I I 
 
 , 
 
Problems and Principles 
 of Correct English 
 
 Grammar, Punctuation, Rhetorical Criticism 
 
 Accompanied by "Dictionary of Errors" 
 By Sherwin Cody 
 
 The text " Grammar and Punctuation" referred to in these Exercises 
 will be found reprinted on the backs of lesson leaves. 
 
 Each leaf in this book is separate and complete in itself, and may be 
 torn out readily if the teacher desires. 
 
 Published at Chicago 
 By the School of English 
 
 (Copyright, 1903. 1905, 1907, 1911. 1912 by Sherwin Cody) 
 
SUCCESS IN TEACHING THE CORRECT- US 3 CF ENGLISH 
 
 There comes a time when the disciplinary study of English grammar must give place 
 to an effort to gain practical skill in writing and speaking correctly. A different system 
 from that of the public school language books is required a more intense drive straight 
 at the habitual weaknesses of the pupils. That is the object of this exercise book, planned 
 for pupils of high school age. 
 
 Constructive Composition More Important Than Don'ts. Few bad sentence makers 
 were ever cured by the medicine of don'ts. Positive skill (and with it positive accuracy) 
 comes from vigorous use of the Franklin and Stevenson method of reading good models 
 and practicing unceasingly on imitating them. Such practice is given by "Exercises in 
 Letter Writing" (facsimile letters to be answered) arranged to accompany the book "How 
 to Do Business by Letter and Training Course in" Conversational English." A constructive 
 interest in doing business makes pupils see the utility of correct English, and the teacher 
 is supplied with ample material for continual classwork in personal detailed criticism and 
 rewriting of poorly formed sentences. Habitual errors must be hammered on persistently 
 if the bad habits are to be eradicated. That book contains as much formal work on gram- 
 mar as experience has shown it is possible to give in a six months' course without slighting 
 the composition work. 
 
 Purpose of This Book. This book is intended to supplement "Exercises in Business 
 Letter Writing" when the course extends beyond six months, as it does in many high 
 schools, and to supply a practical high school or college review course in correct English 
 to accompany the advanced book "How to Do Business by Letter and Advertising" (Inter- 
 national Edition) and the "Literary Composition Drill Book." 
 
 Avoid Unnecessary Grammar Machinery. If you wish to secure practical correct- 
 ness you must simplify the "machinery" of grammar to the point where it can really be 
 used in everyday practice. If pupils spend all their time in trying to memorize rules and 
 definitions they will have no mental energy left to apply them. 
 
 In this book I have left out every definition or rule which does not lead directly to the 
 correction or avoidance of some error. There is no practical utility in knowing the defini- 
 tions of the different kinds of sentences, as declarative, interrogative, exclamatory, etc., as 
 no special difficulty is possible here; and in English there is no such thing as gender in the 
 Latin sense, since everybody knows that female reference words are feminine and male * 
 reference words are negative, while all others are neuter. Dr. E. Benj. Andrews says of 
 this text on grammar, "Your notion of simplifying grammar is worthy of the widest pub- 
 licity. Your treatment is crisp, simple, direct." In business schools and high schools there 
 is no place for books on grammar with a full panoply of rules and definitions. Yet this . 
 work is a complete treatise on grammar for practical purposes, covering every point needed 
 by proofreaders in the government printing office. 
 
 Avoid Finical Distinctions. There is a considerable number of writers who have 
 tried to impose on modern English a variety of finical distinctions and discriminations 
 which do not exist. There are illogical idioms in the English language which do not 
 precisely square with logical derivations. Many words have gradually acquired an extended 
 
 308410 
 
meaning s -whi<ffe k tke^e writers pr<?<$mn,e to deprive them of. We are told that "as though" 
 is erroneous for "as if," but the argument is fallacious (See "Grammar and Punctuation," 
 page 86), and that we "answer" a question or a letter and "reply" to an argument, but 
 every one knows that as a matter of fact the words "answer" and "reply" are used inter- 
 changeably to avoid awkward repetitions and the distinction must be emphasized by the 
 connection if anybody is to understand it. There are so many obvious crudities in the 
 English of a high school pupil that it seems a foolish waste of time to worry in class work 
 over these doubtful distinctions. Scarcely a list of Words Often Misused can be found that 
 is not loaded down with these useless and frequently erroneous distinctions made by 
 purist reformers. 
 
 The English Language a Natural Growth. If the French is a strictly scientific 
 language, the English is obviously a natural growth, like a tree in the forest. There are 
 many knots and crooked branches, but we would not exchange them for a forest of 
 geometrical and perfectly balanced trees. 
 
 Many of us also forget that a tree and a language grow very observably every year, 
 and books written one hundred, fifty, or even twenty-five years ago are so far out of date 
 that they cannot be used as guides for the study of the living language required in conver- 
 sation and letter writing. Works of literary art do not admit words that have not been 
 proved by time unless they are used with apologetic quotation marks. But we actually 
 sacrifice our living effectiveness if we reject such modern technical expressions as "letters 
 that pull," "hustle," "knock," "slump," and even "putting him next to the game" or "getting 
 down to brass tacks." Such expressions are not yet old enough to be dignified; but in 
 the scramble of life, dignity may often be a handicap. There is no need in a book like 
 this to warn against "young" expressions that merely lack dignity. Foolishly weak slang 
 words are numerous enough to occupy the teacher fully. 
 
 The author acknowledges indebtedness to Bert Leston Taylor, editor of the humorous 
 column "A Line-o'-Type or Two" in the Chicago Tribune, for amusing examples of bad 
 English clipped from current newspapers. 
 
 A new "Normal Course on How to Teach Business English" will be sent free to 
 teachers only who write to the author at 1411 Security Building, Chicago. 
 
 S HER WIN CODY. 
 
LESSON I. Parts of Speeck. 
 
 See Grammar, pages 19-21. 
 What is a noun? 
 
 What is a verb? 
 What is a pronoun? 
 
 Every verb in this exercise is the centre of a group of words called a sentence. Taking 
 the verbs one after the other, consider what other words belong in the same group. Draw 
 a line where one group ends and another begins till you have the whole divided into groups 
 with only one verb in each group. Then rewrite, beginning each group or sentence with a 
 capital letter and ending it with a period. You will not need any commas. 
 
 Then write "n." under every noun, "v." under every verb, and "pro." under 
 every pronoun. 
 
 Once upon a time there was a little chimney-sweep his name was Tom that 
 is a short name you have heard it before you will not have much trouble 
 in remembering it he lived in the North country there were plenty of chimneys 
 to sweep there there was plenty of money for Tom to earn his master spent 
 it he could not read he could not write he did not care to do either he 
 never washed himself there was no water in the court where he lived he 
 never had been taught to say his prayers he never had heard of God or 
 Christ he cried half his time he laughed the other half he had to climb dark 
 flues he rubbed his poor knees and elbows raw that made him cry the soot 
 got into his eyes every day in the week his master beat him every day in 
 the week not a day in the week did he have enough to eat. 
 
 Nouns are names of different kinds of things, such as persons, places, things, and gen- 
 eral ideas. What are the following nouns the names of? Henry, boy, Mexico, land, trees, 
 remembering, love, kindness, money, mass, thought, Joliet, George Washington. 
 
 How many boys are there in the world? How many George Washingtons? Notice 
 that the name of one person or place is written with a capital letter or letters, while other 
 nouns are not except at the beginning of a sentence. 
 
Grammar, pp. 19-21. Lesson I. 
 
 THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 Nouns. In the first paragraph of "Black Beauty"* let us pick out the words that 
 stand for some definite object we can think of. Such words are meadow, pond, water, trees; 
 also place, day-time, etc. Say nothing but the word pond, for instance, and you have in 
 your mind a clear picture of something real. 
 
 In the sentences in this passage there are also many other kinds of words, such as 
 the, remember, about, pleasant, from. But none of these words means anything definite 
 except in connection with other words. Pond calls up the idea of a pond, without any other 
 words with it, but remember means nothing unless there is some one or something to 
 remember, and something that is remembered. So from and the mean nothing except in 
 connection with other words. Even pleasant must be connected with some other word in 
 order to have its full meaning, as "a pleasant day," "a pleasant thought," or the like. 
 
 By careful consideration you will see that every word depends on some other word, 
 until you come back to the noun, or name-word, which is complete in itself. Each word in a 
 complete sentence has a fixed logical relationship of its own. The study of these logical 
 relationships is the basis of grammar. The starting point is the noun, which represents a 
 complete idea in itself, and (with the words connected with it) gives us the "subject" (of a 
 sentence). A sentence is a complete chain of words, representing a complete thought. 
 
 Verbs. A noun, as we have said, means something apart from any other word 
 connected with it. But when we say boy, man y tree, John, we call up merely a simple picture. 
 If we wish to speak of the boy as running, the man as walking, the tree as growing, John 
 as speaking, we must use a verh When we say, "The boy runs/' "The man walks," "The 
 tree grows," "John speaks," we make a statement, we assert, something to be true. The 
 word that asserts, such as runs, walks, or speaks, is called a verb. A verb also expresses 
 a command, as when we say, "Run, John." 
 
 In participles and infinitives the assertive quality is imperfect, but it still exists. Old 
 grammarians defined verbs as words signifying to dc . to be, or to suffer. 
 
 As we shall see later, a verb often comprises several separate words, as might have 
 done, shall have been done, can be done, is being done, etc. The verb and the words con- 
 nected with it are called the "predicate." 
 
 Pronouns. There are a number of small words which take the place of nouns. Thus 
 when I speak of myself I do not call myself by name and say, "John runs"; I say "I run." 
 If I have once mentioned John's name, so that we know to whom he refers, we say, "He 
 walks." And if we have been talking about the meadow we may say, "// is full of water." 
 These words /, he, it, etc., are called pronouns (Latin, for nouns}. They have just the same 
 relationships as nouns, and the only difficulty in the use of them comes in making it clear 
 to exactly what noun each pronoun refers. The noun to which a pronoun refers is called 
 its antecedent. 
 
 * "The first place that I can well remember was a large, pleasant meadow, with a pond 
 of clear water in it. Some shady trees leaned over it, and rushes and water-lilies grew at the 
 deep end. Over the hedge on one side we looked into a plowed field, and on the other we looked 
 over a gate at our master's house, which stood hy the roadside. At the top of the meadow 
 was a grove of fir-trees, and at the bottom a running brook overhung by a steep bank." "Black 
 Beauty," Chapter I. 
 
LESSON I (Continued). Forms in Letter Writing. 
 
 OBSERVE THAT The Heading of a letter must show clearly the address from which 
 the letter is written and the date of writing, including month, day of month, and year. 
 
 The Address gives the name and residence of the person written to. 
 The Salutation is the complimentary opening form. 
 The Body of the letter contains the message. 
 
 The Close is the complimentary phrase at the end of the letter, and immediately below 
 this is the signature. 
 
 Mark with a pencil each of these parts as found in the letter on the back of this sheet, 
 and write down on a sheet of paper a complete statement as to the place and position of 
 each as you observe them, indentation of each line or paragraph, punctuation of each part, 
 and relative position of the whole letter on the page. Refer to "Dictionary of Errors," 
 page 31, or "How to Do Business by Letter," chapters II, III, IV. 
 
 Place correctly on a page and punctuate correctly the various parts (except the body) 
 of the letters indicated in the following. Place each on a sheet by itself with great care 
 as to relative position. 
 
 1. Hiram Brindsley writes from Huron, State of Michigan, to James Huneker, at 
 189 West Madison Street, in Chicago, in regard to the purchase of a watch. 
 
 2. Jordan, Marsh & Co., of 630 Washington Street, in the City of Boston, write to 
 Hiram Brindsley concerning an order he has sent them. 
 
 3. Thomas J. Appleby writes from Number 3 in South End Road, town of Richmond, 
 county of Middlesex, country of England, to his brother John Hamilton Appleby, at Num- 
 ber 1301 Eighth Avenue, in the City of New York, New York State, United States of 
 America. 
 
 4. Mrs. Matilda Carver writes from the University of Chicago where she is attending 
 the teachers' college to her husband at Harvard University, where he is lecturing in the 
 law school. Supply missing data. 
 
 5. Address a letter to yourself from some one you know in a large city. 
 
 6. Address a letter from yourself to the same person as in Exercise 5. 
 
 7. Address a letter from yourself to any large city firm you know. 
 
 8. Address a letter from the city firm indicated in Exercise 7 to yourself. 
 
 Check over this work to make sure that no state, town, date, title, or punctuation mark 
 is missing. 
 
A Business Letter 
 
 1411 Security Bldg. , Chicago, 
 November 6, 1911. 
 
 Mr. Thomas Jones, 
 
 Grand Haven, Mich. 
 
 Dear Sir : 
 
 Immediately on receipt of your letter of October 31 
 I started a tracer after the package of "books sent you 
 "by American Express on October 20 I have just called 
 up the express office and am told that the books have 
 not yet been found. 
 
 Realizing that you have been greattyinconvenienced 
 by the delay in receiving the books and that there does 
 not seem to be any reasonable prospect that they will 
 be found immediately, I have ventured to duplicate the 
 order, and am sending another package by express to-day. 
 You should receive the books to-morrow morning. 
 
 Should the other package turn up at any time in 
 the future, please aqk the express comaany to return 
 it to Lie and I will see that they cancel their charges 
 on account of it. In the mean time I am making claim 
 upon them for the value of the lost books, and if they 
 do not find the lost package they will no doubt in 
 course of time pay for them. 
 
 Permit me to assure you that I sympathize pro* 
 foundly with your annoyance. Neither you nor I could 
 help it. The books were shipped promptly, as testified 
 to by the receipt which I now have before me. I have 
 done everything possible to find out how they have 
 gone astray, and now I have filled the order a second 
 time in order not to inconvenience you further. 
 
 Very truly yours , 
 
 (Lesson I, page 4) 
 
LESSON II. Parts of Speech. 
 
 See Grammar, pages 22-24. 
 What is an adjective? 
 
 What is an adverb? 
 What is a preposition? 
 What is a conjunction? 
 
 What are the principal words in a sentence? 
 
 What are the modifying words, whose duty is to change in one way or another the 
 meaning of the principal words? 
 
 What two kinds of connective words are there and what do they connect? 
 What is a phrase? What two kinds of phrases are there? 
 
 In the following draw a line around every phrase, completely enclosing it, writing 
 "prep." under the prepositions and "n." under the nouns. Then write "n." under all the 
 ether nouns and "v." under the verbs. Next pick out the words that modify the nouns and 
 write "adj." under them. Then find the words that modify the verbs and adjectives and 
 write "adv." under them. Finally write "c." under the conjunctions. Last of all divide 
 each group with a verb in it from the next group and rewrite the whole correctly, with a 
 capital letter at the beginning of every sentence and a period at the end. 
 
 Tom laughed the other half of the day he was then tossing pennies with 
 the other boys sometimes he was playing leap- frog over the posts or the backs 
 of other boys he liked to throw stones under the feet of horses and under 
 wagons it seemed to him excellent fun he could hide behind a wall he did n't 
 mind being hungry, even very, very hungry he did n't mind being beaten very, 
 very hard all boys get beaten that is what he thought his old donkey got 
 beaten by the hail but the donkey stood it Tom stood it too. 
 
 What is the difference between "its and "it's"? Write a sentence in which each is 
 used correctly. 
 
 What is the full form of "did n't"? Of "won't?" Of "can't"? What does the apos- 
 trophe denote? 
 
 Among the following nouns, which are the names of single persons, places, or things? 
 Rewrite, using capitals for those that need them : Washington, d. c., mr. and mrs., henry 
 burton, sending, joyf ulness, south, fly, baseball, bat, garments, jackets, the youth's com- 
 panion, the u. s. government. 
 
Grammar, pp. 22-24. Lesson II. 
 
 Adjectives. Then there are words which are usually placed before nouns to describe 
 them. When we say, "A large pleasant meadow," a, large, and pleasant, are descriptive of 
 the noun meadow. They are called adjectives. When we say, "The boy is good," good 
 is an adjective also, though placed after the verb, because it expresses a quality of the noun 
 boy. First, last, white, blue, fair, sweet, kind, lovely, hard, bitter, sour, etc., are all words 
 used to describe nouns, that is, adjectives, though under some circumstances they may also 
 be other parts of speech. 
 
 Adverbs. When we say, "The sun shines brightly," "The man strikes hard," "I am 
 heartily pleased to see you," etc., brightly modifies shines, hard modifies strikes, heartily 
 modifies pleased, telling how the sun shines, how the man strikes, how much I am pleased 
 to see you. These words are called adverbs. When we say, "I am here," "Do you love 
 me now?" "Speak thus," the words here, now and thus, expressing place, time, and manner 
 are also adverbs. Again when we say, "He speaks very plainly," "He draws extremely 
 badly," not only plainly and badly are adverbs modifying verbs, but very and extremely 
 are also adverbs, though they modify other adverbs. We also say, "He is a very good boy," 
 "The day is tediously long," "The rose has an exquisitely sweet odor," in which very, 
 tediously,, and exquisitely are adverbs modifying adjectives. 
 
 Adverbs are words which modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. 
 
 (NoxE. There are many words placed in the predicate near the verb which are not 
 adverbs. We shall find later that these may be "predicate adjectives," "predicate nouns," 
 and nouns which are objects of verbs.) 
 
 Prepositions. There are also various small words which introduce nouns. Thus 
 we have such phrases as "from the gate," "above the water," "into the sea," "by means of 
 love," etc. The words from, above, into, by, of, used to introduce the nouns which follow 
 them and connect them to other nouns and to verbs, etc., are called prepositions. A preposi- 
 tion with its noun is called a phrase. A phrase that modifies a noun just as an adjective does, 
 is called an adjective phrase, and a phrase that modifies a verb just like an adverb, is called 
 an adverbial phrase. 
 
 A prepositional phrase (there are other kinds of phrases) may have any or all the 
 relationships which an adjective or an adverb may have. 
 
 Such phrases as "to go," "to be," "to kill," etc., in which a verb follows the preposi- 
 tion to, are called the "infinitive mode of the verb." The to is often omitted or implied. 
 
 Conjunctions. A word that joins together two words or phrases of the same kind, 
 or joins one sentence to another sentence, is called a conjunction. Thus in the sentence, 
 "The boy and the man came here together, but went away separately," and is a conjunction 
 joining boy and man, and but joins the two verbs came and went. When we say, "He will 
 do it if I will let him," if is a conjunction joining the subordinate sentence "I will let him" 
 to the main sentence "He will do it." In the complete sentence, "Where I go, there ye shall 
 be also," where is a conjunction joining the subordinate sentence "I go" to the main sentence 
 "there ye shall be also." In this case where is also an adverb of place. We may call it 
 either an "adverbial conjunction" or a "relative adverb." In this book we follow the com- 
 mon usage and speak of it as a "relative adverb" rather than as a conjunction. While, when, 
 etc., are also used in the same way, and so are the relative pronouns who, which, that, e!c. 
 
LESSON II (Continued). The Correct Salutation and Complimentary Close. 
 
 It is very important that in every letter the salutation and the complimentary close 
 should be so selected as to indicate the correct tone in view of the personal relationship 
 between the writer of a letter and the person addressed. 
 
 Refer to "Dictionary of Errors," especially pages 34 and 40, and "How to Do Business 
 by Letter," pages 11, 12, 15, and 16, and page 148 et seq., Chapter XXII. 
 
 Choose the right salutation and complimentary close for the following letters : 
 
 1. A letter to a business firm on business. 
 
 2. A letter to the manager of a business firm on business. 
 
 3. A letter to the manager of a business firm on business when you are well acquainted 
 with the man. 
 
 4. A letter from a business firm to a strange lady on business. 
 
 5. A letter from a business firm to an old customer. 
 
 6. A letter from the principal of a business college to an unknown lady who wishes 
 to take a course of study. 
 
 7. A letter from the principal of a school to a girl pupil who has just entered; to a 
 girl pupil who has recently graduated. 
 
 8. A letter to the pastor of a church to which one belongs. 
 
 9. A letter to the member of Congress from your district whom you have never met. 
 
 10. A letter to the president of the United States. 
 
 11. A letter to your brother. 
 
 12. A letter to your mother. 
 
 13. A letter to your sister or brother. 
 
 14. A letter to a cousin of the opposite sex whom you have met a few times. 
 
 15. A letter on a business matter to a schoolmate of the opposite sex to whom you 
 have never spoken. 
 
 16. A letter to the principal of your school. 
 
 17. A letter to this same principal after you have graduated and are in business. 
 
 18. A letter to a married lady for whose good opinion you care a great deal. 
 
 19. A letter to a prominent man whom you have met a few times. 
 
 20. A letter to a servant just coming into your family. 
 
A Social letter 
 
 J'The Squirrel a, " 
 
 Bentham Harbor, Mich*, 
 
 Nov. 6, 1919. 
 Dear Cousin Alma, 
 
 Father and Mother and I have just got home after a 
 pretty restless night on the cars for all except me. 
 They say I slept like a log and actually snored. 
 
 Though I have three strapping brothers, I have 
 never had a sister;, and it was altogether a new exper-* 
 ience for me to be entertained ."by a young lady who 
 seemed to think she was under the obligation of rela- 
 tionship to be very attentive.' I am not used to being 
 escorted around tov?n and introduced to all the charming 
 young ladies in a large circle of feminine acquaintances; 
 but I assure you I shall remember the past week all my 
 life as one of the most delightful .of my existence. 
 
 I have developed my three roBs of film, and at 
 least half the exposures came out in fine shape. I 
 shall have the prints made at Field's and send you one 
 of each of the good ones. Your portrait could n't be 
 beaten. 
 
 On the, train I had time to get started on the book 
 you gave me. It puzzles me to know how a pretty girl, 
 as popular socially as you are, should happen to be 
 interested in philosophy of all things. Our principal 
 got me started on it, and I would rather read a heavy 
 philosophic work than a magazine story any day. Maga- 
 zine stories seem to me stupid in comparison; but I 
 always thought magazine stories were written for girls 
 like you, and all girls liked them. To find a girl 
 who likes philosophy as much as I do seems a really 
 wonderful discovery. 
 
 ^ I have two lessons to learn for to-morrow 
 and it is half past. eight. Please write me as often 
 as you can, and let us get as thoroughly acquainted by 
 correspondence as cousins should be. 
 
 Sincerely yours, 
 
 Miss Alma Redfield, 
 
 1920 R St., Lincoln, Hebr. 
 
 (Lesson II, page 4) 
 
Extra lesson and review : Write out Exercise I, Grammar, page 25. 
 
 LESSON III. The Sentence. 
 
 See Grammar, pages 25-27. 
 What is a sentence? 
 
 What is the subject of a sentence? 
 What is the predicate of a sentence? 
 
 What is the difference between a simple subject or predicate and a complete subject 01 
 predicate? 
 
 What is the difference between a compound and a complex sentence? 
 
 What is a simple sentence? 
 
 What are the principal subject and predicate? 
 
 Note. A subordinate sentence with its subject and predicate introduced by a subordin- 
 ate conjunction will hereafter be called a clause. This gives us three different groups of 
 words, complete sentences, phrases, and clauses. 
 
 In the following, notice that every sentence group begins with a capital and ends with 
 a period, and that clauses begin with conjunctive words and are often set off by commas. 
 Phrases always begin with prepositions but are usually not set off by commas because they 
 are so short. Draw a single line under all clauses and a double line under all phrases. 
 Then write the proper abbreviation under each word showing what part of speech it is and 
 be prepared to give your reason for your marking : 
 
 Once upon a time there was a little chimney-sweep, and his name was Tom. 
 That is a short name, and you have heard it before, so you will not have 
 much trouble in remembering it. He lived in a great town in the North 
 
 country, where there were plenty of chimneys to sweep, and plenty of money 
 for Tom to earn and his master to spend. He could not read or write, and 
 did not care to do either ; and he never washed himself, for there was no 
 water up the court where he lived. He had never been taught to say his 
 prayers. He never had heard of God, or of Christ, except in words which you 
 have never heard, and which it would have been well if he had never heard. 
 He cried half his time and laughed the other half. 
 
 Note. Compare this with preceding exercises and notice what a difference it makes to 
 have clauses. In the preceding lessons there were no clauses. 
 
Grammar, pp. 25-27. . Lesson III. 
 
 THE SENTENCE. 
 
 A sentence is a collection of words so chosen and arranged as completely to express 
 a thought. Nouns may express ideas, but they do not represent a thought. The expression of 
 a thought absolutely requires a verb united to a noun (or pronoun). The noun constitutes the 
 simple subject, and the verb the simple predicate of the sentence. Any collection of words 
 which does not contain both a subject and a predicate, expressed or implied, does not consti- 
 tute a sentence or represent a thought. (Fragmentary phrases, if any special thought is 
 attached to them, must be supposed to imply the lacking members.) The simple subject and 
 the simple predicate may have modifiers, and together with these modifiers they constitute 
 the complete subject and the complete predicate. 
 
 The following example will illustrate the fundamental and necessary division of every 
 sentence into subject and predicate: 
 
 The Subject The Predicate 
 
 (noun) (verb) 
 
 The country church is a square old building of wood. 
 
 It stands upon a hill with a little churchyard in 
 
 its rear where 
 
 one or two sickly trees keep watch and ward over the vagrant sheep 
 
 that graze among the 
 
 graves. 
 
 Bramble bushes seem to thrive on the bodies below, 
 
 and 
 
 there is 
 no Hower in the yard, 
 
 save a few golden-rods 
 
 ivhich flaunt their gaudy, inodorous color under the 
 
 lee of the northern wall. 
 
 Our first observation upon this is that each complete sentence seems to contain more 
 than one subject and predicate. For instance, in the second sentence we have three sub- 
 jects and three predicates, and also three in the next and last. We also observe, however, 
 that each subject has its own definite predicate, and that the succeeding sets of subjects and 
 predicates are connected with each other by conjunctions. 
 
 When the subjects and predicates are of equal importance, and are connected by con- 
 junctions capable of connecting equals, we have a compound sentence; when one subject 
 and predicate is subordinate to another, and is connected to it by a conjunction used to 
 show subordinate relationship, we have a complex sentence. 
 
 In every sentence we must have a principal subject and a principal predicate to which 
 all other words must be related. 
 
LESSON III (Continued). How to Know a Sentence. 
 
 One of the most difficult things to learn is How to Know a Sentence so you can punc- 
 tuate it correctly. Most pupils in school and many fairly well educated persons in business, 
 while they know that a sentence must begin with a capital letter and end with a period, 
 exclamation point, or mark of interrogation, are unable to see the difference between the 
 parts of one sentence and the parts of the next one to it. 
 
 The trouble is that the meaning of one sentence is often very closely linked with the 
 meaning of another, and it seems as if words, phrases, and clauses so closely united in 
 meaning ought to be punctuated together. 
 
 While we may group together by commas words that seem closely united in meaning, 
 and commas are largely for the purpose of grouping words, the sentence is on a strictly 
 grammatical basis. There is just one way to know it when you come to it. It must have 
 a noun or pronoun as subject and a verb as predicate. If it hasn't these in clear form, 
 it can't be a sentence but must be only a phrase or group of words belonging to some 
 other sentence. 
 
 If there is at least one subject and one verb which is a full and regular verb, you 
 know that you have at least one good sentence. But you may have two or more, and it is 
 just as bad to run two sentences together as to punctuate a phrase or clause as a sentence. 
 
 One sentence can have just one subject and one full verb unless other subjects and 
 verbs are linked to thes'e by co-ordinate conjunctions like and, or, or but, or there are 
 subordinate clauses or sentences introduced by subordinating conjunctions or relative words 
 of some kind like if, when, who, or the like. Just the moment you run upon a second 
 subject or a second predicate not accounted for by a conjunction which you can see and 
 recognize, you have a second sentence mixed in with the first and you need to separate 
 the two by a period or semicolon. You want to remember also that then is NOT a relative 
 word like when, and is not a proper word to introduce a subordinate clause. In other 
 cases the relative word that is implied so clearly that it may be regarded as actually in 
 the sentence and fully able to govern a subordinate subject and predicate, as in "I know 
 very well you have prepared your lesson." 
 
 The following is a letter written by a young lady traveling abroad and published in 
 her home paper. It contains many crudities of expression, and especially a number of 
 examples of sentences run together with only a comma between. She was misled by the 
 close logical connection between the sentences, and was ignorant that there was no gram- 
 matical connection which would justify running them together. 
 
 Find the errors of punctuation and correct them. They are not marked. Other 
 crudities are marked by reference numbers. 
 
 A SENTIMENTAL JOURNEY. 
 
 The next day we saw London bridge, it is a broad bridge or street, and is certainly not 
 falling down. I think if it was (1) in any danger (2) to fall it would have fallen when 
 such a crowd of Americans went over in all their glory. Not far up the river from the 
 London bridge is the Tower bridge. This is very much like the other except (3) it has 
 towers at each end. These are large indeed and connected by a passage way (4) overhead. 
 Next, I think we saw St. Paul's Cathedral, the largest Protestant church in the world, 
 it is not completed yet. The decorations were of gold and very artistic. Our guide was at 
 one time a member of the choir here. There were two chapels, an old and a new one. 
 There are 1,500 churches in London and 570 newspapers, its area is 122 square miles. You 
 know this is the largest, greatest, and richest city of modern times. It is impossible to 
 tell of its wonders, sights, and attractions, in its shops are goods of the whole world (5) 
 because commerce from the four quarters of the globe comes to its docks. 
 
 (OVER) 
 
We saw (6) Tower of London. Every one knows the history of this place. Here 
 has (7) been kept some of the greatest kings and nobles. The dungeons are still open to 
 visitors. In the Tower we saw the Crown jewels that were used in the recent Corona- 
 tion (8). The Armory (9) was very interesting. There we saw the (11) breast plates, (10) 
 helmets, shields, spurs, etc., that dated as far back as the Norman Conquest. During the 
 Thirteenth century the Chain Mail (12) was used. The armor is all displayed on horses 
 and figures of wood. Some represented Charles I, Edward I., Richard I., and all the early 
 crusaders (13). Out in the courtyard was a smooth stone where it is said Katherine 
 Howard, Lady Jane Grey, and others in English history met their death by the ax. We 
 also saw the Beauchamp tower. All this brings back what we studied in English and 
 French history. 
 
 Examples of two sentences run together with only a comma between have not been 
 marked. Students are asked to find these. 
 
 1. This is a supposed case, contrary to fact, and requires the subjunctive mode "if it 
 were" instead of "if it was." 2. "Danger" requires "of falling" in place of "to fall" after 
 it. 3. "Except" alone is a preposition. The conjunction here should be "except that." 
 4. "Passageway" should not be written as two words. 5. A comma is required here, 
 because the explanatory clause beginning with "because" is added merely as additional 
 information. 6. Insert the word "the" before "Tower." Be sure that all the little words 
 required for a smoothly flowing sentence are included. 7. The subject of this verb follows 
 as the plural pronoun "some," and of course the verb should be "have," not "has." "Tower" 
 is capitalized because it is used as the name of a special building, and perhaps the writer is 
 justified in capitalizing "Crown," but "coronation" is very plainly a simple common noun 
 and should not be capitalized. 9. "Armory" should not be capitalized. 10. "Breastplates" 
 is one word. 11. When the reader reaches this point he begins to wonder why "the" was 
 used before "breastplates," as if to designate some particular breastplates. The sentence 
 seems to indicate that all the breastplates in the world that dated back as far as the Norman 
 conquest were there instead of "some breastplates" or simpry "breastplates." Omit "the." 
 12. There is no reason for capitalizing "chain mail." 13. "And all the early crusaders" 
 implies that those mentioned by name were crusaders, but this is not true. It is important 
 to look sharply out to see what the word "all" implies. 
 
 Rewrite this letter in correct form. 
 
 (Lesson III, page 4) 
 
Extra lesson and review: Write out Exercise II, Grammar/ page 31. 
 
 LESSON IV. Relationship of Words in a Sentence. 
 
 See Grammar, pages 27-31. 
 
 What is the law governing the expression of meaning in words? 
 
 What is the law governing the relationship of every word in a sentence? 
 What is an interjection? What relationship does it have in a sentence? 
 In analysing a sentence, what is the first thing to look for? 
 
 Diagram the following sentences, using the space below : 
 
 It was surrounded on all sides by steep and rocky mountains. 
 
 Things went on in this manner for a long time. 
 
 They had hardly got the hay in when the haystacks were floated down to the sea. 
 
 They got what tfiey liked from all except the poor people, who could only beg. 
 
 He put his head out to see to whom the coat belonged. 
 
 The boy who studies grammar must learn to analyse. 
 
 When I looked up I was satisfied. 
 
 There was no bread in the house. 
 
Grammar, pp. 27-31. Lesson IV. 
 
 In analyzing any sentence, our first task should be to find the principal subject and the 
 principal predicate, and then trace out the chain of relationships of every other word to these. 
 It is not difficult to make a picture, or diagram*, of these relationships, which will present the 
 whole matter to the eye at a glance. We begin by drawing a straight line and dividing it 
 distinctly in the middle, and then placing the subject noun or pronoun on the left and the 
 predicate verb on the right, thus : 
 
 Boys || Tun 
 
 If we have any adjectives or adverbs, we may place them on splanting lines attached 
 to the lines on which stand the words they modify, thus (Fig. 2) . 
 
 We II lived 
 
 boy 
 
 I 
 
 runs 
 
 Fier. 2. Fig-. 3? 
 
 In this sentence a and healthy are adjectives modifying boy, the first very is an adverb 
 modifying the adjective healthy, swiftly, is an adverb modifying runs, and the second very an 
 adverb modifying swiftly. 
 
 Phrases introduced by prepositions may be treated as in Fig. 3. 
 
 Subordinate sentences introduced by relative adverbs (or adverbial conjunctions) may 
 be diagramed as in Fig. 4. 
 
 But subordinate sentences introduced by relative pronouns which have a necessary 
 office in the subordinate sentence must be connected to the main sentence by a blank or dotted 
 line, as in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6, 
 
 We (j care 
 
 It 
 
 || does 
 
 matter 
 
 He || must pay 
 
 we 
 
 go 
 
 \ who 
 
 buys 
 
 Fig-. 4. Fig. 6 and Fig. 5. 
 
 There are many other relationships besides those we have pictured; but these will il- 
 lustrate the two most important laws in grammar, namely: 
 
 Law I. No collection of words expresses thought, and no sentence exists, unless a 
 noun or pronoun (expressed or implied) unites with a verb (expressed or implied) to form a 
 subject and a predicate. 
 
 Law II. Every word in a sentence must have a clear relationship, directly or 
 through other words, to the principal simple subject or the principal simple predicate, that is, 
 to the main noun or pronoun, or to the main verb. 
 
 The only apparent exception to the last statement is the interjection, which is a 
 word that is as nearly independent as a word can be. Close logical analysis, however, will 
 show, either that the interjection is in some way related to an adjoining sentence without 
 which it would be devoid of meaning or significance ; or it is a condensed sentence in itself, 
 distinctly implying a subject or a predicate or both. For instance, if we go about shouting 
 "Fire! Fire^! Fire!" we are simply condensing into a word some such full sentence as "There 
 is a fire," "Come and see the fire," or "Come and put out the fire." Implied words are 
 frequent and must always be supplied if we would understand grammatical relationships. 
 
 * The diagram is liable to abuse, just as parsing is, but it helps us to comprehend that 
 every word has a fixed relationship in the sentence. For a full exposition of the diagram see 
 Reed and Kellogg's "Higher Lessons in English." 
 
