 1. What is the subject of this chapter? 2. What is the subject of this section ? 3. What is bombast opposed to? 4. What is out of place in a business letter ? 5. What language is preferable ? 6. What is not meant by this? 7. In what words may almost any subject be presented ? 8. What is the style of the most sublime authors ? 9. What is said of writers who affect pomp ? 10. What does Dr. Blair say of bombast? 11. Who are prone to these attempts? 12. What language should characterize the business letter? 13. How does bombast appear in such letters? 12d THINGS TO BE AVOIDED. [Paji; IL Slang Words and Phrases. 1. What is the subject of this section ? 2. What is said about th^ir use ? ■ 8. What will your letter be accepted as ? 4. How are you to escape the charge of coarseness and vulgarity ? 5. Where does such language originate ? 6. What is said of chaste and pure language ? 7. Where is slang phraseology least excusable ? 8. Why is it less excusable there ? 9. What should not a business letter indulge in ? 10. What are slang phrases inconsistent with? 11. What sentiments do they inspire? 12. What should not the true business man be? 13. What should he be? 14. What will demonstrate to which class he belongs ? Foreign Words and Phrases. 1. What is the subject of this section? 2. What persons attempt a display of them ? 3. What impression do they imagine that these displays create ? 4. What do such displays mark them as ? 5. How does the man of common sense feel on reading such letters ? 6. What kinds of letters do these remarks apply to ? ' 7. What further is said of the use of foreign phrases ? 8. When does the use of a foreign language give no appearance of ped- antry ? 9. When should you use your own language only ? 10. What does Blair say about using foreign words? 11. What kind of a writer was Dean Swift? 12. What did he pride himself on ? 13. How is his language considered? Tautology* 1. What is the subject of this section? 2. What is tautology of meaning ? 3. With whom is this a common fault ? 4. What do they seem to abhor ? 5. What are they prone to, when they have stated their point clearly? 6. What is the danger of tautology of meaning ? 7. How does it sometimes end ? 8. How does the writer sometimes mislead his reader ? 9. What is a good rule about stating a proposition ? 10. What will not this prevent ? Chap. IL] QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER IL 127 11. What is said of tautology of words? 12. What does it signify ? 13. To what does this objection not apply? 14. How may tautology of words be avoided? 15. Where can you find synonymes? 16. Give some examples of tautology of words? 1 7. What is said about substituted words ? 18. What do critical scholars hold? 19. What do all admit about identity of signification? 20. What is said about tautology of law papers ? 21. What, about didactic works? Parentheses, 1. What is the subject of this section? 2. What marks inclose the parenthesis ? 3. What words constitute the parenthesis ? 4. What is said of the frequent use of these marks ? 5. What marks may take the place of them ? 6. Wliat is the nature of the parenthesis ? 7. How may it be avoided ? 8. What does Dr. Blair say of its use ? 128 THINGS TO BE AVOIDED. [Part IL GENEEAL EXEECISES. DIKECTIONS TO THE TEACHER. DEAW an oblong figure on the blackboard, making it about sixteen inches horizontal by twenty inches perpendicular. Eequire the pupils to draw on their slates a figure of like pro- portions ; say, eight by ten inches. FALSE EXAMPLE. — No. 1. TieiiA yci^ Jec S^ /§^S c/ea-i, aci> Chap. IL] GENERAL EXERCISES. 129 I. POSITION. This figure represents the proper proportions of a sheet of letter-paper. On the blackboard place the heading^ names and additions, address, and conclusion, within the figure, but not in their proper respective positions. Now request the pupils to copy from the board what you have written, and to place on their slates each part where it belongs, according to the instructions herein already given. Eequire them to do their work, if necessary, over and over again, until every part is done perfectly, according to the diagram. In this first exercise pay no attention whatever to the correct use of capital letters or marks of punctuation. Keep these mat- ters, as much as possible, out of sight. One subject at a time is best for teaching. Each slate should be carefully inspected by the teacher, and no error of position should be allowed to pass without correction. Now erase what you have written on the