LESSON IV (Continued). How to Criticise a Letter. 
 
 In the world of life and business you must correct your own work, and I propose to 
 teach you how to correct your work yourself. In business you must be 100 per cent correct 
 most of the time. An average of 90 per cent will never pass in any business office. 
 
 Success in self-criticism depends on having a regular system so that you know just 
 what you need to look for, you look for that particular thing, and then you make yourself 
 sure whether you have it or not, and have it right. You can criticise your own work or 
 the work of other pupils just as well as the teacher can in many cases if you will follow 
 rigidly the system I am about to give you. I do not mean, however, that you should not 
 deviate from my system. My system is but an illustration, a beginning, and you must 
 extend and perfect this system according to the special needs you find in actual work. 
 Actual work in real life always has problems of its own which you must solve, and then 
 you must conform to your own solution. When you have your system right you must 
 conform to it rigidly, however, admitting nothing less than 100 per cent of correctness. 
 
 THE FORM OF YOUR LETTER. 
 
 Examine your letter carefully and answer for yourself the following questions, deduct- 
 ing 5 per cent for any deviation : 
 
 Have you written the heading of this letter in two lines (or one line, as the case may 
 be)? Does it begin to the left of the center of the page? (Measure with your ruler if 
 you are in doubt.) 
 
 Is there a comma after the town, a period and a comma after an abbreviated state, no 
 comma after the month (what abbreviation?) but a Comma after the day of the month, 
 and a period after the year (written in full?)? 
 
 Have you a margin of at least three quarters of an inch on the left and one quarter 
 of an inch beyond the longest line on the right? (Measure with your ruler.) 
 
 Does the name and address of the person you are writing to appear at least an inch 
 below the date line and two inches below the top of the paper? (Make the sinking cor- 
 respond to the actual requirements of the given letter for a good appearance on the page.) 
 Have you "Mr." before the name and no other title after it? Is it followed by a comma? 
 Have you the correct address following the name, indented at least three quarters of an 
 inch more than the name, which should be flush with the margin, and with a period after 
 the address even if the state or country is not abbreviated? 
 
 Have you the correct salutation (Dear Sir, Dear Madam), starting flush with the 
 margin, and followed by a colon only? 
 
 Does the body of the letter begin on the line below the salutation as a paragraph, 
 indented three quarters of an inch from the margin? Are all the other paragraphs 
 uniformly indented three quarters of an inch, and not over an inch? 
 
 Does the complimentary close start a little to the left of the middle of the page, begin 
 with a capital letter, have no other capital in it, and end with a period? Is the signature 
 placed below, a little to the right of the middle of the page, and followed by a period? 
 
 (Any particular letter may have other special questions which the pupils should answer 
 for themselves, deducting 5 per cent for every failure to get the right arrangement.) 
 
 WHAT YOU SAY IN YOUR LETTER. 
 
 The first thing to see in any business letter is whether it gives all the business facts 
 required, and gives them fully and correctly. If you are answering another letter, first stop 
 to set down a list of the different things you must say -to make the answer to that letter 
 fully satisfactory to the person who is to receive it. Don't make this list of facts in general 
 terms, but mike a list of the real answers, and think carefully whether you have covered 
 every point without missing even the smallest. For example, suppose one of your mates 
 writes to ask you to make an appointment to meet him down town and go to buy a present 
 
for the teacher. In answering such a letter you must be sure to cover each of the following 
 points clearly and exactly: 1. Say definitely whether you will go or won't go. Many 
 people forget to make a specific answer to the most important point of all. 2. Say just 
 when the rendezvous shall take place the day of the week, the day of the month, the hour, 
 and whether a. m. or p. m. 3. Say just where it shall take place, at what store, at what 
 door of that store, on what street, near what other street. Unless you make a list of 
 these business facts required in a complete and really effective business letter, you are 
 certain to miss some of them. Let the teacher, assisted by the class, write on the board 
 the facts to be covered in each letter, as Business Fact No. 1, Business Fact No. 2, etc., and 
 then let each pupil examine his work to make sure he has really and fully covered each 
 one of those facts. 
 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 First, look through your letters and write a small s under each simple subject and a 
 small p under each simple predicate or verb. This includes the subjects and predicates of 
 subordinate clauses as well as principal clauses. Now do you find any group of words not 
 directly connected to a subject or predicate? If so, take off 10 per cent for that error, and 
 try to find out how to connect that group of words in its proper place in a sentence. 
 
 Next place a small circle around the .s and the p of principal clauses, and be sure that 
 none of those clauses is introduced by any relative word such as who, what, when, if, or 
 the like. Where no circle appears you should find a subordinate clause, and that must 
 be introduced by some relative word: find and underscore the relative word. The two 
 parts of a compound sentence must be connected by a co-ordinate conjunction such as 
 and, but, or or: place a small check under each co-ordinate conjunction. 
 
 Now consider what groups of words begin with a capital letter and end with a period, 
 exclamation point, or question mark; between the capital letter and the period or other 
 mark do you find more than one subject and predicate? If so, is the second one justified 
 by a co-ordinate conjunction? Or is the second subject and predicate in a subordinate clause 
 and justified by a relative word of some kind? If you find a capital letter followed by a 
 period and no subject and predicate between, you have no sentence, and should take off 
 10 per cent for the error. If you find more than one subject and predicate between the 
 capital and the period, not justified by some conjunction clearly marked, you have run two 
 sentences together without proper separation, and should take off 10 per cent for the error. 
 If you think the conjunction in any situation is clearly implied, ask the teacher about it. 
 Are there any questions not followed by interrogation points? 
 
 Next consider the commas. Do you find any words or phrases thrown into the sentence 
 by way of explanation? Are they set off by commas? 
 
 Read over to yourself any sentences in which you find relative clauses: are these 
 clauses likely to get mixed up with the principal clause if not set off by a comma or commas? 
 What punctuation marks have you before and, but, or or? Do you need commas because 
 the subject of the second clause is different from the subject of the first clause? 
 
 Next consider if you have commas you do not need ; read over each sentence containing 
 a comma and see if there would be any confusion should the comma be omitted. If you 
 can understand the meaning just as well without the comma, and do not know any good 
 reason why the comma should be there, omit it. Deduct 5 per cent for each comma that 
 has. been omitted and 5 per cent for each unnecessary comma inserted. The elimination 
 of superfluous commas is just as important as the insertion of any that may be missing. 
 
 Note. The preceeding program may be torn out of this book and pinned into "Exer- 
 cises in Business Letter Writing" that pupils may examine their letters before they bring 
 them to the class to be sure they are correct on all these points ; and then in the class they 
 will re-examine the letters to be sure they have overlooked nothing. Full information on 
 the points raised will be found in "How to Do Business by Letter." Or the system may 
 be used in connection with any method of practice letter writing. 
 
 (Lesson IV, page 4) 
 
LESSON V. Case. 
 
 See Grammar, pages 31-33. 
 What is an abstract noun? 
 
 What verbal forms are used as nouns? 
 
 What place do nouns fill in a sentence besides that of subject of a verb? 
 
 What two parts of speech take nouns as objects? 
 
 Do all verbs have objects? 
 
 Do all prepositions have objects? Name any which do not? 
 
 In what case are subject nouns? 
 
 In what case are object nouns? 
 
 Is there any difference between a noun in the nominative case and one in the objective 
 case? What difference in pronouns? 
 
 Are all verbs followed by the objective case? What are not? 
 
 Write below the objective form of the following pronouns: we, they, he, us, she, I, who, 
 her. 
 
 Make a list below of the verbs that are commonly followed by the nominative case? 
 
 Write out the following sentences with the correct pronoun : 
 To (who whom) did you refer? 
 
 The power of prophecy is given only to (he him) (who whom) can preach the good 
 
 news. 
 
 He said he would give it to (her she) (who whom) picked the most peas. 
 
 It is only fair to give it to you and (I me). 
 
 Between Jack and John and Henry and (I me), we got a good day's work done. 
 
 It seems to be (he him) who will be chosen. 
 
 The speech will be made by (he him) who is chosen. 
 
 (Whom who) do you choose? 
 
 (Who whom) do you think it is? 
 
 Let you and (me I) go to the postoffice. 
 
 (Whom who) will the paper be read by? 
 
Grammar, pp. 31-33. Lesson V, 
 
 Nouns, we have learned, are the names of things. An idea, a thought, an act may 
 also have a name, which is a noun (called abstract). Several forms of the verb and verbal 
 phrases are also used as nouns, as in "Doing is better than waiting," "To be cautious is a 
 necessity in speculation," and "Growing old should not make a man sour." 
 
 We have seen nouns as subjects of verbs, the starting-points of sentences. They may 
 also be objects of verbs or prepositions. A preposition must have a noun as object, since the 
 sole office of prepositions is to introduce nouns, or pronouns. Unless a word has such an 
 object, it is not a preposition. Active verbs also take a noun as object when they are of such 
 a nature that they express action which passes over- to an object. Thus when we say "He 
 killed a man," the word man is an object noun, since the action of the subject as expressed 
 in the verb passes over and takes effect on the object man. 
 
 Subject nouns are said to be in the subjective or nominative case, and object nouns 
 are said to be in the objective case. 
 
 Not all nouns that follow verbs are in the objective case. All nouns following the 
 verb to be or its parts (am, is, are, was, were, would be, have been, might be} are in the 
 subjective or nominative case, and are called predicate nominatives, because the verb to be 
 merely asserts that the subject is the same as the noun in the predicate. Thus in "John is 
 a man," man is precisely the same as the subject and the verb is merely asserts this 
 sameness. So also in the sentence "John will become a man," man and John are equivalent, 
 or are in the process of becoming so. There is no action which passes over to an object. Of 
 course in the sentence, "He killed himself," he and himself are the same, but in this 
 case the man is the object of his own act. 
 
 Nouns in English have the same form, whether they are in the nominative or in 
 the objective case. But pronouns, the words which stand for nouns and are used so very 
 frequently, have in many cases different forms for the nominative and objective cases, as 
 follows : 
 
 Nominative Objective 
 
 I me 
 
 we us 
 
 he him 
 
 she her 
 
 they them 
 
 who whom 
 
 Therefore we should always say "It is I," not "It is me," "It is he, she, they, or we," 
 not "It is him, her, them, or us," as we often hear people say. Also, remembering that 
 the object of a preposition is always in the objective case, we will say "between you and me," 
 not "between you and I," "It can be done by you and me," not "It can be done by you and 
 I." We would not say "between I and the fence-post," nor "It is being done by I and 
 somebody else." These sound absurd. It is quite as absurd to say "between you or 
 the fence-post and I." 
 
 The verbs followed by the nominative case are very few, but they are so common 
 that they occur as often, probably, as all other verbs put together. They are chiefly to 
 be (is, am, was, were, would be, have been, etc.), to become, to appear, and to seem. 
 There is no action expressed by these verbs, only a state or condition of existence. 
 
LESSON V (Continued). How to Criticise the Language of Letters. 
 
 When the Form of the letter, the Facts to be stated, and the Punctuation have been 
 considered, the three great essentials of correctness have been properly covered. There 
 remains, however, the difficult matter of finding the Best Possible Wording. 
 
 You have been studying the use of words to express your meaning since you were a 
 baby, and you have endless practice every day in expressing your meaning when you talk 
 to those about you. If you can express yourself as well in writing as you do in talking, 
 and know that you are doing that, you are all right as far as writing is concerned. Then 
 you will wish to see if you cannot learn to talk better. As you improve in talking you will 
 bring your writing up to your talking once more. Perhaps if you read a great deal you 
 will learn to write better than you talk. 
 
 A letter is a talk on paper to some person about some special things he is interested in. 
 
 TEST YOUR LETTER BY TALKING IT ALOUD. 
 
 When you have finished writing a letter, find out for yourself what sort of talk it is 
 by imagining that you can see your customer or the person to whom you are writing sitting 
 at your side, and read your letter as if you were talking it to him face to face. You will 
 soon find out whether you are talking nonsense or not, whether what you say sounds to 
 your ears like good talk. NEVER USE ANY WORD OR PHRASE IN A LETTER 
 THAT WOULD NOT SOUND NATURAL IF YOU WERE TALKING. 
 
 Then ask these three questions: 
 
 Do you find in your letter any word or words repeated several times, so they jar on 
 the ear when the letter is read aloud? Read the letter aloud in a natural tone so as to 
 catch these jarring words. 
 
 Do you find phrases or groups of words which seem awkward when the letter is read 
 aloud ? 
 
 Have you used any word or expression of which you could not explain the meaning 
 easily? 
 
 Then examine your letter word by word to see whether you FEEL SURE IN YOUR 
 HEART THAT IT IS EXACTLY RIGHT. If you are in doubt on any point, don't 
 hesitate to ask the teacher, and keep on asking till you really understand the point. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIVE CRITICISM OF AN ACTUAL LETTER. 
 Dear Sir: 
 
 I will (1) be pleased to meet your father at my office at any time (2) except Saturday, 
 
 and the hours between two and four o'clock is (3) most convenient for me to see him (4). 
 
 Our meeting concerning (5) the matter of your correspondence (6) will surely be 
 
 helpful to you, for I shall try to give the best advise (7) of (8) my knowledge pertaining 
 
 (9) to those questions (10). 
 
 Yours truly, 
 
 1. "I will be pleased" means I am determined to be pleased whether or no. The writer 
 meant simply "I shall be pleased." It is never proper to use "I will'' before "pleased." 
 
 2. It is important to avoid using a phrase either too general or too particular for the 
 occasion. The writer is here speaking of "days," as is indicated by "except Saturday" 
 which follows, and should have said "any day." "Saturday" should be capitalized. 
 
 (OVER) 
 
3. "Hours" is plural, and does not go well with the singular verb "is." Instead of 
 using the plural "hours" when a single period of time is in the mind it would be better to 
 substitute for "hours" the word "time," and then rearrange the sentence so as to make it 
 read, "and between two and four o'clock is the most convenient time for me." This places 
 the emphasis on "between two and four o'clock" where it belongs, and throws the word 
 "time" into an inconspicuous place where it merely serves to supply a grammatical subject 
 for the verb. 
 
 4. "To see him" is clearly superfluous and should be omitted. 
 
 5. "Concerning" is an awkward preposition to use in connection with "meeting." We 
 do not have meetings "concerning" but "to consider" or "to discuss." 
 
 6. The word "correspondence" is not clear in this place. The boy was thinking of 
 studying "correspondence" in a business college, and yet probably here the word refers to 
 the series of letters that has been passing. Instead of a vague term such as "the matter 
 of our correspondence" it would be better to state the exact thing to be discussed, saying 
 "our meeting to consider the best course of study for you to take up." 
 
 7. "Advice" as a noun is spelled with a c and is prononuced with the sound of s; "to 
 advise," the verb, is spelled with an s which is pronounced with the sound of z. It 'might 
 be better to use the verb here and say,"for I shall try to advise you to the best of my 
 ability." 
 
 8. "Of" is clearly not the right preposition to connect "advise" and "knowledge." The 
 preposition must conform to the meaning of the word it introduces as well as the word it 
 follows, and "of" conforms to neither. The expression "advise you to the best of my 
 ability" would cover the entire idea, and "ability" would be a better word than "knowledge" 
 in this connection. 
 
 9. "Pertaining" is a formal word more properly used in legal papers than in simple 
 letter writing, where a very simple, inconspicuous word like "on" would be much better. 
 
 10. "Questions" is another general and vague word where the letter writer ought to 
 say exactly what he means. Are there real "questions" involved? Why not say "on the 
 proper course of study for you to pursue"? A clear, definite, direct statement is always 
 the best. 
 
 Rewrite the letter with the corrections incorporated. 
 
 (Lesson V, page 4) 
 
LESSON VI. Possessives. 
 
 See Grammar, pp. 33-34 the Possessive case. Also section 21, page 35. 
 How is the possessive case formed with singular nouns? 
 
 How is it formed with plural nouns? 
 
 How is it formed with pronouns? 
 
 In what cases does the apostrophe come before the s? 
 
 In what cases does it come after the s? 
 
 Write the possessive case of each of the following: Dickens, church, men, brethren, 
 he, they, beau, beaux, William the Conqueror, sister-in-law, goodness, Charles, Prince of 
 Wales, goose, princess, man-of-war. 
 
 What is the difference in meaning in the following: 
 A story of Dr. Brown A story of Dr. Brown's? 
 
 Charles's and Mary's books Charles and Mary's books? 
 
 The governor's entertainment The entertainment of the governor. 
 
 My father's care The care of my father? 
 
 Note. Observe that when two possess together, one apostrophe and s are required 
 
 (John and Henry's home belongs to both together), but when they possess independently 
 
 each noun must be followed by the possessive sign (John's and Henry's homes two dif- 
 ferent homes). 
 
 Note. Observe that the apostrophe is never required by the possessive case of a pro- 
 noun. 
 
 What is "it's" a short form for? 
 
 What is "won't" a short form for? 
 
 What is the possessive case of he, she, it, they, I, we, who? 
 
 Note. Observe that usually only persons or other living beings possess, and inanimate 
 objects such as towns, rocks, etc., are personified when put in the possessive case, though 
 there are a few idiomatic exceptions such as "a day's work," "art for art's sake," etc. 
 
 Rewrite the following correctly : 
 
 The book's pages are wet. 
 
 The doctor's hours are from nine to four. 
 The school's hours are from nine to one. 
 
Grammar, pp. 33-34. Lesson VI, 
 
 Nouns and pronouns also have a third case,, the possessive, indicated in nouns by the 
 apostrophe and s or the apostrophe alone. The possessive case has precisely the logical rela- 
 tion in a sentence that an adjective has, that is, it is a direct modifier of a noun, and is 
 used in no other way, though often the noun modified is implied. Like a noun, however, it 
 is modified by adjectives, not by adverbs. The case offers no special difficulty. It is usually 
 interchangeable with a prepositional phrase containing of. 
 
 Note. Nouns in the singular regularly form the possessive case by adding an apostro- 
 phe and s, as man's John's, Dickens's. Some writers omit the s when the singular form 
 itself ends with s or an equivalent sound, and write Dickens', conscience', etc. ; but the best 
 usage is always to write the s after the apostrophe even if it cannot be pronounced. Plural 
 nouns ending in s take merely the apostrophe to indicate the possessive case, as cows', hens', 
 etc. If, however, the plural form does not end in s, the apostrophe must be followed by 
 s, as in men's, children's, ete. Pronouns never take an apostrophe to indicate the possessive 
 case. We write its, his, etc. It's is a contraction for it is and must not be confused with 
 the possessive case of it. 
 
LESSON VI (Continued). Practice in Criticism. 
 
 If you have now learned something about how to criticise a letter you can put your 
 knowledge to a practical test by criticising the following actual letters, just as was done 
 with the letter in the last lesson. On each point for criticism you will find a little hint such 
 as your teacher might give you in helping you to criticise your own letters. 
 
 Write out your criticism on each point as fully and carefully as you can, and then 
 copy each letter on a page by itself, supplying a suitable heading, address, and signature. 
 As these letters are written in a series, be sure the dates are set at natural and reasonable 
 intervals. Test the form of your letter by the list of questions on form given in a previous 
 lesson. Notice that the first of these letters is supposed to be a reply to the letter criticised 
 in the last lesson. 
 
 Dear Sir: A ' 
 
 My father went to call on you in Philadelphia (1) but found that you had been called 
 unexpectedly from the city. Your absence, however, could not be avoided (2), so whenever 
 you can find any (3) time convenient for another meeting with (4) father, he shall (5) 
 then be pleased to call on you. Very tmly yours> 
 
 Dear Sir (6) 
 
 I regret very much that I was not at home when your father called. (7) Was suddenly 
 called from the city on a (8) very important business, which could not be postponed. I 
 shall be pleased to meet your father at any future time that he may want (9) to see me. 
 
 I feel very sorry that I was not at home, and wish you would convey (10) my apology 
 to (11) father for my absence. 
 
 Yours truly, 
 
 Dear Sir: 
 
 In answer to your note of the 16th, I wish to inform you that father desires to renew 
 (12) his call on you at your office in Philadelphia. The time most convenient for him to 
 call is day after to-morrow, at two o'clock. I wish to extend (13) my thanks for your 
 courtesy, and hope this appointment will be suitable (14) to you. 
 
 Very truly yours, 
 
 Dear Sir: 
 
 I have just received your note of appointment (15) and wish to say that the day and 
 hour is (16) convenient to (17) me. I shall then (18) be sure to be in the (19) office at 
 the time mentioned. 
 
 Yours truly, 
 
 F 
 Dear Sir: 
 
 We received the book on card systems ordered of (20) you ten days ago. It is not just 
 what we want, so we have returned it, with bill (21), under separate cover. 
 
 Very truly yours, 
 
 Gentlemen : 
 
 Inclose (22) you will find one dollar (23) for which send the General Retailer for the 
 following year. 
 
 TT 
 
 Gentlemen : 
 
 Inclose (24) find check for one dollar (25) for which send (26) Bookkeeper and 
 Stenographer to this house for one year. 
 in d. (27). Yours Truly (28), 
 
 (OVER) 
 
I. 
 
 SENTENCES. 
 
 I took (29) a course of double-entry bookkeeping in one of the best business colleges 
 in the state. I am familiar with purchase and general (30) ledgers. I (31) refer you to 
 Mr. James Brown, Pineridge, Cal., or Heald's College, Fresno, Cal. 
 
 I should expect fifteen dollars (32) a week at beginning. 
 
 I am good at figures and accurate (33). 
 
 I can refer you to several (34) where I have held positions of confidence (35), and as 
 to (36) my irreproachable (37) character. 
 
 A. 
 
 1. Is the punctuation all right? Observe that "call" is used in two senses. 2. Why 
 should you tell him his absence could not be avoided? 3. What is the difference in meaning 
 between "any time" and "a time"? 4. Whose father? You are not the only person in the 
 world who has a father. 5. What is the matter with this verb? 
 
 B. 
 
 6. What is the preferred punctuation after a salutation? If this punctuation is right, 
 why may not the same person use a colon or a comma and dash as he happens to feel like 
 it? 7. In saying this in conversation would you omit the subject of the verb? 8. Does 
 "a" go well with "business" in this connection? 9. Do you think the principal of your 
 school would have been likely to write "want" in this letter? What is meant by the "tone 
 of a word"? 10. Spelling? 11. Whose father? Surely not the principal's father? 
 
 C. 
 
 12. Do we "renew" calls? What things are "renewed"? 13. Is "extend" the word 
 you would use in such a connection as this? 14. Are "appointments" "suitable"? What 
 are they? What things are "suitable"? 
 
 D. 
 
 15. Which would you prefer, "note of appointment" or "letter making an appointment 
 to meet your father"? Is the punctuation all right at this point? 16. What is the subject 
 of "is"? 17. What is the best preposition with which to follow "convenient"? 18. Do 
 you think "then" is definite enough here? Could the word have any other meaning in 
 such a position than "at that time"? 19. Whose office? 
 
 F. 
 
 20. What other preposition might be preferred? 21. We send books "with bill;" but 
 why return them "with bill"? 
 
 G. 
 
 22. What form of the verb should this be? 23. Is the punctuation sufficient at this 
 point? Supply a suitable complimentary close. 
 
 H. 
 
 24. Form of verb needed? Is "inclose" better than "enclose"? Why? Look in the 
 dictionary. 25. Punctuation? 26. Any word omitted. 27. Should this word, at the end 
 of a letter, be written with a capital or a small letter? What does the abbreviation indicate? 
 
 28. Should "Truly" be capitalized? 
 
 I. 
 
 29. Is this the right tense to use in a letter applying for a position? 30. Could you 
 take a course in bookkeeping and not be familiar with the "general" ledger? Why refer 
 to "purchase" ledger? 31. How would you avoid beginning all these sentences with I? 
 32. Would you consider it good policy in a letter of application to mention "fifteen dollars 
 a week"? Is that too much? 33. If a person is "good at figures" isn't he "accurate" 
 anyway? 34. "Several" what? 35. Exactly what is a "position of confidence"? 36. Is 
 it desirable to change the construction from "where" to "as to"? 37. Isn't this word a 
 little too strong for the circumstances? If you were going to put these sentences into a 
 properly connected letter, how would you dovetail them together to make a smooth letter? 
 
 (Lesson VI, page 4) 
 
LESSON VII. Predicate Complements. 
 
 See Grammar, section 22, pages 35-37. 
 What is a predicate complement? 
 
 What is a predicate adjective? 
 
 What is an objective complement? 
 
 Is an objective complement a noun or an adjective? 
 
 Are adverbs ever used as complements? 
 
 What is the difference between a predicate complement and a direct object? 
 
 Diagram the following sentences below: 
 
 Note. When two or more words are in the same construction, split the line on which 
 they are to stand, as follows : 
 
 John 
 He named X ^-^o Henrv ^\ I sons 
 
 It was called, by the people of the neighborhood, the Golden River. 
 Its crops were so heavy that it was commonly railed the Treasure Valley. 
 The two elder brothers were very ugly men, with overhanging eyebrows. 
 They lived by farming the Treasure Valley, and very good farmers they were. 
 He was usually appointed to the honorable office of turnspit, when there was any- 
 thing to roast, which was not often. 
 
Grammar, Sect. 22, pp. 35-36. Lesson VII. 
 
 Predicate Complements. We have seen that a verb may be followed by an object 
 noun or by a "predicate nominative" a noun in the nominative case which means the same 
 as the subject of the verb. The verb may also assert a quality or characteristic of the sub- 
 ject by the use of an adjective in the predicate which really qualifies the subject, as when we 
 say "He is good" we assert the quality of goodness as belonging to the subject he. 
 These predicate complements, as they are called, may be pictured as follows : 
 A noun as the direct object of a verb, as in "He killed the man" 
 
 He II killed I man 
 
 A noun as predicative nominative, as in "His name was John" 
 name fl was \ John 
 
 An adjective expressing a quality asserted of the subject, as in "That story is excel- 
 lent"- 
 
 story || is \ excellent 
 
 Sameness may be asserted between two objects of an active verb, as in "We named 
 him John," 
 
 We named / John | him 
 
 (In this case John is placed before him, though him is more closely related to the 
 verb, in order that the slanting line before John may clearly indicate that the word is to be 
 connected with him. If John followed him, preceded by a slanting line, it might seem to refer 
 back to the subject, we.) 
 
 In the same way an active verb may assert a quality of its object, as in "The medicine 
 will make you sick," which may be diagrammed as follows: 
 
 medicine || will make / sick | you 
 
 These secondary objects and qualities are spoken of as objective nouns and adjectives 
 or objective complements. 
 
LESSON VII {'Continued), From the Office of a Railroad Superintendent. 
 
 CIRCULAR NO. 125. 
 Bulletin No. 76. 
 
 ALL AGENTS AND FREIGHT HANDLERS (1). 
 
 We have lately had so many claims for damaged eggs (2) that we have been studying 
 how to overcome them (3), and have concluded that our loading of eggs in cars for ship- 
 ments, that is, lengthwise with the car, is wrong, for (4) a recent test of eighty-nine cases 
 made by (5) Special Agent, developed (6) that on the cases loaded crosswise with the car 
 there was practically no damage, while eggs (7) in cases loaded lengthwise with the car, 
 were in nearly every case damaged (8). With this idea in view (9) we will change the 
 loading of eggs, (including butter and egg runs) on this division, and observe the following 
 rules (19) : Car floor will hold three cases crosswise and one lengthwise the first tier 
 should be loaded in this (11) manner with the row lengthwise along one side of the car. 
 The second tier should be loaded crosswise with a row lengthwise near the center (12). 
 The third tier should be loaded crosswise with a row lengthwise along opposite side of 
 car (13), then alternate the lengthwise row in each tier so that one will not come above 
 another. 
 
 * It is not children alone who mix their verbs, run sentences together, paragraph badly, 
 and so confuse .their words it is almost impossible to tell what they mean. Railroad men 
 in their letters and bulletins are among the worst sinners. An order like the preceding is 
 not at all unusual. Let us try to reconstruct this so as to make it clear, simple, and 
 effective. 
 
 1. What punctuation is needed here? 2. Were not the claims "for damage to eggs" 
 rather than "for damaged eggs"? 3. Make a new sentence here. The words that follow 
 are needlessly twisted. Say briefly and simply, "We have concluded that loading eggs 
 lengthwise with the car is wrong." 4. Another sentence may begin here. 5. Do not omit 
 the small word "a." Nothing is gained by it. 6. The writer means "has developed the 
 fact that." Change what follows into a clause with "when." 7. Observe the change in 
 sentence construction here from "on cases" to "eggs in cases." Make the construction in 
 the same clause uniform. 8. Here is a good place for a new paragraph. 9. "With this 
 idea in view" is a very poor way of saying "we will 'therefore." 10. These rules should 
 be put into another paragraph. What follows seems to b put backwards foremost. 11. To 
 just what does "this" refer? Change the construction. 12. This is the first really good 
 sentence in the order. 13. A new sentence begins here. These two sentences are run 
 together with only a cofnma between because the writer seems to think "then" is a relative 
 word like "when." 
 
 Several commas in this circular are misplaced: which are they and where should they go? 
 Rewrite the whole in the best simple and clear English you can command. 
 
EXERCISES ON WORDS OFTEN MISUSED 
 
 See Dictionary of Errors, page 95, "Words Often Misused," or How to Do Business by 
 Letter, pp. 29, 33. 
 
 What is the difference in meaning between "a small and speckled fish" and "a small 
 and a speckled fish"? 
 
 For what have you "ability," and for what have you "capacity" ? 
 
 Mention a case of "acceptance" and another of "acceptation." 
 
 Is an ambassador "credited" or "accredited" to the Court of St. James? 
 
 Are you "affected" or "effected" by a cold? Does the President "affect" or "effect" the 
 removal of a bad officer? 
 
 Do you say you are "afraid of burglars," or "afraid you can't go"? 
 
 What "aggravates" the offense? Can you "aggravate" a person? 
 
 Why is it wrong to say "These pictures are both alike"? 
 
 Should a teacher say, "The boy's mother is alleged to be sick"? 
 
 How many "alternatives" can there be? 
 
 Is a dream an "allusion" or an "illusion"? 
 
 Should you say, "Please divide the cake between all the boys"? What should you say? 
 
 When should "an" be used before a word beginning with h? 
 
 What is the matter with, "He told me a deliberate and malicious falsehood, and which 
 he knew would hurt his brother"? 
 
 What is the meaning of "etc."? What is the difference between "etc.," "and so forth," 
 and "and the like"? 
 
 Write a sentence using "antiseptic" correctly. 
 
 When may you use "anyhow"? What is a "vulgarism"? 
 
 When do you "apprehend" and when do you "comprehend" what your teacher says? 
 
 (Lesson VII, page 4) 
 
Extra double lesson and review : Write cut Exercise III, Grammar, page 37. 
 
 LESSON VIII. The Verb. 
 
 See Grammar, pp. 38-41. 
 What is an auxiliary verb? 
 
 In the following verb phrases, underscore the auxiliary verbs: have done, did act, is 
 beloved, shall have been done, is going to be done, will be killed. 
 What is the passive voice? 
 
 Change the following sentences so that the verb will be in the passive voice: 
 
 The man killed the policeman. (Changed form The policeman was killed by the man.) 
 
 We caught a basketful of fish. 
 
 The manager told him he must leave at once. 
 
 The wheat corner last spring ruined him. 
 
 Questions : 
 
 What is the progressive form of the verb? 
 
 Give six original examples of the progressive form of the verb. 
 
 What are perfect tenses? What auxiliary is used to indicate them? 
 
 What is the auxiliary verb "do" used for? Give three examples. 
 
 What are "shall" and "will" used to indicate? 
 
 After what pronouns is "shall" found and after what "will"? 
 
 What are "should" and "would"? In what kinds of sentences are they usually found? 
 
 What is the difference between the potential mode and the indicative? What auxiliaries 
 are used with the potential? 
 
 What is the meaning of "tense"? 
 
 Give three examples of sentences with the present tense. 
 
 Give three examples of sentences with the past tense. 
 
 Give three examples of sentences with the future tense. 
 
 What is number? Give examples. 
 
 What is person? What are the three persons? 
 
 State the rule for the agreement of the verb in person and number. 
 
Grammar, pp. 38-41. Lesson VIII. 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 The verb offers far more complications than any other part of speech. In the first 
 place, it often consists of more than one word. There are a number of verbs known as 
 auxiliary verbs, some of which are used only as auxiliaries, and some of which may also 
 appear as independent verbs. 
 
 The three most important auxiliaries are to be, to have, and to do, all of which may 
 also be used independently. To be is the most irregular verb in the English language, and 
 has many forms apparently utterly unlike, as am, is are, was, were, as well as be and been 
 and some antiquated forms like beest, etc. 
 
 The verb to be indicates existence in the simplest and most direct way in which it 
 can be indicated, and has the force of asserting without asserting anything in particular. 
 The particular character of the assertion is to be looked for in the words which follow. This 
 verb is used to indicate what is called the passive voice, or a form of assertion in which the 
 subject bears everything but actually does nothing. For example, "I am wounded," "You were 
 loved," "He is ruined," are illustrations of the passive voice, in which parts of the verb 
 to be appear as auxiliaries to the verb forms which contain the real significance. 
 
 To be is also used to indicate what is called the progressive form of the verb, which 
 asserts the action or state as' continuing at the time indicated by the tense of the verb, as "I 
 am going there now," "He was reading a book," "You were thinking about it at that time." 
 
 The verb to have is used as an auxiliary to indicate a peculiar state of completeness 
 in the action at a given time, as "I have already done it" (at the present time), "I had told 
 him all about it" (at the past time to which I refer), etc. The forms in which to have and 
 its parts occur as auxiliaries are spoken of as the perfect tenses, since they assert the action 
 as being perfect or completed at a certain time, either past, present, or future. 
 
 The verb to do is used as an auxiliary to give peculiar emphasis to an assertion, as 
 in "I do love you," in asking question without emphasis, as "Do you see it?" and with nega- 
 tives, as "She did not come to the party." 
 
 Shall and will are the two words regularly used to indicate action or state of being 
 at a future time, as in "I shall go there to-morrow," "Will you do as I ask you?" Shall is 
 regularly used v/ith the first person (I and we), will with other persons; but there are many 
 variations from this rule which we shall consider later. 
 
 Should and would are apparently past tenses of shall and will, but as auxiliaries they 
 indicate conditional action or state of being, as in "Would you have done it, had I requested 
 it?" These words are usually found in constructions which contain or imply a subordinate 
 sentence introduced by if or some similar word. In the example above, "had I requested it" 
 is equivalent to "if I had requested it." 
 
 Can, may, and their corresponding past forms could and might, are used to indicate 
 possibility of some kind, and indicate, with should and would, what is called the potential 
 mode. Simple assertion constitutes the indicative mode. Must and let may also be ranked 
 as auxiliaries. 
 
 All verbs indicate the time of the action or state of being as present, past, or future, 
 and accordingly are said to be in the present, past, or future tense (tense meaning time). 
 Thus "I am here" is the present tense, "I went to town yesterday" is the past tense, "I shall 
 be hungry at dinner time" is the future tense. The past and present tenses are regularly 
 indicated by different forms of the verb, ed being added to the present to indicate the past, 
 as in "I love you" (present) and "I loved you once" (past). Loving is a present form, as 
 loved is past. 
 