blackboard, and have the pupils erase what is written on their slates. II. CAPITAL LETTERS. HEADING. Without using any capital letters, or punctuation marks, write within the diagram on the board, richville st lawrence county n y act 1 1872. Place this heading in its proper position, as the les- son on that subject has been given. In writing this heading, the teacher should require every pupil to make the capital letters where they belong. He wiU give the items for a variety of headings. When a heading consists of too many items to be conveniently placed on a single line, throw it into two or more as may be necessary. The following questions, as far as applicable, may then be asked. 1. What are the items of this heaCding? 2. Why do you include the county ? 3. Where is your first capital letter? 6* I 130 THINGS TO BE AVOIDED. [Part IL 4. Why do you use a capital there? 5. Where is your second capital ? 6. Why do you use a capital there ? 7. Where is the third ? 8. Where is the fourth? 9. Why do you use a capital there ? 10. How many capitals in all? NAMES AND ADDITIONS. Now the teacher is ready to write on the board, without capi- tals or punctuation, but in proper position, a variety of examples of names and additions, similar to those here given. After which, call on the pupils to properly distribute the capitals. ^yu>i' 3f CO -neta^ -i Ex. 1. . io^9t i^9nc^^ EX.2L eOO' //^ dioac/ti^ay Tieta yo^ Ex.3. Questions. 11. Where is the first capital in the first example? 1 2. Why do you use a capital there ? 13. Where is the second, and why? 14. Where is the third, and why ? 15. Where the fourth, and why ? 16. Where the fifth, and why? 17. Where the sixth, and why? 18. Where the seventh, and why ? 19. What are the words of addition* Ans. Messrs., Co., and New York. Question the pupils after the same manner on all the ex- amples. Cliap. II.] GENERAL EXERCISES. 131 ADDRESS. This is what follows the names and additions, when they are placed before instead of after the body of the letter. It is usually called the complimentary address, though it is the only part of a letter properly called the address, as the names and additions are not an address at all They simply show to whom the address applies. Some word or words of address should always be used. It is abrupt to begin a letter without. In business letters, the address is usually Sir, Dear Sir, Gentlemen, Madam, Dear Madam, accord- ing to circumstances. In letters of friendship or affection, words expressive of the re- lationship of the parties are usually employed ; as, Dear friend, Dear father, Dear mother, Dear brother, Dear sister, Dear cousin, &c. Question, 20. Why do you begin the address with a capital? Ans. It begins a paragraph. CONCLUSION. The teacher will find it of advantage to the pupils to give a number of false examples on the board, for their correction. Write these examples in their proper position, disregarding capi- tals and punctuation. Take the following, for instance : — After the pupils have corrected these and other examples, the following questions, as far as applicable, may be asked. Questions* 21. Where is your first capital letter? 22. Why do you place a capital there ? 23. Why not begin the next word with a capital? 24. Why begin Welch with a capital? 25. Why, the next word? 26. Why begin the abbreviation Co. with a capital ? 132 THINGS TO BE AVOIDED. [Part H. III. PUNCTUATION. In this exercise the teacher should give a variety of headings, names and additions, addresses, and conclusions. Let them be strictly correct in everything except items and jpunctuation. Then require the pupils to punctuate each part properly. Thorough drill should be given in the items of the headings. In all kinds of letter- writing, mistakes are common here. It is suggested that the teacher omit the county and state in some instances in the heading, giving only the name of the town or village where the letter is written, and then require the class to make the proper corrections. Let them criticise the following examples, and others that may be furnished by the teacher : — No. 1. . No. 2. ^yn^nm/d ^ood ^o 0a /§7^ Chap. IL] GENERAL EXERCISES. I33 No. 3. HTZceie^ ^Gui^ ^lcen€^ Q^9no<> QJa^de-?^ No. 4. No. 6. g4^ 134 THINGS TO BE AVOIDED. [Paxt IL After each pupil has made the necessary corrections in every part of the foregoing examples, the teacher will ask the following or other Questions, 27. Where is your first comma in No. 1 ? 28. Where your first period? 29. Why, a period there ? 30. Wliere is your second comma? 