 The English verb ordinarily has but one other irregularity or variation, and that is 
 used to indicate the third person singular of the indicative mode. To understand that, we 
 must know the meaning of person and number. 
 
 Number. All nouns or pronouns are either plural or singular in number. /, he she, 
 it, cow, horse, cat, dog, are all singular because they refer to only one object; but we, they, 
 coivs, horses, cats, dogs, are plural, because each refers to more than one object. 
 
 Person. The person speaking is the first person (I or we), the person spoken to is the 
 second person (you, thou), while the person spoken of is the third person (he, she, it, they, 
 these, etc.) 
 
 Rule. The verb must agree with its subject in person and number. In English the 
 form of the verb is usually the same for all persons and numbers, except the third person 
 singular of the present indicative, and the forms derived from it. The only exception is 
 found in the case of the irregular verb to be and the forms used with the now antiquated 
 pronoun thou. 
 
LESSON VIII (Continued). Punctuation Capital Letters. 
 
 A punctuation mark is like a word or letter in the sentence it helps to express the 
 kieaning clearly, so preventing confusion. The great modern rule for punctuation is 
 
 NEVER USE A PUNCTUATION MARK THAT DOES NOT HELP TO EX- 
 PRESS THE MEANING. If you cannot see a good reason for using any given mark it is 
 better to omit it. 
 
 Certain things are indicated by punctuation marks, and we should study the art of 
 punctuation just as we would study the art of expressing ideas by words. When we fully 
 understand the '/alue of each mark and how it may be used, we will then employ it, not 
 according to blind rule, but for the purpose of getting our own ideas expressed so others 
 will understand us. 
 
 The best way in which to learn it is to form the habit of observing the punctuation 
 of standard literature as one reads. The number of rules in common manuals of punctua- 
 tion is so great as to confuse rather than to aid the mind. It is better to drill on a very 
 few cardinal principles, and trust to instinct and observation for cases not covered by such 
 principles. For practical convenience we may include capital letters under the head of 
 punctuation, though that is not technically a question of "pointing." 
 
 CAPITAL LETTERS. Every noun which is the name of a single individual is called a 
 proper noun, and should begin with a capital letter, while a noun which designates a class 
 of individuals is called a common noun, and begins with a small letter unless the capital 
 be required by its position in the sentence. 
 
 Examples : John, Mary, Europe, Washington, (the) Coliseum, etc., are proper nouns ; 
 cow, west, country, sun, battle, etc., are all common nouns. If, however, a common noun 
 by continued use designates a particular object or place, by such use it becomes a proper 
 noun and must be written with a capital letter, as (the) South used to designate the southern 
 part of the United States, (the) West used to designate the western part of the United 
 States, (the) Orient used to designate Asia and adjacent territory, etc. (The) sun and 
 (the) moon might appear with capitals, but the capitals are not employed. The seasons 
 also are written with small letters, as summer, winter, etc. 
 
 Adjectives derived from proper names are also written with capitals, as European, 
 Western (referring to the western part of the United States), Oriental, etc. 
 
 There is an old rule that every sentence begins with a capital letter; but this is true 
 only if the preceding sentence ends with a full stop. 
 
 Every line of poetry begins with a capital letter. 
 Titles of persons, books, etc., are capitalized. 
 
 Common nouns are sometimes written with capital letters to show emphasis, or when 
 by a figure of speech the writer wishes to give them the dignity of proper nouns, as "The 
 three cardinal principles of sentence-making are Unity, Mass, and Coherence"; "He was 
 very fond of Art (spelled with a capital letter)." 
 
 Quotations and statements complete in themselves as sentences are begun with capital 
 letters. Examples: He said, "Now is the time to make your fortune"; The great rule 
 for business success is, Do well whatever you have to do, cost what it may. 
 
 Incomplete quotations are not begun with capitals. Example: He sent word home 
 to have a good dinner ready; "for," said he, "I have not had anything fit to eat in three 
 days." 
 
 (OVER) 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 It is more important to get a principle fixed in the mind than to memorize all the 
 cases in which that principle might be applied. I have before me a book giving twenty-six 
 rules for the use of capital letters; but if you have the preceding principles clearly in mind 
 you can make the rule for yourself whenever you need it. Let us begin with the first great 
 principle, that the name of one individual begins with a capital letter, but the name of a 
 class does not. 
 
 You know well enough that the names of persons and places begin with capital letters ; 
 but let us examine some particular cases. 
 
 Would you capitalize "street" in the following? "He lives on this street"; "There 
 was a flurry on the street today" (meaning Wall Street). 
 
 "I should like to interview the head of your company"; "I do not think the company 
 would grant your request" ; "I do not think our company would grant your request" : how 
 about "company" in each sentence? 
 
 Would you capitalize "congress," "the house of representatives," "the house of com- 
 mons," "the young men Christian association," "the university of the state of Illinois," 
 "the high school at Streator," "the-Streator high school," "Garden street," "the Missouri 
 river," "the thirteenth ward" (meaning a certain ward in Chicago or any other particular 
 city), "the revolutionary war" (in American history), "the Congressional library"? In the 
 case of a double name like "Congressional library" or "Garfield avenue," what is the real 
 and full name? How do you decide what words to capitalize and what not to capitalize? 
 
 EXERCISES ON WORDS OFTEN MISUSED 
 
 See Dictionary of Errors, page 98, or How to Do Business by Letter, pp. 34, 38, 43. 
 
 Are you "apt," "likely," or "liable" to get into trouble? 
 
 Mention five things that "rise" and five that "arise." 
 
 When should one use "as" and when "so" in making a comparison? Give three examples 
 of each. 
 
 Do you "arrive at the village of Lexington" or "in"? "At Chicago" or "in"? "At 
 England' or "in England"? 
 
 Do you live "at No. 48 Gary Street" or "in"? 
 
 Is it proper to say there was a large "audience" at the pantomime? 
 
 What is a woman who writes books? 
 
 If a boy strikes you do you "avenge" the wrong or "take revenge" for it? 
 
 Is going to school your "vocation" or your "avocation"? 
 
 Why is it ridiculous to speak of an "awfully nice piece of pie"? 
 
 What is the meaning of "balance"? Why is it not correct to say "The balance of us 
 left at five"? 
 
 Write three sentences in which "besides" and "beside" are correctly used. 
 
 Can you divide an apple between three girls? 
 
 What should you say instead of "He blamed it on me"? 
 
 What is the matter with "He both learns his lessons well and quickly"? 
 
 Give a sentence illustrating the correct use of "bring," "fetch," and "carry." 
 
 Give a sentence in which "but" is a preposition followed by he or him. What is the 
 matter with "but what"? 
 
 Do peas have bulk? Does work? Does love? Does beef? 
 
 What is the difference between a room filled "by" a crowd and a room filled "with" 
 a crowd? 
 
 What is the objection to "I calculate on getting there first"? 
 
 Would you say that a pretty little lady was childlike or childish? 
 
 Can you claim to have learned your lesson? 
 
 Give a sentence in which "compare to" is correctly used. 
 
 (Lesson VIII, page 4) 
 
LESSON IX. Singular and Plural. 
 
 Study the Grammar carefully from the bottom of page 4.1 to the end of the chapter 
 before attempting to write out the following sentences with the correct form. 
 
 If revision, criticism, and systematic instruction (is are) required, I shall be glad to 
 give them. 
 
 If revision, criticism, or systematic instruction (is are) required, I shall be glad to 
 give them. 
 
 Every little girl and boy (has have) a stick of candy. 
 
 All the little girls and boys (have has) sticks of candy. 
 
 None of the apples (is are) good. 
 
 None (is are) man enough to own his crime. 
 
 Practically none of the papers (have has) the complete story. 
 
 A number of the employees (have has) left, and others will follow. 
 
 A certain number of the employees (have has) been called on. 
 
 There (is are) a large number on the train. 
 
 The Russian people (have has) declared (themselves itself). 
 
 The American people (know knows) his honesty. 
 
 The crowd (is are) filling the square. 
 
 A multitude of men and women (buy buys) patent medicines. 
 
 The army (has have) arrived in town. 
 
 The Company (has have) built a new factory. 
 
 John Wanamaker & Co. (have has) a store in New York. 
 
 My friend (don't does n't) like this place. 
 
 The United States army (is n't ain't) as large as that of England. 
 
 Note. Look up "ain't" in the dictionary. 
 
 The people of the United States (have n't has n't) the love for music found in Ger- 
 many. 
 
 The American people (has n't have n't) eradicated "graft." 
 
 Note. Why is "graft" put in quotation marks in this and in the preceding sentence? 
 
Grammar, pp. 41 seq. Lesson IX. 
 
 Thus we con) ugate the verb to do : 
 
 Present tense Past tense 
 
 I do We do I did We did 
 
 You do You do You did You did 
 
 He does They do He did They did 
 
 The only irregular form that we find here is "he does." Instead of he we may sub- 
 stitute any singular subject in the third person, that is, any noun or pronoun (not I, we, or 
 you}, and say "A man does," "Helen does," "It does," "One does." Our instincts are suffi- 
 ciently good guides for most cases. We would not say* "The babies does all they likes," 
 nor "John do many hard jobs." But there are many words and combinations which do not 
 show clearly on their face whether they are singular or plural. "John and Helen" would 
 be followed by a plural form of the verb, because the two taken together are used as the 
 subject; but "John or Helen" would be followed by the singular form of the verb, because 
 we are thinking of either one, but not of both at the same time. 
 
 "All of us" is plural, evidently, but "Every one of us," which means practically the 
 same thing, as it would seem, is singular, because "Every one of us" means all of us taken one 
 at a time, and the form of the verb must be singular. So also "Every man and woman" is 
 singular, because though man and woman taken together are plural, the every indicates that 
 we take only one man or woman at a time ; hence the verb which follows must be singular. 
 
 Some modern grammarians contend that the word none is singular because it is evi- 
 dently derived by a contraction of no one, but the best authorities hold that none may be 
 either singular or plural, and a phrase such as "None of the men remains or remain in trie 
 room" may mean that the very last man is gone, or that the last group of men is gone. If 
 we are thinking of the last man, none is singular, but if we mean the last group of men, 
 none is plural. So some grammarians contend that "a number of men" is always singular, 
 because there is but one "number." But in such a sentence as "A number of us are going 
 to town" it is better to regard "a number" as a plural form, in analogy with the plural form 
 "a few of us," which every one admits to be plural. If, however, we are thinking of a 
 definite number, even when we use the general phrases "a large number," or "a small num- 
 ber," a singular verb should be used. 
 
 Another class of nouns which gives difficulty is the so called collective nouns, such as 
 people, crowd, army, multitude, etc. These words are followed either by the singular or by 
 the plural form of the verb, according as we think of the collection as a single body, or a 
 number of individuals in a group. Thus we should certainly say, "The army is encamped on 
 the plain," and equally clearly we would say, "People say it is not true." 
 
 The form of the verb should show the nature of the subject. The correct form is the 
 one that expresses our thought with logical exactness. If we use the singular form of the 
 verb it should mean that we wish to refer to the subject as a single object, but if we use 
 the plural form it should show that we are thinking of all the various single objects that go 
 to make up the whole, and that we are thinking of each as acting alone. 
 
 Nothing demonstrates better than this that grammar is a matter of logical relation- 
 ships of words and phrases used to express ideas. Violations of grammar arise more from 
 carelessness than from anything else, and the study of correct language should be, not a study 
 of rules, but a study of the exact meaning of words, and their exact logical relations to other 
 words in the accurate expression of ideas. 
 
 * But some people say, "He don't do it" lor 'He doesn't do k,' though they would not say 
 "He do not do It." 
 
LESSON IX (Continued). More Exercises on Capital Letters. 
 
 Would you capitalize titles of books, and why? What words would you capitalize in 
 titles? What would you do about the titles of chapters? Decide these matters by direct 
 observation. Rules are unnecessary. Bring in five titles of books and five titles of chapters 
 properly capitalized, and indicate the rule for choosing the words to capitalize. 
 
 Do you capitalize the days of the week, the days of the month, the months, the seasons? 
 
 When or why would you capitalize "the North" or "the West," "the Orient" or "the 
 North Pole"? 
 
 Make a list of fifteen proper adjectives that ought to be capitalized. 
 
 Do you know any single letters that by custom are always written as capitals when they 
 are words? There are two such. Can you think of any reason why they should be thus 
 written. Can you think of any circumstances under which they would be written as small 
 letters. 
 
 Is the word "oh" written with a capital when it comes in the middle of a sentence? 
 
 If you address the president of a company who is also a member of Congress and has 
 the degree of doctor of philosophy from a university, how would you indicate all his titles? 
 Write out such an address. 
 
 In what ways may capital letters be used for emphasis in a business letter? There are 
 two distinct ways, when all the letters are capitals and when only the first letter is a capital. 
 Illustrate from observation the proper use of each. 
 
 How would you justify the capitals in a sales letter reading as follows : 
 
 "Term Life Insurance is now written at practically the same proportionate cost as is 
 Fire Insurance. 
 
 "You never would permit a valuable building to go uninsured against loss by fire. 
 Why should you insure the PROPERTY which is the product of your life work, and let 
 the LIFE that produces the property go uninsured? 
 
 "I take the liberty of inclosing herewith a statement for a Convertible Term Policy 
 which I know will prove of interest to you, as it has these great advantages : 
 
 "1. It gives you excellent protection at the very lowest premium; 
 
 "2. It grants you the option of exchanging the policy at any time for any other con- 
 tract issued by the Company without medical examination." 
 
 Can you decide from the above whether paragraphs begin with capital letters when 
 they do not start with the beginning of a sentence? An excellent example of this may be 
 found on page 250 of "How to Do Business by Letter and Advertising" and another on 
 page 135 of "How to Do Business by Letter and Training Course in Conversational 
 English." 
 
 Give three examples of a direct quotation requiring capital letters, and three examples 
 of an indirect quotation that does not require capital letters. 
 
 Give an example of a formal statement not quoted that begins with a capital letter in 
 the middle of a sentence. 
 
 Write the following abbreviations with correct capitalization : a. m., f. o. b v 11. iL, lbs n 
 i. e., p. o., m. c., m. p., ph. d., y. m. c. a., 17st st. 
 
 Write correctly the following display advertising head for a form letter: 
 
 The most wonderful discovery of the age 
 
 THE ECONOMY JAR 
 
 For meats, vegetables, and fruits 
 
 Kerr Glass mfg co. 
 
 Are Roman numerals always capitalized? Look at the paging of the introductory matter 
 in an English book. 
 
 Write the following citation correctly : Par. 3, sec. 4, ch. vi, vol. iii. Also this : part II. 
 act V, book 9. 
 
 (OVER) 
 
EXERCISES ON WORDS OFTEN MISUSED 
 
 See Dictionary of Errors, page 100, or How to Do Business by Letter, pp. 43, 48. 
 
 Do you pay "compliments" or "complements"? 
 
 What does "congregate" mean? Why is "congregate together" wrong? 
 
 Give sentences in which "continual" and "continuous" are correctly used. 
 
 Do you "co-operate with your teacher" or "together with her"? 
 
 Write sentences using correctly "corporeal" and "corporal." 
 
 Do you "counsel" with a friend or teacher, or "council"? Does the head of a school 
 or business call a "counsel" or a "council"? 
 
 Is a true story "credible" or "creditable"? What is "creditable"? 
 
 Mention some of the "customs" of your home and some of your own "habits." 
 
 Do you "demean" yourself well? When, where, and how? 
 
 Is it right to say "He died with scarlet fever"? 
 
 What word should follow "differ" or "different"? 
 
 Is there "dirt" on the floor? Is there "dirt" in the road? Would that which is "earth" 
 in the road become "dirt" in the house? 
 
 What word should follow "disagree" ? 
 
 Write sentences using correctly "disposition" and "disposal." 
 
 What is the difference between "divers" and "diverse," both in meaning and in pro- 
 nunciation ? 
 
 What is "don't" a contraction for? "Doesn't"? In what positions is "don't" frequently 
 misused? 
 
 When should you use "dozen" as the plural of "dozen" and when "dozens"? 
 
 Why not say "I have drank"? 
 
 Write sentences using correctly "one another" and "each other." 
 
 Lesson IX, page 4) 
 
LESSON X. Singular and Plural. 
 
 Observe that pronouns must agree in person and number with the nouns to which they 
 refer. 
 
 If in doubt as to whether any of the following nouns are singular or plural, look them 
 jtp in the dictionary. Not all nouns ending in s are plural. 
 
 Rewrite the following sentences with the correct form : 
 
 The United States (is are) a world power. 
 
 Politics (ruin ruins) many a man. 
 
 Athletics (is are) approved by the college. 
 
 I had a pair of pincers. Have you seen (them it) ? 
 
 (This these) news (is are) bad. 
 
 Tidings of the battle (has have) just arrived. 
 
 Their nuptials (were was) celebrated at noon. 
 
 (This these) assets (are is) all there (is are). 
 
 By (this these) means he got the election. 
 
 His means (were was) limited. 
 
 His ethics (are is) not good. 
 
 Ethics (demand demands) a different rule. 
 
 The proceeds (don't does n't) go to the society. 
 
 General Grant's tactics (is are) commended by historians. 
 
 The society of the alumni (are is) holding (its their) meeting. 
 
 Such (a) phenomena (are is) startling. 
 
 (This these) analyses (are is) inaccurate. 
 
 I cannot go by such criteria as (this these). 
 
 He found the lower strata (was were) granite. 
 
 (This these) curricula (have has) nothing practical in (it them) 
 
 (This these) hypothesis (are is) not well founded. 
 
 The alumnse (does n't don't) approve the choice. 
 
 He (don't doesn't) claim to eradicate all the (bacteria bacterium). 
 
 Such a (phenomena phenomenon) is unusual. 
 
LESSON X (Continued). Punctuation the Full Stop. 
 
 THE PERIOD. Ordinary sentences, if complete, are ended with a period. A group of 
 words cannot end with a period unless it contains a principal subject and a principal pred- 
 icate, expressed or understood. Groups of words which omit subject or predicate are not 
 complete sentences, and if used at all they must be treated as exclamations and be followed 
 by exclamation points. Carlyle and some others ignore this rule. 
 
 (The old rule that every complete sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with 
 a period is not strictly correct, for many sentences grammatically complete in every way 
 end with colons, semi-colons, and even with commas when conjunctions are clearly implied, 
 if the ideas are closely connected with those in adjoining sentences. Such connected sen- 
 tences cannot in most cases be reckoned compound sentences). 
 
 Every abbreviation should be followed by a period. Examples : D.D., Mr., LL. D., 
 e. g., lb., Messrs. 
 
 Formerly the Roman numerals (I, II, III, etc.), were followed by periods, but that 
 usage is now being discontinued. 
 
 EXCLAMATION AND INTERROGATION POINTS. Of course every direct question should be 
 followed by a mark of interrogation, and every clear exclamation by an exclamation point. 
 
 Note that indirect questions are not followed by the interrogation point. Example : He 
 asked me if I would go. 
 
 If interjections are used in connection with other words, the exclamation point should 
 be placed only at the end of the whole exclamation. Each point denotes a separate exclama- 
 tion. Example : Alas, I do not know where food is to be found ! 
 
 Parts of sentences which lack either a subject or a predicate or both, if used at all, 
 should be treated as exclamations and be followed by the exclamation point. Example : To 
 think that I should do such a thing! 
 
 Whenever a direct question is raised, an interrogation point should indicate the fact. 
 So sometimes we have an interrogation point inclosed in parenthesis, equivalent to an 
 interrogative sentence; and after double dashes indicating that a sentence has come to an 
 abrupt termination, the questioning intonation of the portion of the sentence given must be 
 indicated by a question mark after the dash. The same rule applies to exclamations. 
 
 Example: "You were going to tell me "? 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 We have already studied the sentence and how careless writers run two sentences 
 together with only a comma between. 
 
 Do you know the difference between a subject and predicate expressed and those that 
 are only implied? What are the subjects and predicates expressed or implied in the fol- 
 lowing: "We are going to give you another good chance. The chance is Radford's Big 
 Weeklies. Seven hundred and fifty thousand of them every week." Should the last group 
 of words be followed by an exclamation point? 
 
 When a letter ends, "Thanking you for your kindness in this matter, Very sincerely 
 yours," what subject and predicate are implied? Are they clearly implied? 
 
 When a letter begins "Replying to your favor of the 16th inst.," stopping there with 
 a period, would you say the subject and predicate are implied? What are they implied 
 from? Is there any context from which they can be implied when the phrase begins the 
 letter? Would you be justified in using an exclamation point after such a group of words 
 as this? 
 
 Is an exclamation point needed in the following? 
 
 " 'If I had only done it sooner' exclaims the man who has taken no precaution against 
 fire till the fire occurs." Is the quoted part a complete sentence, or does the word "if" 
 seem to make it a sort of subordinate clause? Or is "if" in this place an exclamatory word? 
 
 (OVER) 
 
What is the exclamatory word in the following? "How changed in these new days!" 
 Mention several other exclamatory words. When you have an exclamatory word in a 
 sentence should you always have an exclamation point at the end of the expression? 
 
 Give an example of the point used after single exclamatory words. 
 
 Is the word "Miss" an abbreviation requiring a period after it? Is "per cent" an 
 abbreviation requiring a period? (In English it is not now considered an abbreviation, 
 though in Latin it was "per centum" and when the "um" was left off a period took its 
 place.) If the word "Ass'n" an abbreviation or a contraction? Is a period required after 
 it? Is "Bldg." properly treated as an abbreviation or a contraction? (Answer: For con- 
 venience in business usage, it is an abbreviation.) 
 
 When a single word in a sentence is queried, how would you write the question mark 
 so as to show it applied only to that one word or phrase? When a plain statement is given 
 the tone of a query, how is the query indicated? How would an exclamatory tone be 
 shown in such a connection? Illustrate each of these points. 
 
 Where is a period used in writing figures other than at the end of the sentence? What 
 is such a period called? Where is a period used in writing money as figures? 
 
 How would you write "seven forty ante meridiem" in abbreviated form, with figures? 
 
 Do you find the period used in modern books at the ends of lines on the title-page or 
 after chapter headings? Note examples in three different books. 
 
 EXERCISES ON WORDS OFTEN MISUSED 
 
 See Dictionary of Errors, page 102, or How to Do Business by Letter, pages 49, 53. 
 
 Why is "either of the three" wrong? 
 
 Write sentences in which "elicit" and "illicit" are correctly used. 
 
 Give examples of complete sentences with "than" and "but" used after "else." 
 
 What is the difference between an "emigrant" and an "immigrant"? 
 
 Is there such a word as "enthuse"? 
 
 Criticise "Lincoln was equally as great." 
 
 Is "every man, woman, and child" singular or plural? 
 
 What is wrong about "everywheres" ? 
 
 What part of speech is "except" and what part of speech is "unless"? Give examples 
 of the correct and incorrect use of these words, 
 
 Can you expect what happened yesterday? What can you expect about yesterday's 
 happenings ? 
 
 What is the difference in use between "farther" and "further"? 
 
 What is wrong, if anything, about "As I was passing the door a female came out"; 
 "tie was descended from Alfred in the female line"? 
 
 What is the matter with "final completion"? 
 
 If you owe a boy ten cents, is it a "financial," "pecuniary," or "monetary" obligation? 
 If the United States places a million dollars in the banks, what kind of an operation is it? 
 
 What is the' correct word for "firstly" ? 
 
 Is it proper to speak of a stick being "fired across the room"? 
 
 What is the matter with "Fix the furniture"? 
 
 To what kinds of beings are the following group words properly applied : flock, bevy, 
 pack, gang, host, shoal, herd, troop, covey, galaxy, horde, heap, drove, mob, school, congre- 
 gation, corps, band, swarm, crowd? 
 
 (Lesson X, page 4) 
 
Extra lesson and review : Write new sentences in which each of the peculiar words 
 in the last two lessons is correctly used. Also write out Exercise IV, page 44. 
 
 LESSON XI. Participles. 
 
 See Grammar, Chapter VI, pages 4/1-50. 
 What two offices does a participle perform? 
 
 Give three examples of an infinitive used as a noun. 
 
 Where will you look for the subject of the verb action of a participle? 
 
 In what way are participial clauses related to the principal subject or predicate? 
 
 What is a nominative absolute? Is this form desirable? Why is it sometimes used? 
 
 Is the subject of a participle ever in the objective case? 
 
 What case is regularly the subject of an infinitive? 
 
 What case is usually the subject of the verb action in a participle when such a subject 
 is specially expressed? 
 
 Who or what is the subject of the action expressed in the participles printed in italics 
 - in the following sentences, 3'xl what is the grammatical construction of these participles? 
 Liking the country as e did, he did not hesitate to buy a home. 
 
 In crossing the bridge he stumbled and fell. 
 
 His going depends on my staying. 
 
 On weighing the coffee they found an excess of fifty pounds. 
 
 Pushed on by circumstances, he stumbled into wealth. 
 
 I could not keep him from returning last night. 
 
 They prevented his coming. 
 
 I saw many birds sitting on the fence. 
 
 Liking money is no sin. 
 
 Answering your letter just at hand, I am compelled to say no. 
 
 Referring to your statement of yesterday, I wish to say I entirely disagree with you. 
 
 He was a man named Smythe or Browne. 
 
 I liked his taking hold of the work so readily. 
 
Grammar, pp. 44-47. Lesson XL 
 
 Many writers have ranked the participle as a separate part of speech. It is in reality a 
 sort of hybrid, half verb and half adjective, and may become a noun. The infinitive is also a 
 curious form of the verb, for it may often be used as a noun and is interchangeable to some 
 extent with the present participle. 
 
 There are two forms of the participle, the present, ending in ing, and the past, ending 
 regularly in ed (but also being formed with other endings). The infinitive is indicated by 
 the preposition to, which often wholly loses its character as a preposition in introducing one 
 word to another, and serves merely as the sign of the infinitive mode of the verb. In this 
 case the infiinitive is to be regarded as a verbal noun. 
 
 Examples: Present participle as simple adjective "The boxing parson preached 
 to-day." 
 
 Past participle as simple adjective "The learned doctor delivered the address" ; "The 
 past year shows a good report" ; "The work begun is a credit to the town." 
 
 Present participle as noun "By signing your name you will secure your rights" ; "I 
 like riding/' 
 
 Infinitive as noun "To be good is to be wise." 
 
 The chief office of the infinitive is simply to complete the meaning of other verbs, 
 as when we say, "I like to ride"; "He is going to do it" ; etc. Here the assertion that is made 
 in regard to the subject is not complete until the infinitive is added, and we may look on 
 the first verb as more or less of an auxiliary. In fact, "He will do it" and "He is going to 
 do it" are very much alike, and grammarians look on the do after will as an infinitive with 
 the sign (to) omitted. However, in all cases in which the to is expressed we are accustomed 
 to treat the infinitive as separate from the verb, and picture it in our diagrams as an ordinary 
 prepositional phrase. 
 
 He || is going 
 
 I " 
 
 But the infinitive may have a subject of its own, which will always be in the objective 
 case. In such a relation the to is commonly omitted, as in "I shall make him do it." 
 
 Here the whole phrase, "him do it," may be regarded as taking the place of a noun and 
 forming the object of shall make, though it would not be altogether improper to place it 
 below and connect it with shall make by a dotted line, after the manner of a subordinate sen- 
 tence. 
 
 In such cases as "To be good is to be wise," the to merely introduces the verbal phrases 
 which serve as nouns, and does not introduce the verb to anything in particular. 
 
 Fully to explain such a sentence grammatically and logically, however, we must re- 
 flect that a personal subject -is implied, such as "any one," "any person." The adjective good 
 and the adjective wise really qualify this indefinite implied personality. 
 
 We see, however, that while acting as a verbal noun, an infinitive may exercise all the 
 qualities of a verb in taking predicate modifiers, either nouns or adjectives; and it may also 
 be modified by adverbs. 
 
 The participle may also exercise the functions of verbs in the same way, as in the 
 sentence, "I found him rapidly writing letters." 
 
LESSON XI (Continued). Punctuation the Comma. 
 
 The comma is used to separate words so you can tell where one phrase or clause 
 begins and another ends. Unless you can develop a sort of instinct for recognizing phrase 
 and clause groups so you will never, NEVER stick a comma into the middle of one, and 
 never leave out a comma that would help the reader from running together two groups 
 of words which do not belong together, you have not mastered the art of punctuation. 
 
 GENERAL RULE. Never use a comma that does not help to make the meaning clearer 
 by separating groups of words that otherwise might be confused even momentarily by 
 the hasty reader. 
 
 This is the great negative rule. We will now illustrate five positive rules. In addition 
 we take it for granted that you will always use a comma whenever you see clearly how 
 it will prevent confusion and help you express your meaning, whether you can give a 
 rule for it or not. 
 
 Rule 1. Several words, all of which modify equally, or stand in the same relation- 
 ship to, some other word, are separated by commas. 
 
 Examples: He was a great, good, noble man. (The three adjectives great, good, and 
 noble, all modify man equally. The commas would be used just the same if the last 
 two were connected by and, as we may see in the preceding sentence, though some writers 
 inconsistently omit the comma before and. The old-fashioned idea was that in a sense 
 the comma took the place of an omitted and, as it sometimes seems to take the place of an 
 omitted verb ; but now the comma is insisted on before the and to prevent confusion in such 
 a case as the following: The three couples were Mr. James and Miss Barber, Mr. Lang 
 and Miss Harte, and Mr. Jennings and Miss Fairfax. Without the comma after "Harte" 
 there would obviously be confusion. If, however, there are only two, and they are "con- 
 nected by and, or if there are several not specially emphasized or contrasted, all con- 
 nected by and, no comma is used; as in, "He was a great and good man," or, "He 
 was a great and good and noble man." 
 
 Men, women, and children ran for their lives. (Here the three nouns men, women, 
 and children, are all equally the subject of ran.) 
 
 N. B. When adjectives modify a noun unequally; one modifying the meaning of the 
 noun as first qualified by another adjective, no comma is used to separate the two 
 adjectives. 
 
 Example: The poor old man ran for his life. (Here poor modifies the meaning 
 of old man, not man alone, and the modifies man as first modified by poor and old.) 
 
 (The is never set off by a comma when it is one of the several adjectives modifying 
 a noun.) 
 
 Rule 2. A subordinate sentence, or a participial phrase, is set off from the main 
 sentence by a comma or commas if it is merely explanatory, but if it is restrictive no 
 commas are required. 
 
 (Note. This is the most difficult and important rule we shall give, and it should 
 be thoroughly mastered.) 
 
 Examples. There is the man who provoked him. (The subordinate sentence "who 
 provoked him" modifying man is absolutely necessary to the full meaning, that is, it 
 restricts the meaning of man instead of being merely an explanatory addition. Therefore 
 no comma is required.) 
 
 Do you remember Jenny, who was at the lake last summer? (In this sentence the 
 meaning would be complete if we stopped with Jenny and placed a period after that 
 word. The subordinate sentence merely throws in an additional explanation, and therefore 
 is set off by a comma.) 
 
 (OVER) 
 
EXERCISES ON WORDS OFTEN MISUSED 
 
 See Dictionary of Errors, page 105, or How to Do Business by Letter, pages 53, 60, 
 61, 73. 
 
 What is the difference between a friend and an acquaintance? 
 
 Explain the special meanings of "generally," "usually," "frequently," and "commonly." 
 
 What do you call a woman who writes books or poetry? 
 
 When is it proper to say "gent"? 
 
 In order to say you have "got a book," what do you have to do? 
 
 Give a sentence containing "guess" correctly used. 
 
 What should you write instead of "Had I have known it"? 
 
 What alternative form for "would rather"? Is it correct? 
 
 When should you use "hanged" ? 
 
 Why is "not" incorrect with "hardly"? 
 
 Give examples of things that are "wholesome," things that are "healthy," and things 
 that are "healthful." 
 
 Why is "from hence" wrong? 
 
 What is the difference between "human" and "humane"? 
 
 Give an example of the correct use of "illy." 
 
 Give examples of the correct use of "in" and "into." What does each imply? 
 
 Do you live "in" a street or "on" it? Did you drop your books "in" the street or "on" 
 the street? 
 
 What is the difference between "invent" and "discover"? 
 What is the difference between "involve" and "implicate"? 
 Is "a" ever proper after "kind of"? 
 Why is "saleslady" ridiculous? 
 
 Explain the difference between "lay" and "lie," "lain" and "laid." Which one must 
 always have an object? Which one never has an object? What is the past tense of "lie"? 
 Of "lay"? The past participle of each? Give examples of the correct use of each in the 
 different tenses. 
 
 (Lesson XI, page 4) 
 
LESSON XII. Participles. 
 
 in the last lesson the participles are all used correctly: in this lesson many of them 
 are used incorrectly. 
 
 Note. There are three kinds of verbals in ing, participles which are simple adjectives 
 modifying nouns, though like a verb they may take an object, participles which like DOUPS 
 may be objects of prepositions or verbs or subjects of verbs and like verbs take objects of 
 their own and are modified by adverbs, and verbal nouns which are modified by adjectives 
 and then do not take objects, the verb quality being completely lost. Examples: Participle 
 used as adjective: Liking the work, he accepted. Participle as verbal noun (called a 
 gerund) : His doing it so nicely was what pleased me. Pure verbal noun: The doing of 
 it cost him an effort. When a word in ing is preceded by "the"' or any adjective, it can- 
 not take an object but must be followed by a preposition like any other noun. 
 
 Correct the following sentences, rearranging them if necessary : 
 
 Answering your letter of the 6th inst, you will find the sample you wish enclosed. 
 
 Referring to our conversation yesterday, why should n't my proposition be presented to 
 the company? 
 
 I did not like him to call me so loudly. 
 
 Quick calling off the numbers will be the best plan. 
 
 I liked him talking to her so pleasantly. 
 
 fitting on the fence we saw three tiny birds. 
 
 Holding the revolver up to see if it was loaded, it went off and shot him. 
 
 Tearing down and building up, making mistakes and correcting them, much money is 
 wasted. 
 
 Speaking of Henry, did you hear that story Alice told about his proposing to her? 
 
 Granting all that, what can the company really do? 
 
 His mother cannot prevent him from seeing her often. 
 
 I like hir- for being so frank. 
 
 Seeing what he was up to, I told them they ought to have called out to him. 
 
 Loved by all, honored and revered, it was a pity he should disgrace himself in his 
 old age. 
 
 Diagram the corrected sentences on the back of this sheet. 
 
Grammar, pp. 47-50. Lesson XII. 
 
 We have already seen that the subject noun and the assertive verb are both indispen- 
 sable to any expression of thought. We may realize how far-reaching and important this prin- 
 ciple is when we know that every verb, whatever its form, even the participle and the in- 
 finitive in so far as they exercise any of the functions of verbs, must have subjects of some 
 kind, expressed or implied. If an infinitive is used to complete a verb, we look back through 
 the auxiliary verb and find the real subject of the action or state expressed by the infinitive, 
 in the subject of the sentence. Thus in the sentence, "I should like to do it," the logical sub- 
 ject of the act of doing is /. If we say, "I should like to have him do it," the subject of 
 have is logically /, and of do, him. 
 
 The same is true of p'articiples. Thus in the sentence, "While sitting on my door- 
 step yesterday, I caught sight of the most beautiful butterfly in the world," Here sitting is a 
 participle evidently modifying the subject of the sentence, /. If we change the form of the 
 sentence so as to make it read, "While sitting on my doorstep yesterday, my notice was 
 attracted to the most beautiful butterfly in the world," we perceive that the real subject of 
 the participle verb sitting is hard to find. It is perhaps implied in the possessive my, but 
 it would be out of the question, grammatically, to attach sitting to my. If we should say, 
 "While sitting on the doorstep yesterday, the most beautiful butterfly in the world attracted 
 my notice," we would seem to imply that the butterfly was sitting, which is of course absurd. 
 The sentences are manifestly imperfect from a logical point of view. 
 
 Even if the sentence is so constructed that it is not difficult to account for all the 
 members, still if the subject of the infinitive or participle is obscured, the sentence is im- 
 perfect. Thus if we say, "To relieve him of all responsibility, he was given a written 
 statement by the members of the firm," To relieve is evidently a simple qualifier of the 
 verb was given, but whatever act was performed in relieving was not by he, the subject 
 of was given, but by members, which appears in a subordinate phrase. The sentence is 
 logically imperfect, though every word of it can be parsed. The same is true of the sen- 
 tence, "By doing so, the matter will be cleared up by him." 
 
 There are various ways of legitimately relieving this situation, which we will now ex- 
 plain : 
 
 First, there is what is called the nominative absolute. A participle may stand as an 
 independent verb with a nominative case as its subject, though always in a dependent rela- 
 tion to some principal sentence, as in "The wind blowing furiously, the boat was overset;" 
 "He knowing that, I had no choice but to act as I did." The wind is subject of the 
 participle blowing, and He is the subject of the independent participle knowing. Both he 
 and wind are spoken of as independent nominatives, though they are no more independent 
 than any other subjects of verbs. It would be more just to speak of the participles as 
 independent in their use, for here they perform the offices of an ordinary verb even to having 
 a separate subject in the nominative case. This use is not favored by the best critics or 
 writers, and evidently grew up because the instincts of the mind sought to supply a suitable 
 subject for the participle when no implied subject was in sight. This is a bungling method of 
 relieving the logical incompleteness of such sentences as we discussed in the preceding para- 
 graph. 
 
 The subject of the participle may be implied in a possessive, as in the sentence, "By 
 his doing that, the situation was relieved." Here the character of the participle as noun is 
 emphasized by the presence of a possessive used as a simple adjective modifier; but the 
 subject of the assertive power in the participle is clear. 
 
 The participle, unlike the infinitive, never takes the objective case as its subject if this 
 can be avoided. So we should say, "I could not prevent his doing it," rather than "I could 
 not prevent him doing it," though we may say correctly enough, "I could not prevent him 
 from doing it." 
 
 We have already given an example of an indefinite subject being implied when an 
 infinitive is used in a general sense. The subject of the participle may be implied in the same 
 way when it is general or- indefinite, as in "Speaking of the President, what did you think 
 of his manifesto?" "Granting all that, still how do you account for the strange circum- 
 stances?" Granting and speaking are evidently independent, with such subjects as we, you, 
 etc., implied. Unless the subject is clearly implied, this method is objectionable. 
 
LESSON XII (Continued). Punctuation Further Study of the Comma. 
 
 The man who has mastered his subject will rule in his profession. (This is another 
 case of a restrictive subordinate sentence. If it were omitted, the remaining parts of the 
 sentence would make nonsense. The relative clause restricts the meaning of man it is 
 not any man, but "the man who has mastered his profession.") 
 
 That man yonder, who was a millionaire last year, is almost ready to commit suicide. 
 (If the subordinate sentence were omitted, the words left would still make complete 
 sense. The relative clause is thrown in by way of additional explanation, and therefore 
 is set off by commas.) 
 
 I love the lake because it is so beautiful. 
 
 I love the lake, because it is so beautiful. 
 
 (The use or omission of the comma in the preceding sentence indicates a difference 
 in meaning. If the emphasis is on the subordinate sentence "because it is so beautiful," 
 no comma is needed; but if the emphasis is on the main sentence, "I love the lake," and 
 the subordinate sentence is thrown in merely by way of additional explanation, a comma 
 should be used.) 
 
 I know where you are hiding. 
 
 I am going over there, where you are hiding. 
 
 (In the first sentence the subordinate clause is a necessary part of the sense, 
 and so is not set off by commas, while in the second "where you are hiding" merely 
 explains there.) 
 
 I know a man called John. 
 
 Do you see that tree, just hanging over the edge of the mountain? 
 
 (In the first sentence the participial phrase "called John" restricts the meaning of 
 man, and is absolutely necessary to the sentence. Therefore no comma is needed. In 
 the second sentence, the participial phrase is additional and explanatory, and the sentence 
 would be complete without it. Therefore it is set off by a comma. If that tree had 
 been the tree the phrase would have been restrictive, as it would have been required to 
 indicate what tree. As it is, the word that implies that the tree is pointed out by the 
 speaker, and the following clause is thrown in by way of explanation.) 
 
 Rule 3. Subordinate sentences and phrases which are transposed from their natural 
 position in the sentence are usually set off by commas. 
 
 Examples : Where I go, there ye shall come also. 
 
 (In this sentence the natural position for "where I go" would be after the verb and 
 there would then be omitted.) 
 
 After due consideration, they decided to give their notes. 
 
 (A prepositional phrase naturally follows the word it modifies, in this case the verb 
 decided. As it is transposed to a place before the subject, it is set off by a comma.) 
 
 If the transposed clause or phrase is short and no confusion is possible, the comma 
 should be omitted. 
 
 Example: Before I go I will return the book. 
 
 Rule 4. All words and phrases thrown in by way of explanation, or used independently 
 in a sentence, are set off by commas. 
 
 Examples: I prefer, on the whole, to have my own way. (Here the phrase "on the 
 whole" follows the word it modifies in natural order, but as it is thrown in merely by 
 way of explanation, it is set off by commas.) 
 
 Yes, John, I shall go to-morrow. (In this sentence John is used independently, as it 
 is the name of the person addressed; hence it is set off by commas.) 
 
 Christ, the great teacher, said, "Come unto me." (The words "the great teacher" 
 are thrown in to explain Christ. Here teacher is a noun in apposition with the noun 
 Christ.) 
 
 (OVER) 
 
EXERCISES ON WORDS OFTEN MISUSED 
 
 See Dictionary of Errors, page 109, or How to Do Business by Letter, pages 73, 79. 
 
 What is the difference between "teach" and "learn"? Give examples of the correct use 
 of each word. 
 
 Is "sideways" correct? What is better? 
 
 What things are "lengthy," and what are "long"? 
 
 Mention five things with which "less" is correct, five with which "fewer" is required. 
 
 To what sort of things is one "liable"? 
 
 Give sentences illustrating the correct use of "like" and "as." 
 
 What is the difference between "loan" and "lend"? Give examples of the correct use 
 of each. 
 
 Give an example of the correct use of "locate" (look up in the dictionary). For what 
 word is it often incorrectly used? 
 
 Is "look" followed by an adjective or an adverb? Why? 
 
 Give an example of the correct use of "lots." 
 
 Mention half a dozen things you "love," and as many that you only "like." 
 
 What is the difference between "luxurious" and "luxuriant"? Give illustrative sentences. 
 
 What is the difference between a "majority" and a "plurality" in voting? 
 
 In asking the teacher for permission to leave the room, do you say "may" or "can"? 
 Is "may" to be used with a negative? Give an example of your own. 
 
 Is "means" singular or plural? Give illustrative sentences. 
 
 What is the plural of "memorandum"? Use the word in a sentence correctly. 
 
 What is the difference between "You are mistaken" and "You mistake" according to the 
 strict meaning of the words? 
 
 Why is "more perfect" absurd? What is meant when this combination is used? 
 How should "most" be written when it stands for "almost"? 
 What is the difference between "mutual" and common"? 
 
 (Lesson XII, page 4) 
 
Extra lesson and review : Write out Exercise V, Grammar, page 50. 
 
 LESSON XIII. Tense. 
 
 See Grammar, sections 48, 49 and 50, pp. 51-54. 
 
 What is tense? (Look the word up in the dictionary.) 
 
 What three simple tenses are there? 
 
 What tenses are indicated by the auxiliary "have"? Give illustrations. 
 
 What tense indicates present time? What time up to the present? 
 
 What tens* indicates time entirely past? What action completed at some fixed time 
 in the past? 
 
 What is the difference in meaning between the future and the future perfect tenses? 
 
 Rewrite the following sentences, using the correct tense: 
 I (did have done) the work already. 
 
 He (did n't has n't) arrived yet. 
 
 My friend (came has come). 
 
 It (snowed has snowed) every day for the past two weeks. 
 
 He (lived has lived) here since spring. 
 
 Next week I shall (be have been) here a month. 
 
 I am sure that he (was has been) there, and (hoed has hoed) out the garden last 
 week. 
 
 I am sure he (was has been) th^re, and (hoed l.as hoed) out the garden this week. 
 
 I am surprised he (did n't has n't) arrived before this. 
 
 When I saw him, he (had n't had did n't have) time to hear. 
 
 He intended to (do have done) it. 
 
 I should like (to have seen him to see him). 
 
 (Did n't he do has n't he done) the work this morning? 
 
 (Did n't he do has n't he done) the work before twelve o'clock this morning? 
 
 I meant (to have written to write) before I left town. 
 
Grammar, pp. 51-54. Lesson XIII. 
 
 We have already seen that verbs are capable of expressing present, past, and future 
 time; and, by the use of the auxiliary have, completeness of an act at a given time present, 
 past, or future may be indicated. Time as expressed by verbs is known as tense. 
 
 In simple sentences, tense offers few difficulties. The following illustrations will serve 
 to explain names of tenses sometimes used : 
 
 Present Tense. 
 The house stands on a hill. 
 We have our commands. 
 I am doing the work now. 
 It makes no difference to you whether I do it or not. 
 
 Past Tense.* 
 I went there yesterday. 
 I loved her, but she did not love me. 
 They gave me all I asked. 
 
 We began to eat at three o'clock. 
 He spit as if he had tasted poison. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 We shall be there. 
 They will see what will be the result. 
 You shall do it, whether you wish to or not. 
 
 Perfect, or Present Perfect, Tense. 
 I have done what I could. 
 He has been to town. 
 He has not come yet. 
 I have already done so. 
 
 Pluperfect, or Past Perfect, Tense. 
 They had not arrived when I was there yesterday. 
 You had gone before I got there. 
 
 Future Perfect Tense. 
 
 When I have finished, I shall have proved my case completely. 
 In that case, I shall have been defeated. 
 
 Participles and infinitives also express time to some extent, as: 
 
 Present going, to go. 
 
 Past gone, (the infinitive has no simple past tense.) 
 
 Present perfect having gone, to have gone. 
 
 Past perfect (wanting.) 
 
 Future ( wanting. ) 
 
 Error sometimes occurs in using or failing to use the perfect tenses when required 
 by the use of adverbs which imply completeness at a fixed time. We should say. "I have 
 done it already," not "I did it already," and "I have not yet done it," not "I did not do it yet." 
 The tense and the adverb indicating time must be consistent. Likewise, do not say "I have 
 done it yesterday." 
 
 The chief difficulty arises in the choosing of tenses in subordinate sentences or phrases. 
 We should be guided by the great principle of sequence of tenses, namely, 
 
 * Also called the "imperfect" to distinguish it from the past tense of the participle. 
 
LESSON XIII (Continued). Punctuation Further Study of the Comma. 
 
 N. B. When a noun in apposition with another noun is so closely related to that 
 noun as really to form a single name with it, no comma should be used. The same rule 
 applies to adjectives preceded by the following a name. 
 
 Examples : William the Conqueror, Richard the Lion-hearted, Frederick the Great. 
 
 Rule 5. W T hen the subject of the second part of a compound sentence is different 
 from the subject of the first part, a comma is required before a connecting and or or. 
 As but is contrastive rather than merely connective, it is usually preceded by a comma 
 in such cases as do not require a semicolon, though the semicolon is usually required. 
 Likewise when there is any suggestion of contrast or change of the line of thought, a 
 comma should be used before and or or even if the subject is the same as in the preceding 
 clause. 
 
 Examples : The book was published on the 26th, and we sent out our circulars on the 
 29th; We published the book on the 26th and sent out our circulars on the 29th. (Observe 
 that in the second sentence there is no change of subject, and no comma is required 
 before "and.") 
 
 We were in New York that day, but did not hear of the fire till later. I heard what 
 he said, and must say I admired his spirit. 
 
 N. B. When sentences are so long they are in danger of falling into confusion they 
 may be divided by commas simply to keep together words that belong together. 
 
 Examples : We had a long and weary march before we reached the brink of the 
 river, and we felt we must pitch our tents there for the night. 
 
 SUMMARY OF RULES FOR THE COMMA. 
 
 Rule 1. Words in a true series are separated by commas, and a comma is needed 
 before the conjunction connecting the last two. 
 
 Rule 2. Explanatory clauses or phrases are set off by commas, but restrictive clauses 
 or phrases are not set off. 
 
 Rule 3. All explanatory words, or words thrown into a sentence, including names of 
 persons addressed, nouns in apposition, etc., are set off by commas. 
 
 Rule 4. Clauses or phrases transposed from their natural position in a sentence are 
 set off by commas if this is necessary to prevent confusion. 
 
 Rule 5. The principal part of a compound sentence when connected by and or or 
 require a comma before the conjunction when the subject of the second part is different 
 from the subject of the first part, and before but even when the subject is unchanged. 
 A comma before and or or is also required when the subject remains unchanged if the 
 parts are long, if they are contrasted, or if there is danger of confusion. 
 
 Memorize these rules, and be prepared to illustrate each with several examples. 
 
 EXPLAINING THE USE OF COMMAS. 
 
 If we wish to master the use of the comma we must first learn to assign correct 
 reasons for commas that we know to be rightly used. Until we have the reasons fully 
 mastered we cannot hope to put commas in correctly. 
 
 Each of the following sentences offers a clear illustration of the application of one 
 or the other of the five rules we have given. Write a small figure over each comma 
 indicating the number of the rule which applies: 
 
 She had no dowry, no expectations, no means of becoming known, understood, loved, 
 wedded by any rich and distinguished man. 
 
 She suffered ceaselessly, feeling herself born for all the refinements and luxuries of 
 life. She suffered from the poverty of her home as she looked at the dirty walls, the 
 wornout chairs, the ugly curtains. (Why is no comma required before "as.") 
 
 While edition after edition of his book was coming forth his son, as Mr. Croker 
 tells us, was ashamed of it, and hated to hear it mentioned. 
 
 VOVER) 
 
For the last time, you can get one free. 
 
 M. W. Savage, President of the International Stock Food Co., employing fifty stenog- 
 raphers, has said: "If all my salesmen, clerks, stenographers, etc., could learn to write 
 a correct and effective letter, they would be worth twenty-five per cent more to me, and 
 I should be willing to pay the full value of their services." 
 
 Let us see, therefore, what we can do about it. 
 
 Yes, sir, I will do it at once. 
 
 Did you see J. W. Jones, the man with the white hat, walking down the street? 
 
 I desire to call your attention to the fact that in life insurance the rate is always 
 figured at the nearest age, that is, you will be rated at your present age until six months 
 after your birthday; therefore, if my record is correct, your age changes on May 30, 
 increasing the cost of ten thousand dollars' insurance by seven dollars for every year 
 during the continuance of the policy, which aggregates, with five per cent interest for 
 the period named, nearly two hundred dollars. 
 
 It secures approval of the risk now, while, if delayed, you might not be able to pass 
 an examination. 
 
 When the science of the building is great, great science is of course required to 
 comprehend it: and therefore, of difficult bridges, and light-houses, and harbor walls, and 
 river dykes, and railway tunnels, no judgment may be rapidly formed. But of common 
 buildings, built in common circumstances, it is very possible for every man, or woman, or 
 child to form judgment both rational and rapid. Their necessary, or even possible, features 
 are but few. Ruskin. 
 
 EXERCISES ON WORDS OFTEN MISUSED 
 
 See Dictionary of Errors, page 113, or How to Do Business by Letter, pages 80, 85, 92. 
 
 Why cannot "myself" be used as the subject of a sentence? 
 
 Why is "new beginner" wrong? 
 
 Is "news" singular or plural? Use it correctly in a sentence. 
 
 Give three or four examples of things that are really "nice," and of some which are 
 often said to be nice but are not. 
 
 Give an example of the correct use of "nicely." 
 
 Is "none" singular or plural? Give examples of its correct use in whatever ways are 
 correct. 
 
 Give an example of your own of the correct use of "not nor" and one of "not or." 
 
 Give an example of your own of the correct use of "not but only." 
 
 Give examples of your own of sentences in which "a number" is properly plural, and 
 of sentences in which it is properly singular. 
 
 What is the difference between "observation" and "observance?" Give illustrations. 
 
 When is "O" to be used and when "oh"? 
 
 Give a sentence containing "observe" correctly used. 
 
 What is the absurdity in "of all others"? 
 
 Why is "largest of any" incorrect and "larger than any" correct? 
 
 When is "older" to be used and when "elder"? 
 
 Is "on to" properly one word or two, and why? 
 
 What is the possessive of "one"? May "his" be used? Give an example of the correct 
 use of "one" as an impersonal pronoun. 
 
 Give an example of the correct placing of "only" and the incorrect placing. 
 
 In what way is "verbal" often misused, and what is the proper word to use in such 
 cases ? 
 
 Why can "had" not be used before "ought"? 
 
 Is there such a word as "overflown"? What is the correct word in speaking of a river? 
 
 (Lesson XIII, page 4) 
 
LESSON XIV. Tense. 
 
 Note. Observe that a statement that is universally true is put in the present tense, 
 even after a verb in the past tense which would ordinarily be followed by another past 
 tense. Thus, He told us that electricity is (not "was") a molecular motion, not fluid. 
 
 Rewrite the following sentences correctly: 
 
 In what state did you say Anaconda (is was) ? 
 
 I told him I (would will) look into the matter. 
 
 I wish I (could can) see him. 
 
 I wished (to meet to have met) her on the pier. 
 
 It was a fact that he (was is) married. 
 
 It is a fact that he (was is) married. 
 
 It was your duty (to prevent to have prevented) his going. 
 
 Has he yellow fever? I should certainly say he (had has). 
 
 Washington (is was) called the Father of his Country. 
 
 He asked me how far it (was is) from Evanston to Chicago. 
 
 He expected (to meet to have met) you on the dock to-morrow. 
 
 I gave him notice so that he (might may) be ready for us. 
 
 This country is supposed (to have been to be) first visited by the Norse. 
 
 Can you tell me who first said honesty (is was) the best policy? 
 
 If you would only work, your success (would will) be certain. 
 
 The house was (to be to have been) sold this morning. 
 
 Be virtuous and you (will would) be happy. 
 
 If you were virtuous you (would be will be) happy. 
 
 Next week I (shall be shall have been) here a month. 
 
 Soon after I got here, in comes Charles. 
 
 (Being having been) absent from the last recitation, I do not know where the lesson is. 
 
 I am sure he (has been was) there and (did has done) what was required of him. 
 
 I (will accept accept) with pleasure your kind invitation. 
 
Grammar, pp. 51-54 (cont.) (Lesson XIV.) 
 
 Verbs in subordinate sentences must be governed by the tense of the principal verb. 
 We may test and correct the application of this principle by inquiring whether the 
 tenses we use express exactly the relations of time that accord with the facts in the case. 
 
 Examples: I see the new building every time I go to town. 
 
 I saw it when I was there. 
 
 He said he would do it. 
 
 He says he will do it 
 
 To have done otherwise would have been wrong. 
 
 We may not say, "I wish to have done it," for it is impossible to "wish for" that which 
 is past. It is more proper to say "I should have liked to do it," than "I should like to have 
 done it," since it is a little awkward for our liking to go backward, though even this is not 
 impossible. 
 
 We would not say "The Lord hath given and the Lord hath taken away," since the 
 giving took place before the taking away, and the meaning must be expressed by saying, 
 'The Lord gave and the Lord hath taken away." 
 
 "John will earn his wages when his service is complete," is illogical and should be 
 expressed, ''John will have earned his wages when his service shall be complete." 
 
 "After we visited New York, we returned, content and thankful, to our retired and 
 peaceful habitation," should obviously be, "After we had visited New York," etc. 
 
 But we may say, "After we visited New York, we went to Baltimore," since the time 
 is continuous. 
 
 "In the little conversation I had with him, he appeared to have been a man of letters/' 
 requires "to be" in the place of "to have been." 
 
 "We have done no more than it was our duty to have done," should be either, "We 
 have done no more than it was our duty to do," or "We did no more than it was our duty 
 to do," according to the meaning intended by the writer. 
 
 When the statement in the subordinate sentence is of universal application, whether 
 the time be past, present, or future, we must use the present tense. "The doctor, in his 
 lecture, said that fever always produced thirst," should be, "The doctor, in his lecture, said 
 that fever always produces thirst." 
 
 "I will attend to the business as soon as I have finished my letter," is correct, though 
 "I will attend to the business as soon as I shall have finished my letter," is logically more 
 complete. 
 
LESSON XIV (Continued). Punctuation Exercises on the Comma. 
 
 Insert the commas required in the following sentences and place over each a figure 
 showing what rule you apply: 
 
 A question was once somehow or other started between Collins and me. 
 
 Its crops were so heavy and its hay so high and its apples so red and its grapes 
 so blue and its wine so rich and its honey so sweet, that it was a marvel to every one 
 who beheld it. 
 
 The whole of the little valley belonged to three brothers called Schwartz Hans and 
 Gluck. 
 
 Schwartz and Hans the two elder brothers were very ugly men with overhanging 
 eyebrows and small dull eyes which were always half shut so that you couldn't see into 
 them and always fancied they saw very far into you. 
 
 He has a thousand pretty fancies and I am sure if you saw him you would like him. 
 
 My French almost deserted me entirely when I had to speak to her, and so she drew 
 away and left me to her lord who talked of French politics Africa and domestic economy 
 with great vivacity. 
 
 In the dark walks too there are crowds of people whose faces you cannot see and 
 here and there a colossal white statue at the corner of an alley that gives the place a 
 nice artificial eighteenth century sentiment. 
 
 I try wine and spirits and smoking and snuff in unsparing quantities. I sleep in a 
 damp room but it does no good. 
 
 In spite however of the customary phrase of a man's "making a fool of himself" we 
 doubt if any one was ever a fool of his own free will and accord. A poet therefore 
 should not always be taken too strictly to task. 
 
 It was indeed a morning that might have made anyone happy even with no Golden 
 River to seek for. Level lines of dewy mist lay stretched along the valley out of which 
 rose the massy mountains, their lower cliffs in pale gray shadow descending till they caught 
 the sunlight which ran in sharp touches of ruddy color along the angular crags and 
 pierced in long level rays through their fringe of spear-like pine. Far above shot up 
 splintered masses of castellated rock jagged and shivered into myriads of fantastic forms 
 with here and there a streak of sunlit snow traced down their chasms like a line of forked 
 lightning; and far beyond and far above all these fainter than the morning cloud but 
 purer and changeless slept the blue sky the utmost peaks of the eternal snow. 
 
 To attain this tone which is perfectly natural to some people and so difficult to 
 attain by others one must keep oneself in the right frame of mind thinking of the superior 
 as the ideal boss even if it is necessary to idealize him a little and then being perfectly 
 sincere straightforward and natural. Respect yourself as well as your superior and at 
 all times be a gentleman and never forget that you are a subordinate. 
 
 Sidney Sheldon the leading authority on letter writing gives in his fifty Instruction 
 Cards for Business Men scores of the most successful letters ever sent out in this 
 country and describes all the latest devices and wrinkles for soliciting by mail collecting 
 money handling agents etc. etc. 
 
 When he says he is ready write him a simple straight-from-the-shoulder letter of 
 direction indicating every step just as you would to a child. Say "Go here. You will 
 meet such and such reception. Begin by saying so-and-so in such and such a manner. 
 That should give you the attention of the man you are canvassing. If you don't get his 
 attention drop the matter and refuse to go on till you have it." 
 
 (OVER) 
 
EXERCISES ON WORDS OFTEN MISUSED 
 
 See Dictionary of Errors, page 117, or How to Do Business by Letter, pages 93, 103. 
 When is it proper to use "pair" as a plural and when "pairs"? 
 
 What is the plural of "parenthesis" and when is it proper to use it? Do the two 
 marks inclosing a group of words make more than one "parenthesis"? 
 
 Can one person rush "pell-mell"? 
 
 In what connection may the Latin "per" properly be used? 
 
 If young ladies do not "perform" on the piano, what do they do? 
 
 What is the difference between "permit" and "allow"? 
 
 What is the difference between "perpetually" and "continually"? 
 
 Why is "this phenomena" incorrect? 
 
 Is there such a word as "pled"? What is the correct form to use? 
 
 What is the difference in meaning between "plenty" and "plentiful"? 
 
 Be prepared to write on dictation any of the irregular plurals. Give this subject careful 
 study. Dictionary of Errors, page 118, and How to Do Business by Letter, page 103. 
 
 Write three sentences in which "politics" is used as the subject of a present verb. 
 What is the difference between "part" and "portion"? Illustrate. 
 What is the difference between "practical" and "practicable"? 
 
 What is the difference between "predicate" and "predict"? Between "present" and 
 "introduce"? 
 
 Is there such a word as "preventative" ? What is the correct form? 
 
 (Lesson XIV ; page 4) 
 
LESSON XV. The Subjunctive. 
 
 See Grammar, sections 51 and 52, pp. 54-56. 
 
 What is the subject of a verb in the imperative mode? 
 
 Is 'the subjunctive mode ever found except in a subordinate sentence? What does it 
 express? 
 
 Give an example of a supposed case. 
 Give an example of a wish. 
 
 Give an example of a sentence arranged to indicate a supposed case, and then alter it 
 to indicate a matter of fact. 
 
 Do the present and past tenses of the subjunctive mode indicate present and past lime 
 
 or future time? Is there any future subjunctive? 
 
 What is the difference in meaning in the following alternative forms? 
 
 If he were strong he could walk it easily If he is strong he can walk it easily. 
 
 Oh, that you (may be were had been) here ! 
 
 Though he (were is) pure and honorable at heart, he (will be would be) corrupted. 
 
 In the following, which of the forms in parenthesis is preferable: 
 If I (were was) he, I would go at once. 
 
 See that no one (is be) overlooked. 
 
 Unless he (hurry hurries), he will miss the train. 
 
 Whether it (pleases please) him or not, matters noc to me. 
 
 Whether it (please pleases) him or not, could not matter to rne. 
 
 I wish I (was were) a bird. 
 
 Except ye (be are) born again, ye cannot see my Father. 
 
 Unless Alary (take takes) care of herself, she will certainly catch cold. 
 
 I hope that if any one (come comes) in, you will say I am out. 
 
 Beware lest evil (creep creeps) in. 
 
 If the book (were was) mine, I would give it gladly. 
 
 If the book (be is) mine, I will give it gladly. 
 
Grammar, pp. 54-56. Lesson XV. 
 
 The different modes have already been defined. The indicative mode, expressing 
 simple, direct assertion, offers no difficulties ; the potential mode consists in little more than 
 the use of the potential auxiliaries, may, can, would, should, could, might, must; the infinitive 
 mode has been discussed ; the imperative mode is peculiar in that it is confined to the second 
 person, or person spoken to, and usually omits the subject. Examples of the imperative 
 mode are "Do this," "Never do it," "Hear what I say," etc. Perhaps "let" may be looked 
 on as an auxiliary for the imperative mode, permitting reference to other persons than the 
 second, as in "Let me do it," "Let her see you for a moment," etc. In full these forms 
 become, "(Do you) let me (to) do it," "(Do you) let her (to) see you for a moment," etc. 
 Or the do may be omitted. 
 
 The mode which really gives trouble is the subjunctive. It differs from the simple 
 indicative in not forming its third person singular by the addition of e or es, and we say, "If 
 he do it, it will be of the greatest benefit." The irregular verb to be, uses the form be 
 throughout the present tense of the subjunctive mode, as "If I be, if you be, if he be, if we be, 
 if you be, if they be"; and were throughout the past tense of the subjunctive, as "If I were, 
 if you were, if he were, if we were, if you were, if they were." 
 
 It is the office of the subjunctive mode to indicate supposed cases as opposed to cases 
 of fact. Thus, we say, "If he was (as a matter of fact) there, he saw Anna on the stage"; 
 but, "If he were here (as he is not), he would see Anna on the stage." Such phrases as "as 
 it were" are typical of the subjunctive mode, and other conjunctions than if may be used 
 with it. Examples : "Unless he do it, it will go hard with him" ; "Though he be a giant, he 
 will have to succumb to such oratory"; "Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him"; 
 "Whether he improve or not, it matters little"; "Except ye repent, ye shall surely die"; 
 "Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate thee." 
 
 The subjunctive mode is used to express wishes, which are very similar to suppositions. 
 
 It will be noted that the subjunctive mode often indicates that which is in the future, 
 even with the present and past tenses, since what is really accomplished, either past or 
 present, is not a subject for supposition, as a rule. Perhaps this accounts for the omission 
 of s or es from the third person of the present tense, will having been omitted, as in "If he 
 (will) do it, it will be of the greatest benefit." 
 
 There is a growing tendency to disregard the subjunctive mode as much as possible, 
 and some writers even deny that it exists at all in the English language. The crude speaker 
 will seldom have occasion to use it, except in idiomatic and well established phrases, such 
 as "as it were," but the precise thinker and reasoner will find the subjunctive mode of the 
 utmost utility, and a means of expressing nice distinctions that are otherwise almost impos- 
 sible ol expression. 
 
LESSON XV (Continued). Punctuation the Semicolon. 
 
 When several sentences are closely connected in meaning, they are often separated by 
 semicolons to indicate a closer relationship than would be indicated if they were separated 
 by periods. The parts of a compound sentence connected by but are separated by a 
 semicolon if they are strongly contrasted. Phrases, or groups of words, are often sepa- 
 rated by semicolons when they are themselves subdivided by commas. 
 
 Examples (taken from Macaulay, a master in the use of the colon and the semicolon) : 
 He was a soldier; he had risen by war. 
 
 Its triumphs added nothing to his fame; its increase added nothing to his means 
 of overawing his enemies; its great leader was not his friend. 
 
 This constitution in former days used to be the envy of the world; it was the 
 pattern for politicians; the theme of the eloquent; the meditation of the philosopher in 
 every part of the world. 
 
 The lines are few, the coloring faint; but the general air and expression is caught. 
 It burned down the city; but it burned out the plague. 
 
 It would be easy to indicate many points of resemblance between the subjects of 
 Diocletian and the people of the Celestial Empire, where, during many centuries, nothing 
 has been learned or unlearned; where government, where education, where the whole sys- 
 tem of life, is a ceremony; where knowledge forgets to increase and multiply, and, like the 
 talent buried in the earth, or the pound wrapped up in a napkin, experiences neither waste 
 nor augmentation. 
 
 It is despised and rejected of men; and every device and invention of ingenuity or 
 idleness is set up in opposition, or in preference to it. 
 
 As a simple example of the last clause in the rule, we offer the following: The list 
 of hero kings of England includes Alfred, called the Great, Richard the Lion-hearted, who 
 did yeoman's service in the crusades; William the Conqueror; and, if we may add a queen, 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 SUMMARY OF RULES. 
 
 Rule. 1. Use the semicolon instead of the period between sentences that need to be 
 grouped together. (Avoid the comma.) 
 
 Rule 2. Use the semicolon before but and between the parts of a compound sentence 
 when one part is strongly contrasted with the other, or you desire to distinguish sharply. 
 Also, otherwise, and therefore are similar to but in indicating contrast. 
 
 Rule 3. Use the semicolon to group words which are subdivided by commas. 
 
 Many of the sentences that are mistakenly run together with only a comma between 
 may properly be separated by the semicolon so as to show the close relationship that is 
 instinctively felt, yet not violate the rule for the grammatical unity of the sentence. Turn 
 to the second portion of Lesson III. and see to what extent you would wish to use 
 semicolons instead of periods between the sentences where you found a comma wrongly 
 used. 
 
 As the proper mark to group words already subdivided by commas, the semicolon is 
 used after different items listed in a letter. The period indicates when the end of the 
 list has been reached. When a price ends each item, that is often sufficient distinction 
 without the semicolon, 
 
 (OVER) 
 
EXERCISES ON THE SEMICOLON 
 
 State the rule which explains the use of the semicolon in each of the following 
 sentences : 
 
 I am flatter than a denial or a pancake; emptier than Judge Parke's wig when the 
 head is in it; duller than a country stage when the actors are off it, a cipher, an o! (Ob- 
 serve that the subject and predicate are clearly implied in two of these sentences: what 
 are they? Also observe that a dash introduces the summary of all. How useful is punc- 
 tuation in expressing our meaning? ) 
 
 I inhale suffocation; I can't distinguish veal from mutton; nothing interests me. I am 
 weary of life; life is weary of me. 
 
 You know our "Sure and Easy" fire tube has been thoroughly tested during the past 
 five years. It is quick; it is positive; it injures no fabric, paper, or furniture. 
 
 In ordering goods be sure to< 
 
 1. Make a list, or arrange in a column, if there are several items, to avoid confusion ; 
 
 2. Give sizes, styles, and all other details you possibly can, or clearly explain precisely 
 what you want; 
 
 3. State how much money is sent, or how you intend to make payment; 
 
 4. Indicate how shipment is to be made. 
 
 (In the preceding explain also the use of each comma.) 
 
 EXERCISES ON WORDS OFTEN MISUSED 
 
 See Dictionary of Errors, page 121, or How to Do Business by Letter, pages 104, 112. 
 Why is it wrong to say, "I got here previous to your arrival"? 
 
 What is the objection to saying "Where did you procure it?" when this use of "procure" 
 is admitted to be logically correct? 
 
 What is the difference between "proposal" and "proposition"? 
 
 What is the objection to "proven" in common use? 
 
 What is the difference between "propose" and "purpose"? 
 
 Exactly what is a "proposition," and how is the word sometimes misused? 
 
 What two parts of speech may "provided" be? For which one of them is "providing" 
 often wrongly used? Why is "providing" wrong as a conjunction? 
 
 Give a sentence in which "quite" is correctly used. 
 
 What is the objection to "quite a good deal"? What should you say? 
 
 What is the difference between "raise" and "rise"? Give several examples of the 
 correct use of each, so as to illustrate their differences. 
 
 Do you ask for a "raise" of salary or a "rise" of salary? Can you tell why? 
 
 Why is "real nice" wrong, and what is the correct form ? Criticise "She is a real sweet 
 little baby." 
 
 What is the difference between "receipt" and "recipe"? Use each in sentences so as 
 to illustrate the different meanings. 
 
 What is the difference between "remember" and "recollect"? 
 What is the difference between "rendition" and "rendering"? 
 What is a man's "residence"? 
 
 (Lesson XV, page 4) 
 
LESSON XVI. Irregular Verbs. 
 
 See Grammar, sections 53, 54, pp. 56-60. 
 
 Look up in the dictionary and carefully distinguish sit, set, lie, lay, learn, teach. 
 
 What is the difference between a past participle and a simple past tense? 
 
 Rewrite the following sentences correctly : 
 He has (begun began) to do the work. 
 
 The rat had (bit bitten) the rope almost in two. 
 
 We will (learn teach) him the trick yet. 
 
 He (laid lay) the boy down gently. 
 