31. Where is your second period ? 32. Why place a period there? 33. "Where is your next period ? 34. Why a period following Messrs. ? 35. Where is your next comma ? 36. What is omitted in the additions ? 3 7. When you have supplied the additions, how do you punctuate them ? 38. Why put a period at the close of them ? 39. How do you punctuate the address ? 40. How, the conclusion ? 41. Why do you put a period after the signature? Examples 2-5. 42. What item is omitted in the heading of No. 2 ? 43. Why should you write State and county there? 44. How many periods in the heading of No. 2 ? 45. Where are they ? 46. How many commas in this heading ? 47. Where are they? 48. What faults in the names and additions of No. 2 ? 49. What faults in the same part of No. 3 ? 50. What in No. 4 ? 61. In No. 5? 62. What faults in punctuation are in the conclusion of Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 6 ? Chap. II.] GENERAL EXERCISES, I35 FALSE EXAMPLE. — No. 2. Id o^ 'tde am^ C7VX^. id iececi^ec/, ^c q7uc^ U71CO iyc7tcele^. uia. (MncM, ^oned, ^ ^ioum,. There are eight mistakes with regard to position in this diagram of a letter. Point them out, and correct them, beginning with the first. Questions. 53. What is the first fault? 64. What is the second ? 136 THINGS TO BE AVOIDED. [Part H. 65. Wliat is the third? 56. What is the fourth? 57. What is the fifth? 58. The sixth? 59. The seventh? 60. The eighth? 61. Where is your left margin? FALSE EXAMPLE. — No. 3. Superscription. Q^£ ^m^ ^aU. Sa^ ^£^cuic/e^^idca' i^^^i- cnanae ^id'^ tznc^ ^Uconc^ t/.?i^uicc// , ^ay ^o ■me oic/el' o/ 1^. <^. Wc^£a7nd one ^nauaun^ ^ounc^ a-tieiun^, 'i/adce iececzAec/, am/ cnalae ^ accou^i-i o^ iown. \ .^£tv^ei^ioot, Snauinc/, Mo^U ^ (^lence^. 1. These three bills constitute legally but one bill, — are a set, — and the payment of one is the payment of all. 2. It will be observed that the first of the set has these words included in parentheses: ''Second and third unpaid." This means, if the second and third are not paid, pay this ; and so of the others. If the^rs^ and third are not paid, pay this second ; and ^/' the first and second are not paid, pay this third bill. 3. This class of bills of exchange are called foreign, because the drawer and drawee reside in different States or countries. 4. The American States are foreign to each other in regard to bills of exchange. A draft, or bill, drawn by one who resides in Jersey City on a merchant or banker residing in New York, and payable in the latter, would be a foreign bill, though the cities are but a mile or two apart. 5. Before Mr. Williams sends the foregoing draft to Liverpool, he should indorse it in full, payable to the order of his correspondent in that city, thus, Pay to the order of William Jackson, and write his name under the indorsement. APPENDIX. 167 6. A draft should always be made payable in tbe currency of the country where the drawee resides. In England it should be joowwc?«; in France, francs ; and in this country, dollars. IV. PROMISSORY NOTE PAYABLE TO ORDER. (S/ivtee TnonMd jfiont cui^ Q/^ ^ilOTncde ^ ^a-y .£^o^ei^ ^. &yie7icei', oi> oicCei', one 'tnoudanco cca^^ia, ^o^ ^^auce i^ce^ec&. To properly transfer this note (IV.), Mr. Spencer, the payee, must write his name across the back of it. If he writes it in blank, that is, simply his name, it can then be transferred from hand to hand without further indorsement. V. PROMISSORY NOTE PAYABLE TO BEARER. Q/dii/^y aciyd a/^e^ cui^ Q^ ^lioma^e ■^o ^^y .=^lo^ei^ ^. &^^?tce^, oi> ^ea/i^, one -tuou^kzncl cComzi<), ^oi^ 'i^auce iecect^ecC. This note (V.) is transferable from hand to hand, like a bank bill, without indorsement, on account of the word hearer. VI. JOINT AND SEVERAL NOTE. }^ir,C?C?0. Mocde^^eK 0a /, /(^/il (^ftx^ c/(zw> ^'i^m c/a^ tae^ocn^-^ a7icl aeveiauy ^Ao'?nu>a 'to ^y ^^^ (^o. (^^ac^ei', oi, ^eaie^, one 'tdocukz,?icl c/o^i^, /o^ v^a/ue iececvec/. S. M. S^e/^n. 168 APPENDIX. On this last note (VI.) each makes a separate promise that he will pay the sum mentioned at the time specified. The holder can sue either or both, as he chooses, when the note becomes due, unless paid. If the word severally were omitted, the holder must sue both Felton and Folsom, if he sues at all. So, if a note reads, ^^ I promise to pay, ^^ and is signed by more than one person, each signer may be sued separately, as though he were the only one who made the note ; for it is a joint and several instrument. vn. BANK CHECK. gmerf §mkmg ^au^, e^^^ ^ j^ Jr. 7rai7iei^, oi ^e