 She (lay laid) down to take a nap. 
 
 It was (laid lain) on the top shelf. 
 
 I have (bore borne) the brunt of this battle. 
 
 Henry had (forgot forgotten) to tell his sister. 
 
 We (saw seen) the parade. 
 
 They had (gone went) to Minneapolis. 
 
 The little boy (did done) his best. 
 
 They have (come came) over to see us. 
 
 Henry had (wrote written) his sister. 
 
 He had (set sat) down to the table. 
 
 The hen was (sitting setting). 
 
 He had just (set sat) the hen. 
 
 Change the present tenses of the verbs in the following sentences to the past tense; 
 The Charles river overflows its banks. 
 
 The girl's mother pleads for hef 
 The blacksmith shoes the horses. 
 
 The bird flies high over the trees. 
 
 I bid 5oc for that picture. 
 
 The party alight at our door. 
 
 I light the lamp. 
 
 Helen swims like a fish. 
 
Grammar, pp. 56-60. Lesson XVI. 
 
 We have called attention to the various irregularities of the verb to be in the different 
 modes and tenses. Besides this verb, there are over one hundred and seventy other verbs 
 that are classed as irregular; but their irregularity extends only to the past tense and the 
 past participle, and forms derived from them. 
 
 The following illustrations will serve to indicate this class : 
 
 Present Past Past participle 
 
 arise arose arisen 
 
 build built built 
 
 bite bit bitten 
 
 spit spit spit 
 
 begin began begun 
 
 put put put 
 
 catch caught caught 
 
 teach taught taught 
 
 The chief difficulty with such verbs arises from confusing the past tense with the past 
 participle. Many people will say "I done it," and some even "I have did it." 
 
 There are not many of the irregular verbs that offer difficulty. Before considering 
 them, let us "see just when and where we should use the past tense, and where and when the 
 past participle. 
 
 The auxiliaries to be and to have are followed by the past participle in forming the 
 various modes, tenses, etc., of the verb, but all the other auxiliaries are followed by the 
 present form (the present infinitive without the to). We can make no error if we always 
 place the participle after forms of be and have, but use the past form when be and have 
 are wanting in regular sentences. The following illustrations will serve to enforce this 
 observation. In each case the past tense of the verb is used before the participial form: 
 
 He bore the colors before the regiment; 
 but He had borne his comrades from the field. 
 
 He bade me tell you he was ready to see you; 
 but He was bidden to apologize. 
 
 He came up here to see you; 
 but He had come up here to see you. 
 
 We all did our best; 
 but Everything was done that could be done. 
 
 We forgot to ask his opinion; 
 but The incident was forgotten an hour later. 
 
 He laid the book on the table; 
 
 When he came in he was so tired he lay down to rest ; 
 but She had lain down to rest; 
 
 The towel had been laid away and I could not find it. 
 
 (Note. Distinguish the parts of these two entirely different verbs carefully. They 
 are often confused.) 
 
LESSON XVI (Continued). Punctuation the Colon. 
 
 The nature and use of the colon are not well understood by ordinary writers, and 
 this mark of punctuation is seldom required in ordinary writing. It would be well to 
 dispense with it except in cases where its use is clearly comprehended. 
 
 The colon signifies that what precedes is logically equivalent to what follows. It is used 
 in the formal introduction of quotations, especially after such phrases as "as follows." The 
 introduction states that he spoke, the quotation following gives the words of his speech. 
 One is the equivalent of the other. 
 
 It will be seen that in most cases the colon has a special meaning of its own, and 
 to say that it indicates a pause more abrupt than the semicolon is usually incorrect. 
 
 Examples : The wind raged, and the rain beat against the window : it was a miserable 
 day. (The last sentence summarizes the preceding. It will be observed that the colon 
 closes what is really a complete sentence; and the sentence which follows is also complete.) 
 
 One thing thou lackest : go thy way, sell whatsoever thou hast, and give to the poor. 
 (Again we see the logical equivalence of the two sentences separated by the colon.) 
 
 Note. The equality between the ideas in sentences separated from each other by 
 colons may be of a great variety of kinds. If the writer wishes to balance two sentences 
 against each other and indicate that one offsets the other, that is, that one is equal to the 
 other in its value as an idea, he may use the colon between the two. Macaulay, who con- 
 stantly uses the balanced structure as a rhetorical device, employs the colon again and 
 again to indicate that he means to balance his first sentence against his second, though in 
 many cases one is just opposite in meaning to the other. The following are examples : 
 
 Hatred and revenge eat into the heart : yet his aspect and language exhibit nothing 
 but philosophical moderation. 
 
 The following generation produced indeed no second -Dante: but it was eminently 
 distinguished by general intellectual activity. 
 
 This is strange: and yet the strangest is behind. 
 
 (In very long and complicated sentences the colon was formerly used to show greater 
 separation than is indicated by semicolons in the same sentence. Nowadays such long sen- 
 tences are not tolerated.) 
 
 The colon is the proper mark to use after the salutation of a letter. Do not add a 
 dash, for it does not help in any way and the better usage dispenses with it. Examples: 
 Dear Sir : My dear Friend : Gentlemen : 
 
 Use a colon to introduce a formal quotation, but be careful not to use it to introduce 
 an informal quotation, as writers so often do. Mr. Smith said in part : "When I was called 
 on to address you," etc. that is a formal qoutation. Mr. Smith said, "I would n't do 
 that if I were in your place" that is an informal quotation. It is a real error to place a 
 colon after said in the latter case. A comma and a dash may introduce a quotation between 
 one that is very formal and one that is quite informal. 
 
 MORE EXERCISES ON THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 Insert both commas and semicolons where needed in the following: 
 
 Any rnan can make money if he has 1. A good thing to push 2. Big enough margin 
 of profit 3. Protection. 
 
 We will supply you everything but the spirit but that must come from you. 
 
 They may fail and they may succeed and no man can tell in advance what the result 
 will be but it is true of all business that some ventures pay and some do not. 
 
 This provides the machinery for answering all letters that come in but thousands who 
 do not have this machinery for answering letters do not go any further that is they never 
 follow up the inquiries they receive. 
 
 (OVER) 
 
I know English is a good thing but I haven't time for anything that doesn't bear 
 directly on my business. 
 
 Time and space are but physiological colors which the eye makes but the soul is light 
 where it is is day where it was is night and history is an impertinence and an injury if it be 
 anything more than a cheerful apologue or parable of my being and becoming. Carlyle. 
 
 Sometimes blazing in gold-laced hats and waistcoats sometimes lying in bed because 
 their coats had gone to pieces or wearing paper cravats because their linen was in pawn 
 sometimes drinking Champagne and Tokay with Betty Careless sometimes standing at the 
 window of an eating-house in Porridge Island to snuff up the scent of what they 
 could not afford to taste they knew luxury they knew beggary but they never knew comfort. 
 
 EXERCISES ON THE COLON. 
 
 In this book, why is a colon used after the word "Examples"? 
 Explain the use of colons and semicolons in the following: 
 
 Don't begin all your letters in the same well-worn, stereotyped fashion as 
 
 "In reply to your esteemed leter of the 12th inst., we beg to apprise"; 
 
 "In answer to your letter of the 5th inst., we have the honor to inform you." 
 
 Begin at once with what you have to say, and acknowledge incidentally the letter you 
 are answering. For example, begin (if the letter contains an order) : 
 
 "We thank you cordially for the order contained in your letter of the 10th inst., just 
 at hand." 
 
 If the letter asks a favor of some kind, begin: 
 
 "We have read yours of the 16th carefully, but cannot see our way at present to 
 granting your request"; or 
 
 "We fully appreciate all you say in your letter of the 16th inst., just received, but." 
 
 (In the preceding, what words are indicated clearly by the colons after "begin"? 
 Why is there no mark after "stereotyped fashion as"?) 
 
 Don't say, "Trusting we may have a continuance of your valued patronage." Say 
 anything that is natural, friendly, and intelligent. 
 
 I take the liberty of inclosing a statement for a Convertible Term Policy which I 
 know will prove of interest to you, as it has these great advantages: (List of numbered 
 items follows). 
 
 Insert colons or other marks where required in the following: 
 
 On my saying, What have I to do with the sacredness of traditions if I live wholly 
 from within? my friend suggested "But these impulses may be from below, not from above." 
 I replied "They do not seem to me to be such." 
 
 Friend, client, child, sickness, fear, want, charity, all knock at once at thy closet door, 
 and say "Come out unto us." 
 
 Discontent is the want of self-reliance it is the infirmity of will. 
 
 All the world reads it, all the world delights in it yet we do not remember ever to 
 have read or ever to have heard any expression of respect and admiration for the man 
 to whom we owe so much instruction and amusement. 
 
 This incident is recorded in the "Journey" as follows "Out of one of the beds on 
 which we were to repose" etc. 
 
 (Lesson XVI, page 4) 
 
LESSON XVII. Irregular Verbs. 
 
 Change the verbs in the following either to perfect or to passive form 
 The swallow flies close to the ground. 
 
 Who stole my watch? 
 
 I wake up in the night. 
 
 This shows what a bad man he is. 
 
 Are you shoeing my horse? 
 
 He speaks like a man of education. 
 
 This proves the case. 
 
 They lay the case before me. 
 
 This state hangs murderers. 
 
 I rise at four in the morning. 
 
 Those men are going to the train. 
 
 Our water froze last night. 
 
 That bank president flees to Mexico. 
 
 Will you break the news to my wife? 
 
 I dove from the pier. 
 
 They were driving a flock of sheep along the street. 
 
 I forget what you said. 
 
 My little boy awakes me every morning at six. 
 
 The politician speaks like a talking-machine. 
 
 The river is overflowing its banks. 
 
 She bears the burden meekly. 
 
 The poor child sank three times. 
 
 They beseech me for money which I cannot give them. 
 
 Helen bade her mother goodbye. 
 
 The pressure bursts the pipe. 
 
 How many cakes are you eating? 
 
 They will hang that man. 
 
Grammar, pp. 56-60 (cont.) (Lesson XVII.) 
 
 We saw the parade; 
 but She lives merely to see and to be seen. 
 
 The wind shook the tree till it trembled; 
 but The tree was shaken till it fell. 
 
 The sun shone in at the window ; 
 and The sun had shone brightly all day ; 
 
 but He showed us the jewels which had before been shown to the prince. 
 
 (Note that here we have two entirely different verbs.) 
 
 The student may make similar examples for himself correctly using the following: 
 
 Present Past Past participle 
 
 speak spoke spoken 
 
 steal stole stolen 
 
 swear swore sworn 
 
 take took taken 
 
 wear wore worn 
 
 write wrote written 
 
 The common error in the use of the above may be readily seen by placing the past 
 participle where the past tense form should be found. The student will do well to read the 
 above sentences with the past participle in place of the past tense as, "He come up here to see 
 you" ; and if the past participle is not liable to such misuse, replace the participle by the past 
 tense, as "He had bore his comrade from the field." Such an experiment once tried will 
 doubtless put the student on his guard. It is better that the student should try the experiment 
 for himself without writing out the sentence than that his teacher should offer him incorrect 
 examples on which his mind may dwell too long ; study should be concentrated on the correct 
 usage. 
 
 There is a class of irregular verbs in which the principal vowel may be u or a, as 
 "Drink, drank, drunk or drank." Usage differs a little on these, but sometimes both forms 
 are right. In the example given above some use "drank" in both past tense and past participle, 
 to avoid confusion with the adjective "drunk," but "drunk" in the past tense is obsolete. 
 The following table will show the preferred usage with most of these verbs : 
 
 drink drank drunk 
 
 sing sang or sung sung 
 
 sink sank or sunk sunk 
 
 spring sprang or sprung sprung 
 
 swim swam or swum swum 
 
 "Read" has the* same form in all three parts, but the two past forms are pronounced 
 with the short sound of e. "Eat" is peculiar in having "eat, ate, eaten," and it is incorrect 
 to say, "He has eat it all up," and "When he eat his breakfast yesterday morning, etc." is 
 an obsolete use of "eat." 
 
 Those who are in the habit of reading standard literature with some thought for the 
 values of words will seldom err in the use of the irregular verbs. "I done it" seems to be 
 the chief survival of barbarism among persons of more or less education. "I seen" is a 
 sign of gross ignorance. 
 
LESSON XVII (Continued). Punctuation the Dash and the Parenthesis. 
 
 The dash indicates an abrupt change in the grammatical construction, or in the flow 
 of thought. When a wholly disconnected clause is thrown into a sentence it may be 
 preceded and followed by a dash, or it may be inclosed within parentheses. Usually in 
 place of a dash at each end we substitute the two parts of a parenthesis. The effect is 
 the same. 
 
 The dash is often united with the comma. A comma and a dash are used in place 
 of a colon in introducing a quotation in an easy and flowing manner, the colon being 
 reserved for formal introductions. Formerly nearly all quotations were introduced by 
 colons, but now the comma and dash are preferred in ordinary cases. 
 
 Any abrupt change in the middle of a sentence is usually indicated by a comma and 
 a dash. 
 
 Such phrases as "Dear Sir" at the beginning of a letter may be followed either by a 
 colon or by a comma and a dash. The colon is general in business letters, the comma 
 and dash in social. In Europe a comma alone is used. 
 
 When a sentence is brought to an abrupt termination, being completely broken off, 
 a dash of double length is used. 
 
 Examples: All this story was about what do you think? 
 
 Well 1 don't know that is no, I cannot accept it. 
 
 "Gentlemen, I swear by all " But the sentence was never finished. 
 
 The dash is also used in much the same way that the colon is, to indicate equality, 
 especially in summarizing. Macaulay uses it in this way constantly. 
 
 Examples: Now, every man pursues his own happiness or interest call it which 
 you will. 
 
 They have already made the science of political economy a science of vast impor- 
 tance to the welfare of the nations an object of disgust. 
 
 For all possible checks may be classed under two heads, want of will and want 
 of power. 
 
 What Lord Bacon blames in the schoolmen is this, that they reason syllogistically on 
 words which had not been defined with precision. 
 
 A parenthetical clause within another of the same kind must be indicated by some 
 other marks than those used to indicate the larger. We may alternate dashes and marks 
 of parenthesis, and in case of necessity we may use square brackets. 
 
 Brackets are regularly used to indicate words thrown into quotations by the writer 
 who quotes. Sometimes these words are comments, sometimes words supplied to complete 
 the meaning. 
 
 Example: Compare the following account of Lord Palmerston: "I have heard him 
 [Lord Palmerston] say that he occasionally found that they [foreign ministers] had been 
 deceived by the open manner in which he told them the truth." 
 
 When parenthetical words are not very different from the text, dashes should be 
 used; when the difference is greater, the curved marks of parenthesis are to be employed; 
 and brackets are to be used only when special occasion requires them. 
 
 (OVER) 
 
EXERCISES ON THE DASH AND PARENTHESIS. 
 
 The dash is greatly overworked in business. It should usually be employed only to 
 indicate an abrupt transition and as a mild form of the colon. Explain why the dash 
 is required in the following: 
 
 It should be shorter, on different-colored paper, with different style of type otherwise 
 the man who gets it will say, "Oh, another letter about that project I know all about 
 it already!" 
 
 It sets a date May 30. 
 
 The first is devoted to the question of delay putting the matter off. 
 
 The card might read: Have you any interest in the subject of ? 
 
 Note. Observe that the writer wraps his hints in a cloud of words. 
 
 A headline: Giving a letter the proper tone how to write to your superior. 
 
 Eldridge is doing very well, better than I expected. 
 
 I have just been reading your enthusiastic letter in regard to work in February Hoyt 
 month and I feel you are going to make a record we shall all be proud of. 
 
 To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private 
 heart is true for all men, that is genius. Emerson. 
 
 You can get almost fifty per cent more out of your letters than you do to-day almost 
 every business man can and what would that mean to your salary or dividends? 
 
 The following is an example of a business letter in which the dash is used to excess. 
 Rewrite this letter substituting some other punctuation mark for the dash wherevej you 
 think such a change ought to be made: 
 
 I shall receive from the printers Thursday a few advance copies of J. M. Coates' 
 "How to Make a Factory Pay" a business book that I honestly believe will save you 
 more money will do more to protect your whole business system than any other book 
 in print. I want you to see for yourself how it tells fully. explicitly exactly how to 
 manage and systematize a modern business. 
 
 Think of it ! Two dollars the mere price of a handful of cigars for the lifetime expe- 
 rience of the highest-salaried factory specialist in the country ! And when I make an 
 offer so fair and liberal when you do not even run a risk in sending for the book can't 
 I send it to you for criticism next week? 
 
 Insert dashes into the following where you think they are required: 
 
 Look on every small order as a test, an experiment, which may lead to the largest 
 at any rate to a large total in a year. 
 
 But it will pay just as well to give them to the reasonable customer probably it will 
 pay better. 
 
 They are usually too long so long that the length shows on the face of it that the 
 letter is a printed form. 
 
 Then write another letter to another man you know, a different man. 
 
 An ideal premium is one that many people want but which costs the giver very little 
 far less than it would cost the retail purchaser. 
 
 I speak not of your grown porkers things between pig and pork those hobbledehoys 
 but a young and tender suckling. Lamb. 
 
 Carlyle aptly says "The healthy know not of their health, but only the sick." 
 
 (Lesson XVII, page 4) 
 
Extra lesson and review : Write out Exercise VI, Grammar, page 60. 
 LESSON XVIII. Pronouns. 
 
 See Grammar, sections 55-59, pp. 61-65. 
 
 What are the first personal pronouns, and to what do they refer? 
 
 What are the second personal pronouns, and what are their antecedents? 
 Mention half a dozen pronouns in the third person? 
 
 To what do third personal pronouns refer, or how may you know what their antecedents 
 are? 
 
 Rewrite the following so that it will be clear to what each pronoun refers : 
 The magician invited Aladdin to go with him into the country. He was 
 rather pleased at the idea and accompanied him. After they had passed through 
 a number of gardens and got out into the country, he told him to gather sticks 
 and build a fire, which he did. Then he threw powder into the fire and a 
 door with an iron ring appeared. This he bade him lift, but he was afraid 
 to do so at first. However, he soon made the attempt and descended into 
 the ground. 
 
 Correct the following: 
 
 There was a gay party of three girls and as many boys. Each of them 
 
 brought their lunch, and viand after viand made their way down hungry throats. 
 Every one of the girls could swim and had brought their bathing suit, and all 
 the boys took off their coats preparing themselves to row down the lake. None 
 of them was afraid of exercise, and both Helen and John were champion rowers. 
 Either of them manages a sailboat perfectly, and each of the others are able to 
 row. None failed to do his best, and all had a glorious time. 
 
 Many a woman would give their lives for their children. 
 If any one has not finished let them hold up their hands. 
 Every householder must pay their water-tax before the I2th 
 Nobody went out of their way to be cordial. 
 
Grammar, pp. 61-65. Lesson XVIII. 
 
 As we know, a pronoun is a word which stands for a noun ; and it requires little 
 reflection to show how very important it is that we should know clearly for what noun each 
 pronoun stands. 
 
 Every pronoun must agree with its antecedent in every respect, and the relationship must 
 be easily and clearly traced, without danger of confusion. 
 
 We usually have no special difficulty in knowing to whom the first and second persons 
 refer, for one is the person speaking, and the other the person spoken to, the two chief 
 actors in every dialogue, the rhetorical essentials in every written or spoken discourse. 
 
 Pronouns of the third person, however, are used so numerously, and even in the same 
 sentence refer so variously to different persons and objects, that confusion is not only easy, 
 tut inevitable unless the greatest care is taken. Here is a sentence from Lane's translation 
 of the "Arabian Nights": "Aladdin was so frightened at what he saw that he would have 
 run away; but as he was to be serviceable to the magician, he caught hold of him, scolded 
 him, and gave him such a box on the ear that he knocked him down, and had like to have 
 beat his teeth down his throat." We have to reflect a little to be sure to which of the 
 persons all the he's and kirn's refer. 
 
 In a case of this kind we may sometimes use consistently the nominative of the pronoun 
 to refer to one of the persons throughout the sentence, and the objective form to refer to 
 the other; but in the sentence above we note that the first he in italic refers to Aladdin, and 
 the second, the subject of the next clause, refers to magician; and the confusion grows to 
 the end. 
 
 Of course all nouns denoting male sex will be referred to by he and him (in the 
 singular), those denoting female sex will be referred to by she and her (in the singular), 
 and those denoting no sex at all, by it or similar sexless prououn.* 
 
 If the pronoun refers to "man or woman," the masculine form must be used, as in 
 "Each of the assembled throng expressed his opinion" (unless the "throng" happened to be 
 composed entirely of women). 
 
 In referring to children we usually use the neuter form, and refer to them by the 
 use of */ and zvhich. 
 
 We must be very careful in the use of pronouns referring to persons or objects 
 described as^ each, every, etc., the singular pronoun being required in all these cases. The 
 proper possessive to use in referring to one is one's, though his is used by many writers ; for 
 example, we may say, "In a Western mining town one cannot expect to have everything one's 
 own 'way," or "his own way." 
 
 As a pronoun "takes the place of a noun," it is very improper to use a pronoun when 
 the noun itself is present to fulfil its own duties. The most frequent confusion arises when 
 we use the participle in a form in some ways resembling the absolute use, as "The candidate, 
 being elected, was dragged all around the town by the excited citizens," not "The candidate 
 being elected, he was dragged," etc. No educated person would say, "The man, he knocked 
 me down," but in more obscure cases like the one cited above, errors are frequently made. 
 
 Besides the personal pronouns, we have "adjective pronouns," or adjectives sometimes 
 used as pronouns, like each, some, any, etc. That, this, those, these when used as pronouns 
 are called demonstrative pronouns. The intensive pronouns himself, herself, yourselves, etc., 
 may usually be construed as adjectives or words in apposition. 
 
 * Most grammarians deduce from these sex pronouns that the English language has "gen- 
 der." This is not the fact, however. Nouns in English have no gender except as they refer Spe- 
 cifically to males or females, or to objects personified by a figure of speech, 
 
LESSON XVIII (Continued). Punctuation the Hyphen. 
 
 The hyphen is used at the end of a line when a word is broken off and a part of 
 it is placed on the next line. Examples of this are common in every printed book. It is 
 to be noted that the hyphen can never be placed at the beginning of the next line, as 
 some uneducated people would place it. Moreover, a word can be broken only on a 
 syllable, and the division of words into syllables must be well understood if the hyphen 
 is to be used correctly at the end of a line. 
 
 Hyphens are also used in compound words. When two words first unite they are 
 commonly joined by a hyphen. After a time the hyphen is omitted. Thus police-man 
 once appeared in the dictionary with a hyphen, but it is never so written to-day. Usually 
 it is necessary to refer to the dictionary to find out the proper way to write all compound 
 words or words that may be compound. The black hyphen mark is used in the dictionary 
 to indicate that the hyphen is always to be written, the light hyphen mark merely to divide 
 the syllables. 
 
 To-day, to-morrow, to-nigH, etc., are properly written with the hyphen, though nowa- 
 days many omit it. 
 
 When a noun is followed by a present participle, the whole forming a verbal noun, 
 the noun and the participle are commonly united by a hyphen, as in the case of story-writing, 
 well-digging, etc. An adjective preceding a verbal noun (present participle), or indeed 
 any noun, should never be united to that noun by a hyphen. 
 
 There is a great difference between a "green house" and a "greenhouse," a "poor farm" 
 and a "poor-farm." 
 
 When a noun preceded by an adjective is used as a sort of compound adjective, the 
 two words (noun and adjective) are united by the hyphen. For example, common sense 
 used as a noun and adjective should never be united in any way, either by a hyhpen or by 
 being written as one word. But common-sense reasoning is a phrase in which the noun 
 sense united with its adjective becomes itself an adjective. In the case of short story 
 writing, our principles would require a hyphen between story and writing and also between 
 short and story. But this would make a combination too long to be elegant, and so the 
 hyphen should properly be omitted in both cases. 
 
 The hyphen is used to separate prefixes when emphasis is placed upon them so as to 
 suggest contrast, as in under- estimate and over-estimate, though either word may omit the 
 hyphen if there is no emphasis or suggestion of contrast. Re-creation means creating again, 
 but recreation means having a good time. 
 
 When an adjective is used before a past participle in place of an adverb, as the idiom 
 of our language permits, we must always unite it to the participle by a hyphen, else we may 
 seem to be committing the grammatical fault of making an adjective modify a verb. We 
 may say gaily colored in which we use an adverb before the past participle, or we may 
 'write gay-colored and make a compound adjective. When the word before the participle 
 is an adverb in fact, it is a mistake to unite it to the participle by a hyphen. We say "a 
 well dressed man," though many persons have a tendency to insert a hyphen between well 
 and dressed. 
 
 When a phrase is used as if it were a single word, its parts should be united by hyphens, 
 as "He gave me a straight-from-the-shoulder blow." Such prhases are usually adjectives, 
 and when they are not used as adjectives the hyphens may often be omitted with advantage. 
 
 In general the hyphen means unity, oneness of idea, and in so far as two or more 
 words run together to form one conception, they require a hyphen until they have been 
 used so long we do remember that they were originally two words. Thus we write ten- 
 acre lot, two-foot rule, a first-rate book, a bank-book, controller-general, file-card, folding- 
 machine, hat-maker, death-trap, mail-carrier. 
 
 (OVER) 
 
When there are various kinds of things designated by the same word but distinguished 
 by the word that goes before, the mind instinctively rebels against the use of a hyphen. 
 Mr. Brander Matthews has tried in vain to tell us we ought to write the short-story because 
 that is a distinct species, and Mr. Lewis talks about the form-letter because that is a well- 
 defined type. So long as there are in the common view other stories besides short stories 
 and other letters besides form letters, we don't do what was done in forming bank-book 
 which does not in any way suggest grocery book (at grocery stores we use a pass-book) 
 or anything else from which we must constantly distinguish bank-book. That is why we 
 write apple tree without a hyphen, because we are always distinguishing the apple tree 
 from the pear tree or the peach tree, and the simple adjective ununited is required to make 
 this distinction in the best way. 
 
 Summary of rules for the Hyphen: 1. To break words at the ends of lines; 2. To 
 unite nouns to present participles so as to form single words; 3. To unite adjectives to 
 past participles so as to form a compound adjective; 4. To unite the words of a phrase 
 so the phrase may be used as a single word; 5. To unite nouns to nouns to suggest 
 singleness of idea when the first noun modifies the second as an adjective and there is no 
 reason to distinguish different common varieties of the thing indicated by the second noun. 
 
 EXERCISES ON WORDS OFTEN MISUSED 
 
 See Dictionary of Errors, page 123 (last line), or How to Do Business by Letter, pages 
 113, 122, 129, 138. 
 
 How do you properly "retire"? Are bonds properly "retired"? Do you say of a young 
 girl that she has a "retiring" nature? 
 
 What small word is always required before "reverend" and "honorable" used as titles? 
 
 What is the difference between "riding" and "driving"? 
 
 Why would it not be correct to ask "What quantity of fishes have you caught to-day"? 
 
 What things can you "settle" and what can't you "settle"? 
 
 What is the difference between "sewage" and "sewerage"? 
 
 Carefully distinguish "sit" and "set." Which takes an object? What is the past tense 
 of each? What does a hen do? What does the sun do? What does a coat do? 
 
 What is the difference between "art" and "science"? Give illustrations. 
 
 What is the difference between "seem" and "appear"? 
 
 Give half a dozen examples illustrating as many different ways of using "shall" and 
 "will" correctly. 
 
 What is the difference between "sick" and "ill"? 
 Why is "not a single one" or "not a single individual" incorrect? 
 When is "as much as " required and when "so much as"? 
 What is the difference between "solicitude" and "solicitation"? 
 
 Illustrate the incorrect use of "so much so" and give an example of the correct use. 
 Is it proper to say "some better"? What word is required? 
 What is the difference between "state" and "say"? 
 Illustrate the difference between "stimulus" and "stimulant." 
 Do you "stop" or "stay" at a hotel? Why is one right, the other wrong? 
 Give some examples of the incorrect use of "that." 
 
 Explain and illustrate fully when one should use each of the relative pronouns "that," 
 "which," and "who." 
 
 When should "the" be repeated before a second noun joined to a preceding by and? 
 Why is "those kind" or "these kind" incorrect? 
 
 (Lesson XVIII, page 4) 
 
LESSON XIX. Pronouns. 
 
 Rewrite the following correctly: 
 
 Neither Lincoln nor Washington failed to serve (their his) country when (their his) 
 country needed (him them). 
 
 Let each do (their his) best. 
 
 Nobody should pay (himself themselves). 
 
 The class has elected (its their) president. 
 
 Every man and woman must do (his her their) own work in the world. 
 
 The moon revolves around the earth, giving (her its) cool yellow light by night, while 
 the sun gives (his its) torrid rays by day. 
 
 The ship bears (herself itself) right royally. 
 
 The hen gathers (her its) brood under (her its) wing. 
 
 Fill the following blanks with the proper pronouns : 
 
 Sir, - - shalt bow neck to my hand yet, and I will make wish (had 
 
 hadst) never been born. 
 
 Dost talk of revenge? conscience has grown dull. 
 
 Correct the pronouns in the following: 
 
 Mrs. Daniels presents her compliments to Mr. Jones, and says if you don't return my 
 garden hose instanter I will have you arrested. 
 
 None of us knows oneself well enough to say what we will do in any given circum- 
 stances. 
 
 Neither of the three was my friend. 
 
 Either Jenny or John or Harry will be glad to do your errand for us. 
 
 When you have looked the book over you may return it to myself. 
 
 It was me who called you. 
 
 Us boys are having a fine time. 
 
 Ourselves the glory win or lose. 
 
 Such girls as her are not fit to associate with. 
 
Grammar, pp. 61-65 (cont.) (Lesson XIX.) 
 
 The relative pronoun performs the office of conjunction connecting a subordinate 
 sentence to the principal sentence, as well as that of pronoun in taking the place of a noun. 
 The relative may even take the place of a pronoun of the first or second person. In that case 
 the verb following the relative must correspond in person to the pronoun of which the 
 relative is taking the place. Thus we would say, "I, who love you, can best judge you," 
 not "I, who loves you," etc. ; and "Thou, that lovest me," etc. 
 
 The pronoun who always refers to persons, which to things. We say nowadays, "Our 
 Father who art in heaven, hallowed be Thy name," though in former times which was allow- 
 able and we find it in the King James version of the Bible. 
 
 Which may refer to persons in distinguishing between two or several, as when we 
 say, "I cannot tell zvhich of the girls I prefer." It is also regularly used in referring 
 to children, as stated above. It should always be used in referring to animals. The use of 
 who or whom where we should expect which indicates personification of the object referred 
 to, or an implied comparison to a person. 
 
 Who has whom as its objective case, and the case must always be determined by 
 the construction of the sentence, principal or subordinate, in which it stands. Thus we say, 
 "I will give it to you who are so worthy of it," but "I will give it to you whom I consider 
 worthy of it." 
 
 Whose is the possessive form for both who and what, though whose in the sense of 
 of which is nearly obsolete. 
 
 That as a relative pronoun refers either to persons or to things. 
 
 What is equivalent to that which, and its antecedent is often a general idea, sometimes 
 expressed in the portion of the sentence which follows. Thus in the sentence, "What 
 concerns you, concerns me," we see that the subject of the second concerns is the that implied 
 in what, and the antecedent is some such general notion as "thing." 
 
 Who, which, and what may be used interrogatively, and of course they are governed 
 by the expected answer. 
 
LESSON XIX (Continued). Punctuation Exercises on the Hyphen. 
 
 Consider each of the following words and give a good reason why the hyphen was used 
 or why it was omitted : 
 
 addressing-machine 
 
 anybody 
 
 any one 
 
 anything 
 
 baggage-check 
 
 baggageman 
 
 balance sheet 
 
 ball-bearing 
 
 bank-book 
 
 bank-bill 
 
 bedroom 
 
 beeswax 
 
 bell-boy 
 
 blacksmith 
 
 block tin 
 
 blotting-paper 
 
 bookbinder 
 
 by-product 
 
 cabinet-maker 
 
 clearing-house 
 
 copybook 
 
 deckle-edged 
 
 I am going down town 
 
 Your down-town address 
 
 engine-room 
 
 everybody 
 
 An every-day affair 
 
 We do it every day 
 
 Every one 
 
 expressman 
 
 facsimile 
 
 fire clay 
 
 foolscap 
 
 foot-note 
 
 gaslight 
 
 gas stove 
 
 gateman 
 
 good-bye 
 
 good-for-nothing 
 
 graniteware 
 
 handbag 
 
 vice president 
 
 typewriter 
 
 under-estimate 
 
 under-expose 
 
 working class 
 
 workshop 
 
 handwriting 
 
 hat-maker 
 
 hat-store 
 
 headline 
 
 hothouse 
 
 house-fly 
 
 letterhead 
 
 letterpress (printed matter) 
 
 low-pressure 
 
 lumberman 
 
 lumberyard 
 
 machine-made 
 
 machine-shop 
 
 master printer 
 
 money-lender 
 
 newsboy 
 
 newspaper 
 
 newsstand 
 
 oil-can 
 
 oilcloth 
 
 old-timer 
 
 outgoing 
 
 It is an overcharge 
 
 He over-charged me 
 
 over-confident 
 
 over-production 
 
 piece-work 
 
 pin-money 
 
 pocket edition 
 
 pocket-knife 
 
 postal card 
 
 post card 
 
 post office 
 
 postman 
 
 postmaster 
 
 price-list 
 
 proofreader 
 
 proof-sheets 
 
 receipt-book 
 
 return ticket 
 
 road-bed 
 
 rolling-stock 
 
 salesman 
 
 sales manager 
 
 saleswoman 
 
 sample-card 
 
 school district 
 
 (OVER) 
 
schoolroom southeast 
 
 schoolteacher stock-market 
 
 schoolboy stock-room 
 
 second-hand subject-matter 
 
 showcase two thirds 
 
 show-window three-quarter length 
 
 silverware time-table 
 
 Divide the following words into syllables: advantage, appellant, financier, fortune, 
 foundation, further, grammar, important, Indian, market, million, plaintiff, actress, butcher, 
 children, frustrate, instructor, pitcher, business, colonel, double, mobile, noisy, patron, 
 product, progress, trouble, woman. 
 
 It is foolish to agree that a "gas-stove" is one that uses gas, while a "gas stove" is one 
 made of gas, for the very idea of a stove made of gas is too absurd even to think of. 
 Metonomy is a universal figure of speech and well understood. 
 
 EXERCISES ON WORDS OFTEN MISUSED 
 
 See Dictionary of Errors, page 132, or How to Do Business by Letter, pages 139, 147. 
 
 What is a split infinitive? When should it be avoided? Is it ever justified? Give 
 an example. 
 
 Why is "Where are you going to?" incorrect? 
 
 Give a correct example of the use of "transpire." 
 
 What objection is there to "twice over"? 
 
 Why is "understand about" incorrect? 
 
 Why is "United States" singular? 
 
 What objection is there to "universally by all"? What is "tautology"? 
 
 Give examples illustrating the difference between "use" and "usage." 
 
 What is the difference between "veracity" and "truth"? 
 
 Illustrate the difference between "venal" and "venial." 
 
 Why is "very pleased' incorrect? What is the correct form? 
 
 What is the objection to "a great ways off"? What is the correct form? 
 
 What is the objection to "but what"? What part of speech is each word? Is "what" 
 ever used as a conjunction? Is "that"? What is the correct form? 
 
 Why is "from whence" wrong? Was it ever correct? In what good "book do we 
 find it? 
 
 Give examples of the correct and incorrect use of the interrogatives "who" and "whom." 
 
 Illustrate the difference between "whole" and "entire." 
 
 What is the possessive case of "which"? 
 
 Why is "widow woman" objectionable? 
 
 Explain and illustrate the difference between "without" and "unless." 
 
 Note. While certain idioms in common use have been criticised by purists, it seems 
 advisable not to insist too much on these criticisms, since the student may feel that they 
 are unpractical and captious, and so involuntarily drift into complete neglect of the rhetorical 
 criticism of words. Attention has been called to most of these cases in the Dictionary of 
 Errors, and in passing the teacher should refer to them. The most important matters 
 have been brought out in the questions. 
 
 (Lesson XIX, page 4) 
 
LESSON XX. Relative Pronouns. 
 
 Note. When a relative refers to both persons and things, "that" is preferable to "who" 
 or "which"; but "that" can never follow a preposition. "As" is a relative pronoun after 
 "such" and "same." 
 
 Supply the proper relative pronoun in the following : 
 
 Washington, was the first President, died in 1799. 
 
 That is all I require. 
 
 There are many like tea without sugar or cream. 
 
 Cats and dogs, with our neighborhood is overrun, are the bane of my life. 
 
 This crystal, - is so perfectly transparent, is only spar. 
 
 He spends all - - he earns. (Note. "That" is often omitted). 
 
 The cat Helen gave me is dead. 
 
 There are many do not believe he is honest. 
 
 It is the same - - I gave you. (Note. Look up in the dictionary the difference in 
 meaning between "same that" and "same as"). 
 
 I trust my horse, will take me home in the darkest night. 
 
 All the men, horses, and cattle had been sent aboard were burned. 
 
 What I like best about it, and - - really appeals to me, is the exciting quality of the 
 music. 
 
 The men, horses, and wagons you saw belong to the army. 
 
 The man money I have will return to-day. 
 
 The horses (whose of which the) harnesses were damaged are Mr. Morgan's. 
 The plant - - leaves he has is a rare one. 
 
 can this letter be from? 
 
 ever it is, I do not like it. 
 
 One letter was from a man I learned had never lived in the city. 
 
 He did not know as much about it as (I me). 
 I like bread and butter better than (she her). 
 
 do you think the boy looks like? 
 
LESSON XX (Continued). Punctuation Quotation and Other Marks. 
 
 Every exact quotation should be inclosed within quotation marks. A quotation within 
 a quotation is inclosed within single marks, and a quotation within that by double marks 
 again. 
 
 Example : "Said he, "Can you tell me what "Cut it out" means ?' " 
 
 Each new paragraph begins with quotation marks if the quotation includes several 
 paragraphs, but only the paragraph at the very end closes with quotation marks. 
 
 Slang words or phrases for which the writer does not care to take personal responsi- 
 bility may be included within quotation marks, as "Cut it out" in the preceding example. 
 Likewise words used in peculiar or technical meanings should be quoted. 
 
 Observe that while commas and periods are always printed inside of quotation marks 
 whether they belong there or not, all high marks are put inside the quotation marks if 
 they are a part of the sentence or phrase quoted, and outside if they are not part of the' 
 quoted words. Find five examples of this rule on this page or in this text. 
 
 Any word mentioned as a word and not with reference to its meaning, as when I say 
 and is a conjunction, should always be distinguished either by quotation marks or by being 
 printed in italic. Otherwise confusion is sure to exist. The same rule applies to titles of 
 books or articles. 
 
 An apostrophe is used not only as the sign of the possessive case of nouns, but also to 
 indicate any omission of letters in a word, as in the abbreviations "I'll" for "I will," "ne'er" 
 for "never," etc. 
 
 When a few words are left out of a quotation, the places where the omissions are made 
 are filled with two or three periods, or with stars. These signs are most commonly required 
 in making long quotations which must be condensed. 
 
 Reference to notes is usually indicated by a star. When there are several notes on the 
 same page, the star is used for the first note, the single dagger usually for the second, the 
 double dagger for the third, and after that two stars, the sign for the paragraph, or other 
 signs may be used as taste dictates. When the notes exceed three it is usually better to 
 employ small superior figures. 
 
 In writing, the sign of the paragraph may be prefixed to the first word of a sentence 
 which the writer wishes especially to indicate as the beginning of a new paragraph. This 
 sign is common when indentation has been forgotten or overlooked, or is not sufficiently 
 clear. 
 
 The use of special signs will be found fully explained at the back of Webster's 
 Dictionary. 
 
 READING PROOF. 
 
 Every person ought, however, to know the printer's proof-marks and be able to use them 
 in correcting the proof of an article, booklet, or advertisement. The" following signs are 
 placed in the margin at either side, and the word or letter to which attention is directed 
 is underscored or circled. Usually a line leads from the word or letter to the mark. 
 
 Observe that a sloping line is placed at the right of any letter or character which is 
 intended to be inserted into the text, but NOT at the side of any sign or abbreviation 
 indicating what the printer is expected to do. This rule is not as generally observed as it 
 ought to be. 
 
 (OVER) 
 
Words to go in italic are rewritten in the margin and underscored once, to go in small 
 capitals they are underscored twice, to go in capitals they are underscored three times, to 
 go in italic capitals they are underscored four times. Also the word or words in the text 
 may be circled and a direction written in the margin as "ital.," "sm. c.," etc . 
 
 ^ , o* 8 (dele). Delete, take out, or 
 
 expunge. 
 
 9 Turn a reversed letter. 
 $g A space, or more space between 
 
 words, letters, or lines. 
 * or O Less space, or no space, be- 
 
 tween words or letters. 
 L> or J Carry a word, fetferV etc., 
 
 further to the left or to the right. 
 D Indent. 
 " Elevate a letter, word, or character 
 
 that is sunk below the proper level. 
 t_i Sink or depress a letter, word, or 
 
 character raised too high. 
 | shows that a part of a paragraph 
 
 projects laterally beyond the rest. 
 I directs attention to a quadrat or 
 ^space which improperly appears. 
 
 X, or + directs attention to a broken 
 
 or imperfect type. 
 [ Bring a word or words to begin- 
 
 ning of line ; also, begin paragraph. 
 
 Straighten (a 
 crooked'part). 
 
 ^ Print as a dipnthong, Mgature, or 
 
 single character ; as, ae, // (i. e.\ 
 
 print as, fl). 
 
 IT Make a new paragraph. 
 Put in Italic ; also, change from 
 
 Italic to Roman, or from Roman to 
 
 Italic, as the case may be. 
 m Put in small capitals. 
 = Put in capitals* 
 
 J@|r* Other marks are self-explana- 
 tory ; but the following abbreviations 
 require explanation : 
 wf. Wrong font ; used when a char* 
 
 acter is of a wrong size or style. 
 tr. Transpose. 
 /. c. Lower case ; t. e., put in small 
 
 or common letters a word or a letter 
 
 that has been printed in capitals or 
 
 small capitals, [tals. I 
 
 s. caps. , or sm. c. Put in small capi- 1 
 Qw., Qy.j or f Query. 
 
 s. c. Words wanting, see copy. 
 
 \\\ 
 \\\ 
 
 Write the following with a capital and small capital headline, and correct as a profes- 
 sional proofreader would the sixteen distinct errors : 
 
 THE CROWNING OF PETRARCH. 
 
 Nothing can be conceived more affecting or noble thann that ceremony. The superb 
 palaces and porticoes had by which rolled the ivory chariots of Marius and Ceasar had long 
 mouldered into dust. The laureled facsces, the golden eagles, the shouting Legions, the 
 captives and the pictured cities were indeed wanting to his victorious procession. The 
 sceptre had passsed away from Rome. But she still retaind the mightier influence of an 
 empire intellectual, and was now to confer the prouder reward of a intellectual triumph. 
 To the mon who had ex tended the dominion of her ancient language who had erected 
 the tropheys of philosophy and imagination in the haunts or ignorance and ferocity, whose 
 captions were the hearts of admiring nations enchained by the influence of his song whose 
 spoils were the treasures of ancient genius the eternal city offered the glorious and just 
 tribute of her gratitude. 
 
 EXERCISES ON SPECIAL MARKS. 
 
 Find a dozen examples of quotations of different kinds, and quoted and italic words in 
 this textbook. Then let the teacher dictate any exercise page, which students should be able 
 to write out correctly as to paragraphing, punctuation, and marks of all kinds. 
 
 (Lesson XX, page 4) 
 
LESSON XXI. Adverbs and Adjectives. 
 
 See Grammar, sections 60-65, PP- 65-68. 
 Where should "an" be used and where "a 1 '? 
 
 What two ways are there of indicating degrees of comparison in adjectives? 
 
 How do most adverbs end? 
 
 Mention a dozen adverbs which do not end in ly. 
 
 What is the difference between an adverb and an adjective? 
 
 Explain the difference between a predicate adjective and an adverb. 
 
 Are such words as "look," "feel," "taste," "smell," etc., usually followed by adverbs or 
 adjectives? Can you explain just why? 
 
 Underscore the adjectives and adverbs in the following, stating in each case just why 
 an adjective or an adverb is required. Rewrite the sentences correctly: 
 
 He is a fine jumper. He jumps (fine finely). 
 
 That is a beautiful dress. That dress looks (beautiful beautifully). 
 
 The proceeding was very strange. They acted (strange strangely). 
 
 His words were unkind and harsh. He spoke (unkind unkindly) and (harsh harshly). 
 His words sounded (unkind and harsh unkindly and harshly). 
 
 The bigger the engine, the easier the action. The bigger the engine, the (easier the 
 more easily) it acts. 
 
 He looks (sick sickly). 
 
 (Note. Observe that not all words- ending in ly are adverbs. "Sickly," "likely," etc., 
 are adjectives). 
 
 Washington always appeared (calm calmly) before his soldiers. 
 
 The answer was returned (prompt promptly). He seems (prompt promptly) enough. 
 
 That smells (good well). I feel (good well). 
 
 (Note. Observe that while "good" is always an adjective, "well" is sometimes adjec- 
 tive and sometimes adverb). 
 
 Speak a little (louder more loudly). 
 
 It was an (exceeding exceedingly) bitter dose to him. 
 
 He can run (swifter more swiftly) than I. 
 
Grammar, pp. 65-68. Lesson XXI. 
 
 Adjectives. Any word which limits or qualifies a noun may properly be called an 
 adjective. A (an) and the were formerly reckoned a separate part of speech, and were called 
 articles. They serve to designate nouns as taken in a general or specific sense, but their use 
 is liable to no special confusion. 
 
 An is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound. It is also properly used 
 
 before the sound of h in a syllable not accented, but a is required when the syllable beginning 
 
 with the sound of h is accented. We would say "a history," but "an historical work." A 
 
 is also used instead of an before a word beginning with u long, as "a university," "a Euro- 
 
 ' pean," etc. In England an is still used, though obviously not euphonious. 
 
 Closely akin to the are the demonstrative adjectives (also used as pronouns) that, this, 
 these, those. Of course the singular form must be used before a singular noun, and the 
 plural form before a plural noun. We would not say "I do not like these kind of people," 
 but "this kind." 
 
 The relative pronouns which and what are also used as adjectives, as in "I do not know 
 which boy to send," or "It is hard to tell what good can come of it." 
 
 Most adjectives may express degree by what is called "comparison," as in referring to 
 that which is "beautiful, more beautiful, and most beautiful." The adverbs more and most 
 indicate these degrees of comparison, but also the endings er and est may be used and really 
 form the regular way of indicating comparison, as in "great, greater, greatest." 
 
 Almost the only difficulty that arises in connection with the comparison of adjectives 
 is in choosing between the endings er and est and the adverbs more and most. The 
 determination is commonly made purely on the ground of euphony. If the endings are 
 easily and naturally pronounced, we use them; if they are not easily and euphoniously 
 pronounced, the two adverbs are used. We would ordinarily say "shy, shyer, shyest," but 
 not "splendid, splendider, splendidest." There are a few irregular methods of comparison, 
 as "good, better, best." and "bad, worse, worst." 
 
 Adverbs. Adverbs may regularly be formed from adjectives by adding ly; but there 
 are many irregular adverbs, such as very, much, well, etc., which are in some cases identical 
 with adjective forms (as much and well). 
 
 The first office of adverbs is to modify verbs, and as the notions of time, place, and 
 manner can be connected as a usual thing only with the notions of actions or condition of 
 being, that is, with verbs, usually all words indicating time, place, or manner are adverbs 
 or adverbial phrases. Thus we can hardly imagine a way in which such words as here, 
 now, hoiv, etc., can be applied to nouns. Some of these words, however, may be applied to 
 adjectives, and also to other adverbs. So we speak of a word or phrase that modifies a verb, 
 adjective, or other adverb as adverbial. 
 
 We have seen that a verb may be followed by an adjective in the predicate, to express 
 a quality or limitation which is affirmed of the subject. Such an adjective really modifies 
 the subject through the verb, and is in no sense adverbial. 
 
 Almost the only difficulty in the use of adverbs comes from confusing predicate 
 adjectives with adverbs. Often we see an adverb where a predicate adjective is really 
 required. 
 
 After the verb to be and its parts the adjective seems so natural that no confusion is 
 likely; but after some other verbs whose significance is varying or uncertain we often find 
 an adverb where an adjective is required. We say "She looks beautiful," not "beautifully," 
 since "beautiful" is a quality of the subject, not a word used in any way to describe the 
 manner of looking. In the same way we would say "He felt bad," since there is no ques- 
 tion of his doing or enduring the feeling badly or the reverse. Bad describes his condition, 
 and hence must be an adjective. So after most verbs referring to sensations an adjective 
 is properly used, as "It looked hot," "It sounded sweet," "It tasted sour," etc. 
 
 Though many adverbs end in ly, not all words ending in ly are adverbs, as for 
 instance likely. 
 
 Adverbs may be compared sometimes as adjectives are, and often the comparative 
 form of the adjective is used as the comparative form of the adverb without change, as 
 "He behaved worse than ever before." Confusion is often obviated by using- the adverbs 
 more and most before the regular adverbial form, as "He sang more sweetly, most sweetly." 
 The comparative endings cannot be attached to adverbs in ly, but we have soon, sooner, 
 soonest and often, oftener, oftenest. 
 
LESSON XXI (Continued). Miscellaneous Matters of Form in Writing. 
 
 The following points are important to remember: 
 
 1. Abbreviations are very seldom to be used in continuous text. In giving a formal 
 address you may abbreviate the state but never the city. "Phila." for "Philadelphia" is 
 bad everywhere and at all times. While you may write, "He lives at 25 Laurel Ave." you 
 assuredly would not write, "As I was strolling down Laurel Ave. the other day," but always 
 spell the word out. 
 
 2. Figures should never be used to begin a sentence except occasionally for special 
 emphasis in circular letters where it is important that the price be caught at the first glance. 
 If you are not presenting a series or statistics, small numbers and round numbers should 
 be written out in all text, including the body of a letter. Write, "We have on hand nine 
 barrels of pork, and ask you what we shall do with them" (not "We have on hand 9 
 bbls."), and "He said he needed about a thousand dollars" (not "about $1,000" that is a 
 lazy way of writing). If you are writing statistics and one exact number is being compared 
 with another, figures are preferred ; but even in that case they should not be used to begin 
 a sentence. Change the construction so that some other word comes first, or else spell out 
 the number. 
 
 3. The short form for and (&) should always be used in firm names such as "R. Hoe 
 & Co.," "Carson, Pirie, Scott & Co." It should never be used in the body of a letter, nor 
 even in reports where other abbreviations occur. Etc. is an abbreviation for the Latin 
 et cetera and is therefore better than &c. though the latter is not wrong. Of course Or etc. 
 would be absurd. 
 
 4. While it is entirely good form to speak of "Mr. Jones" anywhere, using the abbrevia- 
 tion for Mister, it is not good form to use the abbreviation for doctor or professor except 
 when the first name or initials are used. We may say "Dr. Henry Miller" or "Prof. E. J. 
 McLaughlin"; but it is bad form to abbreviate "Professor McLaughlin" or "Doctor Miller." 
 The title "Reverend" should not be used at all except with the first name or initials, as "the 
 Rev. Joseph Carey," or with Mr. as "the Rev. Mr. James." It is bad form to write "the 
 Rev. Carey" or even "the Reverend Carey." In the same way the English title "Sir" is 
 used only with the first name, as "Sir John Barton," never "Sir Barton." In formal texts 
 "Reverend 5 and "Right Reverend" are spelled out even with the full name. 
 
 5. Such forms as "Jas.," "Chas.," "Wm." are allowable abbreviations, though many 
 owners of these names dislike to see them shortened. They are to be followed by periods. 
 Nicknames like "Tom," "Bill," or "Bob" are not abbreviations and are not followed by a 
 period. 
 
 6. In writing the year, always make it complete, as 1919, not '19, unless you are 
 referring to your school class. It is a poor way to write "Jan. 15, 1911" as "1-15-11." In 
 the body of a letter do not write "Jan. 15," but spell out January. In the date line of a 
 letter you may abbreviate long names of months, but not such short names as May, April, or 
 June. 
 
 7. The only abbreviations that are never spelled out are Mr., Mrs., Messrs., Jr., and Sr. 
 
 8. Observe that the plural of a figure, letter, or word used merely as a word and not 
 with its ordinary meaning is formed by adding an apostrophe and s, as in the case of a 
 possessive. Thus we say, "Dot your i's," "Mind your p's and q's," "Do not confuse your 
 8's and 3's," "Count the number of ifs in this lesson." 
 
 9. Some persons form possessives of names ending in an s sound by adding only an 
 apostrophe, but a second s is always to be preferred, as Dickens's, while the plural would be 
 the Dickenses, and the possessive of the plural would add an apostrophe to make the 
 Dickenses'. There are a few phrases which seem to be exceptions to these rules, such as 
 "for goodness' sake," "for conscience' sake," for "for Jesus' sake." 
 
 (OVER) 
 
Some persons regard certain apparent possessives as simple adjectives and omit the 
 apostrophe, as in "the Authors Club of New York." "The Adams Express Company" is 
 clearly an example of a name used as an adjective. 
 
 10. Headlines (observe that this is one solid word with no hyphen) in any article 
 or composition should always be underscored so there will be no possibility of confusing the 
 title with the text. Notice also that there are main heads and sub-heads, and the main heads 
 have two lines under them, while the sub-heads have but one line. If this rule is not fol- 
 lowed there will be danger that the two different kinds of heads be confused with each 
 other. Pick out the main heads, sub-heads in the middle of a line, and the side-heads in this 
 textbook. 
 
 11. When the is the first word of an actual title, it should be capitalized; but when 
 you do not care to indicate precisely every word in the title it is better not to capitalize an 
 initial the, which will then be understood either to be or not to be part of the actual title. 
 Thus we may write, "This company has just published The Rising of Helena Ritchie" but 
 "We 'have all read that primitive work of fiction, the Arabian Nights Entertainment, which 
 is almost as commonly known as the Bible." 
 
 12. Except in contract letters and the like, do not add two ciphers after even dollars, 
 as "The price is $1 a dozen" (not "$1.00 a doz."). 
 
 13. Women do not seem to know how to sign their names so strangers are relieved 
 of the embarrassment of wondering whether to address them as "Miss" or "Mrs." The 
 really correct way for a married woman to sign her name is to write her own personal 
 name out in full and then her husband's name preceded by "Mrs.," all in parentheses. E. g. : 
 
 Helen Hunt McAvoy 
 (Mrs. John McAvoy) 
 
 If a woman's name is not signed thus in a business letter we may assume she is unmar- 
 ried and address her as "Miss," but placing "Miss" before the name in parentheses in 
 writing to strangers m business is simpler and more considerate. A married woman also may 
 precede her name with "Mrs." in parentheses, but it is never allowable to sign the "Mrs." 
 or "Miss" not in parentheses, and it is equally bad form for a doctor to sign himself "Dr. 
 Smith" rather than "Henry Smith, M. D." When women sign only initials it is to be 
 supposed they expect to be addressed as "Mr." 
 
 (Lesson XXI, page 4) 
 
Extra lesson and review : Exercise VII, Grammar, page 73. 
 
 LESSON XXII. Conjunctions and Prepositions. 
 
 See Grammar, sections 66-68, pp. 68-72. 
 
 Mark "c." under each conjunction and "prep." under each preposition in the following, 
 and state why one is a conjunction or the other a preposition. Does a conjunction ever in- 
 troduce an objective case? 
 
 He likes candy as well as I. 
 
 Behave yourself like him. Do as he does. 
 
 No president except Roosevelt was ever elected to the office after having served by 
 reason of having been vice president. 
 
 Unless ye repent ye shall surely die. 
 
 I do not know that that is right. 
 
 I would not act like that for anything. 
 
 Roosevelt, than whom no Republican was ever more popular with Democrats, will hard- 
 ly run for the Presidency a second time. 
 
 Miscellaneous. See Grammar, Sections 80-88. 
 
 What are the two objects of the verb in the following and what are they called? Give 
 it him. 
 
 In what case are the italicized nouns in the following and how are they explained? I 
 am going home. The child is twelve years old. He arrived a day later. He offered Casar 
 the crown three times. 
 
 Write the possessive case of the following : Jones & Markham, the King of Great 
 Britain, the President of the United States, David my servant, William the Conquerer. 
 
 Improve the following: My friend's wife's sister, Chamberlain of Birmingham's seat, 
 John's mother's sister's husband's death. 
 
 What is the difference between "John and Eliza's fortune" and "John's and Eliza's 
 fortunes"? Would "John's and Eliza's fortune be correct in any case? 
 
 What is the subject of the following sentence? That he should use the society's 
 money is abominable. 
 
 Which is correct? "By killing his victim he lost all sympathy," or, "By the killing of 
 his victim he lost all sympathy." Is it correct to say, "By the killing of his victim he lost all 
 sympathy"? What rule applies? 
 
 Which is correct, "I could not prevent his doing it," or, ,"I could not prevent him from 
 doing it"? Why is it wrong to say, "I could not prevent him doing it"? 
 
Grammar, pp. 68-72. Lesson XXII. 
 
 Prepositions. Prepositions serve to introduce nouns to other nouns, or to verbs, 
 adjectives, or adverbs. They are connecting links with some meaning of their own, but 
 depending largely for their significance upon the words they connect. A preposition and 
 its noun, forming a prepositional phrase, are to be construed like an adjective or an adverb, 
 and may modify any word that an adjective or adverb may modify. There are only a few 
 of them, but those few are used in an infinite number of ways, or rather with an infinite 
 variation of values. These variations can be mastered only by long and thoughtful reading 
 of standard literature, with a habit of observing the uses of prepositions. Culture in the use 
 of language finds one of its highest tests in the correct employment of prepositions. 
 
 Conjunctions. All words which connect or introduce sentences have conjunctive 
 value. Some of these words also serve as pronouns, and we call them "relative pronouns," 
 and some serve as adverbs, and we call them "relative adverbs." Such are who, which, what, 
 that; and where, when, while, before, etc. Another class of words serves only to express 
 relationship between a subordinate verb and its principal verb. Such are if, unless, whether, 
 why, that, etc. 
 
 We also have a class of words which serves merely to associate two words or two 
 clauses or sentences of equal rank, such as and, or, but. These are conjunctions in their 
 simplest form. This class of conjunctions shows relationship without any suggestion of de- 
 pendence, and in that respect these words differ from prepositions. The relative conjunc- 
 tions described above are very like prepositions, practically performing for sentences the 
 office which prepositions perform for nouns. 
 
 The distinction between conjunctions and prepositions that prepositions introduce 
 dependent nouns, and conjunctions introduce dependent sentences becomes very important 
 in the case of two conjunctions of comparison somewhat adverbial in nature, namely as and 
 than. These two words are seldom used as prepositions, and of course as conjunctions they 
 always imply verbs after them. In many cases these verbs are not expressed, and subject 1 - 
 or objects stand without their verbs. This gives rise to the supposition that the conjunctions 
 are prepositions and the nouns or pronouns should be regarded as objects of the particle 
 (as or them'). 
 
 For example, "I will do it as soon as he (will do it)" (the first as is an adverb 
 modifying soon, which in turn modifies the verb do in the main sentence, and the second 
 as is an adverbial conjunction introducing the implied verb will do, of which he is the subject) ; 
 "I will not charge more than he (will charge)"; etc. 
 
 Grammar, Sects. 80-88. 
 
 Indirect object. Sometimes after an active verb (or one which is capable of taking a 
 direct object) we find two objects which are certainly in no way dependent upon, or 
 equivalent to, each other. Thus if we say, "Give me the book," "book" is the direct object, 
 but "me" appears to be an object, too, The relation is clear if we supply the preposition to 
 and say, "Give (to) me the book." 
 
 Adverbial nouns. Many nouns signifying time, place, etc., are used in an adverbial 
 sense without prepositions. To all intents and purposes they are adverbs ; yet they retain the 
 powers of nouns. Examples: "I am going home"; "He arrived a day late," or "a day 
 later"; "I walked a, mile to-day"; "He offered Caesar the crown three times' 3 The con- 
 struction may usually be seen if we insert a preposition and other words and say, for 
 example, "I am going (to my) home"; "He arrived late (by) a day"; "I walked (for, or 
 over) a mile to-day"; "He offered Caesar the crown (to the number of) three times." 
 
 We have already seen that it is awkward to repeat the sign of the possessive, and 
 that modifiers of a possessive cause awkwardness. The usual way to obviate this is to 
 regard the noun and all its modifiers as a compound word, though no hyphens be used, and 
 place the sign of the possessive near the end of the entire expression. Thus we say, "The 
 King of Great Britain's possession;" "For David my servant's sake;" "Give me John the 
 Baptist's head;" etc. 
 
 The noun preceded by of is usually equivalent to the possessive, and in case of 
 awkwardness we usually change the form. Thus when two possessives follow each other, 
 we change one of them, and in place of "my friend's wife's sister," we say, "the sister of my 
 friend's wife"; for "Chamberlain of Birmingham's seat," say "the seat of Chamberlain of 
 Birmingham." 
 
 When two nouns are coupled, we may put the sign of the possessive after the last one 
 only, to show that what is possessed belongs to them in common, as in "John and Eliza's 
 fortune." If there were two fortunes, one belonging to John and the other to Eliza, we 
 should indicate it by saying, "John's and Eliza's fortunes." 
 
LESSON XXII (Continued). Abbreviations. 
 
 There are certain abbreviations that are so common that every one should know them. 
 Such will be found in the following list. Many other abbreviations found in books, such 
 as the letters indicating honorary degrees and official titles, may be looked up at any time 
 in the dictionary. There is a special list of abbreviations in every good dictionary, usually 
 at the back, and in this list one may expect to find almost any recognized abbreviation. 
 
 It is dangerous to make abbreviations for oneself, because unless others understand 
 them they will prove worse than useless. Each person in his own line of business will pick 
 up the abbreviations that are understood in that line; but care must be taken not to use 
 them in writing to persons who are not in that special line and so should not be expected 
 to know them. 
 
 Avoid abbreviating words where little or nothing is gained by the abbreviation, as in 
 using "hlf." for "half." If the period is counted as a character, there are as many characters 
 in the abbreviation as in the original. States containing not over four letters, such as Ohio, 
 Iowa, and Utah, should never be abbreviated. 
 
 In any case, abbreviations are NEVER TO BE USED in the bodies of letters or other 
 compositions where the words are used but once in a continuous, normal sentence. Abbre- 
 viations are for lists, statistics, etc., where there is much repetition. They disfigure plain 
 text, both in printing and in writing. 
 
 Account acct., a/c. 
 
 Ad libitum (at pleasure) ad. lib. 
 
 Administrator Admr. 
 
 Administratrix Admx. 
 
 Agent Agt. 
 
 Against (versus) v. or vs. 
 
 American Am. or Amer. 
 
 Amount Amt. 
 
 And others (et alii) .et al. 
 
 Answer ans. 
 
 Anonymous anon. 
 
 Arithmetic Arith. 
 
 Assistant Asst. 
 
 At or to (mercantile) @ 
 
 Attorney Atty. 
 
 Avenue Av. or Ave. 
 
 Balance bal. 
 
 Bank bk. 
 
 Barrel, barrels bl., bbl. or bis. 
 
 Bill Book B. B. 
 
 Bills Payable B. Pay. 
 
 Bills Receivable B. Rec. 
 
 Borough Bor. or bor. 
 
 Bought bot. 
 
 Brother, Brothers Bro., Bros. 
 
 Bushel bu., bush. 
 
 By the (per) P., p. or $ 
 
 Care of c/o. 
 
 Cashier Cash. 
 
 Cash Book . C. B. 
 
 Charged chgd. 
 
 Christmas Xmas 
 
 Clerk elk. 
 
 Collector Coll. 
 
 Congress Cong. 
 
 Company Co. 
 
 Commission Com. 
 
 Commerce Com. 
 
 Committee Com. 
 
 Common Pleas C. P. 
 
 Congregational Cong. 
 
 Corresponding Secretary Cor. Sec. 
 
 Corner Cor. 
 
 County Co. or co. 
 
 Court House C. H. 
 
 Credit, creditor Cr. 
 
 Cent, cents ct, cts. 
 
 Clerk elk. 
 
 Cash on delivery C. O. D. 
 
 Debtor Dr. 
 
 Deacon Dea. 
 
 Defendant Deft. 
 
 Ditto (the same) do. 
 
 Discount dis. or disc. 
 
 District Dist. 
 
 Dividend div. 
 
 Dollar, dollars dol., dols. 
 
 Dozen doz. 
 
 Each Ea. 
 
 East, E.; West, W.; North, N.; South, S. 
 
 (OVER) 
 
Errors excepted E. E. 
 
 Errors and omissions excepted 
 
 E. & O. E. 
 
 Et cetera (and the rest) etc., &c. 
 
 Executive Committee Ex. Com. 
 
 Foot or feet ft. 
 
 For example (exempli gratia) e. g. 
 
 Forward For'd. 
 
 Free on board f . o. b. 
 
 Freight Fr't. 
 
 Gallon gal. 
 
 God willing (Deo volente) D. V. 
 
 Gross gr. 
 
 Handkerchiefs hdkfs. 
 
 Hogshead hhd. 
 
 Hundred C. 
 
 Hundred weight cwt. 
 
 Id est (that is) i. e. 
 
 Incognito (unknown) incog. 
 
 Inches in. 
 
 Insurance Ins. 
 
 Interest int. 
 
 Inventory Inv. 
 
 Invoice Inv. 
 
 Invoice Book I. B. 
 
 Island Isl. 
 
 esus the Savior of Men I. H. S. 
 
 ournal Jour. 
 
 ournal Folio J. F. 
 
 unipr Jr. or Jun. 
 
 ustice of the Peace J. P. 
 
 Lake L. 
 
 Ledger L. 
 
 Ledger Folio L. F. 
 
 Manuscript MS. (pi. MSS.) 
 
 Member of Congress M. C. 
 
 Memorandum mem. 
 
 Merchandise mdse. 
 
 Methodis Episcopal M. E. 
 
 Mountain or Mount Mt. (pi. Mts.) 
 
 Number, numbers No., Nos. 
 
 Order Book O. B. 
 
 Ounce oz. 
 
 Package pkg. 
 
 Page, pages p., pp. 
 
 Paid pd. 
 
 Pair pr. 
 
 Payment payt. 
 
 Peck, pecks pk., pks. 
 
 Per annum (by the year) per an. 
 
 Per cent (by the hundred) ... .per cent. 
 
 Pennyweight pwt. 
 
 Petty Cash Book P. C. B. 
 
 Pint, pints pt., pts. 
 
 Plaintiff Plff . 
 
 Postscript P. S. 
 
 Postoffice P. O. 
 
 Postmaster P. M. 
 
 Pound, pounds lb., Ibs. 
 
 Premium prem. 
 
 Presbyterian Presb. 
 
 Pro tempore (for the time).... pro tem. 
 Protestant Episcopal P. E. 
 
 Quart, quarts qt., qts. 
 
 Quarter, quarters qr., qrs. 
 
 Railroad R. R. 
 
 Railway Ry. 
 
 Returned ret'd. 
 
 Received rec'd. 
 
 Receipt rec't. 
 
 Recording Secretary Rec. Sec. 
 
 Right Honorable Rt. Hon. 
 
 River R. 
 
 Roman Catholic Rom. Cath. or R. C. 
 
 Sales Book S. B. 
 
 Secretary Sec. 
 
 Senior Sr. or Sen. 
 
 Shipment shipt. 
 
 Square sq. 
 
 Steamship S. S. 
 
 Street or Saint St. (pi. Sts.) 
 
 Superintendent Supt. 
 
 Take Notice (Nota Bene) N. B. 
 
 Thousand M. 
 
 Township tp. 
 
 Time Hour h.; minute, min.; second, 
 
 sec. 
 
 Afternoon (post meridiem) p. m. 
 
 Before Christ B. C. 
 
 By the year (per annum) per an. 
 
 Forenoon (ante meridiem) a. m. 
 
 In the Christian Era (Anno Domini) 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Last month (ultimo) ult. 
 
 Next month (proximo) prox. 
 
 Noon (meridiem) M. 
 
 Month, months mo., mos. 
 
 This month (instant) inst. 
 
 Year, years. ., yr., yrs. 
 
 Week wk. 
 
 Videlicet (namely) viz. 
 
 Volume ; vol. 
 
 Weight wt. 
 
 Without deduction net. 
 
 Yard, yards yd., yds. 
 
 Young M,en's Christian Association.. 
 
 Y. M. C. A. 
 
 Young Women's Christian Associa- 
 tion . . Y. W. C. A. 
 
 (Lesson XXII, page 4) 
 
LESSON XXIII. Miscellaneous Idioms. 
 
 See Grammar, sections 89-104. 
 
 What nouns can be used in the possessive case? 
 
 How do you justify "Chicago's beauty", "the city's progress", "a day's work", "an hour's 
 ride"? 
 
 What is the construction of the italicized noun in the following sentence? In the 
 battles of Manchuria, four Japanese soldiers were about equal to five Russian, a fact that 
 not even the Russians deny. 
 
 (Note. Observe that in such a sentence it is not good usage to make a relative pronoun 
 in apposition with a whole clause, as would be the case if we wrote "which not even the 
 Russians deny/') 
 
 Give an example of a sentence in which two nouns joined by "and" may properly be fol- 
 lowed by a singular verb. 
 
 In "They were offered a pardon", what is the construction of "pardon"? 
 
 Why should a hyphen be used in "story-writing" and not in "short story writing"? 
 
 What is the antecedent of "it" and how do you explain the word in such sentences as "It 
 rains", "It does not make any difference to me", etc. ? 
 
 How do you explain the double possessive in "This is a book of John's" ? In what posi- 
 tions are "hers", "mine", "ours", etc., used for "her", "my", and "our"? 
 
 Give an example of a pronoun of which the antecedent follows instead of preceding. 
 
 What is the subject of each verb in the following sentence? As has been said, every 
 verb must have a subject. 
 
 Give an example of the historical present. 
 
 When a verb comes between two nouns, one singular and one plural, with which does it 
 agree? Give an example of such a case. 
 
 Rewrite the following sentences correctly: The king, with the lords and commons, 
 (forms form) an excellent frame of government; When a single noun, followed by other 
 nouns introduced by "with", (constitutes constitute) the subject, should the verb be singu- 
 lar or plural? 
 
 Is it incorrect, or if not incorrect is it objectionable, to say "He or I am the man", and 
 why? 
 
 What is the tense of the italicized verb in the following sentence? He was gone before 
 I got there. What can you say of this usage? 
 
 Give a sentence containing "so to speak" and state its construction. Write a sentence in 
 which "go" is properly followed by a predicate adjective. 
 
Grammar, Sects. 89-104, pp. 79-84. Lesson XXIII. 
 
 Modern usage is restricting the possessive case as far as possible to persons, or at any 
 rate to animals, or inanimate objects which have been personified. We may say "John's 
 bag," "Alexander's empire," "the pupil's work." We would not say "the pigpen's side," "the 
 rock's opening," but "the side of the pig-pen," "the opening of (or in) the rock," etc. If 
 we say "Chicago's beauty" we seem to personify the city ; and perhaps something of the sort 
 may be discerned in "the city's progress." "The day's work," "an hour's ride," are old forms 
 that have survived so far. 
 
 A noun may be in apposition, with a general idea contained in a variety of phrases 
 and clauses, as when we sum up a long statement by saying, "a state of things which we 
 must admit to be wholly bad"; or "a fact no one will deny"; or "a thing which is obvious." 
 
 Sometimes one noun is made to modify another as an adjective. In such cases there 
 is a strong tendency to run the two words into one, as coalbin, policeman, rosebush, etc. 
 Nouns followed by a present participle used as noun should be connected with the participle 
 by a hyphen, as story-writing, paper-making, etc. But in short story writing no hyphen 
 can be used, because short modifies story, not story-writing. 
 
 Peculiarities of Pronouns. 
 
 Though it is an established rule that every pronoun must have its antecedent (expressed 
 or implied), there is one case in which it would be very hard to find anything that could 
 be regarded as antecedent. When we say "It rains," "It freezes," "It looks like snow," 
 evidently it is as nearly devoid of meaning as a pronoun can be. It is merely a dummy 
 subject thrown in to fill up the gap so that we may use the verb. 
 
 When we say "Here is a book of John's," we seem to have a double possessive in 
 "of John's," but if we understand that books is implied "a book of John's (books)" the 
 construction is clear. 
 
 Though the "antecedent" of a pronoun may follow the pronoun instead of preceding 
 it, the construction should always be avoided when that is possible. When the antecedent 
 follows the pronoun, the reader or listener is kept in suspense till the explanation of the 
 pronoun is forthcoming. This is sometimes a justifiable rhetorical artifice, as in this sen- 
 tence: "There was therefore, which is all that we assert, a course of life pursued by them, 
 different from that which they before led"; also in "I, John, saw all these things." 
 
 Peculiarities of Verbs. 
 
 Every verb must have its subject, but it is not easy to find the subject of the verb in 
 such idiomatic expressions as "as follows," "as appears," "may be," etc. Some maintain 
 that as is a pronoun and the subject of the verb tl]at follows, some that the subject varies 
 and is implied from what goes before. 
 
 In the narration of past events we sometimes use the present tense for the sake of 
 vividness, as in this sentence : "He enters the territory of the peaceable inhabitants : he 
 fights and conquers, takes an immense booty, which he divides among his soldiers, and 
 returns home to enjoy a vain and useless triumph." This is called the "historical present." 
 
 When a copulative verb like to be or any of its forms comes between two nouns (or 
 pronouns), one of which is singular and the other plural, the first is naturally the subject 
 and the one which follows the verb is the predicate complement. 
 
 When a single noun, followed by other nouns introduced by with, constitutes the 
 subject, or when a combination of words like that which forms the subject of the preceding 
 part of this sentence itself, stands in relation to the verb as subject, the verb should be 
 singular according to strict grammatical rule. 
 
 When two nouns or pronouns connected by a disjunctive pronoun (or) form the 
 subject of a verb, the English idiom requires agreement of the verb with the second or last, 
 as in "He or I am the man" ; "He or we are going to have that money." Such constructions 
 are manifestly awkward, however, and should be avoided as much as possible. 
 
 In such sentences as those containing "so to speak," the infinitive in English seems 
 to be used independently, very much as the participle is with the nominative absolute. 
 
 By an English idiom verbs of motion sometimes take a predicate adjective after them, 
 as if they were equivalent to to be. Examples : "I shall go mad if this continues" ; 
 "Scipio's ghost walks unavenged amongst us" ; "I do not enjoy going hungry." 
 
LESSON XXIII (Continued). Synonyms. 
 
 If it were not for the fact that we have several words meaning the same thing, it 
 would be impossible to avoid many very disagreeable repetitions. We are always in danger 
 of using the same word over so many times that it jars on the sensitive ear when the 
 sentence or paragraph is read aloud. Some people imagine the sounds as they read to 
 themselves and are offended by the repetitions even when they do not read the passage aloud. 
 
 The only way to avoid these unpleasant combinations is to read every composition aloud 
 for the express purpose of catching them. Once you find them you have before you a 
 problem in the choosing of another word that will rightly and suitably express your meaning. 
 
 Again, we must choose one word or another with the same meaning with a view to 
 getting that word which accords best with the style we are writing. For example, the 
 Anglo-Saxon word begin means identically the same as the Latin word commence. In 
 ordinary letter writing and conversation it is always best to use the Saxon or native English 
 word, for it is the simplest and strongest. It is far better to say, "I began to write this 
 essay at seven o'clock this morning" than to say "I commenced." On the other hand, if 
 you were making a speech where you wished to carry along the swinging rhythm of some- 
 what elevated sentences you would find the Latin word more harmonious. "In all cases, if 
 you had used begin more than once you would prefer to say commence, which is nearly as 
 good a word, especially if it is not used in an emphatic position. 
 
 Other words are used interchangeably when variation is necessary; but when they are 
 especially emphasized they may indicate very distinct shades of meaning. Answer and reply 
 are the Anglo-Saxon and the Latin for precisely the same idea; but answer has several 
 special meanings such as answer for and answer to. If you ask a child a question you say 
 to him, "Answer me," not "Reply to me"; but you are more likely to "reply to arguments," 
 though "arguments" may also be "answered." 
 
 It is important to remember that differences in meaning usually have to be indicated 
 by association with some other words or by emphatic positions in the sentence. 
 
 For each of the following pairs of words write one sentence in which both words are 
 used with the same meaning, the change being made simply to avoid an unpleasant repetition 
 of sound. Then distinguish each word in its special character in a separate sentence. 
 
 abandon, desert response, retort 
 
 ability, power apparent, evident 
 
 eradicate, root out apprehend, comprehend 
 
 absolve, clear arrogance, pride 
 
 absent-minded, absorbed artist, artisan 
 
 adept, handy assent, agree 
 
 adequate, suitable impertinence, impudence 
 
 adjacent, near atom, particle 
 
 assert, state attain, accomplish 
 
 alike, identical achieve, secure 
 
 wary, watchful arrive at, reach 
 
 hint, suggestion flame, flare 
 
 amplify, extend customary, habitual 
 
 faultless, flawless fanciful, imaginative 
 
 likely, probable faithful, loyal 
 
 conceivable, presumable ignorant, uninformed 
 
 futile, useless indispensable, necessary 
 
 fruitless, vain labor, work 
 
 There are thousands of pairs of words like these, and often six or eight with the same 
 meaning. This lesson should show the student how to discriminate. 
 
 (OVER) 
 
THE USEFUL VERB "TO GET." 
 
 I got into my auto the other morning just after getting your telegram. I urged the 
 chauffeur to get me to the depot in the quickest time possible. When I got to the station 
 I got aboard the train. The train had gone but a short distance when we got news from 
 the conductor that a cow had got on the track and was killed. When the roadmaster got 
 the animal off the track, the train got under way again. When I got to Philadelphia it 
 was raining hard, and in going from the station to the hotel I got wet through and now 
 have got such a bad cold as I shall not be able to get rid of in a hurry. After changing 
 my clothes I went out and got to the bank just before closing time. The cashier told me 
 that I must get some one to identify me before I could get my check cashed. After getting 
 the money I came out of the bank and got into a cab. When I got to my hotel again I 
 was tired and was getting hungry. When I got through dining, I hailed a bootblack and 
 got my shoes shined. Later in the evening, having nothing to do, I got myself into bed 
 and got a good night's rest. 
 
 Find synonyms for the various forms of get in the preceding, rewriting in good form. 
 
 (Lesson XXIII, page 4) 
 
LESSON XXIV. Miscellaneous Idioms. 
 
 See Grammar, sections 105-120, omitting 116. 
 
 Give sentences in which "as" is a conjunction, a relative pronoun, and an adverb. 
 
 What is the difference if any between "as if" and "as though"? 
 
 Explain the construction of the italicized words in the following sentences : It lay just 
 below the surface; He arrived too late to sec his sister. 
 
 What does "only" modify in the sentence "Genius can breathe only in the atmosphere of 
 freedom"? 
 
 What are "since when" in the sentence "Since when have you learned to hate money"? 
 Give a sentence in which "since" is a conjunction and "when" an adverb used conjunctively. 
 
 Give an example of "but" used as a preposition. 
 
 Give an example of a preposition consisting of two words. 
 
 What part of speech is "the" in "the more the merrier"? Is this the same word as 
 the article? 
 
 What is the real meaning of "It is not ungrammatical", and is the sentence correct? 
 What is the matter with "I never did repent of doing good, nor shall not now"? 
 What is the rule for two negatives in an English sentence? 
 
 What is objectionable in "more perfect'" "deader", "more circular", "more complete"? 
 Are these forms ever justified? 
 
 Write the following with the correct article : 
 This is a rare kind of (an) eagle. 
 
 He suffered from (the a omit) thirst. 
 
 He failed to tell me what kind of (a the omit) pencil he wished. 
 
 Nouns have two numbers, (a the omit) singular and (?) plural. 
 
 Our country is equally honored by the soldier, (the) statesman, and (the) poet. 
 
 This is a cotton and (a) silk fabric. 
 
 (The an) eagle is (the a) national bird. 
 
 You will find it in the first and ( ) second section the first and ( ) second sections. 
 
 The team consisted of a black and ( ) white horse. 
 
Grammar, Sects. 106-120, pp. 87-91. Lesson XXIV. 
 
 Other Peculiarities. 
 
 Our definitions do not tell us that an adverb may modify a preposition, nor that 
 an infinitive may modify an adverb, but we can find apparent instances of both in the idioms 
 of the language. Examples: "It lay just below the surface." Just is here an adverb 
 modifying the preposition below, but it may be explained on the ground that below par- 
 takes also of the nature of an adverb, and in that capacity it may take an adverbial modifier. 
 "He arrived too late to see his sister": To see evidently modifies the adverb too as a 
 little reflection will show, unless we look on the infinitive as modifying the verb as it in 
 turn is modified by the adverb late and that in turn by too. In any case, the construction 
 is idiomatic. 
 
 A word may modify a whole phrase as if it were a single word, as in this sentence: 
 "Genius can breathe only in the atmosphere of freedom," in which only modifies the entire 
 phrase in atmosphere as if it were a simple adverb. 
 
 An adverb may become a noun, as when in the sentence "Since when have you 
 learned to hate money?" Since is a preposition governing when, which still retains its 
 conjunctive qualities, and even something of its adverbial significance. 
 
 A conjunction may become a preposition, as but does in the sentence "I will have 
 nobody but him," and there are cases in which it even appears to be a relative pronoun, 
 as in "There is not one of them but is a beauty." 
 
 An adverb may follow a preposition, in such idiomatic phrases as at once, before 
 now, etc., just as if it were a noun. 
 
 Sometimes an adverb like off becomes an adjective, apparently, as in the idiomatic 
 phrase "He is well off." 
 
 We seem to have the force of a single preposition expressed by two words, as 
 ''Out of the depths," "The song rose up to heaven," "He jumped on to the table." The 
 first of the pair in each case may be parsed as an adverb, however. 
 
 The relative adverb where may be used for in which, as in "This is a case, where a 
 doctor should be called" ; and other words are also often implied in its use in addition to 
 in which. 
 
 In such cases as "the more, the merrier," the appears to be an adverb. The use is 
 purely idiomatic. In Anglo-Saxon it was a different word from the article. 
 
 In some languages two negatives serve to intensify the negation, but the English 
 language follows strict logical principles in this matter, and so in English two negatives 
 destroy each other, or create an affirmative. Examples : "His language, though inelegant, 
 is not ungrammatical," that is, it is "grammatical" ; "I never did repent of doing good, 
 nor shall not now" an evident absurdity; "Tasso, no more than Raphael, was not born in a 
 republic" another absurdity. 
 
 The comparative and superlative degrees are not appropriate to such adjectives as 
 perfect, circular, complete, etc., since they express an absolute, not a relative quality. What 
 is perfect is absolutely perfect, and cannot be more perfect. Something may be more nearly 
 perfect, however, more nearly complete, more nearly circular. By a sort of syncope, the 
 nearly is often omitted, and while more circular can perhaps never be found in good writers. 
 and more perfect seldom, more complete is very commonly used. The general principle 
 applies to many other adjectives and some adverbs. 
 
 The difference in meaning that may result from the use or omission of the small 
 word a is illustrated in the following: "He behaved with little reverence," and "He be- 
 haved with a little reverence." 
 
 And has a peculiar idiomatic use in parenthetical sentences such as the following: 
 "The sky is changed {and such a change!)'"' 
 
LESSON XXIV (Continued). The Right Preposition. 
 
 See Dictionary of Errors, page 87 et seq., or How to Do Business by Letter, page 153. 
 The correct English preposition is often indicated by the meaning of the Latin prepo- 
 sition found as the prefix of the word that is followed by the preposition. Find out the 
 meaning of the prefixes in the following words and write after each the preposition by 
 which it should be followed: 
 
 abstract concur exhale 
 
 adhere connect intervene 
 
 compare depart inter 
 
 correlate extract 
 
 In other cases the prepositional prefix is not repeated in the form of an English prepo- 
 sition, but the verb takes a direct object. Write sentences showing that no preposition is 
 required after each of the following, and explain the meaning of the prefix: 
 antedate bisect observe 
 circumnavigate perform postpone 
 extradite permit retrograde 
 counteract produce supervene 
 
 Still others require different prepositions in English. Write sentences illustrating the 
 correct preposition to use after the following : 
 
 translate prepare object 
 
 subtract conduct recoil 
 
 In other cases the meaning is different according to the preposition that is used. Write 
 
 each of the following words in sentences that will illustrate the difference in meaning with 
 different prepositions: 
 
 wait attend tell 
 
 ask argue transform 
 
 angry work conform 
 
 anxious subscribe fit 
 
 call (three) indulgent 
 
 In the list of prepositions and words they may follow on pages 89, 90, and 91 of the 
 Dictionary of Errors, pick out such words as do not seem at first thought to require after 
 them the preposition they are listed under, and illustrate in what special connection the 
 preposition would be correct. 
 
 A common error is the use of the infinitive after a word that more properly requires 
 a verbal noun after "of" or the like, as in "It was an example of his love to form com- 
 parisons" (should be "of forming" Dictionary of Errors, page 91). Find an example of 
 this error, criticised in a preceding lesson. 
 
 FRIENDSHIP. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Real Friends. 
 
 My life is like the waves on a stormy sea ! I will for the first say something about real 
 friendship. What is real friendship? As long as you have lots of money and everything 
 goes well your friends seem to be many. Everybody wants to be your friend. But are they 
 really friends? Can a real friend be bought for money? I say no. 
 
 How many are those who will be your friend as long as luck and welfare are thy lot? 
 But the days go by. You are some way or another crossed in Life. You have no money, 
 no home, no work, no clothes, and, perhaps, little to eat. 
 
 But your friends, where are they? 
 
 (OVER) 
 
Take, for an example, here is a young man. He goes out in a crowd of young people. 
 Here's a girl. She is fond of friends. She is just the one. I don't love her, but take her 
 company just to show off that you have the chance to go with her a little bit. But would 
 you for once say I don't love nor I don't intend to marry you? 
 
 Sweetheart honey dear dearest. And should you once happen to talk to another 
 boy you'd at once see a sober look on their faces. And after a little while they are gone 
 off with another. 
 
 Well, I never was rich, but still I can tell many queer stories of life if I only get time. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Human Love May Be Untrue. 
 
 Well, Mary, how did you like your trip to Grantsburg? 
 
 O, fine. I had a lovely time out there. I wish I could of staid longer. 
 
 Indeed ! You must have had quite a good time. You hardly had time to write to me 
 while you was there. I almost thought you had gotten your eyes on some one else you 
 like better. 
 
 O, Willie, how you talk! 
 
 Well? (A pause.) 
 
 He pressed her close and kissed her firmly. 
 
 I notice you have a new jacket, Mary. How well it becomes you. 
 
 O, it's only a cheap one, but it will have to do. 
 
 That's all right, Mary. The day will come when ., :,-u can affoi i to have an expensive one. 
 
 Is that so? 
 
 Yes, that's so, dear. Mary, how would you like to go with me to Chicago? 
 
 O, I should like to offle well. Yes, sir, I should be very much delighted to go. 
 
 Wouldn't it be lots of fun, though? What's the matter with going next fall? 
 
 All right, I guess. 
 
 This and many other things did he promise her, but we will later find how he kept his 
 promises. 
 
 Loving hearts on eartb are fond. 
 
 Purest friend. 1 hi) here abound. 
 Heaven's sweet love is best for you. 
 Human love may be untrue. 
 
 CRITICISM ON THE PRECEDING. 
 
 You have no doubt read the preceding with interest and amusement. Its evident sin- 
 cerity and naivete make it interesting ; but its trite and commonplace statements, its lack 
 of connection between some sentences and those adjoining, and its wonderful mixture of 
 pronouns, to say nothing of all kinds of errors of grammar and misuse of words, make it 
 highly amusing. 
 
 Trace out each pronoun, and see how the writer changes from the first to the second 
 person and then to the third, and soon to the plural. Make lists in three columns of the 
 pronouns as used, the antecedents of the pronouns, and the pronouns that ought to be used. 
 
 Make a list of the words that are entirely incorrect, and give opposite each the word 
 that was intended. 
 
 Make a list of the violations of rules of grammar with which you are familiar. 
 
 Write a short criticism on the paragraphing and general coherence of the composition 
 from sentence to sentence. 
 
 (Lesson XXIV, page 4) 
 
LESSON XXV. Shall and Will. 
 
 See Grammar, section 116, page 89. 
 
 In what cases is "will" proper after "I" or "we"? 
 
 In what cases is "shall" proper after second and third persons in indicative sentences? 
 
 When is "shall" substituted for "will" in questions? 
 
 When is it proper to use "should" and when "would"? 
 
 Give a sentence in which "should" has the meaning of "ought". 
 
 Rewrite the following sentences correctly: 
 I (will shall) be there, I think at twelve. 
 
 I (will shall) never consent. 
 
 We (would should) be very glad indeed to accept the invitation. 
 (Shall will) you be able to join us later? 
 (Shall will) you give me a dollar? 
 
 (Shall will) he be allowed to play all day on the street? 
 (Should would) you do such a thing? 
 (Should would) this compensate you? 
 
 I (will shall) be drowned; nobody (will shall) help me. 
 I (shall will) be very glad to give what you ask. 
 We (shall will) be very much pleased to grant your request 
 I (would should) not do it if I were in your place. 
 If he comes, he (shall will) have my place. 
 
 If you will give me twenty dollars, I (will shall) give you a receipt in full. 
 Henry says he (will shall) be quite willing to go. 
 He thinks he (shall will) leave town next week. 
 I tell you, you (shall will) not see me. 
 (Will shall) the amount be fixed in advance? 
 If he does that he (should would) be punished. 
 He has made up his mind that he (shall will) not reply. 
 I asked John whether he (should would) come with us. 
 Note. In case both forms are correct with different meanings, say so in your answer. 
 
Grammar, Sect. 116, p. 89. Lesson XXV. 
 
 As has already been said, simple prediction of the future is indicated by the use of 
 shall with the first person, and will with the second and third persons. If we wish to 
 express willingness in any degree whatever, we may use will with the first person, as, 
 "If you wish, I will go to town to-morrow" ; of in any sentence in which the words "am 
 willing to" could be substituted with any propriety. 
 
 Shall is used with the second and third persons to, indicate compulsion, as "You 
 shall do it, whether you wish to or not." Any case which assumes that the person speaking 
 will use his will power to induce or compel calls for shall in place of will. 
 
 Shall may also be used (and indeed is almost required) in asking a question for 
 which the anticipated answer is I shall or shall not, or we shall. Thus we say, "Shall you 
 go to the opera to-night?" Answer, "I shall." The same principle applies to indirect dis- 
 course, as "He says he shall go." 
 
 Shall is seldom, if ever, wrongly used, but many good writers and most conversa- 
 tionalists use will more or less with the first person for mere prediction when there is no 
 emphasis on the word and especially when the use of shall might seem to imply emphasis 
 of some kind. Purists condemn this usage. The fact is, instinct does not warn us of any 
 special difference between those cases' in which willingness may be appropriately ex- 
 pressed, and those in which the nature of the ideas seems to exclude willingness. Nearly 
 all critics condemn the practice, and nearly all English speaking people (except, perhaps, 
 those of England, not including Scotland and Ireland) are addicted to it. See the dic- 
 tionary. 
 
 All that has been said of the use of 'shall and will applies with equal force to the 
 past tenses, should and would. We may add that "should" frequently signifies "ought," 
 as in "You should say 'It is I.' " To avoid giving this significance we often use would 
 after a first personal pronoun for mere prediction, as in "We would (naturally) say 
 'It is I.'" 
 
LESSON XXV (Continued). Amusing Examples of Illogical Sentences. 
 
 If we would think clearly and express our meaning with logical accuracy we should 
 obey most of the rules of grammar without knowing it. But our minds are always getting 
 confused and putting the cart before the horse. That is why we need continually to study 
 our sentences to see if the logical chain is complete. Other languages have inflections to 
 show which words go with which others, but in English the position of the word in the 
 sentence is everything. We must train our minds continually to follow out the gram- 
 matical (logical) relationships of words in our sentences to be sure there is no break in 
 the chain. In the following there are examples of one word including the other, as "vege- 
 tables and potatoes" (of course "potatoes" are vegetables, but perhaps "green vegetables 
 and potatoes" was the meaning, and this would be correct, for though potatoes are vegetables, 
 they are not "green vegetables"). In other cases there is a ridiculous implied meaning of 
 which the writer had no thought. If we form the habit of taking a quick glance around 
 each word we shall not fall into such errors. Rewrite the following in correct form : 
 
 IT MUST BE A PRETTY LARGE SUIT. 
 
 "I am trying to get one of my suits on 5,000 men's backs," announces a former candidate 
 for the mayoralty. 
 
 SPEAKING OF EDUCATED PIGS- 
 
 Harry Brown, the well known hog breeder, shipped one of his choice male Chester 
 hogs to James Frances of Chamberino, New Mexico. He was educated at the Union 
 Christian college at Merom. 
 
 ARE ART AND LITERATURE DEAD TOPICS? 
 
 Delightfully frank is the announcement of the program of the woman's club of 
 Canon City, Colo. : "The course of study is unusually attractive this year, embracing art, 
 literature, and a few live topics." 
 
 "FRESHMEN" AND "CO-EDS" ARE NOT "STUDENTS." 
 
 This is the way the Wisconsin State Journal classifies them : "Professors, freshmen, 
 co-eds, and students are once more back on the campus." 
 
 Speaking of "musical and singing," park signs in Cedar Rapids read: "Removal of 
 ferns and plants strictly forbidden." While the Bloomington Telephone relates that "she 
 left several children and one son." And the St. Joseph News-Press mentions "portraits 
 and illustrations." 
 
 SURE-DEATH BRISLEY. 
 Say, friend, send your drug order to Brisley's. No one ever lived to regret it. 
 
 SPEAKING OF POTATOES AND VEGETABLES 
 Wanted Lady or young widow as cashier and manager in a department store. 
 
 PROMINENT COLORED CITIZEN. 
 Lost A light green man's beaver hat. Return to office and receive reward. 
 
 (OVER) 
 
THEY MUST HAVE BEEN UNCOMMONLY ELASTIC. 
 
 (From the Evening Wisconsin.) 
 Mayor Seidel sat around a table gloomily. 
 
 (From the St. Paul Dispatch.) 
 
 Senator William Field of Catskill was seated about the enormous fireplace in Keeler's 
 hotel the other night. 
 
 WHAT AN EXTRAORDINARY GENTLEMAN! 
 
 Sign on Wentworth avenue : "To be disposed of, a mail wagon, the property of a 
 gentleman with removable headpiece as good as new." 
 
 WAS HE AN ARTIST IN SWEARING? 
 
 (From the Logan Square Herald.) 
 
 If you have a stove to put up or a glass to put in and don't want to swear, let J. H. 
 Fuog of the Fair do it. He is an artist. 
 
 WHAT IS THE MATTER WITH THIS? 
 
 According to the management of the Columbia theater, "50,000 square feet of fresh air 
 are blown into this auditorium every minute." 
 
 AN ALL-AROUND GOLF COURSE. 
 
 (From an advertisement of Biloxi, Miss.) 
 
 You can sail, bathe, motor, play tennis, or play golf on the finest nine-hole golf course 
 in the South. 
 
 WHAT SORT OF COSTUME IS "HALF-IMPATIENT ANTICIPATION"? 
 
 (From a lodge paper.) 
 
 Merry groups of gentlemen and ladies suitably attired for the evening, the ladies 
 beautiful in their half-impatient anticipation, crowded the foyers. 
 
 IT DOESN'T PARSE. 
 
 Many moons ago, down in Pumpkin Center, where I spent my childhood days, is where 
 I want to spend the remainder. 
 
 WHAT'S THE GAME? 
 
 Hugh Metcalf had a horse which got so disgusted over the storm that we had on the 
 night of the third that she committed suicide by playing with its mate and lost her balance 
 and fell over the partition and hung herself. Cando Herald. 
 
 WHAT ARE THE SEVEN SENSES? 
 
 Mrs. Will Marion (nee Rose Greeley) accidently fell last week while at her home 
 in Aurora and struck her nose against a marble washstand, nearly fracturing this useful 
 member of the seven senses. Shabbona Express. 
 
 (Lesson XXV, page 4) 
 
LESSON XXVI. Review. 
 
 Key to the review questions in this and following lessons may be found in the Dictionary 
 of Errors, beginning on page n, and "How to Do Business by Letter," page 157. 
 
 Diagram each of the correct sentences in Lessons XXVI-XXIX, using the back of the 
 page or a separate sheet of paper. 
 
 Rewrite the following sentences correctly, at the same time stating the principle which 
 governs the choice of form : 
 
 It is (I me) ; It is (they them) ; It is (he him). 
 
 Between you and (me I) ; (Whom who) will the paper be read by? 
 (Let you and me Let's you and I) go to the postoffice. 
 
 There is no one who can run so fast as (him he) ; She liked no one better than (he 
 him). 
 
 They believed it to be (him he). 
 
 Each of them (has his own way of doing it have their own way of doing it) ; The 
 company ordered (its their) men to leave. 
 
 I, who (am are) above you, sacrifice myself for you. 
 
 Is it John or Mary who (stand stands) at the head of (his her their) class? 
 
 A day lost (?) Five days to be made up on our journey (?) I knew it could n't be 
 done. 
 
 Every one of those men (have has) a pickax; Each of the thousand tiny points of life 
 (is are) as clear as a star; The woman or the tiger (comes come) out. 
 
 The company (is are) going to raise our pay; The factory (says it has n't say they 
 have n't) found it. 
 
 A number of men (are is) running across the campus; A certain number of men (is 
 are) selected each year. 
 
 None of these women (is are) dressed for a shower; None of the critics of our day 
 (are is) equal to Sainte Beuve. 
 
 Montgomery Ward & Co. (have has) settled the strike; The Montgomery Ward Com- 
 pany (has have) settled the strike. 
 
 Love and beauty (is are) his theme through the book. 
 
 He (don't does n't) like my style; It (don't does n't) do to speak too freely. 
 I am going to be invited to the country next week, (ain't are n't) I? 
 He (began begun) to do it; He (did done) the job. 
 He (sunk sank) ; He (swam swum) ; He (sprang sprung). 
 
LESSON XXVI (Continued). Good Advice Tersely Written. 
 
 You may learn to avoid all the errors that man ever made yet you would not be a good 
 writer, since good writing means positive qualities. You get these positive qualities from 
 studying writings that are so filled with them that unconsciously you imbibe them. It 
 is dangerous to spend too much time analysing bad writing, though only by weeding out 
 the faults of others will you learn to weed out your own. 
 
 Mr. Edwin H. Lewis has written a book on "Business English" that is such a fine 
 example of good English in itself that those who read it cannot help unconsciously absorb- 
 ing its energetic effectiveness. As a contrast to the examples of ridiculously weak English 
 in other lessons, I wish to give in this lesson some quotations from Mr. Lewis's book in 
 exactly the English he recommends. 
 
 "There is an old adage," writes Mr. Lewis, "that clear thinking makes clear writing. 
 And it is perfectly true. And perhaps you feel that it is perfectly useless. What use is 
 there in telling a man to run along and think clearly? Thinkers, you say, are born, not 
 produced by command. Young men in business get tired of the sage advice that is pre- 
 sented to them weekly in the Sunday papers and monthly in the commercial magazines. 
 They are perfectly familiar with it. Be judicious, be tactful, be industrious, be clever, be 
 persevering, be intellectual: in short, go and get yourself born again. 
 
 "I sympathize with the advice-bespattered youth. But these old saws have their uses 
 after one has taken a rest from them. 'Stop ! Look ! Listen !' that railway crossing sign 
 has saved a good many lives. And maybe the advice to think clearly has done the same. 
 It is certain that we think more clearly when we are determined, no matter how much 
 pain it costs, to do so." 
 
 In another chapter he goes on, " 'Connection,' said Jowett of Oxford, 'is the soul of 
 good writing.' If so, a good many pieces of English are lacking in point of soul. This 
 is true even in the case of certain famous and valuable authors. 
 
 "When you read an advertisement you are irritated if the text is divided by pictures, 
 or written in two columns, between each two opposite lines of which you have to make a 
 jump. 
 
 "We like to get on. We like to move easily from sentence to sentence, from paragraph 
 to paragraph, and come to a logical and satisfying close. If we like to do this, how shall 
 we help others to find the same smooth effect in our own writing? 
 
 "These shoes ought to have style. But these shoes have no style. They have good 
 material in them, but the workmanship and the form are clumsy.' 
 
 "That is not an incoherent paragraph. It is short, and the sentences are short, and the 
 meaning is clear enough. But the coherence could be improved, thus: 
 
 " These shoes ought to have style. But style is exactly what they haven't. They have 
 good material, but the form and the workmanship are clumsy.' 
 
 "You see what has been done. The last words of each sentence are echoed in the 
 first words of the following. The gain in connection is not great between sentences so 
 short and simple. But you can see that in longer sentences it might be very valuable to 
 weld ends and beginnings in that fashion. 
 
 "Notice that the sentence 'But style is exactly what they have n't' throws style and 
 have n't into strong relief. The beginning and the end of a sentence are the most emphatic 
 places. Mr. Wendell, of Harvard, has formulated this rule: 'Begin and end with words 
 that deserve distinction.' " 
 
 (OVER) 
 
"In Dean van Benthuysen's excellent brochure on English in Commercial Correspond- 
 ence the following is quoted: 
 
 " 'I am in receipt of your letter of the 9th instant, relating in part to the stenographer 
 and typewriter examinations next spring and also the question of local examinations in 
 connection with the conducting of Civil Service examinations, concerning the latter of 
 which I would say that with the exception of the route examinations which are conducted 
 by the various district secretaries, the examinations are held by the employees of the post 
 office at the different places of examination, who have been specially designated for such 
 purpose under a provision of the Civil Service rules/ 
 
 "The youth who got that must have felt as if he were perusing a railroad time-table. 
 Good mental exercise? Never, never use that argument. To cause your reader or corre- 
 spondent unnecessary mental labor is the greatest of all blunders in business English. 
 The more patience he spends in getting at your thought, the less he will have for your 
 proposition. Let us turn that alleged sentence into a paragraph. There are several versions 
 that might be made." 
 
 "The paragraph gives the writer room. It allows him to take breath. He can proceed 
 in a leisurely manner to make one point and then another. And precisely as these are 
 advantages to the writer, they are advantages to the reader. 
 
 "Another thing. This great modern invention, the paragraph, permits the writer to 
 emphasize the important thought. Suppose that the paragraph is to deal with a group of 
 details which are all of the same sort, but one of which is the most important. He can 
 run a group of details together in one sentence, using semicolons if necessary, and save 
 a short, strong sentence for the one detail that deserves it. 
 
 "Note how the emphasis is distributed in the following excellent paragraph : 
 
 " There is always one by which the rest are measured. In the magazine world, that one 
 has always been and is today the Century. Ask writers where their best productions are 
 first offered; ask editors which magazine they would rather conduct; ask public men where 
 articles carry most influence; ask artists where they would prefer to be lepresented; ask the 
 public what magazine is the first choice of real influence, and the answer to each question 
 is the same : THE CENTURY.' " 
 
 To the student: Find in some book or newspaper a paragraph as good as the last 
 one. Then write over in good form the long sentence about examinations. 
 
 Show by reading aloud how Mr. Lewis attains force by varying the length of his 
 sentences that is, read aloud examples of short sentences with longer sentences to show 
 how effective they are on the ear. 
 
 Point out ten figures of speech that is, comparisons and illustrations, or implied com- 
 parisons and illustrations, used to make his meaning clear. 
 
 What single idea is set forth in several paragraphs, each time in a different style? 
 How does this repetition avoid monotony? Why is this fresh and interesting repetition 
 needed to get the idea fully into the mind of the reader? 
 
 (Lesson XXVI, page 4) 
 
LESSON XXVII. Review. 
 
 Rewrite the following sentences correctly, at the same time stating the principle which 
 governs the choice of form: 
 
 He had (awaked awoke) ; He has (bore borne) up well; The cart has (broke- 
 broken) down. 
 
 He has (drunk drank) all the water; The bird has (flown fled) away. 
 
 She has (sung sang) the old song; The ship has (sunk sank). 
 
 He has (swore sworn) an oath; The man has (swum swam) over the river. 
 
 He has (got gotten) home; She has (ridden rode) ten miles. 
 
 He has (forgot forgotten) his lesson. 
 
 He (wrote has written) to me yesterday; I (saw have seen) him in 1901. 
 
 I (saw have seen) him before I saw you ; I (was have been) told after I left you. 
 
 I (haven't heard didn't hear) from you yet; He (has done did) it already. 
 
 He (has not spoken did n't speak) to me so far. 
 
 It had happened before I (saw had seen) him; I (should like to have done it should 
 have liked to do to have done it). 
 
 From the little conversation I had with him he appeared (to be to have been) a man of 
 letters. 
 
 It required so much care that I thought I should have lost it before I (had reached 
 reached) home. 
 
 The doctor in his lecture said fever always (produced produces) thirst. 
 Would I (were was) an angel ! I wish I (was were) at home. 
 If he (were was) here I should be happy; If he (is be) here, I am happy. 
 Reprove not a scorner lest he (hate hates) thee. 
 
 If Anna (was were) on the train, he must have seen her; Unless he (have has) done 
 it, there will be no punishment. 
 
 Having done all he could, he ordered the freight agent to send the box ahead -Having 
 done all he could the box was ordered sent ahead. 
 
LESSON XXVII (Continued). The Paragraph. 
 
 One of the most important things to learn in writing is how to take up one thought 
 at a time and elaborate it fully in a paragraph, then passing on to the next. Paragraphs 
 should be kept just as distinct as sentences. 
 
 The following little series of paragraphs describes a poor but pretty French woman, 
 alternating between the two general subjects of her low position in the world and her 
 dreams. The sentences are also peculiar in that many of them contain a number of phrases 
 all just alike in form. Observe the effect of these balanced phrases. 
 
 THE NECKLACE. BY GUY DE MAUPASSANT. 
 
 She was one of those pretty and charming girls who, as if by a mistake of destiny, are 
 born in a family of clerks. She had no dowry, no expectations, no means of becoming 
 known, understood, loved, wedded by any rich and distinguished man; and so she let 
 herself be married to a petty clerk in the Bureau of Public Instruction. 
 
 She was simple in her dress because she could not be elaborate, but she was as 
 unhappy as if she had fallen from a higher rank, for with women there is no distinction 
 of higher and lower: their beauty, their grace, and their natural charm fill the place of 
 birth and family. Natural delicacy, instinctive elegance, a lively wit, are the ruling forces 
 in the social realm, and make daughters of the common people the equals of the finest ladies. 
 
 She suffered ceaselessly, feeling herself born for all the refinements and luxuries of 
 life. She suffered from the poverty of her home as she looked at the dirty walls, the worn- 
 out chairs, the ugly curtains. All those things of which another woman of her station 
 would be quite unconscious tortured her and made her indignant. The sight of the country 
 girl who was maid-of-all-work in her humble household filled her almost with desperation. 
 
 She dreamed of echoing halls hung with Oriental draperies and lighted by tall can- 
 delabra, while two tall footmen in knee-breeches drowsed in great armchairs by reason of 
 the heating stove's oppressive warmth. She dreamed of splendid parlors furnished in rare 
 old silks, of carved cabinets loaded with priceless curiosities, and of entrancing little 
 boudoirs just right for afternoon chats with bosom friends men famous and sought after, 
 the envy and the desire of all the other women. 
 
 When she sat down to dinner at a little table covered with a cloth three days old, and 
 looked across at her husband as he uncovered the soup and exclaimed with an air of 
 rapture, "Oh, the delicious stew ! I know nothing better than that," she dreamed of dainty 
 dinners, of shining silverware, of tapestries which peopled the walls with antique figures 
 and strange birds in fairy forests; she dreamed of delicious viands served in wonderful 
 dishes, of whispered gallantries heard with a sphinx-like smile as you eat the pink flesh of 
 a trout or the wing of a bird. 
 
 She had no dresses, no jewels, nothing; and she loved only that, she felt made for that. 
 She was filled with a desire to please, to be envied, to be bewitching and sought after. She 
 had a rich friend, a former schoolmate at her convent, whom she no longer wished to visit 
 because she suffered so much when she came home. For whole days at a time she wept 
 without ceasing in bitterness and hopeless misery. 
 
 Make a summary of the preceding, paragraph by paragraph. 
 
 Show how the general subject is set forth in the first sentence, and the whole sum- 
 marized in the last paragraph. 
 
 Study the transitions from one paragraph to the next, and indicate just how much of 
 a change there is. 
 
 (OVER) 
 
HOW TO ATTAIN FORCE IN WRITING. 
 
 Let me quote from "Literary Composition" the following summary of how to attain 
 force : 
 
 1. By using words which are in themselves expressive; 
 
 2. By placing those words in emphatic positions in the sentence ; 
 
 3. By varying the length and form of successive sentences so that the reader or 
 hearer shall never be wearied by monotony; 
 
 4. By figures of speech, or constant comparison and illustration, and making words 
 
 suggest ten times as much as they say; 
 
 
 
 5. By keeping persistently at one idea, though from every possible point of view and 
 without offensive repetition, till that idea has sunk into the mind of the hearer and has 
 been fully comprehended. 
 
 In the preceding lesson I have referred to some paragraphs quoted from Edwin H. 
 Lewis as particularly well written that is, particularly forceful. Let us see how Mr. 
 Lewis illustrates the rules given above. 
 
 First of all, we notice that his sentences are very short on the whole, yet varied in 
 length (point 3). Several of them begin with and. On this point he says himself, "And 
 is rarely used at the beginning of a sentence. There is no fixed rule against doing so ; this 
 is a free country, and occasionally an initial And is worth using. Being the simplest and 
 most childlike of connectives, it gives a somewhat naive effect, but sometimes an innocent 
 And sentence is just what you want. Do not worry on this point. Worry as to whether 
 you have said And when you meant But, or But when you meant And. Connectives are 
 worse than useless unless they are correctly used." 
 
 Why did Mr. Lewis begin so many sentences with and? 
 
 Point out ten particularly expressive words which he has used. 
 
 Point out ten examples of words placed in emphatic positions. 
 
 (Lesson XXVII, page 4) 
 
LESSON XXVIII. Review. 
 
 Rewrite the following sentences correctly, at the same time stating the principle which 
 governs the choice of form : 
 
 While sitting on my doorstep, I caught sight of a beautiful butterfly While sitting on 
 my doorstep, a beautiful butterfly caught my eye. 
 
 By doing so you will clear the matter up By doing so the matter will be cleared up. 
 
 On weighing the sugar he found a shortage On weighing the sugar a shortage was 
 found. 
 
 I hardly knew what to make of that (man's man) jumping over the fence. 
 
 I saw (him his) doing it; I approve (him his) doing it. 
 
 What do you think of (me my) going to town? 
 
 I heartily approve the (church's church) acting now. 
 
 Congress received a report on whether Washington Monument should be placed south 
 of the White House on Washington Monument being placed south of the White House. 
 
 (John and Mary's John's and Mary's) house now came in sight; I picked up some- 
 body's hat, either Fanny's or Jenny's. 
 
 His grandfather cleaned the Duke's of Wellington boots Duke of Wellington's boots. 
 
 I was frightened at the length of that lesson at that lesson's length. 
 
 Chicago's drainage system the drainage system of Chicago. 
 
 He spoke of the land's fertility the fertility of the land. 
 
 For (goodness' goodness's goodness) sake; Art for art's sake for the sake of Art. 
 
 The building of the ship the building the ship; It is the using of it before "most" 
 the using it before "most". 
 
 We took our (part parts) in the proceeding, each according to his own ability. 
 
 I never saw a (sweeter more sweet) child. 
 
 It was the (most complete most nearly complete) collection of butterflies in the country. 
 
 Your drawing is (more circular more nearly circular) than mine. 
 
LESSON XXVIII (Continued). Tone in Writing. 
 
 The question whether it is allowable to use colloquialisms or even slang in business- 
 letter writing easily resolves itself if we study a little the tone in which we should 'write-- 
 to different persons. 
 
 If you were making an address before an audience of professors you would not dream 
 of introducing slang words, or even colloquial expressions. Your auditors have been 
 educated on book English, and are accomplished critics on the fine distinctions of words. 
 If you wish to make an impression on such an audience you will speak to it or write to it 
 with the utmost care in the choice of words and methods of expression. 
 
 If you were addressing the President of the United States in his official capacity, you 
 would do the same. 
 
 On the other hand, if you were a boy playing with boys in a football game, you would 
 use the football language and boys' college slang; otherwise you would be kicked off the 
 field as an affected nincompoop. You would not need to use any foolish slang expressions; 
 but you would have to speak the language the boys would best understand. 
 
 If you were writing a letter to a strange lady you would be much more careful in your 
 choice of words than if you were writing to your mother or sister. Yet you would be more 
 careful in writing to your mother or sister than in writing to your brother or a school 
 chum. 
 
 Likewise when you write to a business man, it is your duty to use the language that 
 the business man will best understand. If you talk to him about letters that will "get in" 
 business you seem to him very weak because you do not seem familiar with his technical 
 word "letters that pull." If you speak to him about "getting down to brass tacks" he 
 knows what you mean, and that you are going to do just what he wants you to do, namely 
 get to the point in a hurry. 
 
 The present writer has had much to say of the necessity of using colloquial English in 
 business, and is glad of an opportunity to quote the opinion of some one else, Professor 
 Lewis in his "Business English," Chapter XII : 
 
 "Business English must admit colloquialisms. It may even admit fresh slang now 
 and then. But nobody likes stale slang, and few buyers care for even fresh slang all the 
 time. Mr. Walter D. Moody in his 'Men Who Sell Things' remarks, The purest of 
 king's English will secure an audience and hold attention for the salesman anywhere, while 
 slang and short cuts of speech often excite distrust and offend the ear of the truly refined.' 
 As a general proposition this is sound and unassailable. 
 
 "But just what is here meant by 'the purest of king's English' is not so clear. As one 
 turns the leaves of Mr. Moody's vigorous and optimistic book, one sees that he is writing 
 to commercial travelers, and has been taught expressions that a college man has been', told 
 to reject. Mr. Moody never uses the word drummer; he evidently considers that below 
 tone. On the contrary he dignifies the word 'salesman' all he can, even calling him an 
 'ambassador plenipotentiary.' That is high-toned language, surely; perhaps a trifle too 
 high-toned. But some words which Mr. Moody uses might fairly be called drummer's 
 English rather than the English of ambassadors. Take the phrase 'persevering hustle' 
 (page 25). It is rather good, is it not? 'Hustle' is slang, but 'perservering' is literary, : and 
 the combination is clear and fresh. Chapter III is headed, 'The Knocker.' That is slang 
 for the Disgruntled Man, or The Critic, or The Complainer. Mr. Moody uses it because 
 he knows it means a great variety of unpleasant qualities to the traveling man. It fits the 
 tone of the road. He would not seriously maintain that it would be the best word to 
 employ in every business situation. He would not advise a correspondent to begin a letter 
 thus : 'My dear Madam : Your knock received and contents noted.' " 
 
 (OVER) 
 
Under the head of "The Business Correspondent" Mr. Lewis has a conversation with 
 an old pupil of his who has since become a successful business man. Here is an abstract 
 from it: 
 
 "In college I went in for purity of diction and all that. I was always trying to be 
 correct," said Frank. 
 
 "And you "Ve had to unlearn it" ? 
 
 "Some of it. You can't always be thinking about paragraphs and sentences and pure 
 diction. If you do, your letter will sound cold and dead. Dead ! that is the word. Half 
 the letters written by college graduates are dead ones. You 've got to make your letters 
 live. You Ve got to talk a language that the other man will understand. You Ve got to 
 make him feel that you are doing business with him, not dictating a form letter or a 
 copybook model" 
 
 "Sounds incontestable," I murmured. 
 
 .... "My college English all comes in handy, especially what we had about organ- 
 ization. All I mean is that the technique mustn't get in the way. You have to forget it, 
 just as a piano-player has to forget his finger exercises. You can't write good letters by 
 rule. All the principles, hundreds of them, must have soaked in. You must digest your 
 rules and assimilate your knowledge." 
 
 The following letter was written by Professor Lewis to a humorous column in the 
 Chicago Tribune, where slang in the hands of a literary artist is the prevailing language. 
 It is an excellent example of the colloquial tone properly used. 
 
 Sir: You remark that John Spargo talked at Lewis Institute on Socialism. O, no, 
 dear sir, he didn't. He talked on "The Problem of Pure Milk." As the author of a book 
 on this subject he was invited to address the women who are studying bacteriology, and 
 the men who are going in for B. S. And being a gentleman, he stuck to his topic. He did 
 not utter one solitary sentence of all those which are attributed to him by the Evening Post. 
 He didn't mention Dr. Abbott, or say that Socialism seeks to extend private property. He 
 talked about Milk, first, last, and all the time. The Post report belongs in the same cate- 
 gory of pleasant fiction as Miss Pants' interview with Mr. Mabie. You can't even put it 
 with Artemus Ward's lecture "On Milk," for though Ward said nothing about milk, he 
 always began by drinking a glass of it. E. H. LEWIS, 
 
 Dean of College Students, 
 Lewis Institute. 
 
 EXERCISES IN TONE. 
 
 Bring to the class a paragraph from a letter you have actually written to your mother, 
 or would write to-day about what you are doing if she were away from home. 
 
 Bring to the class a paragraph from a letter to a young lady cousin whom you know 
 fairly well, or a sister, or to a lady friend; or if you are a girl, a letter to a brother or a 
 relative or a friend you have known since childhood. 
 
 Bring to the class a paragraph from a letter addressed to the president of a college, real 
 if possible, or such a letter as you might now write asking permission to make a change 
 in a course of study. 
 
 Bring to the class a paragraph of some length from a real letter to a school chum 
 describing some game or meeting or amusement in the language you would naturally use 
 in telling about the affair face to face, or prepare such a paragraph for the purpose, 
 observing that you may use colloquial language if necessary to express yourself simply and 
 naturally, but never words touched with vulgarity, or slangy without being expressive. 
 
 (Lesson XXVIII, page 4) 
 
LESSON XXIX. Review. 
 
 Rewrite the following sentences correctly, at the same time stating the principle which 
 governs the choice of form : 
 
 I do not like that kind of apples those kind of apples. 
 
 I can't tolerate that sort of people those sort of people. 
 
 He was the (wealthiest wealthier) man of the two. 
 
 She was the (younger youngest) of the three sisters. 
 
 He does his work very (well good) ; He came (previous previously) to seeing you. 
 
 He acted (conformable conformably) with the rules laid down. 
 
 He came (agreeable agreeably) to his promise; He could not have acted (more nobly 
 nobler) than he did. 
 
 He feels (bad badly) about it; He looked (white whitely). 
 
 The carriage rides (easy easily) ; The general stood (firm firmly). 
 
 He was a (good-looking good looking) boy; He was a (well-dressed well dressed) 
 fellow. 
 
 He need not, (and nor) does not, lessen his operations on my account. 
 
 Lost by a gentleman, a Scotch terrier with his ears cut close Lost, a Scotch terrier, by 
 a gentleman, with his ears cut close. 
 
 I (only mention mention only) one of the charges. 
 
 Question: How are adverbs compared? 
 
 I am a little older than (he him) ; He always acts (like me like I do). 
 
 He has made alterations (and additions to the work in the work and additions to it). 
 
 You may and ought to use stones and anecdotes You may use stories and anecdotes 
 and ought to do so. 
 
 Every man of taste and possessing an elevated mind Every man of taste who possesses 
 an elevated mind. 
 
 They very seldom trouble themselves with inquiries, or with making useful observations 
 with inquiries or making useful observations. 
 
 He left a son of singular character, who behaved so ill he was put in prison and who 
 behaved so ill. 
 
LESSON XXIX (Continued). Vices that Destroy Force in Writing 
 
 Force is destroyed by the 
 
 Vice of repetition with slight change or addition; 
 
 Vice of monotony in the words, sentences, or paragraphs : 
 
 Vice of over-literalness and exactness; 
 
 Vice of trying to emphasize more than one thing at a time; 
 
 Vice of using many words with little meaning; or words barren of suggestiveness and 
 destitute of figures of speech ; and its opposite, the 
 
 Vice of overloading the style with so many figures of speech and so much suggestion 
 and variety as to disgust or confuse. 
 
 These vices have been named tautology, dryness, and "fine writing." 
 
 What vice is particularly illustrated by each of the following amusing examples of 
 weak writing? 
 
 WHY NOT CAN SOMETHING? 
 
 The canning company has started in the canning business for the season, the first 
 being canned last week. Tomatoes were put in cans first and sweet corn will no doubt 
 be canned this week. Tri-County Press. 
 
 PERIPHRASIS. 
 
 Joe Minsky, the horse buyer, was a business transactor in town Wednesday. North 
 Iowa Times. 
 
 INTERESTING ! 
 
 St. Giles' church, built in the twelfth century, is the most interesting church. John 
 Knox's house is very interesting. It extends a little over the street with a red tiled roof. 
 We were greatly interested in the curious old windows, and the very interesting door with 
 its extremely picturesque knocker and interesting old lock. 
 
 A SENTIMENTAL JOURNEY. 
 
 It was almost a day's ride from London to Edinburgh. On the way I saw old castles, 
 but the most interesting feature was an old water mill with a large wheel, turned by water 
 (1). Such as we read of in English stories (2). The wheel was turning as we passed (3). 
 When we arrived in Edinburgh (4), we were taken to the Cockburn hotel, a house builded 
 (5) with towers on the corners, all of stone. Edinburgh is known as (6) "Modern Athens." 
 It is the seat of a famous university, founded in 1582. However, the Glasgow university is 
 more famous now (7), it is located near the Firth of Clyde. 
 
 We visited the Holyrood palace builded (8) 1670. This contains a chapel, Queen Mary's 
 bedrooms (9), just as they were years ago, above which is (10) Lord Darnley's apart- 
 ments (11), the tapestry and bed coverings are decaying and moldering away. We saw 
 the bath house (12) of Queen Mary out in one corner of the court yard (13). A dagger 
 is shown in the apartments that is supposed to have been the one used to kill Lord Darnley, 
 Mary's husband. This dagger was found in the bath house. 
 
 Each glaring error of style, grammar, .or punctuation is marked by a number. Indicate 
 clearly what each error is. 
 
 (OVER) 
 
THERE ! 
 [From the Bangor News.] 
 
 State versus Willis Thompkins for conveying hack saw into jail with intent that one 
 Joseph Pearson, a prisoner therein, lawfully detained, should by means thereof escape 
 therefrom. 
 
 We cannot "expect" (look forward to) that which has already happened. We may 
 perhaps "expect to find that such and such is true," but to condense this into "I expect 
 you liked the play first rate" makes very poor English. When one gets the habit of an 
 expression like this and uses it over and over it becomes particularly objectionable. 
 
 GREAT EXPECTATIONS. 
 [From Elinor Glyn's "The Reason Why."] 
 
 "It is all story book stuff that almighty passion, I expect." P. 7. 
 
 "You understand something of life, I expect." P. 13. 
 
 "Remember, it is a false sentiment." "O, I expect so." P. 42. 
 
 "I expect Zara would like it better if you did not meet until after then." P. 44. 
 
 "I expect you don't, but I do." P. 66. 
 
 "Bit of Vesuvius underneath, I expect." P. 182. 
 
 "She looks stormy expect it's pretty well worth while, though, when she melts." P. 182. 
 
 "I expect Tristram's pulled the curb." P. 183. 
 
 "I expect she would not let them put her off." P. 183. 
 
 "I should feel sorry for the poor birds, I expect." P. 245. 
 
 "Rather an ordeal, I expect." P. 249. 
 
 WONDERFUL ! 
 [From Ty Cobb's Account of the Game.] 
 
 "Marquard pitching wonderful ball." 
 
 "The two wonderful batsmen of the Athletics." 
 
 "A truly wonderful pitcher." 
 
 "Snodgrass' wonderful throw to second." 
 
 "The Giants had that wonderful requisite." 
 
 "Another such wonderful game." 
 
 (Lesson XXIX, page 4) 
 
LESSON XXX. Review of Punctuation. 
 
 Rewrite the following with the proper capitals: 
 
 the south, the west, the east, the orient, the president and congress, the constitution of 
 the united states, the constitution of the state cf Louisiana. 
 
 We will refer the matter to our corset department. 
 
 The english report an increase in the exports of the united kingdom. 
 
 Send the goods c. o. d., ; I will go d. v. ; Make the bill read e. & o. e. 
 
 He said, "this man owes me money and I will kill him" ; He said that this man owed 
 him money and he would kill him ; He said this man owed him money and he would "wring 
 his neck till he was dead" before he would let him go. 
 
 It is a wise man who always follows the rule, never spend a dollar before you have it to 
 spend. 
 
 Properly punctuate and capitalize the following : ms, e g, feb, assn, bldg. 
 
 Do the relative clauses in the following require to be set off by commas? Give your 
 reason : 
 
 Did you see Jenny Jones who was wearing a picture hat? Did you see the man who 
 knocked that woman down? 
 
 Why is a comma required or not required in the following? 
 
 When I get there I shall see what I can do; When I have told you again and again 
 that I will not tolerate such conduct why do you go on doing these things? 
 
 In what cases is a comma required before "and"? Correctly punctuate the following: I 
 told him I did n't like the way he was going on, and then I explained to him just what the 
 effect of his conduct would be on the other employees. 
 
 In what cases should "but" be preceded by a comma and when by a semi-colon? Punctu- 
 ate the following correctly : 
 
 1. John came over and talked to me for a long time but I could n't see my way to 
 granting his request. 
 
 2. We have fought hard and won but for all that I am willing to yield if it is for the 
 good of the party. 
 
 Why is a hyphen required in the following Good-looking, man-eating, letter-writing ; but 
 not in these Finely built, business letter writing, short story writing, well intentioned? 
 
LESSON XXX (Continued). Miscellaneous Exercises in Criticism. 
 
 Study carefully "General Faults," Dictionary of Errors, pp. 91-95, or How" to Do 
 Business by Letter, pp. 155-157. 
 
 Read carefully the section "Half-baked Criticism of English," Dictionary of Errors, 
 pages 86, 87. 
 
 We study criticism merely that we may improve ourselves. It is easier to see 
 the faults in others than in ourselves. We may study the faults of others that we may 
 see our own more clearly; but we should be extremely chary of letting any one know 
 what faults we find in others. Our own pride may be depended on to make us keep 
 to ourselves the faults we find in our own work. We cannot become too competent in 
 self-criticism; but the chances are that in criticising others we fail to understand clearly 
 what they meant to say, and only in the case of our own writing can we be sure precisely 
 what was meant. 
 
 As an exercise that will help us to criticise ourselves more effectively, let us 
 examine carefully and rewrite the following: 
 
 [From an advertisement.] 
 
 It is a unique perfume, which at each gesture throws off an atmosphere of trouble 
 and adoration! (1) It is a perfume which gives to she (2) who uses it such irresistible 
 charm that one cannot separate the suavity (3) of the aroma from the seduction of 
 the woman. It is a perfume that one cannot forget, which follows one like an obsession 
 of love, a perfume which makes one relive the happy hours and falls upon the heart like 
 an adorable dew, the perfumed drops of memory (4). 
 
 1. What possible connection can "trouble and adoration" have with each other or 
 with a perfume? 2. What is the matter with the grammar of "to she"? What is really 
 the subject of "uses"? 3. Can you conceive what "suavity of the aroma" means? 
 4. Mixed metaphors are implied comparisons with objects that do not precisely harmonize: 
 do you find any in this passage? 
 
 Rewrite this so as to make a really alluring advertisement, yet one that makes sense 
 and has some chance of producing an effect on a real person. Talk like this is so ovredone 
 it fails wholly to convince. 
 
 [From the Star.] 
 
 Such a mustering of beautiful women and brave men, such enchanting groups of 
 slim, satin clad (5) figures, such visions of radiant girlhood and sweetly ripened woman- 
 hood were never seen in a ballroom before. Fully 600 (6) pairs of feet of varying sizes 
 danced gayly over the polished floor (7) and the tiers of seats that rose arena-like about 
 the gleaming rectangle (8) were crowded with richly dressed spectators throughout the 
 evening. 
 
 5. Do you need a hyphen between "satin" and "clad"? 6. What is the rule for 
 writing figures in the body of an article? 7. What punctuation is required here? 8. What 
 kind of language is "gleaming rectangle"? 
 
 Rewrite this so it will be convincingly attractive, but leave out the well-worn old 
 phrases of which we are all so weary. 
 
 "Many of these evening scarfs," says the ad, "are lined with contrasting colors which 
 makes them a real protection against a sudden change in temperature." (9) 
 
 9. Which colors do you think would make the warmest lining when placed in contrast? 
 
TREPANNED, WE INFER. 
 
 [From the School Agency.] 
 
 The principals (10) upon which we operate make all of our patrons our friends. 
 
 10. What is the correct form of the word intended here? 
 
 [From an Open Letter by a Candidate for Mayor.] 
 
 I've somewhat outlined my course of procedure; I will hew (11) to that line of 
 thought. I expect to encounter snags, swails, and cesspools (12) in the discharge of duties. 
 I will attempt to cross (13) them the best I can. I will bridge over them with 
 pillars (14) that seem to be safe and cost the least, and I will plank the way with you 
 and compel you to assist in reaching the opposite shore in safety (15). 
 
 11. Is the metaphor suggested in "hew" a good one? 12. Do you think so nasty- 
 smelling a thing as a cesspool makes a good figure of speech? Is it harmonious with 
 "snags and swails"? 13. Does one "cross" "cesspools"? 14. Are "pillars" used in build- 
 ing bridges? 15. What other mixed comparisons do you find here? 
 
 THE KIND OF SLANG THAT EXPRESSES NOTHING. 
 Overheard on a North State street car : 
 "Bad night." 
 
 "You bet; nasty weather." 
 "You bet; need it though." 
 "You bet; might be worse." [Gets off.] 
 "Good night." 
 
 WHAT KIND OF WRITING IS THIS? 
 "He is not alone," warbles the Lauralei. 
 
 "A girl much fairer than herself (16) rests in his clasping arms as they float thither 
 and yon to the mad merry dance music." 
 
 16. This extract is taken out of its connection. What does "herself" probably refer to? 
 
 IN THAT VICINITY. 
 
 Patrolman Jenkins ordered him to drop the knife, but he failed to obey, and, in 
 consequence, was shot in the west end or thereabouts (17). Country Paper. 
 
 17. What is the matter with this? 
 
 A PERFECTLY GOOD MULE. 
 
 Some time during the night the mule caught its head in the wire in such a manner 
 as to cause its death. The next morning Mr. Bowling found the mule hanging perfectly 
 dead (18). Carrollton Democrat. 
 
 18. What is the difference between dead and "perfectly dead"? 
 
 $1.00 to farmer boy 15 years old for best information how to learn a calf to drink 
 milk (19). Sentinel-Leader. 
 
 19. Correct three faults in this. 
 
 MUST HAVE TAKEN HER NAME. 
 
 Miss Edna Wohlgemuth was married on Tuesday of last 'week to a young gentleman 
 from Oregon, the wedding taking place at the home of the bride's parents, the Rev. Smith 
 of the Congregational church performing the ceremony (20). Register. 
 
 20. Be exceedingly careful you do not leave out the most important thing in what 
 you have to say. Is "Rev. Smith" wrong? 
 
 DON'T COIN WORDS. 
 
 "I office (21) with two other lawyers," writes a young man; but where does he house 
 and bedroom? 
 
 21. Making verbs out of nouns is always objectionable. It inevitably leads to con- 
 fusion. 
 
 (Lesson XXX, page 4) 
 
LESSON XXXI. Clauses and Phrases. 
 
 In the following, underscore the phrases and enclose the clauses, including parts of 
 compound sentences, in parenthesis. Observe that explanatory phrases and clauses set off by 
 commas may be omitted and still leave complete sense. Rewrite, omitting all explanatory 
 clauses, phrases, and words. 
 
 It would be tedious, perhaps, to my wiser readers, who may not have that 
 foolish fondness for odd and obsolete things to which I am given, were I to mention the 
 other make-shifts of this worthy old humorist, by which he was endeavoring to follow up, 
 though at a humble distance, the quaint customs of antiquity. I was pleased, however, to see 
 the respect shown to his whims by his children and relatives, who, indeed, entered readily 
 into the full spirit of them, and seemed all well versed in their- parts, having doubtless been 
 present at many a rehearsal. I was amused, too, at the air of profound gravity with which 
 the butler and other servants executed the duties assigned them, however eccentric. They 
 had an old-fashioned look, having, for the most part, been brought up in the household, and 
 grown into keeping with the antiquated mansion and the humors of its lord, and most prob- 
 ably looked upon all his whimsical regulations as the established laws of honorable house- 
 keeping. 
 
 Questions : Is it strictly true that every sentence begins with a capital letter and ends 
 with a period? With what other marks may a sentence end? Why are "perhaps", "how- 
 ever", "indeed", and "too" set off by commas in the selection above? Why are the phrases 
 "though at a humble distance", "having doubtless been present at many a rehearsal", and 
 "for the most part" set off by commas? In how many places in this selection do you find 
 "and" preceded by a comma? Could you place a period in position of the comma in each 
 of these cases and still feel that what went before made complete sense in itself? In what 
 case should the second part of a compound sentence introduced by "and" not be preceded 
 by a comma? Give an illustration of such a case. Examine each participle and tell what it 
 modifies or how it is used. Examine each verb and tell whether it is complete or has some 
 word implied before it. What is the main subject and main verb of each sentence above? 
 Show how each subordinate sentence is related to the principal sentence in which it stands? 
 Every clause and every phrase taken as a whole may be looked on as an adjective, an adverb, 
 or a noun : Tell what part of speech each clause and each phrase is in the passage above, and 
 what it modifies. 
 
LESSON XXXI (Continued). . Miscdlajieous.Ejcepcises. , , 
 
 THE MAN WITH THE IRON' TOES.'' 
 
 George Fitch, editor of The Herald Transcript, and the well known "Transcript" man, 
 had the misfortune yesterday to drop a heavy plank upon one of his toes, breaking it (22) 
 in two places. 
 
 22. Was "it" the plank? How would you express the real meaning? 
 
 State Board of Prison Industries Springfield : 
 
 Gentlemen : 
 
 Please order the furniture plant at the Joliet Prison to manufacture for this institu- 
 tion six small tables like women use who sew with folding legs (23). Yours truly, 
 
 ILLINOIS SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF. 
 
 23. Whose legs were they? Rearrange this so as to avoid an incorrect suggestion. 
 
 DID HE SEEM INTERESTED? 
 
 [From the Evanston News.] 
 
 The engagement of Miss Margaret Roesing, daughter of Mr. B. Roesing, 2711 Harrison 
 street, has been announced to (24) Arthur Croxson. 
 
 24. Arrange this so the meaning will be clear. Observe Chat in English the position 
 of words in a sentence is far more important than it is in any inflected language like French, 
 German, or Latin. 
 
 [Received from a Carbondale man.] 
 
 "dear sir will you please Give me your price of ships feed per ton. in Cars at 
 Carbondale. i farm a little and want this to feed myself. Yours trulys." (25) 
 
 25. How many mistakes are there in this letter? Correct them all. Which mistake 
 is the worst? 
 
 WHAT DOES HE MEAN? 
 
 [From the Daily News.] 
 
 I will not be responsible for any debts contracted by any one but (26) those that 
 I make. Alex Paul Gandt. 
 
 26. What part of speech is "but" here? What other word might have been used? 
 How many mistakes are there in all? 
 
 AVOID TAUTOLOGY. 
 
 "The community," says the valued Post, "must follow up the present outrage to its 
 very ultimate end." (27) But it should not pause there; it should go on to the final 
 conclusion. 
 
 27. Would "to the very end" be wrong? Would "ultimate conclusion" be wrong? 
 What is objectionable about "ultimate end" and "final conclusion"? 
 
 THE VICE OF FINE WRITING. 
 
 One of the most detestable vices in writing is that of trying to use words you do 
 not understand and express ideas that are beyond your powers of language. The only 
 safe way is to feel your feet on the ground all the time. 
 
 [From the Independent.] 
 
 A true knight of King Arthur he looked, the young groom in his strong, eager man- 
 hood; while the fair girl at his side in her daintily simple white gown, holding a shower 
 bouquet of lilies of the valley, was easily the fairest blossom among all the greenhouse (28) 
 treasures 
 
 28. This is an example not only of fine writing, but of mixed tones "greenhouse 
 treasures" is a drop. 
 
 Put the following into business-like, plain English: 
 
 (OVER) 
 
MOST OF THIS< 
 
 Julf Husman, who has been' busy for the past several months building a fine new 
 house and barn, celebrated their completion with a barn dance Wednesday night. "The 
 beauty and chivalry" of Wayne and adjoining townships attended and "did chase the 
 glowing hours with flying feet," with as much enthusiasm and pleasure as did the guests 
 "When Belgium's capital had gathered then and bright the lamps shone over fair women 
 and brave men." Monticello Times. 
 
 AS IT WERE. 
 
 She gave an exuberant reading on "Easter" and rendered a very pretty piano solo of 
 metamorphose. She captivated her listeners in her renditions with exciting wonder. 
 Ecomiastic remarks were given and the club movement was highly indorsed by the visitors. 
 
 A LITTLE DESCRIPTION OF A MUSICAL EVENT. 
 
 The rising of the curtain of 1911 upon the initial appearance of the world famous 
 Flonzaley string quartet offers a gift transcendent from the hand of the Muse, and writes 
 in letters golden the date of January 9, a musical "All Saints day." The tireless devotees 
 of the Mozart club, in their bestowal of a benediction so superlative, more deeply still, 
 lay tribute upon the art world, as their grateful debtor. The audience room of the Unitarian 
 church, so fortuitous in acoustic responsiveness, will long seem a shrine for memories 
 haunted by the "souls of strings" quivering into melodies and harmonies. History, with 
 a gold embroidery of aristocratic traditions, decorates chamber music as the priestess of 
 the art, embodying reverently the consecrated forms of the classic, and keeping its altar 
 fires ever burning in worship of the eternal truth and mystery of beauty. To a rigid and 
 high schooling in the classics, surmounting the complete technique of virtuosi, the Flon- 
 zaley quartet brings all the many hued emotionalism of the Latin race, and an atmosphere 
 of poetry, exhaling through all, the sensitive abandon, restrained passion, and noble vision 
 of their interpretations. 
 
 FROM A SPEECH BY THE MAYOR OF . 
 
 It is an eminent satisfaction to realize that our men and women have got far enough 
 along to keenly enjoy* a real delight in rambling through the jungles of human conceptions 
 assembled and tendered to the public through the medium of the modern chautauqua. This 
 instinct to penetrate the mysteries of the unknown is probably the divine afflatus that lifts 
 the intellectual lifting machine which carries humanity above the squalor and grime of 
 brutality, up to the mountain peaks of mercy, altruism and justice. Ideas are invisible 
 blessings craving protection, preservation and shelter in the belfry of the temple of the 
 soul. Lecturers are specialists in the realm of ideas. They are expert in stringing them 
 into pleasing galaxies of thought. They frame up graceful and bewitching disquisitions 
 supporting the tenet they would teach and with diplomatic system support the central 
 ideas with charming clusters of corroborrative sentiment until their proposition becomes 
 amazingly irresistible. And then with trained thorax they send their admonitions in poetic 
 prose with lucid explanations on waves of silvery sound to the eager ear of their audience, 
 from whence they carom to the brain, in their quest for rootage and a chance to pullulate 
 and grow. The mind finds opportunity in this necessitious diversion, to stretch out and 
 grab off something good to feed upon. The Lincoln Chautauqua is on deck with its 
 banquet of brain food. It is here with the goods. Its canvas pavillion now shelters us, 
 and its hampers of noodle nourishment are ready to be opened and served. The torrent 
 of thought is ready to be turned on, and the hopper of Abingdon's intellectuality has been 
 primed for the reception of the psychological inundation. 
 
 Look up in the dictionary all doubtful words. Many are misspelled or misused. 
 
 * A void, If possible, "splitting" an infinitive by Inserting an adverb between the to and the verb. 
 
 (Lesson XXXI, page 4) 
 
OCT20J956 
 
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YC 01473 
 
 U.C.BERKELEY LIBRARIES 
 
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 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY