^ v -'.
A SUMMARY
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES:
FOB THB CU
anfc /otnilifs.
BI JOHN W. NEVIN, D.D.
PHILADELPHIA:
AMERICAN SUNDAY-SCHOOL UNION,
11JJ CHESTNUT STREJCT.
r
Nos. 8 A 10 BIHLK HOUSE, ASTOR PLACE.
KirracD according to Act of Congress, in the year 1849, by tt
AMKRICAN SUNDAY-SCHOOL UNIOft
IB the Clrrk's Office of the District Court for the Eastern Dirtrn t of P. n
49- No books are published by the AMKRICAN SUNDAT-ACHOOI UNION
without the sanction of the Committee of Publication, cocs : -*lng of
Ir-urteen members, froLi the following denominations of Chrirtians, v ii
Baptint, Methodifit, Congregationalint, Kpiropal, Presbytrrian. and Re-
formed Dutch. Not more than three of the members can < of tb/>
none dr nomination, and no book can be published to which any mem-
bra of the Committee shall object
STACK
ANNEX
PREFACE.
THE following work was undertaken chiefly with a
new of contributing some help to the great cause of
Sunday-school education. That something of the kind
is much wanted, for the use of common instructors, in
the work of such education, cannot be doubted. The
books in which such information as it is intended to
contain is to be found, are not within the reach of most
of those who are called to take upon them this charac-
ter ; and if they were, they are not adapted to answer
effectually the want that is felt in the present case.
Most of them have been written for the use of such aa
have far more than common advantages of education
and learning, whose business leads them to much read-
ing, and whose minds are trained to diligence and
patience in the pursuit of knowledge. Even the few
which have been designed for more popular and common
use, are such that their advantages can never extend to
the great majority of those who read the Bible : they
are too large, and, of course, too expensive to* be gene-
rally procured ; they are too diffuse, and too much ele-
vated in style, or darkened with learning, to be gene-
rally read or understood. Since the establishment of
Sunday-schools, various short sketches of information
on some particular points of Jewish Antiquities have
been supplied in differ* nt publications intended for their
use, which have, no doubt, answered a valuable pur-
pose, so far as they extended ; but all the advantage
which such scattered fragments can secure must mani-
festly be very limited and imperfect, in comparison
with what might be, and ought to be, derived from thig
auarter of scripture illustration. Evidently, a short,
1* 5
6 PREFACE
simp/e, systematic coupilation, bringing together, with
Dut technical phrase or learned discussion, the most
essential points of the whole subject, in regular order,
into small and convenient cempass, is the only thing
which can adequately meet the necessity that is expe-
rienced in this matter.
It is hoped that this present attempt may not be with-
out something of its intended use, in furnishing such a
compilation, easy to be procured and easy to be read,
for the assistance of teachers. If it should in any
measure answer this design, it will accomplish an object
of vast usefulness. If, however, the remarks which
have already been made are well founded, a work c r
this kind may be reasonably expected to be yet more
extensively useful. As a help to the intelligent read-
ing of the Scriptures, such a compilation, if not greatly
defective in its form, is, no doubt, better suited for the
use of all common readers, than any larger work.
It needs very little reflection, to be convinced of the
importance of having some acquaintance with the cir-
cumstances, natural and moral, of the time and country
in which the Bible was written, in order to read it with
understanding. Though an inspired book, its language
and style have been wisely conformed to the manner of
tnen, for whose use it was designed ; of course con-
formed, in these respects, to the particular manner of
the people to whom it was at first directly communi-
cated. Holy men of old spake as they were moved by
the Holy Ghost ; but they were suffered, at the same
time, to speak and write in that style which the general
usage of the age, modified by his own peculiar genius
and taste, naturally led each one to adopt. Hence, the
sacred books of Scripture, like other books, are stamped
throughout with the lively impression of the place and
period in which they were originally published. It is
found not only in the language itself, but in unnum-
bered references, direct and indirect, to the existing
state of things among those who were appointed first to
receive them. Historical facts, objects of surrounding
nature, the productions of art, with domestic, social,
religious, and civil usages, are continually urged before
PREFACE. 7
the reader's mind, and noticed as things with which he
is supposed to be perfectly familiar. And thus familiar
they were to the ancient Jew. But widely different is
our situation in this respect. Many hundred years
separate us from the times of original revelation. And
if Time had left the physical and moral scenery of
Israel's ancient land untouched, instead of turning all
into a waste, it would still be many hundred miles
remote from the spot of our dwelling. With a different
climate, we have different feelings ; with a different
location, different forms of nature around us ; with a
different education, a widely different manner cf life.
We are placed, therefore, under a double difficulty,
when we come thus circumstanced to read the Bible.
We are destitute of the knowledge and feelings of the
ancient Jew, and, at the same time, *ve have notions
and views of our own, which we are constantly liable to
substitute in their stead. "Hence, if no remedy be sup-
plied, we must often be left altogether in the dark, by
meeting with terms and images, the objects of which
are utterly unknown ; and often we shall derive to our-
selves an entirely strange and unfounded conception of
the writer's meaning, by affixing ideas to other images
and terms, such as our habits of thought and speech
may suggest, but which are foreign, in no small degree,
from the usage of oriental antiquity.
What then is the remedy for this inconvenience ?
Evidently to seek acquaintance with the time, and the
region, and the people, with which the Bible had to do
in its first revelation : as far as possible, become fami-
liar with the history of the Jewish nation, the scenery
of Palestine, the religion, government and manners of
its ancient wonderful people. To read the Bible, in
many parts, with a proper sense of its meaning, we
need so much familiarity with these things as to be able
to transport our minds away from all around us, and to
clothe them, in the midst of Judea itself, with all the
moral drapery that hung about the Israelitish spirit ages
ago. We need to be conversant with the mountains,
the plains and the streams ; .the beasts of the field and
the birds of the air : the labours of the farmer and the
PREFACE.
habits of the shepherd ; we need to walk, in fancy '
vivid vision, through the streets of Jerusalem; to min-
gle with the inmates of the Jewish dwelling ; to parti-
cipate in their seasons of festive joy, and to sympathize
with their sorrow in the day of calamity and bereaving
death ; we need to go up to the temple, to unite in its
worship, to behold its solemn rites, and to admire the
beautiful grandeur of its scene. True, indeed, exten-
sive acquaintance with these things is to be expected
only in the scholar ; the common reader of the Bible is
not favoured with equal opportunity ; but is he there-
fore to content himself with entire ignorance ? Assur-
edly not. The fact that such knowledge is wanted
now, through the providence of God, to illustrate every
page of the Bible, evinces it to be the will of God that
all should, as far as they have the power, endeavour
to acquire it. The same fact must lead every person
who loves the Bible diligently to seek it, with every
other help that may, under the blessing of the Holy
Ghost, contribute to the profitable study of the pre-
cious book
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART I.
CHAPTER I.
GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE.
SECTION 1. Of the Names and Divisions of the Holy Land ifl
General names, 19. Ancient divisions Divisions in th time of
Christ, 20.
SECT. 2. Of the general Face of the Country 21
Mountains, 21. Plains, 23. Deserts, 23. Rivers, 24. Lakes, 25.
General advantages, 25.
SECT. 3. Of Climate 2fi
Seasons Drought, 2G. Dew, 26. Rains, 27. Winds The Si
moom, 29.
CHAPTER H.
' KATURAL HISTORY.
SECT. 1. Of Vegetable Productions 30
I. WILD TREES: The Cedar, 30. The Oak, 31. The Terebinth,
32. The Fir and others Shittim wood, 33. Gopher wood
Cinnamon, Cassia and Frankincense trees, 34. II. CULTIVATED
TREES: The Olive, 35. The Fig tree, 36. The Sycamore
The Pomegranate tree, 37. The Apple tree The Palm, 39.
The Balsam tree The Almond tree The Vine, 40. Ill
PLANTS : Useful Herbs, 42. Weeds, 43. Grain General fruit-
fulness in ancient times, 44. Present desolation, 45.
2. Of Animals 46
I. QfAtmrpEus : Horse, 45. Ox Ass, 46. Mule, 47. Camel
Sheep, 48. Goat, 49. Dog, 50. Hog -Lion, 61. Unicorn, 5'/
I
CONTENTS.
II BiRDh. o3 III. WATER ANIMALS: Whale Leviathan, 63. Be-
hemoth, 54 IV. REPTILES : Dragon, 54. Serpents, 65. SCOT
pion, 66. V. INSECTS : The Bee The Locust, 6(5.
CHAPTER I1L
DWELLINGS AND HOUSEHOLD ACCOMMODATIONS.
BE;T. 1. Of Dwellings 67
Tenta Houses, 68. Porch Court, 69. Roof, GO. Materials,
01. Cities Gates, 62.
SECT. 2. Of Furniture 62
Carpets Beds and Seats, 63. Lamp Pots and Cups Bottles,
63. TableTable-couch, 64. Mill, 66. Ovens, GO.
CHAPTER IV.
OCCUPATIONS.
SECT. 1. Of the Pastoral Life 67
Its origin, 67. Ancient prevalence and dignity, 68. Care of
flocks, 69. Wells, 70. Produce Cheese Ancient Butter and
Wool, 71. Modern Shepherds, 72. Pastoral Imagery, 7'2.
SECT. 2. Of Husbandry 73
The Jews a nation of farmers, 74. Plough, 75. Harrow Yoke,
76. Ox-goad Sowing Harvest, 77. Threshing-floor Thresh-
ing instruments, 78. Winnowing Vineyards, 80. Vintage
Wine-press Wine, 81. Emblems, 82. Fruit of the Olive Oil-
press, 88. Oil gardens Honey, 84.
fixer. 8. Employments of Handicraft and Trade 86
Cieneral remarks, 86. Trades little followed before the captivity,
held in different esteem afterwards, 87. Commerce Imports
and exports, 88. Measures, Weights and Coins Measures of
length, 89. Hollow Measures, Dry and Liquid, 90. Money ia
early times, 91. Coins, 92.
. 4. Of the Learned Profession* 98
Tribe of Levi, 94. Judges General learning, 95. Prophets, %.
Scribes, 97. Schools, 98.
CHAPTER V.
DRESS, MEALS, SOCIAL INTERCOURSE.
BBCT. 1. Of Dress
Cloth Colours, 98. Camel's-hair Sackcloth The Tunic, 100.
The Upper Garment, 101. The Girdle, 102. Sacred Garment*--
CONTENTS U
Sandals and Shoes, 104. The Mitre- -The Veil, 105. Hair, 106.
The Beard, 107. Ornaments, 108. Wardrobes, 109.
2. Meals and Entertainments 110
Preparation of Food, 110. Time of Meals, 111. Washings-
Thanksgiving, 112. Mode of Eating Social Feasts, 113. Spi
ritual food, 114.
SECT. 8. Of Social Intercourse 116
General remarks, 116. Style of Manners in the East, 117. Sa-
lutations, 118. Visits, 119. Formality Conversation, 121.
CHAPTER VI.
DOMESTIC CUSTOMS AND HABITS.
SECT. 1. Of the Marriage Relation 122
Early Marriages, 122. Contract An espoused Wife, 123. Wed-
ding Customs, 124. The Marriage Supper Confirmation of
Marriage, 125. Spiritual Marri.ige, 126. Marriage Parables,
127. Polygamy, 130. Divorce, J81.
SECT. 2. Of the Relation between Parents and Children 182
Desire of Children Duty of marrying a childless Brother's widow,
132. Ceremonies relating to Children Names, 133. Parental
Authority The Birthright, 134. Adoption, 136.
HECT. 3. Of Slaves 136
Character of Slavery among the Jews, 136. The Steward-
Slavery among other nations, 137. Branding, 138.
CHAPTER VII.
niSKASES AND FUXEI AL CUSTOMS.
BCT. I. Of Diseases 139
Origin of Sickness, 139. Supernatural Diseases Demoniacal Pos-
sessions, 140. Exorcism, 142. The stroke of Heaven under
the form of natural fatal Diseases Some Diseases the chan-
nels of God's anger more especially than others, 143. Pestilence
or Plague Leprosy, 144. Sin the leprosy of the soul, 147.
Anointing the sick with oil, 148.
BsfCT. 2. Customs that attended Death and Burial 149
Expressions of grief. 149. Embalming, 150. Burial, 151. Se-
pulchres, 152. Sheol or Hades, 154.
i2 OflNTENTS.
CHAPTER VIIL
MISCELLANEOUS MATTER.
SECT- 1. Of Writing ...................................................... 15*
Its origin, 158. Ancient Materials for Writing Books, 159
Letters, 160.
2. Of Music and Dancing ............................................. 16i
Origin and design of Music, 161. Harp Psaltery Organ -Pipe
Horn Trumpet Cymbal Tabret, 1 02. Sacred Mutic
Dancing, 168.
SECT. 3. Of Garnet and Theatres ........................................... 164
Public Shows, 164. Games of Heathen, not Jewish, custom Gre-
cian Games, 165. Object of public Games Allusions to the
Grecian Games in the New Testament, 168. Theatres Gladia-
tor Shows Fights with Wild Beasts, 170.
SECT. 4. Modes of Dividing and Reckoning Time.. ...................... 171
D a y 8 Hours, 171. Watches The Week, 173. Months, 175.
The Year, 176. Way of Counting, 177.
CHAPTER IX.
POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS.
SECT. 1. Patriarchal Government 178
Its Nature Origin, 178. History, 179.
SECT. 2. Ancient Israelitish Government 182
Ite Author Object, 182. Nature God its King, 183. Idolatry
185. Destruction of the Canaanites Measures to prevent inter-
course with Idolaters, 186. Division of the Land, 187. Inhe-
ritance, 188. Governments and orders of the individual Tribes,
189. Genealogical Tables, 190. Judges, 191. Tribe of Levi,
192. Kings, 193.
J-'BCT. 8. Jewish Government after the Captivity 194
Under the Persians, Greeks and Romans, 194. Centurions Pub-
licans, 196. Judges Sanhedrim, 197. Inferior Court, 199,
Insurrections, 200. Expectations of the Messiah, 201.
RBCT. 4. Of Kings 202
Robe Diadem Throne Sceptre Royal Palace and Table, 203.
Approach to the King, 204. Journeys attended with a splen-
did retinue Royal name, 205. Counsellors Prophets Re-
corder Scribe High-Priest Governor of the Palace King's
Companion Life-gaard Runners, 206. Accc'int. of Archelnus,
207.
CONTENTS. Itt
SECT, b Of Punishments 207
Trials Tr:a: of our Lord, 207. Design of Punishments Sin and
Trespass Offerings Fines, 208. Scourging, 209. Confinement,
210. Retaliation Excommunication, 211. The Blood-avenger.
212. Stoning, 21o Crucifixion, 214.
. 6. Of Military Affairs 220
How Armies were r/ised, 220. David's army, 221. Roman arm*
in Judea War -chariots, 222. Elephants, 223. DEFENXIVB
WEAPONS: Helmet Breast-plate, 224. Greaves Girdle
Shield, 225. OFFENSIVE WEAPONS : Sword, 225. Spear Jave-
. tin Bow and Arrow, 220. Sling Engines on the walls, 227.
Battering-ram Manner of fighting, 228. Efl'ects of victory-
Israelites more humane than other people, 229.
PART II.
CHAPTER L
GENERAL HISTORY OF RELIGION.
Origin of the Church, 235. Its General Scheme and Relation to the
World, 237. Its Unity, 238 and Diversities of Outward Con-
stitution withal, 240. State before the Flood Call of Abraham,
241. Organization of the Jewish Church General Plan of the
Jewish State ; different Sorts of Laws, 242. The Moral Law,
243. Ceremonial Law, 245. Continuance of the Jewish Church
all its appointed time, 248. Respect which that Dispensation
had to the Gtspel, 249. Hope of the Messiah A General Mis-
take on this Point, 250. Expectation of Elias, 252. Introduc-
tion of the Gowpel Its Conflict with Ancient Prejudices, 254.
CHAPTER II.
THE TABERNACLE.
Origin of the Tabwn.icle, 256. The Court of the Tabernacle, 258.
The Frame and Coverings of the Sacred Tent, 259. The Altar
of Burnt-offering, 262. The Brazen Laver, 265. The Golden
Candlestick, 266. The Table of Shew-bread, 208. The Altar
of Incense, 269. Ihe Ark of the Covenant, 272. The rheru-
bim, 273. The Shcchiniih, L'~. r ). Meaning of tit whole Picture,
276. The Tabernaele in the Wilderness, 279. The Tabernacle
in the LJTH! of Cauuin, 280.
2
i4 CONTENTS.
CHAPTER III.
THK TEMPLE.
SKCT. 1. The Holt, City #2
Origin :>f Jerusalem Situation, 282. Mount of Olives. 2S3 Thf
Garden of Gethsemane Valley of Hinnom, 284. Siloam, '->">.
Calvary First Destruction of the City, 286. Ruin by the Ro-
mans Present State, 287.
SECT. 2. The First Temple 288
Preparation for it by David, 288. General Plan, 290. Dedication
and Ruin, 293.
SECT. 3. The Second Temple 294
Its Building, and Defects, 294. Sul>se<|iient Glory of it \V:rk
of Herod, 295. The Court of the Gentiles, 296. Porches, 2H7.
Markets, 299. The Court of the Women, 300. The Court of
l.-ruel, 302. The Court ol the Prints, 303. The Sanctuary,
304. The Tower of Antonia, 306. Beauty of the Second TPUJ
pie, 807. Its Final Ruin, 308.
CHAPTER IV.
MINISTERS OF THE TABERNACLE AND TEMPLE.
SECT. 1. The Levitet 309
Their Separation, 309. Duties Porters, 310. Musicians, 311
Nethinims, 313.
SECT. 2. The Priestt 313
Origin of the Prieotly Office Separation of Aaron and his Family,
313. Duties of the Priests, and Qualifications, 314. Division
into Courses, 315. Meaning >f the Priesthood, 316.
SECT. 3. The High-Priest 318
Virtue of his Office Sacred Dress, 318. Succession, 319. Urim
and Thiiiiimim, 320. Signification of the High-Print's Office,
822
CHAPTER V.
SACRIFICES AND OTHER RELiniOUS OFFERING*.
1. Different Kindt of Sacrificial Offerings in use amonrf the
Jewt .' .' B24
Sacrifices in use from the Fall, 323. BLOODY OFFERINGS, 324.
Four Kinds of them, viz : Burnt Offerings, 225. Sin Offering.".,
CON1ENT8. 1ft
326. Trespass Offerings, 327. Peace Offerings, 328. Cove-
nant Sacrifices, 330. Private and Public Sacrifices, 881.
SACRIKICKS THAT WERE NOT BLOODY, 332. First-fruits, 335.
The First-born, 836. Tithes, 337. Vow-gifts, 339. Half
shekel Tax, 341. Lesson derived from this Subject, 342
Sjh,r. 2. Sacrificial Rites '. 843
1 ying of Hands on the Head of the Victim, 343. Slaying of it
Sacredness of Blood, 344. Preparation for the Altar, 345.
Waving and Heaving, 34(5. Fat, 340. Salt, U47. The Sucriti-
ial Pile Disposal of the Flesh, 348.
SEO.. 3. Meaning and Oriyin of Sacrifices 849
Ri ison cannot account for the Use of Bloody Sacrifices, 34'J.
Vheir Meaning according to the Bible, 350. Their Origin, 354
1 he idea of Atonement connected with the Use of them, before
> well as after the time of Moses, 355. Sacrifices of Cain and
A\ el, 356. Acceptance of Sacrifices by Fire Figurative Sa-
cri 'ces, 358.
CHAPTER VI.
SACRED TIMES AND SOLEMNITIES.
SECT. 1 The Daily Service 359
Morntug and Evening Services, 359. Manner of the Morning
Service, 360. The Evening Service, 364. Reverence for the
Sanctuary, 364.
SKCT. 2. Me Sabbath 366
Its Origvd, 366. Character in the Jewish economy, 367. Man-
ner of its Observance, 368.
SBCT. 3. N*> Moons and Feast of Trumpets 37C
SECT. 4. Th> Three Or eat Festivals 372
The Passo/er, 373. How celebrated in the Time of our Saviour,
374. P^sclial Families, 375. Search for Leaven, 375. Slay-
ing of th Lambs, 376. The Supper, 377. The Hagigah, 379
Introduction of the Harvest, 380. Meaning of the Passover,
381. The Feast of Weeks, 882. The Feast of Tabernacles.
882. Cevmonies added to it in later times, 383.
flEL'T. 5. The (treat Day of Atonement 386
Nature of th t, So'emnity Manner of its Service, 386. Meaning
of it, 388.
KCT. 6. Sacred Years 390
The Sabbatic Vear, 390. Th Year of Jubilee, 391.
|6 CONTENTS
HECT. 7. Sacred Seatons of Human fnttitution A92
Annual Fast Days, 392. The Feast of Purim, 393. The Fest
of Dedication, 303.
CHAPTER
MEMBERS OF THE JEWISH CHURCH.
Members by Birth, 3%. Ceremonial Disqualifications for Sacred
Duties, 3M. Removal of Uncleanness, 3!7. The Water of
Separation, 397. Its typical import, 398. Proselytes, 3^9.
CHAPTER VIII.
SYNAGOGUES.
Origin of Synagogues, 400. Plan of Synagogue-Houses, 402.
Officers of the Synagogue, 404. The Synagogue Worship, 407.
Lessi ns from the Law and the Prophets, 407. Synagogue Dis-
cipline, 411. Pattern of the Synagogue followed in the Consti-
tution of the Christian Church, 413.
CHAPTER IX.
RELIGIOUS SECTS.
dECT. 1. The Phariffa 41?
Belief of the Pharisees, 416. Tradition of the Pharipes, 417.
SECT. 2. The Sadducea 4^8
Origin of the Sect, 423. Doctrines of the Sadduceea, 425.
SECT. 8. TheEssena 427
SECT. 4. The Samaritan* 432
APPENDIX... .. iffll
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES
PART I.
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
PART I.
CHAPTER I.
GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE.
SECTION I.
NAMES AND DIVISIONS OF THE LAND.
1 ! aountry in which the Jews anciently lived has beeo
iMhaguished by different names. It is called, in Scripture
the Land of Canaan, because it was first settled by Canaan,
the youngest son of Hani, and because his descendants, the
Canjuinites, dwelt in it, till the " measure of their iniquity was
full," and God destroyed them, to make room for his own
people. It is styled the Land of Promise, on account of the
promise made to Abraham, that it should be given to his seed
for an inheritance, when he himself sojourned there as a stran-
ger in a strange land. From the names of the nation to whom
it was given, it is called the Land of the Hebrews; the Land
of Israel; and the Land ofJudah. Because it was chosen by
God as the country in which his true worship should be pre-
served, and was long honoured with his peculiar presence and
care, it is often named, the Holy Land ; and once, by Hosea,
the Lord's Land. It is also called Palestine: this name is
very old, (Ex. xv. 14 ;) it is the same as Philistia, meaning,
properly, the Land of die Philistines; and then used in a
larger sense, for the whole country of Canaan, because the
Philistine? were so important, a people among the nations by
whom it was first settled. This last is the most convenient
name, and is now become the most common, in speaking of
the whole country which the .indent Jews inhabited. It will,
therefore, be the one most generally used for that purpose, in
the present work.
For miny ye?rs, the whole land, from the mountains of
Lebanon in the north, to the borders of Edorn in the south.
10
2U BIBLICAL ANTIQIMTIES.
ind from the great Mediterranean Sea on the west, to the
mountains of Gilead eastward, remained united under one
government. Each of the twelve tribes had its particular por-
tion a>si^ned by lot, in which it dwelt separate from the others;
but all together made one people and one nation. On the east
side of Jordan, Reuben, Gad, and half of the tribe of Mauasseb,
had their inheritance: all the others were settled west of that
river. But immediately after the death of Solomon, this beau-
tiful union was broken asunder. Two kingdoms occupied the
land instead of one. The Kinydom ofJndnli lay to the south,
taking in the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. The other U n
tribes revolted from the house of David, and formed all the
country north of Benjamin, together with that which lay east
of Jordan, into a new government. This was culled the Kimj-
tfom of Israel; frequently, by the prophets, Kjiltrtnin, because
that was the principal tribe, and the one in which the capital
city of the kingdom stood; and sometimes, from the name of
its capital, the whole kingdom was called tfamaria.
In the time of our Saviour, the land of Palestine was divided
into several provinces, under the Roman government. On the
west side of Jordan, the northern part, as far down as the lower
end of the lake of Gennesareth, was called Galilee. Part of
this was named Galilee of the Gentiles, because it bordered on
the land of the heathen; and also Upper Galilee, because it lay
farthest north and abounded in mountains. The southern part
of it was called Lower Galilee. It took in all the country di-
rectly west of the Gennesareth lake, and was, in general, a rich
and fruitful plain. This particular district enjoyed, more than
any other, the presence of Jesus Christ, while he was on earth.
Hence he was called the fiufi/'nn, and his disciples are styled
Men of Galilee. (Acts i. 11.)
South of Galilee lay Samaria, so called from the city of
that name. It embraced the lower part of what had once been
the kingdom of Israel, or the ten tribes. The origin of the
came and of the city to which it was first given, is related
1 Kings xvi. 24. The Samaritans were a mixed race, settled in
the country after the captivity of the ten tribes.*
South of Samaria was the country of Jn<li. Sometimes
this name seems to have been used for the whole land of
Palestine, in the time of Christ ; but more commonly and
properly, only for that part which, before the captivity, had
been the kingdom of Judah, including all the country south of
* See the history of their rise, in the 17th chapter of the Second
Book of Kings.
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. fcl
Samana. From this account of the situation of each province,
it appears, that any person going directly from Galilee to Judea
" must needs go through Samaria," (John iv. 4,) because it lay
just between the two. That part of Judea which lay farthest
south was inhabited principally by descendants of the ancient
Edomites. They had settled themselves there while the Jews
were in captivity at Babylon, having been driven from their
own country, which lay just below, by the violence of war, and
finding none to hinder them from taking possession of the land.
When the Jews returned, they were, for a long time, too weak
to recover their territory out of their hands : the Edomites, or
Idumeans, as they were then called, still continued to dwell in
the southern border. At length, however, a little more than a
hundred years before the coming of Christ, John Hyrcanus,
the great Jewish prince, conquered them completely, and com-
pelled them either to leave the country or to embrace the reli-
gion of the Jews. They chose to change their religion rather
than their place, and, accordingly, from that time, became a
part of the Jewish nation. Still, that part of the country in
which they lived continued to be called Idumea, and the peo-
ple Idumeans, long after. (Mark iii. 8.)
The country beyond Jordan was broken up into seven or
eight different provinces. As, however, these divisions seem
to have b/en not very clearly defined, and more than once
altered, it is not easy to describe exactly their situation : nor is
it necessary, since only a part of them are so much as named
in the New Testament, and these scarcely more than mentioned.
It is enough to know that Decapolis was a tract of country
lying east of the lake of Gennesareth, and stretching somewhai
above it, also, towards the north : that Iturea and Trachanitu, of
which Philip was tetrarch, (Luke iii. 1,) took in the country
still farther north, though the lower part of Iturea was probably
the same as the upper part of what was called the region of
Decapolis; and that Abilene, mentioned in the same passage,
was the most northern district of all, lying in a valley formed
by the mountains of Lebanon, not far westward from Damascus,
SECTION II.
FACE OF THE COUNTRY.
P/vLKSTlNE is a mountainous country. Two great ranges
seem to run through the whole length of the land ; one on the
east and the other on the west side of Jordan ; not in ono
r, unbroken chain but frequently interrupted by valleys,
22 U1I1LICAL ANTIQUITIES.
ana shooting off in irregular heights, sometimes to one side ano
sometime^ t. the other, so as occasionally to leave a considerable
plain through the middle of the country. Hence, the same
range is called by different names, in different regions. Th<
Mountains of Qufad formed the eastern range. The southern
part of these mountains was called Aba rim. From the high
summit of one of these, called Ntbo, Moses surveyed the whole
land of Canaan, before he died. The northern part of the
same range was named BasJian ; it was much celebrated for its
stately oaks and excellent pastures, where numerous herds of
the finest cattle were fed. Hence, there is often allusion made
in the Bible to the oaks of Jinsfuni, and the strong Imlls of
Bashan, (Psalm xxii. 12, Isa. ii. 13, &c.; This range joins
the Mountains of Lebanon, on the north, in that part which
was anciently called Herman. Lebanon abounded in lofty
cedars, in choice fir trees and refreshing springs of water. Its
highest summits are covered with continual snow.
Stretching down toward the south, the western range spreads
itself, in numerous ridges, all over Galilee of the Gentiles. In
lower Galilee, its principal appearance was confined to the western
border, near the Great Sea, leaving a great part of the country
level, with only here and there a separate height rising on the
prospect, such as Mount Tabor, where our Saviour is supposed
to have been transfigured, or the Mount of Gillxta, where Saul
was defeated and slain. Several of these heights were fre-
quented by our Saviour. He was accustomed to " go out into a
mountain to pray," and sometimes continued there "all night,
in prayer to God," (Luke vi. 12 ;) and on one of them, he
preached the remarkable sermon recorded by Matthew in his
gospel. (Chaps, v. vi. vii.) The most considerable mountain
in this region is Carmcl, situated on the shore of the Mediter-
ranean Sea. It was exceedingly fruitful, as is intimated by its
name, which means, a vineyard of God. On the top of this
mountain, Klijah the prophet prayed for rain, in the days < f
Ahab, while his sen-ant went seven times to look for the cloud,
till at last it rose like a man's hand over the western sea
(1 Kings xviii. 4'2 44.) Farther down, toward the .south, the
same general range was called the Mountains of Israel, and the
Mountains of Ephraim. Among these were Mount Ebal and
Mount Gerizim, separated from each other by a small valley, in
which stood the ancient city of Shcchem, called, in the New
Testament, Syrhar. The Mnniitifn>i of J//n/t were the con-
tinuance of the range, as it passes southward, through the terri-
tory of that tribe, to the ancient heritage of Edom. These
mountainous tracts abound with caverns, which are sometimes
BIliLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 2S
found of great size. In times of danger from enemies, it was
anciently common to seek refuge and shelter in such natural
hiding-places. To " enter into the holes of the rocks and into
the caves of the earth," was, therefore, an expression that repre-
sented a season of distress and dismay. (Isa. ii. 19.) The
great caves of Judah afforded no small protection to David, iu
the time of his cruel persecution by Saul. Robbers, also, werr
accustomed to conceal themselves in the same sort of retreats;
and to this day, the large caverns of Palestine are not uufre-
quently made, in this way, as they were in the days of our
Saviour, dens of tiiieves.
As so great a proportion of the land is covered with moun-
tains and hills, a tract of level country of any extent was re-
garded with more notice than in countries like our own : hence,
every such plain had its (\stinguishing name. The most noted
a.nong them was the Plain of Jezreel, or, as it is sometimes
tilled, the Great Plain. It reached entirely across the coun-
try, from Mount Carmel and the sea to the bottom of lake
Gennesareth, about ten miles. It has been the scene of several
great battles : there Barak discomfited the mighty army of
Sisera, so that " there was not a man left," (Judges iv. 16 ;) and
there, also, king Josiah fell, when he went out and fought in
disguise with Necho, king of Egypt. (2 Kings xxiii. 29.)
Another plain lay along the Mediterranean Sea, from Mount
Carmel to the southern border of Judah. The upper part of
this was called Sharon, a name that belonged also to two other
places. There was also the "region round about Jordan."
(Matt. iii. 5.) This was a tract of level country, on the sides
of that river, from the lake of Gennesareth to the Dead Sea,
about twelve miles broad.
Wildernesses and Deserts are frequently mentioned in the
Scriptures ; but we must not suppose that these always mean
desolate regions without inhabitants. The Jews gave the name
of desert, or wilderness, to any tract of country that was not
cultivated. There were accordingly two kinds of deserts.
First, such as we are accustomed to understand by that name
in our own age ; plains of barren sand, where scarce a fountain
of water can be found, and only the most scanty herbage can
grow. Such as these are not found in Palestine itself; but, in
thu neighbouring country of Arabia, have always been well
known. The other kind of deserts were mountainous tracts of
country, thinly inhabited, and chiefly used for the pasturing of
cattle; less fruitful than other parts of the laud, but not with-
out Considerable growth of different wild productions, with
supply of water. Such were the wiMrrneue* of
24 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
JudaL, mentioned in the history of David, and the " Wilder
ness of Judea," in which John began to preach, (Matt. iii. 1,)
as well as the desert* in which he lived " till the day of his
showing unto Israel." (Luke i. 80.) One of the moat dreary
and barren of these deserts lay between the Mount of Olives
and the Plains of Jericho, and became a favourite lurking
place for thieves or robbers, where they fell upon travellers on
the road between Jerusalem and Jericho. (Luke x. 30.) So
many robberies were committed there, that it was called the
Bloody Way. Into some part of this wild region, probably,
our Saviour was led by the Spirit, " to be tempted of the
devil," after his baptism. (Matt. iv. 1.)
There is only one river in Palestine that deserves the name ;
this is the Jordan. The other streams that are sometimes
called rivers, become important onl) when they are swelled
with floods of rain or melting snow and ice from the mountains.
Then they dash and roll along with a great deal of noise and
force ; but when the drought of summer comes, they sink down
into mere brooks, and often are dried up altogether. Hence,
Job, because his friends had disappointed his expectation, and
brought him only reproach instead of comfort, compares them
to such streams : " My brethren have dealt deceitfully as a
brook, and as the stream of brooks they pass away; which
are blackish by reason of the ice, and wherein the snow is hid ;
what time they wax warm, they vanish : when it is hot, they
are consumed out of their place. The paths of their way are
turned aside : they go to nothing and perish." (Job vi.
1518.)
The Jordan runs from Mount Lebanon to the Dead Sea,
passing through the lake of Gennesareth in its way. In the
spring, when the snows of Lebanon melt, it rises above it
common banks : from this circumstance, it has two channels ;
one far wider than the other, with banks of its own, to hold the
water in the time of this flood. It was in the spring, the har-
vest-time of Palestine, during this swelling of the river, that
the Israelites, in the time of Joshua, passed over, at the com-
mand of God, into the land of Canaan ; when " the waters
above stood a^d rose up upon an heap very far," till the whole
nation had gone over the dry channel. (Josh. iii. 15, 16.)
The space between the outer and inner bank, on each side,
which (except in the spring) remains dry, is grown over with
thick bushes and reeds, where wild beasts find a safe hiding
place, until the yearly rise of the river compels them to fly
whence the expression, to " come up as a lion from the swell-
ings of Jordan." (Jer. xlix. 19.)
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 25
J'he lake of Gennesareth, through which the Jordan flows,
. euhed, also, the Sea of Galilee, because it lay just east of that
rountry, and the Sea of Tiberias, from a city of that Dame
which stood on its shore,) is filled with clear, pure water, ex-
:ellent to drink, and abounds with different kinds of fish. Ob
account of these advantages, it was a common saying among
the Jews, that " God loved that sea more than all other seas ic
the world." It has its bed in a valley surrounded by lofty and
steep hills. Here, the disciples of our Lord pursued their busi-
ness of fishing : over its beautiful bosom the Redeemer himself
often sailed : when its waves were tost with the tempest they
ueard his voice and were still : and when he willed to walk
upon its waters, they bore him up like solid ground.
The Dead Sea, called, also, the Sea of t/ie Plain and the
Salt Sea, into which the Jordan empties all its waters, is spread
over the ruins of four ancient cities, destroyed for their wicked--
ness, by a miracle from God. (Gen. xix. 24, 25.) It too, like
the lake just mentioned, is surrounded with high hills, except
on the corner toward Jerusalem, where it is bounded by a
barren, scorched plain. Its waters are bitter and nauseous, and
more salt than those of the ocean ; and the land around it is so
filled with salt that it will not produce plants. The whole ap-
jx-arauce of the place is dismal, as if the wrath of the Almighty
were abiding upon it still.
The land of Palestine is highly praised, in the Scriptures,
for its natural advantages. It is described as a "good land
and a large, a land flowing with milk and honey." (Ex. iii. 8 )
" A land of brooks of water, of fountains and depths, that spring
out of the valleys and hills ; a land of wheat, and barley, and
vines, and fig trees, and pomegranates; a land of oil olive and
honey ;" a land wherein the people should eat bread without
scarceness, and lack nothing ; whose stones were iron, and out
of whose hills they might dig brass. (Deut. viii. 7 9.) No
country in the east could boast such a variety of blessings.
Egypt alone could compare with it in fruitfulness of soil ; but,
then, Egypt was never cheered with showers of rain : it was
watered only by the yearly overflowing of the river Nile.
Egypt, too, was not adorned with mountains and hills; and, of
course, could not abound m the same variety of productions.
Nothing like the glory of Lebanon, or the excellency of Carmel,
the cold flowing waters of the rock, or ike springs of the valleys,
was found in all its extent. Hence, Moses tells the Israelites,
rtiat Kgypt, with all its advantages, was by no means equal to
'.he land which they were going to inherit. " The land wnithcr
thou goest in to possess it, is not aa the land of Esypt from
3
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES
which ye came out, where thou sowedst thy seed, and wateredsi
it with thy foot, as a garden of herbs; but the land whither y
go to possess it, is a land of hills and mlli-ys, nnd
tit' the rain of heaven." (Deut. xi. 10, 11.)
SECTION HI.
CLIMATE.
THE weather in Palestine, as in our own country, varies in
different places and at different times. The year seems to have
been divided, at a very early period, into six SEASONS, each
consisting of two months. We lind them all mentioned in
God's promise to Noah, after the flood : " While the earth
remaineth, seedtime and harvest and cold and heat and sum-
mer and winter shall not cease." (Gen. viii. 22.) These same
divisions are found among the Arabs to this day.
HARVEST began some time in the firnt part of our April, and
BO ended in the first part of June. During this season, the
weather is generally very pleasant : towards the close of it,
however, it begins to grow uncomfortable through heat. SUM-
MER, or the time of fruits, followed the season of harvest, and
lasted the next two months. Durirfg this time, the heat in
that country becomes more and more severe ; so that the in-
habitants choose to sleep under the open sky, on the roofs of
their houses. The HOT SEASON came next, beginning in the
middle of August: the early part of this period is excessively
warm ; but toward the end of it, the weather gradually grows
less oppressive.
From the middle of April to the middle of September, it
neither rains nor thunders : hence, in the time of Samuel it waa
considered a miracle, when, in answer to his prayer, it thundered
and rained in the time of harvest. (1 Sam. xii. 17.) And
hence, the ancient proverb, " As snow in summer, and as rain
in harvest, so honour is not seemly for a fool." (Prov. xxvi. 1.)
Sometimes, in the beginning of harvest, a cloud is seen in the
morning, but as the sun rises, it vanishes away. (IIos. vi. 4.)
Afterward, during May, June, July and August, not a solitary
cloud appears, and the earth receives no moisture but from the
dews of the night. These dews fall far more plentifully tLere,
than any in our part of the world; so that those who are ex-
posed to them become wet to the skin. In Solomon's Song,
the Bridegroom says, "my head is filled with dew, and my locks
with the drops of the night." Because they are so heavy and
no important, they are often mentioned in the Scriptures among
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 27
t\, neb blessings of the country, and the dew is everywhere
us*.. * as a symbol of the divine goodness. In the morning,
he rtrrer, it is speedily dried up, according to the beautiful
all :o^.u of Hosea, fvi. 4 :) "0 Ephraim, what shall I do unto
thcv' Judah, wnat shall I do unto thee? for your goodness
is ac .<- morning cloud, and as the early dew it goeth away."
The sponger plants, by nourishment received each night from
these gentle showers, are enabled to withstand the heat of the
day; but all the smaller herbs, unless they grow by some
rivulet of water, wither and die. The country is covered with
dreariness; the fountains and brooks are in a great measure
dried ; and the ground becomes so hard, that it often splits
open with large clefts. The heat is rendered still more dis-
tressing, if the east wind happens to blow for a few days; this
is dry and withering, and proves very injurious to the vines and
the crops of the field. Hence, it is used as an emblem of great
calamity : " Though he be fruitful among his brethren, an east
wind shall come, the wind of the Lord shall come up from the
wilderness, and his spring shall become dry, and his fountain
shall be dried up." (Hos. xiii. 15.)
After the hot season, came SEEDTIME; it lasted from the
first part of October to the first part of December During this
season, the weather is various often misty, cloudy and rainy.
The air, at the commencement of this period, is still very warm ;
as it advances, it becomes continually cooler, till toward the end
of it, the snow begins to fall upon the mountains. WINTER
was made up of the two following months. In this season,
snow frequently falls, but seldom lies a whole day, except on
the mountains; thin ice also is formed, which melts as soon as
the sun rises to any height ; the north winds are chill ; thunder,
lightning and hail, are frequent, with heavy showers of rain;
the roads become difficult to travel, especially among the moun-
tains : whence our Lord told his disciples to pray that their
fliyht miijhl not be in the winter. (5latt. xxiv. 20.) The
brooks are filled, and streams that were scarcely noticed before,
swell into the likeuoss of rivers, rushing in every direction
through the land. The remainder of the year, from the first
half of February to the first half of April, was called the COLD
SEASON, because, in the beginning of it, the weather is still
cold, though it soon gr.ws warm, and, in some places, quite
hot. During this time, tho rains still continue, with frequent
thunder, lightning and hail. From the commencement of it,
the earth begins to put forth the appearance of spring; tbr
trc'-s are soon covered with leaves, and the fields with fluurisl
iupr grain, or flowers of every different hue.
i!8 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
Fum seedtime to harvest, Palestine is watered with n>
merous showers of rain. According to the accounts of travellern,
a rain of two or three days fulls in the early part of October.
By this, the ground is prepared for ploughing and sowing:
being before so hard, that it could not receive cultivation, and
so dry, that seed cast upon it could not possibly grow. A sea-
son of clear weather, of about twenty days, follows, which tho
fanner improves, if he is wise, as his most favourable seedtime
When this is over, the rains return with plentiful fall. These
first heavy showers, with which tin- rainy season commenced
after the long drought of summer, were called the former or
early rains. In like manner, the rain that fell just before
harvest, in the spring, was called ///* lt!<-r /////, because with it
the rainy season ended : it comes about the beginning of April,
and was considered necessary, to bring the crops forward to
their full perfection. The, eurli/ nix I the loiter rain are men-
tioned, in Scripture, as the rich blessing of God; since, when
these were rendered sure, the period between them being always
abundant with showers, the crop of the husbandman could
hardly fail to be good. The quantity of rain that falls between
seedtime and harvest is very great. Sometimes it descends in
torrents, rushing down the hills, and sweeping away even houses
and cattle that n.ay fall in the way. To these violent rains our
Saviour refers, beautifully and impressively, at the close of his
sermon on the mount: " The rains descended, and the floods
came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house, &c."
(Matt. vii. 25, 27.)
Through the winter, the weather is extremely various, as it
id felt at different times and in different places. On the higher
mountains, it is exceedingly cold, while, at the same time, it is
found not unfrequently, in the plains, quite warm. Some of
the peopie pass the whole year without fire, though it is con-
sidered agreeable, and for more delicate persons, necessary, from
December to March. The nights are often severely cold, even
after the wannest days. " In the day, says Jacob, the drought
consumed me, and the frost by night." (Gen. xxxi. 40.) The
snow falls in large flakes, equal in size to a walnut, and has
more resemblance to locks of wool than it has in our country.
"He giveth snow like wool." (Ps. cxlvii. 16.)
When the sky was red iu the evening, it was considered a
sign of fair weather on the next day, but if it happened to be
o in the morning, it led them to expect rain, as appears from
the words of our Saviour, (Matt. xvi. '2, :> : > "When it is
evening, ye say, It will be fair weather, for the sky is red ; and
in the morning, It will be foul weather to-day, for the sky is
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 29
ed and lowering." A cloud rising from the west also gave
warning of rain : " he said to the people, When ye see a cloud
rise out of the west, straightway ye say, There cometh a shower;
and so it is." (Luke xii. 54.)
WINDS. The east wind was the most injurious. In the
Bummer, as has been said, it was dry and hot ; withering, as it
passed along, the herbage of the field. (Ps. ciii. 15, 16.) In
the winter, it was cold and still without moisture, and left a
sickly blight upon the grain wherever its influence fell. It waf
also particularly dangerous at sea : " Thou breakest the ships
of Tarshish with an east wind." (Ps. xlviii. 7.) Every wind
coming from any direction between east and north, or east and
south, was called an east wind. Such was that tempestuous
wind, called Euroclydon, that caused the wreck of the vessel in
which Paul was sailing to Rome. (Acts xxvii. 14.) They are
still common in that sea, and dreaded by the sailors. The west
wind, coming from the sea, generally brought rain. That which
came from the north is described by Solomon as driving away
rain. (Prov. xxv. 23.) And Job tells us that cold and fair
weather are from the north, (xxxvii. 9, 22 :) while the whirl-
wind more frequently rose from the south ; and the winds from
that quarter ordinarily brought heat; though sometimes the
southern breezes appear to have been considered agreeable.
THE SIMOOM. There is a wind that blows at times in some
countries of the East, of the most terrible character. It comes
in a stream from over the burning sands of the desert, bearing
poison and death with its course. Its approach is signified by
the appearance of distant clouds slightly tinged with red j the
sky loses its serenity, and becomes gloomy and alarming. As
the current draws nearer, it presents to the eye a hazy aspect,
resembling a sheet of smoke, coloured with purple, such as is
seen in the rainbow. Happily, its path is never broad, gene-
rally measuring less than a hundred feet, and its rapid flight soon
carries it over the country, not allowing it to be felt at any one
point more than eight or ten minutes. At the same time, it
always keeps about two feet above the surface of the ground.
Persons, therefore, who see it coming, may save their lives, by
throwing themselves instantly flat upon the earth, with their
faces downward, and breathing as little as possible till it is past.
This is the way commonly practised to avoid its deadly touch
A man would be equally secure if he could place himself about
fifteen feet above the ground, as the current of the wind is
generally not more than twelve feet high. Camels and other
animals are instinctively taught, when they perceive its ap-
proach, to thrust their beads down and bury their nostrils in
30 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
the earth Men, however, are often destroyed by its blast. i(
comes with such amazing rapidity, that it overtakes them on
their feet before they are aware, and thus they receive its fatal,
suffocating vapour into their lungs. They fall down directly,
and lie without motion or life. If one of their limbs is shaken,
to arouse them, it falls off; and very soon, the whole body
turns black, with mortification spread throughout. It is espe-
cially dangerous when it comes in the night. Thousands, it ia
said, have, in more than one instance, perished in a single night,
from its desolating breath. This wind is called, by the Arabs,
Simoom, and, by the Turks, Samyel. It is supposed, by some,
that the prophet intended the same, when he compared the
coming judgments of God to a dry wind of the hiyh places in
the wilderness. (Jer. iv. 11.)
CHAPTER H.
NATURAL HISTORY.
SECTION I.
OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS.
MOSES describes the land of Palestine, as a land of wheat,
and larley, and vines, and fig-trees, and pomegranates ; a land
of oil olive and honey ; and the Scriptures abound with allusions
to different kinds of trees and plants. Solomon, we are told,
left a book on this subject : " He spake of trees, from the cedar
of Lebanon, even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the
wall : he spake also of beasts, and of fowl, and of creeping
things, and of fishes." (1 Kings iv. 33.) If we had this
book, we should, no doubt, know all about the different pro-
ductions of the country in his time ; but as it has been long since
lost, we must rest satisfied with such general knowledge as can
be gathered from the occasional notices found in the Bible,
compared with the observations of travellers who have visited
the east in modern times.
WILD TREES.
The Cedar, to which such frequent allusion is made iu
Scripture, is a most stately tree. Its roots spread far around
below; it rises to a lofty height; its branches reach a great
Ustance out on every side, forming a large and delightful shade,
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 31
nd remaining covered with green leaves from one end of the
year to the other. Its trunk often becomes exceedingly large,
sometimes measuring twelve yards around; the wood is of a
beautiful brownish colour, with a pleasant smell ; being some-
what bitter, it is not touched by worms, so that it has been
known to last in a building two thousand years. The princi
pal growth of cedars was anciently on Mount Lebanon : most
of them, however, have since been cut down, so that now only
a few can be found, growing amid the snows in the highest pan
of the mountain. Kings, great men, and proud men, are com-
pared to cedars, on account of their strength or their loftiness ;
so also the righteous, on the other hand, in allusion to their
usefulness and beauty. (Ps. xcii. 12.)
Oalcs abounded anciently in different parts of Palestine.
Those which grew on Bashan were considered peculiarly fine.
The broad and refreshing shade which they supplied was par-
ticularly grateful in that warm climate. It was common, in
early times, to choose such a shade as the most pleasant place
for setting up a tent. Under the shadow of the oak, also,
idols were often erected by the corrupt, where they resorted
from time to time, to engage in their abominable worship ; and
sometimes whole groves of this venerable tree were thus turned
into rr treats of impiety and shame, on account of the agreeablfl
and secret shelter which they afforded.
Under the name of oak, in our translation of the Bible, ii
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES
Oak Tree.
included, (besides the common tree so called,) the Terebinth 01
Turpentine tree which belongs to the east. This is a lan_ r
evergreen tree, with wide-spreading branches and numerous
leaves. If allowed to stand, it is said that it will live a thou-
sand years ; and when it dies, its place is soon supplied by a
new trunk, rising on the same spot, to equal size, and flourish-
ing to an equal age. It was on account of this lasting character,
and because of the single and separate manner in which tlu-y
often grew, that these trees were sometimes used to designate
particular places; and an aged T<r,l,intli was spoken of with
something of the same sort of distinction as that with which we
make mention of a castle or a city Thus we read of the oak
by Shechem, the oak in Ophrah, the oak in Jabesh, &c., as
being perfectly well known to everybody that had ever been in
those places. Several such trees grew in the region of Hebron,
where Abraham dwelt a considerable time. M.-ann^ the bro-
ther of Aner and Eschol, was a personage of chief importance
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 38
IE that district, to whom it especially belonged. Hence, it was
called, according to the usage just noticed, the OaJcs, or Tcre-
bintiis of Mamre ; for this seems to be what we are to under-
stand by the Plains of Mamre, where the ancient patriarch
pitched his tent Under the shade of one of these long-living
trees, his simple dwelling stood ; and it is said, that the very
same tree continued standing till after the time of our Saviour.
There might have been one growing on the same spot.
The Fir tree grows to a great height, and continues, like the
cedar and the terebinth, green all the year. It was anciently
used for building and for making furniture. It grew especially
on Lebanon and Carmel. Several other kind? of trees grew
wild on the mountains ; such as the tall, straight Cypress, used
at times for the making of dumb idols, because its wood,refused
to rot, and the stately Pine, well known in everv quarter of the
world. On lower grounds, along the mountain foot, or by the
sides of the brook or river stream, or over the bosom of the
fruitful plain, grew various trees and shrubs of humbler appear-
ance. Among these were the Linden, or Teil ires, the Alder,
the Poplar, the Willow, the Laurel and the Myrtle. This
last is a large shrub, sometimes growing to the size of a small
tree, very common in the valleys of Palestine. It is perpetually
covered with leaves of the most beautiful green, and in its
season, produces a great abundance of rose-like flowers, which
delight the eye, and breathe a most fragrant perfume on all the
air around.
The Shittim-wood, so frequently mentioned in Scripture,
does not appear to have grown in the land of Palestine. There
is the best reason to believe that it was the wood of the black
Acacia. This tree flourishes in some parts of Egypt, and
abundantly through the deserts of Arabia. It is of the size of
a large mulberry tree, with rough bark and spreading branches
well supplied with thorns. The wood is hard, tough, and capa-
ble of receiving from the hands of the carpenter a very smooth
and beautiful polish. It produces flowers of an excellent fra-
grance. Hence, Isaiah joins the Shittah tree with the myrtle,
and others held in esteem for beauty or richness of smell.
(Isa. xli. 19.) It was particularly the wood of this tree which
was used in the wilderness for making the tabernacle and its
furniture. The wilderness of Arabia, in which the whole work
was completed, furnishes no other tree at all suited for this use ;
while the acacia, or shittah, is so admirably fitted for it, by
reason of its solid, beautiful un<l lasting character, that a better
could scarcely have been found, if it could have been possible
to make choice out of all the trees in the world. The moun
34 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
tains of Sinai and Horeb might still, as in ancient times, afford
an abundant supply ol'the stun- timber lor such a building.
It is far more difficult to determine what was the GopJier-
wood, of which the ark was made. Some have imagined that
cedar is to be understood under that name; others, that it \vsu-.
the timber of pine ; another class conceive that the solid and
almost imperishable wood of the cypress is so called ; while a
still different interpretation supposes that the word Gopher was
but intended to signify any particular tree at all, but merely
expresses some circumstance in the manner of its use in that
building, as squared timbers, planed wood, or pitched wood, as
we know the ark was daubed with pitch, within and without.
From this confusion of opinions, it appears that nothing satis-
factory can be known on this subject.
In Arabia, also, as well as in India, grew the Cinnamnn tree,
and the Cassia, that resembles the cinnamon so much; each
yields a valuable spice, bearing its name to the most distant
countries. There, also, the precious Frankincense seems to
have been procured. It is a dry gum, of a yellowish white
colour, and a strong, fragrant smell, with a warm and biting
bitter taste, formed of the sap that flows from some tree which
travellers have not yet been able to discover and describe. It
takes fire easily, and burns with a bright and strong flame,
sending upwards a heavy cloud of aromatic smoke. Every
morning and evening, it was thus offered on the golden altar of
the holy place, in the sanctuary, representing the prayers of
saints, which rise as a most acceptable offering to God, when
presented through the Great High Priest, Christ Jesus. (Ps.
2xli. 2, Mai. i. 11.) It seems, however, to have signified espe-
cially, the merits of the Redeemer himself, which rise like
grateful perfume with the prayers of his people, and dispose
God graciously to hear and answer, and without which, no
prayer of sinful man could ever be regarded by the HOLY ONE.
(Lukei. 10, Rev. viii. :>, 4.) The .)//////*, repeatedly mentioned
in Scripture, was another production of Arabia, procured, like
the frankincense, from the trunk of some tree that flourishes in
that spicy region. This precious gum has an extremely bitter
taste, and a strong, though by no means disagreeable, smell.
Among the ancients, it formed one article in the composition
of the most costly ointments and was used by delicate persons
as a perfume, either by scenting their clothes with it, or by
-arr\ii;^ it in little caskets in th'-ir bo^ms. Wine mingled
with myrrh, which Matthew calls >/<il/, a word that means any
thing exceedingly bitter, was offered to our Saviour on th
\roes, to drink, because of its power to take away, in some mea-
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
35
sure, the sense of pain. Myrrh was much used for embalming
the dead, and is mentioned as one of the articles brought by
Nicodemus for this purpose, when he came to bury >,hc body of
Jesus
CULTIVATED TREES.
Several trees were cultivated with care, on a<x< ant of their
fruit, and often became a source of no small pi out to the hus-
bandman. Of this class, was the Olive. It appears to have
been cultivated very early ; for we read of oil in the time of
Jacob. (Gen. xxviii. 18.) This tree grows better in Pales-
tine than in any other country of the east, where it is found.
It flourishes with most advantage on land that is barren, moun-
tainous, sandy and dry. Such a soil it finds on the hills just
over against Jerusalem on the east, where, accordingly, it has
been so common as to give name to the whole tractr the cele-
brated MOUNT OF OLIVES. The Olive is a handsome tiee,
with wide spreading branches, and leaves resembling thos<' of
tho willow, which continue green all the year. Its trun> i*
Olire Tree.
somewhat knotty, with smooth bark, and wood of a yellowish
colour. It flourishes about two hundred years. The fruit,
when it becomes ripe, is black, and pleasant to the taste ; nearly
all of it is thrown into the oil-press. The oil thus procured has
tlways been highly esteemed. The olive has been the emblem
3l> BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
of peace among all nations j perhaps, because an olive-branch,
brought by the dove to Noah in the ark, was the first sign
which he received of peace restored between Heaven and earth,
after the bursting forth of God's awful wrath in the waters of
the flood. It was also the symbol of prosperity of every kind.
The oil likewise became the emblem of gladness and joy, and
more especially of the cheering grace of the Holy Spirit. There
are, also, JJYA/-V/r<x in that country, of no value in themselves,
but capable of being grafted into others. (Rom. xi. IT 24.)
The Fiy tree delights also in dry and sandy soils It grows,
in the east, to a considerable size ; not rising altogether straight
in its trunk, but often reaching a goodly height, and dividing
itself into a great number of branches, well furnished with broad
leaves, so as to form a very agreeable shade. It was customary,
Fig Tree.
among the Jews, to rest themselves under its friendly covering
(Mic. iv. 4.) Nathanacl, it seems, was accustomed to find
under the branches of such a tree, a retreat for solemn medita-
tion and prayer. It was a retirement so completely concealed,
probably in the midst of a thick cluster of other trees, that he
was well persuaded no eye could see him there, except the all-
exploring eye of God. (John i. 48 50.) The fruit of the
fig tree makes its appearance before the leaves, growing from
the trunk and large branches, and not from the smaller shoots,
as the fruit of other trees usually does. There are three kinds,
ripening at different seasons of the year. 1. The first-ripe
Fiy, which appears in the latter part of March, and becomes
ripe towaird the end of June ; this is the best sort. (Hos. ix.
10, Jcr. xxiv. 2.) 2. The Su-nnwr or Dry Fit/, which appears
about the middle of June, and becomes ripe in August. 3. The
Wiitft-r /'/'/, which appears in August, and does not ripen till
about the end of Novi mber. All figs, when ripe, but especially
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 61
the first-ripe sort, fall of themselves. (Nahum iii. 12.) It is
common to dry them in the sun, and preserve them in masses;
these are called cakes of figs. (1 Sam. xxv. 18.) As fig trees
begin to sprout toward the end of March, they became a sign
of the approach of summer : " Now learn a parable of the fig
tree ; when his branch is yet tender, and putteth forth leaves,
ye know that summer is nigh." (Matt. xxiv. 32.)
The Sycamore tree, or Sycamine, as it is sometimes called,
abounds especially in Egypt, but is also common in the low
lands of Palestine. In size and figure, and in the appearance
of its leaves, it bears much resemblance to the mulberry tree.
Its fruit grows in clusters on little sprigs like grape-stalks, which
shoot out directly from the trunk : it resembles the fig; on
which account, the tree is sometimes styled the Egyptian fig
tree. The body of the tree is very large, and it has numerous
branches growing out from it, almost in a straight direction.
On this account, it is particularly easy to be climbed. On one
which stood by the road, Zaccheus climbed, to see the Lord.
(Luke xix. 4.) It is always green. The wood, which is of a
dark colour, will last a thousand years ; on this account, it was
much used in building. The fruit is so sweet as to be hurtful
10 the stomach, and therefore is not eaten, except by the poorer
class, who have nothing better. Amos, the prophet, was em-
ployed in gathering sycamore fruit ; a business that was pretty
troublesome ; for before it will get ripe, it must all be opened
with the nail, or a piece of iron, to let out the milky juice;
and this seems to have been his principal work. The tree
yields fruit several times through the year, without regard to
particular seasons.
The Pomegranate tree grows in almost all countries of Ihe
east. It does not rise high, and at a little distance from the
ground shoots out into a multitude of branches, so as to appear
like a large shrub. It bears large, handsome, reddish blossoms,
shaped like bells. The fruit which these produce is very beau-
tiful to the eye and pleasant to the taste. It is about the size
of a large apple, perfectly round, encircled at the upper part
with something resembling a crown, and covered with a rind
which is thick and hard, but easily broken. The juice which
it affords, is sometimes made into a kind of wine by itself, and
sometimes mixed with other wine, to give it more sharpness:
mention is made of the spiced wine of the juice of the pome-
granate. (Song viii. 2.) Artificial pomegranates, made to re-
Bcmble the natural ones, were esteemed, among the Jews, a
considerable ornament; they were hung round the hem of the
4
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
high priest's robe, (Ex. xxviii. 33,) and on the net work which
covered the tops of the two pillars, Jachin and B?az, in the
temple of Solomon, (1 Kings vii. 18.)
Pomegranate Tre.
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 89
Orange and Lemon trees are not common in Palestine ; but
they have been probably brought there from some more eastern
country, in later times, as they are not mentioned in the Sacred
Volume.
The Apple tree is mentioned with peculiar praise : " As the
apple tree among the trees of the wood, so is my beloved among
the sons; I sat down under his shadow with great delight, and
his fruit was sweet to my taste," (Song ii. 3 ;) but the tree
which we are accustomed to call by this name does not thrive
well in the east, and bears only indifferent fruit; it is generally
agreed, therefore, that the apple tree of the Scripture is the same
as the Citron tree. This is a tree of noble appearance and great
size, furnished with beautiful leaves through the whole year,
and affording a most delightful shadow. The fruit is very
sweet and pleasant, of the colour of gold, extremely fragrant,
and proper to refresh such as are weary or faint. Words fitly
spoken, Solomon tells us, are like apples of gold in pictures of
silver. (Prov. xxv. 11.)
The Palm tree is not now often found in Palestine : the reason
is, because it needs careful and skilful cultivation, which the
state of that country has for a long time prevented. It is still
very common in other regions of the east, and, as it appears
from the Bible, once abounded in Judea. On ancient coins of
the Jews, also, the figure of the palm tree is found sometin?^
stamped, often with a sheaf of wheat
and a cluster of grapes, as a symbol
of their nation. It rises perfectly
straight to a very great height, with-
out any limbs, except near its top,
which is crowned with continual
green. It grows most commonly
in valleys and plains: the finest
groves of it, anciently, were found in
the neighbourhood of Jordan, es-
pecially in the plains of Jericho,
which city was, on this account,
sometimes called the city of palm trees. (Judg. iii. 13.) The
palm tree produces dates, which grow in large clusters, and be-
come ripe in August, September, and Octobei These are
pleasant to eat, and are often preserved a long time in solid
masses, after the juice has been forced out with a press. The
juice makes the date wine. The palm is considered, by eastein
people, to be the most noble and excellent of all trees ; hence,
a beautiful person is compared to it, (Song vii. 7,) and also
a religious, upright man. (Ps. icii. 12.) It pectns to l*
40 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
intended, in tnat beautiful image of the first Psaim : -'He
shall be like a tnv />/'i>tted by the rivers o/icot'-r, that bringeth
forth his fruit in his season; his leaf oho shall not wither." It
was usual to scatter branches of palm in the way before kings,
when they entered, on public occasions, into cities; it was,
therefore, a mark of highest honour to the Saviour, when the
people " took branches of palm trees and went forth to meet
him," (John xii. 13,) and strewed them before him, as he en-
tered into Jerusalem. (Matt. xxi. 8.) In the Grecian games,
those who conquered were rewarded, frequently, with a branch
of palm : to this there is allusion in the vision of St. John :
" I beheld, and lo, a great multitude which no man could num-
ber stood before the throne and the Lamb, clothed with
white robes, and palms in tlu'lr lunufs." (Rev. vii. 9.) This
denotes victory over Satan and sin, crowned with the reward of
eternal glory. The likeness of the palm tree was often carved
in ornamental work.
The Balsam or Balm tree also grew formerly in Palestine,
though, for want of culture, it is not found there now. It is
still raised in some parts of Arabia and Egypt. There are
three kinds of it; two growing like shrubs, the other a regular
tree. The balm, mentioned in the Bible as an article of com-
merce and a valuable medicine, is made either of the sap of the
tree, or of the juice of its fruit. Gardens of balm were, at a
very early period, cultivated in the neighbourhood of Jerichq
and Engedi, and also in Gilead : the balm of Gilead was par-
ticularly esteemed. fGen. xxxvii. 25, Jer. viii. 22.)
The Almond tree is the first to blossom in the opening year.
It is covered with its snow-white flowers in the latter part of
January, and before the end of March displays its ripe fruit.
The rod of an aluioii'l tree, seen by Jeremiah in vision, denoted,
from this circumstance, the rapid approach of God's threatened
judgments : " Thou hast well seen ; for I will hasten my word
to perform it." (Jer. i. 12.)
The Vine deserves especial mention. It was, no doubt, cul-
tivated before the flood, as Noah, immediately after coming out
of the ark, planted a vineyard am/ drunk <>f lh> vine. The
Boil of Palestine was of the best sort for raising it ; and hence
it became a principal object of attention to the Jewish Imsband-
tnan. In particular the mountains of Engedi and the valleys
of Eshcol and Soreic were celebrated for their grapes. These
places were all in the territory which fell to the tribe of Judah.
There seems to be an allusion to this advantage, in the blessing
pronounced upon that tribe, jnn|ih( tically, by the dying Jacob
1 Binding his foal to the vine, and his ass's colt unto the choice
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES
4t
Almond Tree.
me , he washed his garments in wine, and his clothes in the
blood of grapes." (Gen. xlix. 11.) The clusters of grapes
prow, in that country, at the present day, to the weight of twelve
pounds; in ancient times, no doubt, they were often larger.
One of these great clusters, from the vale of Eshcol, the spies
brought to Moses, as a sample of the fruitfulness of the land,
bearing it between two, on a staff, that its large grapes might
not be bruised together. (Numb. xiii. 23, 24.) Some vines, in
growing, ran along the ground ; others grew upright of them-
selves, without any support ; while a thinl sort needed a pole 01
frame, to assist them in rising, and t/. bear up their weight.
Vineyards were generally planted upon the sides of hills and
mountains, toward the south. The Palestine grapes are mostly
red or black ; whence the common expression, the blood of
grapes. The vine was sometimes employed to make sceptres
for kings. To sit under a man's own vine and fiy tree, was a
phrase signifying a state of prosperity and peace. (Mic. iv. 4.)
Our Lord compares himself to a vine : " I ain the true vine and
my Father is the husbandman. I am the vine ; ye are the
branches." (John xv. 1, 5.) As the trunk, planted and dressed
bv the husbandman's care, affords life and nourishment to
B1BMCAL ANTIQUITIES.
Palestine Grapes.
its "branches, and enables them to bring forth clusters of grapes ;
so is He the source of all spiritual life and strength and fruit-
fulness, to his people, appointed of God the Father, and sent
forth into the world, that he might become such to every one
that believeth on his name. The Jewish nation is also com-
pared to a vine, and to a vineyard, to denote the kind care which
it had received from God. (Ps. Ixxx. 8, Is. v. 1.)
The Vine of Sodom grows in the neighbourhood of Jericho,
not far from the Dead Sea. It produces grapes of a poisonous
kind, bitter as gall. Moses compares the rebellious Israelites to
this plant : " Their vine is the vine of Sodom, and of the fields
of Gomorrah ; their grapes are grapes of gall, and their clusters
are bitter." (Deut. xxxii. 32.)
PLANTS.
Of Plants belonging to Palestine, there are mentioned in the
Bible .several of useful or agreeable character, and some of hurt-
ful and unlovely sort. The Lily displays uncommon elegance
in that country : " Solomon," we are told, " in all his glory,
was not arrayed like one of these." (Matt. vi. 29.) Here, t<><>,
we may notice the Rose, though of a somewhat higher class. A
great many kinds of it are found in the east ; some of them very
ren.arkable for the richness and b- auty of their flowers, and the
delightful fragrance which they send forth. The rose of Sharon
was pjirtirularly fine, in ancient days. (Songii. 1.) The Mand-
rake in a kind of melon, with pleasant smell and taste. Th#
BH jICAL ANTIQUITIES. *
Mutfnrd-planl rises from the smallest seed into the likeuess of a
tree. (Matt. xiii. 32.)^ It presents a remarkable growth among
herbs, in our own country ; but in that region rises and spreads
ite branches to a much greater extent. The Spikenard is a
much esteemed plant : only an inferior kind of it, however, is
found in the region where Palestine lies ; the true Spikenard,
or Nard, belongs to India, in the more distant east. It grows
in large tufts, rising upward like tall grass, and has a strong
aromatic smell. An ointment of the most precious kind is made
out of it, which anciently was exceedingly prized, and purchased
with great expense in different countries. A box of it, contain-
ing a pound, was valued, in the time of our Saviour, at more
than three hundred pence. So much Mary poured on his head,
a short time before his death ; and the house was fitted with the
odour. (John xii. 3.) The Aloe is a plant with broad prickly
leaves, nearly two inches thick, which grows about two feet high.
A very bitter gum is procured from it, used as a medicine, and
anciently for the embalming of dead bodies. Nicodemus brought
a hundred pounds of myrrh and aloes, to embalm the body of
the Redeemer. (John xix. 39.) Besides this herb, however,
which is found in eastern countries generally, there is a small
tree, with beautiful flowers and most fragrant wood, that grows
in India under the same name. The Hyssop is a small herb,
growing on mountainous lands, with bushy stalks about a foot
and a half high. The leaves of it have an aromatic smell, and
a warm bitter taste. It is found abundantly on the hills near
Jerusalem. Cucumbers and various kinds of Melons were cul-
tivated among the Jews. Egypt, however, produces the finest
melons. The Water mdon, especially, is raised with great ad-
vantage, on the banks of the Nile, and- furnishes a most agree-
able refreshment in the warm climate of that country. Many
poor people live on them almost entirely, w"hile they last. The
Israelites remembered them i? the wilderness, as well as the
Leek* and the Onions, with longing desire. /Numb. xi. 5.)
Onions in Egypt are better than they are anywhere else :u the
world, being sweet and pleasant to the taste, without the hard-
ness which commonly makes them unfit to be eaten. Tho
Thistle and the Nettle, besides several kinds of thorns and bram-
bles, were common in the fields of the Jewish farmer. He was
also troubled with the Tare. This tare seems to have been the
same weed that is now called Darnel, still known in that coun-
try, as well as in many others. It often gets among wheat and
other grain, after the manner of cockle and other such hurtful
plants. The bread made of grain in which much of its seed u
found, is very unwholesome; it creates dizziness,
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
*nd headache. It is all-important, therefore, to separate it
from the crop. This, however, canuot well be done while it is
growing in the field ; because its roots are so connected with
those of the wheat, that to pluck up the one would materially
injure the other. ( .Matt. xiii. 24-r-30.)
The different sorts of grain raised by the Jews, were, Wheat^
which grows in almost every country ; Millet, a coarse kind of
grain, eaten by the poorer people ; Spelt, Barley, Beans, Lex?
tils, Pitches, Anise and Cummin. The two last were common
email herl : the Pharisees pretended to great religious scrupu-
losity, by carefuly paying tithes of these and other little garden
plants, such a.s Mint and Rue, while they neglected "the weight-
ier matters of the law, judgment, mercy, and faith." (Matt, xxiii
23, Luke xi. 42.) Flax, also, and Cotton, were cultivated.
Cotton grows in large pods, either on trees of considerable size,
or on shrubs that spring up from the seed, and last only one
year. The word Corn, in Scripture, is used as a general name
for all dorts of grain. Rye and oats do not grow in countries
where* the climate is so warm : their place is supplied "by barley.
From this general survey of its different productions, we may
learn how extremely fruitful Palestine must have been, in the
days of its ancient prosperity and peace. Every variety of soil
had its use ; some valuable tree or plant growing better upon it,
than upon any other; so that the poorest and the roughest
grounds yielded, oftentimes, as much as the fairest and most
rich. While the different kinds of grain flourished on the more
level and fertile tracts, plantations of the serviceable olive
covered the barren and sandy hil 1 *; the low watery soils of clay
nourished groves of the -toll and beautiful palm ; the steepest
mountain sides were hung with the rich dark clusters of the vine.
By the hand of industry, the naked rocks, on such steep places,
were covered with earth, and walls were builded to hinder it
from being swept away with the showers. So, from the bottom
to the top, might sometimes be seen, rising one above another,
plot after plot thus raised by labour and art, where the vine was
reared by the husbandman's care, and rewarded his toil with ita
plentiful fruit. As every family had only a small piece of ground
to till, every foot of it that could be improved was cultivated,
and no pains were spared to turn it to its best account. Hence,
the land had the appearance of a garden, and yielded support to
a vast number of inhabitants. The country of Lower Galilee,
especially, has been celebrated for its fruitfulness. According
to the testimony of Josephus, the Jewish historian, who lived
just after the time of Christ, that part of it which border td on
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. Ait
tiit; lake cf Gennesareth, where our Lord spent so much of his
time, was especially remarkable for the great variety and plenty
of its productions; every plant seemed to thrive in it; fruits
that naturally grow in different climates were raised with equal
ease here ; so that it seemed, says that writer, as if God had
taken a peculiar delight in that region, and the seasons had
rivalled each other in the richness of their gifts.
But when the traveller passes through Palestine now, his eye
meets no such scenery of fruitfulness and beauty, over its moun-
tains and plains. Large tracts of the country seem a barren
waste ; the rich covering of the field is gone, and the hills are
stripped of the vine ; a thinly scattered people live in compara-
tive poverty and idleness, where once the many thousands of
Israel and Judah found plentiful support. The country, for
more than a thousand years, has been given up to be wasted by
war and crushed by oppression. Its people have been driven
away and trampled under foot, by cruel enemies. The whole
land is nor; under the dominion of the Turks, who, instead of
encouraging industry, leave it without protection and without
profit. The farmer has no motive to plough and sow ; his crops
would grow up only to be plundered by wandering Arabs ; and
if he could secure any property, it would only expose him to
danger from the avarice of some tyrant officer of the government,
determined to seize it all for himself. No wonder, then, that
"the fruitful land has been turned into barrenness." It has
been done, however, " for the wickedness of them that dwelt
therein," and is a wonderful fulfilment of the threatenings of
God, delivered even as far back as the time of Moses, (Deut. xxix.
22 28,) and repeated by the prophets that followed after.
SLOTION II.
OF ANIMALS.
IT would require a volume to describe the different sorts of
insects, reptiles, fishes, birds, and beasts, that are found in Pa-
lestine. Many of them are found, also, in our own country, and
have been known to us all our lives ; but many others are pecu-
liar to the cast. We can only notice a few which are frequently
mentioned in the Bible.
QUADRUPEDS.
The Horse. This useful animal is first mentioned in the bin-
tory of Jacob and JOK ph. It was, in their time, found in
Egypt, and continued, long after, to be much used in that land
46 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
It seems to have lived at first, in its wild stat-> in some part of
Africa, and in the northern regions of Asia. The Jews mado
no use of horses before the time of Solomon; their country was
too hilly for them to be of any service in war, and it was not
usual then to use them as beasts of burden or labour in times
of peace. Much use of them seems, indeed, to be discouraged
in the law of Moses, as it is expressly forbidden for any future
king to miiltifili/ Imws. (Dent, xvii. 10.) Joshua also was com-
manded of God, when he took horses in war, to cut their ham-
strings ; and the same thing was long after done by David.
This was the quickest way of rendering them useless for time to
come, as it completely disabled them at once, and soon caused
them to die. Solomon carried on a great trade in horses; they
were brought in great numbers, in his day, from Egypt. After
his time, they were never uncommon in the country. The rider,
in those times, had no saddle, but sat merely upon a piece of
cloth.
The Ox. Cattle of the ox kind are smaller in eastern coun-
tries than with us, and have something of a lump on the back,
just over the fore-feet. The finest kind were raised in the rich
pastures of Bashan, where they became very fat and strong,
and sometimes exceedingly fierce. These animals were highly
esteemed among the Jews for their usefulness, and seem to have
held pretty much the same rank of importance with the farmer
that the horse has among us. Bulls and cows were both used
to the yoke, and. employed to draw the cart and the plough,
and tread out the grain when it was gathered to the threshing-
floor. A particular law was made by God, that the ox should
not be muzzled, or have his mouth bound, when he was engaged
in this last employment (Deut. xxv. 4, 1 Cor. ix. 9, 1 Tim.
v. 18.) Besides the labour of the animal, however, the cow
was valued, as with us, for her milk, which was either drunk in
its simple state, or made into cheese of various kinds. Horns
are frequently used in the Bible as the sign of strength and
power : to have the liorn exalted, d aotes prosperity and triumph,
(Ps. Ixxxix. 17, 24 ;) to have it cut off, signifies the loss of
power. "All (he horns of the wicked," says David, "will I
cut off; but the horns of the righteous shall be exalted." (Ps.
Ixxv. 10.) To lift up the htsrn, is to act proudly. Christ ia
called a horn of salvation, because he is miyhty to redeem to
the uttermost all that come unto God by him. (Luke i. 69.)
The Ass. In the east, thi? animal has nothing of the mean
character that belongs to it in our country. Asses, there, are
not only fit. for hard labour, but are, at the same time, active
and beautiful in appearance. In early times, they mado a lar^e
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 47
part of the property of the more wealthy : hence, they are always
mentioned, in Scripture, in giving an account of the possessions
01 Hny of toe ancient patriarchs. They were used to carry bur-
dens of every kind, and made to draw in ploughing and haul-
ing Anciently, princes and great men always rode upon
asses ; and it seems to have been regarded as a mark of di
tinction, to be so mounted. As an evidence of the greatness
and wealth of one of the Judges, Jair the Gileadite, it is said,
" he had thirty sons, that rode upon thirty ass-colts, and they
had thirty cities," (Judg. x. 4 ;) and of another, that he " had
forty sons and thirty nephews, that rode on seventy ass-colts/'
(Judg. xii. 14.) Our Saviour, in fulfilment of a prophecy of
Zechariah, (ix. 9,) entered Jerusalem riding upon an ass,
amidst the acclamations of a multitude of people. This was the
only instance, during his life, in which he assumed any regal
pomp ; and even this manifestation of himself as a king, was
connected with circumstances of deep humiliation. (Matt.
xxi. 5.) " Behold thy king cometh unto thee : he is just and
having salvation ; lowly, and riding on an ass, and upon a colt,
the foal of an ass." Moreover, as horses were especially used
in times of war, and asses were of most service in days of peace,
to ride upon an ass represented a meek and peaceful character,
and was, therefore, beautifully appropriate for the King of
Salem the Prince of Peace. The coronation entry of the
kings of Israel into Jerusalem, was made upon asses. Asses
in the east are of a flaxen colour, with silvery white along the
belly. In their wild state, they are sometimes altogether
white ; such, in the days of the Judges, were highly esteemed.
(Judg. v. 10.) Asses are still used in Egypt for riding: they
are very handsome in that country.
Wild asses abound in the east. They are beautiful and very
wild; easily taking alarm; and when they fly through the
desert, they outstrip every other animal in swiftness of foot. A
description of this animal is found in Job. (xxxix. 5 8.) It
has power to smell water at a great distance '. this is referred
to in the description of a great drought. " The wild asses did
Btand in the high places : they snuffed up the wind like dra-
gons." (Jer. xiv. 6.) Travellers who want to find water, arc
accustomed to follow them.
The Mule, was known very early, and considerably used for
carrying burdens. They are very sure-footed animals ; kings and
princes often rode upon them : thus David was carried on a
mule kept fur his own use, and all his sons rode upon animalf
of the same kind. Absalom sat on one when he passed undoi
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
thv boughs of a great oak, and was caught by his head among
the branches.
^tie Camel. There are two kinds of this animal; one large
and strong, with two bunches on the back ; the other smaller,
and more rapid in its movement, with but one bunch on tho
back. This last is called the Dromedary, or Arabian Camel ;
it bears heat better than the other. The camel seems to have
been formed expressly for the eastern countries; so that we
cannot conceive how they could dispense with its services. It
carries an immense burden, needs but little food, and can go
without water a whole month : all this fits it exactly for bearing
merchandise in those regions; where they have often to passi
wide sandy desert without water, in going from one country to
another. The camel is sometimes
rode upon, as it is common to ride
on horses. At other times, two
long chairs, like cradles, are fixed
over its back, one on each side,
or two large basket-like seats are
thrown across so as to balance
each other. In each of these a
traveller may sit at his ease, or
even resign himself to sleep with-
out inconvenience. Sometimes a
little covered room is fastened on
its back, in which the traveller may carry with him some little
furniture, and shut himself, if he please, entirely out of sight.
This kind of conveyance is used chiefly by women. Perhaps
in something of the sort Rebecca was riding, with the curtains
rolled up, when she saw Isaac walking in the field, and lighted
off the camel to receive him. The hair of the camel is woven
sometimes into a coarse kind of cloth, used by the poorer
people. John the Baptist "had his raiment of camel's hair,
with a leathern girdle round his loins." (Matt. iii. 4.) To the
Jews, the camel was an uncloan animal, not allowed to be used
for food; but the Arabs eat its flesh and drink its milk. Tc
pass a camel through the eye of a needle, was a proverb, to de-
note any thing extremely difficult, or impossible. (Matt, xix
?4.)
The Sheep. The common kind of this animal, so well
known among us, is found in Palestine ; but there is in that
country a breed something larger, and clothed with finer wool.
These are remarkable for having very large, broad tails. Their
tails are esteemed a particular delicacy, being of a substance be-
tween fat and marrow; they have an excellent richness, and
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 49
re sometimes used instead of butter. On this account, the
whole rump, taken off hard by the bac/c-bone, was appointed in
peace-offerings, to be burnt with the other fat upon the altar,
for a sweet savour unto the Lord. (Lev. iii. 9.) Thousands
of sheep, in early days, were sometimes owned by one man,
ranging the pastures of the wilderness, and continually adding
to the wealth of their possessor. They bring forth their young
twice in the year, and frequently bear twins. Their flesh ia
nsoi tor food ; and their milk supplies a wholesome drink. But
they are chiefly valuable for the fine fleeces of wool, which,
tvice in the year, are shorn from their backs. The sheep iu
that country become very familiar with the shepherd, and know
his voice when he speaks. (John x. 3, 14.) The flocks live
both night and day under the open sky, and are only brought
into the sheep/old at the times of shearing. The sheep is a
weak and timid animal, unable to defend itself, without much
wisdom, and needing the continual care of a keeper, to be kept
from wandering into danger, or losing itself among the moun-
tains. Hence, it is frequently referred to in the figurative lan-
guage of Scripture, to represent a condition of helplessness or
folly : " My people," says God, " have been lost sheep ; they
have gone from mountain to hill; they have forgotten their
resting-place." (Isa. 1. 6.) " All we like sheep have gone
astray ; we have turned every one to his own way." (Isa. liii.
6.) "When he saw the multitudes he was moved with com-
passion on them, because they fainted, and were scattered
abroad, as sheep havimj ?io shepherd." (Matt. ix. 36.)
The Goat. This belonged also to the flock& of the shep-
herd. There are two kinds of this animal, as well as of the
last, found in the east : one, our common goat j the other, a
somewhat larger race, remarkable for having large, broad
ears, that hang down a foot, and sometimes a foot and a half
in length. Probably this kind was referred to by Amos, in
that verse, " As the shepherd taketh out of the mouth of the
lion, two legs or a piece, of an ear, so, &c." (iii. 12.) The
goat yields a considerable quantity of milk, which ia very
eweet, and has always been esteemed more than any other, iu
eastern countries. Hence, the promise to the careful and dili-
gent man is, " Thou shalt have goat's milk enough for tbj
food, for the food of thy household, and for the maintenance
of thy maidens." (Prov. xxvii. 27.) The Jlesh of goats, alao,
is much prized. Their long black-coloured hair is made into
different kinds of cloth, with which the shepherds frequently
cover their tents. The tabernacle was covered with curtains
of goat's hair, spun by the wouieu of Israel in the wilderness
6
&0 KIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
(Ex. xxxv. 26.) It is still the business of the Arabiaa
women to make such cloths. Some goats have extremely
fine hair, out of which stuffs are formed, almost equal to silk
in delicacy and beauty. From the akin* <>f f hese animals, it
has been common, since the earliest times, to form large
Ifttli's ; the skins of kids are wrought, in some places, by
menus of smoke, into more convenient and even elegant J/u.<ki.
It was forbidden, by the law of Moses, to "seethe a kid in
it? mother's milk ;" to enforce, perhaps, the general duty of
a humane disposition toward animals; and it may be, also,
because some practice of this kind was common among th:
superstitious rites of the heathen.
The D<xj. At a very early period, as we learn from Job.
Jogs were trained by shepherds to guard their flocks. (Job xxi
41
Street D^g* of Srrl*.
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
j .) They can be taught to drive the sheep or goats fiom OTM?
place to another, to keep them from straggling or wandering
away, and to manage them, in fact, with every kind of care. In
their wild condition, however, they arc like the wolf, greedy,
selfish, impudent, quarrelsome and savage. In the east, there
are multitudes of them in this state ; they wander about, fre-
quently in troops, hunting lor proy, and often attaek the strong-
est and fiercest beasts of the forest. But they do not confine
themselves to the wilderness ; they choose rather to seek their
living in towns and cities. Here they are found in great num-
bers, ranging the streets by day and by night, and greedily de-
vouring the offal that is cast into the gutters or about the
markets. As they are sometimes reduced almost to starvation,
they are ready to consume, human corpses, and in the night, fall
even upon living men. From possessing this character, the dog,
where it has not been trained for hunting, or for watching flocks,
has long been, in that part of the world, held in great contempt
and abhorrence. Hence, in Scripture, wicked men are com-
pared to dogs. ( ps. xxii. 16.) "They return at evening," says
l>avid ; " they make a noise like a dog, and go round about the
city ; they wander up and down for meat, and grudge if they be
not satisfied." ( Ps. lix. 6, 15.) "(jive not that which is holy
unto the dogs." (Matt. vii. I). ) " IJeware of dogs, beware of evil
workers." (Phil. iii. 2.) " Without are dogs, and sorcerers," &c.
(Rev. xxii. 15.) To call a man a <l<*j, is still exceedingly re-
proachful, as it was in ancient times. (2 Sam. xvi. 9, 2 Kings
viii 13.) The Jews, in the time of our Saviour, were accus-
tomed to call the Gentiles by this contemptuous epithet; to
which Christ had allusion, when he said to the woman of Canaan,
in order to try her faith, " It is not meet to take the children's
bread, and to cast it to the dogs." (Matt. xv. 26.) In our
day, the .Mohammedans in that country still use the same lan-
guage of contempt towards those who differ from them in reli-
gion, especially Christians and Jews, styling them Christian
ilofjs JewiiJi dotjs.
1I<I* were considered peculiarly unclean by the Jews, and
eem not to have been kept in Palestine, at all, in earlier times.
They were considered the vilest of all mi ma Is, and scarcely named
in common speech. The eastern nations generally still ab-
staii. from eating pork, as in warm climates its flesh is always
unw holesome.
Ti'- Linn is frequently mentioned in Scripture the noblest
ind the boldest beast of the forest. He moves with slow and
Tuujestic step along his way, and fears not the face of any liv-
ing creature. (Prov. xxx. 29, 30.) When angry, he lashe*
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
his sides and the ground with his
tail, shakes his shaggy mane,
knits his great eyebrows, displays
his dreadful tusks, and thrusts
out his tongue : when he roars, it
is like the sound of distant thun-
der; and as it echoes through the
mountains, all the beasts of th
forest tremble. " The lion haf
roared," says the prophet; "who
will not fear?" (Amos iii. 8.) Il
in said that he roars only when he is in sight of his prey, or
striking it down with his mighty paw. Hence, the same prophet
says: "Will a lion roar in the forest, when he hath no prey?
Will a yonng lion cry out of his den, if he have taken nothing?"
(Amos iii. 4.) Strong men are compared to lions. God is
likened to a lion, because, when his anger is kindled against
the wicked, who can withstand his power, or who may abide
his wrath ? Christ is the Lion of Judah dreadful to his ene-
mies, as well as the Lamb of God that taketh away the sin
of the world. The Devil is a roaring lion, going about and
seeking whom he may devour. (1 Pet. r. 8.)
The Unicorn. The animal to which this name *s applied
in the Bible, is represented as a wild ungovernable beast, re-
markable for the loftiness either of its stature or of its horns,
and perhaps of both; possessed of great strength, and inclined,
at times, to exercise it furiously and without mercy, even
against man. It is, however, no easy matter to determine
which, of all the animals that are now known in the east, b-
thc l>est claim to be considered the unicorn of Scripture. '.
Hebrew name carries in its signification merely a reference t..
that loftiness by which it was distinguished, without any
other indication of its nature or appearances. Jn the earliest
translation of the Bible into another language, it was called
the Unicorn, or the one-horned animal. Under this name,
the ancients have described a very peculiar beast. It is
represented as having the legs and body of a deer, with the
head, mane, and tail of a horse, armed with a single straight
horn from the middle of its forehead, and presenting altogether
a form and appearance of DO common elegance. But travel-
lers have not been able to find, in later times, any animal of
this sort in eastern countries. Animals with only one horn
have indeed been discovered, but none of them suit the de-
scription of the ancient unicorn Many learned commentators,
however, have been of opinion that the Rhinoceros is intended
HIBLICAL ANTIQUITIKri. 58
by the unicorn; to which the principal objection is, that this-
nimal is now only found in countries very remote from Judea.
The cow, the deer, the bear, the leopard, the fox, &c., are
too well known to need any description : but it deserves to DC
noticed, that most learned men are now of opinion that the ani-
mals caught in such numbers by Samson were not of the spe-
cies of our fox, but the jackal, of which the number is very
great in the east, and who are accustomed to go in large com-
panies.
BIRDS.
We must also omit a particular description of the birds.
Among these, we find mentioned in Scripture the Eagle, ex-
celling all the rest in strength, boldness, and violence; dwell-
ing alone in the wilderness and on the mountain top, amid the
highest branches of the cedar, or soaring, with rapid wing, far
above the clouds of heaven, where no bird can follow, (Obacl. 4,
Jer. xlix. 16, Job xxxix. 27 30;) the Ostrich, largest of
the winged race, delighting in the sandy desert, where she leav-
eth her eggs in the earth, and warnvth tlwm in the sand,f(/r-
yettiny that the foot nun/ crush them; and over which, with
outspread, quivering wing, she runs with speed that scarcely
seems to touch the ground, scorning the horse and his rider,
(Job xxxix. 13 18, Lam. iv. 3 ;) the Stork, whose house it
IH the fir-trees, (Ps. civ. 17,) or in the summit of some ruined
tower, and who knoweth her appointed time to move toward
the north or the south, as the seasons change, (Jer. viii. 7;)
the Pelican, inhabiting the marshy places and solitary lakes,
(Ps. cii. 6;) the Raven, with feathers beautifully black, whose
mournful croak is heard from deserted ruins, and who hovers
near the field of battle, to feed on the bodies of the slain,
(Song v. 11, Isa. xxxiv. 11, Ps. cxlvii. 9, Luke xii. 24;) the
Owl, fond also of dreary places and scenes of desolation, (Isa.
xxxiv. 11, Ps. cii. 6;) the Hawk, daring, swift, and delight-
ing in blood; the harmless, fair-eyed Dove, (Song i. 15,
v. 12;) the noisy, wandering Crane, (Jer. viii. 7;) the Swal*
low; the Partri(l<j< ; ;ind the Sparrow.' The Peacock seems
to have been brought into Palestine first, in the reign of Solo-
mon; probably from Persia. (1 Kings x. 22.)
WATER ANIMALS.
Only two or three particular kinds of water animals are men-
tioned in the Bible. The What*' is named several times. IL
the book of Job is described another great water animal, called
Leviathan. (Job xli.) Many have supposed that the
M BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
,i, intended by this name, but the description of Job suiu iht
crocodile much better; yet there is reason to believe that huge
>f several kinds are spoken of, iu different places
of tin- Scriptures, under this term. For we read in Isaiah
(\x\ii. 1 that the Lord "shall punish leviathan the piercing
T;P t -.ml) leviathan that crooked serpent."
/>' //. ninth. -This is very commonly considered to be another
name t'n the elephant; but there seems much better reason to
nipp * that it means the Hippfypotnmut, or River Horse, which
is an amphibious animal, but spends much of his time among
the reeds and fens <>f the Nile, where the trees cover him with
their shadow, and the willows of the brook compass hirp about,
according to the description in Job, (xl. 15 24.)
REPTILES.
Among animals of the reptile kind, the Dragon is frequently
named in Scripture. Under this name, however, different kinda
of monsters, belonging either to the dry land or the deep, see-.n
to be understood. Properly, the dragon is the nan?e of a ser-
I>. nt of prodigious size. It is described by the ancients as
bang very frightful in its appearance, covered with scales of a
bright yellow or red colour, with a shining crest, and a swelling
on its head, that looks like burning coal. A huge red serpent,
of a kind somewhat answering to this description, is still found in
the east. It seizes large animals, like the stag or the ox, breaks
their bones all to pieces by crushing them with the folds of its
body against a tree, and swallows them down whole. It some-
times raises itself up, upright upon its tail, and with amazing
strength attacks its prey in this attitude; at other times, ite
tail is employed in the work of destruction, playing around with
a force that is dreadful. Such seems to have been the Great
red />r>i;/im, which John saw in vision: its "tail drew the
third part of the stars of heaven, and did cast them to the
earth;" and it "AW before the woman, to devour her child
M soon as it was born." This, we are informed, was " that old
Sf-rprnl, called the Devil, and Satan, who deceiveth the whole
world," as long since he deceived our first mother, Eve. (Rev.
xii. 3 9.) The silent and desolate wilderness is represented
as the chosen haunt of the dragon. Hence, the prophets, in
foretelling the utter ruin of great cities, declare, among other
frightful circumstances, that they shall become the habitation
uf dragon*. (Isa xiii. 22, xxxiv. 13, Jer. ix. 11.) In such
cues, we may suppose that the name is us**! with a general
n)r;iniii_'. tn HL'nilv uil'l reptiles ( different sorts, such as am
fun-l lurking among the rubbish of ancient ruins The crooo
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 56
dile i called a dragon ; as in that passage where Pharaoh i.
likened to " the great dragon that lieth in the midst of bis-
rivers, which hath said, My river is mine own ; I have made it
for myself." (Ezek. xxix. 3.) The river intended is the Nile,
where the crocodile abounds. Drayons of the sea seem to
mean various great monsters dwelling in the deep, with which
men are little acquainted, and so have commonly only an in-
definite notion of their appearance, suggested by imagination
rather than by accurate knowledge.
We read in the Bible of the Fiery Serpent. It was found
in the desert of Arabia, when the Israelites passed through it,
on their way to Canaan. They were called fiery, on account
of their flaming colour, which was represented by the bright
brazen serpent that Moses lifted up, to be looked at by those
who were bitten. We hear again of flying fiery serpents.
(Isa. xxx. 6.) What we are to understand by this is not alto-
gether clear. There is found at the present day, in some coun-
tries, a serpent that darts with great rapidity from the branches
of trees, and on this account has received the name of a flying
serpent, which some have imagined to be the same that is men-
tioned in the Bible. Ancient writers, however, have described
a different serpent under this name, having a short body
spotted with divers colours, and furnished with wings resem-
bling those of a bat, which they tell us was not uncommon in
Arabia and some other regions in the east. Modern travellers,
it is true, have never met with such an animal : but as its ex-
istence in earlier times is asserted by most respectable authority,
it seems probable that the winged serpent of Scripture was no
other.
The Cockatrice is several times mentioned in Scripture, as a
serpent of most dangerous kind. It could not be charmed.
(Jer. viii. 17.) The Asp is another serpent, of small size,
whose poison certainly and rapidly produces death, throwing
the person that is bitten into a state of drowsiness and fatal
bleep. As a sign of the great blessings of Christ's kingdom,
about to fill the world in the fast days, it is said in prophecy,
among other things, that " the sucking child shall play on the
hole of the asp, and the weaned child shall put his hand upon
the cockatrice's den." (Isa. xi. 8.) Adder is a name given,
in the English translation of the Bible, to more than one kind
of venomous snakes. The Viper is a well known, deadly, and
malignant serpent. It was a great miracle, when Paul shook
off su<*h a reptile from his hand, and felt no harm The Phari-
loes, on account of their wickedness and malice, w<w called b r
John, "a generation of vipers." (Matt. iii. 7.)
56 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
The Xfftrjiioit is sometimes joined with the serpent, on ac-
count of its poison. It is a most loathsome animal, resembling,
in some m> :i.-un-, ;i lobster or crab. Each scorpion has six or
eight eyes. It has, moreover, a tail, and in the end of it, a
sting, which it is ready to use upon every object that coiuuf
within its reach, darting a cold and dangerous poison into the
wound. The little creature is extremely passionate and inis-
i-liievous, and exceedingly troublesome to man and beast in
those countries where it abounds. (Deut. viii. 15, Rev. ix. 5,
6, 10.) What father would give such an animal to a child,
when it asked him for an egg? (Luke xi. 12;) and what a
security did Christ throw around nis disciples, when he gave
them power even " to tread upon serpents and scorpions," with-
out harm ! (Luke x. 19.)
INSECTS.
The Bee was very common anciently, as it still is, in the
east. Palestine is represented as abounding with honey. Great
quantities of it were laid up by wild bees in the crevices of the
rocks, and in the hollows of decayed trees. The Hnrnrt is aUo
spoken of in the Bible. God threatened to send it against the
enemies of the Israelites in Canaan to drive them out of the
land. (Ex. xxiii. 28, Deut. vii. 20.) From Joshua xxiv. 12,
we learn that the two kings of the Amorites were actually
driven out of their place by this means. We have mention
made also of the Ant, the Beetle, the Grasshopper, &c. /Y/Vs
of various sorts, some of which are not known at all in oth r
countries, have always been troublesome in eastern region-.
Some of them are very large, and exceedingly vexatious and
tormenting to man and beast.
The Locust. There is one insect, out of the many kinds
which abound in the east, which deserves a more particular
notice. The locust in those countries is very large, about half
a foot long, and as thick as a man's finger. It has a head, in
form resembling that of a horse, furnished with strong, sharp
teeth. With these, it feeds upon every thing that is green, and
by reason of its numbers, often becomes one of the most dread-
ful plagues which a country can suffer. Immense armies of
'hern, reaching several miles in length and breadth, are seen
flying through the air, so thick that they darken the light of
the sun, like a heavy, black cloud. The sound of their wings is
terrible. When they light upon the ground, they cover it over
completely They then march forward, in regular order, to-
ward the north, passing in a straight line over every thing that
coiiio in their way, devouring the whole herbage of the field
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 57
and stripping every tree of its l.-aves and tender bark. Nothing
can stop them : ditches may be dug, but they are directly filled
up with their bodies ; fires may be kindled, but they move right
into them, and by their numbers soon put them out, with little
loss to their huge army. The prophet Joel descril>es them in
the second chapter of his book, as a picture of the terrible
Assyrian army, which God was about soon to bring upon the
la.nl : "The land," says he, "is as the garden of .Men before
them, and behind them a desolate wilderness !" It is dreadful
enough to be visited with one army of these destructive insects ;
but this is but a part of the evil : the first swarm is quickly
followed by a second, and a third and sometimes a fourth,
which sweep new tracks of desolation through the land, till it
is laid utterly waste, as if it had been ravaged with fire. At
length, they are borne by the wind into the sea, where they
speedily perish ; but a new plague frequently follows. Their
innumerable carcasses are driven back by the waves upon the
shore, where they breed a dreadful putrid stench, that renders
the air, for a great distance, extremely unwholesome, and some-
times even gives rise to the Pestilence. So awful was the
plague which God brought upon Egypt, when he bid the east
wind blow from Arabia, the birth-place of locusts, to bear their
countless host upon that guilty land. (Ex. x. 14.) The Mo-
hammedan armies were represented in vision to the apostle
John, under a swarm of locusts. (Rev. ix.) These animals
are frequently used for food ; salted and dried in the smoke,
or boiled with a little oil or butter, or toasted before the fire.
Some people live on them nearly altogether. Such wag the
plain fare of John the Baptist in the wilderness : " His meat
was locusts and wild honey." (Matt. iii. 4.)
CHAPTER m.
DWELLINGf AND HOUSEHOLD ACCOMMODATIONS.
SECTION I.
DWELLINGS.
IN eastern countries, men dwell either in tents or in house*.
l'li">e who lead a wandering life, as the Arabs, prefer the tent,
as it may conveniently be carried with them from place *.o
place; and in that warm climate, possesses, as a habitation, ai j
58 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
the advantages which their rude and simple manners requirb
In very early tim-'s, it seema to have been altogether the .unst
common kind of dwelling. The life of a shepherd, roving
and unsettled, has always been connected with "living in a
tent." Jabal was the " father of such as dwell in tents and
have cattle," before the flood; and after it, we find Noah in
the same sort of dwelling, as at a later period, Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob.
Truts are formed by setting up throe, seven, or nine poles
as they are smaller or larger, and spreading over them a great
covering of cloth or skin. If more than three poles are u.M-d,
the three longest are placed in a row in the middle, and the
others on each side; if there be only three, they are placed in
- single row; then the covering is drawn over them, and
made to slope outward, like the roof of a house, towards the
ground, by means of cords, which are fastened down to the earth
with wooden pins or stakes. (Isa. liv. 2.) The covering is
generally made of that strong black cloth which is formed of
goat's hair. When a number of them are seen at a distance,
pitched together, as they frequently are, in a circle upon smiie
hill, they have a very beautiful appearance : " I am black,"
says the spouse, " but comely as the tents of Kedar." ( Sun^ i
5.) The larger kind are divided by curtains into two or three
rooms. The bottom of the tent is covered with mats, and
sometimes carpets, on which those who live in them sit. A
small hole, dug in the middle, serves as a fireplace for cook-
ing; and a few vessels of shell or brass, with some goat-skin
bottles and a hand-mill for grinding grain, make up the sim-
ple furniture of the eastern shepherd's slender dwelling. The
tents of the great and wealthy, however, are sometimes very
(splendid, and supplied with richer accommodations.
Houses rise, as men give up a wandering life, and fix them-
selves on one spot, to till the ground or to attend to different
kinds of art and science. They had learned to build them
long before the flood, as we may clearly conclude from the
building of the ark. The Jews, after their settlement in Ca-
naan, being chiefly employed in husbandry, dwelt generally
'n houses. Their houses, however, were very different, in seve-
ral respects, from oun ; and to understand some passages of
the Bible, we must be acquainted with this difference. The same
general plan of building seems to have continued from the
earliest times to the present day, in the eastern countries.
Let us attend, then, to the account which travellers have given
as of a house, as it is common there ; taking for an example
*ne of the larger and more respectable sort.
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 50
The outside of the house presents a square figure, with a
Qat top and dull appearance, having only a single door in the
front side, and one latticed window looking from the upper
part. On opening this door, we enter into a square noin of
moderate size, which is called the Porch. On one side of it is
fixed a seat for the accommodation of strangers ; few persons
being allowed to get any farther into the house, except on
great festival occasions. Going straight forward through the
porch, we open a second door, which brings us into a large
open square, right in the centre of the building, called the
Court. When we raise our eyes upward, in this place, we
find that there is nothing over our heads but the sky itself :
the only covering which it ever has is a large veil or curtain,
sometimes drawn over it by cords, from one side to the other,
to keep off the sun, when a large company is to be received.
When it rains, the water falls upon the pavement below, which
is made of marble or some other solid material, and is carried
out by a pipe or trough through the building. It is consi-
Interior court of an Eastern hoiue.
dered a great ornanvnt and luxury to have a fountain in the
middle of this pavement, constantly pouring /orth its refresh-
ing stream. Around the court, on its four sides, are seen
large windows and handsome doors, opening into it from all
the rooms of the house. When you come out of these rooms,
nowever, you do not generally step at once upon the pave-
ment, but upon a covered walk, or porch with pillars, (such a
60 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
we often *ee in front of our houses,) which goes along each sid<
of the square. If the house has more than one story, the
door? of the upper chambers open out upon a gallery or lal-
oony, that runs round above this porch, and has, in front of
it, toward the centre of the court, a balustrade, or some kind
of railing, to keep people from falling down upon the hard
pavement below. A person, in going from one room to an-
other, must always come out of the first room and go into the
second by the doors that open into the court ; for there is no
door or passage leading directly from one to the other, in the
inside. On great occasions, such as a marriage, company is
always received in the court.
From the square room, called the Porch, into which, as we
have seen, the front door on the outside opens, a flight of
stairs rises to the upper story, and so on to the roof of the
house. The roof is flat, covered over with polid earth, or a
kind of plaster, made of coals, ashes, stones, and other sub-
stances, well pounded together. It is surrounded on the out-
side with a low wall, and on the Insi.'.r, round the court, with
a breastwork, or railing, like the balustrade of the balcony, to
prevent persons from falling either way. (Deut. xxii. 8.) On
such roofs, a little grass will sometimes spring up ; but it soon
withers under the heat of the sun. (Ps. cxxix. 6 8.) The
roof has always been much used as a place of agreeable re-
tirement. There it is common to walk in the evening, to en-
joy the cool breeze, and there, in summer, persons often sleep
under the broad arch of heaven. On such a roof, Rahab con-
cealed the spies with stalks of flax, (Josh. ii. 6 ;) Samuel
talked with Saul, (1 Sam. ix. 25 ;) David walked at even-
tide, (2 Sara. xi. 2 ;) and Peter employed himself in medita-
tion and prayer. (Acts x. 9.) In cities, the roof of one
house i.s joined to another, so that a person may pass along
a whole street, sometimes, without coming down. When,
therefore, our Saviour said, " Let him that is on the house-
top not go down into the house, neither enter therein, to take
any thing out of his house," (Mark xiii. 15,) he might mean,
that he should pass right along the roofs of the houses, and
get to the end of the s reet, and so out of the city, by the short-
est possible way. More probably, however, he meant that he
should go directly down the stairs into the Porch, and so
out by the street door, without turning backward through the
Court, to any of the chambers, lest even so small a delay
sh'iuld ( P-I li;in his lit'-. It seems to have been by taking
rlvanta^r ..f tli].- < : ,-, c..iiii--ti.u of several roofs, that the
friends of the man who was sick with the palsy broaght him
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
61
into th<; presence of Jesus. (Mark ii. 3, 4.) While the Re-
:lrciiior was preaching in the court of a certain house in Caper-
naum, they came, carrying the sufferer upon a bed ; but the
crowd was so great in the house and about the door, that they
found it impossible to come near him. They then took the man
up, through some neighbouring house, to the top, and thu.s
brought him along till they stood by the inner breastwork <>f
the roof, just over the place where our Saviour was. There
they uncovered the roof; that is, took away the covering of
cloth that was spread over the court to keep off the sun, and
broke up, or tore away, some part of the balustrade ; and so,
with cords, let down the bed, whereon the sick man lay, into
the midst, right before Him who was able to heal. (Luke v. 19.)
The rich sometimes have two houses; one for summer, and
another for winter. (Amos iii. 15.) The former faces the north,
to be cool; the latter opens toward the south, to be warm.
The rooms are generally large ; those in the upper story being
fitted up with more elegance than those below. The back
part of the house is occupied by the women. An Upper
Chamber, just over the porch, in
the front part of the building, was
generally, among the Jews, set
apart to lodge strangers. (1 Kings
xvii. 19.) When the house had
only one story, this room seems to
have been raised above it, to the
height of a second, with a door open-
ing out upon the roof. (2 Kings
iv. 10.) When fire was used, the
smoke had no chimney to carry it
away ; it went out by a hole in the
wall, though it is called a cl imney
in one place. ("Hos. xiii. 3.) Win-
dows had no glass, but merely lattice-work.
Houses, in earlier times, seem to have been commonly only
one story high, in Palestine ; but long before the time of Christ,
many of them were much higher, and very splendid; ceiled
with cedar, painted with vermilion, and richly adorned with
ivory, gold, and precious gems. (Jer. xxii. 14, 1 Kings xxii.
39 ) Stone was used for building before the time of Moses,
(Isev. xiv. 40,) and always continued common. Timber, too,
was much employed. (Isa. ix. 10.) The bricks mentioned in
several places, were square pieces of clay, hardened merely by
the heat of the sun. The walls of many houses of the more
eomuion sort were made of this material, which could seldom tort
f.
62 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES
r than the life of one man. As it was comparatively soft,
not hard to dig a hole right through it. (Mutt. vi. 19,
I'.'.i'k. xii. 5 ) Serpents, also, would occasionally find a hiding-
|il;ice in it. (Amos v. 19.) Heavy rains injure such walls vory
much ; and if they were not well secured about the foundation,
sometimes swept them utterly away : to such a house our Sa-
viour seems to refer: "The rain descended, and the flood*
came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house; aria it
ft-11 : and great was the fall of it." (Matt. vii. 27.) Such fniil
houses are still common in the east. So many of them are in
the city of Damascus, that when a violent rain falls, the street/ 1
become like a quagmire, with the clay that is washed from thr
walls.
In eastern cities, the houses are generally built with very
narrow streets between them ; not more than four or five feet
wide. This is to have them, almost all the time, completely
shaded from the oppressive power of the sun. In ancient times,
however, as we read, chariots were driven through them ; so
that some of them must have been much wider. The Gatct
were important places. A considerable space was left unoccu-
pied about them, where markets were held and goods of all sorts
exposed to sale, either in tents or under the open sky. (2 Kings
vii. 18.) Here, also, was the seat of justice, and the common
place of resort, where all matters of law were settled, and pub-
lic business of every kind transacted. When Abraham bought
a field of tie sons of Heth, thi bargain was made " at the gate
of the city." (Gen. xxiii. 10, 18. See also Gen. xxxiv. 20, Ruth
iv. 1 10.) Hence, the expressions, u to be crushed in the
gate," that is, to be utterly condemned in judgment, (Job v.
4 ;) "to open the mouth in the gate, to reprove in the gate, to
turn aside judgment in the gate," &c. The gates were made
very strong ; sometimes of iron or brass. Gates, then, may be
used to signify both strength and wisdom ; as when it is said,
" The gates of hell shall not prevail against" the church. (Matt,
xvi. 18.)
SECTION 11.
OF FURNITURE.
LET us next consider the furniture of an eastern house. Th
floors of the rooms are covered with mats or carpets. In a box
txwide the wall, are kept some thick, coarse mattresses, which
it night are thrown upon the floor and slept upon; the poorei
BIBLICAL ANTIQU.riES. 6&
people use skins. Bedsteads and chairs are not seen. It is an
easy matter to carry such a bed ; as our Saviour commanded the
sick man : " Take up thy bed and walk." On two or three
sides of the room, there is sometimes seen a raised place, about
thne feet broad and a foot high, running all along the wall.
On this lies, from one end to the other, a stuffed cushion : and
here the people sit cross-legged, somewhat after the manner of
our tailors when at work, leaning their backs against bolsters
that are fixed up along the wall. The seat at the corner is the
mobt comfortable and th: most honourable. This raised place,
on which it has always been usual to lie, as well as sit, (2 Kings
xx. 2,) is called sometimes in Scripture, a bed, (Amos iii. 12 ;)
and sometimes, under the same name, appears to be meant a
moveable settee, or sofa, of the same height and breadth, fur-
nished with the same conveniences, and used in the same way,
for sitting or lying. Such were the " beds of ivory," (Amos
vi. 4 ;) and something of the sort, perhaps, was the " iron bed-
stead" of Og, king of Bashan. (Deut. iii. 11.)
The bottom of a room in a Jewish house was always perfectly
clean. Nobody dreamed of stepping into it with a sandal or
shoe on his foot, and tobacco was utterly unknown. Hence, it
was very seldom necessary to scrub or sweep. (Matt. xii. 44,
Luke xv. 8.)
A Lamp, fed with olive oil, and supported on a large candle-
stick, seems to have been kept burning constantly through the
night, in the room where the family slept.
Such is still the custom in Egypt, even
among the poorest people. Hence, to
the ear of a Jew, the phrase, to put out
a man's liyht, employed to signify ca-
lamity, was more full of meaning than
we are apt to conceive. (Job xxi. 17,
xviii. 5, 6.) "Whoso curseth his fa-
ther or his mother, his lamp shall be
put out in obscure darkness." (Prov.
xx. 20.)
Pots, plates, and cups of different
kinds, sometimes pretty costly, were
found in the Jewish dwelling. One jf
the most useful articles was the goat-skin
bottle. It is made by stripping off the
skin of a gout, or kid, from the neck downward, without lipping
t j only cutting off the legs and the tail. The hole left by one
/ the tore legs is left to answer the purposes of a spout, while
JIB rest ar* tightly sewed up. It is filled by the neck, which is
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
afterwards tied like the mouth of a dock
Into this vessel is put water, milk, and
witu-, which arc kept more fresh and
sweet this way, than they curt be in any
other. They are used, indeed, to carry
almost every kind of provision. When
they get old, they often break, and often
are mended in different ways. Such
were the " wine bottles, old, and rent,
and bound up," of the cunning Gibeon-
ites, (Josh. ix. 4;) and such bottles our
Saviour had ; n view, when he said,
" Neither do men put new wine into old
bottles ; else the bottles break, and the wine runneth out, and
the bottles perish." (Matt. ix. 17.) The Arabs still use these
bottles, and sometimes form a vessel nearly as large as a hogs-
head, out of an ox-skin. Two of these last, filled with water,
and slung over the back of a camel, are of great value to a
company travelling through the desert.
The most ancient table for eating, probably resembled that
which is still common in the east; a circular piece of leather
spread upon the floor, around which those who ate sat with
legs bent and crossed, on cushions or small carpets. So the
brethren of Joseph sat before him, when they dined with him
in Egypt. (Gen. xliii. 33.) It seems to have been common,
in very early times, to have separate small tables, placed in *
circle at the social meal, one before each person, as we gm
each a separate plate. Every one had his i>'>rti<>n set on hit
own table. After the captivity, the Persian custom of lying
at meals, which came into use also among the Greeks ana
Romans, grew fashionable in Palestine. This required a new
kind of table. It was made up of three narrow tables, raised,
like oure. from the ground, and placed together PO as to form
a square, with a clear space in the middle, and one end quite
open. Around these, three tables, on the outside, were placed
three couches or beds, reaching far enough back to allow a
man's body to be stretched nearly straight across. On these,
the guests lay, in a slanting position, one before the other,
each leaning upon his left arm, with his face turned toward
the table. In this way, the head of one was placed before th*
bosom of another, so that, if he turned to speak with him. he
naturally leaned up in it; thus John leaned on the Saviour'?
I. 'in at -upper. (John xiii. 23.) The fourth side was left
char, fur the servants to pass into the open space in the middle
nd bring to any part of the table whatever might be wanted.
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES
65
On one of these table-couches, or beds, Queen Esther was lean-
ing, when Haman fell before her to supplicate mercy. (Esth.
vii. 8.) On such a couch, also, the Redeemer lay at meat in
the Pharisee's house, when there came a woman "that was a
sinner, and stood at his feet behind him, weeping, and began
to wash his feet with tears, and did wipe them with the hairs
of her head, and kissed his feet, and anointed them with
ointment." (Luke vii. 36 38.) She stood on the floor, by
the outside of the high couch. In a similar manner, our Lord
approached the feet of his disciples, when he rose from sup-
per, took a towel, with a basin of water, and began to wash
them and wipe them, one after another, as they lay round the
table. (John xiii. 4 12.) Wherever, in the New Testament,
we read of sitting at meat, we are to remember that it means no
other position than this of stretching out the body at full
length, with the head and shoulders raised upon the left arm.
A most indispensable article in every
house was the Mill. We read of fine
meal in the time of Abraham ; so, be-
fore his age, the mill must have been
well known. It was made of two cir-
cular stones, about the size of our com-
mon grindstones, placed one above the
other. The lower one was fixed so as
not to move, and had a little rise to-
ward the centre, on its upper
part ; the upper one was
hollowed out on its lower
side, to fit this rise, and had
a wooden handle fixed above,
to turn it round, with a hole
through the middle to receive
ilic grain. This mill was
used day after day, as regu-
larly as our coffeemill ; for
as bread in that country will
continue good only a short
time, it became the universal custom to grind fresh flour and
bake every day, except the Sabbath. It was the business of maid
servants to grind, and so considered a degrading employment
fora man, (Judg. xvi. 21,) or for a lady of rank. (Isa. xlvii. 2.)
Sometimes one turned the mill alone : but frequently two
were employed together to make the work lighter. In the
latter case, they sate one on each side, thrusting the handle
round continually from one to the other. Thus our Saviou?
flfi BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
sjx-aks of "two women grinding at the mill." (Matt, xxiv 41 )
\g tlif mill was so e.vv'ntial to every family, it was forbidden
to take me nether or the upper stone for a pledge. (Deut.
xxiv. 6.) It, in the days of her glory, we had walked along
tin- street* i'f Jerusalem about the twilight of evening, or the
dawn of morning, when the noise of grinding came upon the
car from every quarter, we should better understand the
image of desolation which the prophet presented, when he
foretold that God would take away from the city " the voice
of tin- bridegroom and the bride, the sound of the mi//.<t"it'*,
and the light of the candle." (Jer. xxv. 10.) These handmills
are still used all over the East.
Ovens were of differ-
ent sorts. A common
fashion was to make
them of stone or brick,
covered over with mor-
tar, something in the
shape of a large pitcher.
Fire was put in the
inside, and the doiurh
. spread, like a thin paste,
^JXililiiiii'lilllilllllllllllllllHilllllllllllll'IIIIIHilllll ^^ over the outside; it was
^= ^ _ ' -- =Eis.:Sg>= s3g ~"' baked in less than a
minute. Another oven was a round hole dug in the earth,
and paved at the bottom with stones: after it was heated, tl><>
fire was taken away, the cakes placed upon the stones, and the
mouth shut up. Because other fuel was often scarce, it was
ei minion, (as it still is in that quarter of the world,) to heat ovens
with light brushwood, the prunings of vines, stubble, and such
materials. Dried grass of ten nswered the purpose : " If God,"
said the Saviour, in his sermon on the mount, "so clothe the
grass of the field, which to-day is, and to-morrow >t runt intn
the oven, shall he not much more clothe you, ye of little
f:iitli ''" (Matt. vi. 30.) The dung of animals, such a,J horses,
camels, and cows, thoroughly dried, was employed in the same
manner. In many places of the east, at the present time, it
forms the most general supply of fuel for all purposes of cook-
ing or baking, and is laid up and kept in large stacks, with
much care, for standing family use. It is bought and sold, also,
by cart-loads, as wood is in other countries , Iw.ek. iv 15.)
Cakes were often baked in the ashes, (Gen. xviii. 6,) and some-
time's on pans or plates of iron, placed over the fire. (Lev. ii .}
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
CHAPTER IV.
OCCUPATIONS.
SECTION I.
OF THE PASTORAL LIFE.
TTR ORIGIN. The life of a shepherd had, in early
much to recommend it to the choice of men. It was attended
Dnly with light labour, and afforded, generally, a sure prospect
jf riches and independence. While the human race continued
comparatively few in number, I'ist tracts of ground lay in every
lin ction, without cultivation, and without owner, covered with
die richest pastures. The shepherd had but to withdraw him-
self from the more thickly settled communities, when he found,
without expense, free range for his flocks and his herds, how
<'\CT vast their number; and when the grass began to fail
around him in one place, it was an easy matter to gather up
!ii<i tent and move with all his substance to some other
6S BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIKS.
still fresh Tith the wild abundance of nature. He had no hoim
or family to leave behind, in his wanderings ; his dwelling-place
with all its numerous household, followed the steps of his flock j
and for him to wander or to rest, was to be alike at home.
ITS PREVALENCE. Accordingly, in the eastern part of the
world, this manner of life found great numbers to embrace it,
in the irst ages of time. Before the flood, Abel was a keeper
of sheep, and Jabal " was the father of such as dwell in tents
and have cattle." After that great event, we read that the
illustrious patriarchs of the Jewish nation, Abraham, Isaac,
and Jacob, with all his sons, pursued the same business. These
were shepherds of the highest rank, exceedingly rich in silver,
and gold, and flocks of every kind, (Gen. xiii. 2, 5,) and sur
rounded with a household of several hundred servants. (Gen
xiv. 14.) Each was a prince in the midst of his great family,
perfectly independent; making war, and making treaties of
peace, with states and tribes around him, by his own sovereign
authority. Such a she] herd was Job, also, " the greatest of all
the men of the east," iii his time. By reason of the dignity
and power which belonged to the prince-like shepherds of ancient
times, as well as on account of the tender care with which they
governed their flocks, it became customary to give the title to
rulers and kings. God himself is frequently styled a shepherd,
and his people compared to a flock under his almighty pro-
teetion.
In Egypt, the Israelites devoted themselves as a people to
the employment nf their fathers. And even after their settle-
ment in the land of promise, although husbandry became the
national business, many still clung to this early manner of life.
That part of the country which lay east of the Jordan afforded
peculiar advantages to those who made such a choice. On
this account, the children of Reuben and Gad, because " they
had a very great multitude of cattle," requested to have it for
their inheritance. (Numb, xxxii. 1 5.) The mountainous
tracts of Gilead and Bashan abounded with the finest pastures,
and beyond their extensive range lay, far and wide outspread,
the wilderness of Arabia ; which, though in general sandy and
barren, had yet scattered over it some fertile spots, rising like
islands on the dreary ocean, and inviting the shepherd to wandei
with his flocks over the unoccupied waste. All this, except the
territories of Ammon toward the north, and Moab toward the
south, belonged properly to the Israelites, (Gen. xv. 18 ;) and
we read that the shepherds of Reuben did, in the days of Saul,
when th-ir herds were greatly multiplied in the land of Gilead,
destroy four Arabian nations who opposed their way, and dwel*
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES- *>9
in tents far cast of the mountains, toward the great rivr
Euphrates. (1 Chrun. v. 9, 10, 18 22.) It was not alto
getber uncommon to pursue the same kind of life on the othei
side of Jordan, especially among the hills of Ephraim and
Judah, as we may see in the history of David. The business
however, could not be conducted on the same great scale, as
little of the land could be spared from the labour of the farmer.
In the days of our Saviour, shepherds were still found, watch-
ing their flocks, in the land of Judea. (Luke ii. 8.) The
nations who dwelt to the south and south-east of the land of
Canaan, were made up, in a great measure, of unsettled herds-
men and shepherds. Such were the Amalekites, the Ishmael-
itcs, and Midianites. They owned, indeed, some villages and
towns, and were confined in some measure to particular regions
of the broad uncultivated wilderness ; but they had no fixed
boundaries ; whole families and tribes wandered with their flocks
from place to place, as inclination led, and thus were often
found far asunder from the body of their nation, or even sur-
rounded, at times, with the tents and possessions of a different
people. Thus the Kenites were found within the borders of
Amalek, when Saul came to destroy that devoted nation.
(1 Sam. xv. 6.) Even the country of Edora, though it had
much cultivated land and several large cities, seems to have
consisted, in a great part, of wild, unsettled wastes, thus occu-
pied with wandering hordes of such as dwell in tents and are
employed with the care of cattle.
CARK OF FLOCKS. The flocks were tended by servants ; also
by the sons, and frequently by the daughters of the owner, who
himself was often employed in the same service. In the sum-
mer, they generally moved toward the north, or occupied the
loftier parts of the mountains ; in the winter, they returned to
the south, or sought a favourable retreat in the valleys. A
shepherd was exposed to all the changes of the season, as the
lloek required to be watched by day and by night under the
open sky. Thus Jacob described his service : " In the day
the drought consumed me, and the frost by night ; and my
sleep departed from mine eyes." So, also, the shepherds were
watching their flocks l>y >n'</fit, when the angel of the Lord
came down with the glad tidings of a Saviour's birth. The
flocks did not, however, give so much trouble as we might
imagine such vast numbers would. They grew familiar with
the rules of order, and learned to conform themselves to the
wishes of their keeper, on the slightest notice. They Ix-came
acquainted with his voice, and when called by its sound, im-
ui<'diately gathered around him. It was even common to give
70 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
<very individual of the flock its own name, to which it learned
t<> attend, as horses and dogs are .iccustonicd to do among us
If the keeper's voice was at any time not heeded, or could not
reach some straggling party, he had but to tell his dog, who
was almost \\i~e enough to manage a flock by himself, and im-
mediately lie was seen bounding over the distance, and rapidly
restoring all to obedience and order. When he wanted to move
from one place to another, he called them all together, and
marched before them, with his stall' in his hand, and his dog
by his side, like a general at the head of his army, riuch is
the beautiful discipline which still is often seen in the flocks cf
eastern shepherds. With a knowledge of these circumstances,
we can better understand the language of our Saviour, in his
beautiful parable of the Shepherd and his flock : " The sheep
heaV his voice ; and he calleth his own sheep by name, aud
leadeth them out. And when he putteth forth his own sheep,
he goeth before them, aud the sheep follow him ; for they
know his voice. And a stranger will they not follow, but will
flee from him ; for they know not the voice of strangers."
(John x. 35.)
It was the business of the shepherd to protect his flock from
harm, for which'purpose he generally carried a sling or bow;
to lead them where sufficient pasture might be found ; and to
take care that they were well supplied with water. (Ps. xxiii
I 4.) The last thing was not, generally, in those regions
.vhidi were traversed by shepherds, a very easy matter. The
ritrcam, or living fountain, were seldom to be found. It was
necessary to dig wells ; and as the flocks had to be led to dif-
ferent pasturing places, sometimes far apart, it was necessary
to dig several wells. A shepherd who managed his business
right, would have a regular round of places, with a well of
water at each, which he might visit in succession every year.
Thus we read of Abraham and Isaac digging one well after
another. It is easy to see, that where water was so scarce,
while for the support of large herds and flocks so much was
wanted, a well became a most valuable part of property. (Gen.
rxvi. 15 22, 32, 33, Numb. xx. 17 19.) Hence, they were
carefully covered and concealed, as far as possible, from view,
that others might not steal away the water ; another reason lor
."vering them, was to keep them from being filled up with
sanJ, as it rolled over them before the wind. Sometimes,
several shepherds had a well in common. (Gen. xxix. 2, 3.)
It was a cruel act to stop up the wells of any people, as it wa*
common for enemies to do : it was to shepherds as bad as t!ic
burning of houses in a country like ours The flocks were
UIHL1CAL ANTIQUITIES. /I
watered twice in the day; at uoon and about sundown. It
was a laborious business to draw water enough for so great a
multitude. The wells were generally very deep ; as was that
one of Jacob, where our Saviour talked with the woman of
Samaria. (John iv. 11.) From the value of water, in places
where it was thus scarce and difficult to be procured, it became
a common emblem of rich blessings of any sort, and especially
of spiritual favour ; so that God himself is called a " fountain
of living waters." (Jer. ii. 13, xvii. 13.)
PRODUCE. From his flocks, the shepherd was supplied, aa
we have already seen, with almost all the comforts of his life.
Except a little grain and a few poles, he needed nothing for
food, or for raiment, or for dwelling, which they could not
furnish. His table was crowned, as often as he chose, with
flesh of the best kind ; which, however, in those warm coun
tries, was not often used, except on great festivals, or to enter
tain strangers ; while every day, abundance of milk and cheese
gave relish to his simple meal. The butter mentioned in the
Bible, was not, however, like ours; it was something that
could be drunk, as Jael is said to have offered it to Siscra, in a
lordly dish, when he askod for drink. (Judg. v. 25.) Per-
haps it was some preparation of cruam. We read of "flood*
vnd brooks of honey and butter;" and of washing a man'*
steps in it. (Job xx. 17, xxix. 6.) Every jUb^dwpruip, es-
pecially, added to the wealth of the muster of the flock. J
2 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
was always a great occasion. The sheep were all gathered into
large folds; a great company of shearers were collected to the
place; an unusual preparation of food took place; and the
whole season, which generally lasted several days, was turned
into a complete festival. (2 Sam. xiii. 23.) By selling con-
tinually their cattle and various kinds of produce to the neigh-
bouring cities, the shepherds often became very rich in silver
and gold, as well as in their flocks and herds; for as it was not
uncommon for them to farm for themselves a piece of land,
sufficient to supply them with grain, they supported their great
households almost without expense, and reaped a clear profit
from every thing they sold.
MOPKKX SHEPHKRDS. The east, as we have already hinted,
still abounds with shepherds; and much light is thrown upon
those parts of Scripture which relate to the circumstances of
early pastoral life, liy an acquaintance with the manners and
customs of these wandering tent-dwellers, as they exist in our
own day. The same vast regions of uncultivated country, over
which, in ancient times, so many scattered families travelled with
their numerous flocks and herds, are now found occupied with
various tribes of their posterity, equally unsettled and equally
free. Through the deserts of Arabia and Syria, from the banks
of the Nile to the ancient stream of Euphrates, and far beyond,
toward the rising sun, they are found, ranging from one pastur-
ing place to another, and scorning every restraint of civilized
fashion or power. The master of eaeli family is a chieftain, or
prince, surrounded oftentimes with many hundred dependants
and servants. Many of them arp exceedingly rich, covering
the whole country for miles, as they pass along, with immense
droves of camels, oxen, cows, asses, goats, and sheep ; and pos-
sessing, at the same time, treasures of silver and gold. No
doubt, the patriarchal shepherds of the Bible resembled some
of them very much, in their wealth, and power, and manner of
life. But tiu-y were blessed with a knowledge of the true God,
and their tents were hallowed with the pure spirit of devotion,
while the blackness of Mohammedan error reigns in the families
of these. We may be certain, therefore, that in all those cir-
cumstances of character which only can give true ornament or
dignity to life, whether found in the tent or the palace, the
latter come far short of showing forth any true representation
ji the former.
"K A i. I M AGERY. We have said that God is often com
pared, in Scripture, to a shepherd. Under the same image
the Lord Jesus Christ beautifully and expressively describes
bis relation to the church ; and never was application more
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 73
aappy and complete. The sheep of his flock were once scattered
upon Uie mountains, without shepherd and without understand-
ing, going continually a.tray, weary and faint from scantiness
of pasture' and distressing want of water; exposed to spoil from
the arm of the prowling robber, and hunted and torn by the
hungry wild beast of the forest He saw and pitied. He left
the glorious splendour of his Father's house, to follow and gather
to himself the mi si- rable wanderers. His voice was heard upon
the hilis, calling them to return and feed under his care. As
they listened and came, he builded for them a large and secure
fold, and led them forth, day by day, to fields of the richest
pasture, and by quiet streams of ever-running water. His kind
and tender care was constantly employed for their good ; he
strengthened the weak and cherished the sick; leading with
gentleness such as were with young, and gathering the lambs
with his arm, to carry them fondly in his bosom. And when
the hour of thickest danger came, and all the rage of the enemy
threatened to devour and destroy the entire flock at once, he
shrunk not from their defence, though the conflict was dread-
ful beyond all expression. He met the danger in his single
strength, and firmly laid down his life for the sheep! But in
dying, he overcame, and wrought a deliverance for his sheep,
which no power of the enemy can ever destroy. And now,
though unseen by mortal eyes, he is still present with the flock,
watching over it with the same tender care, conducting its steps
by the pastures and waters of life, and shielding its path from
the prowling wolf and ' the roaring lion.' To secure its wel-
fare, he has appointed, under himself, many servants to oversee
and tend its different parts. These he has commanded, with
awful solemnity, to be faithful Pastors, or shepherds, and to
feed his flock with diligence and care; they act at all times under
his eye, and must render a strict account of their ministry, when
He, " the Chief Shepherd," shall finally appear. (Matt. ix. 36.
1 Pet. ii. 25, Isa. xl. 11, Ps. xxiii., John x., Jer. xxiii. 3, 4
Acts xx. 28, 1 Pet. v.
SECTION II.
OF HUSBANDRY.
ADAM began to cultivate the ground directly after his crea-
tion : it was his business, with light and pleasant labour, to
dress and keep the garden, ere yet sin had blasted its original
beauty. After the fall, the earth, pressed under the weight of
the Al might y'- furc, no longer yielded of her own accord th<>
|4 ItlBLlCAL ANTIQUITIES.
necessary fruits of life. Labour became indispensable, and, a'
the SHIM- time, severe. Since that time it has been, more 01
in every age and in every nation, an occupation of u en to
till the soil, and draw from its bosom the means of subsistence
uml comfort.
Many nations, however, while they could not neglect the
business altogether, have made it a matter of comparatively
small attention ; rather choosing, from the situation of then
countries or the disposition of their people, to secure to them
selves the blessings of life, by giving their time and care chiefly
to some other pursuit. Hut the Israelites, after their settlement
in Canaan, were almost entirely a nation of farmers. A small
portion on the eastern side of the Jordan, as we have seen, were
principally occupied with the care of flocks and herds ; but the
great body of the people spent their time, almost exclusively,
in cultivating the land. Bjf the direction of (iod, each tribe
had its own particular province, and every family in that tril>e
its own plantation, clearly marked out from all the rest. No
family could entirely lose its plantation ; for it never could be
sold for any longer time than to the year of Jubilee. Thus,
while the daughters of any house, when they married, were
moved away to the inheritance of some other family, the sons,
to the latest generation, continued on the same estate. In this
way, no one man could ever buy up large tract- nf country for
himself, so as to leave multitudes without property of their own,
and so without the strongest inducement to diligence. Every
individual knew, that whatever labour or care he bestowed upon
his farm, it could never be utterly lost to his family, and thus
was animated to spare no pains in its cultivation. And as the
portion which fell to each, where all were entitled to share,
was necessarily small, it was managed with the more skilful
art; from which it came to pass, that the whole face of the
country presented an appearance of the highest cultivation, so
that probably no country that was overseen, could compare, in
Jiis respect, witl the land of Palestine in those days.
We have already considered the different productions of this
country, which claimed, in ancient time>, the attention of tin?
Jewish farmer. It remains to notice his various methods of
labour, as employed at different seasons, in the several depart-
ments of his care.
THE FIELD.
To prepare the ground for sowing, mmcdiately after the firnt
short season of rain in the fall, he -'t liini<e]t' to break it u[,
rith the plough. His pluvyh., MW.-V.T, was a trifling thinp,
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
75
ir. eon>r>arison with one of ours. It was probably much like
thft uJ,ughs that arc used at the present day in eastern coun
One of those is often so light, that a man can lift it with
me hand ; and when it passes over the ground, it leaves onlj a
Moderate wmtch behind, instead of the deep, broad furrow
which iri- are accustomed to see. The plcntyhdiart is a piece
of iron, somewhat broad, but not large, fixed to the end of a
shaft that lies flat. Two handles, and sometimes only one,
standing nearly upright from this shaft, prepare it to be guided
by the ploughman's hand ; while a pole of sufficient length,
rudely fastened to the bottom, near the handles, and slanting
upward to the proper height, answers the purpose of a beam, to
which is fixed the common yoke for drawing. The share has
a good deal of likeness to the short sword that was anciently
used, and might easily be beaten into such an instrument. It
was not uncommon, once, to change one into the other, as we
may learn from the language of the prophet: "Beat ymr
ploughshares into swords, and your pruning hooks into spears."
.Joel iii. 10. See also Isa. ii. 4.) With such a light, unsteady
plough, the ploughman needs the greatest caution arid cam to
kivp it in the ground, or to make a straight furrow ; he must
lie continually bending over and pressing upon it, so as to pi*-
76
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
ir ste' 11 ness and weight. For a man, therefore, who undertook
to iiia iage a Jewish plough, to turn his head behind him, was
even more imprudent and foolish than the same thing is with
us. To this our Saviour refers; "No man, having put his
hand to the plough and looking back, is fit for the kingdom of
heaven." (Luke ix. <i'2. >
The ground was levelled with a hnrrov* still more rude. It
seems to have been generally a mere heavy clump of wood,
drawn over the field, to make plain ffir fare of It, before the
seed was sown, (Isa. xxviii. 24, '2f> ;) or sometimes, jx-rhaps, ;i
wicker-drag, or a large rough piece of brushwood, to cover tin
grain ; this, however, was, in most cases, probably done b)
ploughing it over with a cross furrow.
Hulls and cows, he-asses and she-asses, were the common
beasts of labour. If a bull became wild and hard to manage, a
bole was bored through his nostrils, and a ring of iron, m
twisted cord, fixed it>
it ; to this was fasti ne<l
a rope, by which it
could be so pulled an 1
twisted, as to stop the
animal's breath almost
entirely, and so rendei
the most furious quite orderly. By this same contrivance, i.
was common tc manage camels, and ev.'ii elephants and lio'is,
when they took them alive. To this practice the Lord alludes,
in his a idress to the Assyrian king: ' Hecause thy raire against
me and thy tumult is come up into mine ear-, therefore I will
put mi/ look in tin/ nose, and my bridle in thy lips and 1 will
'urn thee back by the way by which thou < MMV t " '2 King.-
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 77
xix. 28.) So also in that grand description of leviathan, it is
asked : " Canst thou put an hook into his nose ?" to intimate
that no art can manage his strength. (Job xli. 2, Ezek. xxxviii.
4.) Both ox and ass worked under a yoke fixed over their
necks, and tied with ropes to the beam. It was not lawful,
however, to couple one with the other, under the same yoke ;
not only because they were animals of unequal strength and
different habits, and because every such connection is unnatural
and unpleasant, but also to make sacred distinction between the
clean and the uncfcan, as the ox stood chief among beasts of the
former class, and the ass among those of the latter. The yoke
is a natural symbol of authority and power ; and to carry it,
denotes subjection and obedience. The Saviour invites us to
take upon us his yoke, because it is easy. (Matt. xi. 29, 30.)
Sin fastens on the neck a heavy yoke of pain and sorrow. (Lam.
i. 14.) To " break the yoke," means, to burst loose from
authority and cast off all submission, (Jer. v. 5 ;) when done
for any one by another, it is deliverance from oppression and
bondage. (Isa. ix. 4, Iviii. 6.) The ploughman was furnished
with a pole, seven or eight feet long, armed at one end with a
flat piece of iron for cleaning the plough, and at the other, with
a spike for spurring his beasts. This was called the ox-goad.
It was sometimes used in war for a spear, and made, when skil-
fully handled, a very good weapon. With such an instrument
in his hand, Shamgar made his bold attack on the Philistines,
and six hundred fell dead on the spot. ( Judg. iii. 31.)
It was common to begin to sow toward the end of October .
it was not, however, too late to sow wheat in December j while
January, and even February, was soon enough for the barley.
There was no frost to hinder ploughing, through the whole
winter. It was desirable, however, to get as well on in the
business as possible, during that period of fair weather which
always followed the first few days of rain in the fall ; for, after
it was over, the labour of the farmer was continually exposed to
interruption from the showers of rain which fall so abundantly,
as we have already seen, from that time to the season of harvest.
The grain became ripe very soon after the litter rains were
over. On the second day of the Passover, which, as we shall here-
after see, came considerably sooner in some years than in others,
a barley sheaf was presented as an offering of the first fruits of
thi- harvest, at the altar of God. After this, the business of
reaping began; first, the barley was cut; then the wheat and
"* her kinds of grain. The time of harvest lasted seven weeks,
trmn the Passover until Pentecost, which came, generally, not
far from the beginning of June. It was a joyful reason. Tho
78
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIKS.
master was seen in his field in the midst of his servants and
hiMreii. as they pursued their work with dbeerfol and con-
tented diligence. Age and youth united their hands in the
Imsv -eciipation, and even maidens came forth to the field, ai:d
lent tin :r assistance in the general work. On every side, the
iiin\, in -tit of industry was displayed, as the reajx-r plied the
ni'-kle. or the binder's bosom was filled with the new-made sheaf;
while the song of gladness, as it frequently rose from th*
scene, carried in its simple melody an assurance of satisfaetion,
which the music of palaces failed to express. (Ps. cxxix. 7, Isa.
ix. 3.) What a beautiful picture docs the harvest field of JJoaz
present, as it is described in the second chapter of Knth ! The
Jewish fanner was not allowed to forget the poor in this season
of joyful labour: ''When ye reap the harvest of your land,"
said the Almigrty, " thou shalt not wholly reap the i-nmi-r* of
thy land: neither shalt thou gather the ry/w ///'////> of thy har-
vest; thou shalt leave them for the poor and the stranger; I
am the Lord thy God." (Lev. xix. 0, 10.)
The grain was next carried to the T/iri'*hf/ti/-ffiMir, on beasts
of burden, or in wagons. All irtii/ns, in those days, moved
upon tirn wheels only, like our carts: frequently, however,
they had beds of considerable size. The threshing-floor was
in the field itself, on the top of some rising ground, where it
might be most open on all sides to the wind. It had neither
covering or walls; and was, in fact nothing more than a suffi-
cient space of ground, levelled with a great roller, and beaten
so as to become completely hard. Hen 1 , the sheaves were
thrown together in a loose heap, ready for threshing. To beat
out the lighter kinds of grain, a flail or cudgel was employed;
for crops of the heavier sort, such as wheat and barley, tho
common methods were the feet of oxen or the threshing
machine. The ox was used to tread out grain very early.
(Dcut. xxv. 4.)
The Thres/i-
iinj Instrument
was not always
made in the
same way in
every particu-
lar; the ge-
neral form,
however, was
commonly the
same. Imagine
four stout pieces of timber joined together in a square frame,
U 1 li L 1 C A L ANTIQUITIES.
79
and three or four heavy rollers,
with axleri at each end, reaching
across and turning in its oppo-
site sides; suppose each of these
rollers to have round it three
iron wheels, cut into sharp teeth,
like a saw, or to be armed with
thick pieces of the same metal,
standing out six inches all over its surface; Mien fancy a body
:>f sonic sort raised over this frame, with a seat for a man to
sit upon and ride, and you will form a pretty correct notion of
this powerful machine. Mounted on his seat, with a yoke of
oxen before him, the driver directed it round the floor. The
rollers, as they turned heavily along, crushed and broke all
'et'ore them. The front part of the machine was turned up-
ward, like the runners of a sled or sleigh, so as to pass along
without becoming choked with the straw.
The Cart, which Isaiah says was used in threshing, was only
some particular form of this instrument. (Isa. x.\\,iii. 27, 28.)
Threshing with such & machine presented a very impressive
image of destruction and slaughter; and, accordingly, we find
it several times introduced in the figurative style of Bcrij/ture
8U BIBLICAL ANTIQLlTlf..-..
to express the severest judgments of God, or the most cruel
violence of war. (Hah. iii. 1'J, Amos i. 3.)
The next business was t<> <///<///// the grain, or separate ii
from the straw and chaff. This was done by throwing it up
before the wind, with a fork or shovel. The straw, by the
force of tin- flinching instrument, was so cut up and brokeu
into small pieces, that it readily flew off sonic distance with the
chaff. The grain was then cleared of heavier substances, such
as lumps of earth, with a sieve. It wa< because wiirl was so
necessary in this business, that the threshing floor was always
on a high place, like that of Araunah, the Jebusite. But to
assist in driving away the straw and chaff, it was common tx>
use also a fan. (Isa. xxx. 24.) To purge the heap thoroughly,
it was necessary to expose it to the wind more than once. As
threshing is used figuratively for severe destruction, so is win-
nowing fr.r the scattering of a vanquished people: " Behold,"
says God to his church, "I will make thee a new sharp thresh-
ing instrument, having teeth; thou shalt thresh the mountains,
and beat them small, and .-halt make the hills as chaff. Thou
shalt fan them, and the wind shall carry them away, and the
whirlwind shall scatter them!" Isa. xli. 15, 16.) The same
image is employed, also, fearfully to represent the separation
of the wicked from the righteous, and their utter desolation
before the wrath of the Almighty. They shall be " as the
chaff that is drven with the whirlwind out of the floor;" "as
stubble before *he wind, and as chaff that the storm carrieth
away." (Hop xiii. 3, Job xxi. 18, Ps. i. 4.) And as it was
also common *n set fire to the chaff, as it lay mingled with the
more broken and useless parts of the straw in a neighbouring
pile, the i^age became more terrible still. (Isa. v. 24.) Thus,
the righteous judgment which Christ will execute upon the
ungodly, is represented by John the Baptist : " His tan is in
his hand, and he will throughly purge his floor, and gather
his wheat into the garner; but he will burn up the chaff
with unquenchable fire. (Matt. iii. \'2.') The straw that was
less broken was carefully laid up for the use of cattle.
CARE OF THE VINE.
The cultivation of the vine formed another most important
jurt of Jewish husbandry. Vlmi/urd*, as we have already
Been, were generally planted on the sides of hills and moun-
tains. Much labour was employed to prepare the ground. The
stones were carefully gathered out; the rock was often covered
over with soil, piled up so as to make a broad platform on the
sloping height; the whole was surrounded with a hedge 01
HI DMCA I, ANTIQUITIES. 81
*ull; the ground was carefully dug, and set with plants of the
choicest kind ; a press was sunk tor making wine; a tower was
raised, in whieli all the tools and other articles necessary for
the labourers might be kept, and where one or more watchmen
might always stay to guard the enclosure from thieves and
wild animals, especially foxes, which were very troublesome.
(Song ii. 15.) These towers seem to have been sometime*
built with much elegance, and fitted up with expensive care, as
places of pleasure as well as mere use, where the rich owner
might occasionally resort with his friends, to enjoy, for a few
days, its agreeable retreat. God compares his care of the Jew-
ish nation to the care which the husbandman was accustomed
to bestow on his vineyard. (Isa. v. 1,2, Ps. Ixxx. 9 13.) Our
Saviour uses the same image : " There was a certain house-
holder which planted a vineyard, and hedged it round about,
and digged a wine press in it, and built a tower, and let it out
to husbandmen, and went into a far country," &c. (Matt. xxi.
33.) The vines were pruned several times a year, with an
instrument made for the purpose, and called the Pruniny-hook
The vintage, or season for gathering grapes, began early in
the fall, about the middle of September, and generally lasted
about two months. It was a time of even more gladness than
harvest. With songs and shoutings that sounded all over the
hills, the labourers proceeded in their work ; gathering the
great clusters into baskets, and bearing them to the Wine-press.
This was commonly dug, like a vat, into the grouad, and
secured over the bottom and round the sides, with stone-work,
plastered so as to hold the juice; frequently, it was hewed in
a solid rock. It consisted of two separate parts or vats close
together; one of which was sunk considerably lower than the
other. The grapes were thrown into the upper vat, where
they were trodden completely, by the feet of five or six men,
and the juice, as it was pressed out, ran through a small
grated opening in the side, close by the bottom, down into the
lower one. The t readers sung, and shouted, and jumped ; and
all their garments became thoroughly stained with the red
blood of the grapes. (Jer. xxv. 30, xlviii. 32, 33.)
Out of the juice was made Wine and Vtnfyar. The new
wine was commonly put into new goat-skin bottles, with the
hairy >ide turned inwards. (Job xxxii. 19, Matt. ix. 17.) It
be a me betl>r the longer it was kept, when the dregs all
sctthd to the bottom. (Isa. xxv. 6.) Besides the vinegar
which is usual among us, and to which Solomon rci\ rs in one
of his proverbs, 'Prov. x. 26,) there was a sort of weak wine,
ised very eomm mly by labourers, which was called by t
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
samo name. Such was that vinegar which the workmen of
Boaz used in his harvest field. (Ruth ii. 14.) This was a
common drink also among the Roman soldiers, and seems to
have been that ri/n'./nr which one of them presented in a
sponge to our Saviour, when he hung upon the cross, i Matt.
xxvii. 48.) The " vinegar mingled with gall," which had
been before offered to him, (v. 34,) and which Mark calls
"wine mii.gled with myrrh," was a preparation of wine mixed
with this bitter substance, and frequently given to criminals
doomed to suffer death, in order to stupify their feeling, and
so take away the sense of pain. Our Lord refused the cup;
he would not consent, in the deepest agony of his suffering, to
taste a drink that could bring relief only as it deranged and
blunted the natural powers of the soul. What a lesson for
those who, in times of sorrow, betake themselves to strong
drink ! What a lesson for those who deliberately sacrifice
reason and sense for the brutal pleasure of intemperance, with-
out even this wretched plea !
The tiv.idiiiL' of the wine-Jin--* is u-ed fiirurathely to denote
vengeance and wrath, disj, laved in the terrible destruction of
i-nnnies. Thus the Redeemer is represented as trampling
upon the enemies of his people : " Who 's this," the prophet
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. fjft
inquires, as he saw, in vision, one coming toward him in
triumph, from the south: "Who is this that comcth from
Ivinii), with dyed garments from Bozrah ? this that is glorious
in his apparel, travelling in the greatness of his strength ?"
A.n answer njfurns : "I that speak in righteousness, mighty to
save." The prophet again asks : u Wherefore art thou red in
thine apparel, and thy garments like him that treadeth in the
wine-vat?" The reply comes: "I have trodden the wine-
press alone; and of the people there was none with me : for !
will tread them in mine anger, and trample them in my fury ;
and their blood shall be sprinkled upon my garments, and I
will stain all my raiment." (Isa. Ixiii 13.) The samo
figure is employed in the book of Revelation. (Rev. xiv. 18.)
'J he wrath of (iod is compared also to a cup of strong wine, on
account of its overwhelming effects. Such wine was doeply
red ; and oftentimes, to render it still more powerful, it waa
mixed with different spices. " In the hand of the Lord,"
says the Psalmist, "there is a cup, and the wine is red; it is
full of mixture ; and he poureth out of the same : but the
dregs thereof, all the wicked of the earth shall wring them out
and drink them." (Ps. Ixxv. 8.)
Orates were sometimes dried in the sun, and preserved in
11. asses or cakes, like figs. These were the dusters, or Imtirhcs
i>f mi tins, which Abigail presented to David on one occasion,
and Ziba on another. (1 Sam. xxv. 18, 2 Sam. xvi. 1.) The
Jews were not allowed to gather the fruit of their vines, or of
any other tree, until the fifth year after it began to bear. (Lev.
xix. 2325.)
CARE OF FRUIT TREES.
The Olive also yielded a rich reward to the husbandman's
care. The fruit was sometimes beaten off the tree with a long
stick or pole, and at other times shaken. It was not allowed
to go over the boughs a second time; the few olives that still
clung to the tree were to be left for the poor, as wore the
grapes that were passed over in the vintage. (Deut. xxiv. 20,
21.) The gleaning of olives and grapes is used to represent a
sweeping judgment of God, that leaves scarcely any thing be-
hind. (Isa. xvii. 6, xxiv. 13.) Olives were trodden in a press
of a particular kind, as well as grapes. The word Gethstwane
means an ail-press ; no doubt, because such a press, and per-
haps more than one, was mucu used there, for making oil from
the fruit that grew so plentifully around, upon the Mount of
()l!r,-s. The oil was very valuable; answering, in a great de-
gree, among the Jews, the same purposes that butter does witf
1*4 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
;, and, at the ^ inn time, supplying them with light in their
lamps. Sometimes, the fruit was plucked before it was ripe,
und instead of 1> ing r:i.-t into the press, was only beaten and
squeezed. The oil obtained in this way was the best, and wa.-
:-alled beaten oil ; the sacred lamp in the Sanctuary was always
fed with such. (Ex. xxvii. 20.) The best kind of oil was also
mixed with spices and used for ointment; all the rest was em-
ployed, in various ways, for food, or for common lamps. To
"dip the foot in oil," is an expression that signifies to po&soss
a rich and fruitful inheritance. (Deut. xxxiii. 24.) Oil, as has
been already said, was a common emblem for gladness, and
grace of every kind.
Of other fruits, it is not necessary to speak particularly,
though several of them were highly valuable. Their character
and use have been already briefly noticed, in our account of
trees. The Jews were very fond of gardens, and employed,
frequently, a great deal of care, to make them not only profit-
able, but also beautiful and pleasant. In that warm country,
it is peculiarly agreeable to have such retreats, provided with
ever}' thing that ean gratify and refresh. Shadowy walks,
overhung with fruits of richest fragrance; delightful arbours,
deeply hid within the cool and silent bosom of some grove
planted with fair and stately trees ; streamlets of water, sent
forth from a constant source, and winding their way in every
direction over the whole scene of fruitfulness and beauty : these
are luxuries so agreeable to eastern taste, that the rich cannot
consent to be entirely without them, if they can be secured by
any expense of labour or art. It was common, in ancient
times, to build sepulchres in gardens, for the burial of the dead.
Thus Maoasseh, we are told, was buried in tl-e garden of his
own house. (2 Kings xxi. 18.) So also in the place where
our Saviour was crucified, " there was a garden, and in the gar-
den a new sepulchre," in which his body was laid. (John xix.
HONEY.
Bees formed another object of care with the Jewish farmers
They abounded in their country from the earliest times; so
that it was called, by way of description, "a land flowing with
milk and honey." These little animals often laid up their
stores in hollow trees, or in the clefts of the rocks, (Ps. Ixxxi.
16 ;) but more commonly, we may suppose, in hives, as with us
Uoney was very much used at home, but made in such great
quantities that it was also carried away to supply other coun-
tries, especially in traffic with the Tyrians. (Ezek. xxvii. 17.)
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 85
liutter or cream, and honey, were esteemed a great delicacy,
and it was a sign of plenty in the land, when this kind of food
ibounded. Such seems to have been the meaning of that pro-
mise to Ahaz, that before the child that was soon to be born
should be old enough to know good from evil, the country
should be delivered from her enemies, and such prosperity re-
stored, that butter and honey would be his common food. (Isa
vii. 15, 16.) The same taste still continues in eastern coun-
tries : cream and honey are accounted, especially among the
Arabs, the richest luxury of the breakfast table. There wa*
also a kind of vil<l honey, not uncommon in that region. It
was not made by bees, but collected from other little insects
upon the leaves of certain trees, so as to drop down quite
plentifully ; sometimes all over the ground. Such was the
honey which Jonathan tasted in the wood ; the honeycomb into
which he is said to have dipped his rod, was merely a collection
of this wild substance. (1 Sam. xiv. 25 27.) The honey
which .John the Baptist used for food in the wilderness, might
have been, at least in part, of this sort ; though it is probable
he found there much honey of the common kind, as to this
day very considerable quantities are laid up among the rocks,
through that same region of country : this might very properly
! called wild honey, as well as the other. (Matt. iii. 4.)
Tin- lilraiu-rii.
SECTION HI.
EMPLOYMENTS OF HANDICRAFT, TRADE, &C.
AuiucL'LTi UK, as has been said, was the main business of
(lie whole Jewish nation. It was rendered, 1>\ tin- very cn
stituti 'ii of the state, the necessary occupation of the great
mass of the people. Hence, there were not with them, us with
u>, large clasps of men employed altogether in the different
mechanic arts, or in the business of commerce. Tradesmen
and merchants, who make up so respectable a portion of the
community in our country, were, for a long time, of almost no
account in theirs; and, in fact, could not he said to have been
known at all, as distinct, regular orders, in the system of society.
This state of things underwent a little alteration, after the time
of Solomon. Tradesmen grew more numerous, and began to
form, in some measure, a se para te class of citizens. Commerce
also with foreign nations became, in some degree, and especially
at two or three different periods, an object of attention. It
was not, however, until the time of the captivity, that the
character of society was very materially changed. After that
event, a great number of Jews became merchants, and travelled,
for the purposes of traffic, into all countries. It grew com-
mon, also, to learn particular trades ; and hence, we find them
frequently mentioned in the New Testament.
It may be asked, how the inhabitants of the cities were em-
ployed in those times, when we suppose merchants and tradi >-
men to have been so few in the land. The answer is, that
cities then were generally very small, and pretty much tilled
with husbandmen. Their small farms lay scattered over tin-
country round, and their chief care was to attend to thier cul-
tivation. (Judg. xix. 15, 16.) Several of them belonged to
the Levites, who had their particular employment in another
way. Some of the larger ones, only, discovered something ot
the mercantile character; while a, few artists might possibly
be found in many, if not all. This, however, was not enough
to give any importance to either kind of occupation, as forming
a distinct profession in society.
Among the earlier Jews, a great many articles that we are
in the habit of getting made for us by different tradesmen,
were manufactured in every man's own family, a,s they were.
wanted. The women spun and wove, besides doing every sort
of needle-work ; thus clothing was made for the whole family.
And as it was common to wear ou the head only a mitre of
UIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 87
l'oth ; and on the feet only a pair of simple sandals, the wholo
Jreas could be very easily provided, without the smallest assist-
ance from abroad. Thus nobody wanted a wearer, a tailor, a
/uittcr, or a *//<//), //</. A good housewife, with UK, will dis-
pense with the services of a baker; but, among them, the
very worst could look no further than her kitchen for a miller.
The common tools, also, that were wanted in farming, and
most of the common articles of furniture in their houses, were
so simple, that a man of usual ingenuity would not often
think of betaking himself to the skill of another to have them
made. Still, there were always some things that needed
oiore than common art; and, accordingly, the country wa?
fever entirely without men who employed themselves in a few
of the more difficult trades. There were carpenters, hewen
of stone, and various workmen in gold, silver, brass, and iron
The building of the tabernacle in the wilderness, needed sonu
such artists of considerable skill. At that time, however,
there was probably a greater proportion of them among the
people than afterwards ; as, no doubt, the service of many
had been employed in this way in Egypt; which country had
already made very great progress in the knowledge of various
arts. After their settlement in Canaan, there was compara-
tively little demand for superior skill. The artists, accord-
ingly, seem to have held no very high character for ability in
their several trades. Many of them, probably, only turned
their attention occasionally to such business, while a great
part of their time was spent in other pursuits. Hence, when
the temple was to be built, it was thought necessary to procure
masons and carpenters from Hiram, king of Tyre. (1 Chron.
xiv. 1.)
During the captivity, many of the Jews found themselves,
in a great measure shut out from their old manner of life,
and so were compelled to apply themselves to arts and mer-
chandise. And as, ever after, their condition was less settled
than before, and very many of them were continually scattered
among different nations, it became more and more fashionable
to learn trades, as the best means of supporting themselves in
all circumstances; so that, at last, it came to be a doctrine of
their wise men, that all parents were bound to teach theii
children some kind of handicraft, whether they expected them
cvei to use it or not. Accordingly, we find in the New Testa-
ment, that Joseph was a carpenter, and that our Savioui
worked at the same trade. So I'aul, also, was by tradr i.
(eii'-iuaker, though his birth and education were such that ht>
lu* not probably * r >'*?:. when he learned the busines>, that he
88 JUBMCAL ANTIQUITIES
should ever be called upon to employ his skill in this way for
a support; but when he was taught to count all things but loss
for Christ, and went forth from city to city, persecuted and
poor, this humble employment was turned to most serviceable
account.
Commerce with foreign nations was not forbidden by the
law of Moses; but, at the same time, it was not encouraged
in the smallest degree. The reason of this was, that the Jews
might be kept as far as possible from mingling with other na
tions, so as to avoid the danger of falling into their idolatries,
uii'l to remain a completely separate people, until the wise
[iiirj>oses of God should be answered. Traffic among them-
selves, of course, was carried on, upon a small scale, from the
earliest times. Hence, we hear from the lirst, of ////// /x and
>n'ii.<ti/--'x. Solomon ventured to go far beyond this limited
u -age -it' trade. He carried on a traffic with Egypt, for horses;
and sent forth a number of vessels, by the way of the Red
Sea, to the distant countries of Ophir and Tarshish, which
brought him in amazing wealth. After his time, the Jews
seem, till their captivity, to have kept up some trade with
other people, though it fell far short of what was carried on
while he governed the nation.
Wheat, honey, oil, and balm, are mentioned, as articles that
were carried out of the country, in traffic with other nations.
(Ezek. xxvii. 17.) No doubt, the wine, also, which it yielded
so abundantly, of the best quality, was to some considerable
extent turned into profit, in the same way. (2 Chron. ii. 10, 15.)
In return for these and other enmmodities, a variety of foreign
productions were introduced into the land. In the days of
David and Solomon, the principal materials for the building of
the temple were thus brought from the kingdom of Tyre. We
read, that for this purpose, cedar and fir and alnnig trees were
hewed on Lebanon, and floated on great rafts to Joppa. (2 Chron.
ii. 8, 16.) Part of the mountains called Lebanon belonged k
Palestine itself; but it seems that the most valuable timber of
the kinds just mentioned, grew on that part of their long range
ivhich fell within the territories of Hiram, the Tyrian king.
What the A/muy, or Al</>nn trees were, cannot now lie known
Vast quantities of gold, silver, brass, iron, and all manner of
precious -tones, were collected by David from different quarters,
l-'n in Ophir and Tarshish, the ships of Solomon brought gold,
silver, pre< ion ^mug wood, ivory, apes and peacocks
The commerce with Kgypt brought in a large supply of horses
and linen yarn; while great companies of camels came, time
d'ter time, loaded with every fragrant spice, from the farthest
HIBL1CAL 1NTIQU1TIEK. 89
regions of Arabia such as cinnamon, cassia, frankincense, and
myrrh. So plentiful was the introduction of foreign treasures
of every sort into the country, in the days of this prosperous
monarch, that he is said to have made "silver to be in Jerusa-
lem as stones, and cedars as the sycamore trees that were in
the vnle, for abundance."
It would be very desirable, in reading the Scriptures, to
have a correct acquaintance with the systems of measures,
UY/V///AS and minx which regulated, in different ages, the an-
cient traffic of the east. On this point, however, our know-
ledge never can be very complete or satisfactory. These mat-
ters have ever been subject to gradual alteration and change,
and antiquity has left us but few notices that can help us to
determine any thing more than mere names. Models, indeed,
of the different weights and measures, as they were fixed in the
time of Moses, were laid up in the tabernacle, and afterwards
in the temple, to be kept as perpetual standards, under the
care of the priests. But all these were destroyed when the
temple was burnt the first time ; and after that period, the
whole ancient system was either entirely given up, or at least
in a great measure modelled anew, from the systems of other
nations. Thus the most ancient weights and measures men-
tioned in the Old Testament, are left to be determined from
the mere slight notices of Scripture itself. Those mentioned
in the New Testament are not attended with so great difficulty,
though by no means free, in every case, from uncertainty of
similar sort.
MKASURES OF LENGTH were, at first, taken from various
parts of the human body. So far, then, as we can determine
these parts, we may make a probable guess about the length
of the measures : yet it will be only probable ; because, such
measures, though suggested at first by the parts from which
they are named, become sometimes gradually settled into lengths
that vary considerably from their original natural standards.
.Mi-asureB of this sort were the Digit, the Palm, the Span, and
the Cubit.
A Diijit was the breadth of a man's finger or thumb. A
I'dlm, called commonly a hand-breadth, was equal to four
finger-breadths or digits. A Span was equal to the distance
between the top of the thumb and the top of the little finger,
win -n they were stretched as far as possible apart; it was as
much as three hand-breadths. A Cubit was, as one opinion
rsupposes, the distance between the elbow and the wrist of a
man's arm ; according to another, it was the length of the
whole arm, or, at least, from the elbow to the knuckles. It if
90 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
(.lain that tiro cubits are mentioned in Scripture, one
ill. in (lie other, as much :is ;i hand-breadth ; the great diflieui
ty is, however, to ileterinine which of these is the oldest :tmi
most e niinioii. : K/ek. xl. 0.) It has been, ne\ertheles-
pretty generally agreed to reckon ;i cuhit about a foot and a
half of our measure, so as to consider four of them equal to the
common height of a man. K/.ekiel mentions a measure called
a rt'i-il : it was equal to six cubits of the longer kind.
In later times, other measures were introduced. The Fur-
I ni t I was borrowed from the Greeks: it was one hundred and
twenty-five paces in length, equal to the eighth part of a Ro-
man mile. This Mile, which is the one intended in the New
Tes'aiiient. being equal to eight furlongs, was, of course, made
up of one thousand paces, and was about one hundred and fifty
yards shorter than a common English mile. A SeMa^-day't
j< m rin i/ was about seven furlongs; that is, a little less than a
mile. This was a measure invented by the Jews, to determine
precisely how far a man might go on the Lord's day, without
breaking the commandment. (Ex. xvi. 29.)
HOLLOW MKASTUKS were of two kinds, as they were used
for liquids or for dry articles. Sometimes, however, the same
measure was used for both, as we use the gallon and quart.
For dry articles, the common measures, in early times, were
the Cab, the Omer, the Scab, the Kphah. and the Homer;
for liquids, the Hin, the Log, the Bath, and the Homer, seem
to have been the most important in use.
The Cab was une of the smallest measures, though it is
thought, by some to have held more than our quart. The Omcr,
we are told, was the tenth part of an ephah, and must, there-
fore, have contained a little more than five pints. An omer
of manna was the allowance of daily food to each Israelite, in
the wilderness. The Seah held somewhat more than our peck,
and was the third part of an ephah It is called, in our trans-
lation of the Bible, simply a measure; thus Sarah is requeued
by- Abraham to take three measures of fine meal and knead it.
(Creii. xviii. 6;) in which passage this particular kind of mea
mentioned in the original. The same measure is to b.
understood in Matt. xiii. 83, and Luke xiii. 21. The /;);///,
contained three seahs, or about three pecks and three pints of
our measure. We are told that it was equal to ten omers
(Ex. xvi. 36.) The Homer held ten ephahs, or about ..iglii
of our bushels. It was the largest dry measure. The (Jivek
mm*ure., mentioned in Rev. vi. 6, held only a quart.
Measures for liquids seem to have been rated, at first, b\
Jie number of egg-shell quantities which they could bolo
BIHLICAL ANTIQUITIES. !)1
The smal.est was perhaps sufficient to contain but one or two
such quantities. A L<MJ held six egg-shells full. A I/in was
equal to twelve logs, or as much as seventy-two times the
quantity of a single shell. This would be about five quarts
of our measure. A Bath was equal to six bins, or seven and
a half of our gallons. The H'snicr, accordingly, which was
used for liquid as well as for dry articles, contained ten baths
as well as ten cphahs, and was, of course, something larger
than one of our hogsheads. We are to remember that the
capacities of all these ancient hollow measures are determined
only according to probability. There is by far too little infor-
mation on the subject to settle the matter, in any case, with
precise and solid certainty.
In the times of the New Testament, a Bushel was in use.
It was the Roman bushel, which contained only a peck in
English measure. The Firkin, mentioned in the account of
our Saviour's first miracle, was a Greek measure, and held
about as much as the ancient bath, or ephah; that is, seven
and a half gallons. (John ii. 6.)
WEIGHTS. It was a long time before men began to coin
money, as is common now. Gold and silver were very early
used in selling and buying ; but they were always weighed^
like other articles of traffic ; so that every piece, whatever its
shape might be, was. valued just according to its purity and
its weight in the balance. In this way, we read that Abra-
ham irfi'/fi'-J the silver which he paid for the field of Machpe-
lah. (Gen. xxiii. 16.) While this method continued, it was
e< minion for such as were employed in traffic of any kind, to
carry with them a pair of balances, and different weights, in a
sort of pouch or bag. These weights were generally stones.
Hence, the meaning of those laws which forbid divers weights
in the bag, or unjust balances, becomes clear. (Lev. xix. 36,
Deut. xxv. 13, 15, Prov. xvi. 11.) Wicked men sometimes
carried a different set of weights with them: one class was to^
light, and with these they sold; the other, too heavy, ana
wi'li these they bought; thus defrauding others in all tlu-i
dealings. "Shall I count them pure," the Almighty says i
such, " with the wicked balances, and with the bag of deceit-
ful weights?" (Mic. vi. 11.)
From this early manner of using silver and gold, we find
that all the terms used in the Old Testament to signify the
value of different sums of money, are merely the names of com-
mon weights. The most important of these weights was *he
Shefcfl The name it.-df signifies simply a tr eight ; whicb
shows that it was verv ancient and very much in ua^. \V
92 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
are not able to know exactly what was its weight b -fore flu
Wip-ivity; for, although the same name was continued long
aftr r, even down to tin; time of Chri>l. tliere is mueli reason tn
beluve that the shekel of early times weighed less than the
later one. This last weighed nearly half an ounce ; the other,
then-fore, was probably a good deal under that weight. There
was, lie-ides the cumiiinii shekel, a royal one, called "the
kinirs shekel," which seems to have lieeii cunsidend)ly smaller
than the other. A Gt'ruli was the twentieth part of a shekel.
(Ex. xxx. 13.) There was also a weight called the lt< kah,
or half-shekel. A I'mml is supposed to have been equal to
sixty shekels, and a '/'"/< ///, to three thousand. By these
different weights, both silver and gold were counted, and so
valued according to their purity ami their scarcity, as it was
greater or less at different times. A shekel of silver, accord-
ing to the later estimation of that weight among the Jews,
would be about equal in value to our half-dollars; and so,
before the captivity, must have been, in all probability, consi-
derably below that rate.
Co) vs. After the captivity, the Jews became acquainted
with soiiix, or stamped money. The most ancient coin of
which we have any knowledge, was the A//-/<7,-, a Persian
coin, stamped by royal authority : the Drams mentioned in
Kzra and Nehemiah, were this kind of money. The Jews be-
gan to coin money for themselves, in the time of the Macca-
bees, not quite one hundred and fifty years before Christ. A
Greek coin, called a Stater, was then in common u-e. and was
supposed to be about equal in weight to the early shekel.
Accordingly, when the Jews struck off their coin, called after
the ancient weight, the X//r/,v/, it was made just as heavy as
the stater, though, as we have said, it is most probable that
the old shekel was considerably lighter. The new shekels were
coined both in silver and in gold, and some of them remain to
this day. The "j>i>i; ,,f )n<ni>i/," which Peter found in the
mouth of a fish, was one of the staters mentioned above, equal
in value to a shekel of that time, and so just enough to pay
the tribute money for two persons. (Matt. xvii. '21 ', Ex. xxx
13.) The fourth part of a stater was equal to a Drachma,
among the Grecian, and to a Denarius, or penny, among the
Koman coins. This last, in the time of our Saviour, had
stamped upon it the head of C;i--ar. Matt. xxii. 20.) In
value, it was about twelve and a half cents of our money.
The Roman Furililmj was in value one-tenth of their penny;
%nd not quite equal to one cent and a half among us. It was
used to signify the smallest value, as the price of a couplo of
HIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 93
sparrows. (]Iatt. x. 29.) A smaller piece of money, equal
only to a fourth part of the last, is sometimes mentioned under
the same name. (Matt. v. ^0.) The smallest of all was the
Mite, two of them being e<|iial Imt to one farthing of the least
kind : this was the widow's offering. (Mark xii. 4'2.)
Silver and gold, anciently, were far more scarce than they
ire now : and, of course, the same weight would be far more
/aluable. This ought to be remembered, in reading the Scrip-
tures.
SECTION IV.
LEARNED PROFESSIONS.
those who find employment in such active pursuits
as have been already mentioned, there is, in our country, a
considerable class of men, whose lives are spent more or less
in study, or in the practice of what are called learned profes-
sions. There are many interests of society that cannot be
"ijrhtlv secured, without the direction of knowledge and
Srrili.
01 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
education, su h as persons engaged in the common occupa
tions of labour and business can never be expected to acquire.
It is neeosarv, therefore, that some should devote their whole
time and attention to the cultivation of such knowledge, for
he benefit of tin- rest. Hence arise various orders of men,
whose business it is to watch over the interests of morality
i nd religion, to conduct the affairs of government, to explain
.he principles of law and justice, to practise the healing art in
she continual oaie of life and health, or direct and superin
end the great concern of general education, through all \V
stages, from the lowest up to the highest improvement. It is
natural to inquire how far, and under what form, such pro-
fessional employments were found among the Jews. Who in
this nation of farmers, were the Ministers of religion, the
Judges, the Lawyers, the Physicians, and the Schoolmasters?
In early tiir.es, nearly all these orders of men, as far a*
hueh orders were distinctly acknowledged in society, were
t'ound in the single tribe of Levi. The tribe of Simeon aro
ftlso said by the Jews to have been much employed as school
masters, on account of the scantiness and scattered situation
of their inheritance. The tribe of Levi, by the law of Moses,
had nc inheritance among the others, in the division of tho
land. It was chosen from among the rest, especially for the
service of the sanctuary, and was to be supported entirely by
contributions from the whole nation. To this tribe belonged
he family of the Priests, and the whole care of the tabernacle
and temple was committed exclusively to its members Their
business, however, was by no means confined to the tempta.
They instructed the people in the knowledge of the law, through-
out the land ; not indeed by preaching week after week, as our
ministers now do, but by scattering themselves in different
posts over the whole country ; by writing and circulating
copies of tho Scripture?; by explaining their meaning as they
had opportunity, or v ere consulted by those around them;
and by educating the young. At the end of every seven
years, they were bound to read over the whole law, in the
hearing of all the people, (Deut. xxxi. 10 13;) and it wae
their duty to be n ;yly at all other times, by its diligent study,
to answer the inquiries which others might make on the sub-
ject of religion. In those times, when printing was altogether
unknown copies of the sacred volume were necessarily scarce,
and ham -o be procured. It was, therefore, a most important
service which the Levites rendered to society, by writing
Midi copies in the most correct manner, and thus securing
'.he truth of God to the people. There vere, irob-ibly, but
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 9-''
lew, besides thic tribe, who were able to write, as there was
hut little occasion, in the manners of that age, for them to
study the art. Hence, not only the sacred records, but all
othei kinds of writing, naturally fell to the care of the Levites,
among whom, at h-a.-t a considerable portion were always skil-
ful in the use of the pen. In this way, they came to be of
irreat importance in the business of government, as secretaries,
and keepers of the Genealogical Tables. Those of them who
were chiefly employed in writing were called ScriLes. (2 Chron.
xxxiv. 13.)
Tin- same tribe furnished the regular Judges of the nation.
The extraordinary officers under that name, whom God raised
up at different times, to deliver and govern the country, were
taken, indeed, without regard to any such distinction. But it
was expressly provided, that the common and established ad-
ministration of justice should be under the care of this tribe.
The priests, the sons of Levi, were the supreme judges of the
land, by whose word "every controversy and every stroke"
were to be tried. (Deut. xxi. 5, Ezek. xliv. 24.) So, also, the
inferior judges, appointed for all the cities through the coun-
try, seem generally to have been Levites. Thus we read of
six thousand who were "officers and judges," in the days of
David. (1 Chron. xxiii. 4.) As the only law of the land was
the law of God's word, and their whole character required from
them the continual and diligent study of that law, it was to be
expected that they would be better qualified than others to
explain it in judgment, and so, of course, most suitable to be
intrusted with that care.
We must suppose, too, that the chief attention which learn-
ing of any kind received in the nation, came from this same
tribe. The Levites had leisure and opportunity far more than
others, and their minds were necessarily more turned to study
and science. It is probable, therefore, that the learning of the
country was pretty generally confined to their body.
We have no reason, indeed, to believe that the various
sciences of the times were pursued, even among the Levites,
to any very great extent; except, perhaps, in the days of
David and Solomon : yet, that some attention was bestowed
on most, if not all, is manifest from several occasional notices
of such kinds of knowledge, which may be gathered from tho
Scriptures. We read of Physicians, and of healing liseases;
the science of Mnli< /// therefore, was in some measure studied
and understood; and there was a class of men, though it was
probably very small, whose business it wa.s to practise this im-
portant art. We discover, also, some acquaintance with Arith-
96 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
metic, Surveying, Gi'o</rnj>/ty, and Astronomy
Knowledge, too, to some extent, wa> n.-<v-;iry in certain ein-
ployments, which wen: common aiming them, Hut it was
especially to the care of hi>try, and MMalogMftl annals, and
to the science of morals, that the national taste was turned. It
nevT was the design of the Almighty Governor, who had sepa-
rated them to himself out of all the nations of the earth, that
they should stand eminently distinguished in the world for pro-
found and rare learning of mere human kind. Their wisdom,
as well as their glory, was to spring from the simple power of
heavenly truth, that its excellency might be of God, and not of
man. It was left, therefore, for other kingdoms t ?> explore the
deep recesses of science, and make full experiment how far mere
unassisted knowledge, such as men are mo.-t apt to admire, could
secure the true happiness and dignity of life. Habylon and
Egypt vied with each other in the variety and depth of their
learning. The whole world was tilled with the reputation of
each. Wise men travelled many hundred miles, from distant
regions, to listen to the wisdom of their philosophers, and enrich
themselves from their treasures of knowledge. " To be learned
in all the wisdom of the Egyptians," as Moses is said to have
bee.n, was to stand on the highest summit of science. (Acts
vii. 22.) But after all, how empty was the pride of these
countries, in comparison with the excellency of Israel and Ju-
dah ! Babylon bowed down in adoration before the sun and
the moon, and the whole starry host of heaven, and worshipped
idol gods of stone and wood. Egypt sunk lower still, and
abased her wisdom in the worship of bulls and goats and cats,
and reptiles of vilest kind : yea, her very leeks and onions were
changed into gods. Thus, "in the wisdom of God, the world
by its wii*doui knew not God," and fell into every abominable
vice; while, without any remarkable advantages of science, the
nation of the Jews retained the truest knowledge of the Holy
One, and the soundest principles of morality; such knowledge
and such principled as, to this day, cannot be convicted of error.
How could this wonderful difference be, except by the force of
instruction more than human? The word of God, though it
had little show of wisdom in the eyes of the world, was full of
light and power. While they attended to its truth, the, Jews
were, in all their simplicity, wiser far than the wisest nations
of earth.
The Prophets formed a very small class of society, but one
of principal importance, not only so far as religion was con-
cerned, but also, by reason of their continual connection with
'.he affairs of j^overament, as advisers and reprovers of those
BIBLICAL ANTIQUiriES. 97
who managed them. They were not conrined to any particular
uribi-. ni>r admitted to their office by birth, but raised up for
their business from different families. They had, of course ;
much influence through the nation, as th,y were the extraor
diuary ministers of God, and proclaimed his will in tho mes-
sages which they delivered. As early as the time of Samuel,
schools were established for the preparatory education of such
young men a.s sought this sacred dignity. They were here
instructed, under the care of some aged prophet, in those things
which might fit them in the best manner to discharge the duties
of the office, should God be pleased to bestow upon them the
spirit of prophecy in time to come. The students in these
schools were called Sous of the Prophets, and their teachers
were styled Father*. (2 Kings ii. 3, 5, 7, 12, 15.)
The name of Scribe was first given to su. H as excelled in the
use of the pen ; but because these were gen -rally distinguished
likewise in other branches of knowledge, it came, in time, to
mean simply a learned man. And as the chief part of learn-
ing, among the Jews, was concerned with the sacred books of
Scripture, the word signified especially one, who was skilled in
the law of God; one whose business it was, not merely to pro-
vide correct copies of its volume, but also to explain its meaning.
Thus Ezra is called "a ready scribe of the law of Moses." (Ez.
vii. 6.) In the time of our Saviour, the Scribes formed quite
a considerable class in society. Many of them belonged to the
Sanhedrim, or chief council, and are, therefore, frequently men-
tioned in the New Testament, with the Elders and Chief-
I'rit-sts. The Doctors of the Laic, and the Lawyers, of whom
we hear, were only the same class of persons under different
names, (Luke v. 17, x. 25;) these names they received from
their business of teaching and interpreting the Law. Their
opinion on this subject had great weight among the people.
They were said to " sit in Moses' seat," because they undertook
to explain the whole meaning of Moses and the other sacred
writers, (Matt, xxiii. 2;) and were, accordingly, consulted in
all cases of doubt or uncertainty, about the truth of Scripture.
(Matt. ii. 4.) Hence we learn the meaning of those questions:
" Why then say the Scribes that Elias must first come?" and
'' How say the Scribes that Christ is the son of David?" (Matt
xvii. 10, Mark xii. 35.) Our Saviour applies the same word
to a well-instructed minister of the gospel : " Every scribe
which is instructed unto the kingdom of heaven, is like unto a
man that is a householder, which bringeth forth out of his trea-
sure things new and old." (Matt. xiii. 52.)
It was common to address these wise men by the honorary
9
U8 ItlBLICAL ANTIQUI '1 IE 8.
title of Itntsbi, which means Great, or Master. Tuis title w*
introduced not long before the time of our Saviour, as wa>
also the still higher one, R<il>lx,ni, which is to say ,)/</./</
with more emphasis, or rather, My i/rt<:t Master. (John xx. 16.)
In the Jewish schools of learning, the title of llablwmi wu
never bestowed on more than seven persons, who wore all
peculiarly distinguished for their rank and wisdom flu
name of liabbi was given to every one who went thiougb a
regular course of education, under the instruction of soue
wise doctor of the law, and was judged fit to become the
teacher of others. Celebrated doi-tur.- wnv ranvtod to fre-
quently, by a number of scholars. These listened with tin 1
profouudest attention to their words, and treated them with
the most respectful reverence. It seems to have been com-
mon for them to take their seats much lower than their mas-
ter, placing thf.mselves before him, around his feet. So Paul,
we are told, was brought up, or educated, at the feet of Gama-
liel, who was the most Ir-mird and honourable doctor of th;U
age. (Acts xxii. 3.) Teachers were sometimes, according to
u most ancient custom already noticed, called fat/tern, and thru
scholars, or disciple*, styled their simx, or children. The ex-
hortation to "call no man Father upon earth," had respect to
this use of the term, and means that it is not proper to give
ourselves up to the authority of any leader or head of a sect, or
t; depend on any mere human teacher as an unerring guide in
matters of religion and truth, as the Jewish disciples did toward
their masters. (Matt, xxiii. 9.) The usage mentioned is also
referred t in that question put to the Pharisees: "If I by
Beelzebub cast out devils, by whom do your children (or disci-
ples) cast them out?" (Matt. xii. 27.)
CHAPTER V.
DRESS, MEALS, AND SOCIAL INTERCOURSE
SECTION I.
OF DRESS.
THE art of making cloth is very ancient : no doubt, long be-
fbre the flood, spinning and weaving of some sort were known
The fiVst covering which our original parents used, w;t-. formed
from leaves of the fig tree. God afterward instructed thc:u to
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 9ft
amploy for this end the skins of animals. Soon, it is probable,
they learned to manufacture the long hair of some beasts into a
rude kind of cloth, and then gradually brought the discovery to
greater degrees of perfection, by the use of wool, cotton, and
tiax. In the time of Abraham, the art seems to have been
well understood.
Spinning and weaving were the business of women. Thus
in the wilderness, as we are told, "all the women that were
wio hearted did spin with their hands, and brought what they
had spun, boih of blue and of purple, of scarlet and of fine
linon," for the service of the sacred tabernacle which was to be
built. Very early, also, they carried the art of embroidery and
ornamental needle-work to a very considerable degree of per-
fection. (Judg. v. 30.) The art of colouring cloth was also
well understood. Sometimes a most splendid white was im-
parted to it, by a peculiar skill of the fullers. This colour waa
preferred to every other on festival days. On such ocacsions,
the rich and noble robed themselves in garments of white
cotton. It was also customary to be clothed in white as a mark
of honour, (Estk. viii. 15 j) and the colour has always been a
natural emblem of purity and joy. In allusion to these ideas,
our Saviour promises his people, that they " shall be clothed
in white raiment," and " walk with him in white," in his
heavenly kingdom. (Rev. iii. 4, 5.) Angels always appeared
in white ; and when our Redeemer was transfigured, on the
mount, into some resemblance of the glory of heaven, his
raiment became "exceeding white as snow; so as no fuller on
earth can white them." (Mark ix. 3.) Kings and princes,
when they appeared in state, were generally .arrayed in purple.
This was a very bright colour, supplied from the blood of a
certain shell-fish, as it was found in a single white vein near the
animal's throat. By reason of its great scarcity, it was con-
sidered more precious than gold. The rich man in the gospel,
whose awful end the Saviour describes, " was clothed in pur-
ple." The scarlet colour was also much esteemed. It was
taken from certain insects, or their eggs, found on a particular
kind of oak. The same colour is sometimes called crimxm.
This also was worn as a mark of royalty and power. In cruel
miK-kery and insult, the Roman soldiers put a crown of thorns
ripen the head of our Redeemer, and a reed in his right hand,
to represent a" tu-<'f>fn , and arrayed him in a scarlet robe, as if
tin y would honour him lib' a kin^, bowing the knee before him
ml crving, Hail, king of the Jews! (Matt, xxvii. -.8, '29.;
Mark and John called the robe a purple one, because thai
was used in i general sense, for any bright red colour
a p
, fo
100 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
and often, especially, was applied to a royal roho of such :i hue,
inasmuch as it \v;is itself, by way of distinction, the royal
colour.
While the ric'i adorned themselves with every cosily ma-
terial, the lower ranks contented themselves with clothing of
(he plainest aad cheapest kind. Even coarse hair-cloth wa-
not entirely laid aside, long after the general use of wool and
flax. Cloth, as we have already seen, was frequently made
from the hair of goats and camels, for the covering of tents.
As late as the days of our Saviour, we hear of -<m , Mich cloth
used for garments : John the Baptist, it is said, " had his rai-
ment of camel's hair." Elijah, whom John resembled so
much, seems in his day to have worn the same kind of stuff.
He is described as " a hairy man, girt with a girdle of leather
about his loins;" that is, one dressed in hair, or hair-cloth, after
the same style in which the Baptist appeared. (2 Kings 5 8.)
We have reason to believe, indeed, that anciently it was very
common for prophets to be clothed in such raiment, as we leary,
from one place, that false prophets were in the habit of wear-
ing "a rough garment to deceive." (Zech. xiii. 4.) John
came, therefore, in this respect, precisely in the severe and self-
denying fashion of an ancient prophet ; ft r such in fact he was,
a greater than whom never before had been. The soft dotltimj
of king's houses formed a great contrast with the rugged ap-
parel of this holy man. (Matt. xi. 8.) This same sort of cloth
was put on by such as were deeply afflicted, or wanted to ex-
press great sorrow; for the AW- /.</>///< of which we hear on
such occasions, was nothing else. It was formed int<> a gar-
ment like a .sick, with merely holes for the anus, which war
thrown over the mourner, and reached down below the ki.
In this dn , the afflicted individual frequently sit down in
the midst >, ashes, having the head all covered over with the
same. As this cloth was made most commonly out of goat's
hair, it was. of course, of a dark or a black colour; hence those
images of covering the heavens " with blackness and .// /.v/o//<,"
and of the sun becoming "black as m<-k>-lth f Imir." (Isa.
1 3, Rev. vi. 12.)
TIIK Ti'xic. The most simple, and probably the most
ancient garment, was the Tunic. This was worn next to the
*kin, and fitted tolerably close round the liody. It had arm-
holes, and sometimes sleeves, and reached down, like a long
shirt, below the knees. It was commonly made of linen,
though f reijiiently, also, of other cloth. Round the waist it
was bound with a girdle. When a man had nothing nun i
him but this under garment, it was common to fr"iy he \vui
BIBLICAL ANTIQIITIE8.
101
Thus we arc told that Isaiah
walked naked and barefoot ; Saul pro-
phesied naked before Samuel ; Peter
was naked in the ship. (Isa. xx. 2 4,
1 Sara. xix. 24, John xxi. 7.) In time,
the tunic grew to be larger and longer,
hanging more loosely round the body,
and reaching as low down as the ankles;
K> that, in later ages, a shirt of wool
was sometimes worn under it. In the
English Bible, it is called a coat. That
which our Saviour wore, " was without
seam, woven from the top throughout."
(John xix. 23.)
THE UPPER GARMENT. The gar-
ment immediately over the tunic was merely a piece of cloth,
nearly square, and several feet in length and breadth. This
was wrapped round the body or tied over the shoulders. The
two corners, which were drawn over the shoulders and hung
down in front, were called its s/cirte, or wings. It was so large
and loose that it was often used for carrying burdens; as when
it is said, one found in the fields a wild vine, and gathered his
lap full of its fruit. (2 Kings iv. 39.) So, also, the Israelites
carried their kneading troughs, when they went out of Egypt,
" bound up in their clothes, upon their shoulders," (Ex. xii.
34 ;) and when we read in the New Testament of " good
measure, given into the bosom" we should think of the laigc
fold of such a garment, gathered round
the breast. (Luke vi. 38.) The common
people wrapped themselves, at night, in
this blanket-like covering, and wanted no
other for sleeping. On this account, it
was unlawful to keep it as a pledge after
sun set : " If thou at all take thy neigh-
bour's raiment to pledge, thou shalt de-
liver it unto him by that the sun goeth
down ; for that is his covering only ; it is
raiment for the skin : wherein shall he
sleep ?" (Ex. xxii. 26, 27.) Hence, in
the description of oppressive rich men, it
is said, " They cause the naked to lodge
without clothing, that they have no cover-
ing in the cold." (Job xxiv. 7.) Upon the four corners of thi*
garment, the law required that then; should be fringes, together
with a blue riband, to remind the people of all the command
*
102 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
iiienta of the lord their God. (Num. xv. 88.) That they
IM' notice 1 i if men, the Pharisees were MXRUtomed to hV thes*
religion- siirns remarkably large : "They made broad their phy-
la ) Ties, an 1 enlarged the Inn > ///> nf tluir </<trnt'tt(.<." ^Mart
xxiii. ;">.) In our translation of the Scriptures, this article of
t\r<-- i- railed a cloak, or simply a/yarir/i/, and sometimes a'
vj)j)n- i/'innriit. Such were the garments which the peopi,-
spread in the way before our Lord, as he entered into Jern-a-
lein. ( Matt. xxi. 8.) It was common to lay it aside, when per-
sons engaged in labour or exercise that needed much activity, a.-
it served only to hinder them : this was done by our Savfjui.
when he washed the feet of his disciples, and by Peter, vrheu
he was employed in fishing. (John xiii. 4, xxi. 7.) It ,vas ii<
this way, also, that king David un<-ri-ri-t1 himself, \vneii he
"danced before the Lord with all his might," girded merely
with a linen ephod. (2 Sam. vi. 14, '20.) The custom may ex-
plain that exhortation of our Lord : " Neither let him which if
in the field return back to take his clothes." (.Matt xxiv. 18.)
TIIK GIRDLE. To remedy the inconvenience which arose
from the loose nature of their principal garments, the (Unlit-
became a in ( important and necessary part of dress. There
vere two sorts of girdles : the one, a plain and simple band of
leather, about six inches broad, fa<-
ened round the body with clasps; the
other, more costly, wrought out of finer
materials, such as cotton or flax, not
quite so wide, and sometimes long
enough to encircle the wearer two or
three times. It was common, when in
the house or unemployed, to lay the
girdle aside; but when business of an
activ kind was to }>e done, it was all-
imp'T'ant that it should be put on,
r . lawn tij.ht round the loins, if it
were on' \ tdaekly fastened; otherwise,
a man's limbs would be much hin-
dered with the loose drapery of hisdre.-s,
and if ho wore his u; per garm -nt, it would almost necessarily
fall of!' every minute. Hence, the common phrase to tfinl i//i
ffie filing, means to get ready fr action; and. >o familiar was
its usage in this sense, tli:it it came to be applied even to the
mind, or soul, where it could mean nothing else than to cast off
negligence and sloth, and summon the spirit to an attitude of
6rm resolution, or readiness for the discharge of duty. Thus
the Almighty calls uoou Job: "Gird up now thy loins like a
1UBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 10'J
nan, for I will demand of thee, and answer thou me." (Job
vxxviii. 3.) And so our Saviour exhorts us all to have our
loins girded about, and our light-; burning, that we may be
leady for his coming, (Luke xii. 35.) The image is still more
bold in another place: "Gird up the loins of your mind, be
sober, and hope to the end." (1 Pet. i. 13.) It was especially
necessary for every soldier to wear a girdle, and to gird himself
well when he entered into battle. Hence, the Christian, who
is often compared to a soldier, is required to "have his loins
girt about with truth;" that is, with sincerity and soundness in
religion : without this girdle, he can have no security or success
in his warfare. (Eph. vi. 14.) To gird the loins, signifies also
to strengthen, as it always gave more freedom for the use of
strength, and was the sign for calling it into action : so, on the
other hand, to loose the girdle means to take away strength and
power. Thus God girded Cyrus, and loosed the loins of kings
before him. (Isa. xlv. 1, 5.) So Jehovah himself is girded
with strength. (Ps. xciii. 1.) The girdle was used also for
carrying money and other small articles. For this purpose, it
was folded double and sewed along the edges, like a long flat
purse. It was a very safe and convenient place to put every
thing that we are in the habit of crowding into our various
pockets. Such were the purses into which the apostles were
not allowed to put gold, silver, or brass, when sent out to
preach. (Matt. x. 9.) When a sword was carried, it was fast-
ened to the same belt. Secretaries, and writers of every kind,
were accustomed to have an ink-horn fixed upon it. (Ezek. ix. 2.)
It seems to have been common to keep two girdles ; one for
the tunic, and the other for the upper garment. The first was
more habitually worn, whenever a man went out; the other
was often dispensed with, either because the arms were at lei-
sure to take i-are of the outer piece of clothing, or because it
was laid aside entirely. Thus when Peter was awakened by
the angel in prison, he was commanded first to gird himself, and
then to cast his upper garment round him, without any mention
of a second girdle. (Acts xii. 8.) At other times, however,
this also was called into service ; or, perhaps, in such cases, the
girdle of the tunic was merely unclasped, and bound round the
outside, so as to secure both garments together.
Si>me other peculiar kinds of clothing were worn at certain
periods by some individuals. The rich and fashionable ap-
peared not only in robes of finer quality than common, but also
occasionally put on garments of different name and form, which
belonged not to the general usage of the country. Sometimes,
too, the aged or infirm needed, in winter, other articles of
104
ANTIQUITIES.
dress; and in later times, it was not urn ommon to find in the
land, various fashions of foreign apparel, introduced by stranger*
from other nations. The Jews, however, were not, in common,
much disposed to alter, in this matter or in any other, the an-
cient customs of their country.
SACRED GAKMKNTS. The garments of the priests were par-
ticularly determined by God himself. I'nder the tunic, or
coat, they were required to wear a pair of linen breeches. (Ex.
xxviii. 42.) And over it, the High-Priest was clad with the
Bacred robe and an ephod. The robe was like a long shirt,
having no sleeves, but only holes for the arms, with small hand-
some binding round the opening for the neck. It reached down
to the ankles, and upon the hem of its lower part were seventy-
two little golden bells, with pomegranates of needle work be-
tween them, round about. These were for causing a sound
when he went into the holy place, and when he came out, lest
he should die. The eph<xl consisted of two parts, one of which
was hung over the hack, and the other over the breast; both
pieces being united by a clasp or buckle on each shoulder, and
secured by a "curious girdle, round about, under the arms."
fEx. xxviii.) Garments, exactly like those of the High-Priest,
for materials, colour, and form, might not be worn by any other
person; nor was he himself allowed to wear them, except in
the solemn service of his office. Still, articles of dress resem-
bling the sacred robe and ephod, and called by the same names,
were sometimes used by others. (1 (Miron. xv. 27.)
SANDALS. Sandals were generally used for the feet. The
tandal was a mere sole of wood or hide, covering the bottom
of the foot, and fastened with lea-
ther thongs, or straps. When any
person was about to enter into a
house, it was customary always to
take them oft', an,] go in with barn
feet. To unloose the thongs on such
occasions, and to tie them again
when the sandals were to be put on,
was the lni:-ine>s <>(' the lowest ser-
vants. Thus John the Baptist, to
express how little notice he deserved,
in comparison with Him whose way
he came to prepare, exclaimed in
his preaching: "There cometh one
mightier than I, after me, the latch-
et of whose shoes T am not wo-thy
to stoop down and unloose. ' (Mark
BTBMCAL ANTIQUITIES. 105
i. 1.) As no stocking wen- worn, the feet became, of course,
dusty and soiled : it was common, therefore, when coining into
a house, to have them immediately washed. In receiving a
guest, one of the first acts of politeness and kindness was to
supply him with water for this purpose. So in the earliest times,
we find, in the hospitality of Abraham and others, this circum-
stance repeatedly mentioned. In his entertainment of the angels,
the venerable patriarch proposed this refreshment at once. " Let
a little water, I pray you, be fetched, and wash your feet, and
rest yourselves under this tree." We see the same thing in La-
ban's house, and afterward in Joseph's house. (Gen. xxiv. 32,
xliii. 24.) The same custom continued to the latest times of the
nation. Our Saviour referred to it in his reproof of the Pharisee
Simon: "I entered into thine house; thou gavest me no water
for my feet." (Luke vii. 44.) It was a business of sen-ants
to wash the feet of others, as well as to unloose their sandals;
and hence our Lord did it for his disciples, to teach them a les-
son of humility and kindness toward each other, though Peter
thought such condescension too great to be allowed. (John xiii.
1 16.)- As it was utterly contrary to decency and good man-
ners to wear sandals in a house, as much so as among us it is
to keep a hat on the head in a parlour, so it came to be consi-
dered an expression of reverence toward God, to pull them off
on sacred ground, or when drawing near to the Almighty in
acts of worship. (Ex. iii. 5, Josh. v. 15.) On this account,
the priests were accustomed to attend to all the service of the
sanctuary with their feet bare, though the law said nothing on
the subject; and much injury to health arose, at times, from
standing thus exposed on the cold, damp pavement.
In later ages, shoes of a certain kind, reaching up round the
ankle, came to be used. These were considered, however, as
more proper for women than for men. Fashionable ladies
Bometraes wore them, made with touch ornament and expense.
The mass of the people used only sandals ; and these are almost
always to be understood, when we read of shoes in the English
Bible.
Tin, MITRE. The covering for the head was formed of
cloth, fitted round it frequently with several folds and in varioua
forms, as it was worn by different classes of persons. It was
called a mifre, or a bonnet. The mitres of the priests wero
higher than common. Princes also wore them high. In late-
times, very elegant and costly head-dresses came into fashion,
especially among the women.
IIIK VKIL. The veil was an important article in the dres*
if women In v^ry ;arly times, indeed, it does not appeal
lOfi BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIKS.
that it was considered by any means essential that every r-
spectacle female should wear such a covering, even in the pre-
sence of strangers; as we may learn from the history of Sa-Mii
and Rebecca and Rachel. But in later ages it was deemed
altogether improper for a woman of any rank in life to be seen
in public without a veil. The apostle Paul, in his first epistle
to the Corinthian church, reproved the notion that in Chris-
tian assemblies this usage of the times might be neglected
(1 Cor. xi. 13 16.) Veils were of different kinds: some-
times, made to cover the whole person, from head to foot;
sometimes, concealing merely the face and breast ; and at
other times, hanging downward in front only from the nos" or
the eyes; while a fourth sort, starting like a eap from the bot-
tom of the forehead, spread over t!ie top of the head, and fell
down some distance behind. The veil was the chief di>tinction
between the dress of a woman and that of a man. In other
respects the difference was small : the garments of females
were generally of a somewhat finer quality, and of a greater
length, than those of men; but as to general form and fashion,
appear to have resembled them altogether. In the manage-
ment of the hair, however, and in the use of ornaments ami
trinkets, there was, of course, as we shall immediately see, a
very considerable difference.
TIIK HAIR. The hair of the Jews, as is the case in eastern
countries generally, was almost universally of a black colour.
By the men, it was always worn short, except sometimes, per-
hap.-. l>y delicate and vain persons like Absalom, or by such as
were under the Nazarite vow. (Numb. vi. 5.) It was common
;o anoint the hair, especially on festival occasions. The liquid
>int ment used for this purpose was made out of the best oil
f olives, mixed with spices. (Ps. xxiii. 5, Luke vii. 40.) In
conformity with this custom, Mary
poured ointment on our Saviour's
head, as he sat at meat in the house
of Simon the leper; but to show her
very great regard for his person, she
used ointment far more costly than the
common kind "ointment of spike-
nard, very precious." (Mark xiv. 8.>
At the same time, to express still more
affection and profound respect, she
anointed also his feet, and wiped them
with the hair of her head. (John xii
3.) Females, as in all other countries,
wore their hair long. The apostle Paul
BIBLICA1 ANTIQUITIES. 107
teaches us that this usage ought never to be abandoned : " Doth
not even nature itself teach you, that if a man have long hair,
it is a shame unto him? But if a woman have long hair, it i-
a glory to her; for her hair is given her for a covering.''
(1 Cor. xi. 14, 15.) The same apostle, however, was alto-
gether opposed to the fashion of dressing up this simple orua
uient with an artificial glory of braided tresses and gold an* 4
costly gems : on this subject, Peter also thought it proper t
hsave his inspired admonition. (1 Tim. ii. 9, 1 Pet. iii. 3/.
Such vain decorations were very common among the JewisL
ludies.
TIIK BEARD. Among the men, much more importance was
attached to the beard. Ancient nations generally agreed in
opinion on this subject. In their estimation, a long, heavy
beard, hanging down over the breast, was an ornament of pecu-
culiar excellency, and added no little to the dignity and re-
spectability of any man's person. To show any contempt to-
wards it, by plucking it, or catching hold of it, or touching it
without good reason, was a -most grievous insult; such as, in
modern times, a man of honour, according to the worldly
meaning of the phrase, would consider abundant cause for a
challenge and a duel forthwith. Nobody was allowed to touch
it, except for the purjtose of respectfully and affectionately
kissing it, as intimate friends were accustomed to do, when they
met. It was, therefore, most base deceit, when Joab " took
Amasa by the beard, with the right hand, to kiss him," (or to
kiss it,) and then smote him with a sword, in the very act of
feigned friendship. (2 Sam. xx. 9.) To shave off half the
beard, as Hanun did to the messengers of David, was a provo-
cation of the most insolent and outrageous kind ; and such a
disgrace did these unhappy men feel it to be, that they could
not bear to show their faces in Jerusalem, till a now growth of
hair had covered the nakedness of their chins. (2 Sam. x. 4 ;
5.) To express great grief, however, it was common to tear
out part of the beard, and sometimes to cut it off; at other
times, sorrow was signified by neglecting to trim and dress ii,
and letting it grow without any care. (2 Sam. xix. 24. ) lu
the East, the same notions about the beard still continue. Tht
Arabians consider it more disgraceful to have it cut off, than it
is with us to be publicly whipped. They admire and envy
those who have fine beards. " Pray, do but see," they cry.
" that beard ; the very sight of it would persuade any one
that he to whom it belongs is an honest man !" " For shame
of your beard !" they exclaim, when they would reprove a per-
s )ii for acting or speaking wrong. It is a common form <
108 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
oath : " By your beard ;" or, " By the life of your beard.'
And to express the be.st wishes for another's welfare, they want
no more significant phrase than " May God preserve yoiu
blessed beard !" This comprehends every tiling.
ORNAMKNTS. A Jewish gentleman frequently carried a
staff for ornament. He also wore a seal, hung from his neck
over the breast, with his name engraven upon it, and sometimes,
on a finger of his rijrht hand, there was seen a handsome ring
;Luke xv. 22, James ii. 2.) In the time of our Saviour, tn.
Phaiisees wore, for religious show, broad
Phylacteries. These were merely four
small strips of parchment, with a verse or
two of the law written on each, can-fully
secured in a little case, or bag of leather.
They were worn especially at times of
prayer; one upon the forehead and an-
other upon the left wrist. It was a com-
mon opinion, that they had the power
of charms, to protect the wearer from
harm, or, at least, from al) the malice
of evil spirits. The custom arose from a wrong interpreta-
tion of the command : " Thou shalt bind them for a sign upon
thy hands, and they shall be as frontlets between thine eyes."
(Deut. vi. 8.) The later Jews imagined these things were to
be done literally.
Time would fail us to tell of all the various ornaments which
the ladies contrived, to decorate their persons and attract ad-
miration: the "beautiful crowns for the head ;" the costly gems,
or rings of silver and gold, that hung
\^-\^ ^j^. from the r: "' < "iid flittered mi the IIM-;
\0 , ^fcJik the "rows of jewel-" t'ur the cheeks; the
necklaces of pearl, emerald, or golden
chain-work, that fell far down over the
bosom ; the bracelets for the arms ; the
riigs for the fingers; and the tinkling
oiuaments for the feet. ( Isa. iii. 1 s '24,
ttzck. xvi. 10 13, Song i. 10.) With all this tiuery to
arrange and contemplate, a Minvr became absolutely \\<
ry. But in those days, there was no glass; and, of course,
looking-glasses like ours were unknown. Mirrors were made
of molten brass, polished so as to reflect a tolerably clear
image. They were not hung up in chambers, as with us, but
fitted with a neat handle, and carried in the hand, or else hung
upon the girdle, or by a chain from the neck. As they were
made small, they wen iv-t much more inconvenient than
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 100
neavy fan. Such were the "women's looking-glasses," which
were used in the wilderness for making the brazen laver. (Ex
ixxviii. 8.) In later times, they were frequently made of steel
Tlie apostle compares the knowledge of heavenly things which
may be gained on earth, to the faint images which these imper-
fect mirrors reflected : " Now we see through a glass (or by
means of a mirror) darkly; but then face to face." (1 Cor.
xiii. 12.) It was considered a great ornament to have the eye-
lids tinged with a deep black stain. The material used for
this purpose, down to the present day, in eastern countries, is a
rich lead ore, pounded into powder extremely fine. When it is
to be used, a small instrument, about the thickness of a quill,
is dipped into it, and then drawn through the eyelids, over the
ball of the eye. This is probably what is meant by rending
the face with paint. (Jer. iv. 30.) Such a jetty black colour
on the lids sets off the whiteness of the eye to much advantage,
and at the same time causes it to appear larger and more ex-
pressive. It makes the lashes also, in appearance, long and
beautiful. To give grace and dignity to the eye brows, they
were probably painted too. According to the fashionable style
of the times, Jezebel painted her face, when she dressed herself
for the coming of Jehu. (2 Kings ix. 30.)
WARDROBES. From the general character of the Jewish
dress, loose and large, we may easily perceive that the apparel
of one person might, without any inconvenience, be worn by
another. With us, it is a rare thing if ojie man's suit of
clothes will so exactly fit another that lie can wear them with-
out some awkward appearance ; but with the Jews, it mattered
littl for whom a suit was first made: it might pass to a dozen
of owners without the smallest trouble. There was no difficulty
of this sort, therefore, in the way, when Rebecca wanted to
clothe her favourite son in the "goodly raiment of Esau," or
when Jonathan stripped himself of his robe and garments, and
put them on his friend David. (Gen. xxvii. 15, 1 Sam. xviii. 4.)
From this circumstance, it came to pass that the rich frequently
supplied themselves with a great many changes of raiment; so
that no inconsiderable portion of their property was found in
their great wardrobes. These gannents they never expected to
use themselves; but they served, like some men's fine libraries
of untarnished books, to display their wealth and taste; and
then, while they occasionally made presents out of them to
their friends, they might hand them down to their cnildren
and heirs, from generation t<> .<:< n.-raiidn, with all their original
value. There was no danger of any new fashion coming for-
ward and spoiling the inheritance, by throwing a whimsical
10
110 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIK-v
trrangeness over its ancient dresses, as must inevitably take
I'l.-ice in our country; tin- e.i-teru niaiiiiers never allowed such
t'.mrastic changes. To tins custom of multiplying garments,
as one way of laying up treasures, our Lord refers, in that ad-
monition : " Lay not up for yourselves treasures on earth,
where moth 'Mid rust doth corrupt." (Matt. vi. 10.) So als/
tli apostle .James: "<lo to, now, ye rich men; weep and howl
for your miseries that shall come upon you: your gold and
silver is cankered; your garments are mnflt-mf> -." (Jainos
v. 2, 3. Sec also Acts xx. 33.) Job describes such also in
his day : they " heap up silver as the dust, and prepare raiment
a$ the clay." (Job xxvii. 16.) Princes and great men were
accustomed to give a change of raiment to those whom they
wished to honour. Thus Joseph gave changes of raiment to
all his brothers, and to Benjamin no less than five. (den.
xlv 22. See also Esth. viii. 15.) It was not uncommon for
kings or wealthy noblemen, when they made a feast, to fur-
nish every guest with a suitable garment for the occasion. It
was thus Joseph treated his brethren. Especially was this the
case at marriage festivals. (Matt. xxii. 11, 1*2.) Not imme-
diately to put on a garment thus presented, vas great disre-
spect to the master of the house.
SECTION II.
MEALS AND ENTERTAINMENTS.
HAVING attended to the general manner in which the Jews
were accustomed to provide for the dress and ornanvnt of the
body, let us next consider their peculiar usages in the matter
of supplying it with the refreshment of f<><><L
In the chapter on dwellings, we have already given a short
account of the utensils most important to be noticed, which
were used for the preparation of food and the convenience of
eating. The mill, the oven, the table, and the conches, have
been described; we need not, therefore, say any thing about
them in this place. Nor is it necessary to enter into a detail
of the several modes of cookery ; a single glance into the kitchen
will be quite enough. Vegetables and flesh were prepared there
in various ways, but still the general methods of rendering them
fit for the table did not differ materially from those which are
uow common. Baking, boiling, roasting, and frying, were all
employed to give variety to the social feast, as they continually
are among ourselves ; only, in our age and country, we are fur
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. Ill
aishea, by the improvements of art, with greater convenience*
for the several purposes than were enjoyed in those days. At
it was not easy, in that country, to keep flesh any time without
its being spoiled, it was common to cook at once the wholft of an
animal, immediately after it was killed. Thus Abraham dressed
for his three guests an entire calf, and set it before them.
The Jews, in the time of our Saviour, were not in the habit
'f sitting down at a breakfast table early in the morning, as 1.1
somrnon with us. It was not considered proper to take a regu-
lar meal till after the public prayers of the morning were over.
This was not till about ten o'clock in-the forenoon. On Sab-
baths and sacred feast-days, it was the custom not to taste a
particle of solid food or drink before that time ; and if, on other
days, any thing was eaten, it was only some small refreshment
of the lightest kind. So on the day of Pentecost, when the
disciples were charged with drunkenness, Peter considered it a
completely satisfactory reply, that it was then but the third
hour of the day, or nine o'clock in the morning; an hour, at
least, before the time when any person thought of tasting wine.
('Acts ii. 15.)* Between ten and eleven o'clock of our time,
dinner was taken. It was, however, but a slight meal, made
up chiefly of fruit, milk, cheese, and such simple articles of
food. The most important meal was supper; for, through the
middle of the day, in their warm climate, there was generally
little inclination to indulge in the pleasures of the table. Ac-
cordingly, we find that great entertainments and feasts were
always provided in the evening; they were Suppers. Thus
we are told, that " Herod on his birth-day made a supper to
his lords, high captains, and chief estates of Galilee." (Mark
vi. 21.) When Jesus visited Lazarus and his sisters, "they
made him a supper." (John xii. 2.) So in the parable, "a
certain man made a great svpper." (Luke xiv. 16.) A sup-
per was of the same importance among the Jews, that a din-
ner is among us ; the most notable meal, at which (however
slight might be the preparation for other meals) some substan-
tial provision was expected. Whenever, therefore, it was
wanted to provide for the table with more than common liber-
ality, by way of self-indulgence or kindness to others, the time
naturally selected for the purpose was the evening, and the
manner of entertainment, a supper. Hence, such occasions ag
with us call for special dinners, were honoured among thorn
with special suppers. In conformity with the custom of the
* See the Jewish manner o f reckoning hours, in the ei'gntb
tor of this volume.
112 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES
nation, the sacred feast of the Passover was celebrated in the
evening. And because it was during the celebration of one
of these religious suppers, that our Lord instituted the second
Christian sacrament, which was to come in the room of that
ancient ordinance, this, also, has ever since been called the
Lord's 8u)>/>fr, although it is now very properly taken at an
entirely different time.
Before every meal, it was customary to wash the hands, aa
well as after eating. Thus we are informed by the sacred
writer: "The Pharisees and all the Jews, except they wash
their hands oft, eat not, holding the tradition of the elders."
(Mark vii. 3, 4.) So great was the stress laid upon this cere-
mony, that they found much fault with the disciples of our
Saviour, when they observed them neglecting it: " Why do thy
disciples transgress the tradition of the elders? for they wash
not their hands when they eat bread." (Matt. xv. 2.) As these
washings (as well as others which they employed superstitiously,
for the purification of cups, pots, bra/.eii vessels, tables, and
such things) were so continually called for, it was common to
have vessels always standing in a convenient place, with water
in them, which might be drawn out arid used in this way,
whenever wanted. Such were the six large water-pots of stono
that stood in the house where our Saviour attended the mar-
riage in Caua of Galilee : they were set there, we are told, after
the numner of the jt rifi/iinj f th<- Jrint; that is, according to
the plan common among the Jews, for convenience of washing.
(John ii. 6.) One good reason for washing before and after
meals, was, that they used their hands Itogether in taking
their victuals: cleanliness, in such a case, could not well be too
carefully observed. But when the custom was turned into a
superstitious obligation, and insisted upon as a solemn matter
of conscience and religious duty, it became an ignorant, childish,
and unlawful tradition. In washing, water was sometimes
poured lightly over the hands, and at other times the hands
were dipped into it.
Before and after each meal, a short prayer or tribute of
thanks was offered up to God. This was, no doubt, a sacred
custom, handed down from the earliest times. Our Saviour al-
ways taught his disciples the duty of looking up, with such an
^ct of worship, to the great Author of every good gift, by his
own example. When he fed the multitudes by miracle, lu-
first lifted up his eyes to heaven, and blessed and gave thanks.
(Matt xiv. It), xv. 36.) The apostle refers to the same duty,
and teaches us that every meal is unsanctih'ed where God is not
heartily and humbly remembered: ''Every creature of God w
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
113
good, and nothing to be refused, if it be received with thanks
giving ; for it is sanctified by the word of God and prayer.* 1
(1 Tim. iv. 4, 5.)
Knives and forks were not used in eating. The meat was
sarved into pieces of convenient size, beforehand. Every per-
son helped himself with his right hand. In early times, each
had his own portion separate from the rest, as we may see in
the account which is given of the entertainment of Joseph's
brethren in Egypt; but at a later period, it became customary
to cat from common dishes. When food of a liquid sort, like
broth, was on the table, each person broke his bread into morsels,
and dipped it, with his fingers, into the dish. (Ruth ii. 14.) Such
was the sap which our Lord dipped and handed to Judas. (John
xiii. 26.) Drink was handed to each, in separate bowls, or
cups; hence, a man's cup is used figuratively to mean his lot
or destiny. (Ps. xi. 6, xxiii. 5.) The Saviour's cup was ths
awful wrath of the Almighty which he drank in the room of
guilty men. (Matt. xxvi. 39.;
Social feasts were common from the earliest times. By the
law of Moses, every farmer was required to use a considerable
portion of the fruits of his land, each year, in this way. The
tithe, or a tenth part of his corn and his wine and his oil,
with the firstlings of his flocks and his herds, after a like por-
tion had been set apart for the Levites, were to be conscrrar.-il
to God, and eaten in a sacred feast before Him, with thankful
ness and joy. In this feast, servants and strangers, anil .IT
J4 BIBLICAI ANTIQUITIES.
pl.ans ind widows, and the Levite without inheritance in the
land, were to be made free partakers: " Thou must cat thorn
before the Lord thy God, in the place which the Lord thy <Jd
shall choose ; thou, and thy son, and thy daughter, and thy
man-servant, and thy maid-servant, and the Levite that is within
thy gates : and thou shalt rejoice before the Lord thy Hod, in
all that thou puttest thine hand unto." (Deut. xii. 17, 1*, xiv.
'2'2- 29.) These were properly religious festivals, excellently
adapted to promote a grateful sense of God's favours, and to
diffuse the kindly feeling of friendship through all the various
classes of society. But besides these, it was usual, as in every
country of the world, to make other feasts; as on occasions of
domestic joy, such as a marriage or a birth-day, or for the sake
of showing respect to friends ami cherishing social intercourse,
or merely to gratify the spirit of worldly pride by a vain pa-
rade of kindness and hospitality. At such times, the guests
wen- invited by servants to come at the appointed season.
When they arrived, they were received with the greatest atten-
tion. They were arranged around the table, by the master of
the house, who generally took care to place such as he consi-
dered the most honourable of the company, in what were ac-
counted the chief seats. The table was supplied in the most
plentiful manner. Servants stood ready to attend to tin-
slightest wish, and to see continually that every guest was pro-
perly supplied. All proceeded under the eye and direction of
the Governor of thr, fi-a&t. (John ii. 8.) This was one of the
company, appointed to overlook the rest, to preserve harmony
and good humour, to see that the servants attended to their
business, and to regulate the whole service of the table. While
the guests were surrounding the table, it seems not to have
been uncommon for servants, by order of the master, to anoint
their heads with rich ointment, ; Luke vii. 46;) and some-
times, perhaps, to regale them by burning frankincense, or
other aromatic substances in the room.
Our Lord, in his parable of the marriage of the king's son,
introduces several circumstances from the customs of the great
feasts which were common in that age. (Matt. xxii. 1 14.)
On another occasion, also, he uttered a parable of a similar kin 1.
while he was reclining at table in the house of one of the elm f
Pharisees. (Luke xiv. 16 24.) It was at the same entertain-
ment, that he reproved the lawyers and Pharisees, " wb- n he
marked how they chose out the chief rooms," or places at the
table, and recommended to them a contrary method, of modesty
xii'l humility.
SPIRITUAL FOOD. As spiritual and heavenly things can be
BIBLICAL AN11QU1T1E8. 115
represented in the language of earth, only by the help of images
3t" an earthly and sensible kind, it has always been common,
among other forms of describing them, to borrow much for the
purpose from the character and circumstances of that refresh-
ment and support which our bodies receive from food. As the
body is nourished by its appointed food, so the soul, because its
welfare and improvement are made to depend on knowledge
adapted to its nature, and on the continual communication to
it of God's grace, is said to be fed by them, and thus to yn.tc
and become strong ; while, on the other hand, by being de-
prived of them, it becomes lean, empty, languishing, and dead.
So, also, all that is necessary to make it thus thrive and grow,
is called its food, its bread, and its drink. Such imagery is
known to some extent among all people, because it is exceed-
ingly natural; but among the Jews, it was drawn forth in its
most unlimited form. Not merely is the soul represented as
having its food by which it is supported and strengthened, but
this food is served up for its entertainment with all the variety
and preparation of a feast. It is not only refreshed with water,
of which God himself is the great and inexhaustible FOUN-
TAIN, but supplied, if obedient to the heavenly invitation, with
abundance of milk and of richest wine. A table is spread for
its use; provisions of the most excellent sort are prepared with
the greatest profusion ; and it is called upon to satisfy its hunger
without restraint. "Wisdom," says Solomon, "hath builded
her house; she hath hewn out her seven pillars; she hath
killed her beasts; she hath mingled her wine; she hath also
furnished her table. She hath sent forth her maidens ; she
crieth upon the highest places of the city, Whoso is simple, let
him turn in hither! as for him that wanteth understanding,
she saith to him, Come, eat of my bread, and drink of the wine
which I have mingled." (Prov. ix. 1 5.) In similar style,
Isaiah more than once sets forth the rich fulness of spiritual
blessings which God is ready to bestow upon his people. "In
this mountain shall the Lord of hosts make unto all people a
feast of fut things, a feast jf wines on the lees; of fat things
full of marrow, of wines on the lees well refined." (Isa. xxv. 6.)
"Ho, every one that thirsteth ! come ye to the waters. And he
that hath no money! come, ye; buy and eat. Yea, come; buy
\VI.NK and MILK without money and without price." (Isa. Iv. 1.)
Hut it became common to extend the image still farther.
The whole richness of that enjoyment which awaits the righteous
in the world to come was often spoken of under this same repre-
sentation. In the house of their heavenly Father, his happy
were represented as ever encircling his table, richly
116 BIBLICAL AM-IQU1TIK*
spread with the provisions of life, and finding in its social baa
fjiict all fulness of enjoyment without interruption, in his pre-
sence. Hence that expression: "Blessed is lie that shall eat
bread in the kingdom of God !" (Luke xiv. 15.) And heii-.
also, it would seem, the phrase, "To fie in Abraham'* Imsom."
is used to express the same idea of heavenly felicity. (Luke
xvi. 22, 23, compared with John xiii. 23.) Then- is allusion
to the image under consideration, also, in the Saviour's threat-
ening declaration to the Jews, who supposed f/fw/W/- to he
exclusively the children of the kingdom the peculiar family
of God, while the Gentiles were entirely outcast from hi- fa-
vour : "There shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth, when
ye .shall see Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob, and all the pro-
phets, in the kingdom of God, and you yourselves thrust out :
and they shall come from the east, and from the west, and from
the north, and from the south, and shall .// </<nnt (or /"///,<,
as at table) in the kingdom of God." (Luke xiii. 28, 2J>.) So
in like manner, in that most glorious promise to the disciple -
at the last supper : " I appoint unto you a kingdom, as my Fa-
ther hath appointed unto me; that ye may eat <unl drink af
mi/ table, in my kingdom, and sit on thrones, judging the twelve
tribes of Israel." (Luke xxii. 29, 30.) On the same solemn
invasion, when the Redeemer took the cup, and gave thanks,
and handed it to the twelve, in the institution of the Lord's
Supper, he added these words : " I say unto you, I will not
drink henceforth of this fruit of the vine, until that day when
I <Ir ink it new with you in my Father s kii><i<l"ni." (Matt.
xxvi. 29.) By this figurative declaration, he intimated that he
was very shortly to leave this earthly state, and directed the
sorrowful minds of his follower's to that infinite blessedness
which was to be enjoyed in heaven, win re they were all quickly
to be re-united.
SECTION III.
OF SOCIAL INTERCOURSE.
IN every country, there are certain forms of conduct and
speech, by which men regulate their intercourse, and wL.cu,
by the authority of long custom, are rendered, in a great measure,
incapable of change. These are widely different, in different
nations and regions, because they have taken their rise, in all
ca^es, from fancy rather than reason, and have all been modi-
tied by a hundred accidental circumstances in their progress of
"efinement. Hence, too, ihe manners of one people have al-
ways somo appearance of ridicul -us folly, in the eyes of another,
1HBLICAL ANTIQUITIIrf. II?
H*) far us they are found, to be different. Education and use
render us blind to the absurdity of our own, while those of
other countries, presenting themselves to our calm considera-
tion without any such advantage, strike us at once with a sense
of their true character. The truth is, n. country has a system
of manners free from folly. Was the moral nature of man
without derangement, it would of itself teach him true polite-
ness, which would be the same politeness in all countries. But
while selfishness and pride continue to be the reigning princi-
ples of the human character, this cannot be expected. Every
system, therefore, which he devises and puts in practice, can
only be a very rude imitation of what he imagines a rightly
constituted mind would adopt, and which he himself is driven
to find out from necessity and self-love, rather than from good
will to others. Where the conception, however, is necessarily
so defective, and the imitation of that conception so artificial,
the result cannot be otherwise than ridiculous. Still, the imi-
tation under any form is better than nothing at all ; and inas-
much as what is true and perfect cannot be hoped for, it be-
e< inies us to esteem its resemblance, in whatever country we are
found, as a real benefit to society. At the same time, we should
not judge that which prevails among other people to be vastly
more unreasonable than our own ; it accomplishes the same
end, and may be, afU:r all, substantially as good and proper.
The forms of politeness and civility, in eastern countries,
have always been far more extravagant in their appearance,
than any to which we are accustomed. The most common ex-
pressions of good will, as they prevail there, would to us seem
ridiculous and excessive. The ordinary salutations that pass
between friends or acquaintances when they meet, are length-
ened out in long and formal ceremony, with the strongest ges-
tures and the wannest professions of regard. To show peculiar
respect, it is common to bow the bo</ y downward almost to the
ground, or to fall entirely prostrate on the earth. We have,
in the Bible, repeated intimations of similar manners among
the Jews ; tempered, indeed, and dignified, in many instances,
by the seriousness of religion, but still wearing an aspect pecu
liar to the east. Thus, in the earliest times,
we rend that the pious Abraham showed re-
spect to strangers, bowing himself before
them low to the ground. (Gen. xviii. 2,
xxiii. 7, 12.) And afterward, down to the
time of our Saviour, we find in all the course
i >f sac- red history, notices of the same fashion.
In the parable of the two debtors who could uot pay, we arc told
118 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
of them both, that they fell down at the feet of their creditors,
when they implored their forbearance. In these cases, it it
true, this humlde attitude was prompted by great ami (>eculiai
distress; but still it would not have been assumed, unless thfl
custom of the times had given it sanction, in the practice of
those who wanted to show extreme respect to their superiors
(Matt, xviii. lit}, 29.) It seems to have been common to show
different degrees of respect to different persons, according to
their rank and importance, by bonding the body in a greater
or less measure. Simply to bow down the head,
was an expression of mere common civility, that
marked no particular regard : to curve the body
low down, signified a considerable degree of reve-
rence : to throw it entirely down, with the face
upon the ground, was an act of the greatest hom-
age. As the attitude, in some of these cases, was
similar to that which it was common to assume
in the worship of Almighty God, the same terra
was sometimes used to express both actions. Hence in the
language of Scripture, to worship another, sometimes means
merely to show him the greatest respect, by an act of the
most profound obeisance.
Among the Jews, the common phrases of salutation at meet-
ing friends, and those which were used in parting from them,
were of a religious character, expressing prayers for the bless-
ing of God on those to whom they were spoken. " Be thou
blessed of Jehovah ;" " The blessing of .Jehovah be upon thee ;"
" God be with thee." Such were usual fonn/ in the mast ancient
times. A still more universal < \pn <-inn was, " Peace be with
you ;" and this is the general salutation in eastern countries,
to this day. Thus our Saviour saluted his disciples, when he
presented himself among them after his resurrection. When
uttered by his lips, the words had real and rich signification,
widely different from their empty value, as they were com-
monly used in the ce -emonies of a frivolous world. To this
difference he himself directed the attention of his afflicted
followers, when h" was about to be wiken from them by death :
" Peace I leave with you, My peace I give unto you : not as
the world giveth, give I unto you."
At the present day, eastern salutations take up a considers
ble time. When an Arab meets his friend, he begins, while
he is yet some distance from him, to make gestures that may
express his very great satisfaction in seeing him. When he
comes up to him, he grasps him by the right land, and then
nrings back lu's wn hand to his lips, in token of respect. H
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 119
next proceeds to place his hand gently under the long beard yf
rhe other, and honours it with an affectionate kiss. He in-
quires particularly, again and again, concerning his health and
the health of his family ; and repeats, over and over, the best
wishes for his prosperity and peace, giving thanks to God that
he is permitted once more to behold his face. All this round
of gestures and words is, of course, gone over by the friend too,
with like formality. But they are not generally satisfied with
a single exchange of the sort ; they sometimes repeat as often
as ten times, the whole tiresome ceremony, with little or on
variation. Some such tedious modes of salutation were com-
mon also of old ; so that a man might suffer very material de-
lay in travelling, if he chanced to meet several acquaintances >
and should undertake to salute each according to the custom
of the country. On this account, when Elisha sent his servant
Gehazi, in great haste, to the Shunamite's house, he said to
him : " If thou meet any man, salute him not ; and if any
Balute thee, answer him not again." (2 Kings iv. 29.) So,
when our Lord sent forth his seventy disciples, among other
instructions, he bade them "salute no man by the way;"
meaning, that their work was too important to allow such a
waste of time in the exchange of mere unmeaning ceremonies.
(Luke x. 4.) We have presented to us, in the meeting of Ja-
cob and Esau, a form of salutation which may give us some
notion of the manners of their early age in this respect. Few
instances, however, could equal that, in the genuine and affect-
ing interest which it displayed, and we may well suppose,
that in common cases, where there was less of friendly feeling,
there wa,s, at the same time, more attention to formal cere-
mony. On that occasion, Jacob, we are told, " bowed him-
self to the ground seven times, until he came near to his bit>
t In T ; and Esau ran to meet him, and embraced him, and fell
on his neck, and kissed him : and they wept." (Gen. xxxiii.
3.4.)
When one person made a visit to another, especially if it
was to one of high rank in society, it was customary to carry
with him some kind of a present. In the earliest times, it ib
probable that it was principally in this way kings and rulers
received their tribute from the people; each one brought,
whenever he came into their presence, some gift of greater 01
less value, as a free expression of his homage. Afterwards, by
the power of custom, it came to be considered a matter of course,
that no person ini^lit visit one in authority over him, without
uch an offering by way of introduction and recommendation
Gradually, the same way of showing respect grew to be fashion-
J20 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES-
able toward any other great man. (Gen. xliii. ll.J When
Saul was made king, there were certain persons who ' despised
him, a:.d broin/lit /n'/ii im j>r> mn/a." (1 Sam. x. 27.) God re-
proves the Jews for their unsound offerings, by applying the
case to such approaches toward an earthly ruler : "Offer it
now unto thy governor; will he be pleased with thec, or ac-
tvjit thy person?" (Mai. i. 8.) From the notion of respee
which such gifts carried in the minds of all, and which led U
the general practice of offering them to all distinguished per-
sons, it became an established custom to bring them also to
prophets, when they were visited for direction and advice.
Hence, when it was proposed to Saul by his servant, to visit
Samuel, on a certain occasion of perplexity, he considered it
out of the question, for want of some gift to appear in a re-
spectful and becoming manner : " Behold," said he, " if we go,
what shall we bring the man ? for the bread is spent in our
vessels, and there is not a present to bring to the man of God.
What have we? And the servant answered, Behold I have
here at hand, the fourth part of a shekel of silver ; that will I
give to the man of God." (1 Sam. ix. 7, 8.) From the ex-
treme smallness of the present here considered sufficient, it ia
plain that the common offerings which the prophets received,
were not of any importance as to real value, but were simply
meant to express respect, and could not be omitted, according
to the usage of the times, without an appearance of rude in-
difference to the dignity of their character. In the opinion of
Saul, a small portion of bread would have been enough, and he
WM satisfied with the quarter of a shekel, though it was not
equal in value to twelve and a half cents. Sometimes, how-
ever, princes and great men made them quite magnificent pre-
M-nt>. In some instances, they refused to take such offering,
lest they should seem to be actuated by a worldly spirit. It
was common, in making presents of any value, to bring th^m
with much parade and show. Thus Ha/uel, when he went to
meet Elisha, took with him a present oi every good thing of
Damascus, piled with great display on the backs of forty
camels ; though we have no reason to suppose that any thing
like that number of these animals was really necessary to carry
it; otherwise, the gift would have been altogether enormous.
In eastern countries, the custom of making presents when visits
are performed, is still universally common. To neglect such a
tribute of respect, particularly toward one of more than enual
rank, is gross rudeness, and cannot fail to meet with marked,
disapprobation. These gifts are ofteiit lines carried with great
pomp, and so arranged as to make the greatest possible appear-
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 121
auco of magnificence and worth j half a dozen horses being
employed to carry what might, without much inconvenience,
he borne by one. In conformity with the ancient usage of
bringing gifts to kings and princes, as tokens of respect and
homage, the wise men who came from the east to worship Him
that was " born King of the Jews," came not with empty
hands : " When they had opened their treasures, they presented
unto him gifts gold, and frankincense, and myrrh." (Matt,
h 11.)
In the entertainment of guests, much attention and much
formality have always distinguished the eastern manners. The
most scrupulous regard to the established forms of dignity and
respect is constantly observed. The particular seat which a
man occupies in the room, and the particular posture of his
body while he sits, are not matters of indifference; there is a
law of long-established power to determine both. The seat at
the corner of the room is most honourable, and is given to visit-
ers by way of distinction. When an individual sits in the pre-
sence of a superior, he shows his respect by sitting completely
upon his heels. To anoint the head, regale with burnt per-
fume, and sprinkle! with scented water, are various methods of
displaying regard.
Conversation, in these countries, is generally reserved and
grave. The people are little disposed to indulge themselves
with that free and unrestrained liberty in this matter, that is
common among us. They seem to feel, that in a multitude of
words there wanteth not vanity ; and that in the mere talk of
the lips, there is not often much profit. It is not with them,
as in some other countries, a principle that much silence in
i-ompuny is unlovely, or impolite, or that it is better to talk
nonsense for the sake of social intercourse, than to sit with
sealed lips when a person has nothing to say : their words are
commonly few and formal, and uttered only when they imagine
it may be done with dignity, either in the way of compliment
or occasional general remark. In ancient times, there appear*
to have been more disposition for social conversation. Still we
find among the Jews, as they are presented to us in the Bible,
a conHuVniUe degree of the same character in this respect.
Their conversation was marked with gravity and moderation,
much more than is common in our ordinary intercourse, and
\v mis were expected to have meaning, when they claimed at-
tention from others. Hence it came to pass, that when a man
undertook to utter his sentiments, they were often expressed
in a formal, sententious strain, and if continued any time, took
the appearance of a dignified and regular speech. There i'
II
122 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
even some room to imagine that the phrase, to open the wo//A,
80 commonly made use of to express a commenceuieut -if
speech, may have had its rise, in some measure, from the geue
ral rareness of the thing, and the idea of importance that was
attached to such an undertaking. Among us, at any rate, it
is generally so incessantly open when there is opportunity to
speak, and too generally open to so little valuable purpose, that
such an expression would seem to have no great propriety.
The common form of assent in ronversatimi was, Tliou hnxt
said, or Tli<,n *ayi:*t ; meaning, Thou art right; It is as thou
hast said. ^Mutt. xxvi. 64, John xviii. 37.)
In eiiies, as we have already seen, the common place of ge-
neral resort was at the Gate. Here there was a convenient
space left free for the purpose 1 , and fitted up with seats for the
accommodation of the people. Those who were at leisure, and
wished to find some interest for their idle moments, were ac-
customed to take their seat in this place, and occupy them-
selves either with looking at what was going on around, 01 in
(ccasional conversation with others on the general affaire of
(he day.
CHAPTER VI.
DOMESTIC CUSTOMS AND HABITS.
SECTION I.
OP THE MARRIAGE RELATION.
MARRIAGE has always been considered, among the Jews,
peculiarly honourable. Their doctrine on this subject has
been, that it is unbecoming and unlawful for any person, of
proper age, to continue in a single state. With them, to live
without a family, and to die without posterity, could never be
altogether without reproach. Hence, their marriages have
generally been early. At the age of twenty, at farthest, every
young person, according to them, ought to be married. At
that age, the obligation to take a companion became most se-
rious and indispensable; and it was considered much more re-
spectable and praiseworthy to attend to the duty a good while
It was common, from the earliest times, for a father to
choose, wives for his sons, and huslmiuls for his daughters.
Thus Abraham sent his servant to procure a wife for his son
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 123
.Ham 1 , without consulting him particularly on the matter at
all; and so, when Samson wanted to marry a particular wo-
man, he applied to his father to get her for him as a wifr, as
the proper way of accomplishing his desire. (Judg. xiv. 1 4.)
In some other cases, however, the matter, in relation to sons,
seems to have been left altogether to their own discretion. In
the first ages, not only her parents, hut her brothers also, had
authority in the disposal of a female in marriage, as we see in
the instances of Rebecca and Dinah. Instead of receiving any
property along with his wife, when he married, a man was ex-
pected to pay a considerable price, according to his ability, for
the woman herself. Gifts were oftentimes to be made to her
brothers, and the father was to receive a settled dowry. In
this way, an agreement or contract of marriage was made,
without any consultation whatever with the intended bride.
After this agreement, however, at least in later ages, the dam-
sel was brought into the presence of her suitor, and a formal
covenant, or engagement to become man and wife at some fu-
ture time, was entered into by both, before witnesses; this was
called espousing, or betrothing. Thus Shechem made a bargain
with Jacob and his sons : " Let me find grace in your eyes,
and what ye shall say unto me, I will give. Ask me never
so much dowry and gift, and I will give according as yo shall
say unto me; but give me the damsel to wife." (Gen. xxxiv.
11, 12.) When a young man was not able to purchase a wo-
man with money, he might, if her friends consented, pay for
her by a longer or shorter term of service. So Jacob served
seven years for each of his two wives. Sometimes a wife was
given as a reward of bravery. (Josh. xv. 16, 1 Sain, xviii. 25.)
The same custom of purchasing wives is still common in the
Ivist ; so that it is accounted, in some places, quite a fortune
for a father to have many daughters, on account of the wealth
which they will bring into his house by their several marriage-
dowries. Frequently, however, the presents which the bride-
groom makes in this way, are laid out in clothes and furniture
for the bride, and so, restored, in some measure, to the giver.
Perhaps, in the later times of the Jewish nation, something of
the same kind was common.
There was generally an interval of ten or twelve months, and
sometimes considerably more, between the time of making the
marriage contract, or the day of espousals, and the marriage
itself. Tims we read that Samson first went down to Titnnath
with his parents, and talked with the woman whom he wished
for a wife, and "she pleased him well." This was the time of
'ipousa'-.s, but it was not till after a true, that he "returned
124 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
to take IKT" Ky actual marriage. (Judg. xiv. 7, s -) During
all this intejval, however, while the bride continued still in
her father's house, she was considered ami spoken of us the
lawful wife uf the man to whom -hi* was betrothed; so that
the bridegroom could not destroy their engagement, if he be-
came unwilling to marry her, without giving her a bill of di-
vorce, in the sani" manner as if she had been fully wedded;
and so, on the other hand, if she proved unfaithful to her
espoused husband, she was punished as an adulteress. It was
between the time of her espousals and her actual marriage,
that the Virgin Mary, by the power of the Holy (ihost, con-
ceived in her womb the Redeemer of the world. On this oc-
casion, .Joseph had power, as her betrothed husband, to make
her a /</'//- <. nun pie, by causing her to be stoned according
to the law ; but, at the same time, he was at liberty to give
her a bill of divorce and dismiss her privately. Accordingly,
though he considered if his duty to give up his intended mar-
riage, he had too much regard for her reputation, and too much
confidence, we may suppose, in her own account of the miracle
of her conception, to expose her before the world ; and so had
concluded to adopt the other course, when the angel relieved
his anxiety by commanding him to take ber without hesitation.
< Matt. i. 1820.)
When the time of marriage arrived, the bride prepared her-
self for the occasion with the utmost care. She was adorned
by her attendants with all the elegance which the taste of the
times rendered fashionable ; and to complete her joyful appear-
ance, the bridal crown was placed upon her head. The bride-
groom presented himself at her father's house, attended with a
number of young men of his own age. The wedding festiva'
frequently lasted seven days, as we may see in the wise of Sam
son, and in that of Jacob at a much earlier period. During
this time, the bridegroom and his companions entertained
themselves, in various ways, in one part of the house; while
the bride wus engaged with a like company of her young female
friend.^, in another. It was not considered proper on such oc-
MI or on any other, for young persons of both sexes to
mingle together in the festive circle, or even so much as to eat
at the same table. In the account of Samson's wedding, we
tind that one method of giving life to the intercourse of the
youug men, was to propose riddles, and exercise their ingenuity
in explaining them. The companions of the bridegroom were
- in-time-: called the <-liililri-ii, or s/>x, nf f/i- l,ril> -<-lm inl>fr.
Oil the last day, the bride was conducted to the house of the
rid'-groom's father. The procession generally se.t off in the
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 125
ironing, with much ceremony and pomp. The bridegroom
was richly clothed with a marriage robe and crown, and the
bride was covered with a veil from head to foot. The com-
panions of each attended them with songs and the music of in-
struments ; not in promiscuous assemblage, but each company
by itself; while the virgins, according to the custom of the
times, were all provided with veils, not indeed so large and
thick as that which hung over the bride, but abundantly suf-
ficient to conceal their faces from all around. The way, as they
went along, was lighted with numerous torches In the mean
time, another company was waiting at the bridegroom's house,
ready, at the first notice of their approach, to go forth and meet
them. These seem generally to have been young female rela-
tions or friends of the bridegroom's family, called in at this
time, by a particular invitation, to grace the occasion with their
presence. Adorned with robes of gladness and joy, they went
forth with lamps or torches in their hands, and welcomed the
procession with the customary salutations. They then joined
themselves to the marriage train, and the whole company
moved forward to the house. There an entertainment was pro-
vided for their reception, and the remainder of the evening was
spent in a cheerful participation of the Marriage Supper, with
such social merriment as suited the joyous occasion. None
were admitted to this entertainment, beside the particular num-
ber who were selected to attend the wedding; and as the regu-
lar and proper time for their entrance into the house was when
the bridegroom went in with his bride, the doors were then
closed, and no other guest was expected to come in. Such ap-
pear to have been the general ceremonies which attended the
celebration of a marriage. No doubt, however, among differ-
ent ranks, and in different ages of the nation, the particular
forms and fashions were often considerably different.
In modern times, the Jews have a regular, formal marriage-
rite, by which the union is solemnly ratified. The parties
stand under a canopy, each covered with a black veil ; some
grave person takes a cup of wine, pronounces a short blessing,
and hands it to be tasted by both ; the bridegroom puts a ring
on the finger of his bride, saying, " By this ring thou art my
spouse, according to the custom of Moses and the children of
Israel :" the marriage contract is then read, and given to the
bride's relations ; another cup of wine is brought and b'essed
six time-*, when the married couple t;i>te it, ami jnnir the rest
out in token of cheerfulness ; and to conclude all, the husband
dashes the cup itself against the wall, and breaks it all to
pieces, in memory of the sad destruction of their once gloriow
11*
]'26 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIKS
Tomplc. But there seems to have been, anciently, very ih
form of tin's kind. In very early times, the only ceremony by
which the union was confirmed, was a solemn bles>ing, pro-
nounced by the nearest relations, on the parties \vli<> upna in
their presence to become husband and wife; and this was
rather a mere circumstance established by pious custom, than
rite by which the marriage itself was performed. (Gen. xxiv
60.) The manner of marriage was of this simple kind, in the
days of Ruth. Boaz merely declared in presence of the elders
assembled at tin- gate, that he had resolved to take the daugh-
ter of Naomi to be his wife ; " and all the people that were in
the gate, and all the elders said, We are witnesses. The Lord
make the woman that is come into thine house, like Rachel
and like Leah, which two did build the house of Israel ; an<l
do thou worthily in Kphratah, and be famous in IVthlehem.'
So Boaz, we are told, "took Ruth, and she became his wife."
(Ruth iv. 11, 13.) Before the time of Christ, it became cus-
tomary to have some little more ceremony : still, it seems that
the marriage connection was supposed to be formed, rather by
the whole celebration of the wedding together, as a mutual
public agreement in the presence of the friends of both j>artie<,
than by any one particular rite.
SPIRITUAL MAKRIAOE. As no relation on earth is more in-
' *,imate and tender than that which is formed by marriage, our
blessed Lord, who was accustomed to employ every strong
image which the world could furnish, to express his close union
with the church of his redeemed people, and his most affection-
ate concern for their welfare^ has, in his holy word, made
much use of this connection, a..:ong others, for that purpose.
The church is his bride and his spouse; and as the bridegroom
rejoices over his beloved in the day of marriage, and as the
kindest husband cherishes the wife of his bosom, so he delights
in bis people, and so he keeps them with continual care. The
ap< stle, speaking of this spiritual marriage, in one place calls
it </ yrxit in i/xti-ry ; whereby, as in common marriages, a man
uinl his wife }ccome, according to the original institution of
God, oneft'xh, and s<i the people nf Chri>t an- made, as it were,
"members of his body, of his flesh, and of his IMHICS." ( Kph.
v. 23 33.) This way of representing the union between <Ji>d
and his church wa> used loin: before the time of Christ. The
inspired writers of the Old Testament were familiar with the
image. To encourage /ion, the prophet exclaims: "Thy
Maker is thy husband ; the Lord of Hosts is his name !" " AJ
the bridegroom rejoiceth over the bride, so shall thy God re-
juice n-er thee !" (Isa. Jiv. 5, Ixii. 5. See also Jer ii 2,
ANTIQUITIES. 127
EZCJC xvi. 8 14.) Hence, in conformity with the same
image, nothing is more common in the language of the ancient
prophets, than to represent the impiety and idolatry of the
Jewish church as adultery, and unfaithfulness to the solemn
vows of marriage.
Sometimes, under this image of a marriage union, the rela-
'jon between God, or Christ, and his whole professing church,
as a separate society on earth, is represented; at other times,
It is employed to shadow forth the far higher and more glorious
connection which exists between Him and the true spiritual
church, made up only of real believers, of which the other is
iiut the outward, and too often, to a great extent, the empty
sign. This mysterious and sacred union, whereby the Messiah
becomes one with the whole body of his true redeemed people,
is beautifully celebrated under the allegory of a royal marriage,
in the forty-fifth Psalm. The Bridegroom and bride, magnifi-
cently described in that inspired song, were always understood,
long before Clirist runic into the world, to mean the promised
Redeemer and his church ; and, accordingly, the apostle Paul
expressly tenches us that the character of the first belongs only
to the Son of God. (Heb. i. 8, 9.) The same allegory is still
more fully presented in another whole book of the Old Testa-
ment Scriptures. The Song of Solomon is a poem framed al-
together in conformity with the solemnity of a real marriage.
The bridegroom and bride, and their companions, are all intro-
duced, in regular and animated dialogue ; and the whole lan-
guage and imagery of the piece have immediate respect to the
circumstances of an actual marriage scene. From the earliest
times, however, the Song has been considered mystically de-
scriptive of a far more exalted love, and a far more intimate
union, than any of a mere earthly kind. King Solomon,
whom it presents to our view, arrayed in his festival rohes, and
wearing the " crown wherewith his mother crowned him in the
day of his espousals, and in the day of the gladness of his
heart," is the humble type of a far more illustrious, even a
heavenly Bridegroom. His spouse, " fairest among women,"
and adorned with all the magnificence of a Prince's daughter,
represents an exceedingly more glorious bride the Church of
God, purchased n-it/i /</.. own blood, and rendered comely be-
yond expression, with the beauty of holiness and the garments
of grace, supplied by his own Spirit. This is the bride, the
Lnmb's wife, of whom the apostle speaks in the book of Reve-
lation ; and who, as he tells us, is the holy city, the new Jeru-
salem , that is, the redeemed church of Christ. (Rev. xxi. 2,
9, 10, xxii. 17.) In the vision of prophecy, the inspired -Jiso 5
128 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES
pie is carried far along the distance or many hundred yeirs, fo
the remotest eud of time. Scenes of trial and distress riso
upon his view one after another, in long and melancholy suc-
cession ; and while the church is still upheld, and gradually
advances onward to greater importance in the world, it is,
nevertheless, surrounded on every side with frightful forms of
darkness, and met at every step with rising shapes of difficulty
and danger; so as to seem, at times, just ready to be over-
whelmed with their power. All this, however, is but the course
of preparation for her day of triumph and joy. In the eud, a
voice is heard, like the sound of many waters and of mightiest
thunders : " Hallelujah ! for the Lord God omnipotent reign-
eth ! Let us be glad, and rejoice, and give honour to Him ; for
the marriage of the Lamb is come, and his wife hath made
herself ready. And to her," says the sacred writer, " was
granted that she should be arrayed in fine linen, clean and
white; for the fine linen is the righteousness of the saints."
Then said the angel to the holy man : " Write, Blessed are
they which are called unto the marriage supper of the Lamb !"
(Rev. xix. 6 9.)
After this brief consideration of the frequent use which is
made of the image in question, in other parts of Scripture, we
are better prepared to perceive the beauty and force of several
allusions which are made to it in the Gospels. John the
Baptist di.-tinguishes Christ by the title of the Bridegroom ;
no doubt, with reference to that spiritual relation to his church,
which, under the image of a marriage, was so familiar to
readers of the Jewish Scriptures, and which every serious Jew
well understood could be properly ascribed to no other but the
.Messiah of God, who was to come into the world. He styles
himself the Bridegroom's friend, to intimate that he acted in
!iis work but as the humble minister of Christ, and found his
own joy in the advancement of his Master's glory. (John iii.
29.) Our Saviour, in another place, represents himself under
the same character, and his disciples are, at the same time,
called the children of the bride-chamber, or companions of the
bridegroom. (Matt. ix. 15.) In the parable of the marriage
of the king's son, we have again presented to us the mi/*/iil
allnjory of the Old Testament, already noticed, rather than a
mere illustration of one particular point by <-fnn/mri>ui with
the. ceremonies of a great wedding. The King's Son is no
other than the Messiah himself, the spiritual Bridegroom of
Solomon's Song, whose Father is the King of kings, the ever-
lasting God. To the marriage festival, so long foretold in
their own prophecies, the Jews were first invited But they
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 129
refused to (Mine as a nation. They put far from them the bless-
ings of the gospel. In anger, God has sent forth his armies
n burn up their city, and to scatter them, with great destruc-
tion, among all the nations of the earth, as they are found to
this day. Then the invitation went forth to the long-nog
locted and despised Gentiles, who were sunk in the lowest
degradation of ignorance and idolatry. To them the call has
been sounding ever since, and many have been compelled, by
its heavenly persuasion, to attend and come; while many
others, alas, have repeated, as multitudes are still repeating,
the miserable folly of the Jews, turning a deaf ear to the
sound of kindness, till fear came like desolation from the Al-
mighty; and destruction, as a whirlwind, big with the wrath
of Jehovah, swept them away. But " when the king came in
to see the guests, he saw there a man which had not on a
wedding garment." In great houses, festival garments were
always kept ready for such an occasion, and furnished freely
for all the guests. It was, therefore, a most offensive disre-
spect to the master, for any guest to neglect clothing himself
with one immediately. When the king asked for an expla-
nation, the man was speechless. " Then said the king to the
servants, Bind him hand and foot, and take him away, and
east him into outer darkness." All this stnmd.Y represents
the danger of trifling with God, by a mere show of eomplyin<r
with the call of the gospel, while the simple terras of salvation
are neglected To sit down at the marriage supper of the
Limb and his bride, we must each one be arrayed in the robe
of righteousness, which he himself has provided, afvast ex-
pense, for every guest. Whosoever may eorne forward, to 1*
u partaker in the spiritual feast without this robe, will %s
180 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
suredly be covered with speechless confusion, and thrust out
into eternal darkness. To be forcibly cast out with shamo,
from the joyous assembly and the brilliantly lighted room of a
royal marriage festival, into the comfortless and lonely gloom
of night, outside of the house, would be an exceeding mortiti
caMon ; but this furnishes only a feeble representation of the
horror that must seize the soul, when it is driven from the
presence of (rod in anger, and shut out far from his peaceful
kingdom, in the deepest night of death and hell. Ah, tin n-
imieed "shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth !" (Matt,
xxii. 1 14.) The danger of failing to secure the Messing of
H;aven, through negligence and sloth, is in >st strikingly dis-
played in another marriage parable. Five of ten virgins who
were assembled at the bridegroom's house, to go forth and
meet him with lights, when he should come home in the night
with his wedding procession, were so foolish as to take no oil
with them in their vessels. At midnight, while they all slept,
there was a cry made : " Behold the bridegroom cometh ; go
ye out to meet him." Then these virgins had no oil, and were
compelled, at that late hour, to go and buy. But while they
were away, the bridegroom came, "and they that were ready,
went in with him to the marriage; and the (]i*>r im.* */////."
When the foolish virgins returned, they could find no admis-
sion to the joyful company within. " Watch, therefore," is
the language of the Saviour, "for ye know neither the day
nor the hour wherein the Son of man cometh." (Matt. x.\v.
1 13.) Blessed are they which are called unto the marriage
supper* of the Lamb !
POLYGAMY. God, in the beginning, made only one m;m
and one woman, and thus showed his will, that no man should
ever have morb than one wife at the same time. (Matt. xix. 4.)
Very early, however, this excellent appointment wa-s trat.s-
gressed. Lamech, long before the flood, had two wives; and
afterward it became so common that even pious men, like
Abraham and Jacob, fell into the evil. Among- the Jews, it
was very fashionable, in the time of Moses, to have more than
one wife, and continued so, at least in the higher ranks of so-
-i'-ty, long after. Before the time of our Saviour, however,
it seems to have become far less common. The law of M<< s
suffered it, on account of the hardness of heart which was
found among the people. The fiown of God, however, was
displayed against it, in the disj>.-n-ati"ii> of his righteous pio-
vidence. How was the comfort of Abraham's hou.-e disturbed
by his unhappy marriage with Ilagarl and how were the years
^f Jacob afflicted with the bitter jealousy of his wives, and the
BIBLICAL 4.NTIQUITIE8. 181
augodlj conduct of his sons ! What a heavy cloud of sorrow
liuug upon the family of David, from the same source ! And
what shall we say of Solomon, with his thousand women?
They " turned away his heart" from the Lord, so that his most
illustrious life was covered, toward its close, with a dreadful
darkness of guilt; and a fearful mystery is left to rest, in the
word of God, over all his latter end ! The Concubines, men-
tioned in the Bible, were true wives," as really married as any
others; only they were persons of lower condition than the
principal wives, frequently mere servants in the house, and so
were married with much less ceremony. Their children were
not always placed on an equal footing with those of other
wives in the inheritance of their father's property. Polygamy
still exists in eastern countries to an awful extent, and is the
source of unnumbered evils.
DIVORCE. The Jews, from the earliest times, exercised a
very arbitrary power over their wives. Divorces were fre-
quent, and often for slight offences. God always regarded
such conduct with displeasure. (Mic. ii. 9, Mai. ii. 14 16.)
Still, it was not expressly determined by the law of Moses, to
what cases the power of the husband should be restrained in
this matter. The husband was left to decide for himself,
whether a sufficient occasion for separation was found in his
wife : and was only required, if he resolved to send her away,
to give her a Bill of divorce. (Deut. xxiv. 1 4.) Before the
time of our Saviour, the Jewish doctors became completely
divided in opinion about what should be considered^ just
cause for divorce. One class maintained, that, according to
the true meaning of the words of the law just referred to, no
reason, except adultery, was sufficient; while another asserted
that the law allowed a man to put away his wife for any mat-
ter of displeasure whatever, even the most insignificant. This
latter sentiment seems to have prevailed most generally through
the mass of the nation, if we may judge from the licentious
practice in this point, which was everywhere common. To
tempt our Lord, the Pharisees proposed to him this much dis-
puted question: "Is it lawful," they said, "for a man to put
away his wife for every cause?" Jesus placed before tin m
the original divine institution of marriage, and then pronounced,
"What God hath joined together, let no man put asunder."
Why then, it was asked, did Moses allow it? Jesus answered:
" Moses, because of the hardness of your hearts, suffered yon
to put away your wives ; but from the beginning it was not
MI." ( Matt. xix. 3 9.) The law of Moses in this case, as in
some others, only attempted to regulate, with an >mperit c
Ut2 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES
reteedy, the evil, which the obstinacy of national feeling would
not allow to be at once repressed by a positive statute. This,,
however, was a provision of mere civil </<jn,-iiiti<-ut, and did,
by no means, as many <>f the Jews thought, establish a rule
of re,liy<<m, which might satisfy a man's conscience in the pre-
sence of God. Our Lord allowed but one sufficient cause for
divorce. (Matt. v. 32.) Not only was it common for mm to
put away their wives, but, in the latter period of the nation,
women not unfrequently divorced their husbands. One of
Herod's sisters took this step; and his grand-daughter Hero-
ilias set a similar example. She first married her uncle Phi-
lip; after some time, she separated herself from him, and mar-
ried his brother, Herod the tetrarch. (Matt. xiv. 3.) Drusilla,
the sister of Agrippa, put away, in like m:>'iner, her first hus-
band, to marry Felix. (Acts xxiv. 24.)
SECTION II.
OF THE DELATION BETWEEN PARENTS AND CHILDREN.
FROM the most ancient times it was counted, among the
people of the east, a great misfortune, and, in some measure, a
reproach, to be childless. It was the honour of families to
have their names handed down in a long succession of sons,
from age to age, to the remotest generations. It became, there-
fore, a matter of highest interest, with every new n-pivserita-
tive of the house, that its genealogy should not be stopped in
his person, and thus the shame of disappointing the hope of
all his ancestors be broiurl it <l<>wn UJKHI li is single head. On
this account, it was disgraceful to continue in an unmarried
state; and as life has no security, it was counted unsafe to de-
lay marriage any time, lest death should cut off the privilege
of posterity : hence, fathers were anxious to have their children
married early. From the common feeling on this subject, arose
also that strange custom which required a man's nearest main
relation to marry his wife, in case he himself died without
children. This custom had existed, with authority that could
not be disregarded, a long time before the age of Moses; as we
learn from the history of Judah's sons. (Gen. xxxviii. 8 12.)
In the law of Moses, it was made a regular statute of the
Jewish government. To prevent, however, its unhappy effect
in particular instances, where a great unwillingness to marry a
brother's widow might be felt, a method of avoiding thfi con-
nection was ippoin'< <i. Meompaaied, indeed, with some dis-
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 138
grace, but, withal, rendering the rule extremely mild, in com-
parison with its old form of inflexible rigour. The whole de-
sign of this regulation was to raise up a succession for the man
who died childless, "that his name might not be put out of
Israel." (Deut. xxv. 510.) Where the desire of having
offspring was so strong, it is easy to perceive that barrenness
in the married state would be considered a most afflicting
calamity. We have repeated illustrations of this in the history
of the Bible. In such cases, it was sometimes, at least in the
earliest ages, thought expedient by wives to give their maids,
as concubines, to their husbands, and then adopt their children
as their own. Thus Sarah, Rachel, and Leah too, consented
to act. The prophets often refer to this strong national feeling
in their figurative pictures of prosperity or desolation. (Isa.
xlix. 17 23, liv. 14, xlvii. 9.) In allusion to the same
feeling, our Saviour says, in predicting a time of dreadful cala-
mity, " Behold, the days are coming, in the which they shall
say, Blessed are the barren, and the wombs that never bare,
and the paps which never gave suck !" (Luke xxiii. 29.)
What a season of distress would such language represent to
the cars and feelings of a Jew !
For an account of the ceremonial observances which the
law required after the birth of a son or a daughter, read the
twelfth chapter of Leviticus. It was an evidence of much
poverty in the circumstances of Joseph and Mary that they
could bring to the temple, for an offering of purification, only
" a pair of turtle-doves or two young pigeons." (Luke ii.
2'2 124.) At the end of eight days, every son was to be dedi-
cated to God by the right of circumcision. (Gen. xvii. 10 14.)
In later times, at least, it ")ecaine common to give the child its
name at the same time is is now the general practice ic
Cliri.-tian countries when infants are baptized. (Luke L 59,
ii. 21.) Names, among the Jews, were never without mean-
ing. It was not uncommon for a person, as he advanced in
life, to change his first name, or to receive a new one in addi-
tion to it. Kings and princes frequently changed the names
of those whom they raised to honour and power in their
governments. (Gen. xli. 45, 2 Kings axiii. 34, xxiv. 17.)
There was probably some allusion to this custom, when God,
as an expression of his favour, gave new names to Abram and
Jacob. In the later ages of the nation, when the Jews were
compelled to mingle more with other people, and other lan-
guages b< {ran to creep into the room of the ancient Hebrew, it
was very common to be called by different names ; one He-
brow, and another Greek or Latin. Sometimes, both of such
12
l.'!4 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
names signified the same thing; the one being a mere trar.ilu
tii in of the other: so Crphat and Peter the name given U
.- .11 1 1 >:i by our Lord Jesus Christ equally mean a rock <>r -tone
(.John i. 42, Matt. xvi. 18.) In the New Testament, we find
almost all the Old Testament names that are mentioned, some-
what altered; thus we have Esaias for Isaiah, Elius for Eli-
jah, and many other such changes, as may be seen in the list
of names in the first chapter of Matthew, and also in the third
chapter of Luke. These, however, were not intended to be
tir w names, of any sort; they are merely the old Hebrew name?
written as they were usually pronounced by those who spoke
Greek according to the smooth and soft style of the Greek lan-
guage. In translating the Greek Testament into English, these
forms have crept into our language too: though it certainly
had as much right as the Greek to change them into con-
fi'imity with its own pronunciation, according to the forms in
which it seemed best to express the original Hebrew names
themselves.
The authority of a Jewish father, in his family, was very
great. We have seen already how absolute it was in providing
for the marriage of a son or daughter. When a daughter
married, she passed entirely into another family, unless
she happened to have no brother, in which case she became
heiress of her father's estate. (Numb, xxvii. 1 9.) A son
continued to live, after marriage, in his father's house; and
while he did so, the father's authority still rested nj.i.n him
with full weight; and, at the same time, upon the daughter-in-
law, with all their children. The whole Scriptures inculcat. <1
on children, in the most solemn manner, the duty of afft -ctionate
respect and kindness toward their parents, as long as they live.
The hiW required parents, on the other hand, to train up their
childien, with the most unceasing diligence, in the knowledge
of religion and in the fear of God. (Deut. vi. 7, xi. 19.) The
gospel has enforced the same duty, with repeated ail monitions.
What a fearful account must many parents who bear the Chris-
tian name, render for their sad neglect of this matter! Can the
obligation on such be less than that, which, in the pa.--
referred to above, God laid, with so much solemnity, upon the
ancient Jews? " To whomsoever much is given, of him shall
be much required!"
THE BIRTHRIGHT. The frst-born son inherited peculiai
privileges. He received a double jx>rtion of his father's estate.
(Deut. xxi. 17.) He possessed some authority, similar to that
of the father, over his younger brethren; at )ea.-t when the
fatl "r was taken away; and was regarded with MUIX; p'-culm
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES, 135
respect, as the principal representative of the family In the
family of Jacob, as the first privilege was given to Joseph, so
this svoond one was secured to Judah, because Reuben had
rendered himself unworthy of his natural right, by gross sin.
(1 Chron. v. 1,2.) Before the giving of the law, advantages
of a kind yet far more important belonged to the birthright.
The oldest son seems to have enjoyed a religions pre-eminence
over the rest of the children, as well as a mere worldly supe-
riority. The father of every family was its proper priest, whose
business it was to offer sacrifice to God, in behalf of his whole
house, as Job was accustomed to do. In case of his absence
or death, this important office, we have reason to believe, fell
to the care of the first-born son. It appears, moreover, that
God, in the natural order of his providence and grace, dis-
tributed his benefits not without some regard to this distinction
of birth; appointing an inseparable connection between them
and the father's peculiar solemn blessing, while, in the esta-
blished order of things, this blessing came to be considered the
proper right of the first-born. Such, at least, was the method
which the Divine wisdom respected as regular, in the case of
Esau and Reuben. By virtue of their birthright, they were
authorized to expect a large measure of the rich BLESSING
pronounced on Abraham, to rest on each of themselves, and to
be handed down continually in the line of their posterity, till
it should, at last, be crowned with the accomplishment of the
Great Promise the appearance of that Seed in whom all the
nations of the earth were to be blessed. Reuben lost his na-
tural advantage in this respect by shameful wickedness; as be-
fore, Esau had sold his for a morsel of bread ; thus profanely
despising the rich spiritual blessings with which it was con-
nected. The latter sought the blessing afterwards, " carefully,
with tears;" but he "found no place of repentance," (or change,)
no possibility of altering what was done, by a change in his
father. (Heb. xii. 17.) The right of the priesthood was
given, by the law, to the tribe of Levi, and the religious supe-
riority of the first-born seems to have continued no longer.
(Numb. iii. 12 18.) It is easy to see, from what has been
said, how the term frst-bom came to be used figuratively, to
signify a character of highest dignity, or to denote any thing
of principal importance in its kind. "The first-born of the
poor" are those who are pressed with exceeding poverty (Isa.
xiv. 30.) "The first-born of death," is a death of uncommon
cruelty. (Job xviii. 13.) So, to express the dignity of the
sjiiiit.-. tli. v an- i-allnl "the church of the first-born." (Hob.
xii -li'6.) Christ is styled the First-born of God, (Ps. lxu.ix.27i
136 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
Heb. i. 6;) also the "first-born of every creature," as bemff
before all things the IJeirinning and Head of creat.-on, (Col
i. 15;) again, th.- " iirst-begotten from the dead," .1.- being the
Beginning of the resurrection, and the Uead of the whole family
of believers, who are yet to rise. (Rev. i. 5.)
AUDITION. The practice of adopting sons has prevailed to
some extent in every age, among different nations. By this
act, an entire stranger by birth might be received into a man's
family as his own child, and thus become entitled to every pri-
vilege which actual sonship could expect. We find one instance
of this in the history of Moses; Pharaoh's daughter took him
to be her son. (Ex. ii. 10.) Daughters were sometimes adopted
in the same manner; an example of which we have in the case
of Esther: "When her father and mother were dead, Mordecai
took her for his own daughter." (Esth. ii. 7.) It is not clear
that this way of receiving children was very common among
the Jews; but they could not but be familiar with its practice,
as it existed in other countries, especially in latter times, when
they were brought, by their national calamities, to mingle so
much with people among whom the custom was general. The
Scriptures, accordingly, make several allusions to it. God is
said to adopt persons into his family, when, by his grace, he
converts them from the power of sin, and gives them, through
Jesus Christ, a title to the rich inheritance of his people. To
as many as receive Christ, is given power to become the sons of
God. (John i. 12.) They are then no more foreigners and
strangers, but fellow-citizens with the saints, and of the house-
hold of God. (Eph. ii. 19.) The spirit of adoption is seat
forth into their hearts, whereby they cry, Abba, Futhrr ; and
they become assured of an eternal inheritance, being made heirs
of God, and joint-heirs with Jesus Christ, (Horn, viii. 14 17.)
SECTION III.
OF SLAVES.
SLAVERY seems to have existed before the flood. Noah
speaks of it as a thing well known. Among the ancient patri-
archs it was very common. The servant* of whom we hear in
tht history of their times, were properly slaves, who might he.
Sought and sold without any regard to their own will. Some
.if the richer shepherds, like Abraham and Job, appear to have
had thousands of them belonging to their households. The
government of the master, however, was probably, in these
of the mildest kind ; no that it would be considered
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 137
privilege, by such as were not able to establish a great, inde-
pendent family for themselves, to be admitted as servants into
the prince-like household of another, beneath the protection of
whose power they might dwell in safety and comfort. By the
law of Moses, no Jew could be held, by one of his own country-
men, as a bond-servant or slave for life. Unless he himself in-
sisted on staying with his master, he became free after a service
of six years ; and whenever the year of Jubilee came, all He-
brew servants, whatever had been their time of past service,
were to be dismissed with liberty, as a matter of course. (Ex.
xxi. 2 6, Lev. xxv. 39 55.) Strangers might be kept in
continual bondage. They were acquired, either by being made
captive in war, or by purchase : the children of servants were,
by their birth, placed in the same state ; these were distin-
guished by the name of home-born, or born in the house. A
man might also become a servant, on account of a debt which
he could not pay. (2 Kings iv. 1, Matt, xviii. 25.) Some-
times, a man oppressed with poverty sold himself to a mas-
ter. The law denounced sentence of death against the person
who should steal a fellow-being, to sell him for a slave. (Ex.
xxi. 16.)
By their law, the Jews were required to treat their servants
arith humanity ; and particular commandments were given, to
secure for them several important privileges, both of a civil and
of a religious kind. (Ex. xxi. 20, 26, 27, xx. 10 ; Deut. xii.
18, xvi. 11.) In a large household, the servant who was con-
sidered most faithful and discreet, was placed over the rest, as
superintendent, in the general management of the house. He
was called the Steward. Such was Eliezer, in the house of
Abraham. (Gen. xv. 2, xxiv. 2.) Ministers of the gospel are
styled, in thp New Testament, " Stewards of the mysteries and
of the manifold grace of God j" because they are principal ser-
vants in tbu household of Christ, appointed to watch o\er its
iffairs, ai>'l intrusted, in a peculiar manner, with the distribu-
tion of its spiritual provisions. (1 Cor. iv. 1, 2, 1 Pet. iv. 10 )
This is a trust that calls for the greatest diligence and the
most vigilant care ; unfaithfulness in the discharge of its du-
ties, will be visited with dreadful punishments. (Matt, xxiv
4551.)
Tie condition of slaves among the Gentile nations, especially
the Greeks and the Komans, was far less tolerable than among
the Jews. They were not supported by those to whom they
belonged, and yet were allowed to have only the smallest pri-
vate possessions; these, moreover, were entirely subjected to
the will of thcMr masters. To them, the rest of the Sabbath
12*
138 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
never came, and no sacred festival interrupted the course of
thrir labour, with its regular and joyful return. Among the
Romans, slaves were considered no better than cattle, without
any civil or religious right : the law protected them with no
are ; the master ruled them with unrestrained authority. For
the smallest offences, they were cruelly scourged; and when
the wrath of the owner was greatly kindled, he might cause
them to suffer a painful death. The common way of inflicting
capital punishment upon slaves, was by the cross. It was not
unusual to brand them ; sometimes, by way of punishment,
and often, merely for the sake of marking them with their
master's *'V/, so that they could not escape, if they ever wi>hed
io run away. The brand was burned, generally, upon the fore-
head, and sometimes on the hand. Soldiers were frequently
branded on the hand, in a similar manner. This was a custom
of very ancienl times. From it, probably, arose another cus-
tom, not uncommon in idolatrous countries, of receiving a brand
or mark in the body, as a sign of obedience and consecration to
some particular false god. The Jews were forbidden to print
any marks upon themselves, perhaps with reference to some hea-
then custom of this kind. (Lev. xix. 28.) There is allusion to
the practice, in the book of Revelation : " He caused all, both
small and great, rich and poor, free and bond, to receive a mark
in their riyht hand or in their furehcuds." ^Ilev. xiii. 16.)
The apostle alludes to the custom of branding slaves, in his
epistle to the Galatiany: "I bear in my body the marks (or
brands) of the Lord Jesus." (Gal. vi. 17.) These marks were
the scars of wounds, received for the sake of Christ, which,
wherever he went, si owed him to be the property of that glo-
rious Master
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
CHAPTER VII.
DISEASES AND FUNERAL CUSTOMS.
SECTION I.
OF DISEASES.
SICKNESS and death are the melancholy fruit of sin. Were
there no sin in the universe, there would be in it neither pain
nor sorrow. The innumerable forms of suffering that crowd
upon human experience, in this world, are but innumerable
signs of guilt in the sight of a holy God. Death entered into
the world by sin, and furnishes the sad evidence of that most
awful evil, wherever it is found. ('Rom. v. 12 14.) It was,
thm-tore, no vain imagination, wnich led the ancient Israel-
ites to refer their diseases to the displeasure of God ; for al-
though they come, for the most part, according to the laws of
nature, without any miraculous interference of the Almighty,
we are to remember that those laws have no necessity ex-
cept in His appointment, and that His appointment, in thif
case, has, from the beginning, flowed, according to his OWD
word, from holy indignation against sin. Hence, Moses, the
man of God, in the beautiful Psalm which he composed on the
subject of human frailty and mortality, ascribes all to this la-
mentable source : " Thou turnest man to destruction, and say-
est, Return, ye children of men. Thou earnest them away as
with a flood ; they are as a sleep ! In the morning, they are
like grass which groweth up : in the morning it flourisheth
and groweth up; in the evening, it is cut down, and wither-
eth ! Far we are consumed by thine anger, and by thy wrath
are we troubled. Thou hast set our iniquities before thee t our
secret sins in the light of thy countenance. For all our <luys
are passed away in thy wrath " (Ps. xc. 3 12.) In like man-
ner, David piously acknowledges the hand of God : " 1 was
dumb, and opened not my mouth, because Thou didst it ! Re-
move thy stroke away from me : I am consumed by the blow
ti/'tlii/H- /nun/! When Thou with rebukes dost correct man
for iniquity, Thou makest his beauty to consume away like a
moth !" (Ps. xxxix. 911.)
But, besides the ordinary diseases which, in the righteous
providence of God, were appointed to be the natural and yene*
140 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
mi scotu^s of human depravity among tiie Jews, a* among all
other people, there were others of a more <-.rtrnnlinnrii and
peculiar kind, which they were taught to ascribe to no natural
source whatever, but to the direct power of some unseen and
unearthly agency. Sometimes, the finger of the Almighty was
put forth, to blast, as it were, by ita immediate touch, the
vigour of health and life. More commonly, however, an infe-
rior ministry was employed to execute his will. Either an
angel, rejoicing to do his commandments, rushed from his
presence on the errand of judgment and wrath; or some foul
spirit of hell, permitted in his holy counsels to pass over the
common boundaries of its restraint, went forth with malicious
satisfaction, and inflicted the heavy stroke. In Egypt, at the
dead hour of midnight, Jehovah went through the land, and
smote all the first-born, "from the first-born of Pharaoh that
sat on his throne, unto the first-born of the captive that was in
the dungeon; and all the first-born of cattle." (Ex. xii. 23, 29.)
So in the days of David, we are informed that the Lord sent
a pestilence upon Israel, which destroyed seventy thousand
men as it passed over the land. This was no natural plague;
the angel of the Almighty was sent forth to accomplish iti
destruction, and was discovered to the guilty monarch himscli,
standing between earth and heaven, with a drawn sword iv
his hand, stretched out over Jerusalem. (1 Chron. xxi
12 16.) Thus also in the camp of the impious Sennacherib
an angel smote, in one night, an hundred and eighty-five tli'm
sand men, so that "in the morning they were all dead corpses."
(2 Kings xix. 35.) In much later times, Herod, because hi
gave not glory to God, was smitten by an angel's hand, and
in consequence, was eaten of worms, so as to give up the
ghost. (Acts xii. 23.) We have an example of the agency of
evil spirits, in the case of Job, whom Satan, by permission of
God, afflicted with sorest disease. Saul, the first king of Israel,
was troubled greatly by a i evil spirit from the Lord. But in
the time of our Saviour, an unusual liberty seems to have been
given to the devil and his angels. They were suffered, in a
great number of cases, to take complete possession of the
bodies of men, to govern them according to their own will,
and distress them with various forms of painful and unhappy
disease.
The unfortunate person with whom one or more of these
unclean spirits thus took up a residence, was deprived, to a
greater or less extent, of the free use of his natural powers.
Sometimes, particular organs of his body were entirely re-
nrained from doing their office : thus he became deaf ; or dumb
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 141
>r blind, or afflicted with other similar calamities. At other
i hues, the spirit itself acted through the organs of the sufferer,
so that he only seemed to act, and in reality, had no control
whatever over the movements of his own body. Thus, when
a person possessed with a devil appeared to speak, it was often
tin- case that he himself had not the smallest agency in pro-
ducing the words or the sound; his organs of speech were
iiiiivcd altogether by the demon within, so as to utter what it
pleased. So, in like manner, the wretched demoniac was fre-
quently driven, by a force which he had no disposition or power
of himself to exert, into the most extravagant and unruly ac-
tions. We read of such being compelled to go forth into wild
and lonely places, and take up their abode in the tombs, with-
out house and without clothing; and from these desolate hiding
places they rushed forth with amazing strength, on all that
passed by that way, handling them with the greatest violence :
neither could they be kept with chains and fetters; but, with
prodigious power, they would break them, and rush forth again
to the wilderness, hurried away by the unholy spirit. Of an-
other, we read that the spirit often caused him to fall into the
fire and into the water, or threw him down and tare him with
exceeding cruelty. We are not to suppose, however, that the
evil was confined, in all cases of possession, merely to the body ;
or that, while this was actuated like a machine, in some in-
stances, by the unclean spirit, the mind of the sufferer was
always free from disorder. This, also, not unfrequently, per-
haps always in some degree, seems to have fallen under the
satanic influence. Sometimes, it was brought under the
power of a deep and wretched melancholy, which destroyed its
energy and spoiled its social sympathies, and stamped upon the
outward visage the expression of sullen and settled gloom. At
other times, a more wild insanity seized upon the soul ; ma-
lignant and hateful passions burst forth without control; and,
occasionally, a fierce ungovernable phrcnsy carried its derange-
ment through the whole inward man, and drove him to the
utmost extreme of extravagance and madness. Hence, one
person who was under the power of an unclean spirit, is called,
in the New Testament, a lunatic. (Matt. xvii. 15, compared
with Luke ix. 3H 40.) And of another it is said, that he was
found, after the demons had been cast out by the command of
Christ, sitting " clothed and in hi* right mind." (Mark v. 15.)
From the fact that persons possessed with devils were generally
more or less disordered in mind, in the different ways we have
mentioned above, it became common to ascribe to the same
source, bv way of reproach and scoff, any language or conduot
142 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
in anoiher uliich seomed unreasonable or absurd. Thus tb
phrase to have a devil, was often used to signify that the per-
son of whom it was said acted in a strange, offensive manner,
or talked with extravagance and nonsense; as we say of a man
in such cases, he. dreams; lie, rave*; he has lo$ his sensrg ; hf
i* crazy, &c. When John the Baptist came, with his austere
manuer, refusing to taste the common enjoyments of social
life, and rigorously confining himself to the simplest and most
frugal diet, many of the Jews said : " He hath a devil." His
conduct appeared to them unreasonable and unlovely, savouring
of the unsociable melancholy which often hung over the demo-
niac's mind, and led him to delight in wild, uncomfortable
solitude, more than in the society of men. (Matt. xi. 18.)
So, also, on one occasion, they said to our Saviour, "Thou hast
a devil :" meaning to charge him with falsehood and nonsense.
On another, some of them exclaimed, "He hath a devil, and
is mad; why hear ye him?" (John vii. 20, x. 20.)
.Many of our Saviour's miracles, while on earth, were
wrought for the deliverance of persons who were suffering un-
der the dominion of evil spirits. He cast them out by a word.
The same power he gave likewise to his disciples; and for some
considerable time after his departure from the world, devils
were compelled, by the authority of his name, to come out of
multitudes into whom they had entered. There were, at the
same time, a class of persons among the Jews, who pretended
to cast out devils by various kinds of incantations and drugs.
These were called A'/o/v/s/s. Such were the seven sons of
Sceva, a principal priest, and certain other vagabond Jews of
Ephesus, who took upon them to use the name of Jesus, as a
mere charm, for this purpose. (Acts xix. 13 16.) It was to
this class of men among the Jews, that our Lord referred, in
that question to the Pharisees: "If I by Beelzebub cast out
devils, by whom do your children cast them out?" (Matt,
xii. 27.)
On the subject of those extraordinary visitations of sickness
and death, which, as we learn from the Bible, God has at times
sent upon men, by an instrumentality more than natural, it
way be remarked, that the calamity did not, in all such cases,
approach under some strange and unheard-of form, or without
any appearance of natural disorder, so that the touch of an in-
visible hand might be clearly manifest. In many instances,
no doubt, the secret agency was exerted simply to produce
Home violent and desperate disease, which, on other occasions
sprang from a purely natural cause, and which would effectually
accomplish the intended purpose. To the eyes of men, there-
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 14b
fore, an individual might sometimes seem to be sickiug undei
futal sickness, without any thin;: miraculous, whiie, in reality,
the supernatural stroke of Heaven was crushing him to the
grave. Thus when the angel smote Herod, it is probable that
his friends and attendants ascribed the calamity to a mere natu-
ral di.sease which was not very uncommon in the east: it was
enough that the persecuted followers of Christ could discover
the operation of a higher hand, and perceive the glory of Zion's
God, in the awful but righteous judgment. And is it unrea-
sonable to suppose that the hand of the Almighty may still
move, at times, in the same mysterious way, to accomplish hia
holy purpose ? May not the angel of destruction, as in ancient
years, still go forth occasionally from before the Eternal Throne,
on his errand of vengeance and death ? Who will undertake
to say that the profane and licentious sinner, cut off so gene-
rally in the midst of his days, is in no case taken away by the
unseen stroke of such a messenger? It matters not that the
sword of wrath is not openly revealed, glittering over its victim
or sinking into his bosom, and that the thoughtless crowd will
not perceive the judgment of a righteous God; there may be,
still, a sufficient manifestation of His presence, to leave the
ungodly without excuse, in refusing to notice the operation of
his hands, while the righteous and the truly wise are led to
consider and understand. There may be, too, a reason for such
an extraordinary interposition in the holy character of Jehovah
himself, which, without respect to the display of his justice in
the eyes of men, may require unusual, and, as it were, un-
tinu'ly dispensations of wrath, in cases of uncommon transgres-
sion ; thus, also, the guilt of the offender may receive its more
appropriate recompense in the appalling dismay which must
seize upon his soul, on finding himself thus dragged, as it were,
by the grasp of his Maker, before his insulted throne.
From the representation which has just been given, it ap-
pears that no absolute and marked distinction, as to appearance
and character, existed universally, between maladies of a mere-
ly natural kind, sent in the general providence of God, and
those which proceeded from the direct and extraordinary
stroke of his power. Any fatal disease might become the
channel of the Divine displeasure, as it flowed thus, in its un-
wontcd stream, from the Fountain of holiness and truth.
Still, there were certain forms of disorder more generally em-
ployed lor this purpose than others. On this acconnt, these
came to be associated, in a jx-cnliar manner, with the idea of
anger and judgment from Heaven, and were commonly con-
sidered to proceed from the presence of God, if not altogether
144 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
with miraculous visitation, yet at least with more direct and
special appointment than the other ordinary calamities of life.
Such, in a particular manner, were the Pestilence and the
L< proxy.
THE PESTILENCE, or Plague, is a terrible distemper, known
in the east from the earliest ages down to the present time.
It arises from a poisoned condition of the air, and, while it
lasts, scatters desolation and death over the whole region of its
influence. The symptoms of the disorder are painful and vio-
lent, commencing generally with cold shivering of the frame.
Soon a burning fever succeeds, with distrcssini: j>:iiu about the
heart, and swelling in the flesh. All is quickly trrmiuatnl,
in most cases, with miserable death, which comes often in a
few hours, and, at the farthest, after two or three days. The
plague has sometimes raged, at one time, over different coun-
tries, for several thousand miles in extent ; thus the whole of
Asia, the greater part of Europe, and a large portion of Africa,
(making up the principal part of the inhabited world,) have been
wasted at once, with the awful scourge. Nor has it, in every
case, endured but for a season or a single year ; for fifteen
years together its ravages have been felt ; and on one occasion,
as history relates, the whole period of half a century was dis-
tinguished by the long havoc of a wide-spread pestilence. The
pestilence was frequently employed by God, in the execution
of his extraordinary judgments. (Num. xi. 33, xvi. 45 50,
xxv. 9.) The destruction of the Israelites, in the time of David,
by the hand of the angel, was accomplished, as we are told, in
the way of a pestilence. (2 Sam. xxiv. 13, 15.) It was pro-
bably by the same method of destruction, that the Assyrian
camp was so dreadfully spoiled, in the days of Hezekiah. We
are not to imagine*, however, that the plague, in Scripture,
always means this particular disease, called the pestilence. It
is frequently used to signify any great calamity whatever.
Such are the plagues mentioned in the book of Revelation.
Any rapid, desolating destruction might well be called a
plague.
THK LEPROSY. It should be matter of thankfulness with
us, that this loathsome and afflicting disease is not known to
is, except by report from other times or from other regions of
the world. It has always been peculiar to warm climates,
and in such, especially in Egypt and other regions of the East,
it is still found, agreeing, in all its general symptoms, with the
description of its ancient character, as left in the IJible by
Moses. The disease seems to commence deep in the system
of the body, and generally acquires a thorough settlement in
BIBJICAL ANTIQUITIES. 145
the* person of its victim, before it di^-overs itself on the outward
akin. It may lie thus concealed, even for a number of years ;
especially when it is seated in the constitution by birth, as it
often is, when it does not commonly unfold its outward symp-
toms, until the child is grown up to years of maturity. After
its appearance too, it does not proceed with any rapid ruin.
Not until a number of years, does it reach its full perfection
of disorder ; and not until a number more have passed away,
does this disorder terminate in death. A leprous person may
live twenty or thirty, or if he receives the disease with his
birth, forty or e\ 'n fifty years; but years of such dreadful
misery must they be, that early death might seem to be better
The horrible malady advances with slow but certain steps, from
one stage of evil to another, diffusing its poison through the
whole frame, while the principle of life is still suffered to lin-
ger in the midst of the desolation ; and one after another the
pillars of strength are secretly undermined and carried away,
till the spirit finds, ere yet she can escape from its imprison-
ment, the bouse of her earthly tabernacle literally crumbling,
on every side, into dissolution and dust. The bones and the
marrow are pervaded with the disease, so that the joints of the
hands and feet gradually lose their powers, and the limbs of the
body fall together in such a manner as to give a most deformed
and dreadful appearance to the whole person. There is a form
of the disorder, known in some places, in which the joints, be-
ginning with the furthest of the fingers and toes, one after an-
other separate and fall off, and the miserable sufferer slowly falls
in pieces to the grave. Outwardly, the leprosy discovers itself
in a number of small spots, which generally appear first on the
face, about the nose and eyes, but after some time on other
parts of the body, till it is all covered over. At first these spots
have the appearance of small reddish pimples, but they gradu-
ally spread i-i sizo, till after some years they become as lar^c
as a pea or bean, in the surface which they cover. When
scratched, af their itchy character constantly solicits, a thin
moisture oozes out of them, which soon dries and hardens into
a scaly crust; so that, when the disease reaches its perfect
Btate, the whole body becomes covered with a foul, whitish
scurf. Particular directions were given in the law of Moses, to
distinguish the spot of the real leprosy from others, that might
resemble it in appearance. These are contained in the thir-
teenth chapter of Leviticus.
There are various kinds of leprosy, some, more malignant
and loathsome than others. According to the appearance of its
spots, it is called by different names. There is a white, a block,
146 BILLICAL ANTIQUITIES
and a red leprosy. It has been generally supposed, that on
of ite most dreadful and disgusting forms was selected bj
Satan, when he smote righteous Job " with sore boils, from tlie
pole of his foot unto his crown ;" o that " he took him a pot-
gherd to scrape himself withal, and sat down among the ashes,"
in deep distress. How horrible and dismal must have been the
ruin, wrought in his person by that deforming distemper, when
his friends wei-e unable to recognise his appearance ; " they
lifted up their eyes afar off, and knew him not !" They were
overwhelmed with the picture of misery ; " they lifted up their
voice and wept; and they rent every one his mantle, and
sprinkled dust on their heads, toward heaven. So they sat
down with him upon the ground, seven days and seven nights,
and none spake a word unto him ; for they saw that his grief
was ver} great !" Who can read, without emotion, the strong
and affecting language, in which the sufferer himself deseribes
his calamity, and pours forth the complaints which it wrung
from his bosom ! u that my grief were thoroughly weighed,
and my calamity laid in the balances together! For now it
would be heavier than the sand of the sea : therefore my words
are swallowed up. For the arrows of the Almighty are within
me, the poison whereof drinketh up my spirit; the terrors of
God do set themselves in array against me ! I am made to pos-
sess months of vanity, and wearisome nights are appointed to
me. When I lie down, I say, When shall I arisr, and the night
be gone 1 and I am full of tossings to and fro, unto the dawn-
ing of the day. My flesh is clothed with worms and clods of
the dust ; my skin is broken and become loathsome. My
kinsfolk have failed, and my familiar friends have forgotten me.
They that dwell in my house, and my maids, count me for a
stranger ; I am an alien in their sight ! I called my servant,
and he gave me no answer; I entreated him with my mouth.
My breath is strange to my wife, though I entreated for the
children's sake of mine own btdy ! Have pity upon me, have
pity upon me, ye my friei<ds, for the hand of God hath
touched me ?"
This shocking disease is contagious ; so that it is dangerous
to have much intercourse with leprous persons. On this ac-
count, it was wisely ordered among the Jews, that such should
dwell alone, "all the days wherein the plague should be in
them," and should be held unclean, so that no one might touch
them without defilement. Hence too, it was so strictly en-
joined, that the earliest appearance of any thing like the spot
of leprosy should be immediately and thoroughly examined
The leper, in whom the plague was ascertained really to exwt ,
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 147
*as ipquired also to distinguish himself, by having his clothes
rent, his head bare, and his lip covered, (all of which were
common signs of deep sorrow ;) and to warn others from coin-
ing near him, by crying out, Cndcan ! unclean! (Lev. xiii.
}>, 4<.) The leprosy is still more fearful, as it may be handed
down from one generation to another by birth. The leprosy
of a father descends to his son and even to his grand-children
of the third and fourth generations, assuming indeed a milder
form, as it passes down, but still showing some of its dis-
agreeable effects, in each successive case.
The leprosy was regarded, among the Jews, as a disease
seat, in a peculiar manner, from the hand of God, and de-
signed to mark his displeasure against some great sin, found
in the person who suffered its affliction. Nor was this idea
without some support, in the dispensations of judgment which
their history recorded, and in the especial solemnity with which
that disease is noticed in the Levitical law. When Miriam
was punished for reproaching Moses, she was miraculously
smitten with this malady in its full state. So when Gehazi
sinned, the hateful scurf settled like snow upon his body, at
the word of the prophet, and its plague descended to his seed
after him. Thus also, when Uzziah the king profanely under-
took to burn incense in the house of God, the leprosy burst
out on his forehead, in the very act. (Numb. xii. 10, 2 Kings
v. 27, 2 Chron. xxvi. 16, 23.) No medicines appear t<> have
been employed for its cure ; the sufferer looked for relief, to
the compassion of God, without hope from the remedies of
human skill. When it pleased the Almighty to heal a leper,
the law appointed very peculiar ceremonies to be observed, for
his cleansing ; as may be seen by reading the fourteenth chap
ter of Leviticus. Our Saviour was careful to remind such,
when he restored them to health, of their duty in this respect,
bidding them to show themselves to the priest, and offer the
commanded gift. (Matt. viii. 4, Mark i. 44, Luke xvii. 14.)
The leprosy, in the peculiar character which it held under
the ceremonial system of the Jews, as well as in its natural
features of horror, was a striking emblem of the evil of sin.
Tliis great moral disease fixed itself, with like strong hold, in
the constitution of the soul, and spread its awful poison through
its whole nature. The grace of sj iritual life and health withers
before its defiling contagion ; loathsome and abominable ulcers
break forth in every part, leaving no vestige of soundness or
Ivauty ; and the universal system sinks into disorder and ine-
luncholy wreck, proceeding from one woful stage of ruin still
onward to another and a worse. This is the true u
148 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
plague, which separates the soul from the presence "f God
and shuts it out from the glorious camp of Heaven; which
calls for deepest lamentation, and sorrow, and forbids every
feeling of solid contentment or peace. The undcanii s the
separation from the earthly congregation of Israel, and the
sorrow and shame which the law appointed in cases of natural
leprosy, were but typical shadows of these far more moment-
ous things. So were the ceremonies of purification, which it
prescribed, but emblematic images of that great mysterious
method of mercy, whereby the blood of Jesus Christ purges
the conscience from dead works, so that the sinner may draw
near to the living God with acceptance. (Heb. ix. 13, 14.)
This disorder will not yield to the medicines of human art ;
it cannot be cured by any other than a Divine power. The blood
of Christ alone can cleanse from its deep pollution; his Spirit
only can destroy its malignant force. To him the soul must
come, like the leper of old, casting itself down at his feet and
crying, " Lord, if thou wilt, Thou canst make me clean !" He
is still ready to answer, with that transporting word, "I will ;
be thou clean."
Of the other diseases which were oommon at different times
among the Jews, it is not necessary to say any thing. They
were less remarkable in their chancier, and generally such as
are not uncommon in other parts of the world at the present
day, if not exactly under the saire form, yet with no material
difference.
In the time of Christ, it was the custom, in many eas<--, t<>
anoint tin- sick with oil. This was counted a remedy in some
particular diseases, and was originally applied merely on ac-
count of its natural healing power. It came, however, to be
abused by the Jews, as a magical charm. That people, in
later ag->, gave themselves up very much to the folly of en-
chantments and superstitious rites of various kinds; some
such form of sorcery seems to have grown into use, in making
applications of oil to the sick, whereby it was thought the
remedy would be rendered poverful and certain. When the
disciples of our Lord were sent forth, they thought proper not
to neglect tliis common sign of healing, although the cures
which they performed were altogether miraculous; "they an-
ointed with oil many that were sick and healed them." (Marl-
\ 5. ]''.} So the apostle James di reels the elders, to pray over
(lie sick, "anointing him with oil in the name of the Lor.l ; "
\iy which he means, that //////, th-'v observe the customary
usage, in this matter, they should d<> it in the name of Christ,
nd with prayer to him for healing power, when his blc.--
Miiiiruii
p. H9
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 149
ought be expected to raise the sick to life and health. (James
v. 14.) There might be, perhaps, in the exhortation, a refer-
ence to the superstitious manner in which the Jews sought to
render the application effectual j as if he had said, " Be ye not
like unto them." " I show unto you a more excellent way."
SECTION II.
CUSTOMS WHICH ATTENDED DEATH AND BURIALS.
WHEN a person died, some one of his nearest friends im-
mediately closed his eyes. The relations rent their garments,
from the neck downward in front to the girdle, and a cry of
lamentation and sorrow tilled the room. This continued, burst-
ing forth at intervals, until the corpse was carried away from
the house. In many cases, the ceremonies of grief lasted eight
days; for kings or other persons of distinguished rank, the
time was extended commonly to a whole mouth, or thirty da/s.
(Numb. xx. 29, Deut. xxxiv. 8.) It was usual, at the death
of individuals of any importance, to employ some women to
act as mourners on the occasion These were not friends of
the deceased, but persons whose professed business it was to
conduct the ceremonies of wailing and lamentation, whenever
they were wanted, and who received always some compensa-
tion for their services. They chanted, in doleful strains, the
virtues of the dead, thus raising, to a higher pitch, the sorrow-
ful feelings of the relations, and causing them to find relief in
floods of gushing tears. Such were the mourn fn</ women of
whom the prophet speaks, in his pathetic lamentation over the
miseries that were coming on his country. (Jer. ix. 17 20,
Amos v. 16.) These waitings were often accompanied with
some melancholy music of instruments. (Matt. ix. 23.) The
company of mourners did not confine their songs of lamenta-
tion to the house ; when the funeral procession moved to the
grave, they accompanied it, all the way, filling the air with sad-
ness, and compelling others to weep with their mournful sounds.
The children in the streets sometimes imitated these cere-
monies in their playful sports ; as we learn from that compari-
son employed by our Saviour, \h which children are represented
as complaining to their fellows, in the markets or public places,
that they would not bear their part in any play which was pro-
posed to them : " We have piped unto you, and ye have not
danced ; we have mourned unto you, (that is, sang mournful
funeral songs,) and ye have not lamented," according to the
custom of such occasions. (Matt. xi. 16, 17.)
50 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
Besides rending the garment, sorrow was expressed, nt times
by beating the breast; tearing the hair; uncovering the h"ad ;
walking barefoot; covering the liffter more properly tin chirr
scattering ashes or dust into the air; putting "n sick-cloth,
and spreading ashes over the head, or sitting down in the midst
of them. Sometimes they tore their faces with their nail*,
and wounded their flesh with painful cuttings; though this
was a heathenish practice, expressly forbidden in the Jewish
law. (Lev. xix. 28, Deut. xiv. 1, 2.) It was common also, to
take off the ornaments of dress, and neglect all attention to
personal appearance ; they refused to anoint their heads, to
wash themselves, to dress their hair, to trim their beards, or
to indulge themselves with any of the common comforts of
life. (2 Sam. i. 2, 11, xiii. 19, xiv. 2, xv. 30, xix. 4, 24.)
These forms were not, of course, all, or even most of them,
employed on common occasions of grief, or confined by any
means to funeral seasons; they were the general sii'ii- of afflic-
tion, on any account, and were displayed to a iriv.it r or ! -s
extent, according to the measure of sorrow, real or pretended,
which it was designed to express.
After death, the body was washed. (Acts ix. 37.) From a
natural, though foolish, desire to preserve tin- remains of be-
loved friends, as long as possible, from corruption, it b.-emi--
Common to use various methods of embalm in//. We read of
this practice in the history of the most ancient times. Jacob
and Joseph were embalmed, with great care, in tho land of
Egypt. No people ever equalled the ancient Egyptians in this
art. Their physicians, who were at the same time priests, had
three methods of embalming; one far more expensive and
effectual than the other two, which was not therefore u- <!
except when persons of great rank, or at least considerab'p
wealth, died. In this case, the entrails were taken out of tl.e
body, by an opening in the left side, and the brain drawn 1'n in
the head, with a crooked piee* of iron, through the nostrils:
then the inside of the b > ly w:- .v i-l, 1 wit-, .vl; r' the palm
tree and filled with aroma/ i<- -;i'> ' uicas : spiets of the strongest
kind were crowded into th" skull : the whole body was anointed
with a composition of myrrh and other powerful preservatives,
and afte.rw-irds kept for a number of day- in a solution of the
salt of nitre : lastly, it was wrapped rouiid with mum-ron*
folds of linen, dipped in oil of myrrh, and besmeared with
gum. This process occupied forty, or more days. The other
methods were less complete, but were more commonly used on
mt of their cheapness. When the body was embalmed,
it wa.s returned to the relations, who put it into a box of syca-
niBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
151
aiore woxl, so fashioned as to resemble the human form, and
sel it up in some part of the house, leaning against the wall.
In this way bodies were often kept, for ages. Sometimes the
box or coffin was placed in a tomb, or family vault. Bodies
embalmed in the first way have been preserved for some
thousands of years; some of them are still found in Egypt,
preserved, without doubt, from most an-
cient times, and are now called mummies.
We have no account of any sort of em-
balm ing used by the more ancient Jews.
It is probable, however, that they were
not without some practice of the kind,
as we find it common in later .
Their method was far more simple than
that of Egypt. It seems to have been
generally little more than wrapping the
body round with several folds of linen,
well supplied with aromatic substances,
such as aloes and myrrh. Thus, as we
are told. Nit-odeums showed his care for the body of our Sa-
viour, in company with Joseph of Ariinathea, who took it down
from the cross. He " brrught a mixture of myrrh and aloes,
about an hundred pound weight: then took they the body of
Jesus, and irnmul it in linen clothes with (he s/mv., "s the man-
ner of the Jeii-K !.< to l/nry." (John xix. 38, 40.) Mary, with
some other pious women, prepared still more spices and oint-
ments, and carried them early on the first day of the week, to
the sepulchre, to be used in showing respect of a similar kind
to their Lord. (Luke xxiv. 1.) The use of a large quantity
of spices, on such occasions, was expressive of great regard for
the deceased, and was considered au honour to his person.
The Jews used no box or coffin for the dead. The corpse,
wrapped in folds of linen and bound about the face with a nan-
kin, was placed upon a bier, and so carried by bearers to the
tomb. The bier was a kind of narrow bed, consisting, in com-
mon cases, we may suppose, of only a plain and simple frame,
but sometimes prepared with considerable ornament and cost.
The bier or bed in which king Asa was laid after his death,
was " filled with sweet odours, and divers kinds of spices, pre-
pared by the apothecaries' art." (2 Chron. xvi. 14.) On one
of these' funeral frames lay 1 1 3 widow's son, when our Savioui
met the mournful procession, without the city-gate. At hii
almighty word, the dead man immediately sat up. (Luke vii.
15.) It was common, at least in the later times of the nation,
to bury soon after death. It was always inconvenient to keep
152 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
a corpse long, because, by the law, every person who touched
it, or who merely came into the apartment where it lay, was
rendered unclean from the time, a whole week ; and so was cut
off not only from sacred privileges, but also from all intercourse
with friends and neighbours. To be deprived of burial, was
counted, among the Jews, as among ancient nations universally,
a great misfortune and disgrace. (Eccles. vi. 3.) Hence it was
considered not only an act of humanity, but of religious duty
also, to bury the dead ; and the war was deemed uncommonly
cruel, in which the conquerors would not permit the dead
bodies of their enemies to receive this kind attention. (1 Sam.
xxxi. 813, 2 Sam. xxi. 9, 14, 1 Kings xi. 1115, Ps.
Ixxix. 2, 3.) So, the prophets, in their representations of the
iwful calamities of war threatened by God, often make use of
this dreadful image, the carcasses of the unburied slain given
up to be meat for the fowls of heaven and the wild beasts of
the forest. (Jer. xvi. 3 7, xxxiv. 20, Ezek. xxxix 17 20,
Rev. xix. 17, 18.)
The Jewish sepulchres were situated without tl.eir towns
and cities. Jerusalem seems to have been the only city in
which it was ever allowed to bury, and there the privilege was
granted only to the royal family of David, and one or two
other individuals, as a mark of peculiar respect. (2 Chron.
xxiv. 16.) Sepulchres were often private property ; one family
or several families united, having their own separate burial
place. There were, also, however, common and public burial
places, generally some distance out from the city or village, in
a lonely and unfrequented spot. In these, as is not uncommon
in our own country, particular families appear to have had their
separate little lots, often surrounded with a wall like a garden,
where their ancestors for many generations quietly slumbered
together. The private sepulchres were frequently situated in
gardens, and, in early ages especially, beneath the shadow of
some large and venerable trea It was considered a most de-
sirable privilege, to be buried in the sepulchre of one's ances-
tors. (Gen. xlix. 29 32, 2 Sam. xix. 37.) Hence, by way
of disgrace and punishment, wicked kings were sometimes not
permitted to be buried in the tombs of their fathers. (2 Chron.
xxi. 20, xxviii. 27.)
Sepulchres were, in common cases, dug merely in the ground.
Those of the more wealthy and noble were prepared with
greater labour. They were often cut out from rocks, so as to
Form quite a considerable room, surrounded on every side, and
roofed above with the solid stone. Sometimes caverns, formed
by nature, were fitted up for the purpose. In these dark
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 153
.hanihcrb, (he dead wore placed around the sides, each resting
in a separate niche or open cell formed in the wall. Not un-
t'reqiu'utly, sepulchres were very large and divided into several
distinct apartments. They were generally entered by descend
ing a few steps, and where there were more rooms than one
those which were farthest back from the entrance were often
dug somewhat deeper than such as were nearer, so as to have
another little flight of steps leading down to their deep solitude.
The entrance was closed with stone doors, or by a simple large
flat stone placed against the mouth. The sepulchre in which
Lazarus was buried, was a cave, with a stone laid upon it : at
tin- call of Jesus, he came forth from his resting-place, folded
in his grave-clothes, and bound about the face with a napkin.
(John xi. 38, 44.) The sepulchre of Joseph was hewn out in
the rock ; and, when the body of Christ was laid within it,
he rolled a great stone to the door for its security. (Matt,
xxvii. 60.) Several of these ancient sepulchres are still found
in the land of Palestine. They sometimes furnish, as they did
also in ancient times, a hiding-place for thieves and robbers. We
read in the New Testament, of miserable persons, possessed
with devils, taking up their abode in such solitary places. Over
sepulchres, were sometimes erected monuments of more or less
elegance, by way of honour to the buried dead ; as we may
infer from that which is spoken concerning the Pharisees :
" Ye build the tombs of the prophets, and garnish the sepul-
chres of the righteous." (Matt, xxiii. 29.) They made a great
pretence to piety, in constantly repairing and decorating the
places where holy men slept in death, while they imitated all
the wickedness of their fathers in killing them, by their persecu-
tion of Him, concerning whom Moses and all the prophets spake.
In the same chapter, they are compared to " whited sepulchres,
which indeed appear beautiful outward, but within are full of
dead men's bones, and of all uncleanness." Hence we learn
that it was common to white-wash tombs. This might perhaps
have been considered, in some measure, an ornament; but there
appears to have been another reason for the practice. By the
law of Moses, whoever toi ched the bone of a man or a grave,
was rendered unclean for seven days. (Numb. xix. 16.) As
such defilement unfitted a man for the privileges of the sanctu-
ary, it was highly important that the possibility of contracting
i: I'v accident or through ignorance should be prevented; espe-
i-ially at those seasons when the people came from every quarter
uf tlu; country to celebrate the great sacred festivals, at Jeru-
salem. On this account, it became customary to paint the
sepulchres with white, that they might be easily mticed, and 8C
if.l BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
warn those who were passing near thorn, to keep ff. This, iJ
is said, was required to be done a short time before the 1 '
over, each spring, just after the long rains were over; and a*
there were no rains through the summer to wash it off, it lasted
till the next fall. It was only three or four days before the
passover, when our Lord compared the Pharisees to such sepul-
chres, which, we may suppose, were then to be seen with (MM
fresh covering of white on every side of Jerusalem.
A grave < ' sepulchre is sometimes called in Scripture a pit
Hence the pLAlse to yodmcn to tin ///'/ is several times used tc
signify descending into the tomb by death. Thus the Psalmist
complains: "My life draweth near to the grave. I am counted
with them that go down into the pit: I am as a man that hath
no strength; free among the dead, like the slain that lie in the
grave, whom thou remeinberest no more; and they arc cut eff
from thy hand. Thou hast laid me in the loiccst jn't, in dark-
ness in the deeps." (Ps. Ixxxviii. 3 6, 10 12, xxviii. 1,
xxx. 3, 9.) The prophet Ezekiel represents the ruin of several
nations, threatened by the Almighty, in the same style. By
the sword of destruction, they were speedily to be brought
down to the nether parts of the earth, u't'th tin in tlmt </<> ilium
to the pit to lie in their y raves, set in the side* of the pit, that
is, in the funeral niches rauged along the walls of *.he sepul-
chre. (Chap, xxxii.)
HADES. It became common, especially in the language of
poetry, to employ the imagery of a sepulchre in representation
of the ycneral condition of the dead. A vast cavern was con-
ceived, stretching abroad with immense extent, in the deepest
parts of the earth. Continual gloom hung over all its scenery,
and the most profound silence reigned on every side. No step
of living man had ever descended to its unknown depth ; nor
had the eye of such ever discovered one of its secrets. It was
all wrapt in awful mystery 7 ; it was the land of silence; it was
the region and shadow of death. Round its sides, the forms
of departed men rested, every one in his separate place; and
when its powerful gates unfolded, it was but to admit some new
inhabitant to its dreary mansion, as he came from his statu
among the living on earth, to mingle with the countless multi-
tudes below. This unseer unknown condition of the dead,
was called, in the ancient language of the Jews, Sheol; and iu
the Greek language, which was used in writing the New Testa-
ment, Hades. In the English Bible, it is sometimes stylrd
simply the Crave^ at other times, it is designated by tin \v<rd
U'll. In the 32d chapter of Ezekiel, lately referred to. some-
hiiig of this image of the general state of those who have left the
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES 105
*orld is presented to our view. The prophet is commanded to
cast down Egypt with her multitude, and all the daughters of the
famous nations, unto the nether parts of the earth, with them
that go down to the pit ; that is, according to the style of prophe-
cy, to pronounce the decree of utter ruin which God had deter-
mined against these people. Then, the kingdoms are severally
represented, as if they were themselves human persons, taking
their places in the deep region of silence; while around each, the
multitude of her mighty ones, once terrible in the land of the
living, but now slain and fallen by the sword, lie without
strength, and without glory, round the sides of the pit in the
vast abyss of Sheol, Hades, or Hell. In the 14th chapter of
I siiah, the image is brought forward with full and clear repre
sentation, in one of the most magnificent pictures which the
inspired poetry of the Bible has described. The powerful and
oppressive monarch of Babylon is suddenly cut off from power
and life. The earth, for gladness, breaks forth into singing ; the
fir trees and the cedars rejoice. But not only the world which
lie has left is made to exult in his fall ; Sheol from beneath is
moved to meet him at his coming: it stirreth up the dead for
him, even all the chief ones of the earth, and raiseth up all tho
kings of the nations from their thrones. "Art thou," they cry,
"also become weak as we? art thou become like unto us? Thy
pomp is brought down to the Grave!"
This Sheol, or Hades, is the Hell intended in that expression
of the Psalmist : " Thou wilt not leave my soul in hell, or suffer
thy Holy One to see corruption." (Ps. xvi. 10.) The apostle
Peter teaches us that David, in this declaration, spake of the
resurrection of Christ, foretelling that his soul should not be
left in hell, or his flesh see corruption ; that is, that he should
not continue in the condition of the dead, like other mortals,
but, by the power of God, would soon forsake their dark and
silent world, in all the fulness of recovered life. (Acts ii.
25 32.) This also is the Hell of which John speaks in that
passage ; " I looked, and behold a pale horse : and his name
that sat on him was Death, and hell followed with him." (Rev.
vi. 8.) So, likewise, in his awful description of the last judg-
ment; "The sea gave up the dead which were in it; and death
and hell delivered up the dead which were in them. And
death and hell were cast into the lake of fire." (Rev. xx. 12, 13.)
Death and Ildl, or ffadett, are represented as real persons : the
last receives all its power directly through the triumphs of the
former, and wher the one is compelled to release its captives,
the dominion of tin other is also over. So it shall be ir the
end: the whole mysterious state of separation between tite
156 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
body and spirit shall come to an everlasting conclusion; Death
and Hull shall lie t'-T ever stripped of their undent power
swallowed up, as it wore, in that infinitely more tremendous
ruin which is to follow. That, will be the sccontt < faith the
lake that burueth with fire and brimstone, where the ungodly
shall be tormented day and night for ever and ever the true
/A // where the lost soul, having, between death and judgment,
tasted tin- awful punishment of sin only in its single state, shall
ever after, in union with its risen body, drink the wine of the
wrath of God poured out, without mixture, into the cup of his
indignation. Blessed is he who shall have part in the resur-
rection of the just unto eternal life, on whom t^ia second death
shall have no power !
This mysterious, unknown mansion of the dead, was con-
ceived to lie in the deepest region of the earth, toward its low-
est foundations as far beneath its upward surface as the starry
heavens are lifted above. Hence, its image was frequently
employed to denote any amazing depth, as the heavens wer.:
sometimes used to express, on the other hand, the idea of any
exceeding height. Thus Job; " Canst thou by searching find
out God ? Canst thou find out the Almighty to perfection ?
It is hiyh as heaven, what canst thou do? (/j,,'r //inn /////,
what canst thou know ? The measure thereof is lonyer than
the earth, and broader than the sea !" (Job xi. 7 9.) That
is, without figure, "It is impossible to find out God to perfec-
tion; such knowledge transcends the boundaries of created in-
tellect infinitely, in every way." In similar style, we find the
Psalmist making use of the same images; " If 1 ascend uj into
. Thou art there ! If I make my bed in Ml, behold Thou
art there ! If I take the wings of the morning, and dwell in the
uttermost parts of the sea, even there shall thy hand lead me,
and thy right hand shall hold me !" (Ps. cxxxix. 8 10.) By
which he means, that no height, nor depth, nor distance no
change of place, in any way, however greatr-r-could separate him
from the presence of God. In a like figurative way we must
understand the language of God, in that threatening of old ;
" Though they dig into hell, thence shall my hand take them ;
chough they climb up to heaven, thence will I bring them
down." (Amos ix. 2.) The apostle employs the same style;
" Say not in thy heart, Who shall ascend into heaven ? or,
Who shall descend into the deep ?" That is, the gospel re-
quires no hard or impossible thing it demands only what maj
be accomplished with the greatest ease, if the heart be willing.
(Rom. x. 6 9.) The sentence pronounced against Capernaum,
introduces the contrast with awful meaning ; " Thou, Caper-
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 157
IIJUID, which art exalted to heaven, shall be brought down to
hell !" In other words ; thou shalt sink from the most exulted
condition of privilege and blessing, to the lowest state of
wretchedness under the fearful displeasure of God. (Matt. .\i.
23, Luke x. 15.)
Hades signifies an unseen or hidden place, and well expresses
the klea which the Jews represented under their ancient word
Sheol. Something of its signification is found in the language
of perhaps every people. When it is wanted to speak of the
general condition into which men are brought by death, mere-
ly as it stands contrasted with this present state of life, and
without any respect to its happiness or its misery, some indefi-
nite term or phrase is employed ; which, while it may distin-
guish it from all that belongs to the life we now live, leaves its
precise character utterly out of view, and expresses only its
most vague and universal notion. This notion is naturally
formed, either by clothing that unknown state of being, which
it contemplates, with some general imagery borrowed from the
gloomy circumstances which attend the body after death or
by denying to it all the principal features of this present scene
of existence, and opposing it in the way of contrast to all of life
and condition that is felt or known this side the grave. Thus
in our own tongue, we employ the phrases, invisible world,
rorld of spirits, the ot/ii-r vnrld, &c. They are used to dis-
tinguish the state of the dead in general, without reference to
character or destiny, from the state of the living on earth ; and
so have only a negative significance, waking in the mind a con-
ception only of what is irontimj, rather than of what MI>H;/S in
any way, t<> the thing spoken of. The Jews, however, as well
as most other ancient people, clothed the idea with somewhat
more of definiteness and form. Locality and figure were as-
signed to the world of de|>arte<l spirits; and, though all its
imagery was vague and shadowy and dark, there was still
something of positive reality in the scenery of it, which the
imagination laboured not altogether in vain to discern and rest
upon. At the same time, the Jewish idea of this mysterious
place seems not to have been altogether uniform in its particu-
lars; it is presented with occasional variety of representation,
and appears to have undergone in the course of time some con-
siderable alteration. Thus, at one time, it borrows its drapery,
as we have said, from the lonely sleep of the tomb; it is silent,
and dark, and sad, and its inmates are lodged in awful stillness
around its sides. But again, we find it represented with mure
of life and activity aiuont: its inhabitants, and without any such
conformity to the arrangement of a sepulchre.
158 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
The word Hades is found in the Greek original of the New
Testament elf cm times. Once it is rendered, in the English
translation, (,'rtive, (1 Cor. xv. 55;) in the other ten <
is called /A//. ( )nly three of these have not been aln-ad\ me i-
tioned, viz. Matt. xvi. 18, Luke xvi. 23, and Rev. i. l. Wlien
the word " Hell" occurs in other passages, it is the translation
of a different word, which always means the place >// o"//'** tnr-
nit. -if, where fallen angels and ungodly men suffer the huivr
wrath of the Almighty without, hope.
CHAPTER VIII.
MISCELLANEOUS MATTER.
SECTION I.
OF WRITING.
THE art of writing is most ancient. The account of its origin
is lost in the distance of time. It is clear, however, from all
history, that it had its commencement at a very early period,
in some region of the East, and from thence was carried into
every other part of the world, in which it has been ever found.
Many have supposed that the knowledge of letters was given to
men, like the knowledge of speech, by direct revelation from
(ii{ himself; and, indeed, when we consider the mysterious
and marvellous nature of the invention, it is hard to conceive
how it could ever have been contrived by the unassisted wisdom
of man. The Bible gives us the earliest notice on the subject
that is anywhere to be found. Mows, we are told, received the
two tables of the covenant on Mount Sinai, i>-rit('-n with the
finger of God; and before that, Moses himself was not ignorant
of the use of letters. (Ex. xxiv. 4, xvii. 14.) There is, there-
fore, much reason to believe that the art of writing was under-
stood among the Jews while other nations were yet without it,
and that from them it has passed into all other countries, aud
been handed down to our own times. Hence, the alphabets of
all languages that have e\er been written, present a striking
conformity with the ancient alphabet of that people, whether
we consider the numler of their letters, their names, their
jounds their order, or the original forms to which they may
be traced backward. Some ivt'er the origin of writing to the
time of Moses; others, to that of Abraham ; while a s^.ill dif-
ferent opinion throws it back to the age of Adam himself.
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 159
It was lung, however, before the art came to be uoed with
\ny thing like that convenience and ease which are now known.
Hie materials and instruments with which it was performed,
were, in comparison with our pen, ink and paper, extremely
rude and unwieldy. One of the earliest methods was to cut
out the letters on a tablet of stone. Another, was to trace them
<m unbaked tiles, or bricks, which were afterwards thoroughly
burned with tire. Tablets (that is, small, level surfaces or
plates) of lead or brass were sometimes employed. When the
writing was wanted to be most durable, the last was chosen.
Tablets of wood were more convenient. Such was the icrithty
table which Zacharias used. (Luke i. 63.) In some countries,
it was common to cover these with wax, on which the letters
could be easily written, and, if necessary, blotted out again.
The instrument employed for making the
letters on these tablets, was a small, point-
ed piece of iron, or some other hard sub-
stance, called by the Romans, a AV//A .-
hence, a man's manner of composition was
figuratively termed his style of writing ;
and this use of the word still continues, though the other is
long since -passed away. The leaves, and at other times, the
bark of different trees, were early used for writing. From
the thin films of bark peeled off from the Egyptian reed Pu-
jn/riis, which grew along the river Nile, a material was formed
in latter times, answering the purpose much better. It bore
the name of the reed Papyrus, or, in our language, Papyr.
Long afterward, its name passed to a different material, com-
posed of linen or cotton, which has taken the place of all
others, in the common use of civilized countries, and is called,
te this day, Paper. Cloth of linen, and sometimes of cotton,
was another ancient material for writing. The skins of ani-
nals, also, were prepared for the purpose. About two hundred
years before Christ, the art of preparing them was brought to
great perfection in the city of Pergamus, whence they received
the name Pcrt/miie/Hi, which, in English, has changed into
Parchment, and remains still in use. For writing on such
substances as have been last mentioned, a reed, formed into a
pen, was used to trace the letters with ink of some sort, after
the fashion that is now common ; or else they were painted
with a small brush, as was probably the general custom at first
BO-.H* were written generally upon skins, linen, cotton cloth,
<>r papyrus ; parchment, in later times, was most esteemed. The
several pieces, or leaves, were joined one to another, so as to
nakc a single long sheet from the beginning to the end. 'I bin
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
was then rolled
round a stick ;
or, if it was very
long, round two
sticks, beginning
at each end, and rolling till they met in the middle. When
any person wanted to read, he unrolled it to the place he
wished, and when he was done, rolled it
up again. Hence, books of every size
were cal led rolls: our word /////////, means
just the same thing in its original signi-
fication. (Jer. xxxvi. 2, Ps. xl. 7, Isa.
xxxiv. 4.) The roll was commonly
written only on one side; that which
was given to Ezekiel, in vision, was
written on both, within and irit/muf
l./'k. ii. 10.)
1'mm this ac-
count of the an-
cient books, it
i- easy to under-
stand how they
might lie scaled,
either once or
a number of
limes, so that a
new seal might
have to be oj.i ii-
ed, after unroll-
ing and reading
a part, before
the reader could
proceed to the
remainder. (Isa. xxix. 11, Rev. v. 1, 2, vi.)
Letters were generally
in the form of rolls, too.
They were, probably, as is
the eastern custom at pre-
sent, sent in most cases
without being sealed ;
while those aildro-cd to
personsof distinction were
placed in a valuable purse
or bag, which was tied, closed over with clay or wax, and sfl
stamped with the writer's signet.
B1IILICAL ANTIQUITIES.
If.l
[Th! Roman Scriiiiuin, or book-case, shows how these mils
v -re preserved. The labels at the top contain the titles.]
Those, persons among the Jews who were skilful in the use
of the pen, were, as we have already seen, of considerable im-
portance in society. They were distinguished from other men,
by having an ink-horn fastened to their girdle. (Ezek. ii.
'>, 3, 11.)
SECTION II.
OF MUSIC AND DANCING.
Music had its origin in Heaven. (Job xxxviii. 7.) It was
designed to celebrate the praises of God, and to give to the de-
votion of cherubim and seraphim its most lofty expression, aa
it sounded long since, and is sounding still, through the courts
of his Temple on high. So, no doubt, in the garden of Eden,
our 6rst parents worshipped the great Creator with songs of
sacred melody. The fall, which spoiled every thing, has caused
tins heavenly art to be too often, ever since, perverted from its
high and proper character. Kow often has the power of music,
in every age, been employed on earth to turn away the soul
from all that is holy, and to promote the darkest interest* of
hell! Musical instruments were first invented by Jubal, the
sou of Lamech. (Gen. iv. 21.) , Among the Jews, music w-is
always cultivated with much care, and was employed not only
*bout the tabernacle and the temple, hut also in the
14*
|V2 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
:-e.-nes of domestic and social life. Marriages, birth-days, and
other festival seasons, were enlivened with its sound ; it was
heard from the shepherd, as he reclined at ease near the st*'|>s
pf his flock, and from the fields of the farmer, as his harvest
or his vintage was gathered with joy; it rose from the chamber
of piety, in gratitude and adoration to God; it poured it.i more
melancholy strain on the wind, from the funeral march, a> it
moved with the dead to the house appointed for all.
.MrsicAL INSTRUMENTS were of three general kinds; such
as had strings, such as were played upon by blowing, and such
as Wrre
. "ymbal
by being struck.
Of the first class
were the Harp and
the Psaltery ; ot
the second, the
Organ, the Pipe
of different wrte,
the Horn, and
the Trumpet; of
the last, the most
common were' the.
and the Tabret or Timbrel.
The Harp is mentioned with the organ,
as the earliest of nm-ical instruments.
(Gen. iv. 21.) It was formed after <li". .'-
cnt fashions, with a smaller or greater
number of strings. Sometimes it had only
three; sometimes, eight, when it was callfd
,Slif in in it/i., as we find in the titles of some
of the Psalms; at other times, it had t<-n.
In the time of David, the strings seem to
have been swept by the hand in playing ;
afterward, a small bow was used for the
purpose. The Psaltery had ten and
sometimes twelve strings, which were
played upon with the fingers. It v/as
formed in the shape of a triangle; the
body was hollow, with a piece of leath-T
tiirhtly drawn over it, and on the out.-ide
of the leather, the strings were stretch: 1
across. It is somef im<- called a Vint, in
the English Bible. (Isa. v. 12, Amos
vi. 5.) On each of these ancient instru-
inrnts. ihr royal Psalmist "f Israel loved
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES 103
K* play, bidding its sounding numbers rise or. high, with the
touch of his skilful hand, while his voice poured forth in uni-
son its hallowed song to Jehovah, his God. The Organ SIM-IMS
to have consisted of several pipes made out of reeds, and hav-
ing different sounds, which were passed back and forward
under the mouth, and thus blown into so as to make music.
It had. in its most perfect form, about seven of these pipes.
The Pipe had some general resemblance to the flute, and was
made in different forms. The J/nni, made out of the horns
of oxen or rams, was chiefly used in war: it is sometimes
called a trumpet. There was, however, another
formed of metal. The Cymbal consist-
ed of two flat pieces of brass : the musi-
cian held one in each hand, and struck
them together occasionally, with a ring-
ing sound, as an accompaniment to
other instruments. It is often seen in
bands of military music in our own
country. The Tabret was a round hoop of wood or brass, over
which was tightly drawn a piece of skin, while a number of little
bells were hung around to increase its noise. It was held in the
left hand and beaten with the right. It is sometimes called a
Tiinlinl. With such instruments in their hands, Miriam and
others of tin- Israolitish women went forth, dancing and sing-
ing their song of triumph, after the awful miracle of the Red
Sea. The women in the east, it is said, are accustomed to dance,
in like manner, to the sound of tabrets, to this day.
The sacred music of the taoernacle and -temple was conducted
by the Levites. It consisted of psalms sung with the voice and
various accompaniments of instrumental sound. It will come
more properly under consideration, when we are brought to
speak of the Sanctuary with its solemn service. The Jews had
also their sacred i/tnin*, which were practised, as expressions
of joy and thankfulness to God, in the celebration of their re-
ligious festivals, and on other occasions when his special good-
ness called for triumphant praise. The notes of the timbrci
appear to have been generally employed to direct and regulate
the dance. The company went forth, following one who acti-ii
as their leader, keeping time with the simple sounds of the
mu.-ic, in regular movements of the feet, and answering one
mother in songs framed ' magnify the plory of .Jehovah,
Israel's God, by declaring his majesty, goodness, and power,
and exciting the soul to love and joyful confidence in his name.
This mode of showing religious joy was particularly nraciised
b) women (Exodus xv. lH>, Judges xxi. :?] '2.'i.) Men,
.64 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
however, not unfrequently danced l)cfre the Lord, in like man-
ner Thus King David leaped and danced, in company with
otheis, before the ark; and so all the saints of (iinl an- called
i.l">M, with the voice of inspiration itself, to praise the ]rd,
according to the usage of the times, in the movements of the
dance, with the music of timbrels, and harps, and organs, and
cymbals sounding high. (Ps. cxlix. 3, cl. 4, 5.) Kven when
there was no regular dance, it was common to express joy by
Acts of leaping and skipping. (Luke vi. 23, Acts iii. 8.)
Dancing was employed, also, at times, to express gladness.
jn occasions of mere social and worldly rejoicing. As far hack
is the days of Job, rich and ungodly families had their music
and dancing, without any respect to the worship of the Most
High. (Job xxi. 11 15.) On occasions of national triumph,
dances were sometimes led forth in honour of those whose
bravery had been successful in war. (Judg. xi. 34, 1 Sam.
xviii. G, 7.) So, at seasons of mirth and joy on any a. count,
they seem to have been not uncommon. (Jer. xxxi. 4, 1.'}. ) I n
the time of our Saviour, we learn from the parable of the
prodigal son, that dancing was customary, in tin 1 celebration
of domestic joy. (Luke xv. 25.) On Herod's birth-day, the
daughter of Herodias danced before the company ; no doubt,
in conformity with what was often done on such occasion-.
We have no evidence that both sexes ever mingled together in
the Jewish dance, unless it should be sought in the idolatrous
confusion which reigned around the image of Egypt's deified
calf, at the foot of Sinai. (Ex. xxxii. 6, 19.) In religious
dances, they appear sometimes to have united in the same pro-
eession, but in separate companies. (Ps. Ixviii. 25.)
SECTION III.
OF GAMES AND THEATRES.
IN the time of our Saviour, the Greeks and Romans had
various kinds of public exhibitions or shows, for the entertain-
ment of all classes of people. The restless desire of interest
and excitement which ever attends the lost condition of human
nature on earth, in its ignorance of the TRUK GOOD, combined
with its jierverted and trifling taste, has led to the invention nf
such time-killing and sin-promoting amusements in every age,
and, ;uore or less, among every people. Barbarous or civilized,
:he disposition is the same, however nnu-h, in one case, the
jutward semblance of refinement may seem to surpass the
ftidc, uncultivated style which is found in another. Cock-fights,
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 105
Bull baitings, Boar-hunts, Horse-races, shows of Jugglery and
Legerdemain, and Theatric- representations, are all indeed dif-
{> ,-<i,t modes of diversion, fashionable with diffi-rent classes of
society; but the taste which makes them acceptable is the
.same in all cases, confined only by circumstances to such par-
rieular forms as it may select, in any instance, for it* gratifica-
tion. The Jews, we may suppose, were not altogether without
sunn- such methods of finding diversion for their idle hour*;
but they seem to have prevailed to little extent among them,
in comparison, with their customariness in other nations. The
Greeks took the lead in multiplying public shows and giving
them refinement and splendour. Long before the birth of
Christ, they had their Games and their Theatres, brought to
their highest state of- perfection. Their Games especially
were celebrated through the whole world j and, when their
regular seasons came round, spectators came from distant
countries, in every direction, to witness their exhibition.
From them other nations borrowed much, in the plan of their
similar entertainments. The Jews became acquainted with
these exhibitions, after the success of the Grecian arms had
carried their customs into Asia. In the time of Antiochus
Kpiphanes, the more licentious of the nation, who were in-
clined to adopt the manners of the heathen, endeavoured to in-
troduce their games into Judea. Herod, something more than
a hundred years after, with the same disposition to bring
foreign usages into the country, builded at Jerusalem a Thea-
tre and an Amphitheatre, and caused shows to be exhibited
and games to be celebrated, after the manner of the Romans,
and in honour of the Emperor Augustus. The generality of
the Jews, h v.ever, greatly disliked these steps, as being con-
trary to their religion, by reason of the idolatrous character
which belonged to such amusements among the heathen.
There are, in the New Testament, several allusions to the
games which were so common in that age. These were plain
and striking to all who re:.d thorn, while the continuance of
such sports, in different cour.tries, rendered their minds fami-
liar with the things to which they referred ; but cannot now bo
fully apprehended, without some explanation from nncient
history.
t \ AMKS. There were, in ancient Greece, four principal cele-
brations of games, which returned at regular seasons, and were
held always in their fixed places, time after time. The 0/um-
/u'c, which were the most important, and the l\t/th!<tn games
were celebrated every fifth year; the S> inxi/i and Isthmian,
unce in tlnee years. The last were held near Corinth. Al
H>r BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
these games, which lasted some days, were witnessed trials of
strength and skill, in the exercises of A"/////"/, \Vn .>///////, /i-r-
in;/, and throwing the />/.//*, or Quoit ; :t\> A'</<vx on fMit,
on horseback, and with chariots. An almost innumerable
multitude of spectators from all Greece, and from other coun-
tries tar and near, assembled to witness the contests. It in
hard tor MS to conceive the greatness of the interest which wan
excited by one of these occasions, or the extreme anxiety ( oh
tain the victory, which was felt by those who contended in the
caulks It was in fact, considered one of the most distin-
guished honours on earth, to win such a victory, especially in
the Olympic games ; and, accordingly, it was coveted by per-
sons of the greatest rank, nor were any pains reckoned too
great, which might conduct a man to such a height of glory
Many, therefore, were the candidates for distinction and fame,
by this road, though only a few happy individuals could secure
the prize, while all the rest must necessarily come off with dis-
appointment and shame. None but freemen, and such as were
clear from infamous stains upon their character, were allowed
to contend. For any of these, at the same time, to have en-
tered into such contests without the most careful preparation
beforehand, would have been the height of presumption and
folly. For months, the candidates submitted themselves to
strict rules of diet and exercise, and rigidly refrained from
every indulgence_which might, in any measure, hinder the full
strength and activity of their bodies. At the appointed time,
th'-y made their appearance before the crowd of spectators. A
II, ml, I proclaimed their names, and recited aloud the rules
thev were required to observe in the games ; for unless a man
strove lawfully, he could not, though he came out conqueror,
icceive the crown. The combatants were entirely naked, that,
they might not be hindered in any degree by the weight of
their clothes, or by their becoming entangled around their iimhs.
When the signal was given to commence the contest, every mus-
cle was instantly in motion, while the eyes of the surrounding
multitude hung, fixed with the deepest attention, on the strug-
gling parties. To hi-
spire them with zeal
and courage, the prize
was placed in full
view before their eyes.
.Judges were appointed
to overlook every exer-
cise, to see that the
rules were strictly observed, to decide who came off conqueror,
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
167
*nd tc reward his victory with a crown of honour On the
race-ground, they had their seat raised near the goal ^r farthest
i xin inity <>f the course, where they might impartially determine
who reached the mark first. They were persons venerable for
age, and respected for integrity of character. The contests were
not carried on without considerable danger of wounds and bruises,
and even death itself. The boxers were not satisfied with the
mere weight of their fists, but had, besides, a piece of iron or
lead, rolled up in a leather strap that was fastened round their
right hands, which they employed to give destructive force to
their blows. It was common, therefore, to spill much blood,
to break bones, and to put limbs out of joint ; and the mac
would have been deemed a pitiful fellow, who should have con-
sented to resign the hope of victory without submitting first to
p'ich honourable injuries. The conqueror had his name pro-
claimed, by a public herald, amid resounding shouts from the
vast assembly of spectators, and was immediately presented with
his hard-earned rrmrn. A branch of palm also was given him,
to carry in his right hand as a sign of triumph. The crown
was a thing of no value in itself, being composed merely of
sprigs of palm, pine, laurel, or wild-olive, or stalks of common
parsley ; but,
as the token
of victory and
In 'Hour, it \vas
worn with the
L'lvatest pride;
for the fortu-
nate individual
whose brow it
encircled, be-
came an object
of admiration
to the whole assembly, and heard his name sounded with the
ni'.-t extravagant applause, upon every side His native city
or district of country exulted in the honour of its citixen, and
took no small share of glory to itself, for having given birth to
a personage so exceedingly worthy of universal esteem. To
testify their proud satisfaction, he was lifted into a triumphal
chariot, and conducted home vith the greatest pomp. Instead
of throwing open the gates ol the town to bring him in, they
chose to throw down a portion of the wall ; as much as to say
" A city which contains within it such extraordinary excellence
and courage as ours, nia\ well do without walls altogether " If
the parents of the hero were alive, they blessed the day which
168 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
brought such a weight of honour to their house, and everybody
\v;i- ready tn congratulate their happy fortune in ha\ing the
treasure of so prodigious a son. Peculiar privileifs. different
in different places, were granted him, to enjoy till the day of
his death. Thus honourable was it, to obtain only one victory
in these games : the man who came off conqueror in several of
the contests, or in all, as was sometimes the case, was almost
literally adored.
We have said that these exhibitions were provided to enter-
tain the public taste. We must not, however, imagine that
they had their origin, like our puppet-shows, in 710 -itlier rea-
son. In early times, strength and swiftness were the most im-
portant qualifications for a soldier. Gunpowder has, by its
discovery, entirely changed this state of things. Exercises of
the several kinds that have been mentioned, grew into fashion
for the sake of cultivating these bodily perfections ; and their
great importance naturally caused them to be greatly honoured
wherever they were found. Hence gradually arose the Gr''
cian games. Religion, too, had a name in their institution ;
for they were all celebrated in honour of some false god or
deified hero. Still, in their actual character, they derived their
interest and encouragement from the mere gratification which
their spectacle furnished, and the direct nourishment which
they yielded to ambition and pride.
From the representation which has been given, it appears
that the care and diligence which were required to secure a
victory in these games, were of the highest kind. On this ac-
count, the apostle more than once compares the Christian life
to such a contest, and so most impressively exhorts those who
are engaged in its trial, to give all diligence to make their suc-
cess sure, while he places before their eyes, for their encour-
agement, the crown of glory which the righteous Judge will
give them, if they continue faithful to the end. " Know ye
not," he exclaims, "that they who run f a nice, run all, but
one receiveth the prize? So run, that ye may obtain. And
every man that sfri rHh fur in<i*t<>ri/, is fi /n/-r<i/i- in nil //////s.
Now, they do it to obtain a corruptible r/-irn; but we, an in-
'iirritjtfiftfr. I therefore so run, not as uncertainly ; so fight 1,
not as one that beateth the air : but I keep under my body,
and bring it into subjection, lest that, by any means, when
have preached to others, (or proclaimed like a /</r/<7,) I my-
jclf should be a castaway," (or, rejected person ;) that is
should fail in securing the approbation of the /<<//'-, and so,
' >f course, come short of all reward. (1 Cor. ix. 24 '27.) The
I'orinthians, who had the Isthmian games celebrated but a li;-
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
ilt distance from their city, could not but feel the impressive
force of such an exhortation. In similar style he addresses
i In; Hebrews: "Wherefore, seeing we are compassed about
with so iji-int >i rlniiil if ir it nesses, let us lay aside every wiylit,
mi'/ tin' fin irhich doth so easily beset us, and let us run with
patience (he race tfvit u set before us, looking unto Jesus, the
Author and Finisher of our faith, who for tin: joy that </.< art
tufore him, endured the cross, despising the shame, and is set
dowu at the right hand of God. For consider him that en-
dured such contradiction of sinners against himself, lest ye be
ut'iu-y and faint in your / ////.-.'' (Ileb. xii. 1 3.) In this
passage, all the saints who have gone before, are represented
as looking down upon Christians, as they struggle through
their earthly trials, with the interest of friendly spectators.
'l heir presence and example should quicken their zeal ; but
above all should the pattern of Jesus, who himself has led the
way to the reward of glory, through conflicts far surpassing all
that liis followers can know, animate and encourage their
la-arts. Timothy is admonished to be faithful, by an allusion
drawn from the same quarter : " If a man strive for masteries,
yet is he not crttWMOj except he >trive lunfiilly" ('2 Tim.
ii. 5.) The apostle likens himself to a racer straining every
nerve to win the prize. He did not consider his work to be
over, on this side of eternity, but continually strove to get for-
ward, with all his might: ''Brethren, I count not myself to
have apprehended : but this one thing I doj forgetting those
things which are behind, and rmc/ii/ii/ forth unto those th
which are before, 1 i>r<.<* t<nrn<-<l tin murk for tin j >ri~,<' of the
high (ailing of God in Christ Jesus." (Phil. iii. \'l 14.) It
was uot till near the close of his life, when he considered the
time of his departure to be just at hand, that he allowed him-
self to say : " I kn\\> fn<//it a <j<><I jiyhf ; 1 have fiuis/mf my
roiirxi -; I have kept the faith. Henceforth there is laid up
for me a crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the /*'///<'
Jiidi/f, shall give me at that day." ('2 Tim. iv. 6 8.) This
crown, unlike the frail chajilets which were given in the games,
failctlt not air.iy." (\ IV'. V. 4, i. 4.)
From the circumstance tliat a branch of palm carried in tne
right hand was a token of victory, in the celebration of these
contests, we may understand that image in the vision of the
apostle John : " I beheld, and lo, a great multitude, which no
man could number, of all nations, and kindreds, and people,
and tongues, stood before the throne and before the Lamb,
clothed in white robes, and palms in tin ir /inndx." (Rev. vii.
9.) So thoroughly, indeed, has the emblematic meaning thus
16
iU BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
attached to the palm, established itself in human speoeb, thai
to this day, in our own as in many other languages, the won!
is used to signify victory, without any thought of its figurative
application ; and the phrase, to bear the palm, or, to carry tht
jiufm, is everywhere common.
THKATRES. The theatre of ancient times was built in the
form of a half-circle, with seats rising one above another lound
the inside of the wall. Sometimes the building was made, as
it were, double, with an oval shape ; then it was called an
Anijilii.'liintri-. They were left open at the top, or only covered
with cloth of some close kind, to keep off the sun or lighter
showers of rain. Various exhibitions were displayed in the
centre. Plays were acted here, for the entertainment of the
fashionable multitude. Among the Romans, sports of various
kinds were also exhibited. One amusement in which that re-
tiiicd people greatly delighted, was the deadly sword-fight be-
tween gladiators. These were persons trained to the use of the
sword for the express purpose of gratifying the public taste, or
their own pride, by such bloody spectacles. Captives, and
slaves, and condemned malefactors, were the only gladiators at
first ; but, in time, free-born citizens, induced by hire, or by the
vain imagination of glory to be acquired in such an exhibition,
presented themselves in the disgraceful scene of battle. An-
other show, common in the Roman amphitheatres, was the
Fiyht with irf/tt faasts, which condemned persons were often
compelled to endure, by way of capital punishment. Amid
the mockery of unfeeling spectators crowded around, the wretch
on whom the sentence of the law had fallen, was brought into
the open space in the middle. Then a lion, or tiger, or bear,
or some equally terrible animal, was let loose upon him, and
excited to attack him with the greatest fury. To such crii-l
exposures in the theatres, the apostle seems to allude, when he
speaks of Christians being made a </'-in<j st'*-k, or lfi>nfri<-ni
*/t'>w, in their fight of affliction, from the enemies of the truth.
(Heb. x 32, 33.) In another place, we hear him saying :
" After the manner of men, I have fought with beasts at
Epnesns," (1 Cor. xv. 32;) where he means, either that he
had literally been condemned to this punishment, in the Ephe-
siaii theatre, or that he had been called to struggle in that city
arith angry, violent, and powerful enemies, who assaulted him
like wild beasts; as David calls such do<jx and lions, in the
book of Psalms. Some who fought with beasts were allowed
to have armour of some sort, to defend themselves, and to givt
them some chance of killing the animal ; while others were ei-
quite naked, and without any weapon. These last wen
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. I'll
jevotcd to destruction, without any possibility of escape; foi
if they came off with life in one conflict, it was only to IK-
slaughtered in another. In the exhibition, those of the form* r
class were brought out first, in the early part of the day ; those
from whom all favour was cut off, were reserved 'ill afterward,
^nd produced upon the stage last. To this circumstance 1'aul
appears to refer, in describing the great trials nf himself and
hi i fellow apostles: "I think that (rod hath set forth us the
apostles (ant, as it were, <ij>ji>iintn<l unto iti-nt/i ; tor we are made
a ipectacle to the world, and to angels, and to men." (1 Cor.
iv. 9.) The theatre was also a place in which it was common
for assemblies of the people to be held, when they met to do-
liberate on public business (Acts xix. 29.)
SECTION IV.
MODES OF DIVIDING AND RECKONING TIME.
DAYS. The Jews reckoned their Day* from evening to
evening, according to the order which is mentioned in the first
chapter of Genesis, in the account of the work of creation :
'The evening and the morning were tkr Jirst <1ay." Theii
Sabbath, therefore, or seventh day, began at sunset on the day
we call Friday, and lasted till the same time on tho day follow-
ing. When our Saviour was in Capernaum, it was t nought
wrong to bring the sick to him to be healed, while the Sabbath
lasted; but "at evoi, when tli? xmi <I!<I set, they brought unt/i
him all that were diseased, and them that were possessed with
devils: and all the city was gathered together at the door."
(Mark i. 21 35.) This manner of giving the night the first
place in the reckoning of days, has been found among several
other nations. The custom in such cases, was, no doubt,
handed down from the practice of the most early times, founded
upon the original order, in which evening was made to exist
Iniforc any morning had been; and thus the account of the
Bible is confirmed, in this case, as in many others, by the voici
of heathen tradition.
limits. The time between the rising and the setting of
the sun was divided into twelve equal parts, which were called
hours (John xi. 9.) As tins period of time, however, is longer
ul one season of the year titan at another, it is plain that the
hour* also would be of different length, at different tinier. ID
winter, they were, of course, shorter than in summer. The)
rcrc numbered from the rising .if the sun, and not from tin
I , '2 B I R I I C A L ANTIQUITIES.
middle of tin- day, ;is is cmniiKin with UF.. Thus the \\<-\ir uf
noon, which we call the fin-fftli, the .lews ri'ckoneil the xistk
hour; while the twelfth hour with them was just ;it sunset.
When the days and nights were just equal, their hour* would
be exactly equal to those we use now, and would b< pin to be
counted precisely from our six o'clock in the morning: then
their Jirst hour would be our seven o'clock ; their thir<l, our
.////'o'clock; their ninth, OUT three o'clock in tin; afternoon;
mid so of the other numbers in their order. Hut in the middle
)f summer, when the days are longest, and tin- sun in that
c nntry rises about five and sets about seven of our time, it is
evident that each Jewish hour would be longer than on*- of
ours, and that no one of them could answer exactly to any one
of ours, except the sixth, or twelve o'clock : their third hour
would come a short time be/ore our nine, and their ninth, a
short time aft. r our three. So in the middle of winter, when
the sun rises there about seven and sets about five of our time,
the Jewish hour would be as much shorter; and then tlieir
third hour would come a short time after our nine, and their
ninth, a short time before our three. (Matt. xx. 1 12.) The
dreadful darkness that covered the whole land when Christ was
crucified, began precisely in the middle of the day. (Matt.
\xvii. 45.)
/A/// rs are not mentioned till after the captivity; it is rea-
sonable, therefore, to suppose that the Jews borrowed this mode
of dividing time from the Chaldeans, from whom also it pas^-.i
to 'he (J reeks and Romans. In more ancient times, the day
seems to have been divided merely into four general paiN. ac-
cording to the position of the sun in the heavens. Hence, the
notices of its earlier or later periods arc expressed only in gene-
ral terms; such as the ?//<>/// /'//</, the /nut uf tin '/"//. Min-^Jay
or iiixiii, the ran/ af tin </<ti/, and the n-nlita. It apjx-ars,
Imwi \er, that some advancement toward a more regular an!
artificial division was made before the captivity, as we read < f
a xini-f/iii/ which belonged to king Aha/. ('2 Kings xx. 11.*
1'erhaps it was br< night from Habvlon, (where such instrunn nU
appear to have been first used,) as a curious ornament and con-
venience tor royal r.se. and >o \\.-e- tar. fully preserved for many
years. The word hour sometimes signifies, in Scripture. an>
determinate and fixed season or opportunity ; as in th",e ex.-
pessions: " My hour is no* yet come;" "This i> \ : -ur licut
ind the power of darkness, ' "The /mur is coming, ami IMW
is ;" and in others of lik< kind.
The evening consi>ted of two parts. The first commenced
omc time before sun-set, perhaps as early as the ninth hour
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 173
1 1._' second, about the going down of the sun. The lamb of
the passover, and the lamb of the daily evening sacrifice were
'(quired to be killed between these two evening*,.
WATCHEH. Before the captivity, the night was divided into
three parts, called u-nf, /,!$, because they were sevenilly the
periods of time which watchmen were required to spend in their
nightly service, before they could retire from their posts. They
were named the first, the middle, and the nwrin'ii;/ watch. In
the time of Christ, the Roman and Greek method of dividing
the night into/or watches was in use among the Jews, It
was also, like the day, measured into twelve equal hours, from
sunset to sunrise. The first watch, or eveniHy, lasted till about
nine o'clock of our time; the second, or midnfyht, from nine
to twelve; the third, or cccCxroiPtNa, froui twelve to three;
the fourth, or morniinj, from three till it was day. All of them
are mentioned in our Saviour's exhortation : " Watch ! for yc
know not when the master of the house cometh; at even, or at
in i<l n it/lit, or at the cock-crowing, or in the momiitu." (Mark.
xiii. 35.) The Jews were accustomed to distinguish the last-
mentioned period into the /&*, the second, and the third crow-
ing. Thus it is foretold of Peter: "Before the cock crow twice,
thou shalt deny me thrice," (Mark xiv. 30 ;) even as it accord-
ingly happened: the cock crew directly after his first denial,
and then crew a second time after the third. The other evan-
gelists write: "before, the cock crow," or, "the cock shall not
crow, till thou hast denied me thrice." They referred to the
whole time of cock-crowing; meaning that this should not be
over before this melancholy fall would all take place, as it did
in fact before it was half over. Or, it may have been so said,
because. the second crowing was the one principally regarded
in the course of that watch, and so was readily understood to
be meant, when one only, by way of distinction, was mentioned.
THE WEEK. The wre.k had its origin with the commence-
ment of time; when, after six days employed in the work of
creation, God rested on the seventh, and blessed it, and set it
apart to be continually observed as a day of holy rest, and a
gacred memorial of that great event. We find, in the account
of the flood, that it hid continued in use down to that age,
snd so was a measure of time familiar to Noah. (Gen. vii. 4
10, viii. 10, 12.) After the flood, it was handed down by the
sons of Noah to their descendants. In this way it has hap-
pened, that some traces of the ancient week are to be found in
every quarter of the world. Nations the most distant from
isach other, and of every character, have united in giving testi-
mony to the trut!'. of the Bible account; either by retaining.
174 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
in their common reckoning of time, the regular division of
seven days, or at least, by snowing such regard to that Jetinite
IP riod, ;is can in no way be accounted for, if it was not received
by tradition from the earliest ages. Nut only lias this been
the cax-, in all the countries of the East, such as Egypt
Arabia, Assyria, India, China, and others; but among the
most ancient people of Europe also, the Greeks, the Romans,
the Gauls, the Germans, the Britons, and the several nations
of the north, and this, long before they had any knowledge
of Christianity, as, is evident from the tminfs of the days f'ouii 1
in use among them, which were all of idolatrous origin. Even
among the uncultivated tribes of Africa, travellers have met
with the same division of time. It is not only, however, by
retaining the number of days which compose a week, that the
tradition of the world so evidently confirms the account of
Moses; the testimony is rendered still more striking, by the
very general idea of some peculiar sacm/m-** belonging to the
seventh day, which has existed in every age. The week, it
must be remembered, is not a natural, period of time, like a
'///, a month, or a yar, which are all suggested by the revo-
lutions of the heavenly bodies, and so naturally come into use
among every people ; there is no reason in the nature of
tilings, why days should be counted by scmi.s, rather than by
riifhlSj tens, or any other number. The division, therefore.
wherever found, must have had its origin in arbitrary appoint-
ment. To imagine, that all the nations of the world united
in forming the same arbitrary appointment, by mere chance,
would be ridiculous. Nothing but the authority of the original
appointment made by God himself, can be admitted as a snf-
cient cause for such a fact.
The Jews had not particular names for the first ,-ix d.i
the week, but distinguished them merely by their order; thus,
what we now call Sinnlay was termed the Jirxt ilay of the
week, M'>n</ii// was the m-.-mnl, Tm-.^'ni/ the third, and so of
:he rest The seventh day, which we name. Sat unlay, w .is
styled among them the Salilmth, that is, the day of n-xt. And
' cause this was the most important day of all in the week,
the whole week came to IH I called, from its name, a Sal,l,atli ;
whence the other days were called also the tir.-t day of the
Sabbath, the second day of th<- Sabbath, and so on in their
order. The day before the Sabbath, (our Friday, ,1 because 1 part
of il was employed in making ready for the Su-Tcd r>xt of the
Sabbath, was called, in later time.-, the preparation. (Ma.'k
xv. 4'J. > In addition to the week of ilayx, the law Appointed
week of ynii-x, making every seventh year SaU>at> <//, ; a
K1C1.KAL AXT1QU1T1KS. 1~O
or rest from cultivation, to the whole land. After
counting again, vrni of these weeks of years, the fiftieth year
was srt apart as the great .A-A/'/W.
MONTHS. The Jewish months, like those of all other ancient
nations, were lunar, measured from die new moon to anothir.
In the age of Noah, each month consisted of thirty days, as
may be determined from the several notices of time in the
history of the flood. The Jews, however, after their settlement
in Canaan, seem to have reckoned each month from the *in-t
ijij'(i>-iin<-f; of each new moon, without regard to any fixed
number of days; only, if the new moon was not seen at the
end of thirty <ly*, they would not continue the old month any
longer by waiting for it, but the next morning began a n u
one, because they were certain, in that case, that clouds or
some other cause had hindered the moon's appearance aftei (\i(
actual time of her change. While, then fore, the longest
months consisted of thirty days only, others would Inve no
in -re than twenty-nine, and sometimes but twen'y-eigl.t,
acerrding as the moon was discovered sooner er later a' dif-
ferent t.mes. That the moon might be se n as eariy a- pos-
sible, it is said that persons were appointed to watch, ab -at
the time it was expected, on the tops of the mountains; who,
u^ soon as they saw its li^ht, gave notice, when it was prr
claimed to the JK < pic by the sounding of trumpets, and by
lighting fires on high, which rapidly carried the news through
tin- land. Kiich new mon w:is, in SMHI measur . a holy day.
for although any kind of business might be attended to, it was
honoured with peculiar offerings, and ceremonitsat the saiic'u-
ary. < Num. xxviii. 11 15.) It was oh.-crved also with p.ir-
ticular rcsjK'cf, throughout the country, as a seas> n of religious
joy. ( 1 Sam. xx. f>, >, '24 1:1), '2 Kin-s iv. : .'!. Isa. i. 13,
14, Amos viii. ;"), ( oil ss. ii. 1(5.) Hence aros- the nec ~
of can fully marking tne i.rst i'ay if i \cry month, and causing
it to be published among the people. Originally, months had
no particular nam:>s, but, like the days of the week, were dis-
tinguished merely by their numerical order; thus they were
called they//*/ month, the *'<-<ni<l. the '/tint, and so on to the
la,st. In the time of Moses, the first month was called Anil>.
that is, "the month of new fruit*, or young ears of corn."
The others continued still without names. In the age of Solo-
mon, we find thre<} other names in use, viz. Z(f\ liul, and
r.thnnim. Whence these names came, cannot be certainly
known; they were probably borrowed from some foreign
calendar. We hear nothing of them afterward. From the
176 BIBLICAL ANTIQL'lTIKiv
time of the captivity, all the months were called by the name*
which the Chaldeans ami Persians were accustomed to use.
THK YKAR. The common Ymr was made up of tweho of
these mouths. Lunar months, however, it if well known, will
not exactly measure a true year according to the sun Twelve
such months are nearly eleven days less time than such a your.
Of course, if the year of any people was always counted by that
number, and no more, it would begin every time nearly eleven
Jays sooner than before; and thus, it would run backward till,
in no great while, its first month would be found where it
started, after having gone round all the seasons and so got a
whole twelve-month out of its place. In this way, most of the
Mohammedans are accustomed to reckon their years. But
such a method is extremely inconvenient. To regulate their
year therefore, and keep it near its right place, the Jews added,
when it seemed to be necessary, a whole month to its common
length. This must have been done, once in three years at
most, and sometimes once in two. Attention to this important
matter was continually secured, by the manner in which the
yearly times of the sacred /;*//><//> were appointed. While
these were fixed, each to its certain mouth in the year, they
were also closely connected with particular seasons; so that the
festivals would have come altogether out of place, if their
months had been allowed to move like those of the Mohamme-
dans, to any extent. The feast of the passoi-cr, for instance,
was to be kept from the fifteenth to the twenty-first day of the
first month; at the same time, it was required that a sheaf of
barley should be offered before the Lord, on the second day of
its celebration, as the jirxt-frtn'ts of the new harvest and a sign
of it* commencement. Thus there was a necessity, that tho
middle of the first month should always conic as near as po
Bible to the time when the grain began to be r ipe. If, there-
fore, at the end of twelve ni'>ntlis, it appeared that the middle
of the next month would come ln-fun- that tim>, so that a sheaf
of ripe b;irley could not by any means be gathered for tho
j--i-..ver, the priests would be reminded, and, in a measure,
compelled to add that month also to the old year, and to put ofl
the beginning of the new one till another new moon. In this
way, the year, though measured by the changes of the moon,
was kept in tolerable conformity with the true natural year,
which depends upon the sun. It miyht begin, some one spring
almost a month from the time it began some other spring; in
euch cases, however, it would never, if properly managed, varj
more thaii two weeks from the true year, being in the one in-
itauee, only that much too fust, and in the other, only that
HI PMC At, AXTIQU1TIE.S. 177
jmch too K/nir. (i iiciallv, tin- variation fnun the correct time
would !>( comidenbij less.
'I !u- year was divided into six .tdi c. masting of two
mouths. Some acvount of these lias already been given, in
speaking of the r/i) t >(,ff of Palestine. There were, among the
Jews, two points from which the im;n*hs of the year were
counted. Their XIIITK! year was n ckoned trim the nionfL
\i.-(in, or the ancient Abib, because mi the fifteenth day of
that month they had departed out of K^-yyt; God himself, or
that oecasion, appointed it to be the beginning of the Israel-
iiish year. (Ex. xii. 2.) The sacred feasts were determined
1 v this reckoning, and the prophets made use of it, in dating
their visions. The civil year, which was the most ancient.
was reckoned from the month Turi, just six months after the
l>e<riniiing of the other. It was an old tradition, that the
nation ol the world took place at that time. By the reckon-
in..' of this year, contract*, births, reigns of kings, and othci
such matters, were dated. The month Nisan, with which the
sacred year began, commenced with the new moon that ap-
peared immediately before harvest. This would take place
generally in April of our time; but when the new moon of
April would not occur till late in the month, the preceding one,
which appeared toward the end of March, was made, we may
"iirlude, the commencing point of the sacred year. Thus, it
was so managed that the passover fell always not far from the
middle of April, which was about the time that the grain
Invame ready for harvest. The month Tisri began of course
with the sixth new moon after that of Nisan, which would
cause it to fall principally, sometimes more and sometimes less,
in the time of our October. The names and order of the Jew-
ish months, after the captivity, were as follows, commencing
with Nisan, the first of the sacred year. 1. NISAN. 2. ZIF.
3. SIVAN. 4. TAMMUZ. 5. AB. 6. ELUL. 7. TISRI, or
KTHANIM. 8. BUL. 9. CHISLEU. 10. TEBETH. 11. SHEBAT.
\'2. ADAR. When it was necessary to add a thirteenth month,
it wa called VEADAR, which means the second Adar.
In counting time, the Jews were accustomed to reckon any
/w//7 of a certain period for the whole. Thus in Scripture we
sometimes find & part of a year counted as if it were a whole
i 'lie, and so also a part of a day. Thus a child was said to be
circumcised when it was eiyht days old, though according to
tne law this was U take place vpon the eighth day (Lev.
xii. 3, Luke ii. 21.) If a child was born in the last hour of
the day, that hour was counted as a wli:>le lay, aud his circum-
oiaiou might take place any time UJHUI tae eighth day froM
17& BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
thai. It is in this way we are to reckon the time, when w-
are lold that our Lord rose three days after his death, and tha)
he was three days and tfiree night* in the heart of the earth
(Mark viii. 81, Matt. xii. 40.) He was crucified on the after
noon of Friday, which was therefore reckoned the Jirst day of
his death ; Saturday, during all of which he lay in the sepul-
chre, was the second: when the first day of the week com-
menced, on the evening of Saturday, he was still under the
power of death, and did not break its bands till about sunrise
an Sunday morning; so that it was the third day when ho
rose. Thus, according to the Jewish way of counting, he "
ia the sepulchre thrte days.
CHAPTER IX.
POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS.
SECTION I.
PATRIARCHAL GOVERNMENT.
THE first form of government was what has been called the
Patriarchal. This arose naturally from the authority of
parents over their children. The father was considered the
proper ruler of his own family, as long as he lived. His au-
thority rested upon his children, even after they were grown
up and had formed new families of their own. His descend-
ants around him were taught to look up to him as their su-
preme head, both religious and civil. When the father died,
each son became the projer independent ruler of that branch
of the general family which was descended from himself.
Hut it was not natural for kindred families to break off all
social connection; especially in early times, when the feeling
of relationship was greatly cherished, and carried its powerful
sympathy far out with the most distant Sowings of kin Ired
Mood. They did not therefore generally choose to separate
into entirely distinct societies. While the father of eaeh
house continued to be the head of all his own descendants, it
was agreed to have all the families still united under the
authority of another c.oiuntn head. The first- IKWII seem*.
originally to have been always the person who was honoured
with this dignity. From vari >u- eaiisea, however, the unioi-
< families in this way would nit Imij; continue to hold all to-
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES 179
Men, on some account, would be le'J to move off from
the society of their relations, and form new similar patriarchal
establishments in other places. As societies became very
large too, the bond of connection could not but become less
secure. Jealousies and difficulties between the several
bmnches would naturally arise. At length they would fall
asunder into separate independent communities.
The union of kindred families under one head arose at first
out of natural affection, rather than from any policy. They
considered themselves one people, because they were of one
blood. Any general government which was wanted to bind
them together was very small. The head of each separate
house directed all its concerns, and in this way it was not hard
for a simple people, while not yet very numerous, to live con-
meted together as one general society, with but little other
control. The control of the common head, therefore, was not
exercised with much actual command over the general body
He was honoured merely as the central point, around which
the connection clustered. He was the natural representative
i f its kindred whole. Such was held to be the relation which
the eldest born sustained by his birth to the rest of the family.
He enjoyed on this account peculiar respect and veneration
1 1 is counsel was sought. His advice carried decisive weight.
Hut a prince-like sovereignty, as the general interests did not
need it, he was not expected to exercise.
Before long, however, as separate communities gained
stretgth, and bad men became heads of independent families,
injustice, violence and war made their appearance. Then
there arose a new motive for union. Related families were
led by policy, as well as by friendship, to keep together j that
by united strength they might defend themselves from plun-
dering enemies, or that they might be the better able, where
such a disposition was felt, to do violence on the rights of
others. Hence also the central head of their connection
naturally came to exercise a more active authority. A society
that needed little general government in times of peace, could
not get along without a good degree of it, when called to take
any thing of a warlike character, in the way either of violence
or of mere defence. When war and oppression became com-
mon, new ways also of enlarging societies grew into fashion.
The weak were sometimes compelled by force to submit to the
strong, and to add yet more to their strength by serving them
And sometimes, to avoid this fate, they of their own accoro
pu f themselves under the authority of some neighbour more
powerful than themselves, and became his wUling sen-ante \ r
ISO BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIKx
jrder to enjoj his protection. The en-torn of haying >< rvunte
il>o came iuli use, in OOVUMjMMe flf the vinl net' which began
(o pievail in tin- world. Those who wen- taken captive in war
wore considered the property of their coinju mrs, and were
nt't. u >nl,| 1'or money.
In some sneli way us this, things seem to have proceeded
after th' flood; ami though we know exceeding little of th-.
history ut' earlier times after the fall, the general manner of
- .ei v then was no doubt in this re-pert af'er the -am*' fashion
M. n lived s-i long then, that the patriarchal government might
have been continued without any trouhle. It nii^ht have been
expected that tin- whole family of man would have lx en held
together in one friendly society while its generations vue .-
near to the original common head. Hut .v/// hindered the natu-
ral union. Cain went off very early from 'he rest of bis fa-
ther's family, under the curse of Heaven, and established a new
OOauniU&ity. Afterwards, as the ungodly parr of the world
increased far a hove the pious, they seem to have heen split
asunder into various petty societies. Great violence grew com-
mon among 'h-.'in. (Gen. vi. 11.) Many men distinguished
themselves ly during boldness and terrible valour, in commit-
ting outrage upon others. They filled the earth, as far as it
was then peopled, with war, bloodshed and oppression. Thus
they got to themselves a great name in those times, as many
by the mere greatness of their violence and butchery of human
life have done since. They were celebrated and feared for their
wonderful strength, and spoke)] of as t/i<nifs, miyhty men,
in' a "/ renown. ((Jen. vi. 4.) Slavery was one of the evils
which sprung out of these wars and fightings, as we may learn
from the fact that it wa- a thing well known to Noah. (G<:n.
ut. 26 27.
The deM-endants of Noah, after the confusion of tongue? at
Babel, separated into different parts of the world, and formed
different patriarchal societies. In a short time, some of them
began to take a more regular and settled form of government.
The authority of the common head glided into the formal sove-
reignty of a Idntj. Some kingdoms arose in an orderly way;
others were established by viol. nee. People that followed
agriculture to some considerable extent were brought into the
form of regular kingdoms sooner than those who made it their
ehief business to keep herds and flocks. Among these last,
the more simple patriarchal government was naturally cher-
ished, as being <uited to their manner of life, and sufficient for
*11 its wall's. Kven wh n 'heir societies took the name of
kingdoms, and th ir :.e:i j 'icd kings, they were often
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES lfc>
ii. fact only patriarchal establishments still. They consisted
generally of several separate tribes or families, descended from
a common ancestor, connected together as oie people, while
yet each had its own particular head who ruled it with a kind
of sovereign authority. These heads ; under the general head
or kituj, were the princes of the nation. Sometimes, there waa
no general head at all, but the prince of each tribe was iu every
respect an independent monarch, while yet all were classed t/j-
get her as one people, and had a general name in common.
When compared with the kingdoms that have since been in
thj world, most of those which received the name in these
early times were very small. Sometimes a single city, with
the neighbouring country a little distance round it, formed such
a kingdom. Hence, though the whole land of Canaan em-
braced not near as much country as some of our single states,
we find it contained a large number of independent govern-
ments of this sort. The Israelites under Joshua, we are told,
smote no less than thirty and one kings, all of that country,
when they took possession of the land. (Josh. xii. 7 24.)
Abraham did not hesitate, with three hundred and eighteen
servants, to pursue after Chedorlaomer and the kings that were
with him, after they had subdued several kingdoms. (Gen. xiv.)
He was himself, in every respect, an independent sovereign in
the country, and his vast family of servants formed a little
kingdom around him. He was even considered a mighty prince
among the inhabitants of the land. (Gen. xxiii. 6.) Such,
also, Isaac was held to be. The king of Gerar said unto him,
"Go from us, for thou art much mightier than we!" (Gen.
xxvi. 16.) 8oon, however, some nations began to show a much
larger appearance. They grew to be great and strong. This
tended gradually to put an end to such very small kingdoms.
They could not stand alone, when powerful empires were rising
in the earth. Yet there were always in the East, some who
never could be brought to forsake the simple manner of govern-
ment which prevailed among their ancestors. They remained
independent tribes, each ruled by its own head with sovereign
power, and forming, in reality, a little government by itself,
though many of them might be classed together as one general
people, and might consider themselves such by reason of their
t numon origin. These were such as dwelt in the wilderness,
moving through it with unsettled habitation, and bidding defi-
ance to the mightiest monarchs of the earth in the midst of it*
safe and broad retreat. They are found there in the samo in
dependent condition to this day.
M
182 BIBLICAI ANTIQUITIES
SECTION II.
GENERAL MANNER OF THE ANCIENT ISRAELITISO
GOVERNMENT.
AMID the nations of the earth in ancient times, the Jew?
were a peculiar people. Not only their religion, but their
government also, was established by divine authority. The
principles according to which it was to proceed, were solemnly
settled by God himself, after their deliverance from the bond-
age of Egypt.
Before that time, the simple, original patriarchal manner of
government had prevailed among them. They were separated
into tribes, and these again into various branches or families,
according to their generations. Each great family had its
head, and each tribe its prince, chosen out of the several heads
of the families it contained. These were called the cl<l> /-.< <//
J*nn{. This general plan of having the nation divided into
tribes and families, with particular heads appointed over them,
was not given up when the government of the nation was regu-
lated with new authority afterwards. On the contrary, it was
sanctioned by the Most High, and secured by the system of
laws which he published through his servant .Moses. There
was, as we shall soon see, a wise reason in the general de.-i_m
of God for keeping the whole people thus separated into it*
several branches, from age to age.
The common natural object of government is to promote
the happiness and comfort of mon in society, by securing to
them life, liberty, property and peace, and assisting their im-
|>ro\< incut in knowledge and every useful art. Considered in
this light, it is a most merciful appointment of God, though
often abused by the wickedness of men, like other good gifts
of Heaven, and turned into an instrument of oppression and
evil. But the Jewish government wa.s formed peculiarly witli
* view to answer another great end. While it was so arranged
as to be suited well to the proper design of other governments,
its particular frame was organized and adjusted by the Al-
mighty with special reference to the interest.- of his <-hur<-k.
(iod chose the Jewish people out of the nations of the earth,
to be his visible church, to maintain his wor.-hip, and to pre-
serve the true religion in the mid.-t of an idolatrous world, till
the fulness of time appointed for the coming of Christ. This
waft the great design of their separation, and their civil, as well
as their religious state, was ordered with a peculiar regard to
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 1S3
the securing of it. The one was made to agree with and assist
the other in promoting the same high purpose. The kinyt'om,
therefore, was intimately connected with the church. They
were made up of the same society; to belong to the one, waa
to belong to the other, and to be cast out of the one, was to
lose at the same time the privileges of the other. God was,
in a special and direct way, concerned with the institution and
order of each. The two were blended closely together, so as
to make one complex system. The laws which were made for
the government of the nation were associated with those which
regarded directly the interests of religion, in such a manner as
to form together a single plan, wisely arranged for that most
excellent end which has been mentioned. The Israelitish com-
monwealth was organized and established by divine care, merely
that it might be a sort of outward frame for the preservation
of the Israelitish church. Although, therefore, the laws and
institutions given by the Lord to the Jewish people arc pro-
perly distinguished into two general classes, such as relate to
religion, and such as relate to civil society, a religious design,
nevertheless, may be discovered in some measure running
through all ; and the reason of most of the peculiar features
which civil society was made to bear, is to be sought in their
relation to religion, rather than in any mere political purpose.
The whole system of government aimed to secure the worship
01 the only true God, and to preserve his truth from corruption.
It was formed therefore in such a way as to be a strong barrier
against all idolatry, and in such a way as was likely to render
it luxthiij as well as effectual. Its laws, while they were adapted
to secure the temporal peace and prosperity of the people, and
to perpetuate the kingdom for many ages, were framed in the
most wise manner for shutting out every form of false religion
and maintaining the worship of the one God that created hea-
ven and earth.
As a first grand measure for securing the end which he had
in view, God offered himself to be the king of the nation.
While he was tb supreme ruler of all the earth, he prop
to take that favoured people, to be a peculiar treasure unto him
iluvf all people, - *nd to govern them himself with a special care
AS their Lawgivf aud Sovereign. By a most solemn covenant
it .Mount Sinai, '.hey agreed to receive him as such, and to be
irnu-nud entirety by him, not only as a church, but also as a
Ii/Jy nation (V,\. xix. 3 -8.) In this character he afterwards
_';i\i !a\vs. dr-^ided important questions of duty, tlir. at n. >)
|u.]ii-!iiiifut and caused them to be executed, and provided \\.-i \ >t
'i which ue might be at any time vonsulted in oases nf difficulty
184 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
or d nibt. lie interposed continually with his authority in the
iffairs of the nation, making known his will and repro\ing
what was wrong in the measures of the kingdom, by his ap-
pointed messengers; and oftentimes putting forth his sovereign
power, to control or correct those measures, by means of his al-
mighty prori'ttt'ure, in such a way as was not used with other
people. The form of government under him was allowed to
vary, but his special sovereignty was still maintained. Moses
was his servant, who published his laws, and under his 2ou-
tinual direction led the nation from Egypt to the borders of
Canaan. Joshua, under the same direction, was made its com-
mander in chief, to conduct the people into the promised laud,
and to lead them in their batiles till they got possession of it.
Afterwards, at various times, extraordinary /</</'* were raised
up to govern. They were intrusted with great power, and re-
garded with much honour; but they w re only officers acting
for God, as he called them one after another, from time to
time, into service. At length, in the latter part of Samuel's
life, the people demanded a king, such as other nations had, to
judge them. God commanded the prophets to reprove them,
as having sinned against him by this demand. " They have
rejected me," he declared, "that I should not reign over them."
Yet he suffered them to have their desire. (1 Sam. viii. o '2'2,
xii. 12.) Still, however, he did not withdraw himself from
the supreme direction of the kingdom. (1 Sam. xii. 16 '22. )
He pointed out the king who should be chosen, and required
him to rule the nation with continual regard to divine dircc
tion. Because Saul refused to obey, the kingdom was taken
from him and given to David. By his prophets the Lord con-
tinued to direct and reprove the proceedings of government,
and from time to time he punished obstinate resistance to his
will, by calamities sent in his righteous providence for that ex-
press end. Thus king and people were made to remember and
feel that God was the proper sovereign of the nation. At last,
by way of severe punishment, he sent them into captivity ; yet
lu 1 soon brought them back again, and established them undci
his care, once more, in their own land. There, though hi*
i.i.iin ili.ite direction by means of his prophets was in a short
time withheld, he still watched over their affairs with a pccu-
li-ir and continual pr widence, afflicting sorely for sin, and y ;(
prot-rving the nation from ruin with great deliverance s, (ill
i he great end of their separation from the rest of the worl.l
was answcn d fully, with the introduction of a new and bcttei
covenant by the L'.n-d Jesus Christ. (Heb. viii. 613.) Then
be cast them off; and foi their dreadful guilt, scattered them
BILLICAL ANTIQLITIE8 1S5
' among all people, from the one end of the earth even ante
tlie other," as they are found to this day. (Dtut. xxviii. 64.)
God being properly the king of the nation, the people were
placed under a two-fold obligation to honour him, and to ob-
serve that religion which he appointed. As the Lord of hea-
ven and of earth, their Maker, they were bound to obey him
ic all things, and to delight in his service ; but besides this,
they were bound to yield obedience and homage to him as
their national monarch. All such general duties as subjects
in all kingdoms owe to their king, were, among the Israelites,
due to God. Thus, the claims of religion at once became also
claims of government, and the good order of the state was, in
its nature, essentially blended with the good order of the church.
Regard to the principles and institutions of the true religion
could not be dispensed with, without unfaithfulness and insult
to the sovereign of the kingdom, as well as to the infinite and
eternal Ruler of the universe. Such neglect, therefore, called
for punishment as a civil offence, na well as exposed to the
an^cr of Heaven, in its character of a reliyious one. Idolatry
was not only impiety, as a departure from the true God, bu*
//vr/w. also, as it set itself directly in opposition to the authori-
ty and honour of the king. The whole law of the kingdom,
thrivt'ore, ixerted its utmost force to prevent it, and to punish
it, when it did appear under any form, with the most extreme
severity. In corrupt times, indeed, it prevailed, notwithstand-
ing, in the land ; but it, was because there was no faithfulness
among those whose duty it was to maintain the principles of
the government ; they were all, in such cases, trampled under
foot.
The evil of idolatry was guarded against in two general
ways ; by regulations directly opposing its errors and directly
enforcmg the principles of the true religion, and also by regu-
lations that tended indirectly to the same end, by hindering,
as far as possible, all free and general intercourse with idola-
trous nations. Idolatry reigned through the world, and the
Jews discovered themselves ever ready to be carried away by
its temptations. There was need, therefore, of a bulwark
doubly secured, to keep that single people, for hundreds of
year-, safe from its total desolation.
How strongly every thing opposed to the worship of the
one only living and true God was directly and positively forbid-
den, and what severe punishments were decreed against all such
offences ; and how solemnly the several duties of obedience to
that God, and regard to his appointed worship were required
to be observed, it is needless to say. The law was full < f e*
'
f S 6 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
rri-^s precepts of this sort. It set itself not only against every
actual idolatrous practice, but also against the use of customs-
in any way that were connected with idolatry among the hea-
then ; lest by any means such customs might prove an enticr-
meut to lead men into the evil with which they were common-
ly joined. Thus it was forbidden to plant a grove of any tre. .
near the altar of the Lord; to round the corners of the head.
or to mar the corners of the beard ; to make baldness between
the eyi-s for the dead, &c. These were customs connected with
i 1 ilatry. Thus, there is reason to believe, a number of par-
ticular laws had a special reference to superstitious and idola-
trous usages that were common among other people at that
time. Some that now seem strange and difficult to explain,
probably had much of their meaning and design in a regard tn
usages of this sort, which they were made to prevent.
It was altogether necessary, however, in order to secure the
end in view, that, in addition to all the care of direct and posi-
tive laws, the people should be kept as much as possible sepa-
rate from all other nations. Evil communications always tmd
to corrupt good manners; and the Israelites for a long time
showed themselves very prone to be spoiled by the smallest in-
tercourse with their idolatrous neighbours. It was, therefore,
a wise and merciful arrangement in the general plan of tlicir
government, to cut them off, by every means, from such fami-
liar intercourse, and to make them a people <1w'Uin<j n/'i/n; and
" not reckoned among the nations." (Num. xxiii. 9.)
For this end, they were settled in the land of Canaan ; a
country not large enough to invite or to allow other people from
abroad to come and dwell among them ; yet sufficient in all
n >|n-ets for their support, and abounding with the most ex-
cellent natural advantages. (Lev. xx. 24, 20.) They were
required to drive out or destroy all the idolatrous Canaanites.
that they might not be a snare to lead them into sin. The
dr-t ruction of that race was called down upon them by their
sins. The measure of their iniquity was full, and the l<r.n 1
ites were commanded to destroy them without mercy. With-
out a command from God, they would have had no right to
attack them in this way ; because it is not for men to decide
when and how the anger of God, in such cases, calls for 1 1 it-
execution of punishment. But when the command is given,
it would be sin not to obey. The will of God is the best
reason in the world for whatever measure it demands. He
may use whatever means to himself seem best, to accomplish
his righteous purposes. He had as much right to send the
Israelites to destroy cities, men, women, and children, as to
I'. I B L I ( A L ANTIQUITIES 1 <O
tend upon them the same destruction by means of u famine, i
pestilence, or an earthquake. There was not, therefore, any
thing to be blamed, in the severe treatment of the Canaanites.
It was the work of God, the Judge of the whole earth, per-
formed by such instrumentality as he saw fit solemnly to
employ.
While care was taken to root out these wicked nations, the
Jews were forbidden, also, to make marriages with idolaters.
"Thy daughter," says the law, " thou shalt not give unto his
son, nor his daughter shalt thou take unto thy son ; for they
will turn away thy son from following me, that he may serve
other gods." (Deut. vii. 3, 4.) Again ; no encouragement
was given to commerce. The manner in which the state was
arranged, tended to hinder it. The law which forbade the
taking of interest for money lent, which under any form is
called usury in the Old Testament, implied that commerce was
not to be pursued, and served to prevent it. Where there is
no interest lawful on money, merchants cannot thrive. Thus,
while the Tyrians, just above them, were the most commercial
people in the world, and carried on a traffic with almost every
nation, the Israelites, though their country was bordered all
along on one side by the sea, for a long time had nothing to
do with this business at all, and never were brought, for any
considerable period, to engage in it, except to a small extent.
In this way they were greatly preserved from intercourse with
strangers, and the introduction of strange fashions and notions.
They were a nation of farmers. There was made a necessity
that they should be such, in the way the land was divided.
By the direction of God, the whole land was regularly di-
vided, when it was first settled by the Israelites, so as to secure
to every family its proper, particular share. (Num. xxxiii. 53,
. 54, xxxiv. 13 18.) First, each tribe was to receive its dis-
trict of country, distinct from the rest. Then each great
family was to have allotted to it, its right proportion out of the
district that fell to its tribe. Lastly this proportion of each
euch family was to be again measured off into as many parcel*
as it contained men whc were to inherit. Thus every Israelite
had his own inheritance assigned to him in the beginning, to
be handed down to his posterity after him. He lived, too, in
the midst of his kindred. Every neighbourhood was made up
of relations, nearly connected by blood in proportion as thrir
ands lay nigh to each other. Care was taken, too, that this
state of things should not alter. Land was forbidden ever to
be sold from one to another, so as to rass entirely away fron?
the family to which it had been given. -The land," God
18& BIBLICAL ANT I QUIT IKS.
said, "shall not be sold for ever; fur the land is MINE; for y*
an- strangers and sojourners with me.'' (Lev. xxv. 23.) Liind
might he parted with, but only for a time. In the year of
j.sbilee, it was required to come back to the original owner or
his children. When sold, therefore, and bought, the price was
always determined according to the time that was yet to come
In-fore the next jubilee. It was just what the use of it for that
time, longer or shorter, was considered to be worth. Nor was
the person obliged to wait till the jubilee, if he became able
himself, or if his near friend was willing for him, to buy it back
again sooner. Whenever a price, answering to the time that
was still to come according to the rate at which it had been
si '1.1, was offered to the purchaser, he was obliged at once to
give it up. (Lev. xxv. 13 28.) In this way, no family was
allowed ever to be left without its proper inheritance. Every
Israelite was born an heir to some land, and forced, in some
Measure, to be a farmer. There could be no great estates
o\viied by single men; nor, on the other hand, was there room
for such a thing as perfect, hopeless beggary. A jm-ttv gene-
ral equality was secured. Every jubilee made every Israelite
an independent man. There were times, indeed, when this
advantage was not enjoyed. We read of wicked men joining
hou>e to house, and laying field to field, till there was no place,
tnat they might be placed alone in the midst of the earth, < I -a.
v. 8;) but it was done in defiance of law. Those wen- time.-
of dreadful corruption, in which the rights of men were torn
from them by violence, and justice had no place in the govern-
ment. We have seen before, that only sons inherited, if then.
were any; the distinction of families was kept up in the male
line. But if there were no sons, daughters were to receive the
inheritance; they were, however, in such case, to marry within
tLe ''family of the tribe of their father," and their children
were to be counted as belonging to the family of their father,
and representatives of his name, instead of passing into the
lines of the houses to which their husbands belonged. (Num.
xxvii. 1 11, xxxvi. 1 12.) In other cases, daughters might
marry into any tribe ; and when married, they passed altu
gether away from the inheritance of their fathers.
While this plan of securing to every family its estate, tended
greatly to promote the happiness and strength of the nation,
and to bring the whole country into a state of the most perfect
cultivation, it could not but have a powerful influence, too, to
Keep the Israelites in their own land, and to hinder strangers
from settling much among them. It is easy to see how it
must nave hindered foreign commerce. Besides, however, it
B BLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 189
ftmued a str ng hold upon every Israelite, to keep him from
withdrawing to other nations. He had property in his own
country, which, at the same time, he could not sell, if he wished
to leave it. To go abroad to live, was to lose his estate. A
strong attachment, too, was naturally formed to the place where
his fathers had always lived, which would not endure the
thought of forsaking it.
While God himself was the supreme ruler of the nation,
ordering its civil as well as religious affairs with a special
direction, there was still, at all times, some regular form of
human government under him, by which the business of the
kingdom was carried on, and its laws put in execution. This,
as we have seen, was in some respects different at different
periods.
li the original form of this government, each tribe had its
own rulers, and formed, in many respects, a distinct and inde-
pendent government within itself. The manner of government,
in its general plan, was according to the ancient patriarchal
fashion, from which it had been received. Every tribe had its
prince, and each of the greater and also of the lesser families
into which it was divided, had its head. The law required
jutlye* to be appointed in every city, whose business it was to
judge the people not only of the city itself, but also of the
country, with its villages, for some distance round; so that in
this way the whole land was furnished with judges. (Deut.
xvi. 18.) There was another class of persons, clothed with
some authority and much respect, who were scattered in like
manner throughout the land. They are called, in the English
Uible, njjici-r*. Mention is made of these in the account of
the oppression which the people suffered in Egypt. (Ex. v.
6, 14.) The same law, afterward, which required judges to
be appointed in every city, commanded that these twicers should
be so appointed also. The judges and officers had both their
particular business to attend to j' their particular departments
of duty, which, by their office, tl '.-y were called to have in
charge; but besides this, they borx a part also in the business
of public government. Each city was governed by a council
or scntife, that srem> to have been made up of all the hentfg oj
families, or el<l< /*, ju<l</e s, and officers, who belonged to it or to
the neighbourhood around it. When measures of a more
general sort, such as concerned several cities or the whole tribe,
were to be considered, a general nssemuly was called of all the
k-ii'l.-t, jnili/i-x, and f/jficrrs in the tribe, together with its prince.
Tlis assembly, in each till*-, managed its government, in all
case* mat did not touch directly the interests of other tribes o
I ( j0 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
of the nation in general, as if it had been an independent stafp
Thus we read of particular tribes even undertaking and carry
ing on wars on their own account, with which the rest u\>i>ea,T
not to have meddled. (Josh. xvii. 15 18, Judg. iv. 10.) lu
the time of Saul, the two tribes and the half one which lived
on the east side of Jordan, carried on in this way, by themselves,
a very great war. (1 Chron. v. 18 23.) So, also, the trib* 1 .
of Simeon had its own wars, as late as the reign of Hezekiah.
(1 Chron. iv. 39 43.) Hence we find the Israelites, as their
ancient history his set before us, continually proceeding, in all
their political movements, by tribes otfmtvQiet.
The government which each tribe had within itself, answered
a large part of the purposes for which government is wanted
in any country; but still there was need of something more to
bind all into one nation. There was, therefore, a national </>-
semi ill/ or sr/itit*-, made up of the princes, heads, judges, and
officers of all the tribes, which met at times, to deliberate upon
questions which concerned the .general interest, and to decide
upon measures that regarded the order or we'fare of the whole
people. (Josh, xxiii. 2, xxiv. 1.)
It is not altogether clear, what was the particular business
of the officers mentioned above, who were to be appointed in
every city. They are supposed to have been persons chosen
to keep the gem-nliMjIi-nl tahh-a of the Israelites. In these ta-
bles were carefully recorded all the births, marriages, and deaths
of every family. Among the Jews, it was a matter of great
importance to have accurately preserved, from gent-ration to
generation, every line of descent along tin 1 male side of houses .
The custom had its beginning with the commencement of so-
ciety. The whole manner of the Israelitish commonwealth
tended to cherish and confirm its power. The way in which
inheritances passed downward in famines, rendered it necessary
to keep regular records of genealogies, such as never could be
disputed. It was, therefore, a public care. The office of tlioM'
who were appointed to take charge of it was regarded as one
of great importance, and persons of more than common abilities
were sought to fill it. I>y reason of this care, every Israelite
could, without any difficulty, trace the line of his pedigree back
to Abraham, the father of the nation, and so back to Adam,
the fjther of the human race. Thus, Matthew and Luke were
sble, without any trouble, to give the genealogy of our Saviour.
I Ma t. i. 1 10, Luke iii. 23 38.) There was a wise coun-
sel of God, for the manifestation of his truth, in so ordering it
Ijy iiis providence, that there should be such a careful distinc-
uon of families among the Jews, and such a careful record
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. .01
fcept of their genealogies. By this means, a most satisfactory
fulfilment nf several groat prophecies concerning the Messiah
was made to appear, when he came. It ha<l been foretold that
he was to be the seed of Abraham, of the tribe of Judah, and
the son of David. (Gen. xxii. 18, xlix. 10, 2 Sam. vii. 12 16,
1's. Ixxxix. 4, cxxxii. 11, Acts ii. 30.) When Jesus appeared,
he answered to all these prophecies; and there was such ev>
denee of it in the public records of the families of the tribe of
J U'lah, that nobody could dream of contradicting it. Matthew,
then-fore, from these iveords published his genealogy, tracing
rhe line of .Joseph's house down from Abraham and David.
Luke has given us the pedigree of Mary's family, starting with
her father lleli and carrying it back to the same sources. Soon
after, all this business of recording genealogies was thrown into
confusion. The nation was scattered and its families disordered.
They are still a separate people, but no one .among them can
declare his ancient pedigree. By this, they ought to know
that the Messiah has come; for how could it now be certainly
kii'Avn, it' he wire yet to come, that he was of the tribe of Ju-
'l.ih ami i.f the house of David? Since God has long ago made
it impossible to prove such a descent in any case, they ought
to believe that the Messiah has already long ago made his ap-
pearance. But they blindly expect him etill, and refuse the
only Saviour, Jesus of Nazareth.
We do not hear of Jwlyex among the Israelites, till after
(heir departure out of Egypt. For a while, at first, Moses
himself was the only judge, and all causes, great and small, were
carried before him. By the advice of Jethro, however, which
God sanctioned, he made a great number of higher and lower
judges for the nation. "He chose able men out of all Israel,
and made them heads over the people, rulers of thousands,
rulers of hundreds, rulers of fifties, and rulers of tens. And
they judged the people at all seasons: the hard causes they
brought unto Moses; buC every small matter they judged them-
selves." Cases which judges of a lower kind could not decide,
or in which their decision was not considered just, were carried
before those of a higher order; and if the matter was too hard
for the highest of all, the judges of thousands, it came before
Moses himself. After their settlement in Canaan, the people,
as we have seen, wero always to have judges in every city.
Weighty oauses were to be carried to the place chosen of God,
and there laid before the priests and the person who should be,
at the time, clothed with the authority of supreme judge.
(Deut. xvii. 8 10.) When the nation came to be ruled by
kings, the king himself was the supreme judge It was com
192 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
uion f.>r him. however, to consult with the high priest, and to
k-fk judgment from his lips.
The tribe of Levi held a most important place in the nation
The influence which it possessed, extended itself throughout
the whole frame of government. It was consecrated especially
to the service of God; withdrawn from the common pursuit"
of life, not allowed to possess a particular territory like th<j
other tribes, and scattered into every district of the land. To
it, was committed the care of religion, and naturally along
with this, came the care of education. The nature of their
profession led them to cultivate knowledge more than others,
and afforded them, also, opportunity, such as no others had,
for acquiring it. The learning of the nation, therefore, was
found principally in this trilx;. Hence, places of trust and
authority came, very naturally, to be filled in general by
Levites. As they were skilful to handle the pen, they were
made, wherever they could be found, scribes and keepers of the
genealogies. As they were >alled to be familiar with the law
and with learning in genera., *hey were, in like manner, se-
lected, in preference to others, to be judges. In the time of
David, we are told, six thousand of them were officers and
judyes througli the land. (1 Chron. xxiii. 4.) The law made
it the business of the priests to explain its meaning, and to pro-
nounce judgment in all difficult cases. The priest's lips were
to keep knowledge, and the law was to be sought at his mouth.
It was not required, however, that the common judges should
be taken out of any particular tribe. It was only the general
superiority of the tribe of Levi over the rest, in point of learn
ing, which caused the judges, in the time of the kings, to be
commonly taken out of it.
Kings in the East, at the present day, exercise a most un-
limited power over their subjects, being restrained by no law,
and having respect to no other regular authority. We know
that it was in this way, also, they ruled, in most of those coun-
tries, in ancient times. In the Israelitish government, how-
ever, their power was in many respects restrained. The whole
nature of the government tended to forbid absolute or tyrannical
authority in the monarch. God was the supreme Sovereign of
the nation, and its affairs were at all times so ordered, that its
Kings were made to feel themselves under his control. The
system of religious law which he had established, was a strong
barrier in the way of proud presumption. The priests were the
.niuisters of the Most High, appointed to maintain t'he author-
ity of that law, and to withstand all departure from its princi-
ples . if faithful, their influence was sufficient to ch)k even
BIBLICAL AN1IQUITIE8. 1 ( JH
coyal power, wli^n it transgressed its proper line. The prophets
were messengers of the Almighty, which kings were constrained
o hear, and compelled to respect even such of them as hated
:heir message and desired to cast off their allegiance to God.
The peculiar ji>-nrii/<'nre with which the nation was governed,
lonspired with all this influence, to confound the ambition of
riii;'<s, and make them mindful of their subjection to the
Holy One of Israel. The general manner of the kingdom, too,
which we have just been considering, tended to prevent arbi-
trary power in kings. There was too much of the old patri-
archal style in its confederacy of tribes and families, to allow
any thing at all like despotism in the throne. The law of
Moses, because God foresaw that the nation would have kings,
prescribed certain rules, to be observed when they should be
chosen. (Deut. xvii. 14 20.) It appears, moreover, that a
formal contract, or covenant, was made between the elders of
the people and their kings, in which the royal duties and
powers were solemnly stated. The covenant was committed
to writing and carefully preserved. Thus, we are informed,
when Saul was made king, " Samuel told the people the man-
ner of the kingdom, and wrote it in a book, and laid it up be-
fore the Lord." (1 Sam. x. 25.) So, when David was anointed
in Hebron, it is said that he mmlr a lm,/ur with the elders of
Israel, before the Lord. ('2 Sam. v. 3.) Rehoboam foolishly
refused to agree to the reasonable terms which were proposed
to him by the people, and in consequence of it, ten tribes im-
mediately rejected his claim to the kingdom, and sought for
themselves another monarch.
It was the business of the king to secure obedience to the
laws, and to punish such as broke them. He had power to de-
clare war and to make peace, and to administer justice with
supreme authority. He could grant pardon to offenders, and
IK- could sentence them to immediate death. He was consi-
dered the military head of the army. He was not, however,
expected to go always himself to war; he might employ gene-
rals to conduct his forces in his stead. It is hardly necc--.n-\
to say ^ that in some instances his power was greatly abused,
and that not unfrequcntly the boundaries of right were daring-
ly overleaped, and the privileges of the people disregarded, in
.-pile of all the security with which they were defended. The
wickedness of man has produced such instances of evil in every
government.
l'.l BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES
SECTION III.
JEWISH GOVERNMENT AFTER THE CAPTIVITY.
TIIK (''ijifirifi/ put a complete end to the kiiii/</nm <>
made up Of tlie ten tribes who revolted from Rehoboam. Tlie
kiiKjiImn <>/ Jtttlah was still preserved. It embraced the tribe
and family from which the 5lessiah was to come ; and all the
privileges and promises which had been granted to the seed of
Abraham, the church of God, were confined to it as the only
proper stock of the Jewish nation. During their captivity,
they were still allowed to retain something of the plan of gov-
ernment which had boon in use before. We read of their
t'/'/irs, and of the chief of the father* / Ixraii. It appears, also,
that they had a prince or governor of their own, who ruled
them under the supreme authority of the king of the country.
After their return to their native land, while they continued in
subjection to the Persians and afterwards to the (! reeks, they
had, we know, a chief magistrate as well as other officers of
their own, by whom the government was managed. When
there was no other regularly appointed chief magistrate, it
seetns that it was common for the high priest to exercise the
duties of that office. In the time of Antiochus Epiphan.--.
the nation recovered its freedom, after a long war, carried on
with great bravery under the conduct of Judas, surnamed
Maccabeus, and his brothers Jonathan and Simon. These
held, one after another, the office of high priest, and became,
at the same time, jin'/ir^ ruling the kingdom with independ-
ent and sovereign power. For something more than a hundred
years, the affairs of the nation were managed by persons of this
illustrious family, who sustained at once the dignity of high
priests and the authority of kings. Then it fell under the do-
minion of the Romans, about sixty years before the birth of
our Saviour.
For a time, the Romans made but little change in the man-
nei of the government. They exercised, however, the right
of appointing iis> highest ruler. Instead of leaving the chief
civil authority with the high priest, as it had been before, they
l-esfowed it upon Antipater, the father of Herod. Afterwards,
Herod himself was intrusted with the government, and had
conferred upon him the title of klmj / .ln<l<n. l}y his will,
which the Roman Emperor Augustus allowed to stand, he di-
vided his dominions among his three sons, Aix-helaus, Herod
Autipas, and Herod Philip. Archcluus had Judea, Samaria,
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 19J)
ir.d Idumea, and bore the title of Ethnarch, which means,
/i'/// /-, or chit f f tin inifii'ii. with a promise from Augustus
that lie should, after some time, receive the name and all t In-
dignity of a king, if he conducted himself in a manner worthy
of such distinction. Herod Antipas and Philip bore the title
of T'ti-arrliK. (Jjiikeiii. 1.) The word 7V//V//W/ signifies, in
its original meaning, Ifulir <>f the fourth jmrt of a coun'ry
The office is said to have been borrowed from the (lauls
Throe tribes of these barbarous people, at a certain time, came
:ntc Asia Minor, and by force took from the king of Bitliyuia
i part of his country, where they settled themselves, and called
the district from their own name, Galutia. The Galatians to
whom Paul wrote, were their descendants. Each of these
tribes was divided into four parts, and each fourth part had a
chief magistrate of its own, under the general authority of the
king. These chief magistrates were Tetrarchs. Afterwards,
the name was given to governors who ruled some district of
country under an emperor or king, though it was not the
fourth purt, precisely, of any kingdom. Herod and Philip
ruled each over less than a fourth part of Judea. A tetrarch,
though dependent on the Roman Kmperor, was yet allowed to-
govern the people who were under him, altogether according
to his own pleasure. An ethnareh, however, was superior in
point of rank ; he was honoured and addressed by his subjects
as a king. (Matt. ii. 22.) A tetrarch was sometimes dis-
tinguished with the same title.. (Matt. xiv. 9.)
In the tenth year of his reign, Archclaus, for his exceeding-
ly bad government, was deprived of his authority and banished
out of the land. His territories were then annexed to the pro-
vince of Syria, and so came under such gove'rnment as was
common in other provinces of the great Roman empire. This
took place when Quirinus, or Cyreiiiu*, was President of Syria.
A governor was placed over Judea, who had the title of Procu-
rator, and was dependent upon the President of Syria. Such
were Pilate, Felix and Festus. These procurators, or go-
vernors, though they were officers under authority in the great
i-nipire, had, nevertheless, very great authority in the provinces
which they ruled, and held in their hands the power of life and
death. Herod Agrippa reigned over the country a while, with
rli, title of king, after our Saviour's death; but only a short
'ime. (Act; xii. 1 i, 1923.)
The iir<>curators of Judea resided generally at Cesarea; but
ju the gn-at festivals, or when any tumult was feared, they
went t-> .Jerusalem, that l>y their presence they might hinder
i.sorder, or suppress it if it made its appearance. They wen-
196 IfBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
allowed to keep in the country, for the purpose of maintaining
their authority, six companies <>r Lands of Roman soldiers,
each consisting of several hundred men. Five of these bands 1
were stationed at Cesarea and one at Jerusalem, in a towci
close by the temple. (Matt, xxvii. "27, 28, Acts x. 1, xxi. 3\
xxvii. 1.) The ('i-nfiirit>ns who are mentioned in the New
Testament, were officers under the chief captain of a hand.
(Matt. viii. S, 0.) The name signifies one who has the com-
mand of precisely a hundred men ; but each centurion had nof
always so many. We must not conf.iim.l the chief captain of
the Roman band, with another ofieer, called the cnfitnin nftht
(emple. This last was a Jewish officer, a priest of high stand-
ing, who had command of the hands of L -vite^ that were ap-
pointed to guard the temple. (John xviii. 3, \'2, Acts iv. 1,
v. 24-, 26.) When more than one such captain is spoken of,
we are to understand the captains of single bauds under the
command of the chief officer. (Luke xxii. 4, 52.)
As a Roman province, the nation was required, under the
government of the procurators, to pay regular tribute. It was
a privilege granted to the Jews, which was not commonly al-
lowed, that persons from among themselves were generally ap-
pointed to manage and collect the taxes The office of chief
tax-collector, was one of some distinction and of much profit.
Each had a particular district appropriated to his management,
having paid to the government a certain price for the right of
collecting all its taxes. To secure the collection, he employed
a number of inferior tax-gatherers, who took their several sta-
tions in places where tribute was to be received, and took in
all the particular tolls. These were usually taken from the
lowest rank of society, and were often very worthless in their
character. Greedy of gain, they were frequently guilty of
fraud and extortion. Accordingly, they were in all the pro-
vinces heartily hated and despised; hut especially were they
detested among the Jews, who always felt the whole matter of
paying tribute to a fo/eign power to !>: an exceeding grievance
and disgrace, and could not endure such as bore any part ID
collecting it. Hence, the tax-gatherers, or ]mttfirnns, were reck-
oned in the same class with the vilest sinners, such as thieves,
harlots, &c. It was considered a great >< andal, that our Sa-
viour consented to Sit at meat with p -rsons held to be so iufa
nious. But he came to seek and sive that which was lost;
and among this low class of unprincipled men, the grace of hi r
gr.np ! was made far more effectual than amon.: the self
righteous I'hari-'es. /aceheus was one of those chief collector*
that have been mentioned, who employed the c.mmru) tar-
BIKLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 19V
g.i borers under them. Matthew, the apostle, was a publican
of the latter sort ; a common tax-gatherer, who seems to have
been caring only for filthy lucre, till the voice of Jesus fell
upon his ear, as he sat at the receipt of custom, with the solemn
:-all FOLLOW ME. That call was attended with a divine power;
for at once, " he left all, rose up, and followed him !"
Jiiili/i .s, a.s well as other magistrates, were regularly appointed
in sufficient number among the people, on their return from
the captivity. (Ezra vii. 25.) Cases that were more than
i-omiuonly difficult, were brought for some time either before
the chief magistrate of the state, such as Zerubbabel was, and
Kzra, and Nehemiah, or before the high priest. At length,
however, a supreme court of justice was established, called the
Sanhedrim. No mention is made in history of this council
being in existence before the time of the Maccabees. S mie
indeed have thought, that its origin is to be found as far back
as the time of Moses. On a certain occasion in the wilderness,
when Moses was greatly distressed with the weight of the bur-
den that rested upon him, God commanded him to choose
seventy men of the elders of Israel, whom he promised to qua-
lity by his Spirit that they might assist him in the heavy
charge. (Num. xi. 16 17,24 30.) This council, according
to the opinion just mentioned, was intended to be a lasting su-
preme court in the kingdom, and was actually continued age
after age till the latest times of the nation ; so that the San-
hedrim, of which we hear after the captivity, was in reality
but the same institution. But we find no notice of such a
council being in existence, during the whole period from the
death of Moses to the captivity, and the history of the Bible
naturally leaves upon the mind the idea, that no tribunal of the
sort was known. The council of seventy appointed in the wil-
derness seems to have been formed merely for the time which
then was, that it might take a share with Moses in the burden
of government, and contribute by its influence to support his
administration in the midst of so rebellious a people. As its
members one after another died, their places were not filled up,
;ind so it came to an end with that generation. The Sanhe-
Irim after the captivity was entirely a new council ; though,
ao doubt, it was meant to be an imitation in some respects of
that ancient institution.
The Sanhedrim was composed of seventy or seventy-two
members selected from the <///- ////' >v>-, the <//</*, or heads of
families, and tl.e .so-/7*/.s. The lii^'li priest was its president.
When they met, it is said that the members took their seate
in Midi a WHV a. to form a semicircle, with the president in tin-
H;8
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
cciitn 1 so a-
to face lli.Mii
all. On hi*
right side d:ii
tllf /
f/o//, next in
authority to
himself, and
on his left. the
srrnin/ /'/' >
jir- .<i'/> /if.
The 0,1111-
ril room in
which they
commonly as-
Selllbleil wa-
not far from
the temple,
some think in the temple ; when they pretended to try oui
Saviour, however, they met in the palace of the high priest.
The authority of the Sanhedrim was very great, reaching to
the affairs both of the church and of the state. In the time of
Christ, however, its power was considerably limited by the \{ >-
mans. It had still liberty to try and pass sentence, but the
power of executing the sentence, if it called for capital punish-
ment, was taken from it and placed altogether in the hands of
the Roman Governor. Thus, when our Saviour was taken to
be destroyed, he was brought first before the Sanhedrim, hasti-
ly assembled in the high priest's house, and there, after the
empty show of a trial, declared to be worthy of death. Then,
when the}' had bound him, they led him away in the morning
to the Judgment Hall of the (Jovernor, and urged him to pass
sentence for his crucifixion. Pilate had full power, as he said
himself, to release him, (John xix. 10 j) but, though he wa.-
jrmvinced of his innocence, he had not virtue enough to let
him go, while there sceir d a danvr that his own interest
might suffer by a refusal to gratify the Jews. To get clear of
the difficulty, he told them to t tke him themselves, and judge
him according to their own law. l>ut they replied, "It is not
lawful for its to put anv man to death ;" they wen; determineo
to be satisfied with nothing less than his death, and this coulfl
not be without sentence from Pilate. (John xviii. 31.) A'
length, after an in-'Hvctual attempt to reason -hem out of theii
;mrpose, the unfaithful man yielded, and delivered up tin
Lord of ::! n-y to be nailed upon the CTOM Wh -u Stephen wa
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 19&
J, it was not done by the authority of the Sanhedrim, but
in an unlawful riot
It was the council of the Sanhedrim that met after Lazarus
were raised from the dead, to consider what measures were to
be taken to stop the growing credit of Jesus, when Caiaphas,
the president, at once declared that nothing ought to be though!
of but fiis death ; uttering at the same time a striking pro-
phecy, of which he was not himself aware. (John xi. 47 53.)
Peter and John were brought before it, at a later period, for
preaching " through Jesus the resurrection from the dead."
(Acts iv. 5 21.) -Afterward, all the apostles together were
brought before it, and beaten. (Acts v. 21 41.) We read
of it also in the history of Paul. (Acts xxii. 30, xxiii. 1, 15
20, 28.)
In the time of our Saviour, there was, according to Josephus
an inferior tribunal or court of justice in every city, consisting
of seven judges, which decided onuses and punished crimes that
were not so important or difficult as to require their being
carried before the Sanhedrim. Before the Romans took away
the power of capital punishment from the nation, this court
could sentence a criminal to death by the sword, which was
considered the least severe sort of execution. Stoning was held
to be a heavier punishment, and could be inflicted only by the
great council, or Sanhedrim. Our Saviour referred to these
different tribunals, when he set forth the true spirit of the
sixth commandment in his sermon on the mount. He taught,
that wrath and malice, which the Jews hardly felt to be sin?
at all, would certainly be called into account and punished,
and represented anger without cause to be worthy of a punish-
ment as great as that which was commonly inflicted for kill-
ing a man, which tliev looked upon as the only crime that
broke the commandment. " \Vhosoever is angry with his bro-
ther without :i cause, shall be in danger of the jutfi/ment, (or
inferior court;) and whosoever shall say to his brother, Raca,
(a word of scorn and contempt,) shall be in danger of the coun-
cil, (or Sanhedrim ;) but whosoever shall say, Thou fool, (a
word of spite and malicious reproach,) shall be in danger of
hell fire." (Matt. v. 22.) Josephus says, this court of seven
in every city, was the same which the law of Moses established
from the first, when it required judges and officers to be ap-
}> tinted, as we have seen already. There was a still smaller
o.mrt of three judges, which became common under the Roman
LT'vernmont. It was not, however, a standing tribunal like the
others, but chosen merely for the occasion, when a particulai
ease of law was to be decided, and the parties were willing to
200 BIBLICAL ANTIQUI7IK8.
have it settled in this way. Each party chose one man. and
the two thus chosen selected a third, which made up the. tem-
porary court. The same plan of settling disputes l>y arbitra-
tion, is common among ourselves. This privilege the Unman
laws allowed to the Jews, even when they were settled in other
countries; and as the Christians were at first regaried as only
a sect of the Jews, they likewise enjoyed the same advantage
Hence, the apostle censures the Corinthian Christians for car-
rying their causes before heathen magistrates, when they had
full liberty to settle them among themselves in the way now
mentioned. (1 Cor. vi. 1 7.)
The Jewish nation enjoyed many privileges under the do-
minion of the Uomaus. They wen; allowed to practice their
sacred rites and to continue their whole manner of religion
without restraint; to hold fast their ancient customs; and to
live in a considerable degree according to their own laws.
Yet after all, as appears from the view which has just been
taken, their condition was one of complete dependence and
subjection. With the coming of SHILOH, we beheld the
sceptre departing from Judah and the lawgiver from between
his feet, to be restored no more. (Gen. xlix. 10.) The
governors who ruled the country were very unjust and cruel,
and the affairs of the nation were miserably managed. For
want of energy in the government, the land was overrun with
robbers. The spirit of the people too continually tended t.
make the matter grow worse and worse. They bore the yoke
with extreme reluctance. The idea if being in bondage and
paying tribute to a Gentile nation \\-;is not to be supported
quietly by Jewish feelings. "We be Abraham's ? ed, an 1
were never in bondage to any man !" was the language which
these feelings prompted, in the very midst of their nation il
subjection. (John viii. 33.) Such feeling, excited as it was
by continual provocation, could not fail to give rise to frequent
tumults and insurrections; and these still served to produce
new evils, only causing the chain of bondage to be drawn with
more galling tightness, till at length, after desperate confusion,
violence, and war, they drew down complete and tremendous
Jestruction upon the whole nation. History informs us of
varirus insurrections made under different leader?., who per-
Hiaded a multitude to follow them with the wild hope of
breaking the Roman yoke. There was always a large class of
iin-n in the country who maintained that it was unlawful to
nay tribute to a foreign power; the law of Moses forbade
netting up a stranger t > be king over the n.tt ion, and this.
; --onling to their interpretation, made it wrong to acknowledge
THBIICAL ANTIQUITIES. 201
Bua to any Gentile king or emperor. (Deut. xvii. 15.)
The Pharisees in general, held this sentiment, though they did
not carry it out in open rebellion. The Galileans, however,
who sprung chiefly out of the sect of the Pharisees, pushed the
loctrine even to this extremity. They rose about the twelfth
year of Christ, when Judea was first joined to the province of
Syria, and taxed under the government of Cyrenius. One
Judas of Galilee was their leader. He publicly taught that
such taxing was contrary to the law of Moses, and " drew
away much people after him." (Acts v. 37.) He perished,
and his followers were dispersed; but they still continued to
form a sect in the land, and to propagate their doctrines after-
ward. It is supposed by some, that the Galileans slain by
Pilate 1 in the court of the temple were of this sect. (Luke xiii.
1, 2.) The Herwlians were a political party, who leaned alto-
gether to excess the other way. They had their name from
Herod, and seem to have been a sort of court-pleasing tribe,
who cared very little for law or religion, when they did not
appear to agree with worldly interest. They were in favour,
therefore, of entire submission to the Romans, and were not
unwilling to have introduced into the country many of their
heathen practices. How malicious was the policy which the
Pharisees employed on a certain occasion to " entangle the
Redeemer in Ins talk." (.Matt. xxii. 15 22.) Though
violently opposed to the Herodians in general, they got some
of them to unite with them in this plan to injure Christ, and
sent them together with some of their own disciples to propose
to him the much disputed question, "Is it lawful to give
tribute unto Caesar or not?" If he had said, It is not lawful,
the Herodians were ready to accuse him to the Roman govern-
ment as a person opposed to its authority ; if he had said, ft
is /inrfuf, the Pharisees would have charged him with being
unfriendly to the liberties of the people, so as to bring upon
him their displeasure. His answer, however, by its excellent
wisdom, defeated their malevolence.
In this state of bondage and uneasiness which the nation
endured, its expectation was strongly turned toward the Me>>iah
that wag to come. According to the Scriptures, they believed
that the ti ne appointed for his appearance was that particular
ire. and all looked for it as a thing just at hand. But, alas,
they had a false notion entirely of his character. They ex-
pected one who would come with great splendour and power,
to deliver them from <-arthly bondage, and to restore their
kingdom to all the glory >f "irf/i/i/ freedom, prosperity, and
victorious strength. They thought, that the thrune of Davi* 1
202 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
which he was to establish, would be the same throne of worldlj
dominion th:it had been set up of old in the midst of Israel
after the flesh; and heuce they imagined, that the promises of
God concerning the continuance of this throne, made it ini-
{Hiv-ible that the nation should be given up to complete ruin.
When Jesus of Nazareth, therefore, a man of poor and ob-
scure birth, presented himself as the Messiah, they turned from
him in unbelief. To the glory of that spiritual kingdom which
he proposed to establish, they were blind. False christs, vain
pretenders to be the Messiah, who took upon them the charac-
ter of worldly importance and promised to deliver them from
the power of the Romans, were more favourably received.
Several such rose, and became leaders in insurrection, drawing
multitudes after them. (Matt. xxiv. 23 27, John v. 43.)
On one occasion, after a great miracle, the multitude were filled
with a persuasion that Jesus was the Messiah, the Great
1'rophet that was to come, and then immediately they wanted
to take him by force and make him a king. (John vi. 14, 15.)
As the spirit of opposition to government prevailed so much
in those times, being greatly stirred up by injustice and op-
pression, and as among the Jews it was attempted to be justi-
fied and even proved a duty on principles of religion ; we find
the apostles, in their epistles, strongly urging upon Christians
the necessity of quiet obedience, not only for fear of punish-
ment, but also for conscience' sake. (Rom. xiii. 1 7, 1 Pet.
ii. 1317.)
SECTION IV.
OF KINGS.
ANOINTING with oil was a principal ceremony among the
Jews, in introducing kings to their office. It appears, how-
ever, that it was not thought necessary to anoint in every new
succession to the throne. If the first in a royal line had been
thus set apart, it was, perhaps, eun.-ioVred sufficient for those
that followed, unless the right to the crown was disputed. We
do not, at least, read of the ceremony being used in other
eases. Hence the king was called, The anoint, <l <m,-. Thi< is
just the meaning of the word JA-N.S ////*, and also of the word
Christ. These names, wl ich are only the same in different
languages, were given to the Redeemer, because he was spiritu
ill\ anointed by the Holy (Jh i.-t \.< be a I'mmiKT, a J'lUKST,
nd a K ING; to: the same ceremony was used for setting apnrt
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 203
prophets also, and priests to their office. (Isa. Ixi. 1, Luke
iv. 1721, Ps. ex. 1 t, ii. 2, 6, Acts iv. 25 27, x. 38.)
The Robe whi ;h kings wore was very costly. It was common,
in the East, to have it of purple colour. The Diadem glittered
with pearls and gems. It was a fillet, about two inches broad,
bound round the head so as to pass the forehead and temples,
and tied behind. Its whole workmanship was exceedingly rich
and valuable. The colour of it was different in different coun-
tries. This ornament, as veil a.s the neck-chain, and bracelets
for the arms, was worn at all times. In the nglish Bible, it
is called a crown. Other croicnx, however, were also in use,
which covered the whole head; but of their form, nothing cer-
tain is known. The Throne was a magnificent seat with a back
and arms, of such height as to need a footstool for the feet to
rest upon. That of Solomon, was all of gold, ornamented with
ivory, and was so high as to have six steps leading up to it
The "throne" became a natural emblem of government anc 1
power. Hence God is represented as sitting upon one; and
the image is clothed with exceeding grandeur, by making hea-
ven itself his throne, and the earth his footstool. (Isa. Ixvi. 1,
Matt. v. 34.) The Sceptre had its origin perhaps from the
Shepherd's staff, as kings were styled shepherds f equently in
early times, and their office seems to have been derived from
the authority of the ancient patriarchal chiefs, who were so
often, like Abraham and Job, but great master-shepherds, at
the head of their extensive families. Generally, it was a
wooden rod or staff, nearly as long as the height of a man,
overlaid with gold or adorned with golden studs and rings, and
having an ornamental ball on the upper end. (Ezek. xix. 11.)
A sceptre figuratively denotes dignity and dominion ; a sceptre
of riylUcowness is used to signify just government.)
In eastern countries, anciently as well as in modern times,
the courts of kings were distinguished with much pomp and
princely state. Their attendants were very numerous. Their
palaces were constructed in magnificent and expensive style,
and richly furnished with ornaments. Large gardens were
connected with them, in which walks, groves, and fountains
were made to unite in the most agreeable variety. Great pro-
fusion marked tb i royal table; and large wealth of costly gar-
ments filled the royal wardrobe. The Jewish kings do not
seem to have gei.c-rally indulged the same degree of luxury and
extravagance that was common in some other countries, such
a? Babylon and Persia; yet we find notices of much that was
according to the general eastern style now mentioned. Solo-
mon was not surpassed by the monarchs of any country in the
204 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
splendour of his royal state. He made full experiment of all
that wtalth, labour, and taste could procure of worldly magnili-
Lvnei : nut according to hi.s own account, he found it to be all
vanity and vexation of spirit. (Eccl. ii. 4 11.)
i ii kinirs of the present day very rarely make their ap-
p arance in public, and it is a matter of great difficulty to get
access to them in any way. We find that the same seclusion
was customary in ancient times. Among the Persians, it was
deatli for any pers m to come into the presence of the monarch,
without being invited. (Esther iv. 11.) Among the Jews.
however, n > fashion of this sort ever had place; their kings
allowe 1 themselves to be seen in public^ and approach to them
was not forbidden. Those who came into the pre.-cnce of the
king, even if they wen? the highest officers in the government,
appeared before him with respectful obedience, and stood, like
servants, before their master. Hence the phrase, to atantf Lefurf
tlie kiny means to be occupied in his service. So the priests
and Levites are said to have been set apart, to stand brfort
the Lord to minister unto him. (Deut. x. 8.) Gabriel is
spoken of as st<iii</in</ in the presence of the Lord, to signify his
readiness to perform his commands, as well as his high dignity
in being so admitted to appear before the King of kings. .(Luke
i. 19.) To behold the king's face was considered an honour
and happiness; much more to see it habitually, that is, to be
employed in his immediate service and enjoy his favour. Thus,
also, the expression to see God signifies to experience his friend-
ship, and to be admitted to the greatest happiness in his pre-
sence; whereas, not to see him is to be shut out from his favour,
and to be under his awful displeasure. Christ says of his
humblest followers, that in heaven their angels do always be-
hold the face of his heavenly Father; referring to the usage of
earthly courts, where such as always beheld the monarch'*
face were highest in office and regard. By this, he signified
that these "little ones" had a powerful interest in heaven, and
were peculiarly dear to God himself; so that it became men
to take heed how they despised them. (Matt, xviii. 10.) To
t!t next the king, especially on his right hand, was a mark of
the highest honour ana dignity. (1 Kings ii. 19, Matt.
xx. 2023, Heb. i. 3.)
As we have already seen, it was expected in early times that
those who approached kings should come with some sort of a
c resent. The most profound reverence was required to do him
honour, according to the ceremonious manner of the East.
\mong the lVr>iaus, the homage thus presented to the sove-
reign was little less than idolatry outright. A similar homage
BIDLIJAL ANTIQUITIES 205
ra^ required also to be paid to his chief courtiers and favour-
ites , and to refuse it was considered a grievous offence. Thus,
when Hainan was promoted, "all the king's servants that wer
in the gate bowed and reverenced him," and great wrath waj
excited against Mordecai because he woxild not do him this
honour. (Esth. iii 1 6.)
When eastern sovereigns go abroad, they are always attended
with a great and splendid retinue. The same custom prevailed
of old. The Hebrew kings rode on asses or mules, or in cha
riots, accompanied by their guards ; these were called, in the
days of David, Ckcrethites and Pehthites. When a monarch
m those regions took a journey into distant provinces, because
broad and convenient roads, such as we have, were not known
it was common to send a messenger before him, to give notico
of his coming, that the way in which he was to travel might
be made ready, and every thing else necessary prepared foi
his approach. When they were to pass through strange and
untravelled regions, they had a way opened before them, some
times with vast labour; precipices were digged down, and hoi
low places were filled up, and every hindcrance cleared away
To this practice, there is beautiful allusion in that prophecy
of Isaiah: "The voice of him that crieth in the wilderness
Prepare ye the way of the Lord ; make straight in the desert a
highway for our God! Every valley shall be exalted, and every
mountain and hill shall be made low : and the crooked shall
be made straight, and the rough places, plain: and the glory
of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it toge-
ther." (Isa. xl. 3 5.) While the prophet thus signified that
happy return from the Babylonish captivity which should take
place in the time of Cyrus, when God should conduct the Jews,
is it were, in all t) e majesty and splendour of a royal march
back over the wilderness and hills to their native land j his
words, full of divine animation, looked forward at the same
time to a far more glorious accomplishment, which that firs!
fulfilment itself, in the wise ordering of God's providence, wa,
made to shadow forth beforehand as its feeble type. We art
taught in the gospel, that John the Baptist was the messenger
sent to cry in the wilderness, and that the Lord whose way
was to be prepared, was the Redeemer, Jesus Christ, God mani
fest in the flesh. (Luke i. 76, iii. 8 -6. See also Mai. iii. 1
In many nations, there was a sort of general royal namv
that was applied to their monarchs one after another as
matter of course when they caine to sit upon the throne
Thus, among the Romans, the emperors were for a long tiiuf
successivelv styled by the name of Caesar. So the kings of
is
206 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
the ancient Amalekitcs seem to have carried in common the
name of Aijaij ; while that of Hmlad was appropriated to tho
king of Syria. Abimeleck was used in the same way among
the Philistines for some time. The ancient monarch* of Egypt"
wore called in succession Pharaoh, and those of Persia, in
many cases, Darius; each of these two names were originally
only common words, in the languages of those countries, which
signified simply kiny or monarch. In later times, the kings
of Egypt bore the general name of Ptolemy.
Among the officers that were commonly connected with tne
royal court among the Jews, we find mention made of Counsel
Inr*. Such were " the old men that stood before Solomon
while he lived." (1 Kings xii. 6 12.) Prophet* also were a
sort of royal officers. Pious kings always consulted them ,
while those of ungodly character, after the example of lu.-athrn
monarchs, applied to soothsayers and false prophets. Then
we read of the Recorder, or writer of (In- *t<il< -chronicles, who
kept in writing a regular account of all the transactions of the
king's reigu ; also of the Scribe, or royal secretary, who
registered the acts and decrees of government. The ///<//*
Priest, as the chief minister of God the sovereign of the nation,
held an important place also in the king's court, as was to be
expected in such a government. These that have been men-
tioned were employed to give counsel or to act, officially, iu
state business. Then there were others, whose business con-
nected them more particularly with the king's <l>n'*ti< estab-
lishment. Such were the officers who provided supplies for
the king's table. Such was the Governor of the palace, or
royal steward, who had charge of all the servants, and of the
whole household management. He wore, it seems, a particular
kiud of lobe, bound with a precious girdle, and carried a key
upon his shoulder, as a mark of his office. (Lsa. xxii. 15 22.)
The kiiKjs friend or companion was a person whom he ad-
.nitted to his most familiar confidence, and who was trusted,
when occasion required, with the most important charges. Aa
we have already noticed, the king had also his LifcyuarJ, who
in the time of David were called Chercthites and Pelethitea
These were soldiers, employed particularly to guard the palace
and the king's person. When sentence of death was pro-
nounced on any person by the king, they carried it into exe-
cution. They were sometimes also called Runners, because
they were required to carry tidings of the royal laws and edicts
into distant parts of the kingdom, and at times to run before
his chariot.
In the Roman empire, it was not unusual for those who
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. ^07
wanted to be clothed with the dignity of kings in the tributary
kingdoms, to go to Home for the purpose of soliciting such
favour in their own persons. It was thus Archelaus went
there, some time after his father's death, to have hiii will con-
firmed by the emperor, and to receive the government of Judea.
The Jews, by reason of their great hatred to him, sent an em-
bassy of fifty men at the same time, with a petition to Augus-
tus that they might be allowed to live according to their laws,
under a Roman governor. Archelaus, however, received the
kingdom, and when he came back inflicted severe punishment
on those who wanted to hinder him from reigning. In one of
his parables, our Lord beautifully alludes to this custom of the
times, and seems to have had the well-known case of Archelaus
particularly in his eye: "A certain noblemen went into a far
country, to receive for himself a kingdom, and to return. But
His citizens hated him, and sent a message after him, saying,
We will not have this man to reign over us," &c. (Luke xix.
12 27.) The application of the parable to Christ himself is
clear and striking. He was going to heaven to receive all
power from his Father, and would afterward return to take
vengeance on those who rejected him.
SECTION V.
OF PUNISHMENTS.
TRIALS in early times were simple and short. The places
where they were held, as we have seen already, were the gates
of cities. Here the judges were accustomed to sit, as the
place of greatest public resort. The accuser and the accused
appeared before them, shun/in;/. The witnesses were sworn,
and examined separately : two besides the accuser himself were
necessary to establish a charge. The sentence was then pro-
nounced, according to the wisdom and honesty of the judges,
and without any delay carried into execution.
The common time for trying causes seems to have been in
the morning. (Jer. xxi. 12.) By the later Jews, it was held
unlawful to try any cause of a capital nature in the night;
and also, to try, pass sentence, and put it in execution on the
-aine day. This last particular was entirely disregarded, in
the zeal with which our Saviour's life was taken away. He
<vas seized and brought to the high priest's palace in the night;
-<* .-rxA/t as it -irtis </<>y, he was tried with the unholy mocker \
*f Justice; early in the morning he was led away to tUe go
208 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
rernor to be sentenced to death ; and before tl 3 sixib hoar, of
DO m, ho was lifted up upon the cross.
The design of punishments in human governments, is to
hinder new crimes, or, as Moses expresses it, that all the peo
pie may /inn-, <t>t<l fxir, <nnl do no more jrresnmi>tiin*1y. Of
the different sorts of punishments mentioned in the Scriptures,
sniiir wore peculiarly Jewish in their use, and others were em-
ployed by people of other countries. They are naturally di-
vided into two general cla.<sses ; such as were capital, or took
away life, and such as were not thus fatal. We shall notice
those of the last kind first.
PUNISHMENTS NOT CAPITAL.
I. SIN AND TRESPASS OFFERINGS. If a man wilfully and
presumptuously transgressed the ceremonial law, he was cut
off from the people; but if he transgressed without such
deliberate purpose, through error, ignorance, or forgetfulness,
the law could be satisfied by the offering of an appointed
sacrifi x. Sacrifices of this sort had in them the nature of
punishment. If they were withheld, in the cases which called
for them, the punishment which belonged to wilful transgression
was incurred. Some offences, also, that were not of a cere-
monial nature, and even in certain cases such as had boon
committed with knowledge and design, might be atoned for
in the same way. Cases of the latter class were all, however,
such as the law had no power to discover, except by the volun-
tary confession of the offender, and of that diameter that the
gnu-nil good of society was likely to be promoted by the en-
couragement which was thus offered to his guilty conscience
to make acknowledgment of its sin. Together with the
Trespass offering to be made in these instances, the property
that had been dishonestly acquired was to be restored, together
with a fifth part of its amount added to a. The offerings of
which we speak could not, of course, do away the evil which
any action had in the sight of God most Holy; they satisti- <1
merely the civil and the ceremonial law, while they shadowed
forth in type, the Great Atonement that was to come. For
jii account of these Sin and Trespass Offerings, and of the
cases in which they were to be employed, see the fourth, fifth,
iind sixth chapters of Leviticus.
II. FINKS. These were h"ii.. I'inirs determined by the per-
*on himself who had been injured, in certain ea-.-s where tho
'aw appointed a severer punishment, but allowed him to accept,
f he chose, a satisfaction of this sort in it* stead. (Ex. xxi. 30,
Num. xxxv. 31, 3'2.) In other instances, fines were fixed by
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 209
?he decision of the judges, or expressly determined by tLe law.
[n cases of theft, the general law was, that double the amount
stolen should be restored ; but if a sheep or an ox that had
been stolen was already slain or sold, the restoration for the
first was to \& four-fold ; for the second, Jive-fold. When the
thief was unable to make restoration, he was sold, with his
wife and children, into bondage. (Ex. xxii. 1 4.) All fines
were paid to the injured person; the government received
nothing in this way.
III. SCOURGING. This was a very common punishment
among the Jews, in all ages of the nation. The law directed
that the person to be beaten should lie down, and that the
blows, which were never to be more than forty, though they
might be any number less, according to the crime, should be
applied to his back in the presence of the judge. (Deut. xxv.
13.) In later times, he was tied by the hands to a low pil-
lar, and stripped down to the waist. For fear of going, by
mistake, beyond the precise number of lashes allowed, it became
customary not to give over thirty -nine ; and that the reckoning
might be more sure, the scourge employed had three lashes or
thongs, so as to give three stripes at once. In this way, thir-
teen blows made out the thirty-nine stripes. In the time of
our Saviour, the punishment of scourging was not confined to
the regular courts of justice, but was often inflicted also in the
synagogues, which, as we shall see hereafter, were of the same
nature with our churches. (Matt. x. 17, Acts xxii. 19.) Paul
was scourged with/o/-ty strij>i-s, sm-i- one, no less than five times..
(2 Cor. xi. 24.) The instrument of scourging used in early
times, was commonly a rod; hence, in the Old Testament, the
rod is used oftentimes to signify any punishment. Cruelty in-
vented, for its own gratification, a horrible whip, by fixing sharp
iron points, or nails, or pieces of lead, to the end of thongs.
This seems to have been calLd a Scorpion. (1 Kings, xii. 11.)
Among the Romans, scourging was very severe, and was not
limited to any number of blows, as with the Jews. Thus the
olessed Redeemer was cruelly beaten, till he became so weak
that he was not able to carry his cross to Calvary. (Luke
xxiii. 26.) There was a law, however, by which it was forbid-
den to punish one who was a AWMM /'//-./ , in this way. (Acts
xvi. 22, 23, 37, xxii. 25.) Paul had this advantage, some
think, because he was born at Tarsus, which, for its services,
had been made a free city by Augustus Caesar. Others, how-
aver, suppose that the freedom of Tarsns was not the saiu"
tLin,4 as having the rights of Roman citizenship, because, though
the chief captain knew that Paul was of that city, he yet
210 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
ordered him to be scourged, (Acts xxi. 30,^xxii. 2-1 ;) tin-j
HKiint.-iiii, therefore, that the apostle's family liad obtained tlio
privilege in some other way. However it w;.<, lie enjoyed by
birth, what Lvsias had secured only by paying a irreat jirti-r
(Acts xxii. 28.)
IV. CONFIM:MKNT. As sentence of punishment was in ^e
neral carried into execution very soon after it wa.- pronounced,
there was not the same need of Prisons as among us. Crimi-
nals were sometimes put under the care of a guard ; and not
unfrequently, in early times, they were shut up in empty cis-
terns. At a later period, prisons of different sorts became more
common, and were used uot only to keep criminals safe for
trial, or till the proper time for executing upon them some
other punishment, but- also for mere confinement itself as a
punishment. Prisoners were often, in addition to their confine-
ment, bound with chains. After the captivity, it Ix'came cus-
tomary to shut up in prison persons who failed to pay their
/'///.s-, after the example of other nations. Such were also liable
to be beaten with stripes, and to be put to different kinds of
torture. (Matt. v. 25, 26, xviii. 28 34.) There was a sin-
gular way of binding persons, so as to deprive them of liberty,
in use among the Romans. It was, to fasten the prisoner to a
soldier, by a chain passing from the arm of one to that of the
other. In this way, he was continually attended with a irnard,
who could not for a moment forsake his charge, even if he had
himself been so disposed. The apostle Paul was confined in
this manner. Thus coupled to a soldier that kept him, he
"dwelt two whole years in his own hired house," at Home.
(Acts xxviii. 16, 30.) He was not, therefore, hindered from
seeing any that chose to visit him, and might, if he pleased, go
abroad out into the city. But to be, in this way, compelled to
wear a chain at all times, was to be constantly under the great-
est disgrace in the eyes of the world. Hence, many who be-
fore showed some friendship to him, became ashamed to ac-
kn iwledge acquaintance with him, and treated him with cold
neglect. Thus acted not all, however. "The Lord give mercy
to the house of Onesiphorus," he writes, "for he oft refreshed
me, and was not ashanx'il <>/ in>/ chain; but, wh-m he was in
Rome, he sought me out very diligently, and found /ne !"
(2 Tim. i. 16, 17.) Sometimes the prisoner was bound, by a
chain from each, arm to two soldiers. Thus Peter was sleeping
in prison, on that memorable night when the angel of the Lora
delivered him by miracle. (Acts xii. 6.) Persons who were
Trusted with the care of prisoners were liable, not unfrequently,
BIBLICAL ANT.'QUJTIES 211
to bo punislx d with death if they let them escape. (Acts xil
19, xvi. 27.)
V. KKTALIATIUN. The nature of this punishment may be
learned from Ex. xxi. H3 25, and Lev. xxiv. 19 22. See
also l)eut. xix. 1(5 21, where the punishment for false. wit-
uess is determined on the siine general principle. The injured
person might agree with the offender, in common cases where
retaliation was appointed by the law, to receive a sum of money
as a satisfaction in its room, and this either before or after the
decision of the judge. The law which authorized retaliation
was merely a dill one, appointing punishment in this way on
the same principle that was regarded in the appointment of
any other punishment, and did no more give countenance to
feelings of private revenue, than the law which commanded the
use of the scourge gave liberty to indulge a malicious or cruel
disposition. The Jews, however, in the time of our Saviour,
did not make this distinction, but interpreted the law as if it
was a moral one, and furnished a right rule for the regulation
of the heart and life. Our Lord taught that a very different
rule ought to be followed when this was in view. (Matt. v.
3842.)
V I . KXCOM MUNICATION. As religion and government were
blended inseparably together among the Jews, to be cast out
of the church was a cicil punishment as well as an ecclesiastical
one. We have no account of it being employed till after the
captivity. The later Jews made three degrees of it. The first
was, when a person was cast out of the synagogue and forbidden
to have any intercourse with society, even with his own family,
for the space of thirty days; and if he did not repent at the
end of that time, the excommunication was repeated. The
secom/ was more solemn and severe, beiig pronounced with a
curse : it was not lawful for anybody to 11 to such as were
under it, even the necessaries of life. The third was even more
severe, cutting off the guilty person absolutely and entirely from
all connection with his countrymen, and solemnly committing
him to the hands of God, whose awful judgment was near at
hand.
CAPITAL PUNISHMENTS.
We come now to the consideration of CAPITAL punishments.
The first mention of such punishment is found in Gen. ix. 6.
Wlioxo .</!/</' t/i man's bfafxt, by wan shall his blood be shfd.
Such was the commandment of God. The way in which the
oriui'oal was to be put to death, was left to be determined by
uen
Il2 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
THE BLOOD-AVENGER. In the earliest times, it was lefi
ltogcthcr to the nearest relation of the person that had beer,
killed, to execute punishment upon the murderer. In the
vommon sentiment of society, this was not only his r/V////, but
his duty, also; so that disgrace and reproach fell upon him, if
he failed to perform it. Hence, it became with such an one, a
irreat point of honour not to leave the blood of his kinsman
unrevcni^ed, and this, added to the keen feeling of anger which
naturally raged in his bosom, urged him to make the greatest
exertions to overtake and destroy the person by who.se hand it
h.-i'l been shed. This plan of punishment was the most natural
one in that simple state of society which was first common.
Hence, it prevailed among all people ; and .because the manners
of many nations in the East have been handed down with very
little alteration from the most ancient days, it still prevails to
a considerable extent in that part of the world. It is in use
also among the Indians of our own country, and in various
countries of Africa. It is easy to see, however, that such a plan
must be attended with most serious evil. It is adapted to
cherish feelings of bitterness and revenge, and to make them
seem honourable; it is not likely to distinguish between wilful
murder, and such as happens without design ; an<l m >iv than
this, it tends to produce lasting feuds between families, one re-
venge still calling for another, and blood continually delimit-
ing new blood, so that, in the end, instead of one life, many
are cruelly destroyed, in consequence of a single murder. Thus
it is remarkably among the Arabs: families, and sometimes
whole tribes, are set against each other in deadly hatred and
war, by the retaliation which a crime of this sort produces; and
the enmity is handed down from fathers to sons as a sacred
iiih'Titanee, until either one party is completely destroyed, or
satisfaction made, such as the side to whom the injury \va.s
first done may agree to accept. The true interest of society,
therefore, requires that a different plan of punishment should
be secured; that its execution should be taken out of the handa
of the nearest relation, and put into those of the civil magis-
tral
This most ancient plan of punishment, in case of murder,
wa." the <ne in use among the Jews before the time of .M
foi 'It- .I/ iii/i-r / lilnixl is spoken of, in the law which he
i character well known. Under the direction of God,
Ir- ili-1 not do awav the old custom altogether ; for although in
it^ \\-li ! na'ure it was an evil, t'.ie feelings of the people were,
nevertheless, so thoroughly wedded to it.s usage, that, without
x miraculous control upon their minds it was not to be ?.
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 213
pcctod they would consent to relinquish entirely the right of
private vengeance which it allowed. Some indulgence, there-
fore, was granted in this case, it seems, like that which was
permitted in the case of divorce, "on account of the hardness
of their hearts." (Matt. xix. 8.) At the same time, a roont
beautiful and wise arrangement was made, to correct the moat
serious disadvantages with which it had been before accompa-
nied, which, in fact, while it left some form of the ancient
m
rustom, gave it a new unfit re altogether. Cities of refuge '.rere
appointed, three on each side of Jordan, with straight and good
roads leading to them from every direction, to any of which
the murderer might fly ; and if he got into it before the Aven-
ger overtook him, he was safe from his rage until he had a
fair trial. If it was found that he was indeed guilty of wilful
murder, he was delivered up to the Avenger to be destroyed,
and not even the altar was allowed to protect him ; but if it
was found that the murder had not been intentional, he was al-
lowed to remain in the city of refuge, where none might come
to do him evil ; and on the death of the high priest, he might
return in security to his own home. (Ex. xxi. 12 14, Num.
xxxv. 929, Deut. iv. 41 i3, xix. 113, Josh. xx. 19.)
STONINO was the punishment which the law of Moses most
generally appointed for crimes that called for death. The wit-
nesses were required to throw first, and then all the people
that were present, till the miserable criminal was overwhelmed
with death. (Deut. xvii. 7, Jol>a viii. 7.) This seems to he
214 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
the punishment we am to understand, in all cases whore thf
way of putting to death is not expressly mentioned. (Lev. xx.
10, compared with .John viii. 5. Also Ex. xxxi. 14, with
Numb. xv. 85, 30.) Another method of taking away life waa
by the SWORD. Among the Egyptian-, />' h>-<lin</ was a
common punishment, (Gen. xl. 17 19;) and in the later
times of the nation, the rulers of the Jews sometimes made use
of it. (Matt. xiv. 8 12, Acts xii. 2.) But among the ancient
Israelites, this way of execution was not practised. Punish-
ment by the sword, whicl. has li,vii sometimes confounded with
it, was inflicted in whatever way the executioner found it most
convenient to use the weapon ; he probably thrust it mosi
commonly into the bowels of the criminal. Hence, he waa
said to rush or fall iifxni him. (1 Kings ii. 25, 29, 31, 34, 46.)
These two were the only capital punishments that belonged
properly to the Israelites. There were, however, besides them,
certain marks of infamy sometimes inflicted on the dead bodies
of criminals, to add to the shame and disgrace of their death.
Such was 1. Burning the body after it had been stoned.
(Gen. xxxviii. 24, Lev. xxi. 9, Josh. vii. 15, 25.) 2. llnmj-
imj it on a tree or gibbet : the person thus suspended was said
to be accursed of GW, an abomination in his sight. (Deut.
xxi. 22, 23.) 3. Henphnj Kdmca over the place where it lay,
as a monument of shame. (Josh. vii. 26, viii. 29, 2 Sam.
xviii. 17.)
Various other capital punishments are mentioned or referred
to in the Bible, that were in use among other nations, some of
which also were introduced among the Jews, as they came to
have more intercourse than at first with foreign countries. Of
this sort were Beheading, already noticed, which was practised
among the Egyptians, Persians, Greeks and Romans; Stran-
yti'if/, (1 Kings xx. Bit) Jin mini/ <tlir< in a furnace, which
was used among the Chaldeans, (Dan. iii. 6, 11, 15 27, Jer.
xxix. 22 ;) fJ.rju^i/ii/ tn in'/if lifiistx, (Dan. vi. 7, 12, 16 '24,
1 Cor. xv. 32 ;) 1^-ntinij tn death, which among the Greeks
was inflicted on slaves; Cutting asunder, and Snwinij uxmnlrr.
(Dan. ii 5, Luke xii. 46, Heb. xi. 87.) Isaiah, the Jews
say, was sawn asunder by Manassch ; but perhaps the story is
only one of their numberless fables. There were various other
contrivances, some of them very cruel, to put men to a violent
death, which it is not necessary to mention. One more, how-
pver, calls for notice ; and it is entitled to particular considera-
tion. I mean the Cross.
Cm CIKIXION was a common method of punishment among
several ancient nations; especially among the Persians, Cartha-
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. '215
i^inians, and Ilomans. It was according to its use with the
latter people, that the Jews became acquainted with it; and it
was because he was put to death by Roman authority, that the
Lord Jesus Christ was made to suffer its cruel torture. (John
xviii. 31, 32, xii. 32 34.) The cross was employed among
the Ilomans as a punishment for robbers, assassins, and rebels.
Slaves especially, when they were guilty of great offences, were
put to death in thfs way. Hence, crucifixion was held to be
the most shameful and degrading death which a man could
suffer. The cross, in public opinion, had in it even more of
disgrace and reproach than the (/allows now has with us. It
was therefore an exceeding humiliation which the ever-blessed
Redeemer, who thought it not robbery to be equal with God,
consented to endure, when, " being found in fashion as a man,
he humbled himself and became obedient unto death even the
death of the cross." (Phil. ii. 6 8, Heb. xii. 2.) So great
was the degradation of such a death esteemed to be universally,
that a most powerful prejudice against the gospel was every-
where excited, on account of its author having suffered the
shame of dying in this way. The Gentiles were ready to treat
the apostles with the greatest contempt, for preaching a reli-
gion, that offered salvation by the death of a man that had been
crucified ', and it continued to be long after a taunting reproach
cast upon Christians, that their leader, whom they worshipped
as a God, had expired as a malefactor on the cross. The scan-
dal of such a death was no less in the estimation of the Jews ;
and besides, they considered the person who suffered it to be
<t<-<- <i r.wd of God, according to the law in Deut. xxi. 23, which
declares every one that is hanged upon a tree to be thus made
a curse. (Gal. iii. 13.) To trust in such an one as the great
.Mo-iah and Saviour, was therefore in their view the greatest
madness and folly. (1 Cor. i. 23, 24.) The apostles, on the
other hand, and all such as were led by the Spirit of God to laj
hold of eternal life by faith, gloried in their Master's cross
What to others seemed shameful and vile, they esteemed most
precious and worthy of all admiration. In the face of the
world, they counted all things but loss for the sake of Christ
<ind HIM CRUCIFIED. (Rom. i. 16, 1 Cor. ii. 1, 2.)
When the sentence, thou shalt go to tJie cross, was passed by
the magistrate upon any one, the unhappy man was in the fire*
place stripped of all his clothes, with only a single covering
left around the loins, and severely scourged with rods or whips.
So cruel was the scourging, that death sometimes took place
under it. After this treatment, which in a great measure took
away all his strength, he was compelled to carry the cros* on
216 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
which he was to be hung, (and it was by no means a light bur-
den,) to the place of execution. This was commonly a hill
near the public roa'l, not far out of the city or town. As he
[cissed along the way to this place, smarting with pain, and
ready to faint by reason of the dreadful stripes he had already
received, and groaning under the weight of his own cross, the
unfeeling rabble loaded him with insult, mockery and wanton
cruelty. Having reached the appointed spot, the infamous
f />', as it was sometimes called, was taken from his shoulder
and firmly fixed in the ground. It consisted of a piece of tim-
ber standing upright like a post, not generally more than ten
feet high, and crossed by another considerably smaller, either
altogether at the top, so as to resemble in its whole form the
letter T, or only a little distance below it. The person to be
crucified, having first been presented with some kind of stupi-
fying drink, to deaden the sense of pain, was then lifted up,
and nailed to the fatal wood by four large spikes, driven one
through each hand and foot. The hands were fastened to the
cross piece, with the arms stretched out and raised somewhat
above the head ; the feet, to the upright
beam, down toward the ground. To
prevent the hands from being torn away
from the nails by the weight of the body,
there was a short piece of wood made to
stick out from the middle of the beam
just mentioned, for the sufferer to sit
upon. Hence, he was sometimes said to
r'nl, IIJHIH tli, rmss, or, to rest upon the
X/KII-/I (-/-ruts. On the eross piece, directly
over his head, as he hung thus exposed
to the gazing multitude, an inscription
or title was fixed, declaring, in large let
ters, the crime for which he was thus punished. In some cases,
the condemned person was nailed to the cross before it was
set up, and so lifted up together with it, when it was raised and
fixed in its proper standing position. The first method, how-
ever, seems to have been the most common. The execution
was performed by four soldiers, each of them driving one of the
spikes, who, it appears, had a right, on account of this service,
to the garments of the man that was put to death. (John xix.
23, 24.) In this awful situation the victim of the cross was
left to suffei, till death cam to relieve him from its power.
This, however, did not take place commonly till the third, and
frequently till the fourth or fi ? th day. ( Mark xv. 44.) While
tny sigua of life appeared, the cross was watched by a guard.
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 217
After death, the body was often left hanging till it wasted away
with corruption, or was devoured by birds of pn-y and raven-
ous beasts ; (for it was generally so low. that these last could
reach at least the lower part of it.) In the province of Judea,
however, it was allowed to depart from the general practice, by
way of indulgence to the Jews, with whom it was not lawful to
leave a malefactor's body all night upon a tree or any sort of
gibbet. (l)eut. xxi. 23.) Among them, therefore, crucified
persons were buried on the day of their crucifixion ; and their
death, on that account, was hastened by other means, such aa
kindling a fire under the cross, letting wild beasts loose upon
them, or breaking their bones with a mallet In the case of
our Saviour, no such means were necessary : he died in a few
hours j but to be sure that he was rea iy dead, one of the sol-
diers pierced his side with a spear. (John xix. 31 35.)
Such was the manner of death which the Lord of glory hum-
bled himself to endure, when he laid down his life for a sinful
and ruined world. His crucifixion was attended, while it lasted,
with all the circumstances of indignity and horror that usually
accompanied the punishment. But it was marked, besides,
with peculiar and extraordinary inhumanity, such as common
custom was not acquainted with. It was a scene of the most
unfeeling insult and cruelty, from its commencement to its
close. Jews and Gentiles joined to accomplish the work of
shame and awful guilt. In the high priest's palace it began.
There, we are told, the Son of God was treated with the most
bitter and malicious scorn. They insulted him by spitting in
his face ; they buffeted him ; they covered his eyes ~nd then
struck him with the palms of their hands, saying, in mockery
of his claim to be the Messiah from heaven, Prophecy unto us,
thou Christ, who is he that smote thee ? (Matt. xxvi. 67, 68.)
The very servants were encouraged to abuse him in this way.
(Mark xiv. (55.) When sent to Herod, the proud prince with
hi* men of war sat him at nought, and mocked him, and ar-
rayed him in a gorgeous robe. Before Pilate's bar, the chief
priests and elders accused him, in language of bitterness and
reproach, of the worst crimes; charging him with sedition and
blasphemy, and representing him to be a malefactor whose
guilt cried loudly for the heaviest vengeance of the law. The
multitude without, excited by their religious rulers, insisted
with tumultuous and violent cry, that he should be sentenced
to tlit; jross. The governor, though he had no doubt of his in-
aocence, at length gave way to their importunity, and ordered
iiin to be scourged, as a preparatory step to his execution
The Komaii soldiers then caused the work of wanton mocker?
19
-'!' BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
lo be renewed. In derision of him, as one that aspired to ) e
a king, they stripped him, and put on him an old robe of royal
colour; and when they had platted a crown of thorns, they
put it up >n his head, and a reed in his right hand, for a acep-
tre ; and they bowed the knee before him, and mocked him,
Baying, Flail, king of the Jews! Then they spit upon him,
tin I took the reed, and smote him on the head, cruelly forcing
the thorn* to pierce it on every side. Thus arrayed, exhausted,
and toru with the stripes of the scourge, and disfigured with
blood trickling from his temples and over his face, the governor
brought him out before the people, hoping that they might yet
be moved to pity by such a sight, and consent to his release.
But the cry of priests and people was renewed with unrelent-
ing rage, Crucify, crucify him ! Away, away with him ! And
when he seemed determined to let him go, on account of some
new conversation which he had with him, a loud threat was
sounded in his ears : " If thou let this man go, thou art not
Caesar's friend." (John xix. 1 12.) This overcame his reso-
lution : he knew that the emperor, Tiberius Caesar, was a most
suspicious and jealous prince, aud ever ready to listen to charges
of treason and opposition to his authority, that were brought
against inferior rulers in the empire ; and that it was not at all
unlikely that an accusation against himself, such as the Jews
threatened, might, if carried to Rome, be enough to ruin him.
Accordingly, for the sake of his worldly interest, he resisted
all the remonstrances of conscience, and ordered the execution
to proceed. So they led him away to be crucified. Bearing
his cross, and ready to sink under its weight, he went fort'
through the city toward the place of death, insulted, derided,
and abused, no doubt, by the surrounding multitude, the whole
way. His strength, however, was found before long to be so
far taken away by his sufferings, that he could not possibly
support his burden : as they came out of the gate of the city,
therefore, they laid hold upon one Simon, a Cyrenia-n, that was
coming from the country, and on him they laid tin- cros.-., that
he might bear it after Jesus. When they had reached Calva-
ry, they offered him the stupifying liquor, (which he refuse*'
to drink,) and nailed him to the dreadful tree, placing him be
tween two malefactors, as if he was not merely of the same in
famous character, but vilest of the three. It was probably as
*hey were driving the spikes through his hands and feet, that
he lifted to Heaven that affecting prayer : "Father, forgive
'h' HI, tor they know not what they do !" The four soldiers
wlio fastened the nails, with eoUkbiooded indifference, took hi
raiment au their spoil, and parted it among them iu his pr-
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 216
nce. While he hung, tortured with anguish through all his
frame, he was assailed on every side, in the most hard-hearted
manner, with taunting irony and scornful ridicule. " The;
that passed by reviled him, wagging their heads, and saying,
Thou (lint datrrlyt& th> t>-mj>/'- find buildest it in three '/".'/*,
tun- thywlfl If thnu be the &n of God, come >lou:n from tkf
crow! Likewise, also, the chief priests, mocking him, with
the scribes and elders, said, He saocd other*; himxelf he can-
not save! If he be the kimj of Jxrael, let him now come down
from, the cross, and we will Mieve him. He trusted in Gotl ;
let him deliver him now, if he will have him ; for he said, I
am the 8on of God." It was surely an awful spectacle, when
the Holy and Just One was thus subjected to anguish and
loadei with reproach, by sinful mortals.
The pain that was suffered in crucifixion was exceedingly
severe. By reason of the scourging, the back was all torn
with wounds, and these being exposed to the air, became, by
their inflammation, a source of keen distress. Because the
hands and feet abound particularly with nerves, which are the
instruments of all feeling, nails driven through these parts
could not fail to create the most lively anguish. The body
was placed, moreover, in an unnatural position, the arms being
stretched back, in order to be nailed to the cross piece above,
in such a manner as to produce an oppressive feeling of un-
easiness and constraint through the whole breast, which be-
came, in a short time, an occasion of indescribable misery.
This position, of course, could not be altered in the smallest
degree, and the least movement which the sufferer might be
led to make, must have served only to provoke new torture
from every wound. The cross, therefore, was full of cruelty
as well as of shame, and might well be dreaded. But are we
to suppose that the Lord Jesus Christ could not endure it?
horrors with as much ease as many of his followers, through
the assistance of his grace, have been able to endure the same
or similar anguish of body in their deaths ? Whence, then,
that extreme anxiety and dismay with which he was filled in
view of his last sufferings ? Whence that awful distress that
overwhelmed him on the cross? What was the cup, the
thought of which produced such agony in the garden of Geth-
gemane, when he prayed that, if possible, it might pass from
him, and his sweat was as it were great drops of blood falling
down to the gnuim! '' What was the cup which, while bo
was drinking it, wrung from his bosom that piercing cry of
Borrow : " My God ! my God ! why hast thou forsaken ine ?"
Ah, the terrors of the cross were but a feeble representation
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
of the horror that compassed his soul from another juartr
There was wrath laid upon him by a righteous God, fur the
guilt of sin. It pleased the Lord to bruise him, and to put
him to grief, and to make his soul an offering for sin, because
the great work of redemption which he had undertaken re-
quired it. He made him to be sin for us, who knew no sin,
and laid on him the iniquity of us all ; therefore, he was
in>unded for our transgressions, he was bruised for our ini-
quities, the chdxtisrmi'ix of our peace was upon him, and with
his stripes we are healed. (Isa. liii. 4 11, 2 Cor. v. 21,
Heb. ix. 28, x. 413, 1 Pet. ii. 22 24.)
Having considered what it was literally to four the cros*,
we may without much difficulty understand what it signifies
figuratively. It can mean nothing less than to be ready to
undergo the severest hardship, to face the most formidable
danger, and to lay down even life itself, if the sacrifice should
be required. Such a cross-bearer every follower of Christ is
commanded to be. (Matt. x. 38, xvi. 24.) And he may not
dream that his faithfulness will not actually be brought into
trial. The way to heaven is through much self-denial, labour,
and tribulation.
SECTION VI.
OF MILITARY AFFAIRS.
AMONG the Israelites, armies were made up altogether of
what we call the militia of a country. A general enrolment
was made of all that were able to </n forth to irar, from twenty
years old and upward. (Num. i. 2, 3, xxvi. 2.) Out of tins
whole number, in case of war, as many were called into actual
service as the occasion appeared to demand. All, however,
held themselves ready to assemble on the shortest notice ; and
if the occasion was extraordinary, the whole body might be
summoned to meet in one vast army at once. (Judg. xx. 1
11 1 Sam. xi. 7.) In common cases, only a small part wa*
chosen. (Ex. xvii. 9, 10, Num. xxxi. 4, 5, Josh. vii. 3, 4.)
When we consider the way in which soldiers were raised, we
need not be surprised at the accounts that are contained in
the Bible, of uncommonly large armies being formed in a very
*hort time. In the time of the kings, especially, such vast
armies were frequently gathered for the field. They some-
times consisted of several hundred thousand men. It was the
more easy for the government to call out hosts of this s< rt, be-
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES 221
jause, in ancient times, soldiers did not receive any wages ;
liiey were supported at their own expense, or by their parents.
(Judg. xx. 10, 1 Sam. xvii. 17 20.) Every man had to find
likewise his own arms. This plan of making soldiers provide
for themselves tended to make wars in those days generally of
short continuance. Long campaigns, such as are now com-
mon, in which whole seasons are sometimes passed away in
marches and mano3uvres, without much actual fighting, could
not be sustained, when each soldier had either to carry his
provisions along with him for the whole term, or to have them
sent all the while from home. Hence, when armies were col-
lected, they commonly came as soon as possible to battle, and
so in most cases decided the war with a single stroke. Valour,
indeed, waa sometimes encouraged with the offer of reward ;
but only in special instances, and never to any general extent.
(Josh. xv. 16, 1 Sam. xvii. 25, 2 Sam. xviii. 11.) In time,
however, the practice of making public provision for the wants
of soldiers and of allowing them some pay, began to grow
gradually into use. In the time of the Maccabees, military
service was rewarded with regular wages. Accordingly, we find
in the New Testament, which belongs to a later period, mention
made of wages of this sort. (Luke iii. 14, 1 Cor. ix. 7.)
When the army was made up, and ready to proceed to bat-
tie, a proclamation was made, releasing certain classes of men
entirely from the duty of service, and allowing them to return
home. (Deut. xx. 58.) Moreover, when a man married a
wife, he was not required to go forth to war for a whole year
afterwards. (Deut. xxiv 5.) At first, the whole army was
always dismissed, as soon as the war was over, and all its sol-
diers were converted at once into quiet husbandmen. Under
the government of the kings, however, it became common to
have always some soldiers in service. (1 Sam. xiii. 2.) Be-
H'lrs his Life-guard, David had, at all times, twenty-four
thousand men employed in military duty. His whole army
was divided into twelve bodies of so many men each, and
every one of them was required to perform this service in
course, a month at a time. (1 Chron. xxvii. 1 15.) The
practice of having a standing force in this way, led necessarily
to the making of some provision for their support at the ex
pense of the government; and also for supplying them with
arms. (2 Chron. xi. 12, xxvi. 14.)
The commander-in-chief of the whole army was called the
captain of the host. His authority and importance were very
great. (2 Kings iv. 13.) Both kings and general* had armour
'-'L'2 BIBLICAL ARTIQIKTIK*
tncy were chosen out of such as were most valiant n.
the army, and were employed not merely to carry the arms of
their masters, but also to give their commands to the inferior
captains.
Before the time of Solomon, the Israelitish army was com-
posed altogether of footmen. He multiplied horses in the
o tun try, and from his day, horsemen and chariots were not
unknown in the wars of the nation. (1 Kings x. 26, xxii. 35.)
They were, however, never so important for military use in the
land of Israel as in most other countries; its hilly surface hin-
dered them from being of much service. But on account nt'
their benefit to nations in general, and the dependence which
it was common to place upon them, we find them used figur*
lively to signify protection and defence of the most effect ua.
kind. (2 Kings ii. 12, xiii. 14.) The strength of war among
the Israelites was, in every age, their infantry. This was made
up of two general classes of soldiers, such as engaged with
their enemies in battle hand to hand, and such as fought
them at a distance. The first class were armed with spears,
swords, and shields; the second, with javelins, slings, and
bows.
In the days of our Saviour, as has been noticed already, a
considerable number of Roman soldiers were stationed in tip-
country, to support the authority of the governor. The Roman
armies were mighty in war, consisting of footmen and horsemen
joined in suitable proportion, and distinguished by the most
complete discipline. They were divided into great bodies
called leffion*, each" of which was divided again several times
into less bands and companies. The proper number for a legion
was six thousand men, though it was not always the same. In
common language, the word was used to signify any great
number, as the words thousand and million are with us. (Matt.
xxvi. 53, Mark v. 9.)
The war-chariot
was in use at a
very early period.
(Ex. xiv. 6, 7.)
The Canaanites
employed it much
in their battles,
and among the
Eastern nations
generally it was in
DO small
EIBMCAL ANTIQUITIES.
JZ23
eion We read that Judah could not drive out the inhabit*
ants of the valley, in the territory assigned to that tribe, be-
jause they had chariots of iron; thai is, we may suppose,
chariots which had much iron-work in their structure, so as to
be very strong. (Judg. i. 19.) They could act with advantage
jnly where the country was somewhat level. The war-cha-
riot, like all others in ancient times, had only two wheels, and
was drawn generally by two horses, though sometimes by three
or four, abreast. It carried two persons, a driver, who directed
its course over the battle ground, and a warrior, who, standing
upon his feet, fought from it with spear or bow, as it wheeled
through the tumult of death. Cyrus, the great king of Per-
sia, introduced ~
chariots of auch
size that twenty
men, it is said,
could fight from
each of them.
But what made
them still more
terrible was the
way in which
they were them-
selves armed.
On. both sides
of them were
fixed great iron
scythes, strong and sharp, with which they rushed at full speed
upon the ranks of the enemy, bearing terror and destruction
wherever they came. Some have thought that the iron cha-
riots of the Canaanites just noticed, were so called on account
of some such deadly contrivance that belonged to them. El<--
phants were used in war, especially in later times, among
some Eastern nations. Great machines, like towers, were
fixed upon their backs, from which sometimes as many as
thirty-two soldiers fought. Mention is made of such elephants,
and also of chariots armed with hooks, or scythes, in the booki
of the Maccabees.
Let us now attend to the arms with which the ancient sol-
dier was equipped for the battle. Wo may divide them all into
two general classes, as they were designed either to protect th*
warrior himself or to injure his enemy; that is, as they wero
either defensive or offensive. W will notice such as were of
the defensive sort first.
224
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIEg.
;
The head was guarded with a
It was a strong cap, made of thic-k o ;-
hide, and often covered with bra--; ;
sometimes it was made of brass alto-
gether. The practice of having it
crowned with some ornament on toj ,
such as a horse-tail crest, or some kind
of plume, was in use among different
people at an early period. The Brnixt-
plate consisted of two parts, one of which
covered the fore part of the body, and
the other the back; both being joined
together at the sides by clasps or but-
tons. It was made sometimes of flax or cotton woven very
'hick and close ; at other times, of some sort of metal, espe-
cia'ly brass. Some of this last sort were composed of scales,
cither brazen or iron, laid one over another like the scales of
a fish Such was the crxif of mm'/ which Goliath of Gatb
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
295
wore. In the English Bible, this piece of armour is called gcu
rally a coat of mail, sometimes a habe.rtje.on and />ri>/ii,n/iiif.
The feet and legs were sometimes protected with Greares of
boots ; those of Goliath were of brass. The Girdle was an im-
portant article, as we have already seen, in common dress; but
to the soldier it was especially needful. In marching and in
6ghting, he wanted to have his loins well girded, so as to movr
without the smallest hinderance. Military girdles were often
very beautiful and valuable. Fastened to his left arm, the war-
rior's Shield, when skilfully managed, afforded better protectinn
to his whole body, than all the rest of his armour together.
There were different kinds of them, some large, and others
comparatively small. Some were large enough to guard the
entire body at once; others of less size were passed with dex-
terous movement from one point to another, as the eye gave
warning where the enemy's weapon was likely to strike
Shields were manufactured sometimes of light wood, or ozierh
woven together, with a covering of tough bull's bide, or, in
some instances, of brass; sometimes of a bull's hide alone, two
or three times folded over. They were so formed as to present
on their front side, toward the enemy, a surface more ir less
rounding from the centre to the border, so as to turn aside
whatever struck them. To make them
smooth and slippery for the same pur-
pose, as well as to keep them from being
injured by the wet, it was common to
anoint hem with oil. (Isa. xxi. 5.)
Among all ancient nations, it was held
to be a great disgrace, and so a great
misfortune, to lose the shield in battle.
God is called a Shield and a Buckler,
because he affords the most secure pro-
tection to all who put their trust in him;
with favour he compasses the riijhteous
as witJi a shield. (Ps. v. 12, xviii. 2,
Ixvii. 9.)
Offensive weapons were of two sorts ;
such as were used in fighting hand to
hand, and such as were used in fighting
at a distance. Of the first kind were
the sword and the heavier kind of spear.
The Sword was short, in comparison with
ours. There appear, however, to have
btjcii two kinds of the weapon, one larger than the other; the
first had ouly a single edge, the second had an edge on eacL
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITI KS.
side, like a dagger. The edge of a sword was often called it*
mouth, with which it was said to dri-mir flesh and to drink
blood. The weapon was carried in a sheath fastened to the
girdle, so as to hang upon the thigh ; whence the expressioL
toyinl on th<- MWm, or to make ready for war. (Ps. xlv. 3.)
The justice of God is represented as being armed with a
sword, to destroy the guilty ; and sometimes the means which
he makes use of to accomplish punishment are figuratively
Htyled his sword. (Ps. xvii. 13, Isa. xxxiv. 5 8, Jer.
xii. 12, xlvii. 6, 7.) In like manner, the Assyrian is called
th-e rod of hi* anger, sent against a hypocritical nation ; and
A\t Modes and Persians, led by the illustrious Cyrus, before
whom Babylon's glory fell, are declared to have been hig
b<i/f/c-ajre and n-,',i/><i/is of war, employed to break in pieces
the nations, and to destroy kingdoms. (Isa. x. 5 15, Jer.
li. 20 24.) The Spear was a long wooden staff with an iron
ooint. For fighting at a distance, javelins, bows, and slingx,
were used. The Javelin was a spear of lighter make than
the one used in close fight, which was darted with the hand
tgainxt the enemy. The Bnc and the Arrmc are of very
ancient origin. Bows were generally made of wood; some-
times, however, of brass. They were so strong, that it re-
quired frequently the greatest foree to bend them : hence
they made use of the foot as well as the hands for thin
purpose, treading <>n one end, and pn-ssin^ on the other with
the left hand, under the whole weight of the body, till tb
tring was brought to the right point and fixed there by the
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
227
other Bending a bow, accordingly, they used to call trr,n/intf
it. Arroirs were made of reeds, at first; afterwards of light
wood pointed with iron. The Quiver was hung upon tne back ;
.- that the soldier might reach his hand over his shoulder and
draw out the arrows as he wanted them. The Sliity also waa
one of the earliest weapons of war. Most wonderful was the
skill which was sometimes acquired by practice, in the use of it.
The Benjamites excelled in such skill ; many of them could
t'iny gtcmes at an hair's breadth and not miss, and could use
their left hand about as well as their right. (Judg. xx. 16,
1 Chr. xii. 2.)
Cities were generally surrounded with a wall, to protect
them from enemies; and sometimes with a double one. On
th<; top of walls, towers were raised, which often rose to a great
height. From these, stones and arrows were discharged upon
besieging armies. Guards also were kept constantly stationed
in some of them, to look out for the approach of any danger,
and to sound an alarm when it appeared. Great engines were
sometimes placed in them to hurl destruction upon the enemy
Beu^ging Engine.
with more dreadful force. These were either immense bows,
which were bent by means of powerful machinery, and shot
arrows enormously large; or prodigious slings, which were put
in motion in like ni:mm>r, and hurled great stones and balls
of lead. Engines of such sort. /f> ///// l,y cHiun'ny nun, to
thstot arnnw and i/nat ../o/i/x irithm, king Uzziuh caused to b*
i2 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES
placed upon the towers and bulwarks of Jerusalem. (2 Chron.
xxvi. 15.) It was common to erect single high towers also ii.
other places through the land, especially on the borders of the
country, in which military guards were kept. When an arm}
besieged a city, they often dug a ditch around it, between
themselves and the wall, to keep their own camp in security;
and sometimes another on the outside of their own camp, to
bavc it protected behind and beforo. Then they cast up a
Ixink, or mound of earth, against such parts of the wall as
seemed 10 be least strong, which ran slanting upward from the
ditch so aa sometimes to equal the wall itself in height. From
this, they shot with their weapona
into the city. The Battering-ram,
too, was employed at a very early
period. It was a long, heavy
lieam of solid wood, with a head
of iron or brass mounted on one
end. This was at first borne on
the arms of the soldiers and
driven with violence against the
wall; but afterwards, it was hung
by means of long chains, so as to
be fairly balanced in the middle,
and thus made to swing head
foremost against it with much
greater force. Where the strength
of the walls and the watchful
skill of the besieged were such
as to baffle all attempts to take
the city by storm or by stratagem,
the more tedious way of starving
it into a surrender was resorted
to. Sieges of great cities la- ted
sometimes in this way a great
while; and awful beyond descrip-
tion, in some cases, were the suf-
ferings they occasioned. (Deut
xxviii. 52 57, 2 Kings vi
2430, Jer. xix. 9.)
The onset of a battle was very
nlent, and was made with a great shout. In the ancient way
.' fighting, the qualifications of a good warrior were very differ
ti\i from what they are now, since the invention of gunpowder
aas changed the whole manner of war. Personal activity and
rtrength were the n all-iinporuuit. Soldier was often called U/
7JIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 229
,TMP with s >Mier, in direct individual combat, in which he must
destroy his antagonist or die; and when he escaped with victory
from one such desperate trial, it was only to engage in another
equally critical. Battles conducted in this way, it is easy to per-
ceive, must have been commonly very full of blood and death.
Terrible was the slaughter accomplished by war in ancient times,
and sad was the desolation which the monster scattered abroad
to mark its fatal path. Even the tender mercies of victory were
cruel. In the treatment of its vanquished foes, the successful
army owned no restraint but its own pleasure; and it was too
often hurried by the wrath excited in battle to glut its ven-
geance, by using its power with the utmost rigour. Fields
and houses and cattle, men, women and children, became, by
right of war, the property of the conquerors. They considered
the spoils of the conquered the proper reward of their warfare.
The soldiers, who, as we have seen, received no wages, felt
themselves entitled to these as the only compensation which
they could expect for their services. The hope of securing a
reward to themselves in this way, was one powerful motive
that animated them in their trials and toils; and accordingly
the division of the spoils after battle was always an occasion
of the most boisterous joy, such as rose from the fields in the
time of harvest, or rung through the hills when the season of
vintage was come. (Isa. ix. 3, Ezek. xxix. 18 20.) Often-
times, captives of every age and sex were sold into bondage;
and not unfrequently the most brutal outrage and violence were
employed in their destruction, without Ihe smallest compassion
(2 Kings viii. 12, Isa. xiii. 16 18, Zech. xiv. 2.) When the
wrath of the conqueror had been provoked in more than a com-
mon measure, he passed like an overflowing flood through the
land, reducing it to waste and barrenness the most deplorable.
Whole nations were sometimes carried away out of their own
countries, and settled in others far remote, that they might be
the more effectually subdued into complete obedience. Thus
Israel and Judah were carried off into distant regions, and
other people were brought from different countries to occupy
the desolate cities of Samaria. (2 Kings xvii. 6, 23, 24, xxiv.
14 16.) In some instances, however, more humanity wan
exorcised, and conquered countries were allowed to remain
under the government of their own kings, on condition of pay
ing tribute, and thus continuing to acknowledge their subjec-
tion from year to year. But if such rebelled, they were pun-
ished with dreadful severity if again overcome.
Such was the character of war among ancient nations it
general. The Israelites, however, had much more him unity
iiiO BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
;n their common manner of warfare, than was exercised by
r.ther people : and if much of their conduct, in this respect,
seems after all to be marked with cruel severity, when tried
by the principles of later times, we are to recollect, that in th
mutter of war a nation's behaviour must necessarily be regu
lated, to some considerable extent, by the general usage and
spirit of the age to which it belongs. For its own security, it
must employ with its enemies, measures in some degree of the
same nature with those which other governments adopt. We
are to bear in mind too, that in the case of some of their wars,
the Israelites acted under the express direction of God. Thim
they were commanded to destroy the Canaanitcs without
mercy, because the measure of their iniquity was full. God
hud a most perfect right to give such a command, and they, in
the execution of it, discharged a solemn religious duty. To
find fault with them for this, would be as if one should quarrel
with the storm, or charge the lightning with injustice, when
they fulfil in terror the judgments of the Almighty.
When the consequences of being overcome in war were so
dreadful as we have seen, it is no wonder that great consterna-
tion and grief were felt by a conquered people. They often
betook themselves to flight, willing to forsake every thing for
preservation from the cruelty of their enemies. Not unfre-
quently they fled to the tops of the mountains, and lonely
caves and wild rocks became their places of refuge from the
overflowing scourge. Great, on the other hand, was the re-
joicing which the news of victory spread through a nation.
Among the Jews, the conquerors were received, as they re-
turned home, with the most unbounded gladness. The people
came out to meet them from different cities, with songs of con-
gratulation and praise. Bands of women especially went forth
in this way, with instruments of music in their hands, and
welcomed their approach with dancing and singing. Thus,
" the women came out of all the cities of Israel, singing and
dancing to meet king Saul, with tabrets, with joy, and with
instruments of music." (1 Sam. xviii. 6, 7, 2 Chrou. xx. 27,
28.)
The image of a battle, or continual warfare, is employed in
the Scriptures, to set forth the difficulty of the Christian life
in this present evil world; and the Christian himself is repre-
sented to be a soldier, whose safety requires him to be at all
times clad in complete armour, and to abound in watchfulness
and labour to the end. The enemies to be opposed and over-
come are terrible in strength. " We wrestle not," says Paul,
" against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 281
powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world, against
spiritual wickedness in high places. Wherefore take unto you
the whole armour of God, that ye may be able to withstand in
the evil day, and having done all, to stand. Stand therefore,
having your loins girt about with truth, and having on the
breastplate of righteousness ; and your feet shod with the pre-
peration of the gospel of peace ; above all, taking the shield of
faith, wherewith ye shall be able to quench all the fiery dart?
of the wicked. And take the helmet of salvation, and the
sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God : Praying always
with all prayer and supplication in the Spirit, and watching
thereunto with all perseverance." (Eph. vi. 10 18.) This
fight the apostle calls, in another place, " the good fight of
faith." (1 Tim. vi. 12.) The man that endureth to the end
obtains the victory, and for his reward receives a crown of life.
It is only " to him that overcometh," that the blessedness of
heaven is promised. (Rev. ii. 7, 17, 26 28, iii. 5, 12, 21.)
What holy joy the aged Paul felt, when he found himself, after
all the dangers, and toils, and discouragements, and suffering-)
of this great fight, able to shout toward its close, " Victory I
victory !" (2 Tim. iv. 7, 8.) This victory is won, through
the helping grace of God, by means of faith, and without this
it is not possible. (1 John v. 4, 5.)
We have already seen how the Christian life is represented
under the image of a laborious race, such as was common in
the ancient Grecian games. The Holy Ghost has made use
of the most significant thiiiys, as well as the most forcible words,
to teach us th greatness and difficulty of the work to which
religion calls us, and to stii us up to earnest concern and un-
tiring continual diligence in its pursuit. (Matt. vii. 13, 14,
22, x. 37, 39, xi. 12, xiii. 4446, xx. 16, xx-'v. 4244,
Luke xiii. 2330, xiv. 25 33, Acts xiv. 22, 1 Cor. ix. 24
27, Phil. ii. 12, iii. 717, Heb. iii. 1214, iv. 1, 11
\'->, vi. 12, xii. 1 3, 1 Pet. iv. 18.) How strange, that men,
with the Bible in their hands, should so generally feel as if
religion did not need uncommon interest or uncommon exer-
tion ! Multitudes, who call themselves Christians, are pax-ing
onward through life hardly conscious of any struggle or trial
of a religious sort whatever, and yet they dream that they are
on the way to heaven. If you talk to them of spiritual dis-
couragements, anxieties, toils, and conflicts, they know not
what you mean, or perhaps regard all suck language as the
sickly cant of fanaticism or gloomy superstition. They show
far more coiiivrn about the affairs of this world, than about all
'.he iijiniitrlv interesting realities of thut which is to come, and
<!32 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
seldom allow these last to engage their thoughts or their con-
versation ; yet they pretend to be followers of them who throuyh
f(titk and pat it-net: have gone to inherit the promises. But
et us beware of such delusioi. . The devil would like to per
made us, that the road to heaven requires no great care or ef-
fort to be found and travelled ; but Christ has assured us, that
it is difficult and narrow, and that few find it. The devil will
whisper to the soul, that there is no need to be continually
watching and striving in order to secure eternal life ; but the
Bible warns us to work out our salvation with fear and trnn-
iillnij. The redemption of the soul is precious. The ruin out
of which it is to be raised is most awful. All Heaven is moved
with interest for its salvation. The Son of God has laid down
his life a ransom for it. And shall we dream of having
lifted such a height from corruption to holiness, with no cor-
responding interest or exertion on its own part ? No : religion
claims, and certainly deserves, our highest regard and most se-
rious labour. It sets before us a RACE ; and we must run,
laying aside every weight and casting off every hinderance, if
we would win its prize. It sets before us a BATTLE ; and we
must fight, arrayed in all the armour of righteousness, and re
misting evil within and without, on to the close of life, if we
would secure its victory and be crowned with immortal glory.
By grace we are saved, it is true, through faith, but this gift
of God is not obtained without hearty desire and endeavour on
the sinner's part; and then, faith must lead to earnest and
diligent labour in the work of purifying the heart and over-
coming the world or else it will be but a dead faith, van-, uid
unprofitable.
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
PART II.
PART II.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL HISTORY OF RELIGION.
OUR first parents, before the Fall, were altogether holy
The law of God was written upon their hearts, and, while they
delighted in it as perfectly good, they obeyed it in all its length
and breadth. Their religion was, in its nature, the same with
that of Heaven. According to the universal and perpetual
order of the Divine Government, they were entitled, on account
of their own righteousness of character and conduct, to the
favour of their Maker, which is happiness and life. They
were not, however, placed out of the reach of evil. They had
a trial of their faithfulness to stand, before their moral state
should be rendered eternally secure. In that trial they failed.
The commandment of God, through the temptation of the
devil, was wilfully transgressed. Thus, "by one man sin
entered into the world, and death by sin ; and so death passed
upon all men, for that all have sinned." (Rom. v. 12.)
The ruin was awful. The greatest calamity in the wide
universe of God, is gin. The human race was now brought
into that condition which is the most deplorable that any mind
can conceive. Struck out from the order and happiness of the
general creation, and cut off from all intercourse with God, it
presented only a spectacle of horror and terrific desolation,
uncheered by the smallest gleam of hope. The state of mai
was the same with that into which a part of the angels had
fallen; a state of rebellion against the Almighty, of exclusion
from peace, a state of infinite wrath, of death without hope and
without end.
But God had mercy. When no arm but his own could save,
ne determined to help. He left the angels to perish without
relief, but stretched forth his hand to rescue sinking man.
(Heb. ii. 16.) A great Salvation was provided. 'A wonder
rfl BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
ful arrangfmcnt bad been, frjin tbe beginning, made in heaven^
to recover the lost. The eternal Son of God engaged to be-
come a sacrifice for their guilt, and the Father consented to
mvive once more into favour, and, by hi> Spirit, to restore to
holiness, as many as should be willing to accept the atonement
thus wonderfully secured. And because the nature of man's
depravity was such, that not one of all the race would ever be
naturally willing to embrace the offer of mercy, even after such
condescension and love on the part of God, the arrangement
of Divine compassion extended yet farther. It was determined
that, in consideration of the Saviour's work, the Holy Spirit
should be sent forth into the hearts of men, to enlighten and
persuade them, to the end that they might become willing to
be saved ; that thus, as the prophet declares, the Redeemer
should " see of the travail of his soul, and be satisfied," (Isa.
liii. 11;) and that, out of tbe multitude of Adam's fallen
children, a portion should yet gloriously rise from ruin and
find a happy restoration to the great family of God. Hero
originated the Church.
The church is a society made up of the Redeemer's people.
In its visible character, as a body regularly organized in thin
world, it comprehends all who, in any age, profess to be hi*
people, and externally are placed under that constitution which
he has appointed for their government and improvement. In
its invisible character, that is, as it appears to the eye of God,
who searcheth the heart, it embraces only thos" who are
really and truly the people of Christ, redeemed by his blood,
*nd made meet by his grace "to be partakers of the inheritance
of the saints in light." Many belong to the church as an out-
ward body on earth, who have no part in its glorious reality,
as a body spiritually united to its 3reat Head. The institution
of the church had respect, no do .ot, only to those who become
truly thus united to Christ; its object was, by means of the
truth of God, (which it was appointed to preserve from age to
age, and to employ instrumentally for the salvation of men,)
to bring out from the darkness of the world, as many as might
be moved to comply with the Divine invitation in deed and in
truth, and so, by salutary preparation and discipline, to guthei
their whole number, from the beginning to the end of time,
into one great family in heaven. But, in its actual outward
form and history, in this world, all are regarded as being inte-
rested in its existence, who participate in its external privileges,
whether truly pious or not; because man cannot try the heart,
and God unfolds not his judgment of its character before the
Great Day.
B1PLICAL AN1 QUITIE8. ?S7
In consequence of the Redeemer's undertaking, our race wa.s,
in mediately after the Fall, placed in new circumstances. Thej
rtviv fallen still, but a way of recovery was thrown open. The
wrath of the Almighty still hung suspended over their heads
with tremendous terror; but for a little time its destruction
was delayed; the full bursting forth of its fury was restrained;
and in that awful pause room was left for complete escape ; a
HKFUOE was provided within reach, strong and secure, to which
the criminal might run and be eternally safe. Thus, in the
mi'lst of earth's moral desolation, there was to be displayed,
down to the end of time, a spectacle of returning life. Heaven
was to receive, with universal rapture, millions from the very
jaws of hell. The accomplishment of this mercy was to be,
however, only through the mediation and suffering of the Son
of God. The Holy One of Heaven could deal no longer with
men directly, save as their judge and destroyer. From the
time of the Fall, therefore, no communication of friendship
could exist between God and man, except throuyh Christ. For
his sake, the Infinite Judge forbears for a while the full execu-
tinii of death, and to him is committed, in a peculiar manner,
the care of our fallen world. The Father has withdrawn him-
self from immediate concern with it, such as he employs in his
general government. It has been given over into the bands
of the Son, in view of his mediatorial work. He has been con-
stituted Head over nil thiiujs to tin- cluin h. (Kph. i. 22.) He
has undertaken, and it has been left to him, to maintain the
full honour of God's law in the case of the human family, while
yet redemption from its curse should be made possible for all,
a:id multitudes should actually obtain the ielivcnmce. He
g iverus the world, therefore, with continual regard to the church,
which he has determined to gather out of its ruins, ami conduct
to glory. All the kindness which the world experiences m>w
fr mi God, comes through hi HI, and is only in consequence of
ih it new position in which it is placed before God, by his
mi diatorial undertaking. And because the world is thus
given into his hands, with the trust of completely vindicating
the holiness of the Divine law, its final judgment will also
proceed from his authority. "The Father judgcth no man,
but hath - committed all judgment unto the Son. He hath
given him authority to execute judgment, because he is the
SON OF MAN." (John v. 21 29, Acts xvii. 31.) As many
is refuse to embrace his norcy, he will himself sentence to
:lio everlasting death, which sin deserves, and Gcil's righteous
law demands. Thus he will reduce all thimjs to order, by
or by justice", and wind up, as it were, in unalterably
238 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
jnd perfect arrangement, t,;e affairs of this apostate part of
creation. "Then comet h the end, when he shall have deli-
vered up the kingdom to God, even the Father; when he shall
have put down all rule, and all authority and power: for he
must reign till he hath put all enemies under his feet. And
when all things shall be subdued unto him, then shall the Son
ilso himself be subject unto him that put all things under him,
that <i<Hl may be all in all." (1 Cor. xv. 2428.) Thus will
be accomplished that restitution nf nil t/tin</s, foretold by all
tho prophets. (Acts iii. 21.) Then, having put an end to
disorder, and brought all opposition into subjection to God,
Uie Redeemer. God and man in one person, shall reign in the
'_ r lory of his kingdom, as Head of the church, under the gene-
ral government of Him who is all in all, without interrup-
tion and without end. For it is written, " He shall reign over
the house of Jacob for ever, and of his kingdom there shall
be no end." And again, " Unto the Son he saith, thy throne,
O God, is for ever and ever." (Luke i. 33, Heb. i. 8.)
The church, then, though it has been all along despised by
the great body of our race, has ever been infinitely the most
interesting and important institution in the world. It is the
kingdom of Jesus Christ, proceeding under his own direction
and government to that great end of victory and glory, which
it is ordained to reach. The world derives all its mercies from
heaven, through its relation to this kingdom, established in
the midst of its ruin. And because the government of the
world is upon the shoulders of Zion's King, all the changes
that take place among the nations of the earth, which are di-
rected by his providence, are made to help forward the inte-
rests of this same kingdom. The world is ruled for the church.
The mighty ones of earth little drum of the designs which
God has in view to accomplish, by all the revolutions and
schemes, which, from age to age, occupy their thoughts and
call forth their labours. Their imaginations are directed to
ends of mere temporal advantage to themselves, or their par-
ticular countries; but God employs their work to bring about
far other ends, such as the prosperity of His own kingdom re-
quires. Thus, ambition, and pride, and every unhallowed pas-
sion, which fill the world with war and change, are all made
subservient to the will of Christ, and conspire to promote hi
glorious plan of mercy to the church. (Isa. x. 5 7.) In the
vast machinery of this world's action, unnumbered wheels are
constantly at work; and though, to human sight, many of
them seem to be acting for particular separate purposes, the
eye of God, whose wisdom has united the universal frame, be
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 239
holds all its parts contributing their ultimate influence to the
viinr point, and combining their multiplied movements to ac-
complish the same grand result. That result is the advance-
ment of the Redeemer's kingdom to its victorious consumma-
tion. This will be clearly seen, when the history of the earth
shall have come to its close. It may, however, be even now
discovered with striking certainty, in looking back upon the
history of ages that are past When we read the record of
what has been done among the nations, in different ages of tho
world, this great tn.'h should be kept at all times in view.
History is studied correctly and understandingly, only when
this relation of God's general providence, in all the changes
of earth, to his will concerning the church, is seriously and
attentively regarded. Here we find a reason and a meaning,
an order and a connection, in the events which it unfolds, such
as cannot appear under any other view.
From what has been said already, it is manifest that the
church has been, and must be, in every age, the same body.
The kingdom of Christ began to be formed just after the fall ;
and the same kingdom has been going forward ever since, and
will go forward till the end of the world. The method by
which fallen sinners are restored to the family of God, baa
always been one and the same. Men were saved before the
coming of Christ, as well as since that time, only by his death.
" There is none other name under heaven given among men,
whereby we must be saved," but the name of Jesus. (Acts iv.
12.) True, the saints who lived before he came into the world,
could not have any clear knowledge of the precise way in which
atonement was to be made for sin ; but they knew and believed
that God had devised and was about to execute a plan which
should fully answer the purpose, and make it possible for him
to be just, while he yet justified the sinner who embraced his
offered mercy. They knew, for it was clearly promised, that
a Divine Deliverer, able to satisfy God's law and to save men,
would in the latter days appear on earth, to take away sin and
to bring in an everlasting righteousness for as many as would
trust in his name Boing assured of this by the testimony of
God, they believed it, renounced all hope of being justified
with God by their own goodness, and fixed their whole expec-
tation and trust upon the Great Salvation which was to bo
made known in latter times. Thus Abraham and all othei
holy men of old were justified by faith. (Rom. iv. 1 8, Gal
iii. G 8.) They "all died in faith, not having receive.l the
promises, but having seen them afar off, and were persuaded
*,4J BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
of them, and embraced them, and confessed that they w:i*
.-tranirrrs and pilgrims on the earth." (Heb. xi. 13.)
Hut, although the church has been substantially the same
in all ages, its measures of spiritual advantage, and its outward
constitution, have been greatly altered with the progress of
tiiii'-. It lias had, as it were, an infancy, a childhood, and a
full grown manhood. (Gal. iii. 23 25, iv. 1 6.) Its light
lias gradually proceeded from glimmering feebleness to the tuil
splendour of rising day. Compared with the bright revelation
of the gospel, the scriptures of the Old Testament shed only a
faint light upon the world. (2 Tim. i. 10.) They were a
light, which shined in a dark place, until the day should dawn,
and the day-star should arise. (2 Pet. i. 19 21.) Still, how-
ever, it was a great and glorious light, sufficient to conduct the
benighted sons of men to heaven. (Ps. cxix. 105 130.)
The first revelation of mercy through Christ, was made to
our original parents just after their fall. In the midst of the
curse, which Justice pronounced, it promised that the SEED
of the woman should bruise the serpent's head. (Gen. iii. 15.)
This Seed, the same with that in which the great promise
made long after to Abraham, was to be fulfilled, was Christ.
(Gal. iii. 16.) Adam and Eve, we may hope, being filled
with godly sorrow for their guilt, believed the gracious word
of God, and were saved. Their children were made acquainted
with the great truth, and instructed in the fear of the
Lord. And so down to the flood, the knowledge of God and
of the way of salvation by faith was continued among men ;
and there were all the while some who loved and obeyed the
true religion. These formed the church in those days. There
was no written Bible, to make known tlu- will of the Most
High. But what God revealed to Adam, and others after him,
was carefully remembered and handed down by word of mouth.
When men lived so long, it was easy to preserve knowledge in
this way. Some holy men of those times had a very great in-
timacy with God, and received many communications of in-
struction and favour directly from himself. We have, however,
no means of knowing very much about the extent of religious
knowledge, or the manner of religious worship, which belonged
to that early age. Still, this much we learn from the Bible :
The solemn worship of sacrifice was common from the be-
ginning; in which the believer acknowledged his guilt before
iid, and looked forward, with holy trust, to the satisfaction
which God himself had promised to provide. The *<il,lith was
observed, and was attended, no doubt, with rich spiritual bless-
ings. There was also a regular church, united in the service
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 241
of God, wliicb secured most important privileges of religious
education and of social worship. Th -iv \\--.\- exhortation too,
and preaching, which tended to e.lit'y an<l assist the people of
God, while it warned, and left without excuse, the ungodly
around. (2 Pet. ii. 5, Jude xiv. 15.)
Abel was a believer, and went to heaven. Cain despised
religion, ami In-longed to the Wicked One. (1 John iii. 12.)
He was driven out, for his sin, from the presence of the Lord,
and became the father of a worldly and unbelieving race. The
church was found in the family of Seth, whom God raised up
to take Abel's place. Those who belonged to it were called,
it seems, children of God ; while the unbelieving were styled,
c/u'filrcn of men. The number of the ungodly was soon in-
creased greatly ; the children of the pious were, many of them,
seduced to join them. "The ** of God saw the d<nnj /< ///.<
rfmen, that they were fair; and they took them wives of all
which they chose." Corruption thus rapidly became stronger
and stronger, till it filled the earth, and Noah's family embraced
the wholfi church. The flood came with the wrath of the Al-
mighty, and buried the guilty race in destruction.
This awful event should have been remembered, to keep
men from repeating the apostasy which was its occasion. But
the posterity of Noah soon began again, with an evil heart of
unbelief, to depart from the Lord. Idolatry gradually took
the place of true religion. To such extent did it prevail at
length, that the very existence of the church in the world
seemed to be brought to a termination. But in its low estate,
God interposed to recover it to new dignity, and to establish
it with better privileges. He selected Abraham, the Chaldean;
communicated to him the clear knowledge of religion, with
new and more explicit promises of that Great Salvation which
was to be made known in the latter days; and set him apart,
with his posterity, to preserve the truth amid the corruptions
uf the world, and to hand it down, without interruption, until
tlie time of Jesus Christ. The line of Abraham's aiu-rstors
seems to have been distinguished for piety, from the time of
Noah, longer than most other families; but idolatry had at
last corrupted it as well as the rest. (Josh. xxiv. 2.) Called
h/ God, however, the patriarch left his country and his friends,
and came into Canaan. The Lord promised that he would
give that land to his descendants ; that they should be his pe-
culiar people his church ; and that in his Seed all the nation!
of the earth should be blessed. As a seal of the covenant
into which he and his posterity were thus graciously allowed
to enter, he received the sign of circumcision
M
242 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
Isaac and Jacjb were heirs of the same promises, .wl <}*
tinguished with like spiritual blessiiiiTn. Their religion wo*
committed to their descendants. Among these, its form, and
something also of its power, continued to be known in K_!\nt
till the time of Moses. It appears, however, to have fallen.
by that time, into very general neglect. Many of the Israel-
ites, there is reason to believe, were carried away with th
idolatries of Egypt.
With a mighty hand and an outstretched arm, the Lord re-
<overed his people from oppression. He led them, by the hand
of Moses, to the foot of Sinai. There he formed a solemn
covenant with the whole nation, and gave them a written law.
The church was now made to assume a new and more con-pi-
cuous form. It was blessed with a fuller knowledge of the Di-
vine Will ; it was admitted to greater privileges ; and much
more effectual provision was made for protec'ing its existence,
and guarding its truth, in the midst of an apo>tute world. The
principles of true morality and religion were made clear to all,
by particular precepts of duty toward man and toward <I<><1.
The manner in which God was to be worshipped was carefully
prescribed. A great system of rites and ceremonies was esta-
blished ; which, while it served like a hedge to secure the
proper form and the continuance of the church, was, at the
same time, so full of important instruction, and so framed to
shadow forth spiritual and heavenly truth, that to every true
believer it could not fail to be a source of continual improve-
ment in grace, and a most valuable help to devotion.
After a long discipline in the wilderness, the chosen nation
was settled in Canaan, with all the advantages which thus, by
its new form, the church was appointed to enjoy. That form
was intended to be continued until the time of the gospel.
Age after age, however, the measure of religious knowledge,
with which it was distinguished, received important increase.
The Bible, whose first five books had been written by the hand
of Moses, was gradually enlarged, by the addition of others
equally inspired. The light, that was shining in a dark world,
grew strongei and clearer. Prophecy multiplied its revelations,
and by its sure word pointed with more certainty and einph
to the gloiy that was to come.
The Jewish state was very peculiar. As we have seen, wheu
consideiing its manner of government, its civil and religious
institutions wore closely blended together, so as to form a sin-
gle system harmoniously conspiring in all its parts toward the
aine general point. The whole was designed, in the wist? plan
tf God, to preserve the true religion, aud prep ire the way fi
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES 243
the introduction of the full brightness of the gospel IT the ful-
ness of time. The Jewish church was the special object re-
garded, in the separation of the Israelites from the rest of the
world to be the peculiar people of the Most High ; and tLeir
whole government, accordingly, was constructed with a view to
the interests of the church, and in such a manner as to fall iu
with and assist the particular constitution under which it was
placed. Hence, as already remarked, a religious design is to
be discovered running, in some measure, through the whole
system, and much of the meaning of those laws and institutions
which moulded and fixed the shape of the civil government, is
to be sought in their relation to religion, rather than in any
merely political purpose. Still, it is proper to distinguish the
nation as a church, from the nation as a civil community, and
to distribute its institutions and laws into two general classes
such as related more directly to religion, and such as had re-
gard to the government of the state as an earthly kingdom.
But the laws which related entirely to religion were not all
of the same nature. As a <///////, the Jews were placed under
a twofold system of law. They had the Moral law, which
rests upon all men, in every age ; and they had a Ceremonial
law, peculiar to their dispensation, and designed to pass away
with it.
In discoursing of divine laws, it has been common to divide
thorn altogether into two kinds NATURAL and POSITIVE.
Natural laws, which are the same that are usually called Moral,
arc such as arise necessarily from the character of God and the
nature of his moral creatures, and which every man's con-
science, if it be not completely seared by sin, tells him, as soon
as they are known to him from the light of nature or revela-
tion, that he is under solemn obligation to obey. Positive
laws are such as have no necessary and unalterable reason in
the nature of things, but derive their authority from the par-
ticular appointment of God, made known by revelation ; hav-
*ng no force, except where they are thus expressly enjoined,
and being designed to continue only for a time, determined in
the purpose of the Most High , after which, all their obliga-
tion is done away. Each of the ten commandments is a natu-
dl or moral law : the laws which required the Jews not to eat
jertain animals, the laws which regulated inheritances among
them, and others of a like sort, were positive laws. A positive
law, when it is enjoined, is no less binding than a moral one
The uMi^ution to obey rests, in both cases, upon the same rea.
aou, namely, the will of God : when that will is made known
in any way, whatever it may require, the duty of complying
244 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
with it is at all times the same, and at all times of the high
est force; whether the requirement is perpetual and univ. r-.il
or whether it is limited to times and individuals, is an inquiry
that does not touch at all upon the nature or extent of its claim
to be regarded and obeyed. Positive laws, again, have l-en
divided into POLITICAL and CEREMONIAL. The laws which
God gave for the government of the Jewish republic, in its
civil character, were of the first class; such were the statutes
that were made concerning magistrates marriages, inherit-
ances, punishments, &c. : many of them, a- already noticed, jr.r-
took at the same time of a religious character. The law*
which among the same people prescribed the peculiar rites and
forms of religious worship, private or public, were of the; latter
class cin i, iiiiiidl : such were those that related t<> meats and
washings and sacrifices, and all the outward service of the
tabernacle or temple.
While, therefore, the Moral law, and that which has beer
styled the Ceremonial, were alike altogether religious in their
character ; and so may be with propriety classed together, in
distinction from the Political or Civil law; they were distin-
guished nevertheless from each other by a wide and clear dif-
ference. The one had its origin with the beginning of crea-
tion, flowing necessarily out of its divine plan, and being es-
sential to, and inseparable from, its constitution, as long as
that constitution shall endure: the other had its cnniiin ne...
ineiit only when the sovereign wisdom of God revealed its ap-
pointment, and had no necessary existence in the original
order of being, but was made to answer some particular end
in the general system of God's grace ; and having Moomplished
this design, had no longer any authority whatever. A moral
law, accordingly, includes its reason in itself; and finds its.
end answered directly and immediately in the obedience which
it receives; a ceremonial one, on the contrary, had its iva- n
entirely out of itself, and always contemplated some other end
than what it directly required to be done, as its original and
principal design.
The MORAL LAW, summarily comprehended in the ten com-
mandments uttered from Mount Sinai, requires in all its j>r -
cepts a spiritual obedience. It contemplates the heart. It
carries its authority into all duties ; even such as were cere-
monial in their nature were enforced by its power; because
when the will of God is understood, whatever it may prrsenlx ,
1 Miration to regard it flow.s from the iir-t principle of
natural and unchangeable reason ; namely that the en-atari*
should in every thing render a willing obedience to its infinite-
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 245
ly perfect Creator. Thus, for an ancient Jew to eat swine's
flesh, while it brought him under the penalty of the Ceremo-
nial law, was an offence, also, if wilfully done, against the
Moral law, not less truly than it would have been for him to
take his Maker's name in vain, or to steal his neighbour's pro-
perty. Our Saviour teaches us, that the sum of all the Moral
law is expressed in two great precepts. (Matt. xxii. 37 40.)
Love to God will secure natural obedience to all his will, and
" love worketh no ill to his neighbour ; therefore love is the
fulfilling of the law." (John xiv. 23, Rom. xiii. 810.)
This law is that which Paul speaks of as being written in the
hearts of men. (Rom. ii. 15.) Man was originally made so as
to have a natural sense of its obligation, and a natural know-
ledge of its precepts. And although, by the fall, the clearness
of this knowledge has been much obscured, it has not still been
utterly taken away ; but some vestiges of it are to be found, in
every age, among all people. (Rom. i. 19 21.) It is still
only by reason of sin, that men do not all learn the glory of
God from his works, and are not all moved by their inward
sense to understand the Moral law and to make it the rule of
their conduct.
This law, we have said, never loses its force. Every human
soul is at all times under its authority. Nor will it in any
case give up the smallest part of its claim. It requires full
obedience, or tremendous punishment, such as falling upon a
creature, like man, must doom him to everlasting misery. The
law is holy, just and good and whosoever offendeth in one
point is guilty of all for it is written, " Cursed is every one
that continueth not in all things written in the book of the
law to do them" and again, "Till heaven and earth pass, one
jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from. the law, till all be
fulfilled." (Rom. vii. 12, James ii. 10, Gal. iii. 10, Matt. v.
18.) According to this law, we are to be judged in the Great
Day. Reader ! have you not broken it times without number?
How then will you appear before the judgment-seat of God ?
How will you stand in that awful trial, where a single offence
is enough to condemn you for ever ? Can it be that you have
not yet begun to look out for some way of escape from so fear-
ful a prospect?
The CEREMONIAL LAW of the Jews comprehended a vast
number of precepts. It stood in meats and drinks, and divers
washings, and carnal ordinances, imposed on them till the
time of reformation. Some of its institutions were appointed
long before the time of Moses. Such was th3 institution of
Kurtjicrs, with the regulations which governed the pious :i
21*
-4ti BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIK*.
offering them, appointed ii, the very com mencenn nt of I lie
church, immediately after the fall. Animals were divided into
c'fUH and iiiir/itin before the flood. (Gen. vii. 2.) As early
as the time of Noah, the commandment was given. nr>r to eat
b/<j<*f. Abraham received the appointment of <.//< ///r/xu/.
From his time, we find in the brief history of the Bible, trace*
of several other important regulations afterwards embraced in
the Mosaic ceremonial law. So that some have imagined, wt
should find, if we had a complete account of the religious
usages of that early age, that almost all the principal rites,
which their law required the Jews to observe, existed to some
extent before, among their pious ancestors; or at least, that
observances similar to them, and evidently having the same
principle and intention, were not unknown. Moses, by the
command of God, formed for the nation a full and regular
system of ceremonial laws. Such rites as had been before
appointed and in use, he sanctioned with new authority, and
prescribed, with particular care, the manner and various cir-
cumstances which were to be connected with their observance.
What was partial and imperfect before, he set forth with new.
more formal and systematic, more extensive, and more expres-
sive arrangment. Various precepts, altogether unknown till
that time, were added to complete the divine plan. The whole,
thus framed together, made one harmonious scheme, conspiring
in all its parts to secure the great purpose of its appointment.
One use of the ceremonial law was to keep the Jsraelitish
nation separate and distinct from the rest of the world, and to
guard them from idolatry. To preserve the true religion, and
to prepare the way for the coming of the gospel, God, in his
\vi-dom, designed the Jewish people to be a people tticeKiny
ttlniir, amid the other nations of the earth. (Num. xxiii. 9.)
The whole system of laws, civil and religious, under which
they were placed, was such as was adapted to secure this end.
Their Ceremonial law, especially, could not fail, if regarded in
any measure, to keep them separate. It embraced many very
peculiar precepts, and many that stood in direct opposition to
the usages and manners of other people. It could not be com-
pletely observed except in the laud < t' Israel; and its operation
tended continually to shut out all foreign customs, and to draw
a broad line of distinction between the seed of Abraham and
every stranger. Then was need of such a : ecurity, to keep
the people from becoming utterly confounded with the nations
around them, whose idolatry they were, for a long time, so
ready to imitate. The safety of the church required that it
should I*- burdened and shut up with restraint, in this way
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 247
tlencc, the apostle calls the Jewish law, a SchorJmaster, which,
by salutary but severe care and discipline, secured the church
under proper training, as it were, until the time when the
gospel was introduced. Its obligation imposed a sort of bond-
age, such as children, not yet of age, were made to feel under
tutors and governors : which ceased only when the fulness of
the Father's .appointed time was come, giving way to the
liberty of a far more glorious dispensation. (Gal. iii. 19 21,
iv. 111.)
But there was another, which we are Jto regard as the prin-
cipal design of the Ceremonial law. It was framed to shadow
forth, with figurative representation, the most important spi-
ritual truths; so that by its serious observance, believers who
lived before the time of Christ might continually grow in
knowledge and grace; and so that it should be afterwards, to
the end of time, a most striking evidence of the truth of the
gospel ; by the wonderful prophetic image of gospel realities
which men might discover in its whole sy.-t< m. It was adapted
continually to remind the ancient Jews of the great evil of sin,
and of the absolute need of complete atonement for its guilt,
before it could be pardoned. It represent <! strikingly the
infinite holiness of God, and the necessity of his favour. It
pointed to the great Provision, which God intended to reveal
in its proper time, for tin; taking away of sin, and directed
the eye of faith and hope to the perfect salvation that was to
come. By signs, it foretold the sufferings and death of Christ,
and the whole work of redemption which he was to accomplish ;
and emblematically represented the great spiritual benefits that
were to be secured in consequence. Altogether, it was a grand
TYPE of the system of grace unfolded by the gospel, and its
several parts were, in general, figurative of particular most
interesting realities, comprehended in that system. Thus we
are told, the law had a shadow of good .things to come. (Heb.
x. 1, Col. ii. 17.) In the Epistle to the Hebrews, the apostle
teaches its meaning in this way, in many important particulars.
Christ fulfilled this law by bringing actually to pass all that it
typically signified, as he fulfilled the moral law by his life of
obedience, anl death of atonement for sinful men. (Matt.
v. 17.)
We ought therefore, always to inquire after their spiritual
and typical meaning, when we read of the various institutions
of this ancient law. We ought to consider what refei-ence they
liad to Christ and the wonders of the gospel. In this way,
that part of Scripture which treats of these things, is to bo
rendered most profitable for instruction in righteousness. If
248 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
it be not read thus, it is not read aright. We are now able to
see more clearly, a groat deal, than the ancient Jew could, the
full signification of the ceremonial ordinances he wa*- eonmian led
to observe. Their meining has been interpreted by e*'ent.
Time, by unfolding the accomplishment of the things they
represented, enables us to understand types which were once
dark, just as it explains ]>rj>/ci'ex that were formerly as much
obscure. Types are, in fact, of the same general nature with
prophecies, only foretelling things to come in a different way.
It becomes us, therefore, to study them with the same sort of
attention, and to seek like instruction and spiritual benefit from
both. The Holy Ghost designed one as well as the other to
be so improved.
The history of the Jews, recorded briefly in the Bible, shows
them to have been a rebellious and stiff-necked people in reli-
gion. They were ever ready to forsake the Lord, and fall in
with the idolatrous practices of the heathen around them. Yet
by the force of their law, and the oft-repeated judgments of the
Almighty, they were kept a distinct people. For their sins.
ihey were at length carried away, however, into distant cap-
tivity. The kingdom of Israel, which had broken itself off
from the house of David, and offended God with most dreadful
apostasy, was then allowed to become lost among the nations.
The kingdom of Judah alone was regarded as the visible
chujxjh, with which the truth and promises of God were to
n- ni i in deposited till the time of Christ. It embraced the
tribt and family from which the Redeemer was to rise. (Gen.
xlix 10, Ps. cxxxii. 11.) It was enough, therefore, to answer
the original design of God in separating the Jewish nation,
that this portion of it, with whom were the promises, the
writf en law, and the sacred service of religion, should be thence-
forward preserved a separate people. Accordingly, they were
so preserved in the land of their captivity, and, after seventy
years, brought back again to their ancient country. The tem-
ple was once more buildcd, and the worship which the law
prescribed solemnly renewed. Thus the nation .-unl the church
were continued till the great Messiah appeared.
After the captivity, the Jews never again showed any incli-
nation to fall into idolatry Other sins of the worst kind pre-
vailed greatly, but this chey held in continual detestation.
Their religion became, in the end, without /// and without
power almost entirely; but the letter and form of it they
cherished with the most scrupulous care. No doubt, the af-
fliction which the nation was made to suffer by its eaptivitv,
hiid much to do in producing this change. T! is was felt and
U1BL1CAL ANTIQUITIES. 249
vmembered as an awful warning not to repeat the idolatry of
former times, M hich had ooOttBOOed it. Its whole history, t<x),
from the twginning to the end, by clearly fulfilling many pro-
ptiecies, and unfolding many signal displays of divine power,
afforded a demonstration most convincing, that Jehovah T/as
the true God, and that besides HIM there was no other. More-
over, after the return from that captivity, new means were em-
ployed to secure the advantage of general religious instruction
This served to keep alive the memory of what was past, and
so impressed the great truths of revelation upon the minds of
all, that the evil and folly and danger of idolatry could never
be forgotten. Religious instruction was secured, principally
by the establishment of Synagogues and Schools. Synagogues
were a sort of churches, where the people met by congregations
through the land on every Sabbath, to hear a portion of the
Scriptures read and explained, and to join in social prayer be-
fore God. Regular schools for the instruction of the young,
under the care of distinguished men, came also into use; and
as this instruction was concerned chiefly with the knowledge
of the sacred law, it tended much to preserve it among the
people.
The ancient dispensation, together with all the movements
of Providence, in the revolutions of kingdoms and nations in
the world, looked forward to the introduction of the gospel, and
operated to prepare the way for its coming. Since that event,
all things have been conspiring toward another point the es-
tablishment of the Redeemer's kingdom over the earth, and
the great winding up of the work of redemption which the
Son of God has undertaken, since the fall, to accomplish in
this miserable world. The gospel sheds light upon the whole
ancient testament of the Jews, and lifts the veil away from
their wonderful institutions. (2 Cor. Hi. 14 18.) It oulit
to be remembered, that the sum and substance of the entire
Bible is JESUS CHRIST CRUCIFIED TO SAVE A LOST WORLD j
and that without this object in view as its grand end, the
whole Jewish system of religion can have no meaning.
As we look ba -heard many hundred years, and find the hope
of the church in a redemption long since wrought out, so the
Jc.w was taught to stretch his expectation forward and to found
all hope toward God upon that same redemption to be revcakd
at a future time. What ice learn from inspired history, was
set before him by inspired prophecy and types : in his case in-
leed, compared with ours, the representation \\;i- >h:i<lowy and
lark, y t ilt >.; :hrr sufficient to lead the soul of the pious bo-
iievur to confidence and pear ;.
25C BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
ey, tli-tugh from its nature it could not bat be wrapped
to some extent in obscurity, was nevertheless very explicit in
declaring the general truth, that a Great Salvation was to be
disclosed in coming time, and an age of happy and glorious
juivili'ge unfolded, far surpassing all tLs previous state of the
rhuirJi. This testimony was strikingly confirmed by the great
-\-tem of types, which God ordered for the help of faith.
What was predicted in one case with icr<l*, was prefigured in
the other by shadowy styns. A general belief, accordingly,
was cherished by the whole nation, that a far more excellent
and happy state than the one under which they lived was to
be revealed at a future period. It was universally agreed, too,
that this happy state was to be introduced by a powerful and
glorious Deliverer, called emphatically by the prophet Daniel,
the MESSIAH, or Anointed One, and spoken of repeatedly in
other places under different names such as the SEED of the
woman, the SEED of Abraham, SHILOII, the BRANCH out of
Jesse's stem, LMMANUEL, &c. Hence they were accustomed
to speak of the whole period of the world, as being divided
into two great ages the first reaching from the beginning to
the time when the Messiah should appear, and then yielding
place to the second, which was to abound with righteousness
and peace. The first, in which they lived themselves, they
styled This aye, or The present aye; the other was distin-
guished as The aye to come.
Great error, however, came to mingle itself with this expec-
tation which the nation cherished. The Scripture representa-
tions were understood in a low and narrow sense. The de-
scriptions of that coming age, the latter time, when the reign
of the Messiah was to be established in glorious and happy
triumph, had been set forth by the prophets under striking
imagery of an earthly kind. The Great Deliverer was repre-
sented under the character of a Prince, clothed with highest
majesty and power, coming to occupy the throne of David.
completely overthrowing all the enemies of his people, reducing
the world to subjection, and reigning with most wise, righteous,
and beneficent authority, so as to make his dominion full of
all blessedness and peace. His people, too, were spoken of
as the Jewish kingdom, and called by the names of Jsraef,
Jitcnb, &c. All this had a meaning far more lofty and excellent
than was signified by the terms employed when taken in an
earthly sense. The kingdom to be set up was spiritual ; the
deliverance was redemption from sin; the triumphant glory
was victory over death and hell ; the blessings of the govern-
ment were holiness and eternal life j the people crowned with
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 251
such benefits was the church gathered out of all nations the
true Israel comprehending all in every place that embrace the
promises of God by faith. A serious consideration of the whole
revelation of prophecy on this point, should have led to such
a spiritual interpretation of the worldly imagery used in many
eases in relation to it. But a worldly temper perverted it
it into an occasion of error. The notion of an earthly and tem-
poral kingdom dazzled the imagination. The Messiah, it came
to be expected, would appear with irresistible power to restore
the Jewish nation to glory to raise it far above even its most
triumphant state in the days of Solomon to introduce and es-
tablish a long reign of liberty, virtue and happiness. As the
nation sunk under the pressure of foreign power, the expecta-
tion and hope of such a deliverer was indulged with more and
more fondness.
There were always, however, some who entertained more
conect ideas on this subject. Taught by the Holy Spirit, they
directed their faith toward a higher end. They looked for
spiritual blessings, as the most desirable in the promises of
God concerning the Messiah. Such were old Simeon, whn
waited for the consolation of Israel, and pious Anna, and others
in Jerusalem that Iwked for redemption, to whom she spake
of Christ when he was yet an infant. (Luke ii. 25 38.) Yet
even such appear, for the most part, to have entertained the
notion that the benefits of the Messiah's kingdom were to be
enjoyed especially by the Jews, and that the Gentiles, in order
to have part in them, would be required to unite themselves,
as proselytes, with the Israelitish church. The imagination
of a worldly dominion too, so generally indulged by others,
was ever apt to creep in and mingle itself to some extent with
their best conceptions. How this imagination cleaved to the
minds of Christ's disciples for a long time, may be learned from
Matt. xvi. 22, xviii. 1, xx. 20 28, Mark x. 35 37, Luke
xix. 11, xxii. 24. Our Saviour repeatedly corrected the error,
declaring that he was shortly to die a violent death, and that
all who became his true followers must expect no earthly vic-
tories and distinctions, but persecution and tribulation; that
the blessings of his kingdom were to be secured only by giving
up all the expectations of worldly happiness which men natu-
rally cherish, and that they far excelled all that the Jews
imagined concerning the reign of the Messiah, being spiritual
altogether and heavenly in their nature. Still, so strong was
the general notion in their minds of a kingdom to be set up on
earth, that as long as he lived it was not relinquished. Ac-
cordingly, after his death, we hear them sorrowfully saying,
252 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
"we Crusted that it had been he which should have redeemed
I.-r.i<>l;" and with his resurrection, we find the expectation re-
vived in al! its strength "Lord," they said, "wilt thou at
this time restore again the kingdom to Israel 5"' (Luke xxiv.
21, Acts i. 6.) The Holy Ghost, however, in a short time,
guided them into a knowledge of the truth. They learned to
conceive with wider and loftier views of Christ's kingdom.
Their former impressions were swallowed up in the discovery
of its moral glory its divine grandeur its eternal blessedness.
Not only was the expectation of the .Messiah universal among
the Jews, but there was, likewise, a general agreement about
the }>' r'xxl when he might be looked for. Ancient prophecy
had pointed to the time, as well as the place, of his appearance.
(Gen. xlix. 10, Dan. ix. 24 27.) It came to pass, accordingly,
that in that very age in which our Saviour appeared on earth,
the people were expecting the promised Deliverer as just at
hand. The opinion prevailed, that the time wa> then come
for all to look for the speedy accomplishment of the sure word
of prophecy on this subject. Thus Simeon and Anna, and
many more in Jerusalem, we are told, were waiting. The Sa-
maritans united with the Jews in this hope, and seem on the
whole to have formed juster notions than th< i/ hud of the cha-
racter of the Messiah. (John iv. 25, 29, 42.) Nor was the
expectation confined to the land of Palestine. The Jews, being
scatf. red at that time into many foreign countries, caused it to
take root in other regions; so that there came, to be a general
idea through the East, that a great prince was about to rise out
of Judea in its low estate, who should obtain supreme domi-
nion in the world. This fact is mentioned by two of the in--st
respectable heathen hi>t<>rians of those times. (Matt. ii. 1 12.)
It was foretold also by the Spirit, that the Me.iah should
have ^ fon nnii!' r, to come immediately before him, and pre-
pare, as it were, the way for his manifestation. Great and
powerful kings in the East were accustomed, when niaki;
journey, to send such before them to have the road made ready
ill along for their approach : so it was represented, a voice
ehould be heard in the wilderness of this world, when the hea-
venly King was about to appear, giving notice of his coming,
and calling upon men to make the way leady for his presence
(Isa. xl. 8 5.) What sort of office was signified by this figu-
rative account of the forerunner, going before the Messiah, we
learn from the history of the gospel. (Luke i. 70, 77, iii. 2
18.) I" the close of the Old Testament, the name of Elijah
Mie prophet, was applied to this foreiunner. (Mai. iv. f>, 6.)
He lice au opinion came to prevail, that Elijah himself would
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 253
**.>tiially return from the other world, and make his appearance
in this important character. It was a doctrine of the scribes,
the great interpreters of Scripture, that Elias in his own person
should come immediately before the Messiah. (Matt. xvii. 10
13.) The Jews accordingly put the question to John th<
Baptist when he appeared, after he had told them that he was not
the Christ, Art thou Ellas f They meaned by Elias no other
than the ancient prophet of Israel himself: John therefore as-
sured them, he was not that holy man. (John i. 21.) Yet he
icag the very person to whom that name bad been applied in
prophecy the great forerunner of the Messiah : Jesus declared
of him, "This is Elias, which was for to come." (Matt. xi.
14.) But when he was called by that name, it was intimated
only that he should resemble Elijah in holiness, self-denial and
faithful boldness or, as an angel once explained it, that he
should come to perform his ministry " in the spirit and. power
of Elias." (Luke i. 17.) There were some who imagined
Jesus himself to be Elias returned to the world. (Luke ix. 8,
19.)
In the fulness of time, the long-expected Christ, the Son of
the living God, came. But the nation knew him not; "he
came to his own, and his own received him not." With the
Jews the promise had been deposited, and they had given the
world to understand their expectation of its glorious accom-
plishment; but the accomplishment itself they were notable
to see, while others saw and believed, and rejoiced in the un-
speakable grace of God.
By this event, a new and far more glorious dispensation was
introduced. The old one, having answered all its purpose, was
commanded to pass away for ever. The ceremonial law losr
all its obligation, having been imposed only till this " time of
reformation." (Heb. ix. 10.) The rtilddli w<ill of partition,
between the Jews and other nations of the world, was broken
down : " the enmity, even the law of commandments contained
\n ordinances" was abolished. (Eph ii. 14, 15.) All distinc-
flon between Jew and Gentile as to any peculiar favour of
heaven, was over. One was invited as freely as the other to
join the family of God, and take part in the rich blessings of
his grace. Peace was commanded to be preached to all those
that wereyiir off as well as those that were /<//<.
To those who had been trained up with the notions and
feelings of Jews, this could not but seem a most wonderful
doctrine. They had grown u]> with a strong impression, which
all their education tended to fix deeply in the mind, that God
h;nl shut out all other people entirely from his regard, and thai
L'54 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
th^ blessings of the true religion were, by his unalterable pur-
[ise, to be confined to their own nation; so that no Gentile
"ould ever be admitted to the friendship of God, except by.
numbering himself with the Jews as a proselyte to their church
When the gospel, therefore, declared that all difference was
taken away, and invited all alike to embrace its benefits, many
needed no other objection to lead them to reject it at once
( Acts xxii. '21, 22.) Even those who were truly converted to
receive its truth, were slow in coming to a clear understanding
of this point. It was hard for them to feel that the d<or of
grace stood as widely and as freely open to the Gentile, without
any respect to the law of Moses, as it did to the circumcised
Jew. (Acts x. 1016, 28, 45, xi. 1 18.) Hence we find it
declared so often in the New Testament, with a sort of peculiar
emphasis, as a thing new, wonderful, and contrary to former
prejudice, that the gospel offered its blessings to the (!i-ntllrs
to all to the world to the wli>il< //<///</, without distinc-
tion of nation or place. (Matt, xxviii. 19, Luke xxiv. 47, 48,
Acts xiii. 46, 47, xvii. 30, 31, xxvi. 17, 18, xxviii. 28, Rom.
i. 16, iii. 29, 30, 1 Tim. ii. 46, Tit. ii. 11, 1 John ii. 2.)
Paul speaks of it as a glorious mystery. (Eph. iii. 3 -G.) The
word mystery in this case, as generally in his epistles, means
simply something that was utterly unhmum before God revealed
it by the gospel a thing that was for a long time /</</ A // ; not
implying that there was any thing in its nature wliieli could
not be explained or understood, as the term commonly meuiH
with us.
Neither was it eisy for the converted Jew, even when he
had learned that Aepoipei nufn/<l,<l it* i>riri/,;/,x y /////// tn //,
either to cast off all regard himself to the system of religion
which he had so long been accustomed to reverence as ap-
pointed of Heaven, or to be satisfied that the Gentile convert."
should be entirely free from its observances. \\'< are not able
fully to enter into the difficulty which he naturally felt on this
point. It is not therefore strange, that we find such jters.ii!>
still clinging to some of their ancient rites in the Christian
church, making it a matter of conscience to observe them
(Acts xxi. 20, 21, Rom. chap, xv.) With feelii-jr* of this
sort, it is not strange likewise that they slmuld sometimes have
insisted upon it as a duty for others also, even those who had
never been Jews, not. to neglect them. False teachers, from
various motives of pride or worldly i>licy, were very ready to
take advantage of this prejudice, and to sjiread it with all their
mi.irht indifferent churches; endeavouring to jtirsuade those
who had beet Jews, that they should hold fast part of thc-ii
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 255
Old religious usages, and thoe who were Gentiles, that they
ought to be circumcised and pay some regard to the Ceiemo-
nial law. (Acts xv. 1, 24, Gal. ii. 35, vi. 12, 13.) Hence
arose, generally, the first errors in the churches. The Gala-
tian church was turned away almost altogether from the truth
of the gospel by this means, as we learn from the severe letter
which Paul wrote to them on account of it. In his other epis-
tles, we find notices of a similar evil at work in other place*
also. It took, however, different forms. A vain philosophy
endeavoured to connect its new and wild opinions with a por-
tion of the Jewish law, and then under this mixed character
crept into the Christian church, showing various features of
error in different congregations. " Men of corrupt minds and
destitute of the truth," " proud and knowing nothing, but
doting about questions and strifes of words," " unruly and
vain talkers," " deceived" themselves, and worse " deceiving"
others, introduced these corruptions, spoiling the tranquillity of
churches, and turning men aside from true godliness. (Col. ii.
823, 1 Tim. i. 37, iv. 18, vi. 35, 2 Tim. ii. 1418,
23, iii. G 9, Tit. i. 1016, iii. 9.)
The apostle Paul did not in every case forbid, as sin, all
compliances with Jewish observances. When they were such
as not to interfere with the spirit of the gospel, or were not
used as entering into the substance of true religion, he suffered
the conscientious scruples of weak Christians in regard to them
to be indulged. He exhorted others also, who felt no such
scruples themselves, to give way in their practice to such pre-
judices of their brethren around them, so far as the things
which they respected were in their nature indifferent. (Rom.
xiv. 14 23.) He himself acted on this principle, forbearing
to use his Christian liberty in all lawful cases, whenever it was
likely to give offence. (Acts xvi. 3, xviii. 18, xxi. 21 26,
Rom. xv. 1, 1 Cor. ix. 20.) But when a disposition was dis-
covered to rely upon these observances as a ground of confidence
toward God, and as entering essentially into his plan of salva-
tion, the apostle condemned them in the strongest terms, and
would not countenance such as clung to them, with the smallest
ndulgence. To such he said, " If ye be circumcised, Christ
shall profit you nothing ; for I testify to every man that is cir-
ciimeiseil, that he is a debtor to keep the whole law. Christ
iu become of no effect unto you, whosoever of you are justified
by the law ; ye are fallen from grace." Thus he expostulated
with the (Jalatiaiis, who had been drawn aside from the simple
truth of tin 1 !_ r "si"'l, by false teachers, into this ruinous error
Especially, he thought it necesst ry, steadfastly to n-si^tallcou pl ; -
^56 lilHLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
ance on the part of Gentile Christians with the Ceremonial
law. The considerations which made it proper to allow sonic
indulgence to the .Je\vi<h convert-;, had no place with suvli a*
had not been educated from childhood in the Jews' religion .
a converted .Jew might be supposed to cleave to some of his
ancient usages, under the force of conscientious prejudice, with
out falling from or abandoning the doctrine of free grace through
faith, while the observance of the same usages on the part, of a
(I. ntile convert, who had no such natural prejudice to entangle
his conscience, would argue a deliberate confidence in the Jew-
ish law as a method of obtaining favour with God, and so give
reason to fear a fatal departure from the great fundamental
truth of the gospel, that n mnn in just ifil l>y (li> faith of Jesus
Cltrint alone, ami not l>i/ tin- irrtrkx uf (he litir. The apostle,
therefore, would not give place to such as wanted to draw the
Gentiles into the observance of Jewish rites, no, not for an
hour: and he anxiously guarded against every thing, in exam
pie as well as precept, among Christians of this class, which
might have the smallest influence to make them think that any
thing of this sort belonged to true religion. lie thought it
necessary, accordingly, on one occasion at Antioch, to with-
stand Peter to the face, and publicly to reprove him for his un-
faithfulness on this point, in the most solemn manner. ((J il
ii. 1114.)
CHAPTER H.
THE TABERNACLE.
THK T.MiKUNAri.K was made in the wilderness according tn
the commandment of God. By a solemn covenant, the l.-rael-
ites had engaged to be his obedient people, and he had taken
them, as a nation, out of all the nations of the earth, to lie ;i
holy kingdom for himself. They were to be under his special
and extraordinary care, and to be governed in their whole civil
and religious state by his peculiar and extraordinary direction.
They were to be his chnn-h, and the whole frame of their com-
monwealth was to be constructed with reference to the great
merest for which the church was established. Accordingly,
he Most High gave them a law, and agreed to dwell
'.hem with his continual and special presence, in a saii
u'lieh he directed to be prepared for this high and soiemn
I'h us the Tabernacle had its origin
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 257
It was required to be made, together with all its furniture,
from the offerings which the people might be willing to present
for the purpose. All were invited to contribute something for
an end so important; but it was left to each individual to act
iu the matter with perfectly free choice. The offering of every
man was to be given willingly with his heart. By reason of
the great readiness of the people to offer, materials more than
enough were soon collected. Men and women united in showing
their zeal, by contributions of every various sort that could be
useful, till an order had to be publicly given for them to bring
no more. (Ex. xxv. 1 8, xxxv. 4 29, xxxvi. 3 7.)
As the work to be accomplished needed various materials of
the most costly sort, so it called for peculiar skill to execute it
in the way which its magnificent design required. Accordingly,
God raised up Bezalcel the son of Uri, and Aholiab the son
of Ahisamach, filling them with wisdom and understanding in
all manner of workmanship, to have the entire charge of the
whole business. They were qualified, with more than ordinary
or merely natural ability, to perform themselves the most diffi-
cult and curious sorts of work, such as belonged to arts entirely
different, and also to teach others, who might be employed,
under their direction, to help forward, in various ways, the
general labour. (Ex. xxxi. 16, xxv. 30 35.)
It was not left, however, to these workmen, or even to Moses,
to contrive the form or manner of the sacred building in any
respect. No pattern of earth was to be regarded no device
of man was to be followed, in its whole construction and ar-
rangement. It was to be the dwelling-place of God, symboli-
cal, in all its visible and material order, of realities infinitely
more grand and glorious; God himself therefore devised its
entire plan, and unfolded it with most particular direction, in
all its parts, to his sen-ant on Mount Sinai. Careful and mi-
nute instruction was given relative to the material to be used,
/he manner of workmanship to be employed, the form and size
of the building, and every article of sacred furniture that was
to belong to it. And more than this, there was presented to
the eyes of Moses a pattern, or model, of the whole, as the
Ix>rd intended it to be made and arranged, with a solemn in-
junction to have all finished exactly according to it. " Ac-
cording to all that I show thee," was the charge of the Al-
mighty, " the pattern of the tabernacle and the pattern of all
the instruments thereof, even so shall ye make it :" and again,
" Look that thou make them after their pattern, which was
showed thee in the mount." (Ex. xxv. 940, Heb viii. 5.)
There was no wisdom wanted in the workmen, then -fun, u
13*
258
BIBLICAL AN"1QU1TJE8.
cnittrtrr any part of the work to be done, but merely to
it according to the divine plan which Moses was appointed to
explain.
The very great care which God showed about tin- manner in
which this holy tabernacle was to be made, teaches us that it
was designed to have a meaning in all its parts vastly more
important than any mere visible and outward use. Stum-thing
far more exalted than what struck the eye of sense, was in-
tended in its construction. Under its earthly and material
show, there was designed to be a represt-ntatinn of things hea-
venly and spiritual, such as should be full of instruction to the
church till the end of time. In this consideration we have ut.-
folded a satisfactory reason for that extraordinary ean- will
which the original plan was divinely determined, and also for
the care of the Holy Spirit, in causing so full and particular
an account of it to be preserved in the Scriptures for the use
of piety in all ages. And should not this reflection excite us
to seek an intimate and familiar acquaintance with the ancient
sanctuary? Surely it becomes us to consider all the parts of
its plan with serious and careful attention, vmemhering at every
step the heavenly origin of all, and humbly endeavouring to
penetrate through the shadow of its earthly service into the
sublime and glorious realities, which, according to the wisdom
of the Spirit, it proposes for our solemn contemplation.
To have a right conception of the sacred dwelling-place which
the Most High caused to be made for Himself among the Is-
raelites in the wilderness, we must consider the Tal>ernacle it-
self, its furniture, and its Court. Let us- attend tirst to the
Court.
THK COURT OF THE TABERNACLE was a lot of enclosed
ground which
surrounded the
Tabernacle, aid
all that was con-
nected with it,
comprehending
room enough
for the accom
modation of .-ill
that Were to 1 c
at any time di-
n ctly concern-
ed with its reli-
gious Sl -I'-
ll was required
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
259
to be a hundred cubits long from east to west, and fifty
broad from north to south. It was enclosed to the height of
flvo cubits on every side, with curtains of fine twined linen
These were hung from brazen pillars, ranged at equal distance
one from another in a row on each side, either by being fastened
to them merely by hooks of silver, or else by means of silver
rods reaching all along from one to another. The pillars had
sockets of brass to stand upon. There were twenty of them mi
the north, and on the south side, and ten in each of the end
ranges, cast and west. The entrance into this court was on the
east end, and exactly in the middle of it. It was twenty cubit;,
wide. It was closed by a hanging different from the other cui
tains, " of blue, and purple, and scarlet and fine twined linen,
wrought with needlework." This was hung from four pillars,,
and could be drawn up by means of cords, so as to leave th.
entrance open when there was occasion to go in or out. (Ex
xxvii. 918.)
The TABERNACLE stood well toward the west end of the.
court just described, and in the middle of its breadth from
north to south, so as to face exactly the entrance upon the east
side. It was made of boards of shittim wood overlaid with
gold, and four coverings of different materials thrown over its
whole frame, to
shield it from
the weather, and
to shut out com-
pletely the light
of day. When
set up it was
thirty cubits
long, ten broad,
and ten high.
Like what has
been noticed of
the court, it was
required always
to be placed
with its length from east to west, and its entrance was at ita
ea-t end. This end, accordingly, was not boarded. The boards
were all ten cubits long, and a cubit and a half broad, and had
each two tenons fashioned on one end. In the building, th. \
Htood upright, joined edge to edge, and every one re.-ting b\- if*
two tenons on two nlver sockets. Thus on each of tin 1 side*.
north and south, were twenty hoards, which standing in the way
now mentioned made a wall just thirty cubits long The
2fiO BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES
end had six boards, and there was one besides at euch of the
corners of that end, which, while they served to connect it with
the sides, seem also to have added somewhat to its extent, so
as to make the breadth of the tabernacle ten cubits, that would
with only tho six hoards have made no more than nine. Al-
together (hen there were forty-eight boards standing upon
ninety-six sockets of silver. Every socket weighed a talent
The boards, however, needed somet hi ng to hold them together
Jiars, therefore, or poles, of shittim wood overlaid with gi>ld,
were made to pass across them through rings fixed on each
one for the purpose, )>y which means all the hoards of each
side, or of the end, were firmly hound one to another. Five
bars wen' employed in this wav on each side, and also on the
end : the middle one reached from end to end, across all the
boards : the other four were, according to one opinion, each
only half as long, two of them together making a whole length
across at the top. and the other two a whole length across in
like manner at the bottom. Another opinion is, that all the
bars were of full length, and that what is said ahout the mid-
dle one, means only that it was fixed in its place in a different
way from the others, being either sunk into \\\ boards in a
sort of groove, all the way along, or else thrust tl/rom/h them,
by mean- of a bar passing clear across from one to another
'Ex. xxvi. 1530.)
Such was the frame of the tabernacle, presenting, when
trected, on each of its sides and its western end, a heavy wall
of shittim planks gorgeously covered over with gold, and sup-
ported beneath on ninety-six IM;I \ sockets of silver. It left
Mie top, as well as the end toward the east, entirely open.
But to make the sacred tent complete, over this frame were to
be spread four great coverings, one above another. The first
was very beautiful and costly. It wa- composed of ten curtains
of fine twined linen, and bine, and purple, and "scarlet, made
with cherubim of cunning work;" that is, of tine twined linen
into which pictures of cherubim were curiously wrought with
various colours, blue, purple and scarlet. Ivu-h of these cur
tains was twenty-eight cubits long and four broad. Five ol
them were coupled together, side to side, so as to make ouo
large piece, twenty-eight cubits long and twenty broad, and so
in like manner were the other five united into another piece.
Along the edge of the outermost curtain on one side of each of
these great pieces, or CH/>//'/I>/.<, were made fifty loops of blue,
o placed, that those which belonged to one piece answered
u-tiy to thus.' which were on the other. Then fifty hooks or
flasps of gold were provided, by which these loops might b
A SIDE VIEW OF THE TAliKK.N ACI.K Wlllt ITS CVKKlX<iS.
P, the five pillars at tlie entrance: I., the under coverln:; of flnn liu-ii
en rial n ; O, curtains of goat's liair; U, covering of ram'* kiu-: I",
coverldgN of badger'n skin-.
THE TABEKNACLE UXCOVEKED.
A, the Holy Place ; D, the MostHV.y of Ho
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 261
ul along hnked one to another, and the two pieces thus knit
together into one rich and magnificent covering. They were
throwr. across the frame of the tabernacle from north to south,
and hung down on each side within a cubit of the bottom ; for.
since the frame was ten cubits hig'u and ten wide, the measure
tircr it from the base of the wall on one side to its base on
the other, was just thirty cubits, that is, two cubits more than
the length of the curtains.
One of the pieces seems to have been laid across, so as to
reach from the front of the tabernacle, covering the top and
sides, as far as twenty cubits back : then the other, linked upon
it by the loops and clasps, was spread over the hinder part,
covering the top and sides in like manner from where the first
stopped, and fulling down in loose folds over the western end.
Over this fine inner covering was spread another more substan-
tial. It was composed of eleven curtains of goats' hair, each
thirty cubits long and four broad. These also were united into
two large pieces, one being made up of five, and the other of
six ; and provision was made, as in the case of the inner cov-
ering, for linking the pieces together by loops and clasps. The
ela-p- u-ed in this case, however, were made of brass, and not,
as they were in tlie other, of gold.
These pieces, being thrown across the tabernacle like the
others, reached down on each side to the row of silver sockets
on which the boards stocxi ; because they were thirty cubits
long, which, as we have just seen, was equal to the distance
from one base over to the other. The piece that was composed
of six single curtains, lay toward the fore-part of the taber-
nacle, and the sixth curtain was doubled in the fore-front of
it, so as to hang somewhat perhaps over the entrance. It is
not ea>\ . however, to determine precisely how this covering
\\as disposed, in front and on the western end behind, so as to
have its cloth which it had more than the other, completely
occupied. But in whatever way arranged, it spread entirely
over the top, and sides, and back part of the frame, so as to
hide the inner covering altogether out of sight, and shield it
on every part from injury. But still more effectually to shu
c.ut harm, there was added a third covering of rams' skins
dyed red, and over that again a fourth one, made of the skin*
jf some sea-animal. Thus the whole was most perfectly de-
fended from the weather. (Ex. xxvi. 1 14.)
Across tl aat. end, or raft-mirr, of the tabernacle, were
ranged live pillars of shittim wood, overlaid with gold, stand-
ing upon sockets of brass ; and from these uas suspended a
rurfaiti or hanging of blue and purple, and scarlet, and tin
262 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
twined linen, wrought with needlework, large enough to cciveT
the whole front. This was the </</<// nf tin t> nt. There wa
probably another curtain of coarser materials liun^r over thip
tine one on the outside, to keep it from being spoiled ; at least
we may suppose it was so when the weather was bad. (Ex
xxvi. 36, 37.)
The inside of the tabernacle was divided into two apartments,
by another curtain uung entirely across it from the top to the
bottom. This curtain was richly wrought with figures of
cherubim, like the fine inner covering spread above, and was
suspended upon four shittim pillars overlaid with gold, that
stood on so many weighty sockets of silver. It was called the
veil, and sometimes (he second veil, as the one which hung over
the entrance had to be passed through before coming to it.
(Heb. ix. 3.) The front apartment formed by this hanging
partition, which reached from it to the dooi of the tent, was
twenty cubits in length : it was called tin- Holy /'A/'r, and also
the First Tulx nun-le. The other apartment, reaching from the
dividing veil to the western end of the tabcrnuele, was of course
completely square every way, its length, its breadth, and ita
height, being each exactly ten cubits : it was called the M"*t
Hoi i/ Place, the Holy of holies, or the Holiest of all, and some-
times also (he second or inner tabernacle. (Ex. xxvi. 31 33,
Heb. ix. 28, 12, 24.)
The FURNITURE of the sanctuary and its court next claims
our consideration. Here we are to notice the altar of burnt-
offering and the brazen laver that stood in the court; the altar
of incense, the candlestick, and the table of show-bread which
belonged to the holy place; and the ark of the covenant, with
its mercy-seat overshadowed by the cherubim of glory, which
abode in awful retirement within the holiest of all.
1. The Altar of bttmt-ojjfaring, or the Brazen Altar, stood
directly in front of the door of the tabernacle, off from it to-
ward the centre of the courts, so as to be in a line between the
tabernacle and the entrance of the court on the east end. Ita
frame was square, and hollow within, in length and in breadth
five cubits, and in height three. The sides were made of boards
of shittim wood completely overspread with brass : some think,
however, that they were boarded in this way only from the
middle upward, while below they were composed of some sort
of brazen net-work. It is not altogether clear either, in what
way the inside was occupied. We are told in the Bible, that
( / I/nit, nf nit-work of brass was put under the comjHtss of the
vltdr licnculh, so as to be even unto tin- initial of it. This some
suppose to have been hung within the hollow frame, (which
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 20?
they conceive was cased with boards all the way down,) jut,t
in the middle between the bottom and the top of it, and th:it
it was the sacred fire-place where the sacrifices were to be
burned : it was made full of holes, they say, round about and
below, to let the ashes fall through to the bottom of the altar,
where there was a little door on one side by which they might
be taken out to be carried away. Another opinion is, that
across the middle of the frame there was fixed some kind bf
flooring, and that the whole upper half above this was filled
with earth, on which the sacrifice-fires wore kindled ; while the
lower part, it is imagined, was altogether unoccupied, being
enclosed only with grated sides, according to the idea already
mentioned, through which in certain cases the blood of the
victim was poured under the altar. (Lev. iv. 7, 18, 25.) This
opinion, therefore, supposes the grate of brazen mt-vork put
vixit-rrhi' roni/xix* of the, nltnr /n/ieath, to be nothing else than
the lower half of the frame itself made with grated sides, on
which the upper half, closely boarded and filled with earth,
was made to rest. There is certainly the best reason to be-
lieve, that the sacrifices were burned upon a surface of earth,
and not upon a metal grate, from the direction in Ex. xx. 24.
We are to suppose, therefore, that such a surface, on its top,
the altar of burnt-offering did present, and that its brazen
frame was formed only to support and hold together the earthy
pile in which it especially consisted. It had four horns, one
rising from each of its corners. These seem to have been
clothed with a peculiar sacredness, as in particular cases of
solemn sacrifice the priest was required to put on every one
of them some of the blood. (Lev. iv. 25, 30, xvi. 18.) Hence
it was usual for those who fled to the altar for protection and
safety, (according to an ancient custom which caused it to be
regarded as a sanctuary or sacred asylum,) to lay hold upon
its horns. (1 Kings i. 5053, ii. 2834, Ex. xxi. 14.) At
the same time, the horns added to the goodly appearance of
the whole structure, and they were made so strong, that ani-
mals, when about to be sacrificed, might be secured to them
with cords, as it seems they sometimes were. (Ps. cxviii. 27.)
A sloping walk of earth heaped up, was made to rise gradually
on one side to the top of the altar, by which persons might go
upon it. (Ex xx. 26.) Connected with the altar were several
different sorts of instruments ; such as pain to carry away the
ashes, shnc<l.< for taking them up, baxins for receiving the blood
of the victims, and jli-*h-li<ink< fur turning pieces of flesh in the
fire: all of them were made of t>rav<. ( K\. .\\vii. 1 8.)
On this altar the fire was required to be kept ever burning
264 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
A short time after it was set up, there came fire in a rain^u-
lous manner, from the Lord, and kindled upon the offering
that was laid in order on its top. This sacred flame was che-
rished with the greatest, care from year to year, and none was
allowed to be brought ever afterwards from any other quarter,
to be employed in the service of the tahernac-le in any way.
For presum|ittmusly making use of fire not taken from the
altar, immediat-ly after their consecration to the priestly office,
Nadab and Abihu were destroyed by an awful judgment from
the Almighty. (Lev. vi. 12, 18, ix. -J4, x. 110.)
The altar was fed with the unceasing sacrifice of life. The
place where it stood was a place of daily slaughter. The stain
of blood was at all times fresh upon its sides. From its sum-
mit, rose, almost without interruption, the smoke of burning
flesh ; and dark oftentimes and exceedingly heavy was the
cloud with which it mounted toward heaven. Thus it was a
continual remembrancer of six, displaying in lively representa-
tion its awful guilt, and the consuming wrath of Heaven which
it deserves. It stood in front of the sacred dwelling-place of
God, to signify that his holy nature could not endure sin, or
allow it to pass unpunished ; and that he never would there-
fore admit the sinner to come before him in peace, without the
law being completely satisfied, and guilt atoned for by suffer-
ing equal to its desert. At the same time, the altar was a
sign of peace and good will to men j because while it taught
that justice must be satisfied before God could be reconciled
to the sinner, it declared also, that the satisfaction was pro-
vided without expense to man that the necessary atonement
was secured that the wrath of Heaven, which, left to light
upon his own head, must crush him downward in eternal death,
had found for itself another victim; and thus God could be
just, while he threw open a way for the guilty to draw ne' r
to his throne and be restored to his favour. In this way, the
obstacle that shut up the way of life, and the removal of that
obstacle by infinite grace, were at once presented to view.
The blood-stained altar, with its dark column of smoke soaring
on high, was a standing monument of God's unyielding justice,
ind yet a standing memorial of his victorious mercy ; clothed
with severity and terror, yet the significant pledge of goodness,
friendship and peace.
" This Brazen Altar," to use the words of a learned and
holy man, 'was a tjpe of Christ dying to make atonement
for our sins. The >r<>,l had been consumed by the fire from
oeaven, if it had not been secured by the Imis*; nr could the
kuman nature of Christ have borne the wrath of God, if it had
T^LICiL ANTIQUITIES. 265
uot been s^pOTtetl by a divine power. Christ sanctified him-
self for his cb*Kcb, as their altar, (John xvii. 19,) and by bis
mediation sanctifies the daily services of his people who also
have ' a right to eat of this altar/ (Heb. xiii. 10,) for they
st-jve at it as spiritual priests. To the horns of this altar poor
sinners fly for refuge, when justice pursues them, and there
tli. y arc afe in the virtue of the sacrifice there offered."
"2. T/it I'razen Laver stood between the altar of burnt-offer-
ing and tbe door of thft tabernacle. The name which it has
in the original language of the Bible, implies that it was round
in its shape, and it is reasonable to suppose that its pattern
was followed in the general form of the much larger one which
was made for the teinyle afterwards, and called a molten sea;
this, we are told, was round all about. The laver, therefore,
was a circular vesse', rounded toward the bottom, it seems, after
the manner of an urn or a tea-cup, so as to rest upon a single
foot at its base helow. It must have been of considerable
size, but we are not informed what were its dimensions. It
was for holding water, which was required to be kept constantly
in it, for the priests to wash their hands and feet with, when
they went into the tabernacle, or when they came near the
altar to minister before the Lord. This they were solemnly
charged never to neglect; they shall wash thf/r linnd* <ui<l f<-<t,
was the injunction of God, tint ////_// </tc nut. There were
spouts or cocks by which the water might be let out through
the lower part of the vessel, as it was wanted for use. The
Jews say, that the laver stood near the entrance of the taber-
nacle, so, however, as not to be directly between it and tho
altar, but a little off" toward the south side. They tell us, too,
that fresh water was put into it every morning. (Ex. xxx.
18 21,xxxviii. 8.)
The washing of the body, in the outward service of the an-
cient sanctuary was intended to teach the necessity of iuward
purity in all who would draw near to Him in spirit and in truth.
(Ps. xxvi. (5, Ixvi. 18.) Thus the apostle exhorts believers to
draw near to God with a true heart, in full assurance of faith,
having "their hearts sprinkled from an evil conscience, and
their bodies vashed with pure water." (Heb. x. 22.) So we
need to be washed every day, and are required every day to
come with repentance and faith to Christ, that we may bo
cleansed from guilt, and so fitted to come before the Lord
with an acceptable service. (James iv. 8, 1 John i. 7 10.)
More especially, the laver was, moreover, a continual sign that
the nature of man had become polluted, and that until the pol-
.ution was entirely taken away, it could find QO entrance iutc
266 BIBLICAL ANT1QUITIK8.
hoaven. As on the altar the eye of faith might behold, as it
wore, this inscription, without shedding ->f l>l<><l '/// /> no re>
mi.txinii so, also, it might read upon the lavcr, tritln.ut holi-
ness HO man shall see the Lord. It is not enough that sacrifice
and atonement are made for sin, 50 as to satisfy the law ; the
soul needs at the same time to be delivered from its deep-rootou
power, to be washed from its dark-coloured stain to be sanc-
tified as well as justified, and so made meet for the inheritance
of the saints in light. A laver, therefore, as well as an altar,
was planted out before the tabernacle ; and it stood bet ir ten
ihe altar and the sanctuary, showing that pardon through the
Great Sacrifice is the first benefit which the believer ]<
and that this is followed by the complete saiu-tification of his
nature, before he passes into the House not made with hands
on high. Thus the laver also was a symbol of ri-h mercy.
While it forcibly called to mind the deep depravity nf the soul,
and presented before it the alarming truth, that in its native
character, or while one spot of its pollution remained, it could
never see God ; it gave assurance at the same time, that this
great purification was not an object of despair, as it must have
been if left for man to accomplish by his own power, but that
the grace of God had made provision for it altogether sufficient
and sure that a. fountain for the uncl'-diinrts <>fsin was won-
derfully secured, by the same love that procured redemption
from its guilt, in which the soul might be made as white as
if it had never been defiled with the smallest stain. ^Kjili. v.
26, 27, Rev. i. 5, vii. 14.)
We are now ready to move the curtain aside, and enter with-
in the holy place, the first apartment of the sanctuary. No
window, or opening of any sort was provided in the tabernacle,
to let in the light of day ; but this room was never dark. Night
and day it was brightly lighted with burning lamps. All its
furniture, therefore, was clearly exposed to view, as soon as it
was entered. This consisted of only three principal articles;
the altar of incense, the table of shew-bread, and the candle-
stick from which the light proceeded. It was not allowed,
however, for a common Israelite to enter into this sacred tenL
and behold its furniture: no one but a priest might pass the
outer veil and go in even so far as the first apartment.
3. The Golden CawlUstlck was placed on the south side of
the holy place, so as t> be to the left of any person when he
came into the roonTby the middle of the entrance. It wan
iniidc entirely of pure gold. It consisted of a slmft or princi-
pal stem rising upright from a suitaM" base, and six branches.
These branchea started out at three different points from the
Supposed Torn) of the (folden Candlestick.
P.2B7.
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 26}
main stein, and turned upward with a regular Dcnd, so as to
reach the same height with it. From each point went out two,
one directly opposite to the other, and those above went out
oxactly in the same direction with those below ; thus all were
in the same range, three on one side, and three just over
against them on another the lower ones bending round in a
larger curve, and the upper ones in a less, so as to bring all
their tops to the same height, and in the same line, at equal
distances one from another. The stem and each nf he
branches were adorned with artificial bowls, knops and flowers.
The size of the candlestick is not mentioned in the Bible, but
the Jewish tradition is, that it was as much as five fefft high,
and three and a half along the top, from the outmost branch
on one side to the outmost branch on the other. Eajh of these
seven tops, of the branches and their common stem, was made
to terminate in a lamp. Connected with the candlestick were
t-untjs and ,mujf-di sites, all made of gold; also oiV-mW.s for use
in iilling the lamps. The tongs were made probably after the
fashion of scissors, to clip off the snuff, when it was immediate-
ly dropped into the snuff -dishes. (Ex. xxv. 31 39.)
The lamps were supplied with the purest olive oil ; such as
was procured, not by the common way of pressing it out, but
by bruising or beating the olives while yet somewhat green, in
a mortar. The priests were required to take care that the
candlestick was never without light. Every day its lamps
were to be examined, and dressed, and supplied with oil, as
they might need. The Jews say, that only three of the lamps
w< )< kept burning through the day, but that all of them were
liirliti-d in the evening, to burn during the night.
The light of this candlestick was symbolical of the spiritual
knowledge which God communicates to his people through his
word, the Bible, and by the enlightening grace of the Holy
Spirit. The law of the Lord is a glorious light set up in the
church. (Ps. xix. 8, cxix. 105, 130, Prov. vi. 23.) In it life
and imrmirttiHty arc (>rn;//if to liyht, and truth revealed that
guides the soul to heaven : it unfolds the knowledge of God,
and of Jesus Christ, the True Light of a world made dark and
desolate by sin. (John i. 4 9, viii. 12.) But all this light
shines without being comjtrchcnded or perceived by the natural
mind of man. A divine influence is needed to open a way for
it through the midst of the thick darkness that is in him by
reason of sin, and to introduce it fairly and effectually to \\\t
vi.-\v. Such an influence of mercy is exerted by the Holy
Spirit. " lie shines into the hearts" of all who are saved,
" to give them the light of the knowledge of the glory of Go<)
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
in the face of Jesus Christ." (1 Cor. ii. 10 12, 2 Cor. IT
4 6.) This enlightening agency, the source of all true wis
dora to man, was that which was particularly signified by the
candlestick with its seven lamps shining before the Mo-t Holy
place. Thus we are taught by divine revelation itself, in tlio
Vision of John, the apostle, " There were seven lamps of fir-j
burning before the throne, which are the sewn sjii'n'r* <>f God"
(Rev. iv. 5, i. 4.) The number seven denotes perfection com-
plete sufficiency in every way, and fulness in all respects, ac-
cording to the nature of the thing spoken of.
4. %/ie Tabl". of 8lirir.l,ri><t.l was placed over against the
candlestick, on the north side of the apartment, so as to be to
the right of the priest when he walked up toward the second
veil. It was made of shittim wood, and was two cubits long,
a jubit broad, and a cubit and a half high. It was overlaid
with gold, and had round the edge of its top, or leaf, an orna-
mental rim of gold, called its crown ; and just under this, aa
it seems, the frame was compassed about with a bonier, a hand-
breadth broad, which was crowned with a similar rim. It was
provided with vessels for different kinds of service, which are
called in the English translation, </is/trs, spoons, covers an*t
bowls, to cover withal. The dixhcs, there is reason to believe,
were broad plates on which the shew-bread was placed : what
are called spoons, seem rather to have been vessel* in wliieh
incense was kept, (Num. vii. 14, 20, 86 ;) incense wo know
was used on the table, (Lev. xxiv. 7;) what are named >,,,;/.<
and bowls, appear to have been two different sorts of vessels
for holding wine; the first large, in which a continual supply
of it was kept, and the second smaller in size, which were filled
from the others, for the purpose of presenting drink-ofieriagl
before the Lord so their use, instead of being to cover withal,
was. it is most probable, to jt/- out trit/mt, according to the
moie common signification of the word. (Ex. xxv. 2330.)
Twelve loaves of unleavened bread were continually kept
upon the table. They were placed in two piles, one loaf upon
another, and on the top of each pile there was put a small
quantity of pure frankincense. They were called sh<'u--bri<l,
or the bread of the face, because they were set solemnly bef >iv
the Presence of the Lord as it dwelt in glory behind the second
^fil. Every Sabbath day, the loaves were changed by the
I riertts the old ones taken away and the new ones put in their
place. The 1 read that was taken away was given to the priests
U) eat, and no person else was allowed to taste it ; ncithei wore
they suffered to eat it anywhere else except within the court
of the sanctuary : because it was most holy, it was to be eaten
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 269
jmy by sacred persons, and only upon holy groind. The in-
tense that was on the piles was still burnt ; when the bread
was changed, as an offering by fire unto the Lord, far a memo-
rial instead of (lie bread, or an acknowledgment that all be-
longed to him, while the greater part was, by his permission,
consigned to the use of his servants. (Lev. xxiv. 59.)
David, on a certain occasion, when he was an hungered to-
gether with those that were with him, and no other bread could
be procured, did not hesitate to eat the shew-bread that had
been removed from the sanctuary. (1 Sam. xxi. 1 6, Matt,
rii. 3, 4.)
" As the Ark," says one, " signified the presence of God in
his church, so this table with the twelve cakes signified the
multitude of the faithful presented unto God in his church, as
upon a pure table, continually serving him : made by faith and
holiness as fine cakes, and by the mediation of Christ, as by
incense, made a sweet odour unto God." Thus each loaf re-
presented a tribe. There is reason to believe, however, that
while it may be considered to have been a continual thankful
acknowledgment of God's goodness in providing for his people
their daily food, this jwpclual bread was more especially de-
signed to be a symbol of the never-failing provision which he
has made in the church for the spiritual nourishment and re-
freshment of all the truly pious. In the words of the writer
quoted a short time since, it was " a type of the spiritual pro-
vision which is made in the church, by the gospel of Christ,
for all that are made priests to our God. In our Father's house,
t/iere is bread enough, and to spare; a loaf for every tribe.
All that attend in God's house shall be abundantly satisfied
with the goodness of it. (Ps. xxxvi. 8.) Divine consolations
are the continual feast of holy souls ; however, there are those,
to whom the. table cf the Lord, and the meat Hereof, because
it is plain bread, is contemptible. (Mai. i. 12.) Christ hath
a table in hix kint/i/,n, at which all his saints shall for ever
eat and drink with him." (Luke xxii. 29, 30.)
5. The Altar of Incense, OY the Golden Altar, was situate
between the Table s*nd the Candlestick, so as to stand very
near to the second veil, equally distant from both sides of the
tabernacle. "Thou shalt put it," was the direction of the
Lord, "bef )re the veil that is by the ark of the testimony be-
fore the mercy-seat that is over the testimony, where I will
oieet with thee." It was a cubit long, a cubit broad, and twn
uubits high; made of shittim wood, and ovej.aid with gold,
not only upon every side, but also over the top ; furnished
tour Imrns all tverlaid in like manner, and eompasseo
23*
270 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
round about ita upper surface with an ornamental crown, ot
border, of the same precious metal. No flesh ever burned
upon this t-iltar; nor was it ever touched with blood, except
on the most solemn occasions; and then its horns alone were
marked with the crimson stain. The smoke that rose from its
top was never any other than the smoke of burning incense."
This went up every morning and every evening, filling the
sanctuary with its fragrant cloud, and sending a refreshing
odour out through all the court and far over the country on
every side for miles beyond. Because it was thus renewed
every day, it was called a perpetual ///<<>> l fore the Lord.
It was not simple frankincense that was burnt, but a compound
of this with other sweet spices, made according to the particular
direction of God for this special purpose, and so considered
holy, such as no man was allowed to make any like unto for
common use. (Ex xxx. 34 38.) The priest was charged
never to offer strange incense, that is, any other than the
sacred composition, upon the golden altar.
The pious writer, from whom some remarks on the meaning
of the other altar have been lately borrowed, observes : " This
incense-altar typified, 1. Theme^lutimi nf C/trinf. The brazen
altar in the court was a type of Christ dying on earth; the
golden altar in the sanctuary was a type of Christ intenv<lin_'
in heaven, in the virtue of his satisfaction. This altar w.i^
before the mercy-seat; for Christ always appears in the pre-
sence of God for us he is our advocate with the Father,
(1 John ii. 1 ;) and his intercession is unto God of a sweet
smelling savour. '_'. Tin ,1, /v,//V///.s f f/ ><////>, whose prayers
an said to be set forth before God as 'incense.' (Ps. cxli.'J.) A-
the smoke of the incense ascended. >o must our desires toward
God rise in prayer, being kindled with the fire of holy love
and other pious affections. When the priest was burning in-
cense, the people were praying, (Luke i. 10,) to signify that
prayer is the true incense. This incense was offered daily ; it
was a ji'fjH-ti/t/f iiii-rn*,- ; for we mn-t />rny nlirni/n, that is, we
must keep up stated times for prayer ct-> /// //,/_//. morning and
evening, at least, and n* r er omit it, but thus pray without
ceasing. The lamps were dre.ssed or lighted at the same time
that the incense was burnt, to teach us, that the read ing of the
Scriptures, (which are our light and lamp,) is a part of our
daily work, and should ordinarily accompany our prayers and
praises When we speak to God, we must hear what Godsaith
to us; and thus the communion is complete. The devotion;?
of sanctified souls are well-pleasing to God, of a sweet-smelling
savour; the prayers of the saints arc compared to ' swee<
Probable form of tbo Altar of Incen?.
p. 27a
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 271
odours.' (Rev v. 8,) but it is the incense which Christ adds to
them that makes them ' acceptable,' (Rev. viii. 3,) and his blood
that atones for the guilt which cleaves to our best services.
And if toe heart and life be not holy, even the incense is an
abomination, and he that offers it is 'as if he blessed an idol.' "
(Is. i. 13, Ixvi. 3.)
" This altar was to be placed before the veil, on the outside
of that partition, but before the mercy-seat, which was within
the veil. For though he that ministered at the altar could
not see the mercy-seat, the veil interposing, yet he must look
towards it, and direct his incense that way : to teach us, that
though we cannot with our bodily eyes see the throne of grace,
that blessed mercy-seat, for it is such a throne of glory, that
God, in compassion to us, holdefh back the face of it, and
fpreadeth a clowl upon it; yet we must in prayer by faith set
ourselves before it, direct our prayer and look up."
While the incense was burning, it was customary for all the
people, as many as were standing without before the sanctuary,
to put up prayers to God, every one silently by himself. It
was understood that the holy offering was significant of that
spiritual service of adoration and holy desire which God should
receive from every heart. It was understood too, by the se-
rious believer, that there was something more signified by it :
the incense, presented by the priest, and rising pure and ac-
ceptable to God most Holy, from off the golden altar, repre-
sented to his faith prayer made efficacious and well-pleasi/jgby
something added to it to bear it upward and recommend it
before the throne ; he frit that his prayers in themselves were
too feeble and impure to come up with acceptance befr .vs the
Lord, and saw with gratitude, in the symbol of the sanctuary,
a divine assurance that provision was mide to remedy -he de-
fect : the nature and manner of the \ revision he co\ Id not
indeed comprehend, but still he reposed confidence in its cer-
tainty, and by grace was enabled, through the sign, to lay
hold of its consolation and benefit. It was natural, therefore,
and certainly proper, to feel that the time of the goin;r up of
the morning and the evening incense was peculiarly suitable t
be employed in prayer, and that there was an advantage in di
reeling the desires of the heart toward heaven at the very moment
that the fragrant cloud was rising from the altar ; not becauso
the incense in itself could give value to any prayer, much less
sanctify a hypocritical one, but because it was a divinely ap-
pointed ordinance admirably adapted to encourage and assist
faith and devotion by its typical meaning. Many pious per-
sons accordingly, who lived in Jerusalem, used often to go up
272 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
to the' temple , (which took, we know, the place of the '.aber-
uacle,) at these particular seasons, to put up prayers \n-f<>\>>.
God's holy house while the priest was ministering at the golden
altar Hence there was commonly a great multitude standing
m the different courts of the temple at such times. Win 'ii
the priest went into the holy place to perfenl the service,
notice was giveL by striking a great instrument that sounded
like a bell, and might be heard all over Jerusalem ; and then
immediately the priests that were without, the Levites. and
the whole multitude, addressed themselves in deep and solemn
silence to the business of devotion. Thus it was on that me-
morable occasion when Zacharias ministered in the sanctuary,
and suddenly beheld the angel Gabriel standing close beside
him on the right side of the altar. (Luke i. 8 '2'2.)
We are now prepared to look into the second apartment of
Jhe tabernacle the Most Holy place. Beyond the second veil
no mortal might ever pass but the high priest; and only on
one great occasion in each year was it lawful even for him to
do so; and then, only with the most solemn preparation and
the most reverential care. The holiest of all was clot lied with
the solemnity of another world, and filled with unearthly gran-
deur. The whole tabernacle was the sanctuary of (!od. Imt
here was the awful residence of his PRESENCE the s[> < -ial
dwelling-place of his visible glory. Well might sinful man
tremble to move aside the veil, and present himself within s<i
holy a place.
6. At the extreme of the apartment, the western end of the
whole tabernacle, rested the .1/7.- f (/> ' ""i; mint. It was in
form a box, a cubit and a half broad and high, and tw;i cubits
and a half long, made of shittim wood, and covered within and
without with the purest gold. Like the table of shew !T id
and the golden altar, it was crowned with an ornamental harder
or rim, round about its top. Above upon it was the > ////-
seat. This was made of solid gold of the best sort, exact h
answering in length and breadth to the ark, on which it re>t.'d
as a flat cover or lid, so as c inpletely to close it over. On
each end of it was fixed a ch*ml>, wrought in like manner, of
pure solid gold, rising above it, and overshadowing it with
wings stretched forth on high. The faces of these sacred
figures were turned toward each other, bending somewhat down-
wards towards the mercy-seat, on which they stoou. IJetween
these cherubim dwelt the uncreated glory of God. " There."
He said to Moses, " I will meet with thee, and I will commune
with thee from above the mercv-seat, iVoiu between the two
rherubim whieh are upon the ark of the testimony."
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 273
In this ark Moses was required to put the two tables of
atone on which the ten comirandments were written with the
finger of God. These were called the testimony, because they
were the testimony, or evidence and witness, of the covenant
between God and the Israelites; whence the ark was styled
sometimes the ark of the testimony, and sometimes the ark of
the covenant. We are expressly told, that the ark contained
nothing besides these tables. (1 Kings viii. 9.) By the side
of it, however, that is, at one end, in a coffer it seems, made
for the purpose, there was deposited a copy of the five books
of Moses, while a golden pot full of manna, and Aaron's rod
that budded, were laid up as memorials before it. (Ex. xvi.
32 34, Numb. xvii. 10, Deut. xxxi. 26. The apostle Paul
nevertheless seems to say, that the golden pot and the rod
were in- the inside of the ark itself, with the tables of the cove-
nant. (Heb. ix. 4.) Either we must understand him to mean
simply, that these things belonged to it, and were laid up for
security beside it; or else we must suppose, that they were
really placed within the ark at first, but afterwards were
taken out by some presumptuous hand, and so lost, during its
captivity and unsettled condition, before it was carried into
Solomon's temple : at which time, we are told in the p
referred to above, "there was nothing in it save the two tables
of stone which Moses put there at Horcb."
What was the particular form and appearance of the cheru-
bim over the ark, we are not told. In the first chapter of
Ezekiel a description is given of four living creatures, as they
appeared to the prophet in vision, which supported the throne
of God, and bore it in majesty from place to place. Each <>f
them had four faces, the face of an ox, the face of a lion, the
face of an eagle, and the face of a man ; all attached to a body
resembling that of a man, wh ?h was furnished with four wings,
together with hands such as wen have, under them, and stood
upon feet like those of a calf. These are called cherubim.
(Ez. x. 15, 20.) Some have imagined, that the appearance
which they are represented to have had, was the common and
proper appearance that belonged to all figures of cherubim ;
and so, of course, that we are to consider those which stood
over the mercy-seat to have been made after the same fashion.
But it seems more natural, from the account that is given of
these last, to suppose that they had each only a single fan- ;
for it is said that their faces were made to look one toward an-
other, which could not well be if they had moro than one a
piece. No intimation is given, either, that these had moiv
than two wings, though it is not asserted that they hail <>ulj
274 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIIS.
the one pair, .and may be imagined, that, while, they stretched
these before them, so as to meet over tin .-anvil covering of
the ark, they were furnished with others to cover the lower
parts of their bodies, in token of reverence and humility. (Lsa
vi. 2, Rev. iv. 8.)
It appears most probable, therefore, that the cherubim men
tioned in Scripture were not, in every case, of the same form.
We are not to imagine, that in any case their figure ami HJ>-
pcanince were such as actually belong to any kind of existing
creatures. They were mere emblems, intruded to represent
something else by symbolical signs, whether seen in vision, as
they appeared to Ezekiel and to the apostle John, or fnrmed
by art, as they were for the tabernacle and the temple. They
appear evidently to have been designed to represent the hdy
angels, who attend continually before the throne of Qod, an 1
delight to perform his will. Their wings signified the readi-
ness and swiftness with which they execute the Divine e<>m-
mauds. Their faces, which seem always to have been one or
more of those four that have been mentioned, denoted wi>.lni
and power, activity and irresistible strength. Those which
Ezekiel and John saw, were full of eyes, to express the great
knowledge that belongs to the ministering spirits of hea\en.
the quickness of understanding with which they receive every
intimation of God's most holy pleasure, and the clear, unerring
certainty with which they instantly move to carry it into ac-
complishment. (Ezek. x. 12, Rev. iv. 6 8.) To present still
more significantly their characters as mix />////// .SV/-/V///A-.-, and
to emblem, at the same time, the unutterable grandeur of the
Divine Majesty, they were represented as bearing the Almighty
with immeasurable speed wherever it was his will to go. In
the vision of the prophet, la saw, stretched forth over the
heads of the cherubim above, the likeness of a firmament as
the colour of the terrible crystal ; and above upon the firma-
ment, was the appearance of the likeness oftfie ulory of Jehovah,
throned in magnificent splendour. The cherubim lifted up
their wings, when directed, and bore the whole whithersoever
the Spirit was to go, with movement of awful sublimity ; when
they went, the noise of their wings was like the noise of great
waters, as the voice of the Almighty, the voice '/f speech, as
the noise of a host ! In another magnificent description of the
majesty and power of the Most High, it is said ; " He rode
tpon a cherub, and did fly ; yea, he did fly upon the wings of
ie wind!" (Ps. xviii. 10.)
The Glory of the Lord visibly displayed above the mercy
*at was in the appearance of a cloud. " The Lord said unto
BJBLICML ANTIQUITIES. 275
Moses, speak unto Aaron, thy brother, that he come nft at all
times int<j the holy place within the veil, before the mercy -scat
which is upon the ark; that he die not: for I will appear in
t/if cloud upon ttte mercy-seat." (Lev. xvi. 2.) This manifes-
tation of the Divine Presence was called, among the Jews, the
Shechinah. Its appearance was attended, no doubt, with an
".n-ff/cnl glory, of which we can form no proper conception,
ind such as it was exceedingly awful for dying, sinful man tc
Jook upon. Out of this cloud, the voice of God was uttered
with deep solemnity, when he was consulted in behalf of the
people, so as to be heard through the veil in the Holy Place.
(Num. vii. 89.) This was the appointed way of holding direct
intercourse with the Holy One of Israel; "There I will meet
with thee," was his declaration, " and I will commune with
thce from above the mercy-seat." There is some reason to
think, that it was on this account the tabernacle was called, ai
times, the Tabernacle of meeting, (translated, also, Tabernacle
of the congregation :) this name, however, may have been
given to it, because it was the great centre of worship round
which the congregation was wont to be assembled. From the
situation of the glorious Shechinah, God is spoken of as " dwell-
ing between the cherubim." (Ps. Ixxx. 1, xcix. 1.) Hence,
also, the ark is represented as his footstool, above which he
sits, enthroned as it were, upon the wings of the cherubim.
(1 Chron. xxviii. 2, Ps. xcix. 5.)
The Holiest of all was a figure of heaven, where God
dwells in infinite and eternal glory; where his throne is es-
tablished in righteousness and in judgment ; where thousand
thousands and ten thousand times ten thousand, all pure and
happy spirits, minister before him, and contemplate, with ador-
ing wonder, the pecfections of his character, as they unfold
upon their vision, with ever new discovery, ago after age, with-
out end. Thus we are taught by the apostle Paul, in his epis-
tle to the Hebrews.
As God was, in a peculiar sense, the king of the Israelitish
nation, it may not be improper, perhaps, to look upon the tal>-
ernacle as being, in some sort, the royal palace in which he
was pleased to dwell among the people ; from which he
his laws, and to which his subjects were required to come to
il>) him honour, presenting themselves before him with their
h<un:i<ift and tribute. In this view, the priests also were royal
HIT i-ii nt ^ attending upon the monarch, and composing his court;
aii'l all the furniture of the sacred tent had relation to the idea
of a princely house, in which it is common to find full and rid
provision made for comfort and convenience in every way
276 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
Thus it wa^ liijlitnl in brilliant and expensive style, as befitted
a palace, and furnished with a table supplied with its various
utensils, and continually spread with provision. This idea,
nowever, if it be not utterly without reason or truth, enters
only secondarily, and as it were, accidentally, into the original
ilrMirii of the tabernacle. The analogy imagined between its
arrangement and service, and the manner of an earthly royal
court, is slight in every case, and in most particulars fails alto-
gether; so that it is evident its whole constitution and order
had regard, in the I/ivine plan, to something entirely ditt'm -nt.
Its great purpose was to present, symbolically, the glorious
reality which the gospel unfolds the mystery of mercy into
which angels desire to look, whereby God can be just, while
he justifies the sinner, renews his intercourse of friendship and
love with a fallen rebe) race, and out of the deep pollution of
guilt and the abyss of infinite ruin, raises a multitude which no
man can number, to mingle in spotless purity with the great
family of Heaven, where in his presence there is fulness of joy
and pleasure for evermore.
It signified, that a fearful separation had taken place between
God and the human race. It represented God as seated upon
a throne of holiness, and jealous of the honour of his perfect
laws; a being in whose sight iniquity can never stand, and
whose righteousness will by no means clear tin //<'//>/. It re-
presented man to be under the condemnation of sin polluted,
ignorant, helpless and lost. It was intimated, accordingly.
that communion, direct, free and happy, with his Maker,
such as is granted to pure and unfallen spirits, was, in his case,
forfeited completely; that sin had created a hinderance in the
way of it, which no power of his was sufficient ever to remove;
that he was shut out from the favour of God ; that his prayer
could have no regard in heaven ; that the presence of the Al-
mighty, if he were brought into it, could be to him only a cn-
auiiiing fire, full of terror and death. The way into the Holiest
of all was barred against approach with awful solemnity.
At the same time, it was signified, that God had, with ann/,
ing goodness, provided a remedy for the dreadful evil, and de-
vised means to remove entirely the hinderance, so terrific, that
rose to shut the sinner for ever from his favour Indeed, the
nature and extent of the evil were displayed only in the repre-
sentation of the remedy; the picture itself was, in all n-spect<,
a picture of mercy; of mercy triumphant over sin and death :
and it was in the exhibition of the victory alone, that the
*erribleness of the difficulty which it had to overcome wa
brought into view. God was represented art seated upon tin
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 277
:nione of grace as well as of holiness and justice : the ark,
while it guarded the tables of the eternal law, was Covered
with the mercy-seat. Righteousness and mercy, it was inti-
mated, were met together in mysterious union, such as infinite
wisdom alone could contrive, and only infinite power could
accomplish; such as fills all heaven with adoration and
wonder, and causes angels to bend forward, as it were, with
the most earnest interest, to contemplate its unspeakable glory.
(1 Pet. i. 12, Rev. v. 11 13.) Communication was repre-
ented to be restored between the Holy One and the ruined
sinner. God could regard the prayer of man, pardon his guilt,
remove his impurity, extend to him the richest blessings of his
grace, and in the end receive him into his own presence in
glory, as if he had never offended. But all this is secured
only through a most extraordinary array of means, and with
expense beyond all parallel. The way to the throne is open,
but not for the guilty to rush before it in his own person : his
desires may be presented there and answered, but only as they
come recommended by the mediation of another : that media-
tion is all-prevailing, but only as it is founded in full and com-
plete atonement, equal to the utmost demand of a broken law.
Thus, in the service of the tabernacle, there was provided a
priesthood, to stand between the Most High and the tribes of
his chosen people ; and so before the Most Holy Place there
was erected an altar of perpetual intercession ; and without, in
front of the entrance of the sanctuary, an altar of continual
atonement. By blood, and by water, and by incense, God was
to be approached. In the church of Jesus Christ, we find the
great realities themselves which were thus represented in
shadowy type. The Son of God is the glorious Mediator, who
makes reconciliation for iniquity, by whom sinners may draw
near to Jehovah, and by whom the grace of Heaven finds its
way in overflowing streams to their dark and polluted souls.
He is able to save to the uttermost all that come unto God by
him, because he ever lives to make intercession for them ; and
his intercession cannot fail to be prevalent, because it is founded
upon an atonement of infinite value he has appeared on eurth
to take away sin by one amazing and sufficient sacrifice, THE
SACRIFICE OF HIMSELF. (Heb. vii. 25, ix. 26.) In the church,
there is thus secured every thing that is needful for man, in
order to restore him to fellowship with his Maker here on
earth, to create him anew in knowledge, righteousness, and
true holinoHs, after the image in which he was originally
made, and to introduce him at last without moral upot or bleio
ish into the full happiness of heaven.
78 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
We have now surveyed the whole of the ancient tabernacle
Every person must be struck with the exceedingly expensive
style in which it was made. What an amount of labour, what
an expense of the most skilful and curious workmanship, what
an astonishing worth of the most rare and precious materials,
were joined in the erection of a single tent ! Hereby it was
signified, as it was also in every part of the worship connected
with the sanctuary, that God is to be honoured with the most
perfect service which men have it in their power to render ;
and that we can never do too much for the honour of God, or
become extravagant in the measure of our zeal and activity
for his glory. This costliness and magnificence, however,
had also its typical meaning in correspondence with the great
design of the whole building. As the whole was an emble-
matic representation of the great mystery of redeeming grace
displayed in the church, it was fit that it should be clothed in
every part with the greatest degree of worldly splendour and
value, to signify the transcendent glory and preciousness of
this mystery, and the moral magnificence of that church in
which it is found.
After the work was all finished, it was set apart for the ser-
vice of God by a solemn ceremony of consecration. Moses
was commanded to set all up in proper order, and to anoint
the whole with holy aitohitimj oil. This oil was compounded
with particular care, according to the direction of God himself,
and, like the sacred incense already noticed, might never be
employed for any other purpose than that for which it was
.rdered to be made, nor imitated at all by any composition for
common use : thus it became holy, and sanctified the things
and persons that were anointed with it; that is, separated
them from common worldly service and dedicated them with
solemn appropriation to God. (Ex. xxx. 23 33, xl. 9 11,
Lev. viii. 10, 11.) We are informed, moreover, that both the
tabernacle and all the vessels of its ministry were sprinkled
with blood. (Heb. ix. 21.) Thus they were purified and pre-
pared for their holy use.
In the wilderness the tabernacle always stood, wherever the
Israelites stopped, in the midst of the camp. Immediately
around its court were pitched the tents of the priests and Le-
vites ; the priests having their place to the east before the en-
trance, the family of Gershom to the west, that of Kohath to
the south, and that of Merari to the north. Outside of these,
at some distance, the other tribes encamped in four great
divisions, each consisting of three tribes. Each of these divi-
sions had its separate standard and principal tribe by whose
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 279
name it was distinguished. On the east was the camp of Ju-
dah, including the tribes of Judah, Issachar and Zebulon : on
the south side, the camp of Reubtn, including the tribes of
Reuben, Simeon and Gad ; on the west, the camp of Ephraim,
including the tribes of Ephraiin, Manasseh and Benjamin ; on
the north, the camp of Dan, including the tribes of Dan,
Asher and Naphtali. When the signal was given to march,
the tabernacle was taken down, and all its parts committed to
the care of the Levites, to be carried to the next place of en-
campment. Each of the three families of the Levites had its
particular charge in this service assigned to it by the Lord.
The care of the most holy things the sacred furniture of the
tabernacle and its court, were intrusted to the sons of Kohath ;
and they were required to carry the whole upon their shoulders.
For convenient carriage, the ark, the table, and both the altars
were furnished with rings, through which staves or poles, pre-
pared for the purpose, were made to pass, by means of which
they might be lifted and borne. The staves which belonged
to the ark were never taken out of their rings, but remained
there when the tabernacle was set up; those which belonged
to the table and the altars were put into their rings only when
they were to be used. In marching, the camp of Judah moved
forward first; then followed the camp of Reuben; next came
the Levites with the several parts of the tabernacle ; immedi-
ately after them the camp of Ephraim set forward ; the camp
of Dan brought up the rear. (Num. ii. 1 34, iii. 17 38, iv.
1 33.) Bearing in mind the order both of encampment and
march, in which the camp of the children of Joseph had its
place always directly bthind the tabernacle, we may understand
that introduction of the Psalmist's prayer, " Give ear,
Shepherd of Israel, Thou that leadest Joseph like a flock;
Thou that dwellest between the cherubim, shine forth ! Before
Ephraim and Benjamin and Manasseh stir up thy strength,
and come and save us." (Ps. Ixxx. 1, 2.)
Every encampment and removal was determined by Divine
direction. On the day the tabernacle was reared up, in testi-
mony of God's presence and approbation, a CLOUD the mar-
vellous manifestation of the Divine Presence which had before
led them out of Egypt overshadowed it, and it was filled
with the glory of the Lord. By this cloud they were after-
wards, continually, in all their journeyings, admonished when
to rest, and when and whither to proceed. While it rested
over the tent, the Israelites journeyed not, whether it was for
ft ihorter or longer time. But when it was taken up, by dav
or by night, at once the whole camp was in motion : the '.-
280 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
bcrnacle was taken down ; every necessary preparation was in
dtantly made for marching; and onward, in whatever cours*
the cloud conducted, the tribes, in their appointed order, began
to move. Again, when the cloud stood still, and not before,
they stopped, erected the tabernacle where it hovered on high,
waiting to descend upon its sacred resting-place, and pitched
their tents in regular encampment round about. By night this
mysterious cloud had the appearance of fire. (Ex. xl. 34 88,
Num. ix. 15 23.) To this glorious manifestation of the Di-
vine presence, overshadowing, protecting, and guiding the ta-
bernacle and the chosen people in the wilderness, the prophet
Isaiah beautifully alludes, in describing the happy and secure
condition of the gospel church. (Isa. iv. 5, 6, Zech. ii. 5.)
Through the wilderness of this world, the church, and every
individual believer, is guarded and guided by the presence of
Christ and the powerful grace of the Holy Spirit, onward to
the land of promise the rest that remaineth for the people
of God.
After the Israelites had entered into the land of Canaan,
under the command of Joshua, the tabernacle was first set up
at Gilycd. There it continued till the land was conquered.
The ark, however, was separated from it, and carried before
the army in the wars of the time. As soon as the affairs of
the country were settled in peace, it was removed from Gilgal
and set up at Shiloh, a town in the tribe of Ephraim. Here
it stood till after the death of Eli, considerably more than
three hundred, perhaps four hundred years. (Josh, xviii. 1,
1 Sam. i. 3, 7, 9.) Hence Shiloh became a peculiarly sacred
place, such as Jerusalem afterwards was, on account of the
templus. (Jer. vii. 12 15, xxvi. 6 9.) Here tin- ark abode
in its place, and hither the tribes of the Lord came up to wor-
ship. At last, however, being carried out to the field of war,
("when Israel had been smitten before the Philistines, and vainly
dreamed that its presence would save them, while yet they
dishonoured the Lord himself by their sins, and repented not
of their idolatries, to give glory to his name,) it was taken
captive by the uncircumcised heathen. (1 Sara. iv. 1 -'2.)
The Philistines were soon compelled to send it into its own
c:untry again, but it was never after restored, it seems, to its
place in the tabernacle. In the days of Saul, the tabernacle
was removed from Shiloh to Nob, for what reason we are not
informed. (1 Sam. xxi. 1 9.) In the reign of David we find
it again removed, and stationed at Gribeon. (1 Chron. xxi. 29.)
The ark, meanwhile, having tarried about seventy years a
Kirjath-jearim, (to whicL place it had been brought after it*
BIBLICAL ANliQUITIES. 281
return from the land of the Philistines,) was brought soon
after David's settlement upon the throne, to Jerusalem. The
first attempt to bring it up was interrupted by the unhappy
death of Uzzah, in consequence of which it was carried aside
into the house of Obed-edom. After three months, however,
the king solemnly assembled the priests, Levites, and elders
of the people, and again went to fetch it unto the royal city,
with more order and reverence than had been observed on the
former occasion. It was now carried, not on a new cart, but
on the shoulders of the Levites, as Moses commanded, accord-
ing to the word of the Lord, and so was happily brought up
the rest of the way with the high sounding noise of music and
joy. In Jerusalem, it was lodged in a tent which David caused
to be prepared there for its reception. (1 Chron. xiii. 1 14,
xv. 1 29.) There it continued till it was carried into the
temple. The tabernacle, we are informed, was, in the com-
mencement of Solomon's reign, found still at Gibeon. (2 Chron.
i. 2 13.) Finally, its sacred fabric, and all its holy vessels,
were removed likewise to the temple, and so all its glory and
its use were transferred to this larger and still more magnifi-
cent house.
CHAPTER III.
THE TEMPLE.
THE Jewish temple next claims our consideration. Its
general plan was the same with that of the tabernacle ; only
it was larger, and more splendid, and had the fixed structure
of a house, while the other was a movable tent. The meaning
of each was the same ; the one was but a continuation of the
holy sanctuary which had its origin with the other, and took
the place of that other, accordingly, as the centre of the same
great system of ceremonial worship that was instituted at first
in the wilderness. The temple itself did not continue the same
building. Its first form perished with the great captivity;
afterwards a new house rose in its stead. Thus there was a
first and a secor i temple. Each of these is entitled to notiee.
Before we take notice of either, however, it will be proper to
take a hasty survey of the city of Jerusalem in which they stood
The holiness of the temple extended itself in some measuro
24*
2 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
over all the city. Jerusalem was not like rther cities, ever,
of the sacred land. It was "the place which the Lord had
chosen out of all the tribes, to put his name there." (Dent.
xii. 5.) It was the <//// o/' (!<i>j the "city of the ( Ireat King,
whos<> spates he loved more than all the dwellings of Jacob."
(Ts. xlviii. 1 14, Ixxxvii. 1 7.) Hence it was styled em-
phatically the Holy City ; and by this name it is distinguish^ j
in the east to this day.
SECTION I.
THE HOLY CITY.
JERUSALEM is supposed by many to have been originally
called Salem; and so it is imagined that the ancient city thus
named, of which Melchisedek was king, was no other than this,
that became at a later period the capital of the Jewish king-
dom. By the Canaanites it was called Jrbux. When tho
land was taken by Joshua, the inhabitants of this city, though
their king was subdued, could not be utterly driven out by
the Israelites; but having fortified themselves in the strongest
part of it, they continued to dwell there for several hundred
years. (Josh. xv. 63.) .At length, however, their strong hold
was taken by David, and the Jebusites were for ever cut off
from Jerusalem. -The strong hold in which they had so long
defied the strength of Israel, was on Mount Zion, which from
the time of its capture was distinguished with the name of the
"City of David." (2 Sam. v. 69.)
Jerusalem was situated on the boundary between the tribes
of Judah and Benjamin. It was built over three neighbour-
ing hills, Zion, Moriah, and one of less elevation than the
others, named in later time, Acra. On three sides, it was
bounded by valleys, separating it from mountainous heights
that girded it round about with perpetual protection. (Ps.
cxxv. 1, 2.) On the north it was not provided with the same
natural security; its border on that side was distingui>he !
indeed, as on the others, by a considerable declivity, but the
country beyond was more open. Hence the city was com-
monly attacked by its enemies on the north side, as an army
could not approach it from any other quarter, without great
difficulty. The whole was surrounded with great and sin OIL;
walls, and each of the hills just mentioned had, besides, a wall
in' its own. In the time of our Saviour, there was a consider-
able Huburb formed to the north of the town, called the A" u
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 22-i
City; this at length was enclosed also with walls by king
Agrippa. All these walls were fortified with numerous towers.
The compass of the whole city round about, was between four
and five miles.
The most lofty of the three hills that have been mentioned
was Zion, called also, as we have seen, the city of David. l\
appears to have occupied the southern quarter of the city.
Close over against it, on the east of its northern part, rose the
hill of Moriah. Acra was situated more directly north of it.
The part of the town which was built on Mount Zion received
also the name of the Upper City, while that which extended
itself over Acra was called the Lower City. Zion was dis-
tinguished by noble and costly buildings ; among others the
sitadel of David, and the royal palace, could not fail to attract
i stranger's attention. Acra showed the greatest number of
streets and houses ; the most considerable portion of the whole
city spread its population over this hill. Moriah, however,
had more honour than either of these hills ; on its summit
was erected the temple. It was very steep, and so small at
the top originally, as not to afford sufficient room for the sacred
building and the courts that were to be connected with it.
But by means of walls, built up from the valleys at its bottom
to the same height with it, the surface above was extended,
so as at last to be about half a mile in compass.
The city was separated on the east side from the Mount of
Olives, by the deep, narrow valley of Cedron, tbrough which
flowed the brook of the same name, mentioned n Scripture.
This brook, or torrent, commences not far northward of Jerusa-
lem, and having passed along the side of it, through the valley
just mentioned, takes afterwards an easterly direction, and
finds its way 'oto the Dead Sea. It is completely dry, ex-
cept during the rainy season, when it gathers <\ dark and
muddy stream from the neighbouring hills. Tb valley or
chasm down which it flows by the city, has been 'bought to
be the same that is called by the prophet Joel, the Valley jf
Jchoxhaphat.
The Mount of Olives spreads its dry and sandy bright im
mediately east of this inconstant torrent. It rises with con-
siderable steepness right over against the city, and is altogether
more lofty than the highest parts of it; so that from th sum-
mit of Olivet, the eye overlooks Jerusalem's whole scenwy of
buildings and streets with perfect ease. This mount was oltcn
honoured with the presence of the Saviour. In his visi^. lo
Jerusalem, he was not accustomed, it seems, to lodge ip ihc
city, but used to go out to tho village of Bethany, whicb *v#
2S4 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
alt- nit two miles off, over on the Mount of Olives, where n*
was entertained by a pious and happy family, for which he
had a particular regard. (Matt. xxi. 17, Mark xi. 11, 19 ;
John xii. 1 3.) Bethphage was on the same hill, not fai
from Bethany, near the road that led from Jerusalem to Jeri-
cho. There the disciples were sent for the colt, on that memo-
rable occasion when our Lord made his last visit to the guilty
metropolis of Judea. When it was brought to him, he sat
upon it, and rode forward in triumph to the city. As he drew
lu'ar, it spread before his sight in all its magnificence and
pride. But to the kind Redeemer it presented only a melan-
choly spectacle. He saw it polluted with the deepest defile-
ment of guilt he saw the cloud of Heaven's awful vengeance
hung above its splendour, ready to burst and sweep it with
unsparing desolation he remembered, at the same time, its
glory of many generations, its sacred privileges, its holy name
"and he wept over it!" (Luke xix. 29 44.) Not long
after, from the summit of the same hill, he rose with a far
more excellent triumph, attended by rejoicing angels, and sat
down on the right hand of the throne of the Majesty in the
heavens. (Acts i. 9 12.) Just over from the bottom of the
more northern part of Moriah, between the Kidron and tin-
foot of Olivet, there is shown to the traveller an even plat of
ground, about 170 feet square, well planted with olive tn i >.
This, he is informed, is that garden to which Jesus oft-times
resorted with his disciples, into which he entered the night be-
fore his death, where, in agony, he offered nj> pm j/> r.< <///
ntpplicaiioHtj irith xtr<>/n/ I'l'i/in// ii ml ///>, and where the
wretched Judas betrayed him in the dark and silent hour the
Garden of Gethsemane. As from the top of the Mount of
Olives, the eye, directed toward the west, looks over Jerusa-
lem, so, when turned the other way, it ranges across a fat-
more extensive prospect. Before it, stretches the wilderness
of Jericho; and downward, towards the south, the wildern.'s.-
>f Judea ; far forward in the view to the right, it descries the
sluggish waters of the Dead Sea, gathered over the ruin of
Sodom and Gomorrah ; and away beyond Jordan, over airain-t
Jericho, the mountains from which Moses beheld the prohii.-. !
land.
On the smith side of Jerusalem, starting from the valley of
Kidron and running westward, was Gehenna, or the vall>i/ /
the son of ffinnom, called also, TopJiet. (Jer. vii. 31, 32.) It
was originally a ver\ agreeable retreat, delightfully shaded
with trees. But it became a serne of idolatrous ibomiuation
a place consecrated to the dreadful worship .it' Moloch. To
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. /85
the imago of this idol-god, were offered children in cruei sacri-
6ce. Their own parents brought them forward, and caused
them to be placed on the arms of the brazen statue, from
which they dropped into a furnace of fire that was kept burn-
ing before it, and perished without pity. To drown the criea
of the miserable victims, drums of some sort, it is said, were
beaten during the sacrifices ; and as the Hebrew name . for
such an instrument is Toph, it has been supposed by many,
that the part of the valley where this idol was worshipped got
its name of Tophet from this circumstance. Good king Josiah,
who vigorously attempted to take away idolatry from the
land, denied this place, we are told, " that no man might
make his son or his daughter to pass through the fire to Mo-
loch." (2 Kings xxiii. 10.) He caused it, it seems, to become
a place for carcasses of animals to be removed to, and where
the dead bodies of malefactors were frequently thrown. (Jer.
xix. 2, 6, 11 14.) After the captivity, the Jews regarded
it with the greatest abhorrence, and continued to defile it still
more than before in the same way, so that it became a great
and foul receptacle for all manner of filth and dead animal
matter. To prevent the pestilence, which the putrefaction of
such a mass was likely to breed, fires were kept constantly
burning to consume it. Thus loathsome, dismal, and full of
burning destruction, the place came to be considered an image
of hell, and the word Gehenna grew at last to be the couuin'u
name for that awful dwelling-place of the damned, where the
worm dieth not, and the fire is never quenched.
From the foot of Mount Zion, where Mount Moriah stands,
directly over against it, flowed the fountain of Siloam or S/ti-
loah. Its waters were conducted into two large pools, the
i'pper and the Lower, from which they might be conveniently
used; what were not required for use, glided with quiet and
gentle -tream into the channel of the Kidron. (Isu. vii. :>, viii.
0, xxii. 9, 11, John ix. 7.) At present, according to the ac-
count of our late missionaries to Palestine, " the fountain issues
from a rock, twenty or thirty feet below the surface of the
ground," to which there are steps for persons to go down.
" Here it flows out without a singlelnurmur, and appears clcai
as crystal. From this place, it winds its way several rod*
under the mountain : then it makes its appearance with gentle
gurgling, and, forming a beautiful rill, takes its way down into
the valley towards the south-east." On the borders of this
humble streamlet, were the Gardens of the Kinys, abounding,
no doubt, with shady trees and walks of pleasant beauty It
has been imagined, that the upper poo. waa designed priuci
286 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
pally for supply. ng these gardens with water, and so was callwi
also the kinys pool. (Neh. ii. 14, iii. 15.) Somewhere neir
this fountain, we may suppose, stood that tower, called by its
name, which fell in the days of our Saviour, and killed eighteen
persons. (Luke xiii. 4.) There was quite a deep valley in this
quarter, between the hills of Zion and Moriah. Over it was
erected a beautiful bridge, or causeway, planted on each side
with a rcw of stately trees, which, while they secured the bor-
ders of the walk, overhung it also with pleasant and refreshing
shade. This was raised originally by king Solomon, among
his othei magnificent works, and led directly from the royal
palace to one of the gates of the temple-court. It was designed
to be a convenient and agreeable passage for the king to visit
the house of God, and was, accordingly, the common way by
which the monarchs of Israel went to, and returned from, it?
sacred courts. (2 Chron. ix. 4.)
The city was bordered on the west by the valley of GiJion.
It does not appear to have been very deep, and had nothing
about it, so far as we know, worthy of particular remark. Be-
hind it there was all along a height rising considerably above
the town, so that when a person was coining from the west, he
could see nothing of Jerusalem, till he got on the summit of
this elevation ; when, all at once, directly before him, its walls
and towers and palaces and solemn temple, burst upon his
sight
A little distance out of the city, to the north-west, was the
hill called Golyotha or Calvary. It was the place appointed
for the execution of malefactors. There our Lord was crucified,
though he had done no sin, neither was guile found in his
mouth ; and thus that spot became the theatre of the most as-
tonishing and interesting transaction that ever took place on
earth.
It was a beautiful sight, to look upon Jerusalem in the days
of her ancient glory. That glory however has long since
passed away. It perished first under the desolating power of
the Chaldeans, 588 years before Christ came into the world.
Then it was that the eye of the prophet Jeremiah rnn, down
infft rivers of water, for the destruction of the <I<nnjlit< r of his
people. " The kings of the earth, and all the inhabitants of
the world, would not have believed that the adversary and the
enemy should have entered into the gates of Jerusalem :" but
a righteous God, for the multitude of her transgressions, gave
her into the hands of the heathen. " The Lord covered the
daughter of Zion with a c jud in his anger, and cast down
from heaven unto the earth the beauty of Israel, and reineiu
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 28 I
bered not his footstool in the day of his anger !" The beau'j
yf Israel was the temple, and the footstool of Jehovah was the
sacred ark of the covenant over which the Shechinah abode in
glory between the cherubim. (Lam. ii. 1 8, iv. 12.) Yet
afterwards, the city was seen rising again upon its ruins. The
Jews endeavoured, with the greatest zeal, to restore it to its
former splendour. From age to age it received improvement,
and went on recovering beauty and magnificence. Herod the
(Ireat, at last, just before the time of our Saviour, brought the
glory of its second state to its highest point of perfection. He
was fond of great and splendid buildings, and wished to procure
respect and hohour for himself by the noble works of art which
he caused to be finished. Vast, therefore, were the sums of
money which he expended in different ways for the embellish-
ment of Jerusalem. Thus the city came to rival, and in some
respects to excel, its former self. Again it was a beautiful
sight to stand upon Olivet, and look over its irregular extent.
]iut the horror of its first desolation was now to be renewed
and surpassed in a second overthrow. The measure of iniquity
was at length filled to overflowing, by the crucifixion of the
Lord of life and glory. The cry of guilt went up to heaven
with exceeding loudness. The vengeance of the Holy One
displayed itself in overwhelming terror. Jerusalem, after a
siege in which sufferings altogether indescribable were endured,
fell once more, utterly crushed beneath the weight of the Ro-
man arm. The abomination of desolation, spoken of by
Daniel the prophet, was seen standing in the holy place. The
sacred city was trodden under foot of the Gentiles. The name
and place of the Jewish nation, in the midst of streaming blood
and desolating flames, was taken entirely away.
Jerusalem became a city again ; but not to compare in anj
sort with her former state. Oppression hindered her growth.-
and war, from age to age, sported with her feeble strength. Her
own children were scattered into every corner of the earth, and
strangers crowded her streets. For a long time now, it baa
been pressed under the miserable government of the Turks.
So much has it suffered from the ravages of war, and so much
have different spots within and around it been altered by other
means, that it is no longer easy to trace even the most striking
features of its ancient situation. Its bilk have been in some
cases lowered and its valleys raised; so that to the spectator
some distance off, it appears to be all situated upon one genera)
declivity, gently sloping from west to east. But on a nearer
view, it is perceived to be still resting on several hills, ;tni"iij:
which the forms of Zion and Moriah are discovered rising with
288 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
principal importance. The south wall parses over Zion, neai
te summit, so that a great part of the mountain is without the
city. The north wall, on the contrary, has been made to take
in, on that side, more than was anciently enclosed, so as to bring
into the north-west part of the town what is supposed to be the
hill Calvary. The whole city, it is thought, contains not more
than twenty thousand inhabitants. Half of these are Moham-
nififmiK, rather more than a fourth part />', and the remainder
nominal Christians of different sects, who have lost almost en-
tirely the truth as it is in Jesus Christ. The streets are nar-
row, and most of them irregular; the houses generally low,
with flat roofs and small grated windows. The summit of
Moriah, where once the temple of Jehovah rose in sacred mag-
nificence and grandeur, is now crowned with the mosque of
Omar, a distinguished place of Mohammedan worship; and
none but a Mussulman may pass the wall that surrounds it, on
pain of instant death. "After all our research," the mission-
aries write, " we compare Jerusalem to a beautiful person whom
we have not seen for many years, and who has passed through
a great variety of changes and misfortunes, which have caused
the rose on her cheeks to fade, her flesh to consume away, and
her skin to become dry and withered, and have covered her
face with the wrinkles of age; but who still retains some gene-
ral features by which we recognise her as the person who used
to be the delight of the circle in which she moved. Such is
the present appearance of this Holy City, which was once the
perfection of beauty, the joy of the whole earth."
SECTION II.
THE FIRST TEMPLE.
THI, idea of building a Temple for the Lord was first excited
in the mind of David. God would not allow him, however, tc
execute the design, because he had been a man of war and hao
shed blood. It was declared to him, nevertheless, that his son
who should succeed him on the throne would be permitted to
erecv the sacred building. (1 Chron. xvii. 1 15.)
Still, the good king was not forbidden to bear his part in
the great work, so far as he could help forward its future ac-
complishment by making preparation for it beforehand. His
pity, accordingly, displayed itself in this way in a very inte-
resting manner. All his life, it appears, he had been in the
habit of consecrating a very large portion of his worldly pro-
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 28!)
tverty to the Lord, to be employed in his service. (2 Sam. viii.
11.) But in his latter days his zeal and activity for God grew
still more conspicuous. The temple, though he was never to
ace it with his owii eyes, became the object of his unceasing
and most lively interest. No care or expense which might
contribute to its perfection seemed to him too great to be in-
curred. Great, therefore, exceedingly, was the preparation
which he caused to be made for this end. In his trouble he
prepared for the house of the Lord an hundred thousand talents
of gold, and a thousand thousand talents of silver; and of brass
and iron without weight, by reason of abundance ; timber also
and stone, hewed for use, in great quantity; and all manner
of precious stones besides. And over and above all this pre-
paration, because he had set his affection on the house of hi?
God, he left, of his own proper wealth, three thousand talents
of gold of Ophir, and seven thousand of refined silver, to over-
lay the walls of the sacred edifice withal. In addition to the
whole, the chief of the fathers and princes of the tribes of
Israel, stirred to pious liberality by the generosity of their
king, offered willingly a large sum for the same good design.
Altogether, therefore, the value of the materials collected for
the temple, before David's death, was such as mocks calcula-
tion. (1 Chron. xxviii. 25, 1418, xxix. 19.)
Not only did the aged monarch make such a vast prepara-
tion for the work, for the assistance of his son, but he gave
him also the exact plan according to which the whole was to
be made. In all this, he was himself instructed by the same
God that revealed to Moses the pattern of the tabernacle on
mount Sinai. The sacred House, as well as the sacred Tnt,
in which the Most High humbled himself to dwell, was not
left to be contrived in any sort by human wisdom. The Lord
pointed out the hill on which it should be erected, and the
very spot upon that hill where the great altar of burnt-offering,
that was to be in front of the sanctuary, should stand. (1 Chron.
xxi. 18, 26, 28, xxii. 1.) Afterwards, he caused his servant,
whose heart was so much set upon the work, to understand
clearly the manner after rhich the several parts were to be
constructed. (1 Chron. xi/iii. 11 19.) David carefully de-
livered the entire plan to Solomon, committed the collected
materials to his direction, solemnly charged him to be faithful
in his great and honourable trust, exhorted the princes of Israel
to help him with all their might, and then departed, full of
days and honour, to a better world.
Provided with such an amount of materials, Solomon under
i*
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
toofc to execute the important work. He added yet more to
the preparations of his father, made arrangements with Hiram
king of Tyre for aid, set many thousand labourers to work, and
in the commencement of the fourth year of his reign began to
build. On mount Moriah, where the Lord appeared unlo
David his father, in the place that David had prepared in the
threshing-floor of Oman the Jebusite, the temple silentlj
ascended. " The house when it was in building, was built ol
Btoue made ready before it was brought thither; so that there
was neither hammer, nor axe, nor any tool of iron heard in the
house while it was in building." At the end of seven years,
it stood complete in all its splendour the glory of Jerusalem
the most magnificent edifice in the world. (1 Kings v. 1
18, vi. 7, 37, 38.)
As has been already intimated, the top of Moriah wns en-
larged by art, to make room enough for the courts of the sacred
house. Soloruon caused a strong wall of square stones to be
raised from the bottom of it, and then filled up the space be-
tween the wall and the side of the hill with earth. Thus the
summit was sufficiently extended.
The temple stood, like the tabernacle, with its front toward
the east. It consisted of the Sanctuary, or sacred jouse itself,
and a most splendid Porch rising before it. The &Mcteuy
was sixty cubits long, twenty broad, and thirty high, and was
divided into two apartments the Holy and the Most Holy
Place. It was built of square stones; but they were not to be
seen in any part; for over them, within and without, was a
covering of cedar boards overspread with pure gold. Thu
Porch, extending along the whole front of the house from
north to south, and reaching forward towards the east ten
cubits, ascended far above the rest of the building to no l<-~
a height than one hundred and twenty cubits. By the entrance
of it, were set up two great pillars of brass, one on the right
hand and the other on the left, distinguished by the names of
Jachin and Rtaz. The passage into this Porch, as it seem*,
was not closed by any door, but was left continually open
Passing across the porch, the priest entered, through beau*
tiful folding doors of fir, ornamented with carved figures and
covered with gold, into the first apartment of the Sanctuary,
the Holy Place. It was a stately room, taking in the whole
breadth and height of the house, and extended forty cubits
backward in length, floored and ceiled and walled around
with fir and cedar, all overlaid with shining gold. Carved
figuns of various sorts adorned the .-ide.* and ceiling, and for
beauty they were garnished besides with all manner of r ara
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES 291
and piecious stones. The apartment *yaa not witho\t windows,
though we are not informed of their number or manner. Its
furniture was an altar of iucense, overlaid with gold standing
before the Most Holy Place, as in the tabernacle ten table,*
overlaid with gold and ten golden candlesticks. The table*
and candlesticks were ranged on the two sides, five of each on
the north and five on the south. All the instruments and
vessels connected with them, which were many in number,
were made of pure gold. One of the tabbs, we may suppose,
was particularly designed for receiving the shew-brcad.
Through another door, that closed with folds of olive-wood,
covered with gold, and ornamented as those of the front one
were, the high priest, once in the year, entered into the awful
Holy of holies. It was twenty cubits in length, in breadth,
and in height, having the same measure every way, and all
overlaid with fine gold. There, as in the tabernacle, the sacred
ark that was made in the wilderness hud its secluded place,
holding within it the two tables of the law, and overshadowed
above by its golden cherubim. At each end of it, between it
and the side-wall, Solomon caused another cherub to stand,
much larger than those on the mercy-seat. These two cherubim
were each ten cubits high, made of olive-wood, and covered
with gold. The wings nf each were stretched out on cither
side, reaching on one side to the wall, and on the other extend-
ing over the ark, so as to meet in the middle clear above HIM
otln-r cherubim. Over the door and the whole partition-wall
before this Oracle, or most holy place, where God was con-
sulted, there was hung a great veil, like that costly one that
was made for the tabernacle.
As the whole house was thirty cubits high, and the Holy
of holies was only twenty, it is plain there was considerable
room above it no less than twenty cubits of length an 1
breadth, and ten of height.. How this was occupied, or
whether occupied at all, we are not told. It has been conjec-
tured, that the materials of the tabernacle, and its sacred ves-
sels and utensils that were not used in the temple, were laid
up there to be carefully preserved.
Close against the wall of the house, in the north and south
sides and at the west end round about, thei 3 was erected an
additional structure. It consisted of three stories, each five
cubits high, which seem to have been occupied with chambers,
having a walk or gallery running round before them, into
whicli they opened. On the south side, there were winding
stairs to go up from the Jirst story to the second, and from that
.^ go up to the third. This structure was close up against }>
292 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
walls of the sanctuary, but its beams were not allowed to b*
listened into them in any way. From the bottom of 'he houite,
along the side of these walls, was started an additional wall.
three cubits broad. After this rose up as high as five cubits,
one-third of it stopped, and became a resting-place round about
for the ends of the beams that supported the floor of the
sv'cond story of chambers. The remainder of the wall, two
cubits in bread'h, went up five cubits more, and then there wa*
mother cubit left, like the first, for a resting place, on which
the ends of the beams of the next floor might be placed. From
there, the wall, with only the breadth of one cubit, was carried
up yet five cubits more, and then stopped altogether, furnish-
ing a third resting-place, on which were supported the ends of
the beams of the roof of the whole structure. Thus, while the
lower story of chambers was only five cubits broad across the
floor, the second was six, and the third, seven.
The first temple was surrounded with two courts or enclo-
sures, a smaller one, called the Inner Court, or the Court of
the Priests, and a larger one round this embracing all the rest
of the ground that there was to be used, which was styled the
Outer Court, and also the Great Court. There were several
gates by which the outer court was entered, one on the ea-t
side, one on the north side, one on the south side, and four, it
seems, on the west side The most important of these l;i-t,
was the one to which the causeway from the royal palace led.
There were several gates, also, between the outer and inner
courts, to pass through from one to another. Around the
courts, there were various buildings, for the use of the >anetu
ary : some of them furnished places of lodging for those who
\\ere employed in the sacred duties of the place, and others
were used as depositories for different sorts of vessels and im-
plements, and for various articles, such as flour, salt, wine
and oil, that were needed for the temple service.
The inner court corresponded, in general, with the court of
the tabernacle. Toward the middle of it, in front of the
sanctuary, stood a great Altar of burnt-ottering, twenty cubits
-<|iiare, and ten high. (Ezek. viii. 16, Joel ii. 17, Matt,
xxiii. 35.) It was furnished, also, with a huge brazen Laver,
called a molten sea, five cubits high, and ten from brim \c.
brim: this great vessel rested on the back of twelve oxen
aiade of the same metal. In addition to this, Solomon caused
:en other lavers, of much .smaller sine, to be set up in tho
court, five on the north side and live on the south. They
were placed every one upon a base, curiously wrought au{!
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 298
died upon four wheels : the whole was molten-work of brass.
Water was kept in these smaller lavers for washing the flesh
of the victims that were sacrificed. Each of them, according
to the jommon calculation of Jewish measures, held between
nine and ten barrels, while the great brazen sea could contain
about seven hundred. This last was appropriated altogether
to typical use, it was the Fountain for uncleanness, where
the priests were required to wash, day after day, that they
might not die when they drew near to minister before the
Lord.
The description that is given of this temple in the Bible is
short, and it is not easy to understand it completely in all its
parts, by reason of our ignorance of some of the terms em-
ployed. We must rest satisfied, therefore, with a general no
tion of its manner. We are told enough, however, to convince
as that its beauty and magnificence were such as to surpass all
representation. (1 Kings, chap. vi. vii. 2 Chron. chap. iii. iv.)
It was a most interesting and solemn occasion, when, after
its completion, the temple was dedicated to the Most High
God. The elders of the nation, and a vast congregation of the
people, were assembled. The ark was borne in sacred order
from Mount Zion. Sacrifices more than could be numbered
were offered before it. The priests conveyed it then into the
oracle, and set it in its place, beneath the wings of the two
stately cherubim that stood upon the floor. When they came
out, an exceeding loud burst of music was sounded from the
sacred choir, swelling with the harmony of voices and instru-
ments in vast concert, and rolling its note of grand and thrill-
ing praise all over Jerusalem. In the midst of this solemnity,
the cloud of Jehovah's glory took possession of the house, as
it had long before filled the tabernacle, when it was first
erected. Before its majesty the priests were not able to stand,
to perform their ministry. On a brazen scaffold, before the
altar, king Solomon stood and blessed the people, and, falling
upon his knees, with his face toward the people, and his hands
extended, poured forth a solemn and affecting prayer to God.
When he had ended, a miraculous fire descended from heaven
and consumed the sacrifices that were on the altar. Thus the
Lord testified his approbation. The whole congregation bowed
with their faces to the ground, and worshipped. Then the
king and all the people offered sacrifices before the Lord
Many thousand were the victims slain. (2 Chron. chap. v.
vi. vii.)
AJter being completely spoiled of its treasures, this
26*
'JIM BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES
ful temple was reduced to ashes by the Babylonians. Flic-
rum took place about four hundred and twenty years from the
lime of its building, when the nation was crushed and carried
intu i-aptiuity for their many sins.
SECTION III.
THE SECOND TEMPLE.
AFTER the return of the Jews from their captivity, accord-
ing to a decree of Cyrus the Persian king, to which he wad
moved by a divine influence, the foundation of a new Temple
was laid, under the direction of Zerubbabel. Soon after its
commencement, the work was stopped for fifteen years. In
the second year of the reign of Darius, God sent his word by
the prophets Haggai and /cchariah, to reprove the people for
delaying to go on with the building, and to encourage them tc
carry it forward to completion. Then it was renewed, and io
a few years finished. We have an account of this in the book
of Ezra. Thus rose, on the ruins of the first, the X<-<"mtl
Temple, about 515 years before the birth of Christ.
When the foundations of this house were laid, the old men.
whd had seen the temple of Solomon, wept, because they thought
it would fall so far short of that in glory. (Ezra iii. 12, Ila_r.
ii. 3.) And, truly, there seemed to be much reason for such
an opinion. The other had been erected in the most prosper-
ous age of the nation, with every advantage that wealth tin-
most unbounded, and art the most perfect, could unite : this
was to be raised by a broken remnant of the kingdom, just
restored from distant captivity to a wasted and almost Jeserted
country. When it was completed, it seemed to labour under a
still more melancholy imperfection. It wanted those miracu-
lous manifestations of divine regard, which had been displayed
toward the tabernacle and the first temple, and some other most
sacred advantages which they had enjoyed. No CLOUD of glo-
rious majesty was seen taking possession of its newly erected
sanctuary : no fire descended from heaven to kindle the sacri-
fice upon its altar: no Shechinah abode between the cherubim
in the Most Holy Place. Alas, there was neither ark, mercy-
seat, nor cherubim, found there ! They had perished, with the
two tables of the law, in the ruin of the other templr. Thus,
the oracle was without its glory. No voice sounded from lie-
hind the veil, as in ancient times, to acquaint the .nquiring
high priest with the will of Heaven. Silence and turknes*
reigned together there year after year. Five imports, , .1 t Kin <;.-:
BIBLICAL ANVIQUITIB8. '295
Uio Jews say, were wanting, in the second state of the temple,
that belonged to the first : these were the Ark the Urfm and
Thxmmim the Fire f rum ] haven the Shechinah and the
iipirit of Prophrry.
Yet this was the word of God by his prophet: "I will fill
this house with glory the glory of this latter house shall be
greater than of the former, saith the Lord of Hosts." (Hag.
ii. 6 9.) The outward glory of the latter house became in
the end very great ; the silver and gold of the earth belong to
the Lord, and he caused them to meet in vast quantity for the
decoration of his temple : but the prophecy had in view a dif-
ferent and far more excellent glory. The second temple never
equalled the first in the costly magnificence of its work, and
wanted much that gave moral dignity and sacredness to the
other : but it obtained the pre-eminence, at last, by such a
manifestation of Divine Presence within its courts as the first
was never permitted to enjoy. It was not honoured with the
('loud of Jehovah's ulory, but it was distinguished by the pre-
sence of JESUS CHRIST, in whom dwelt all the fulness of the
( iodhead bodily who was < \\\\\ himself" manifest in the flesh .!"
(Mai. iii. 1, Col. ii. 9, 1 Tim. iii. 16.)
The second temple was completely rebuilt by Herod the
Great. To gratify his pride, and to recommend himself to
the favour of the nation, which he was conscious of having
justly forfeited by his unheard-of cruelties, he took it into his
head to pull down the house which Zerubbabel had erected.
and to raise in its room a new one, vastly more beautiful aud
magnificent. The Jews were afraid, at first, that he was not
sincere in his proposal, and might, after taking down the old
building, leave them without any; for he was a deceitful and
malicious man. It was not, therefore, un'.'l they saw the
materials made ready for a new one, with prodigious labour
and expense, that they were willing to let the other be removed.
This was done only seventeen year> before our Saviour appeared
in the world, and in nine years and a half from that time, the
main part of the new building was completed, so as to be fit
for its regular service. Still, however, the work of beautify-
ing and adding to the general structure continued to be carried
on many years after, even till after the Redeemer's death.
Wherefore, the Jews were not wrong, when they said to him,
about the thirtieth year of his life, " Forty and six years was
this temple in building. (John ii. 20.) So long, at that time.
was the period which had elapsed from the laying of its foun-
dations, and all the while it had been reoeiring new improve
UMMK
-96 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
Let us now take a rapid view of the several parts of tlm
second temple, as it stood in the days of our Saviour, in all it*
beautiful grandeur. It was, indeed, as we have just seen, the
third building erected on Moriah's sacred summit for the wor-
ship of God : but, because the temple put up after the captivity,
had never been destroyed by enemies, like the first, and hail
been taken down by the Jews themselves, merely that it might
immediately rise again, with a more excellent form, both these
buildings were very properly spoken of as together forming,
one after the other, the same Second Temple; which, accord-
ingly, had its period from the time of Zerubbabel to the de-
struction of the city by the Romans.
THE COURT OF THE GENTILES.
THE top of Moriah, the Mountain of the Lords flous*,
(which, as already noticed, was so extended by art, as to measure
about half a mile in compass, or a furlong square,) was enclosed
by a wall, five and twenty cubits high, built around upon each
side. This was the outer wall : in some parts, perhaps pretty
generally all the way round, it took its start, properly, from
the base of the mountain, being nothing else than the wall
that was built, as we have seen, from the valleys below, in
order to increase the surface above, carried upward twenty-five
cubits higher than the summit of the hill. Prodigious, then,
we may well conceive, was the distance directly down war I, in
many places, from tile top of this wall on the outside, to its
deep bottom in the valley beneath.
This outer wall, which was built of stone, beautiful anl
trong, was furnished with several gates. They were all lar^-.
and costly in their workmanship; having each two great folds,
covered over with precious metal, and so heavy that they could
not be opened or shut without considerable effort. The most
stately and costly one of all, was on the east side if that was,
indeed, as some suppose, the magnificent E intern Gate, noticed
by the Jewish historian, Josephus. It was covered with Co-
rinthian brass, exceedingly splendid, and more precious than
silver and gold. A flight of many steps rose to its entrance,
from the deep valley of Kidron, below. A causeway, also,
lifted high upon arches, stretched in front of it, across the val-
ley, making a straight and level way over to the Mount of
Olives, on the other side. This gate was not situated in the
middle of the eastern wall, but considerably farther along
towards the north end, in order that it might directly face tho
porch of the sanctuary, or sacred house of the temple, which
BIBLICAL 4NTIQUITIES. 297
was fixed, I y divine direction, to the northern part of the en-
closed square. It wus called tin- A'/'////.-- Gate, because all the
eastern side of the hill to which it belonged, had been formed,
originally, by king Solomon, with great labour and expense,
by means of a wall raised in the way that has been already
noticed, from the bottom of the valley beneath. It was called,
also, it seems, the Gate of Shiishan, and had pictured upon it
a representation of the city of Shushan, the royal capital tf
Persia; in memory, according to some, of the great captivity,
and so for a warning against idolatry, which was the cause of
it ; or, as others say, to keep up the recollection of the won
derful deliverance from the malice of Hainan, which the nation
had experienced in the days of Esther, and to bring to mind,
year after year, the feast of Purim, or of Lots, which was then es-
tablished in that city, to be a memorial from generation to gene-
ration of the happy event. (Est. iii. viii. ix.) On the south side
of tin: square, there were two gates, which were called the
finti-a of llttlihih. On the west side there were as many as
four : one situated well toward the north, directly opposite to
the gate Shushan on the east side, which had the name of Gt-
j'ontitx, and answered to the gate called, in the time of the first
temple, iSltallccfieih, to which that royal causeway already no-
ticed led from the dwelling-place of the kings on Mount Zion:
another not far south of this, toward the middle, called P<tr-
//'//: and the two gates of Asiippim, still farther toward the
smth. These last three had the names just mentioned, in the
lirst state of the temple. The outer wall, on the north side,
also, was provided, it is said, with a gate, situated exactly in
tiie middle of it.
All these gates had towers erected above them. An open
-'pace, of several cubits in extent, was left around each, where
the people were accustomed to ass mble. On either side of
tliem, within, there were buildings or houses, standing close
against the wall, two stories high, for the porters and others
to lodge in, and for depositories or stores in which were kept
various treasures, utensils, and articles for service, that be-
longed to the temple.
All around, along the inward side of this outer wall, stretch-
ing from gate to gate, there were yV.../v, r enverrd walks,
most beautiful and stately to behold. Thcsa were called
i'nrrftrs. Along the eastern, northern, and western sides, they
wre merely dnl,l , tli.it is, they eon-isteil uf two hn..nl co \vivd
walks, one adjoining the wall, an<l the other running by the
-Me of this mn\ svp.irafed from it simpL l>y a row of pillars
but on the southern side, the porch was triple, consisting o*
298 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
three such piazzas, or walks. The flooring of these walks wan
all along, a smooth and solid pavement of marble of different
colours: the roof was flat, made of costly cedar, and covered
with cement to keep it from being injured by the rain ; it
rested on rows of pillars, hewn out of white marble, and so
large that three men could scarcely stretch their arms so as to
meet around them. Where the porches were only double,
they were furnished with three such rows of pillars: first,
one close up against the wall; then, fifteen cubits over from
that, another; and, farther out still from the wall, fifteen
cubits more, a third. Thus the two walks formed together a
breadth of thirty cubits, divided merely by the middle row of
pillars, and overshadowed by a lofty rout'. The pillars were
about twenty-five cubits high; so that the roof, borne upon
the three rows, was lifted to a height equal with the top of the
outer wall. Along the south side, as there were three walks,
so there were four rows of pillars. The walk that was
next to the wall, and the one that was farthest out from it,
were just equal in breadth and height with the walks that
stretched along the other sides; but the middle one of the
three was twice as high and nearly three times as broad as
any of the rest, so that its roof was raised as much as twenty-
five cubits above the roofs of the common walks that lay along
with it on either side, and spread itself out on high at a dis-
tance of fifty cubits from the broad and beautiful pavement
beneath. It was a most noble piazza, and could not fail to
fill the spectator with the highc?t admiration, when he walked
between its gigantic pillars, and lifted up his eyes to it riling
of rich cedar, extended in lofty grandeur over his head. When
a person stood above, on tk 3 roof of this middle walk, he could
hardly look down into the valley on the outside of the wall,
without becoming dizzy, the distance to the bottom of it was
so fearfully great. It is said to have been no less than five
hundred cubits, or 750 feet. This roof seems to have brru
that iiiniuK-l, of the tempi*-, to which our Saviour was brought
by the devil, and from which the foul tempter urged him to
cast himself down over the outer wall, into the tremendous
deep below. (Matt. iv. 5 7.)
These covered walks furnished a pleasant retreat for the
people, in warm weather, or when it was raining. They were
furnished with convenient scats along tin- wall, for persons to
tit upon. All the day, people might be seen moving back-
wards and forwards along between the row> of stately pillar*,
or re.-tiug themselves on the beautiful benches, underneath the
* wi and friendly shelter that was here provided. Tho porch
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 299
ihut lay along the east side, was called Solomon's Porch, be-
came, as was stated a short time ago, all this side of the hill
Kiul been raised with special labour from the bottom of tho
valley, by that ancient monarch. (John x. 23. Acts iii. 11.
v. 12.) -
When a stranger entered the sacred ground, through any
of the gates of the outer wall which surrounded the whole, he
beheld the House of the temple rising with lofty magnificence,
fr >m the north-western part of the hill. But the space was
njt clear all the way up to it. Going forward a small distance
he came to another wall, enclosing a considerable portion of
ground that was deemed more holy than the rest of the hill
left on the outside of it. The space between this second wall
and the outer wall, already noticed, was not by any means of
the same breadth on every side. On the west and north sides
it was quite narrow, and it was not mucn tfider on the east
side ; but to the south it took up about half of the whole hill :
t It a- the second wall did not enclose a square with equal sides,
but a piece of ground somewhat more than twice as long as it
was broad, reaching across from west to east within the north-
ern half of the great square enclosed by the outer one. The
space between these two walls round about, was the COURT OF
THE GENTILES.
Into this court all persons had liberty to come, whether they
belonged to the Jewish nation or not. It was called the court
of the Gentiles, not because it was given up particularly to the
Gentiles, for their use, but because it was the only one to which
they were admitted : farther than this first court no uncircum-
cised person was allowed to pass. It was in this court of tho
Gentiles that markets were kept for the sale of incense, oil,
wine, doves, lambs, oxen, and of every thing, in short, that was
wanted for the sacrifices of the temple. These markets appear
to have had their particular place on the east side of the court,
and toward the southern quarter. Here, persons coming from
a distance bought whatever they wished for the purpose of
making offerings to the Lord. In the same court the money
diumjers sat, to receive Greek and Roman money, such as wab
in common use, in exchange for Jewish half-shekels, with one
of which every man was required to pay his yearly tribute to
the sanctuary. They took their stations, a short time beforo
the Passover, in the Porches, with tables full of coin before
them, ready to accommodate all who wanted to exchange. In
doing thfs, they required a small fee to be allowed to them-
selves in every instance, which, because there was so much of
it to be done, made their business quite profitable It ww
300 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES
very oonvenient to have markets at hand, and to have thone
money-changers to apply to, when persons attended at the tem-
ple ; but then it was a great abuse to admit this sort of busi-
ness into the temple-court, for it was mere worldly business
after all, and oftentimes was carried on with unjust and ava-
ricious fraud. Yet the unfaithful priests not only suffered this
abuse, but encouraged it with their authority. Jesus Christ,
however, W!>u!d not let it pass without chastisement. On two
several occasions, at least, as we are informed, he turned the
whole company of profane dealers out of the temple, driving
their animals out with them, and overthrowing the tables of
the money-changers. (John ii. 14 17, Matt. xxi. 12, 18.)
Wh'en we consider, that quite a number were engaged in this
traffic, and that it was carried on according to established
usage, and still more, that it was carried on under the appro-
bation and authority of the priests, the rulers of the temple
we must feel, that it was a wonderful miracle which our Sa-
viour wrought in these cases, and that it could only be by a
diviue power over the hearts of men, to turn them at his plea-
sure, that a single, poor, and hated individual could accomplish
such a measure without assistance.
THE COURT OF THE WOMEN.
WE are now ready to pass onward from the Court of the
Gentiles, into the holier ground, that was enclosed by the
second wall lately mentioned. By the sides of the gates that
were in this wall, pillars were placed, on which were seen
inscriptions in Greek and Latin, forbidding, with large letters,
all entrance to Gentiles of every nation, and to every person
polluted by the dead.
In passing through this wall by any of its gates, persons hud
to go up several steps till they found themselves on the inside
of it, as much as six cubits higher than the level of the Court
of the Gentiles, which had just been left. Then there lay be-
fore them a level space ten cubits broad, at the other side of
which stood another wall, a great deal higher and stronger
than the one just passed, which was quite low. Thus ill
ground there was this space, ten cubits in breadth, between
these two walls, which persons had to pass over before they
got into another court. Wherever there was a gate in the low
wall, there was another just over against it in the high one,
so that those who were passing out or in might go straight
forward from one to the other. The space between the two
allg was paved with marble. The high wall just mentioned
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 301
was considerably higher from the pavement of this space, on
the outside of it, than it was from the level of the enclosure
which it surrounded, on the other side ; because that enclo-
sure was still higher than the space immediately round it be-
Iween the walls ; and as there were several steps to come up
to the level of that space through the low wall, so there were
more steps to go onward from it, through the high wall, up
into the enclosure now mentioned.
This enclosure which, according to a statement already made,
was more than twice as long as it was broad, was divided by a
wall across it from north to south, into two unequal parts.
The part toward the east, which was somewhat smaller than
the other, was exactly square : the other part toward the west,
while it had the same breadth of course from north to south,
was a little longer from west to east. The square one was
the COURT OF THE WOMEN. It was so called, not because it
was occupied altogether or principally by women, but because
women were not allowed to go beyond it toward the Holy House
of the temple.
The Court of the Women could be entered fr^m the Court
of the Gentiles, by three gates ; one on the norto, one on the
south, and one on the east, each having its situation precisely
in the middle of the side to which it belonged. The one on
the east side, was directly before the gate Shushan in the outer
wall, in a line between it and the sanctuary. This some sup-
pose to have been much more elegant than the rest, and to
have been, in fact, that Eutlcm Gate, so richly overlaid with
Corinthian brass, of which Jewish history makes mention ;
and which another opinion, already stated, has imagined
rather to have been the same with the gate Shushan. That
splendid gate, whichsoever of these two it was, has been
thought by many to be the gate that was called Beautiful, at
which the lame man lay to ask alms of those who were going
up to the temple, as related in the first part of the Acts of the
Apostles. (Acts iii. 2 11.)
When a person went up by any of these gates, first through
the low wall to the level space ten cubits wide, and then, by
five more steps, through the high wall, up into the Court of
the Women, he found the whole square paved with large slab* 1
of marble, and surrounded with different structures, erected
close to the wall round about, as we have seen was the case in
the outer court. In the four corners were buildings, or cham-
bers, for different uses ; and between these and the gates, on
,he north, east, and south sides, there were Porches. These
Porches were merely sinyle along each side, having two rows
iO'J BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
of pillars : they differed also from those that were in the Court
of the Gentiles, by having galleries or balconies round about,
above the lower walks, and therefore the ceiling of these wat
not remarkably lofty. On the west side there was no Porch
of this sort.
This court was the place where men, as well as women,
ordinarily performed their worship, when they appeared at the
temple without bringing sacrifices with them. Here Petei
and Jolin used to go up with others, to pray toward flic tem-
ple of the Most liiirh. (Acts iii. 1.) Here it was, that the
self-righteous Pharisee and broken-hearted Publican ap|x-ared
at the same time; the one boldly presenting himself close up
to the gate that led forward to the temple, and pleading his
own worthiness before a holy God the other standing afar
off, not daring to lift his head toward the dwelling-place of the
Lord, but smiting upon his breast and crying, "God be merci-
ful to me a sinner!" (Luke xviii. 9 14.) Paul was in the
same court when he was violently seized by his countryni'-n.
and charged, among other things, with having brought Gen-
tiles into that holy place. (Acts xxi. 26 30.)
This court was the place of the Treasury, whore tha people
presented their offerings of money for the service of the temple.
Several chests or vessels called Trumpets, because they were
wide at the bottom and small at the tup, were placed in some
part of it, to receive the gifts: each vessel was appointed to
receive some one particular class of them; one, for instance.
was for money offered to buy wood for the altar; another, for
money to buy frankincense; and so the rest for different use-.
Here our Saviour beheld the people casting in their offering.
when the poor widow came forward with her two mites, an 1
cast in all that she had. (Mark xii. 41 i4.) In this part of'
the temple it was, too, that he delivered some <*' his solemn
and impressive discourses, teaching the people, and reproving
their unbelief. (John viii. 20.)
TIIK COURT OF ISRAEL.
IN the middle of the high wal' that bounded the Court of
the Women, on the west side, was the gate called Ninuior.
Through this, after a rise of fifteen steps, each half a cubit
high, a person entered into the COURT OF ISRAEL. These
step? were in the half-circle form. On either side of the lowest
one, there was a door in the wall, facing the Court of the Wo-
men, which opened into a chamber cut out under the level of
the Court of Israel above. In these two rooms the Levites
deposited their musical instruments. Still, when they had
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 303
done using them each day in the service of the temple, they
came dowu the fifteen steps, turning to the right or to the left,
and laid them away here till they were again wanted.
Besides the gate of Nicanor, there were six other gates,
three on the northern and three on the southern side, by which
the Court of Israel might be entered. These of course let
persons into it directly from the Court of the Gentiles: on the
east it was necessary to come into the Court of the Women
first, aii'l then from that into this third one, and this was the
most common way by which it was entered; but on the north
and south, those who went out or came in had nothing to
pass through between this court and the outer one but the
two walls already noticed, one high and the other low, with
the level space of ten cubits' breadth that lay between them
round about. Around against the wall, in this third enclosure,
there were several houses or chambers standing, as in the
courts already noticed, for different sorts of use connected with
the service of the temple, and covered walks also along the
four sides, from one gate to another, reaching farther out from
the wall than the buildings just mentioned, so as to have still
room enough, where any of these happened to stand, for per-
sons to pass along in front of them.
This broad covered walk all around appears, indeed, not so
truly to have been a walk alony the sides of what was strictly
the Court of Israel, as it was itself the whole extent of that
court. The space within, surrounded by this walk, seems to
ha\e been all comprehended in what was properly another
court, about two cubits and a half higher than the pavement
of the walk, and separated from it by a low railing. Into this
wide walk, or Court of Israel, common Israelites were allowed
to come, to attend on particular services of religion, and from
it they could look, without difficulty, over the elegant railing
just mentioned, toward the holy House of the temple, and see
all that was done in the court within.
THE COURT OF THF PRIESTS.
THIS court within was the COURT OF THE PRIESTS. It had
in it the beautiful building of the Sanctuary, with the Altar
of burnt-offering, and the Laver standing in front of it. Here
the Priests with the Levites performed their daily service
J Jesides these, no other Israelite might even pass the railing
that surrounded it, except when he came forward solemnly to
my his hands upon the head of a victim that he offered for
sacrifice, or to kill it, or to wave some part of it bcfuti: th
Lord.
304 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
Along the eastern end of this court, facing the front of tTi
sanctuary, tin-re was a breadth of eleven cubits, covered with
a roof, like the walks already more than once noticed. Thus
when a person went up through the gate of Nicanor, toward*
the House of the temple, he passed first across the covered
space of the Court of Israel, lately considered, and then, rising
four steps through the low railing that fenced in the Court of
the Priests, found himself in this second covered space, of
which we now speak, with the broad and lofty front of tin;
temple Porch full before him. Along the back side of this
space, just before the railing, a breadth of two cubits and a
half was appropriated to the Levites that conducted the music
in the solemn service of the Sanctuary. Here, in a row along
from the entrance in the middle to the corner of the court on
each side, they stood at the appointed times with their various
instruments in their hands, playing and singing with a loud
voice to the praise of the Most High God. The rest of this
covered space, before the narrow range set apart for the use
just mentioned, was for the accommodation of the prirsts,
when any of them were not called to be employed in service
elsewhere in the court. There were no seats, however, pro-
vided for them to sit upon and rest themselves: it was not con-
sidered lawful for persons to sit at all, either in the Court of
the Priests or in the Court of Israel, around it; reverence
towards God and regard for the holiness of these places were
required to be continually manifested by standing on the feet.
The Altar of burnt-OBerillg, that stood in this court, was
much larger than the one that belonged to the h'rst temple.
It had its situation, however, on the same spot the one that
had been anciently pointed out by Divine direction to David.
(1 Chron. xxi. 18.) This being the spot where the altar was
to be built, it was necessary that the House of the temple.
should be erected near it; and that was the reason that it was
situated so much toward the north-western corner of the hill
Between the altar and the entrance of the sanctuary, some-
what off toward the south side, stood the Laver. The second
temple, like the tabernacle, was furnished with only one.
THE SANCTUARY.
THE SANCTUARY, or Temple, strictly so called, as it stood
in the days of our Saviour, was larger in its dimensions than
the building erected by Solomon, but constructed after the
same general plan. The beauty and costliness of its work-
manship were very great. Tin- walls were built with stuues
>f white marble, beautiful and exceedingly largo.
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 305
In front, toward the east, the Porrh attracted the admiration
af every beholder. It was, it seems, of the same height with
ihat of the first temple, but a great deal broader, and twice as
wide ; having a breadth of no less than a hundred cubits from
north to south, and a width of twenty across through it from
i-a*t to west. The entrance into it, on the front side, was
seventy cubits high and twenty-five broad, and stood always
jjen, without a door of any sort.
The S'liicfii'in/ itself, behind the Porch, was twenty cubits
broad, from wall to wall, sixty in length, and sixty in height.
Around it, on the north and south sides, and at the western
end, there was a structure of three stories, after the fashion of
that which was attached to the temple of Solomon, as it has
been described in the account of that edifice. Here were a
number of chambers all around in each story, with galleries
in front of them, along the outside wall of the structure round
about, by which persons, coming out from them, might walk
along to the stairs that led down from one story to another,
and so go out by some one of the doors below.
The II' >li/ riiu-e, in this Sanctuary, which was entered after
crossing the Porch, was forty cubits long, twenty broad, and
sixty high. It had in it an Altar of Incense, one Can(lt'*f/'</c,
and one Table for the shew-bread, after the manner of the an-
cient tabernacle. The Most Holy Place, measuring twenty
t -uliits every way, wanted that which was the perpetual glory
of the first temple the Ark, overshadowed with its cherubim,
aliove which the Divine Presence condescended to dwell. The
Jews tell us, that a box, or coffer, resembling it in form, was
made to supply its place; but this had nothing of that peculiar
and extraordinary sacredness which distinguished the original
depository of the Tables of the Law; and therefore the ark has
been properly reckoned as one of the five things that were
wanting in the second state of the temple. The Holy Place
siid the Holy of holies, in the last temple, had no wall across
between them, but were separated, as in the tabernacle, simply
by means of a veil, very costly, and remarkably thick and
strong : the Jews say that it was not a >//////> curtain that was
employed for this purpose, but two of like texture, one being
hung before the other, a little distance from it. When our
Saviour died, the whole "was rent in twain from the top to
the bottom." (Matt, xxvii. 51.) Hereby it was signified, thr:
in the death of Ch ist the ancient Ceremonial System was
brought to an end ; that the darkness of the Jewish dispensa-
tion was to pass away in the clear revelation of the gospel ;
Mid especially that the way into the holiest of all was now
30<> HIBLICAI ANTIQUITIES.
ni;idc completely open by his blood, for :ill believer' to
near ti> tin 1 mercy-seat of < Jn 1, with bolj liberty Mhl eo
(lleb. ix. 8, X. 19 *2'2.) Tin 1 veil that separates mail t'ro 11
his .Maker is guilt calling for wrath ; and nothing can avail
to rend the awful curtain but the death of Jesus Christ.
The bottom of the house of the temple was six cubits higher
tnan the level of the court of the priests around it. Thus, an
there was a continual rise from one court to another, thi
holiest, highest spot, on which the Sanctuary stood, was as
much as twenty-four cubits and a half above the level of 'hut
which was first entered the court of the Gentiles.
THE TOWER OF ANTONIA.
THKRE was another building on this sacred hill that deserves
particular notice. It stood on the outside of the court of the
Gentiles, joining the wall on the north, near to its western
corner. It was built originally by John Hyreanus, tn-
Jewish prince, a little more than a hundred years before the
birth of Christ, and was used by himself and his successors as
a palace, while at the same time it had all the strength and
fortification of a castle. It was a square building, measuring
two furlongs in compass, that is, as much as three huii'lred
feet along each side. Here the sacred garments of the High-
priests were kept, to be taken out only on the solemn occa-
sions that called for their use. Herod, with his other works
of building, caused this also to put on new splendour and
strength, and gave it a new name, calling it, in honour of the
Roman prince Antony, Anttmia. It was forty cubits high,
and had at each of its corners a tower rising a number of cubits
higher, the one at the south-east corner rose in this way as
many as thirty, so that from it might easily be seen all that
was done in any of the several courts of the temple. In this
strong castle the Romans placed a garrison of soldiers, by
which they had the whole hill completely under their power,
and were enabled to hold the city in awe of their authority.
This was considered especially important, as tumults and in-
surrections were ever likely to be excited, among the vast mul-
titudes that were gathered to the temple at particular time-.
From the corner tower just mentioned, any disturbance might
be at once perceived by the sentinel who was stationed there
to keep watch, and immediately soldiers could be sent to quell
it. There was a passage from the castle directly into the court
of the Gentiles, through the outer wall, by which they could
tnter the sacred enclosure at a rncment's warning.
In this way, that tumult was restrained which WM rsisci
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 307
in tho temple against the apostle Paul. The Jews "fragged
him out of the Court of the Women into the Court of the Gen-
tiles, (which was considered less holy, and was spoken of
sometimes as being out of (fie temple the name temple beinn
used with a wider or narrower meaning at different times ;)
and here they purposed to kill him. The chief captain of tin-
Roman band, however, receiving notice of the disorder, very
souii appeared on the spot with a number of soldiers, ami to.k
him out of their hands, commanding him to be carried into the
castle. When he came upon the stairs that led up into it, he
was permitted to address the multitude below, till they inter-
rupted him at last with loud and angry cries, when he was
taken out of their sight, and lodged within the walls of this
magnificent fortress. (Acts xxi. 26 10, xxii. 1 24.) Some
have thought, that the commander of the Roman garrison in
this castle is the officer intended by the title Captain of the
temple, used more than once in the New Testament; but it
seems more satisfactory to understand by that title, as hinted in
a former part of this work, the chief of the Levites and priests
who kept guard around and within the temple. (Acts iv. 1.)
IT was a noble sight to look over the summit of Moriah,
crowned, as we have now surveyed it, with all the grandeur and
beauty of the temple with its different courts. The Jewish
hi>torian Josephus speaks of it as exceeding all description.
The vast stones of polished marble, the stupendous pillars,
the broad and lofty porches, the gates shining with the most
precious metals, the towering front of the sanctuary all united
to fill the beholder with the highest admiration. Seen at a
'li.-t.-mce, by those who were approaching the city, it appeared,
it is said, like a mountain covered with snow ; for all over, ex-
cept where broad plates of gold or silver dazzled the eye, it
glistened with the whiteness of wrought marble. He that
never saw Jerusalem in her glory, say the ancient Jewish
doctors, never saw a lovely city ; and he that never saw the
sanctuary, with its buildings, never saw the most noble fabrio
under the sun.
It was not without reason, theref ,/e, that the disciples of
the Saviour, on a certain occasion, commended with admiration
in his presence, the grand and beautiful appearance of the tern
pie. As he went out of it on the east side, going over to the
Mount of Olives, they directed his attention to the rich and
si>l ndid style in which it was built and adorned : " Master,"
said one of them, "sec what manner of stone-; and what build-
ings are here !" Jesus saw all tnis ; but he looked upon it M
808 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
a sight of mere earthly glory thut was very soon to pass away
" Seest thou these great buildings ?" he replied : " there shal.
not }H left one stone upon another, that shall not be thrown
down." (Mark xiii. 1, 2.)
And so it came to pass in less than forty years after- Tho
whole perished in the awful destruction of the city by *hc Ro-
mans. Titus, the Roman general, wished to save it ; but the
violence of war was too strong to be restrained in its progress.
It carried its torch to the sacred pile, and wrapped all tlie
glory of Moriah in wild and terrific flames. This melancholy
ruin of the second temple is said to have been accomplished in
the same month of the year, and on the same dav of that
month, which, more than six hundred years before, had wit-
nessed the destruction of the first one by the Babylonians.
After the flames had done their work, the walls were utteny
demolished to the bottom, and the whole ground on which they
stood ploughed up, according to the Roman custom; so that
as Christ had foretold, not a single stone was left in its plaee
(Micah iii. 12.)
Here ended, for ever, the glory of the Jewish temple. It
was never again to rise on its ruins, as before. Its whole
meaning and use were over. The dispensation to which it be-
longed was brought to a close. The time was come, when
neither at Jerusalem, nor at any other particular place, the.
Father was to be worshipped with such outward service as W.-LS
required under the law. (John iv. 21 24.) The purpose of
the Most High, therefore, forbade all restoration of the ancient
sanctuary. An attempt, indeed, was made to restore it. about
three hundred years after its last destruction, which seemed
to have, as far as human calculation could reach, the greatest
prospect of success ; but God crushed it at the very start. The
Roman Emperor, Jul'an, (who had pretended, in early life, to
be a Christian, but afterwards, when he came to the throne,
turned to In 1 a pagan idolater, bitterly opposed to the truth of
the gospel, and so got the name of Aponfati'^ gave the Jews
permission to rebuild their temple, and renew their long neg-
lected worship. They set about the work with alacrity and
high hope. But very soon they were compelled to stop
While the workmen were clearing away the rubbish, in order
to lay the foundations, great balls of tire, dreadful to behold,
bursting forth from the ground with terrible noise, and re-
peated earthquakes, full of strangeness and horror, caused every
person to fly from the place, and so put an end to the work.
Thus wonderfully, as we are assured by the most satisfactory
testimony of history, did God blow upon and blast th design
that was formed to counteract his holy will.
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES 809
CHAPTER IV.
MINISTERS OF THE TABERNACLE AND TEMPLE.
GOD separated the tribe of Levi from all the other tribes,
u. attend upon the services of the sanctuary. They were taken
in room of the first-born. (Num. iii. 5 13, 40 51, viii. 1ft
19.) They were not allowed, accordingly, to have any in
heritance to themselves as a tribe among the others which com-
posed the -nation. The family of Aaron was taken out of this
sacred tribe, and consecrated to the priext/uxxl, to which the
care of the most holy duties, and the privilege of the nearest
approaches to the Divine Majesty, were confined. The rest of
the Levites were appointed to attend to duties less solemn.
SECTION I.
THE LEVITES.
THK Levites were solemnly set apart to their ministry in the
following way. 1 Having washed and shaved the whole body,
they presented themselves before the tabernacle with two young
bullocks, one for a burnt-offering, the other for a sin-offering.
2. They were sprinkled with water of purifying by .M-< *.
.'J. The leading men of the whole nation laid their hands upon
them, an<J by this ceremony offered them to God as substitutes
for theniM l\rs, :nrl in the room of their first-born. 4. A .-iron
offered them before the Lord, or, as it is literally expressed in
the Hebrew, tmrt-il thimfo n >r,i,>:,,Jf'frfn;/, before the I,opi;
perhaps by causing them tc lall down before God toward his
holy Tabernacle, or, as others have supposed, by requiring them
to \\ulk solemnly around the altar, in token of their dedication
to the Lord, as /in',/,/ stt<-r/'/i* for his use. 5. They placed
their hands upon the heads of the bullocks, which wen chen
offered to make an atonement for them. (Num. viii. 522.)
By these ceremonial signs was represented the perpetual con-
secration of the Levites, in place of the first-horn of all the
Israelites, to the service of the Sanctuary; the purity which
God *eeks in all who come near to serve him ; the necessity
81 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
there is, that for this end all such as belong to the family of
Adam should be cleansed, as it were with u-nf'-r and hy M**/,
by the sprinkling of the blood of Jesus Christ, and through
the sanctifying power of the Holy Ghost.
In the wilderness, the Levites had the charge of carrying
the tal>ernaele, with all its vessels, from place to place. In
this busiiii .--, cadi of the three great families into which they
were divided had its particular department of duty assigned by
God himself. In the land of Canaan, they were relieved, of
course, from all this service. Only a part of them were needed
to attend about the Sanctuary. The rest, scattered in their
several cities through the land, seem to have been employed,
as we have already seen, in various ways, for the promotion of
piety and knowledge in the nation : unless where they forgot
their character, and lost the spirit of their office in the spirit
of the world. That part of them whieh attended at the taber-
nacle or temple were required to see that they were kept clean,
and to Lave continually on hand all supplies, such as wine, oil,
incense, &c., that were needed for the sanctuary service. The
music of the temple was committed to their care, many of
them were employed as porters, and, in later times, it became
their business, also, to slay the victims that were brought to
the altar. At first, they began to wait upon the service of the
talternacle at the age of twenty -five, and were not admitted to
their full ministration before the age of thirty, continuing their
service till they reached their fiftieth year. (Num. iv. 3,
viii. 24.) Afterward, however, under the temple, they began
to attend upon some duties if their ministry as early as the
age of twenty. (1 Chroii. xxiii. 24 32.)
David divided the Levites into four great classes. The first
class, consisting of 24,000, were appointed to assist the priests
to set foncin-il tin n-,,1-1; <>f thr MUM of flit- />//</. The se-
cond, of 6,000, were made officer* un<I jn<l</' s through the laud.
The third, amounting to 4,000, were j#>rti>rx. The fourth,
amounting to 4,000 also, were //fx/Vm//s. (1 Chron. xxiii.
3 5.) Those that were appointed to minister at the temple
were divided into rotiwx or smaller classes, which followed
one another in turn, each performing service for a week at a
time"; thus only a small part of the whole number were pre-
sent at once.
The business of the PORTERS was to open in the morning
and shut at night the gates of the outer court ; to attend
them through the dav, in order to prevent any thing contrary
to the purity or peace of the temple; to have charge of the
treasure-chambers near the gates j and to keep watch at dif-
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 311
fcrcnt places through the night. The Jews tell us, that there
were altogether, about the temple, twenty-four stations occu-
pied every night by guards ; three of them, in the Court of
Israel, were guarded by priests, and the rest by Levites.
Each of these guards, which consisted of several men, had its
chief or commander ; hence we read of the captains of the tem-
ple. (Luke xxii. 4, 52.) There was one with still higher au-
thority set over all the guards as their ruler, who is called in
a more eminent sense the (.'n/>/<n'n </f tltf tnnjtle. (Acts v. 24.)
This last, perhaps, was the same with the J/n of the Mnuit-
iiiin <>f /In' Utilise, whose business we are told it was to walk
round every night and see the guards at every station were not
neglecting their duty. If he found any asleep, he immediately
struck him, and might set fire to his garments, as at times he
did not hesitate to do. Some have thought, that there is
allusion to this usage of the temple in Rev. xvi. 15.
The MUSICIANS, by their courses, had an important part to
perform in the daily service of the Sanctuary. Each course
had its leader placed over it, called the Chief Musician ; which
name we find in the titles of many of the Psalms. Part of
them sung with their voices, and the rest played on various
instruments, .-tanding all along in a row across the east end
of the Court of the I'riests. as we have noticed in the last
chapter, with their faces toward the broad and lofty front of
the temple. The time for the performance of this sacred exer-
cise was when the solemn sacrifice was kindled upon the altar.
" When the burnt-offering began, the song of the Lord began
also with the trumpets, and with the instruments ordained by
David king of Israel : and all the congregation worshipped,
and the singers sang, and the trumpeters sounded." (2 Chron.
xxix. 25 28.) On common days, accordingly, the service of
solemn sounding praise was performed twice namely, whin
the morning and the evening sacrifice ascended from the altar
On extraordinary days, when other public sacrifices were ap-
pointed, the musicians were called of course to additional
duty.
According to the Jews, a particular psalm was appointed
for each day of the week, to be regularly sung with its ordinary
daily service, nioriung and evening. Thus, the 24th psalm
was assigned to the first day, (our Sunday) because, say the) ,
on the first day of the creation-week God possessed the world
as its maker, and so gave it to be for a possession to man : the
48th psalm was assigned to the second day, (our Monday,)
because on that day the Lord divided tin waters and reigned
81*2 BIB! ICAL ANTIQUITIES.
over them : the 82d to the third day because on that day
the earth appeared, established by the wisdom of the .Most
Iliirli, and placed under his righteous government : the 94th
to tin- fourth day because on that day He made the sun
moon, and stars, and so will take vengeance on all that worship
them : the 81st to the fifth day because of the variety of crea-
tures made on that day to praise his name : the 93d to tho
sixth day because on that day he finished his works, and
made man who can understand the glory of the Creator. On
the Sabbath, (our Saturday,) they sang the 92d psalm, which
is entitled A Suny for the S<il>l><ith <li/. On extraordinary
occasions, other psalms were sung. With additional sacrifices
of the Sabbath, (Num. xxviii. 9, 10,) they sang the two songs
of Moses; the one in Deut. xxxii. with the first offering, (or
more properly, only a part of it each Sabbath,) and the one
in Exod. xv. with the second offering, which was burned in
the afternoon before the regular evening sacrifice. Each psalm
was divided into three parts; and still, in singing, a considerable
pause was made between the first and the second, and between
the second and the third. The signal for commencing the
song was given by the sound of the trumpets. These were
not used in the musical band of the Levites, but only by the
priests ; certain of whom were stationed on the southwest side
of the altar, to sound with them on these occasions. At the
proper time, they made the well-known sounding of three
successive blasts, (the first and last long and unbroken, while
the middle one was brought out in a sort of flourish, with
breakings and quaverings,) when instantly the whole band of
voices, harps, psalteries and cymbals, raised on high the loud
anthem of praise. Having gone through the first part of the
psalm, the music was silent. During the pause, the trumpets
sounded again, and the people were expected to worship in
silent reverence. So it was also during the next pause, when
the second part of the psalm was finished ; after which, the
music started a third time and concluded the service. Such,
: f we may believe the tradition of the Jews, was the general
manner of the temple music.
The Levites were not required to perform themselves the
more servile kind of employments about the Sanctuary, such
s bringing water, splitting wood, &c. They were allowed
servants for these labours. Thes seem to have been origin-
slly such as were devoted to service of this sort by parents,
toasters, or their own religious choice. (Lev. xxvii. 1 8.)
Afterward the number was greatly increased by the subjection
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 313
uf the Gibeonites and otliers to this business. (Josh. ix. 21
27 ) More were added in the age of David and Solomon
(Ezra viii. 20.) These servants were called NETHINIMS, that
is, given or devoted ones.
SECTION II.
THE PKIESTS.
THE priestly office hid its origin with the earliest time*.
Sacrifices, as we shall hereafter see, were appointed of God di-
rectly after the fall, and so accordingly there were priests,
whose business it was to offer them. (Heb. v. 1.) At first,
fathers were the priests of their own families. Such were
Noah, Abraham, Job, &c. As patriarchal establishments
grew to be large communities, their heads seem to have exer-
cised, at least in many cases, a sort of priestly office for the
whole, as well as a royal one. We read in the Bible of one
ancient priest before the time of Moses, of peculiarly interest-
ing character. He was king of Salem and invested at the
same time with the highest dignity of the sacred office ; so
that even Abraham, though he was priest in his own family,
and honoured with the most remarkable favour of God. acknow-
ledged in him a higher and more especially sacred minister of
the Most High God. (Gen. xiv. 1820, Heb. vii. 110.)
He was constituted a wonderful type of the Lord Jesus Christ,
as the apostle fully teaches us in his epistle to the Hebrews.
(Ps. ex. 4.) With the institution of the Jewish Ceremonial
Economy, God confined the priesthood to a particular family.
All the male descendants of Aaron were /'//<>/.<: the first-
born of the whole family, in continual succession, according to
the regular order of earlier times, sustained the still moiv im-
portant dignity of 7//V///-/V/V>v. We have an account of tin;
manner in which they were consecrated to their office in Ex.
xxix. 1 35, and Lev. viii. 1 36. The ceremonies wen;
solemn and expressive, and for ever separated the family of tho
priests from all the rest of the nation. 1. They were washed,
and then clothed with their holy garments, to signify that they
needed to be cleansed from sin, and clad with righteousness
for their work. 2. Aaron, the High-priest, was anointed with
oil. (Ps. cxxxiii. 2.) 3. A sin-offering was offered to make
atonement for them. (Lev. viii. 14.) I. A burnt-tifffring fol-
lowed, in token of their dedication to God, which could not be
acceptable till sin was atoned for. 5. A sacrifice of consecra
311 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
tion was next necessary having, in some sort tho nature of
pi'm-t-nffiTnuj : by the significant ceremony of putting a littl*
of the blood on their ears, the thumbs of their right hands,
and the great toes of their right feet, it was intimated that
their whole powers were to be considered as consecrated to
God : part of the blood was mingled with holy oil and sprinkled
over them, by which they and their garments were hallowed :
part of the flesh, together with part of the bread provided for
the occasion, was waved by the priests themselves, and given
to God on the altar; the rest, except the breast, which \va>
given to Moses, became their own share, and was to be eatm
on the same day in the holy court of the Sanctuary. 6. Thev
were to abide in the oourt sece.n days without going from it \>\
day or by night, and every day a new sin-offering was to bleed
at the altar, for atonement.
When employed in their sacred duties, the priests were re-
quired to wear a particular dress. An account of the holy
garments which God directed to be made for their use, we have
in the 28th chapter of Exodus. Those which the eommou
priests were required to wear are hardly more than mentioned,
toward the end of the chapter ; so that we can learn little about
them from Scripture, except that they were, on the whole,
very beautiful and rich. Reverence, it was supposed, could
not allow the use of sandals or shoes in the performance of
their holy ministry. Accordingly, they served with naked
feet at all times ; though the cold marble pavement of the
temple rendered such exposure often injurious to health.
The duties of the priests at the sanctuary comprehended all
the more solemn services of its worship, and such as, My rea-
son of their direct and immediate reference to God, oonrtituted
the true life and substance of that worship. They had charge
of the altar and its fire, and presented upon it the sacrificial
offerings; all the ministry that was done in the Holy rim-,
was theirs, &c. To them was intrusted the superintendence
of the whole sanctuary, with all its sen-ice : all was ordered
under their care and direction ; it was their business to see
that the sacred system of worship which God had appointed
wa carried forward in all its parts with decent and solemn ac-
tion from day to day. The age at which they entered upon
their office was the same as in the case of the L-vit.--
To be qualified for discharging the priestly office, it was ne-
cessary, not only that a man could clearly show bin descent
from Aaron, (Ezra ii. 62,) but that he should also be five
from bodily defects. (Lev. xxi. 17 24.) The iu.cd.niug 'f
this last requirement is plain. In the outward m-.-.uoninl r-
BIBLICAL A>TIQUITIE8. 315
ru jeemenl by which the old dispensation shadowed forth
)h.ugs spiritual and heavenly, freedom from bodily imperfection
represented that moral soundness which is needed in such as
draw near to the Holy One, and without which no man in the
ena shall see the Lord. (Heb. xii. 14.) So, in other respects,
the priestly character was to be guarded with more than com-
mon care from every thing that might seem to detract from its
worldly honour, or to stain it with the smallest outward defile-
iiient, in signification of the spiritual dignity and purity which
should characterize all who come nigh to God. (Lev. xxi. 1
9, xxii. 1 13.) In later times, it became the business of thu
Sanhedrim to examine candidates for the holy office, and de-
termine their fitness for it in all respects. If they could not
bring sufficient evidence of their descent from Aaron, they
were clothed in black, covered with a black veil, and sent
home in disgrace. If they had such evidence, they were then
examined as to their freedom from blemishes. Such as were
found defective in this trial, were excluded from serving in the
courts of the priests; but that they might have some service
to perform at the temple, they were put to the business of ex-
amining the wood that was provided for the altar, in order to
detect any pieces that might have worms in them, which were
considered unfit for the sacred fire. The wood was deposited
for this purpose in the building that occupied the north-oast
corner of the Court of the Women : here these blemished
priests attended from day to day, carefully searching every
stick, to be sure that none polluted with a worm was carried
to the altar. Thus human authority added its uncommanded
ceremonies to the original institution of God, disfiguring it,
in this case, as in a thousand others, with vain and foolish
superstition.
The priests were forbidden to drink any wine or any strong
drink when employed in the service of the sanctuary, lest they
should become guilty of irreverence, and so provoke the anger
of God. Nadab and Abihu, it seems, owed their crime and
thijir ruin to an undue use of such liquor. (Lev. x. 1 11.)
In the time of David, the whole number of priests, which
had then become very considerable, was divided into twenty-
four classes, or courses, which were required to attend at the
sanctuary in succession, each for a week at a time. (1 Chron.
xxiv. 1 18.) Thus only a twenty-fourth pan were employed,
tit mire, in the service of God's house, and each part was called
to eiitjraire in this employment only once in about six months
Hie change of one class for another, week after week, always
took place on the Sabbath on that day still, the course*
316 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
both of the priests and the Lcvites that had served their week
went nut, and the next in order came in, to take their turn foj
the wsek to come. (2 Chron. xxiii. 4 8, 2 Kings xi. 5 7/
Kadi course had its own chief, and embraced within itself a
particular great family of the general stock. At the return
from the Babylonish captivity, as many as twenty of the orig :
rial courses or families were found to be without representa-
unly four, the Jews tell us, were represented among the
priests that came back, so far as genealogical inquiry could
.ix-ertain. A new distribution, therefore, was necessary, in
order to revive the old plan of twenty-four classes. Kach of the
four families that returned was divided, for this purpose, into
six parts, which became so many new courses for the service
of the second temple. To these new courses the names of tho
old ones were assigned by lot, and so they were numbered ac-
cording to the original order of their first appointment. Thus
the twenty-four ancient classes were revived in form and in
name, though so many of them had been lost in reality. Tho
ancient course of Abijah, which was the eighth in order, had
been so lost with the captivity; but a new one had, in this
way, takon its place and name, and this was that course of Al>ia
to which /aeiiarias, the father of John the Baptist, belonged.
(Luke i. 5.)
The various daily services to be attended to were distributed
among the several priests of each course by lot. Thus it fell
upon one to kill the sacrifice,- upon another to xj>rinkl> //
lilund ; upon another to dress the lumps, &c. According to
this custom of the priests' office, it was the lot of /acharias,
while he ministered before God, in the order of his course, on
the occasion mentioned in the gospel, to l>nrn im-c/i^ on tin;
golden altar, in the Holy Place. As the number Ix-longing to
each course grew to be large, it seems that when one performed
its week of service, all its members were not required to minis-
ter every day; but a portion of them on one day, another por-
tion on the next, &c., according to their families.
The whole Aaronic priesthood was a ceremonial institution,
shadowing, in solemn and expressive type, the mediatori.il
character of the Lord Jesus Christ. Its meaning was not pr >-
perly in itmff, but in this great and glorious reality, of which
it was the unsubstantial image. Accordingly, when Christ
came, the ancient priesthood was brought to an end, as ha-, ing
accomplished all its purpose: the image yielded to the reality
the shadow to the substance. The priestly olVu-e is not
wanting in the new dispensation introduced by the gospt 1. On
the contrary, it is found here in its highest dignity, and in it*
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 317
jniy true worth ; not committed to a great family, and handed
down from fathers to sons, as under the law, but gathered and
consecrated, with unchangeable perfection, in one person.
Jesus combines in himself, in the fullest reality, all that the
Levitical priesthood represented. It was established in the
Ceremonial System, to be a mediating ministry between God
and the church ; it intimated that men, in themselves, are
unfit to draw near to their Maker, and that he cannot regard
them with any favour, or extend to them any blessing, except
through some mediatorial agency interposing with sufficient
merit on their behalf. All this agency is realized in Christ.
He is fully qualified to act for men, in things pertaining to
God ; and, through him, God is abundantly willing to com-
municate to the most unworthy of our family the richest bless-
ings of his grace. In every respect the church is blessed, in
him, with such a priesthood as her wants demand.
Figuratively, or by way of metaphor, Christians are called
priests. In the Old Testament, the whole Jewish nation, be-
cause it was so distinguished in religious advantages from the
rest of the world, and brought so near to God, in comparison
with other people, is thus styled a kingdom of priests. (Ex.
xix. 6.) So, in the New Testament, believers in Christ are
said to be a chosen generation, a royal priesthood, a holy na-
tion, &c., (1 Pet. ii. 9,) made kings, and priests unto God, by
the Lord Jesus Christ. (Rev. i. 6.) Through his redeeming
uiercy, they are washed and clothed in robes of righteousness ;
consecrated by blood, and by the holy anointing of God's Spirit;
t^paratcd from the world that lieth in sin, and permitted to
come very near to the Lord in all spiritual services ; qualified
to offer acceptable sacrifices of prayer and praise and sincere
obedience, and to fad upon the holy provisions of God's house,
and to enter within the Holy Place, and to approach, with
sacred liberty, even to the mercy-seat, in the Holiest of all.
(Hfcb. x. 19 22, 1 Pet. ii. 5.) Still, however, Christiana
are in all these respects only like priests, not priests in rilit>/.
Their privileges and services have their whole reason and value
only in the priesthood of Christ. There is no other true priest-
hotxl in the church but this, of the All-sufficient Mediator, now
pavs d into the heavens, and set on the right hand of the
of the majesty on high.
87
318
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
Cl
SECTION III.
THE HIGH-PRIEST.
THE office of the High-priest claims a separate consideration
It embodied in itself all the attributes and all the meaning oi
the priesthood, in their highest perfection. The multitude of
ilutirs that belonged to the priestly office in the Jewish cere-
monial syst< in,
made it n<
rytohareanmu
ber of prie-t-,
but to show that
it was still roiisi-
dered one s'uiyh
and n IK fir it/i /f
thing, the wlmK'
ministrywas uni-
ted and hound to-
gether in sul'oi-
dinaterclationto
one ropresentu-
tive head. Tin*
head was the
high-priest. IJ e
was the centre
andsouloftheen-
tire priesthood,
comprehending
its most essen-
tial agency exrl u-
sivelyinhinisdt,
and gathering, ;u>
it were, into one
simple whole, all
the action of its
several inferior
part-.
We have seen how he was consecrated. His sacred <1rc*s
was still more costly and beautiful than that of the other
priests, and is more particularly described in the divine volume.
(Kx. xxviii. 2 30.) The Ruin and L'j>/i</ have been already
noticed, in the first part of this work ; chap v. sec. 1. The
last was exceedingly splendid, and full of curious ornament.
()u ::u:h shoulder of it was fixed :m onyx stone, having graven
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 319
apon it the names of six of the tribes of Israel ; so as to have
together all of them thus inscribed, to be borne before the
Lord, for a memorial upon the High-priest. The embroidered
coat was a richly wrought tunic, which sort of garment has
also been noticed, in the same section, as being the one that
was commonly worn by all persons next to the skin. The
Rri'dxi-plnte. was a square piece, measuring only a span each
way, composed of the same sort of highly ornamented stuff as
that of the ephod, and made double, in such a way, perhaps,
*s to form a sort of bag or pouch in the inside. On one side
of it was set four rows of precious stones, each row having
fchree, and no two of all being alike, on every one of which was
engraved the name of one of the twelve tribes. This was t'a-t-
ened to the front part of the ephod, with the side that was
set with stones, outward ; and thus the names of the children
of Israel were carried by the High-priest upon his breast, as
w-!l as upon his shoulders, for a memorial before the Lord,
when he went into the Holy Place. In this way it was sig-
nified, that he was the mediatorial representative of the whole
church ; that all its access to God, and acceptance with him.
was in and through ///.> person, ami that he continually acted
for its universal body, in all his official ministrations. The
Mitre was made of fine linen, folded many times round, and
finished with peculiar elegance and taste. Upon the front of
it was fixed a plate of pure gold, bearing upon it the expressive
inscription, HOUNKSS TO TIIK LOUD. The robe covered the
tunic ; and the ephod, as far as it reached down from the
shoulders, was girded over the robe, outmost of all. (Ex.
xxxix. 131.)
Thus splendid was the whole official dress which the High-
priest wore on ordinary occasions. But on the great day of
atonement, when he entered into the Holiest of all, he clothed
himself with other garments, made altogether of linen, strik-
ingly plain and simple. (Lev. xvi. 4, 23.)
As the High-priest was the most important, by far, of all
the priests, and included in himself the highest and most es-
sential dignity of the priestly office, he was required to guard
himself with yet more care than the rest of his family, from
every thing like degradation or defilement, in the smallest de-
gree. (Lev. xxi. 10 15.) His office was originally held ftr
life, according to the Divine intention. But in later times
after the captivity, it came to be oftentimes violently taken
away from one, and gi'"in to another, without regard to tho
ancient usage. The right of birth too, which, under the first
temple, confined the office to the line of the first-boru, was in
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
this latter age trampled under foot. Wicked men sought the
distinction in the most corrupt manner. Money and shameful
intrigue were employed to get possession of it. More than
once, the way to the Aaronic mitre, as oftentimes the way to
a royal croicn has been, was through murder itself; while the
wearer displayed upon his forehead, engraven in gold, that
signature, Holiness to the Lord, the guilt of blood polluted his
soul with its foulest stain. Thus the office came to be held by
the worst of men, following each other in quick succession, and
piety had no place where it ought to have been found in its
highest perfection. Such unholy men were the high-priests
that lived in the time of our Saviour. Such was that r.//,/-
phas, who presided in the Sanhedrim when it tried and con-
demned the Lord of glory. The place had been occupied some
years before by Annas; on which account he is styled High-
priest in the history of Christ's crucifixion, although at that
time he did not actually hold the office, having been put out
of it to make room for another. Between him and Caiaphas,
though both were living at the same time, there had been, in
fact, no less than two other persons clothed for a little time
with the dignity.
The High-priest might, at any time, if he chose, perform
the sacred duties which were commonly discharged by the
other priests. He was accustomed, the Jewish writers say, to
offer a meat-offering of fine flour every day, half of it in the
morning, and half of it in the evening, at his own expense ;
for so the law, in their view, was supposed to require, and not
merely that he should present such an offering on the day of
his consecration. His most solemn work, however, was per-
formed on the most solemn of all the days of the year the
Great Day of atonement, which will come under consideration
hereafter : the duties he had to discharge on that day were
such as no common priest could ever attempt to do. It was,
moreever, particularly his business to consult God, when the
interests of the people made it proper, by Urim and Th\nnmim.
It has been much inquired, what we are to understand by
the URIM and Tin MMIM, and how, by means of it, the will
of God was discovered when sought in this way. Various con-
jectures, and some of them very foolish, have been imagined
by learned men upon the subject. The account of it is thus
given in the sacred volume : " Thou shalt put in the breast-
plate of judgment, the Urim and Thummim ; and they shall
be upon Aaron's heart, when he goeth in before the Lord :
and Aaron shall bear the judgment of the children of Israel
upon his heart before the Lord, continually." (Ex. xxviii. 30.)
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 821
The words Urini and Thumuiini signify, literally, Liyhta and
I* r fictions ; but as we are not furnished with any description
of the thhitf itself so called, we must necessarily remain in the
dark on this point. Whatever it was, it was immediately con-
nected with the solemn consultation of the Divine will ; and
by its heavenly appointment, it included in it a continual as-
surance, that when God wsis inquired of on any suitable occa-
sion in this wsiy, his answer might be confidently expected.
Some have thought, therefore, that we are to understand by
it, merely a divine virtue imparted to the breast-plate of the
high-priest, whereby it was, as it were, consecrated to its use,
and became an effectual means of discovering the will of the
Lord ; and that thus the breast-plate itself might well be called
Urim. The language of the Bible, however, seems rather to
intimate that some visible thing was added to the breast-plate,
as the giyn and pledge of this virtue which it was to possess.
In either case, these names would denote the clear and perfect
manner in which God made known his will, when consulted
by this method. Counsel was asked of God by Urim and
Thummim only in difficult and important cases. The high-
priest, chid in his sacred robes, with the breast-plate on his
breast, presented himself in the Holy Place, and proposed the
inquiry. The voice of the Most High sounded in distinct
an -were, as it seems, from between the cherubim behind the
veil. Thus repeatedly, we are informed, counsel was sought
and obtained in the time of the tabernacle. Even when the
ark wsis away from its sacred tent, the priest, girded with his
wonderful ephod, often stood before it, and had the will of the
Lord made known in answer to his inquiries. (Judg. i. 1, 2,
xx. 18, 23, 28, 1 Sam. xxii. 10, xxiii. 913, xxviii. 6.) We
have no account of God being consulted in this way in the
time of the temple.
As we have seen already, the High-priest was intrusted with
the most important power as njitdye, not only in sacred mat-
ters, but in questions also of a merely civil kind. 1 !< sustained,
too, a chief rank in the royal court, a a counsellor, to whom
tin; king was expected to have recourse in every great interest
of the state.
We read in 2 Kings xxv. 18, and Jer. Hi. 24, of a tin, mi
]>rits/ as well as a chief one. This seems to have been onu
appointed t<i assist the chief or high-priest, in the general over-
sight of tin; Sanctuary, and in cases of unexpected necessity,
to teikc his place, even in the most solemn duties. As he
Uligilt lie suddenly untitted for his peeuliar wrk by sickt:
or defilement, and yet it was of the most vital iiupurtuucu that
822 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
on the great day of Atonement, especially, that work should
not be omitted, it was certainly altogether expedient to have
such a substitute, qualified in such emergencies to take upon
himself the whole character of high-priest, in his stead, and jo
to accomplish the holy services of the season in their prupei
place. The Jewish writers of later times make frequent men-
tion of such an assistant and substitute (when necessary) of the
high-priest. They call him the Sayan.
We have seen that the whole priesthood was instituted ot
God, to represent, in shadowy type, the mediatorial character
of our Redeemer, Jesus Christ. To him the. priestly office
hud regard from the beginning. It was unly in its relation to
him that it had any meaning whatever. He nc,-, it is plain,
the kigkfrinL in the Jewish economy, was m. rr than any
other single priest, a figure of this Great Mediator that wa, to
come. As he was the soul of the entire priesthood, and com-
prehended in himself, in a certain sense, the universal oftVe,
(though necessity required a distribution of its manifold duties
among many secondary ministers, and reserved for him exclu-
sively only such as were most vital and essential in their na-
ture,) he of course embodied, in his official person, the largest
measure, by far, of that typical significancy that has been men-
tioned. This will appear with peculiarly striking evidence,
when we come hereafter to consider the solemn services which
he was required to perform on the day of atonement. The
apostle, in his epistle to the Hebrews, dwells at large upon the
priestly character of Christ, and shows how infinitely it ex-
ceeded, in dignity and glory, all that had belonged, in tho
earthly pattern of heavenly things, to the Aaronic high-priest.
He shows that the Holy Ghost had long before taught, th-it
the Levitical priesthood was not sufficient to secure the great-
ends to which the priestly office, in its nature, has regard, and
that it was, therefore, to be continued but for a season, after
which it should give place to one that would possess, in reality
all the power that this had only represented in shadow. A
new priesthood, it had been signified, was to be introduced
after the order of M> /</ii*/>'k; and the priestly character of
that man had been so ordered, in the wise providence of God,
as to evince symbolically that this new priesthood, of which it
was thus the mystical pattern, should have incomparably more
'jxcellence than that which distinguished the -Jewish state.
The priests under the law were made without an oath ; but
this one, who was after the order of Melehisedek, with an oath,
by which solemnity on the part of Go-.l, his office was shown
j be far more important than theirs. They were many, not
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 9"2'6
U-ing suffered to continue by reason of death ; but this man,
lu-rau.se he continueth ever, hath an unchangeable priesthood.
'] hry had infirmity and sin of their own ; he is altogether
ho/i/, harmless and undefiled. (Heb. vii. 1 28.) Yet, though
.HO glorious in his nature, he was not unqualified to fed for
those on whose behalf he has undertaken to act. To be fit for
uis work, he clothed himself with the nature of man, so as to
become familiar with all its infirmities and miseries, only with
Out sin. Thus he was qualified to represent that nature in his
mediatorial agency, and at the same time to sympathize with
it in its weaknesses and sorrows. In that he himself hath .-uf
fered being tempted, he is able to succour them that aro
tempted, and can be touched in all points with the feeling of
their infirmities. (Heb. ii. 1418, iv. 14 16, v. 1 9.)
CHAPTER V.
SACRIFICES AND OTHER RELIGIOUS OFFERINGS.
SACRIFICE has been defined to be some,
thing that is offered immediately to God
in such a way as to be consumed or
chanycd into some other form. Thus,
animals were sacrificed when they
were presented to God by being
solemnly killed, and either altoge-
ther, or in part, burned upon some
sort of altar; and so was wine,
when it was offered by being solemnly poured out. The Jew-
ish law prescribed many sacrifices, as well as various other
religious offerings.
SECTION I.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF SACRED OFFERINGS IN USE
AMONG THE JEWS.
SACRED offerings of different kinds were common long before
the age of Mobes, evn from the earliest period of the world
Kvery one that has ei-r road the Bible knows that, sacrifices
were in use directly after the full, and all along down to tht
time when the Jewish church wa< separated from the reft of tbi
S24 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
world. Wo r^ad of altars and priests. We have notices >f
diffcn nt /./..'/> .i' .sacrifices. (Gen. iv. 3,4, viii. 20, xxxi. 54.)
We read of clean and imr/nni animals. ((Jen. vii. 2.) W>-
read also of Ji/ .-.'//////.< and t!tln'* being eunsrrrated to God
(Gen. iv. 4, xiv. 20, xxviii. 22.) In the establishment of the
Jewish economy, however, a more regular and extensive syx^m
of sacrifices and religious oife rings was instituted. The num-
ber of them was increased ; the different kinds of them more
can-fully distinguished; and the whole manner of them pre-
scribed with particular and solemn direction.
Some of the sacrifices appointed by the Jewish law were
bloody, requiring the death of animals : others were no*, so,
consisting of cakes, meal, wine, &c.
BLOODY OFFERINGS.
The only animals that might be used in sacrifice were those
of the ox-kind, simp, //oAs, /m-t/> -</</rfs, and young JWMMl*.
They were to be in all respects free from blemish or defect,
because God ought to be served with the best offerings that
man can bring. If we withhold from him our highest regard,
and worship him only with a sort of halfway religion, devot-
ing our chief time, care and thought to the world, while with
little or no feeling we content ourselves with just so many
outward duties of piety as are needed to keep a sleepy con-
science quiet, we do but insult the greatest and best of all
beings, and provoke his sore displeasure. " Cursed be the
deceiver," saith the Lord of Hosts, " which hath in his flock
a male, and voweth, and sacrificeth unto the Lord a corrupt
thing! 1 ' (Mai. i. 8, 13, 14.) For one particular class of sacri-
fices male victims alone were allowed, except in the case of
birds, where the distinction was not regarded. Except in the
case of birds also, the victims were required to be not less than
eight days, nor more than three years, old. The sheep and
goats that were sacrificed were commonly a year old : the bul-
locks thiee years. Wild beasts were not offered in sacrifice :
hence that expression, to intimate that no religious sacredness
was to be imagined in the slaying of animals in certain cases ;
" Even as the roebuck and the hart is eaten, so shall thou eat
them; the unclean and the clean shall eat of them alike."
(Deut. xii. 15, 21, 22.)
According to the law of Moses, sacrifices could not be
offered upon the altar, except by the priests : nor at any other
place than in the Court of God's Sanctuary, the tabernacle
first, and afterwards the temple. (Deut. xii. 528.)
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 325
Animal-sacrifices were of four general kinds : vir. Burnt'
Offering*, Sin-Ojfcrinys, Trespass- Offerings, and Peace-Offer-
inys. We have a particular account of these in the first seven
chapters of Leviticus. The three kinds first mentioned had
an i.rpiatory virtue; that is, they made atonement far those
that offered them. The Peace-offerings were more particularly
sacrifices expressive ofyratitude and praise, for mercies received,
or of supplication for mercies desired. Burnt-offerings, how-
ever, were not exclusively expiatory in their character, but
had iu them also a meaning of thankful and adoring worship
presented to the Most High : and in the nature of every class,
on the other hand, we are to suppose that some regard was
had to the guilt of sin, which called for the shedding of blood,
before man could be accepted with God in any service. BI>><#1
poured out in sacrifice of any sort, could have no meaning
other than that of atonement. It was solemnly consecrated by
the Lord to be an expiation for the soul, and accordingly never
flowed about the altar without a design of calling to remem-
brance the existence of sin, and symbolically washing away its
evil. (Lev. xvii. 1 14.)
1. BURNT-OFFERINGS. These are sometimes styled holo-
causts, that is, offerings wholly burned, because all the flesh
of the victims employed in them was consumed by the fire
upon the altar. The animals used for them might not be, ex-
cept in the case of birds, any other than males. The sacrifices
that were in use before the time of Moses seem to have been
most generally of this sort. They appear to have been expres-
sive of religious worship in its widest nature ; so as to be em-
ployed in it with equal propriety, when it was exercised in the
way of praising God for his past mercies, or in the way of im-
ploring his favour and blessing, or of deprecating his displea-
sure, for time to come. They were offered to God as the
Maker, Preserver and Governor of the Universe, worthy of
ill honour and adoration ; and were designed to recommend
those that presented them to his holy regard, and to make thciv
M rvicc.s of praise or prayer acceptable in his sight, which, by
reason of sin, they could not be, without the &he<l<lin<j <>f blood.
Such offerings are said in the law to make atonement for the
person that presented them ; but no particular cases of sin are
mentioned for which tJiry are to be brought to the altar. They
seem to have had reference, in this respect, to the yeneral sin-
fuliiess of In-art and lifer of which a man ought to be conscious
in his own bosom, and for which he should continually t'ee.l
tliat he needs to have his soul purged by sacrifice. We have
an account of the manner of the burnt offering sacrifice in the
82 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
lirst chapter of Leviticus. There we are informed how the
offerer was required to l)ring his victim to the front of the
Sanctuary, beside the brazen altar, and solemnly to lay his
hand upon its head, and then to kill it before the Lord ; how
the priests were to take the blood in a proper vessel, and
sprinkle it round about upon the altar; how all the parts of it,
after the skin was taken off, were laid in order upon the wood
and fire of the sacred hearth ; and how the whole was consumed,
an offering made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the Lord.
2. SIN-OFFERINGS. These were altogether expiatory, an.l
were to be presented for purtinihtr cases of transgression. We
have an account of the manner of them in the fourth chapter
of Leviticus. The victims used for them were different, ac-
cording to the character of the offerer. A bullock was ap-
pointed for the purpose when atonement was to be made for
the high-priest, or for the people in general ; a male goat,
when a civil magistrate was the offender; and a female one, or
a lamb, when the guilty person was a common individual of
the nation. If the person happened to be so poor that he
could not furnish a kid or a lamb, he was required to bring to
the altar two turtle-doves, or two young pigeons ; one of which
was made a burnt-offering, and the other a sin-offering. If
he was too poor even for this, he was still not excused ; but
had to present an offering for his siu, of mere flour, unaccom-
panied with oil or incense. The victim was presented and
slain in the same manner as in the case of burnt-onVrin<:>.
Its parts, however, were disposed of differently. When it was
offered for the high-priest, or for the whole congregation, the
ministering priest was required to carry some of the bfood int
the Holy Place, there to sprinkle it with his finger seven time.-
tjolemnly, toward the veil of the Holy of holies, and to stain
with it the horns of the golden altar of incense; alter which,
he returned and poured out all the rest of it at the bottom of
the other altar without. Then the fat of the animal only was
consumed in the sacrificial fire, while all its other [arts were
borne forth without the camp, to an appointed place, and there
burned together. But when the sin-ofTerinir was presented by
the ruler, or by one of the common people, the ceremonie.-
were not equally solemn. The blood then was not carried
into the Holy Place ; it was enough to stain the horns of the
israzen altar with it before pouring it out. The flesh too,
ufter the fat was consumed, was not carried without the i-amj.
and burned, but was given to the priests to be eaten in tlir
Court of the Sanctuary. The eating of it was a religious dutj
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 327
that might not be neglected. What it signified, we learn from
l^v. x/l(i20.
3. TKKSPASS-OFFKRINGS. Of these we have an account in
i lie fifth and sixth chapters of Leviticus. Like the sin-offer
ings, which they resembled in many particulars, they were al-
together expiatory, and might not be offered at any time a man
chose of his own free will to bring one, as was allowed and
encouraged in the case of burnt-offerings and peace-offerings,
l>ut were to be presented only for particular offences; and
when these offences occurred they could not be withheld, with-
out exposing the offender to the punishment of wilful trans-
gression. They were never offered for the whole congregation,
as we have seen the sin-offerings sometimes were, but merely
for single individuals. The common victim used was a ram.
The ceremonies of sacrifice were the same with those that were
ob-erved in the common cases of sin-offerings; only the blood
was sprinkled round about upon the altar, and no mention ifi
made of its being put on the horns of it. The fiVsh was to be
2aten by the priests.
What was the general distinction between offences that
called for sin-offerings and those that called tor trespass-offer-
ings, has been much disputed among learned men, and seems
to be, on the whole, beyond satisfactory determination. Some
have thought, that trespass-offerings were to be made in cases
where there was a suspicion, but not a clear certainty, that an
offence had been committed; and sin-offerings, in cases where,
though at first the offence was unknown, it was afterwards
understood. Sins, according to some, were offences of a more
serious character ; trespasses, such as were of lighter evil. One
of the most learned men the world ever produced has told us,
that irexpa&ses in this case were offences of commission, such
as violated the law by doing what it forbade to be done ; and
that tins, on the other hand, were offences of omission, such
as left undone what the law required to be performed. Another,
equally learned, has assured us, that it was just the other way;
that the vim were the faults of ro//iW.<x/V>?i, and the trenpa>e
-udi as consisted in '/ntsxtrm. Both opinions seem to be with-
in t foundation, as well as those that have been mentioned first.
Another opinion is, that under the name of tr'-*pas*e, were
comprehended cases of two general kinds; viz. such as found
a man's conscience in doubt whether he had not committed an
offence, which, if certainly known, would have called for a MM-
onYring ; and such as were offences of that nature, that they
injured a man's neighbour: while xi*, or those fault* tha'
required sin-offerings, are supposed to have been such Iran*
328 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
gressioas of the l:iw as did not directly affect a felLw-being
but had the whole reason of their unlawfulness in their con-
trariety to the pleasure of God, and which, l>eing done in igno-
rance, or without thought, were afterwards clearly discovered
to conscience. Lastly, it has been supposed by others, thai
no general distinction between these two classes of offences is
to be inquired after ; that the distribution of particular offences
to one and to the other was made arbitrarily, or in compliance
with tht! common usage of speech, concerning the reason of
which it must be idle to seek information ; and that, therefore,
we are to rest satisfied with the statement, as we find it in the
Hible, that certain delinquencies which are mentioned were
reckoned as belonging to one class, and certain others to tht
other, without attempting to discover any specific difference of
nature that may satisfactorily account for the arrangement.
4. PEACE-OFFERINOS. The manner of these is told in the
third chapter of Leviticus. The animals used for them were
bullocks, heifers, rains, ewes, or goats : birds were not sacri-
ficed in this way. Peace-offerings, as we learn from Lev. vii.
11 20, were presented, either in ifccMtyUtMM tor some spe-
cial mercy received, or in the way of gujiji/ictttfoii for some
special mercy desired. Sometimes, when a person was in dis-
tress, he accompanied his prayers to God for help with a rmr,
that he would afterwards present an offering, if preserved or
prospered, and sometimes, of a man's free will he presented
his offering beforehand, together with his prayers for Oivjne
help or blessing. Hence arose the distinction of ,-mr >, //"///* </
and voluntary offcriny*, though both of these; had in them the
nature of supplication-sacrifices, and so differed from the other
class of peace-offerings that were designed to express gratitude
for favours already enjoyed. In the case of these offerings,
the person that presented the victim, as in the other rises al-
ready considered, brought it to the altar, and laid his hand
upon its head with solemn ceremony before the Lord. It was
not slain, however, to the north of the altar, as the victims
offered in the other sacrifices were, but to the south of it.
After it was killed, the priests sprinkled the altar round about
with its blood, and placed its fat upon the sacred tire, to he a
sacrlico of sweet sarour unto the Lord; which being done,
the tiesh was divided between the priest and the offerer the
priest received for his part the breast and the right shoulder,
ami the offerer had all the rest. The meat was not allowed,
however, to be carried away and laid up for common use, but
was required to lie all eaten on the same day that it was of.
fered, or, at farthest, on the day after; and if any part of it
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 229
Happened to be left till the third day, it was to be burned.
Thus, in these peace-offerings, a communion of friendship was
celebrated between God and his people, and he himself, as it
were, and his ministers, and those that worship him m this
way, partook together of the same sacred feast. At the same
time, as already intimated, the death of the victim, after the
woiemn laying of hands upon its head, and the sprinkliny of its
Hood upon the altar, called to remembrance the guilt of those
who aspired to this sacred and precious privilege, and expres-
sively signified, that without atonement God never can hold
friendly intercourse in any way with sinful, fallen man.
The number of peace-offerings sacrificed every year was very
great. In addition to those that were presented without obli-
gation, as piety or formality led individuals, from time to
time, to come before the Lord in this way, a vast multitude
were made necessary by the law. From Deut. xii. 17, 18, xv.
19 23, and xiv. 22, 23, it appears, that not only the tithes
of every farmer's agricultural produce, with a portion of its
several first-fruits, but the firstlings also of bis whole flock and
herd, were to be consecrated to God as peace-offerings, and
solemnly feasted upon year by year; only when the animals
happened to have blemishes in them, they were considered
unfit for sacrifice, and might be used in the common way, for
food, at home ; in all other cases, they were either to be taken
themselves to the place of God's Sanctuary, or turned into
money, which should then be laid out for other victims in their
stead, and so entirely consumed according to the manner of
thanksgiving sacrifices. In these sacred feasts, not only the
families of those to whom the offerings belonged, servants and
all, were to participate, but it was enjoined also, that others,
who were without portion of their own, should be remembered,
and invited to take part in their joyous celebration. The hos-
pitality thus recommended and commanded was powerfully
enforced, at the same time, by the consideration, that all the
E revision made for these entertainments, which was most
beral, was to be consumed on their several occasions, and
could not, after the second day, be used at all : thus even those
that in other cases were niggardly and inhospitable, could not
well refuse to be generous and friendly enough in their peace-
offering feasts. How much these feasts of friendship must have
tended to promote good feelings among the people, and to se-
cure proper regard to the lower classes of society, and such aa
were shut out from its more fortunate advantages, the servant,
the poor, the orphan, the widow and the stranger, it i.- needle
to suggest.
ss*
330 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
Under the general class of sacrifices of which we are m w
speaking, arc properly to be reckoned those by moans of wliirb
it was usual to ratify and confirm (.'ownaiits. These, indeed,
were attended with some ceremonies peculiar to themselves,
but had in them, on the whole, the nature of pc<i<-< -<,jj, //>/*
The custom of confirming covenants in this way had its origin
very far back in antiquity. The manner of the solemnity, it
sci ins, was for the persons who wished to enter into covenant.
to slay and divide the victim, or victims, employed ; to place
the parts opposite each other; and then to pass through be-
tween them, using, at the same time, we may suppose, some
form of words suited to the transaction. The <lii-i.<!n of the
victim expressed, symbolically, the punishment which ought
to fall upon him who should afterwards violate the. agreement,
while the offering of it in sacrifice to God was, in fact, calling
upon him to witness what was engaged, and to take vengeance
in future on either of the parties that might prove false to it ;
thus laying conscience under the obligation of a most solemn
3ath. Part of the flesh, it is to be supposed, was afterwards
converted into a feast, of which both parties partook together,
in token of friendly agreement and confidence. It was in con
formity with human usage in this thing, that God condescended
to confirm his covenant with Abraham in the remarkable man-
ner that is recorded in Gen. xv. 8 17, causing a flame and a
smoke, as the sign of his own presence, to pass in vision be-
tween the parts of the victims prepared for the occasion. We
have notice of these Covenant sacrifices also in Jer. xxiv. 18,
19 ; where it is intimated, that the ceremony just mentioned
was used in a solemn covenant entered into by Xedekiah and
the people of Jerusalem before the Lord. Tiny cut the <-nlf In
twain, it is said, and passed between the parts thereof. From
this case, thus incidentally noticed, it would seem that other
covenants among the Jews were confirmed in like manner, al-
though it is not expressly mentioned in the Bible, when other
cases are spoken of. It is clear, however, that sacrifices were
habitually made use of on such occasions. (Gen. xxxi. 53, 51,
1 Sam. xi. 15, Ps. 1. 5.) In the great covenant which <jol
made with the Israelites at the foot of Mount Sinai, .M->-' -
sprinkled the people with the blood of the sacrifices. (Kx.
xxiv. 38, Heb. ix. 1823.)
The sacrifice of the Passover lamb seems to have had in it
tlso much of the nature of a peace-offering. It had, however
a peculiar character belonging to itself. A more particular
consideration of it will come in our way hereafter.
As w have already had occasion to uotke, some sacrifice
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 331
*rere offered by single individuals for their own advantage,
and others were offered in behalf of the nation as a whole.
Those of the first sort, if the case in Lev. xvi. 6, be exempted,
were not regulated by times and seasons; but were presented,
either freely at any time a man's heart moved him to rendet
such worship to God, or in conformity with the ri^ui'min-ni
of the law, when persons were brought into certain circum-
stances, which, according to the Divine will, called for particu-
lar offerings, in the way either of atonement for sin, .r "f
thankful acknowledgment of the Lord's mercy. Of such of-
ferings as were presented freely, various notices are found
throughout the Bible ; of the others that were required from
individuals in particular circumstances, besides the cases stated
in the 4th, 5th, and 6th chapters of Leviticus, we have in-
stances in Lev. xii. 6, 8, xiv. 10 31, xv. 14, 15, 29, HO, xix.
21, Num. vi. 10 21. The other general class of offerings,
viz. such as were made in behalf of the whole nation, were
all, except the particular cases noticed in Lev. iv. 13, 14.
Num. xv. 22 26, and xix. 5 10, assigned to certain times,
and had their regular periods when they were to be performed.
Such were the daily morning and evening sacrifices, (Ex. xxix.
38 41 ;) the Sabbath-day sacrifices; the new moon sacrifices,
and the sacrifices that belonged to those three great festivals.
For an account of all these, .see the 28th and 29th chapters of
Numbers. The paschal lambs, sacrificed in vast multitudes
on the first day of the/east of unleavened bread, were offeree!
severally in behalf of single families or small companies. The
victim required to be slain in cases of uncertain murder, was
sacrificed in behalf of a particular city or town. (Deut. xxi. 1
9.) This case, as well as the case of the red fief/er to which
reference has just now been made, was not in all respects a
regular mn-rifiria/ "tf'rriny, inasmuch as the victim was not
brought to the altar and there killed; both heifers, however,
had in them the nature of expiatory sacrifices.
The regular stated sacrifices which the law required to be
offered for the whole nation, in the course of each year, were
as follow: viz. 1. On everyday, two lambs; amounting alto-
gether to at least 730. 2. On every Sabbath, two additional
l.-iinl - ; making altogether 104. 3. On the first day of every
nii'i. li. two bullocks, one ram, seven lambs, and one goat;
amounting in the year to at least 24 bullocks, 12 rams, 84
lambs, and 12 goats. 4. On each of the seven days of the
feast of unleavened bread, the same as in the case of every new
moon just stated, (Num. xxviii. 19 25,) and besides, an ad
ditional lamb on the second day with the sheaf of first-l'raiUt.
832 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES
(Lev. xxiii 12 ;) making altogether 14 bullocks, 7 rams, ,>C
lambs, and 7 goats. 5. On the day of Pentecost, the same
also as for each new moon, (Num. xxviii. 2li 31,) and be-
sides, with the two wave loaves, seven lambs, one bullock, two
nuns, ;md a goat, together with two other lambs for a sacrifice
nf jo '.-ice-offering, (Lev. xxiii. 18, 19;) making altogether
.'$ bullocks, 3 rams, 16 lambs, and 2 goats. 6. On the Feast
of Trumpets, one bullock, one ram, seven lambs, and a goat.
7. On the great day of Atonement, the same, (Num. xxix. 7
11,) and besides a ram and a goat when the high-priest per-
formed his awful duty of cnt.erin<r tin- Most Holy Place. (Lev.
xvi. 5,) making together, 1 bullock, 2 rams, 7 lambs, ami '2
^<>.iN. On each of the eight days of the Feast of the Taberna-
cles a number of different victims, equal altogether to 7 1 bul-
locks, 15 rams, 105 lambs, and 8 goats. (Num. xxix. 12 38.)
- Let us now put the whole together, thus :
B. R. L. 0.
1. Daily Sacrifices for 365 Days, 7W
2. Sacrifices for 52 Sabbaths, 104
3. Sacrifices for 12 New Moons, 24 12 84 12
4. Sacrifices for the Passover, 14 7 50 7
5. Sacrifices for Pentecost, 3 3 10 2
6. Sacrifices for the Feast of Trumpets, 11 71
7. Sacrifices for the Day of Atonement 1272
8. Sacrifices for the Feast of Tabernacles, 71 15 105 8
114 40 1103 32
Thus many were the victims whose blood was shed each
year, in the stated services of the sanctuary, for the whole con-
gregation. The goats, in all these cases, were siR-itflerin<_rs ;
and the other animals, except in the one instance MtMod in
the statement, burnt-offerings. The blood of all these victims,
however, formed only a small part of the whole quantity that
was poured forth in the sacred court, year after year, from the
sacrifices that were there presented before Ihe Lord. The
largest stream by far flowed from the various v Jtims that were
led to the altar as private offerings.
SACRIFICES THAT WERE NOT BLOODY.
Bloodless sacrifices, it has been already stated, consisted in
meal, cakes, wine, &c. Of this class were the MEAT-OFFKR-
INOP, and the DRINK-OFKEIUN;S that were in many cases
required to accompany them. The latter were never presented
separately from the first, and in all common cases both were
found joined to other sacrifices of the bloody sort. There were,
BIBLKJAL ANTIQUITIES. 533
however, some bloodies sacrifices that were offered by them-
.selves without animal victims. We may, for the sake of order,
distribute all into three classes, as follow.
1. Prescribed iKftit-offerinys oeOOMfNMMrf irff/i < truth-offer-
ings. When united in this way, they were always attached
to particular bloody sacrifices. In Num. xv. 1 12, we have
a statement of the different proportions of flour, oil and wine,
that were required to be used in such cases for different vie
tims. It seems, that the animal sacrifices which God designed
to be accompanied with such offerings as we are speaking of,
were all peace-ffvrin<js, and all burnt-ojferinys of the flock or
herd, whether for individuals or for the whole congregation.
(Num. xv. 3 ; and chap, xxviii. 20.) Birds were not so
accompanied, except in one case where they were substituted
for other animals. (Lev. xiv. 31.) Sin-offeriny* and trexjxiss-
riffi'rlnys of every kind were not to be attended even with any
thing of the sort; unless it be supposed, that in the single
ease of the leper's purification sacrifice, mentioned in Lev. xiv.
10 20, such an offering, consisting of a tenth-deal of flour
with a proportion of oil and wine, was designed for each of the
three victims used on the occasion, out of that general meat-
offering which is there noticed : that, the case was thus, we
are assured by the Jewish writers ; but it seems natural and
easy enough to consider all that moat-offering as a rinyh. one
of peculiar character, intended particularly to accompany the
burnt-offering victim alone.
2. tltaJt-ajfesrwg* rnlnninrili/ tuft/rd to other sacrifices. The
offerings of the first class just considered were made nn-emsury,
in the eases that have been mentioned, and were accurately
determined as to quantity by the law ; but these which we are
now to notice, were such as individuals were led of their own
free will to present at the altar, with their bloody offerings,
over and above what was absolutely required ; or, at least,
such as, although they were directed to be presented in certain
v-iisi s. were nevertheless left to be determined as to their form
and their amount by the offerers themselves. Of this sort
are to be reckoned all those that are sjn.ken ;f in the secmid
chapter of Leviticus. From I/jviticus vii. 12, 13, we l-'arn
that sacrifices of this sort were to be added to all peace-offer*
in;rs for thanksgiving. No mention is made of wine being
joined to them : though no doubt it was often used with vic-
tims alnn^ with which they were brought to the altar; only,
however, as belonging to those other meat-offerings that have
been already noticed, which might be presented at the same
time, and not a.- having any thing to do directly with the*
34 B.BLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
thai are now in question. Meat-offerings of the first class
were all of unbaked flour mingled with oil ; but these undei
consideration might be either thus unbaked or baked in various
ways, and sometimes consisted of various fruits of the earth
without any preparation. A portion of the first-fruits, toge
ther with a tenth part of all the increase of the field, was to be
every year employed in this way. (Deut. xiv. 22 29, xxvi.
1-11.)
3. Independent meat-offfrimja. This class comprehends
those few bloodless sacrifices that were appointed to be offered,
as it were, upon their own account, without being attached to
any of the bloody class, or indebted to them for the occusi< >n.s
on which they were to be presented. These were either for
the whole congregation, or for particular individuals. Of the
first sort were, 1st. The twelve loaves of &h< ir-l,ri<t<l, set forth
before the Lord in the Holy Place. 2d. The sheaf oflar/'i/
offered on the second day of the Passover. (Lev. xxiii. 10.)
3d. The tico loaves of the first-fruits, offered on the day of
Pentecost. (Lev. xxiii. 17.) With these last, victims were
indeed sacrificed ; but they held only a secondary place in the
solemnities ; while the sheaf, in one case, and the loaves, in the
Dther, were of chief wad i>n/'j n</>>it consequence Of the
second sort, such as were offered for individuals were, 1st.
The offering of joilim*!/, of which we have an account in Num.
v. 15, 18, 25, 'J(>, that was to have with it neither oil nor in-
tense. 2d. The poor man's *itt-f/ff'< riny, mentioned in Lev. v.
11, that was to be offered in like manner, without oil or in-
cense, when a man was not able to provide for himself even a
pair of doves or pigeons. 3d. Th< ///vV >//// wnt-nfi<-rin<j, which
Aaron and his sons, it is said, were to present in the day of
their anointing. (Lev. vi. 20 23.) Jewish tradition tells us
that this last was two-fold ; being required of every priest
when he first entered upon his sacred office, and being required
besides of the high-priest every day during all the time of his
ministry ; but this does not clearly appear from the Scriptures,
Every meat-offering was required to be seasoned witli salt
and might not, on any ac :ount, have in it a particle of honey,
uor yet, in all common cases, a particle of leaven. The two
loaves offered on the day of Pentecost were leavened, and we
ivad that leavened bread was brought also with sacrifices of
thanksgiving, together with the unleavened cakes and wafers,
(Lev. vii. 13;) but no part of such offerings could be pre-
sented upon the altar; the universal statute was, that no lea-
ven, nor any honey, was to be burned in any offering of the
Lord made by fire. (Lev. ii. 11.) The shew-bread was -u>
1UBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 336
oompauied with incense without oil j the prescribed meat-
offering, to which wiue was joined, had oil without incense;
the poor man's sin-offering, the offering of jealousy, and the
sheaf of first-fruits, had neither one nor the other; while all
the rest were enriched with botn. The incense, in every case,
was all burned upon the altar; in the case of the meat-offering
presented by a priest, and as it seems, on the whole, in the
case of all those of the first class, such as were prescribed and
accompanied with wine, the whole was in like manner given
to the fin-; but, in other oa>es, only a part of the flour, or
bread and oil, was burned, as a memorial for all, while the re-
mui rider was appropriated to the priests, as a gift from the
Lord. The wiue, when it was used, was solemnly poured out
at the bottom of the altar.
In the general class of sacrifices of the bloodless sort, is to
be reckoned also, besides those that have been styled meat-
off'-rings, the sacred incense that was offered every morning
and every evening on the golden altar, and once in the year
presented upon a censer filled with coals, within the Holiest
of all.
FIRST-FRUITS, FIRST-BORN, TITHES, VOW-GIFTS, ETC.
Besides those to which the name of sacrifice has been par-
ticularly appropriated, such as we have been hitherto consider-
ing, there were other sacred offerings appointed in the Jewish
system that claim our attention. The most important of them
were of four principal kinds.
1. FIKST-FRI ITS. The first sheaf of barley, on the second
day of the Passover, and the first loaves of Pentecost, were
{in-sriitcd to God as offerings for the whole nation. But be-
sides these, offerings of all sorts of first-fruits were required to
be made, year after year, by imln-iiltml*; first-fruits of the
harve.-t and the vintage, from the threshing-floor, the wine-
press, the oil-press, and the honey -crowded hive, from the first
baked bread of the new crop also, and from the fleecy treasurer
gathered at every time of shearing from the flock. (Ex. xxiii.
in, \um. xv. 19 21.) These were not presented at rhe
altar, but were assigned by God, to whom they were conse-
cnted, for the use of his ministers, the priests. (Num. xviii.
11 13.) How much should be given in these cases, tin- law
left each person to decide for himself. The Jewish doctors
of later times, however, gave it as their judgment, that the
smallest proportion which a man might conscientiously allow,
was a sixtieth part of the whole produce from which it wa
taken.
436 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
In Dcut xviii. 3, we find the following statute : " This shaft
be the priests' due from the people, from them that offer "a
eacrifiee, whether it be ox or sheep: they shall give unto the
priest the shoulder, and the two cheeks, and the maw." The
word here translated, offer a sacrifice, has at times a moru
general meaning, and is used to signify the slaying of animals,
for common use, in cases where nothing of a sacred nature was
designed. It was understood accordingly ; and, as it would
seem, correctly understood, that such an extent of meaning be-
longed to it in this present case ; and so it was the practice
throughout the nation, as we are informed, on good authority,
still to appropriate the parts that have been mentioned to the
priests, whenever, on any occasion, animals were killed at home
only for the purpose of ordinary food. This gift may be
looked upon, as a sort of first-fruit* of every man's meat, be-
fore it might be used for the table. It was not necessary,
however, that this should be carried away to the sanctuary; it
was enough if it was given to some one of the priests in any
place ; and, accordingly, every individual used to give it to
any one who lived near him, as convenience or personal egard
determined his inclination.
2. The FIRST-BORN. Ever after the awful night in which
the Lord, for the deliverance of his people, smote all the first-
born of Egypt with death, all those of Israel that were males,
in commemoration of that event, and in acknowledgment of
the mercy that overwhelmed them not at that time with the
same desolation, were consecrated to be, in a peculiar manner,
the property of God. (Ex. xiii. 2, 12 15.) "When the Le-
vites were separated for the service of the sanctuary, they
were substituted, as far as their number reached, for the first-
born males of the whole people of that generation, and the
cattle which they then owned, for all the firstlings of the cattle
belonging to the nation ; and thus, at the same time, the
priestly office, which originally was the right of the first-born,
was transferred and confined to this tribe. As on that occa-
sion, however, the number of the first-born was found to be
somewhat larger than that of the Levites, it was required that
the 273 persons that were thus left without substitutes, should
oe redeemed by the payment of a certain price in money for
Nvery one. (Num. iii. 12, 13, 40 51.) So, ever after, all
the first-born of man were required to be redeemed in like
manner ; and the redemption money became a part of the
sacred revenue appointed for the support of the priests. (Num
xviii. 15, 16.) A child could not be redeemed before it was a
ji- ii i tli old, and generally teas not, until the time when its m<>-
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 337
iher's purification offering was to be presented, which, : n the
case of sons, was at the end of forty days. Thus, when the
infant Jesus was brought for the first time to the temple, two
duties enjoined by the law were attended to; the mother's
sacrifice was offered, and the child was redeemed. (Luke ii.
22 '24.) The first-born of such beasts as might be used in
sacrifice were to be yielded to the Lord, without the liberty
of redemption ; and after their blood and fat were given to the
altar, their flesh was all appropriated to the priests. (Num.
xviii. 17, 18.) The first-born of other animals, such AS it was
unlawful to sacrifice, might be redeemed; though a rnaa was
not Miyed to redeem them, as in the case of a first-born sou.
If they were not redeemed, they might be sold or destrjyed.
(Ex. xiii. 13, Lev. xxvii. 27.)
3. TITHES. A tenth part of all the produce of every Is-
raelitish farmer was to be consecrated, in addition to the tribute
already noticed, to the support of the national religion. These
tithes were appropriated to the Levites, as their salary, who
in their turn were required to give a tenth of all that they
thus received, to the priests. (Num. xviii. 21 32.) In the
case of the fruits of the earth, the owner might redeem the
tithe that was due, by adding a fifth part to what was con.
side-red its proper value; whereby, we may suppose, he niijrht
gave himself the trouble of transp< rting the articles to the place
where they were to be received. In the case of cattle, the
same privilege was not allowed. Animals were tithed by
being made to pass, one by one, out of some enclosure, before
a person appointed to number them, who held in his hand a
rod, with which he touched every tenth one as it came along
in its order, and thus designated it for the Levites : hence th
expression to pass under the rott, applied to cattle that under
went tithing. No animal thus designated might be changeil
for another; if a man was found guilty of making such an ex
change, he forfeited both. (Lev. xxvii. 30 33, Jer. xxxii ;
13.) Religious tithes were in use long before the time of
Muses; as we may learn from Abraham's homage to Melt-hit**-
ilek, and from Jacob's vow on his way to Padan-Aram. They
were in use also among almost all nations, in those early times.
v we are taught by ancient history.
We have already had occasion to state, that the law required
tenth part of every husbandman's agricultural produce, and
i portion of its first-fruits also, together with the firstlings of
his flock and herd, to be devoted to God as peace-offerinys, and
BO turned into sacred feasts for the entertainment uf the owner
himself, frith his family and others recommended to his hospi
B5o BIBLICAL ANTJQ U 1TI K*
inlity. This we are clearly taught in Deut. xii 17 19. xiv
22 2S, and xv. 19 22. But how are we to reconcile this
with the positive and explicit declarations found in other jil.ir.^,
as we have just seen, that the tithes, firstlings and first-fruity,
were to be given to the Levites and priests? Could they bj
thus appropriated, and yet feasted upon by those that presented
them ''. There seems to be no way of getting clear of this diffi-
culty, but by inferring that there was a double appropriation
of each of these sorts of offerings thcjirxt for the use of the
priests and Levites, and the second for sacrifices of thanksgiving
to be celebrated in the way that has been " noticed, by the
owners themselves. Thus we are to suppose, that the Jewish
law required second tithes, wond ftr.*t/iit</x, (if we may be al-
lowed the term,) and second first-fruit*. That we are not told
any thing expressly about the appointment of these, as distinct
from those of the first class, but are made acquainted with
their existence merely in the notice that is given of their nature
and use, may be accounted for by supposing that they were in
common use before the time of Moses, and did not need, there-
fore, to be formally distinguished. They are spoken of as
being well known ; and in no danger, accordingly, of being
confounded at that time with the other sort, that were insti-
tuted for the support of religion, and so exalted to hold a rank
of importance above them. What we are thus taught indi-
rectly fiom the law itself, we find confirmed by later testimony
more explicit. In the apocrypha) book of Tobit, mention i-
made of two sacred tithes: "The first tenth part of all increase,"
says the writer, describing his own piety, " I gave to the son-
of Aaron, who ministered at Jerusalem : another tenth part I
sold away, and went and spent it every year at Jerusalem."
(Tobit i. 7.) Jewish tradition, however, allows such a double
tithe to have had place only in the case of the increase of the
fields; while it affirms that the tithe of animals, which was
single, was not given to the Levites at all for their use, but em
ployed altogether in those peace-offering feasts that have Ix-ei.
mentioned. And, indeed, there is no intimation in the law of
more than a single tithe of cattle ; but it seems most reason
uble to suppose, that this, if it was the only one, was consecrated
to the Invites, and that these offering-feasts found no victims
in this way ; especially, since in the enumeration of the offer
ings to be used for the feasts, we meet with no mention of such
animal tithes, where it would seem, if the Jewish notion on
this subject were correct, they ought not to have been left with-
out notice. It appears, that every thii.l y-ir the people mi^ht.
instead of carrying their second tithes to the sanctuary, raakc
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 389
feast of them at their own houses ; unle- s we suppose, with
vnne, that the tithe which was required to be thus consumed
4t home, each third year, was really a third one, which ou
every such year was to be paid, over and above the two regu-
lar tenths that have just been noticed. In the latter part of
the 2>th chapter of Deuteronomy, we have an account of a
particular solemnity that was to be observed on these occa-
sions. The beautiful and impressive form with which the
second sort of first-fruits was required to be presented before
the Lord, is described in the first part of the same chapter.
In addition to the regular small portion of first-fruits which
was consecrated in this way, to be used in the joyful peace-
offering entertainments, the law directed that the whole pro-
duce of all manner of fruit-trees, after the three years during
which it was considered uncircumcised, and might not be used
at all, were over, should be in the fourth year devoted to reli-
gious use, in like manner. It was to be hoty, it i. said, " to
praise the Lord withal." (Lev. xix. 23 25.)
4. VOW-OIFTS. A vow is a solemn voluntary promise tc
God, either to do or abstain from doing something, or to yifc
>oiuething, for his service and honour. Such religious engage-
ments were not rare among the Jews. Of the first sort, we
have an instance in the vow of Xazaritism, an account of which
may be found in the sixth chapter of Numbers. Those of the
second .sort, such as bound persons to make some kind of
sacred yi/t, more particularly claim our attention at present.
We have already seen, that one class of peace-ojfcrinyg, noticed
in the law, were such as men presented in consequence of vows
made to the Lord in seasons of danger or distress. But these
were only a part of what it was in some degree customary to
consecrate to God in this general way. A man might thus
sanctify to him at any time, not only common property of
every sort, houses, lands, money, animals clean or unclean,
&c., but servants also, and children, and even his own person.
Animals go consecrated, that were fit for sacrifice, became vic-
tims for the altar ; those that could not be so used were sold,
tf not redeemed by the original owners themselves. Human
persons became servants about the tabernacle or temple ; with
the privilege of being redeemed, however, when it was desired
to embrace it. Other things, in like manner, were rendered
in this way holy to the Lord, to be employed for the support
of religion, unless at any time recovered by redemption accord-
ing to certain regulations. (Lev. xxvii. I 27.) The vow of
vu unmarried daughter was not allowed to have force, if her
'ither disapproved ot it when i* was made ; o also that of
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
wife, if in like manner opposed by her husband. (Num.
1 16.) In Matt. xv. 36, and Mark vii. 11, we ha\e no
ticu of a wretched abuse that was sometimes made of sacred
vnws in later times. An unprincipled man would say to hi*
parents, " Be it Corban, or a consecrated gift, whatsoever you
shall receive of me !" and then, the Pharisees taught, he was
not only not required to give them any help, but could not do
it without sin ; because, after such a vow, any present that he
might ever make them, although it was not holy or consecrated
to the Lord before, immediately became so by the very act,
and consequently would bring upon him the guilt of xm-rilnjf
as well as jwrjury, by being disposed of in this way. Such a
manner of binding themselves in relation to certain things, by
indirectly imprecating guilt of this sort upon their heads, if
they failed to regard what they vowed, was not uncommon
among the Jews, as we learn from other sources. Thus one
would say, for instance, " Let all the wine I ever drink be con-
Becrated !" or, " Consecrated be whatever of such a thing I ever
taste !" and thus he laid himself under a curse, as it were, not
to drink or taste in either case, because the moment he might
do so liie things became holy, and so unlawful to be so u&ed.
It was as if a man should say among u?, " The. Lord destroy
me, if I do this or that !" So foolish and wicked was the im-
precation with which a man insulted his father or mother, in
the case which our Saviour notices, in direct opposition to God's
holy law.
There was one sort of consecration, of an awful character,
from which there couM be no redemption in any case. It was
called by the Jews Clur< m. Knemies were in some <
./. mtril, as it has been termed, in this way ; and when they
were so, they were to be pursued with the most unrelenting
destruction, and their property treated in most cases as an <>,
cnr.w(t thin;/, which it was not lawful to make common use of.
(Num. xxi. 1 3, Josh. vi. 17 19, viii. 1.) From Lev.
xxvii. 28, 29, we learn th:it a man might devote any sort of
property that he owned with a vow of this nauire, as well as
with the more common one already noticed. What is there
said about human beings thus devoted, viz. that they were to
be put to death, is supposed to refe" altogether to the case of
such as were national enemies, which has just been stated ; or
such as drew upon themselves this curse by such guilt as is
noticed in the 13th chapter of Deuteronomy. If Jephthah,
therefore, in consequence of his rash vow, thought himself
hound by this law to destroy his innocent daughter, as it seviui
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 841
M such extremity he actually did proceed, he must be consi-
dered to have misunderstood its meaning. (Judg. xi. 30 39.)
5. THK IIALF-SHKKEL TAX. In Ex. xxx. 11 16, a statute
is recorded, whijh required every male Israelite over the ago
of twenty, whether rich or poor, to pay at that time half a
dhekel for the service of the sanctuary. It is not clear, that it
was intended this should ever again be contributed ; much less
that such a tax should be rendered to the sanctuary every
year. Such, however, was the interpretation put upon the
law after the captivity. Every Jew, it was taught, was bound
to pay a yearly tribute of half a shekel for the use of the tem-
ple ; and it was insisted upon, besides, that it should be paid
in Jewish coin. Hence arose a regular system of care for the
collection of this sacred revenue. The money-changer*, of
whom we read, that were accustomed to sit in the outer court
of the temple, a short time each year before the Passover, were
men whose business it was to receive this tribute, and to ac-
commodate, at the same time, with Jewish half-shekels, such
is wanted to exchange other money for them. (Matt. xxi. 12.)
It seems to have been this same tribute that was demanded of
our Saviour in Capernaum ; which he intimated to Peter he
was not properly under obligation to pay, inasmuch as he was
the Son of that God to whom it was to be rendered. (Matt,
xvii. 2427.)
From the general survey of the various sacred offerings which
has now been taken, it appears', that it was no small portion
of their worldly substance which the Jews were required to
consecrate to religious uses. Part of these offerings, indeed,
were not altogether removed from the personal use of tln><u
that gave them j still, they were employed in a way that would
ot have been pursued if religion had not so ordered, and in a
way that in a great measure deprived the offerers of all their
real value in a worldly point of view, so that they had in them
truly the nature of yift* presented to the Lord. But besides
these, as we have seen, the Jew was called upon by his reli-
gion to render year by year a large tribute in the way of titlu-s,
firstlings, &c. that went altogether to the support of the na-
tional worship ; and was expected, moreover, to consecrate to
God, in addition to all this, more or less of his property, in
some way or other, of free and self-moving liberality. Thus
the Lord reminded his people, that their earthly possessions
were His ; and that when his glory was to be promoted, they
should be ready to part with them in any measure, having all
assurance that no employment of wealth can be more reason-
tb'c or well-dhectcil than tl at which is oiade in ')is
342 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
according to his will, whatever may be the waj in which if u
appointed to be used, and whatever the degree of liberality
that is called for.
Many who now call themselves the people of God would
think it altogether unreasonable, if they were called upon to
contribute such an amount of their property to religious pur-
poses as was given in this way by the ancient Jews. And yet
it is certainly not easy to find a satisfactory reason, why the
Lord's people, at the present time, should be expected to be
less ready and liberal in service of this sort for the advance-
ment of his glory, than the Lord's people were required to be
in former times. It cannot be ssid, that there is less room or
less call for such liberality in his service, since the passing
away of that worldly outward economy under which the an-
cient church was placed. For, although it be not wanted in
fact for the support of a costly ceremonial worship, it is still
needed, we all know, for the building up of Christ's spiritual
kingdom in the earth. This latter was designed to be typi-
cally displayed in the Jewish state, and comprehends in it tlu 1
substantial lealities which the other but represented in airy
shadow. How then can we suppose, that the church of old
was bound to give more for the support of the Jewish religion
the way in which God then was pleased, in infinite wisdom,
to have his name glorified and his truth honoured than the
church of these latter days is bound to give for the enlargement
of her boundaries and the salvation of the world the way in
which God is nine to be glorified, and which lie has appoint. -d
for the accomplishment of that great work of mercy that he is
carrying forward in the earth? The gospel has not, like the
.Jewish law, prescribed how much every individual shall con-
tribute of his substance to the treasury of God, who giveth \.s
all things richly to enjoy ; but, while it urges the general duty,
leaves every one to determine for himself his own particular
measure. It seeks a spiritual service, such us is prompted \>y
a willing heart, and not rendered witb reluctance or by con-
straint : only, it reminds us, that " He which soweth sparingly
shall reap also sparingly, and he which soweth bountifully
shall reap also bountifully;' while it sets before us a dark,
and lost, and dying world which our efforts may help, and
thon, with weeping look and hand directed towards distant
Calvary, exclaims, "Ye know the grace of our Lord Jesus
Christ, that, though he was RICH, yet fur your sakes he be-
came POOR, that ye through his poverty might oe rich !" (2
LVr. viii. 9, ix. 0, 7, Acts xx. 35.)
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 843
SECTION II.
SACRIFICIAL RITES.
CERTAIN ceremonies and usages that wei e observed in the
.iflering of sacrifices, claim a more particular notice than it wan
proper to bestow upon them in the general view of sacred
offerings that has been taken in the preceding section.
1. Those who presented victims at the altar were accustomed,
as we have seen, to Ini/ llir.ir hands upon their heads, before
they were slain. When offerings were required to make atone-
ment for the sins of the whole congregation, this ceremony
was performed by some of the elders or rulers as their repre-
sentatives. By this symbolic act, the animal was xit/i*fituffti
in the place of the offerer, and solemnly devoted to God as a
sacrifice for his altar. Accordingly, it was the practice to
accompany it with some sort of prayer or confession suited to
this idea. In fact, the ceremony of laying on hands in nil
cases, as well when it was to commend its ohjects to the mercy
of God, (Gen. xlviii. 14, Matt. six. 15,) or to set them apart
to some particular office, (Num. xxvii. 18 23, Acts xiii. 3,)
as when it was to devote them to death, (Lev. xxiv. 14,) seems
to have been as a matter of course associated with the notion
of some address to the Most High; insomuch that when the
first was enjoined or spoken of, the other was always under-
stood to belong to it, even when it was not mentioned. In
the case before us, when a sin-offering or trespass-offering was
presented, the offender, with his hands between the horns of
the victim and his eyes directed toward the front of the Sanc-
tuary, made solemn confession of the particular transgression
for which it was brought forward, and besought (Jod, in his
mercy, to receive its sacrifice as an atonement for his guilt, in
roii m of that destruction which it was thus intimated might
justly fall upon his own head. When a burnt -i offering was
presented, a more general confession of sinful short-comiug in
the obedience that God's law demanded, seems to have been
common. It is probable also, though we are not so told ex-
plicitly, that the address to God had in it, on certain occasions,
a supplication more especially for some other blessing than the
forgiveness of sin, or a thankful acknowledgment for somo
goodness already experienced, according to the particular
nature and design of the sacrifice that was offered. Especially
may we supjwtse this would be the manner in the case of peace-
offerings, which were often presented with a parti-.'ulai refer
344 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
ence to some single end of this sort. At the same time, how
ever, even in such cases there might have been mention niaae
of sin, with a petition for pardoning mercy, in view of the life
that was going to be poured out in sacrifice to the Holy One
According to Jewish tradition, confession was made over vie
tims offered to make expiation for sin by individual offenders,
in some such form as this: "0 Lord, 1 have sinned! I have
traasyressed! I have rrbetted! This have I done: (and then
he named the particular offence for which he sought forgive-
ness.) But now I repent, and may this victim be my expia-
tion!"
2. Victims were slain immediately after the ceremony just
noticed. Those that were presented for the whole congrega-
tion were required from the first to be killed by the priests or
Levites. In other cases, it was originally the custom for the
offerers themselves to perform the work ; but afterwards, the
Levites, being more expert at such business than others, had
it yielded altogether into their hands. The animals, we are
told by the Jews, were fastened by the neck or feet to certain
strong rings, fixed firmly to the pavement of the temple-co'irt,
beside the altar, for convenient slaughter. Life was thou
taken by cutting the throat with a single stroke of the knife,
BO deep that all the blood might flow out of the body. This,
as it streamed from the dying victim, was carefully received
into a sacred vessel kept for the purpose, to be made use of ac-
cording to law.
3. The blood, as we have seen, was differently disposed of
in sacrifices of different kinds. In a few peculiarly solemn
cases, some of it was carried within the Sanctuary, and sprinkl (!
toward the mercy-seat, and placed upon the horns of the golden
altar. In other instances, it was all employed about the altar
of burnt-offering. From the bottom of this altar, in the tem-
ple, there was a subterraneous passage, it is said, by which it
was carried away into the brook of Cedron. The sprinkling
and pouring out of the blood formed a most material and es-
sential part of the sacrificial service. Because, as we are told,
it was the blood, which is represented to be in an especial muri
oer tne seat of life, that made atonement for the soul ; and
this application of the blood to the altar, in any particular case,
was that especially which had in it the virtue of expiation in-
cluded in the sacrifice.
On account of its use in this respect, blood was made most
solemnly sacred. Not only in the case of sacrifices, but in
every other case also, it was prohibited with the greatest care
from being tasted as food or regarded as a common thing; so
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 346
that the most dreadful punishment was denounced against the
man who should dare to transgress the Divine commandment
respecting it. Nor was it merely with the establishment of
t.he Jewish economy that this prohibition had place. It waa
spoken to Noah, the second father of the whole human race,
immediately after the flood, when permission to use animal
food at all was first granted; so that from the beginning of
time man had not been allowed to eat blood. Nor does it ap-
pear to have been merely for a ceremonial reason that the
statute was thus early clothed with obligation. ' The only rea-
son assigned at first was that the life was in the blood. (Gen.
ix. 4.) Hence many have, not without cause, adopted the
conclusion, that the original prohibition was intended to have
force among all men till the end of time, as a memorial that
life, even in its humblest character, is sacred, and that man
has no right to destroy it in any case except as God, the author
of it, has been pleased to give him explicit permission. This
idea is supposed to receive great confirmation from the cele-
brated decree of that Christian council, held in the earliest age
of the gospel at Jerusalem, of which we have an account in
the 15th chapter of Acts. Others, however, reject this notion,
and consider the prohibition of blood to have had respect from
the beginning only to the ceremonial use to which it was, on
account of its vital nature, consecrated in the institution of
sacrifices, and which accordingly was brought to an end, with
other shadows of the ancient economy, in the death of Jesus
Christ. Whether it is lawful for a Christian or any person at
the present time to eat blood, is therefore a disputed question.
In such a case, then, it is at any rate wise not to taste it. It
mny be that the use of it is not unlawful, but it is certainly
safer on the whole to act as if it were clearly ascertained to be
otherwise ; especially, since the article is in itself so pernicious
to health, and so uninviting naturally to a sound taste, that it
is truly marvellous how, through a process of strange and arti-
ficial preparation, it should, in some parts of our country, have
found toleration, and even right friendly reception in civilizc-l
entertainments.
4. The blood being disposed of, the animal was rapidly
Btripped of its skin, and cut in pieces, and as far ;is it was to
be consumed upon the altar, made ready fr the tire. In the
second temple, there were tables of marble, and pillars with
lio-'ks fixed in them for hanging victims upon, which afforded
i o-ry convenience for this business. The ski; tl giveu
to in.- priests. The animal was cut iu>, ii"' - -!y, but
ueatly, and according to rule. Certniu parts were required V
346 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES
be carefully washed, that no sort of filth might be allowed to
come upon the altar.
5. We read of particular parts of slain victims, a* well as of
whole offerings, at other times, both such as were bloody and
such as were not, being presented to God with certain peculiar
ceremonies, denominated henviny and tearing. It is not cleai
what, precisely, these ceremonies were, or whether there was
really any material difference between them. Some suppose,
that the one was a I If tiny up of the offering, and the other
merely a letting down of it again ; so that every heave-stffi:riny
necessarily became a ware-ojferi)i<j. The Jews tell us, that to
hi'dce an offering was to lift it upwards, and that to irate it
was to pass it this way and that way toward the four quarters
of the world ; all which solemn remony was designed to sig-
nify that it was thus presented to Him who fills the universe
with his presence the Maker and Possessor of heaven and
earth with all their fulness. In a few instances, animals were
subjected to this rite before they were killed. (Lev. xiv. 24,
xxiii. 20.) More commonly, it was performed with some par-
ticiuar parts, after they were cut up; especially, with the
breast and right shoulder, in all cases of peace-offering sacri-
fices, which were appropriated for the use of the priests by a
continual statute. Bloodless offerings, also, were at times pre-
sented with the fume ceremony. (Ex. xxix. 22 28.)
6. All fat, in sacrifices of every sort, that could be conve-
niently separated from the flesh of victims, was required to be
burned upon the altar. Thus, we find direction still given,
however other parts of the victim might be disposed of, that
those portions which were either altogether or principally com-
posed of this aubstance, should be made an offering by fire unto
ihe Lord. These being the richest portions, it was thus inti-
mated, as it was in other requirements already noticed, that
God ought to receive, in all our worship, the best sen-ice which
it is in our power to render. Hence, fat became, in something
of the same manner as blood, a sacred substance ; so that it
was declared unlawful to eat those parts that have been re-
ferred to, in the case of any animal of the different classes from
which the altar derived its victims, even when it was killed at
home for common use. (Lev. vii. 23 25.)
Destitute as it was, besides, of all the advantages of butter
or pork in any shape, this prohibition of all manner of fat,
whether of the flock or of the herd, would have left the Jew-
ish cookery in a sad predicament, had it not all been more
than compensated for by the excellent oil of olives which the
rountry yielded in such rich abundance In these latter days,
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 347
.uany of the scattered family of Abraham, who dwell in other
aountries, where the olive of their ancient land is not known,
have found themselves subjected to no inconsiderable incon
venience on this score. Butter, they maintain, was not only
not in use among their ancestors for the preparation of food, aa
it was in Egypt and other countries, but actually forbidden, aa
much as hog's lard and the other fat that has been mentioned,
l>y the Divine law. In this extremity, they have been com-
pelled to put up altogether with such fat as can be procured
from animals that were not reckoned in this prohibition, and
are yet of that number that were considered clean ; among
which they number the goose, though its claim to the lattei
distinction is not entirely out of the reach of dispute, and have
made it, accordingly, their most substantial resource for this
purpose, using its fat in the room of butter, for want of the fa-
ourite oil of their fathers. The law that has been supposed
,o forbid the use of butter, it may he remarked here, by the
way, is the following : Ttum nhalt not seethe a kid in it* mo-
tficrx milk. Nor is this interpretation without strong reason
in its favour, however unnatural it may seem at first glance.
It is not without countenance from the usage of eastern lan-
guage, that the phrase, a kid's mother, is understood to mean,
universally, a goat that gives milk, without reference to any
(.articular case ; or, that what is spoken particularly of one
dass of animals, is considered to include a general precept,
Living force in regard to OTHERS also, that gave similar room
fur its application. Thus, the milk of a kid's motlier is inter-
preted to mean any sort of milk, and of course any thing pro-
duced from milk, as all butter is; while the flesh of a kid
means any sort of flesh : so that, altogether, out of the senten-
tious statute, Thou shall not seethe a kid in its mother's milk,
is derived this very practical signification, Thou shall not dress
meat with butter. However this interpretation may be re-
ceived, it is clear, that the law gave no encouragement to
the use of butter ; but, by prescribing oil in all meat-offeringa
which were used in sacred entertainments, indirectly discounte-
nanced it.
7. With all thine offerings, it was commanded in the law,
thmi shall offer salt. (Lev. ii. 13.) This statute, the Jews
tell us, was so strictly regarded, that nothing came unsaited
to the altar, but the wine of the drink-offering, the blood
sprinkled, and the wood that was used for the fire. Salt for
this purpose used to be kept always at the temple, provided at
the public charge, so that it was not expected to be furnished
by thore who presented the offerings. It was customary, w
848 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
are to.d, to salt the parts of victims that were to be burned,
generally on the rise that went up to the altar, but, in some
cases, on the top of it. To the usage of salting sacrifices, our
Saviour refers in Mark ix. 49. Especially was it enjoined
that this article should be found with every neat-offering. As
it was the symbol of friendship, it was altogether fit that it
should not be wanting in the sacred entertainments, where men
were admitted, as it were, to participate with God on the most
intimate terms. Because of its significance in this respect, it
was denominated the mlt of Ow cot-uimif.
8. The wood was always placed iu order, and set on fare first.
Care having been taken to have it thus in readiness, the seve-
ral parts of the sacrifice that were to be consumed, after the
preparatory steps that have been noticed, were placed upon the
burning pile. In the case of holocausts, or burnt-offerings, as
we have seen, the u-lwl' victim, except the skin, was thus de-
stroyed ; in other cases, only certain portions of it.
9. The altar having received its share in those cases where
the whole was not given to it, there were three different ways
in which the remainder of the flesh, according to the nature of
the sacrifice, was required to be disposed of. 1st. It was in
some instances to be carried out of the camp, or out of Jeru-
salem, which, in the times of the temple, answered to the an-
cient camp in the wilderness, and burned as a polluted thing.
The bodies of those beasts, whose blood was carried into the
Sanctuary, were all borne forth, and destroyed in this way.
2d. It was, in certain cases, to be eaten by the priests. Thus,
all was appointed to be usecl in the case of common sin-offer-
ings, or trespass-offerings, in which the blood was not taken
into the Sanctuary, and also in the cast- of the two lambs of-
fered on the day of Pentecost, as peace-offerings for the whole
congregation ; and particular portions, viz. the breast and
the right shoulder, in the case of all peace-offerings presented
by individuals. In the cases first stated, it was considered
especially lwly, and might not be eaten anywhere out of the
court of the Sanctuary, and only by such of the priestly family
vis were males. (Num. xviii. 9, 10.) But the flesh allotted
to the priests from common peace-offerings, like that which fell
to them in the way of firstling dues, might be eaten, it seems,
anywhere in Jerusalem, and by all that properly belonged te
their household, if only they were free, at the time, from cere-
monial uncleauness a thing that was required in every per-
Bon that tasted, in any case, food that was made sacred by
being presented at the altar. (Lev. xxii. 2 16, vii. 20, 21.)
Bd. Whatever of the flesh of the sacrificeg was not disposed of
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 349
ii. the ways that Lave been already mentioned, wa* appropn
alcd to the use of the offerers themselves, and might be eaten
in the sacred entertainments, in which it was expected to be
all employed within less than two days, by all classes of per-
sons that were clean, and in any part of Jerusalem. Thus, ull
the flesh not claimed by the altar, except the breast and right
shoulder, which fell to the priests, was made use of in the case
of every common peace-offering. In these offering-feasts, as
already intimated, a sort of sacred communion was instituted
between God and his worshippers. The entertainment was
furnished by him from the provisions of his House ; and as
with men, social feasts are always indicative of friendly feeling
among those who unite in them, and in ancient times, espe-
cially, were used as signs and pledges of mutual good-will and
confidence between such as entered with each other into cove-
nants of peace, (Gen. xxvi. 28 30, xxxi. 44 46, Josh. ix.
14, 15,) so those who were thus permitted to partake, as it
were, of the Lord's table, in receiving entertainment from the
altar, were supposed to enjoy the privilege of his friendship
and peculiar favour, and to be, by this sign, in holy covenant
with him, if not guilty of cold and false hypocrisy in their own
hearts. (Mai. i. 7, 12.) The apostle argues with the Corin-
thians against the use of meat that had been consecrated i&
sacrifice to idols, from this well-known principle ; showing,
that, as under the Jewish law they who ate of the sacrifices
were partakers of God's altar, so those who joined in the offer-
ing-feasts of the heathen around them might properly be said
to have fellowship, in so doing, with devils. (1 Cor. x. 18, 20.)
SECTION III.
MEANING AND ORIGIN OF SACRIFICES.
IT must be felt by every person who seriously thinks upoi
ihe subject, that the use of sacrifices, which entered so exten-
sively into the whole system of religious worship in ancient
times, had in it something strange and difficult to be under-
stood on the principles of mere natural reason. Offerings of
the bloodless sort, indeed, might be imagined, without much
objection, to have taken their origin from the suggestion of
nature itself, and to have been reasonable expressions of thank-
ful piety, to which men would be led under its influence in the
must direct and easy manner. Thus it might be e<>n>i<lcivcl
not altogether wonderful or unnatural that they shuuld have
o .
350 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
been moved solemnly to present to God, at times, some portiou
of the fruits of the earth secured by their labour, as Cain did,
by way of acknowledging him to be the Author and Giver o''
all blessings, or to testify gratirude for special favours received
from his hand. But, in the case of the Jews and of the pious
patriarchs noticed in the Bible, offerings of this sort made but
a small and secondary part of the general system of sacrifices
All the more striking and distinguished features of that sy
tern were portrayed with blood. The slaying and consuming
of animal victims entered essentially and primarily into it*
whole constitution, and formed both the basis and the princi
pal body of all its peculiar structure. Here it is, that we arc
met with mystery in the institution, such as mere nature can-
not help us to comprehend. What should lead men to suppose
that God would be pleased with the slaughter of unoffending
animals in his worship ? What connection was there between
this apparently cruel destruction of life and the Divine favour ?
or how could it express a pious temper in the person who thus
sought to honour his Maker, or conciliate his friendship ?
And still more, how is it to be accounted for, that God did, in
fact, approve of this bloody service, and make it an essentia)
part of the only true religion, for so long a period of ages ?
Are we to imagine, that the Holy One could find satisfaction
in the sufferings of his harmless creatures? Could he 1x3
pleased, in itself, with the blood of bullocks or of goats, or be
soothed into complacency by the savour of their burning flesh ?
To these last inquiries, all reason and natural sense answer,
No. Nor can it be, with any propriety, imagined that iiu-ii
should ever, of their own accord, have taken up the notion,
that such service could, in itself, seem agreeable to the Crea-
tor of heaven and earth. How, then, the question remains,
did the notion of bloody sacrifices come into existence ? and
where shall we find a satisfactory reason for the fact, that such
a strange and unnatural worship wa really acceptable to the
Most High ? The Bible explains all ^uis mystery. It teacho
us the true meaning of this service, and so guides us to the
discovery of its sacred oriyin. Let us attend to the instruc-
tion it imparts on these interesting points.
1. THE MEANING OF SACRIFICES. The Scriptures inform
oa, that the shedding of blood, in this ancient institution, had
regard altogether to sin. Such a service was suited only to thf
worship of a guilty race, and never, in any case, left this con
gidcration out of sight. Had men never fallen, it could nevei
have had any meaning in their religious worship; and would
uev?r, accordingly, have found place in it. But the fall al
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 35i
tored all their relation to God. It was no longer possible fof
the rre&ture to come directly before the Creator, as when inno-
cent aud pure, with acceptable homage or supplication. Guilt
hung a dark and impenetrable curtain between the soul and
the favour of its God, and shut out the voice, alike of prayer
aud praise, in deep and hopeless despair. No worship of man
could be accepted, until this awful hinderance was taken out
of the way. God, however, in his mercy, devised a plan for
Its removal. The plan was to secure complete satisfaction to
liis holy law, by suffering its vengeance to fall somewhere else,
(where it could be rightly received,) than upon the rebellious
themselves by vicarious sacrifice by an adequate atonement,
rendered through the shedding of blood, without which there
; !ould be no remission. Here, then, we have unfolded the
general meaning of bloody sacrifices, and the general reason
why the Most High regarded them with approbation, and re-
quired them from his worshippers. The whole system had
reference to the guilt of sin, and its necessary expiation.
Blood, the symbol of animal life, was consecrated, by a Divine
appropriation, to this single holy use, and, in all its flowing at
the altar, was expressive of atonement for ttie soul.
But could the blood of bulls and goats take away sin ? Had
it, in itself, the smallest efficacy to make atonement for guilt,
and satisfy the holy law of God ? The apostle assures us, that
Buch a thing was not possible, (Heb. x. 1 4 ;) and, if he had
not told us so, the smallest reflection might convince us, that
such sacrifices, however multiplied, could never purge away
the conscience of sin, and restore tranquillity or holy confidence
to the guilty soul. We must not, for a moment, imagine,
therefore, that an offering of this sort, in any case, did ever,
of itself, make the smallest satisfaction for the offence of any
Bin, in the sight of the Most Holy. When we read of atone-
ment being made in this way for particular sins, under the old
dispensation, we are to understand, that while it actually
availed, in consequence of the Divine appointment, to satisfy
the requirement of the ceremonial, and in certain cases of the
civil law, it answered the claim of the moral law only in
tkadowj having nothing whatever, in itself, suited to its na-
ture, but merely setting forth, in typical representation, a far
more excellent sacrifice to come. The Ceremonial system wa*
altogether, as we have seen, a shadowy exhibition of the Great
Gospel ll-'.-ilitv ; without substance, or value, or meaning,
when looked upon wholly in itself, but full of expressive and
in>tructive power when contemplated in its relation to this
Mystery of G race. It had, accordingly, if we may be allowed
352 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
the expression, a class of shadowy sins, among other things,
for the more perfect illustration of its shadowy atonement
The ceremonial law imposed an obligation of its own, distinct
from that of the moral law, and might be violated, so as to
bring its condemnation upon a man, while no true guilt, such
as arises only from an offence against the latter, was contracted.
This ceremonial guilt, as it may be termed, might be entirely
taken away, by the ceremonial means appointed for the pur
pose. The guilt and the removal of it were alike symbol!
cal ; although, at the same time, not to make use of the means
for this removal could not fail to bring upon the soul the stain
of real guilt, inasmuch as it then became disobedience to God,
and so a transgression of the moral law. So, in particului
ruM'.s, the requirement of the civil law, viewed entirely apart
from moral duty, was completely satisfied by the same sort of
means. Thus, a representation was given of the true atone-
ment, by which alone true sins were to be taken away. In
some oth.r cases, however, there was no claim of any law
answered by these sacrificial offerings. They were presented
altogether on account of moral transgressions, without regard
to any of a merely ceremonial or civil sort : and then, of course,
they accomplished nothing at all in themselves : only, they
pointed to an all-sufficient sacrifice that was to be revealed ;
and when offered by the truly pious, were acceptable to God,
as containing in them an acknowledgment of guilt, and a re-
nunciation of every other ground of hope for pardon and right-
eousness, but the great provision which he himself had pro-
mised to make known in the latter days, for the purpose.
Such was the only value of the ancient sacrifices. They
never purged the worshippers of God from the conscience of
sins, and were therefore continually offered up, year after year,
making continually new remembrance of guilt. To rely upon
them, therefore, as taking away the guilt of sin, even when
true repentance accompanied them, was to lean upon a broken
reed ; and still more presumptuous was it to do so, when no
such repentance was felt at all. Yet to this degree of pre-
sumption were the Jews ever prone to be carried. They were
apt to fall into the notion, that these sacrifices were in them-
telvcs, without regard to something else, highly acceptable to
God, and that he could not refuse to be pleased with them,
even when presented by the wicked. Hence we hoar the Lord
expostulating with them : " To what purpose is the multitude
)f your sacrifices unto me ? I am full of the burnt-offerings
af rams, and the fat of fed beasts ; and I delight not in the
olood of bullreks, or of lambs, or of he-goats," &c. (Isa. i. 11
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 353
4. Ps. 1. 7 14.) And all along it was taught, that to obey
*as better than sacrifice, and to hearken to the Lord's voice
r-ettcr than the fat of rams. (1 Sam. xv. 22, Hosea vi. 6.)
Without such a disposition, it was not possible that the Lord
could accept the service of any worshipper, though he appeared
in his presence with thousands of rams, or ten thousands of
rivers of oil ; nor yet, at the same time, even with this dispo-
aition, could such expensive offerings, or the still more precious
offering of a first-born son itself, have the smallest efficacy in
their nature, to remove the guilt of transgression. (Micah vi.
6 8.) Just as now, to belong to the church and partake of
the Lord's supper are things that can be of no avail without
a heart ready to obey the will of God, and, even where there
is such a readiness, cannot in themselves and on their own ac-
count procure saving benefit to the soul, but merely help to
direct it to the Great Original Resource of Grace, and serve as
channels through which its streams may be received.
What the ancient sacrifices only represented in empty
shadow, Jesus Christ, by the Sacrffic-e of Himself, actually ac-
complished. This we are expressly taught in the epistle to
the Hebrews. As the whole priestly office had respect to the
mediatorial character of our Saviour, and never had any other
than a shadowy, unsubstantial character, except in him, as has
been before remarked; so also the entire scheme of sacrificial
worship had reference to his atoning death, which was in fact
the only true and efficacious sacrifice ever made ; while all be-
fore it were mere pictures of its precious reality. Thus he
was himself, at the same time, priest and victim. The typical
priests be-fore him stood " daily ministering, and offering often-
times the same sacrifices, which could never take away sins ;
but this man, after he had offered one sacrifice for sins, for
ever sat down on the right hand of God." (Heb. vii. 27, x.
11, 12.) In this sacrifice there was value enough to make
full expiation for all the sins of the whol') world ; and to as
many as embrace its advantage, by faith, it will be found, till
the end of time, completely availing to remove the heaviest
pressure of guilt, and to deliver them from its deepest condem-
nation, into a state of peace and reconciliation with a Holy
God. Because the death of Jesus Christ was thus truly an
atoning sacrifice, he is called the " Lamb of God which tak-.-tii
away the sin of the world." (John i. 29.) And in vision he
appeared to the beloved disciple, as " a Lamb that had been
^lain,'' (Rev. v. 6:) his blood also, which we are told "clean-
seth from all sin," is represented to be like that of "a lamb
without blemish and without spot." (1 Pet. i. 19, I John i. 7.*
35* BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
We find his death, accordingly, all along spoken of as bein
on account of sin, and to make satisfaction for its guilt
sin that was not his own, but which he consented to bear in
the room of his people, and to take away on their behalf, bj
becoming a sln-niffi'rlng for them, and pouring out his soul lie-
neath the awful pressure of infinite justice. Besides the f>'5tl
chapter of Isaiah, the following passages may be consulted on
this point: viz. Matt. xx. 28, xxvi. 28, Rom. iii. '2~>, -*>,
viii. 3, 2 Cor. v. 21, Eph. v. 2, 1 Pet. ii. 24, iii. 18.
The death of atonement, then, which the Son of God died
for our redemption, was that to which all sacrifices, from the
earliest times, had respect as their great termination, and with-
out which they would have been as destitute of reason as they
were, in their very nature, of all actual value in the sight of
Heaven. If holy men of old made an acceptable use of tlicm,
in drawing near to God, it was only by looking throm/h them
them to this all-perfect and sufficient sacrifice which they pre-
figured. This great sacrifice, accordingly, being offered up in
due time, all that were before it were completely done away,
and all that ancient sort of worship went for ever out of use.
2. THE ORIGIN OF SACRIFICES. Having thus discovered the
true meaning of sacrifices, we cannot hesitate in deciding the
question, whether they were of Divine, or of merely human
origin. It is in fact decided already. For if the sacrifice of
Jesus Christ was the only one that ever had any proper and
substantial reality, and all others were entirely unmeaning,
except as faint images and pictures of this, it is manifest that
the whole system must have been derived altogether from the
appointment of God. As the original idea of atonement by
blood, which in the fulness of time became rcaliz'-d in the
death of the Son of God, was conceived from the beginning in
the Divine mind alone, so we are to trace back to the same
source the entire plan of that preparatory representation by
which it was held up for the encouragement and assistance of
faith, in unsubstantial type, so many ages before its actual
development. The great Pattern Sacrifice being altogether of
heavenly device, and in its glorious nature a mystery, com-
pletely hidden from human knowledge till revealed in its own
season, it would be absurd to suppose that other sacrifices be-
fore it, which answered so strikingly as shadows to its wonder-
ful reality, and viewed in any other light, had no meaning 01
reason whatever, might have come into use notwithstanding,
through mere human fancy, and without any regard at first tc
the end which afterwards they were made to respect.
However, therefore, some Vave imagined that the use of
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 85i/
sacrifices originated at first from men themselves, without any
Divine direction, and have attempted to show how they might
have been led to adopt the strange and unnatural service ; it
is clear, that as reason finds such a supposition attended with
much difficulty, and feels dissatisfied with every explanation
brought for its relief, so the whole representation of the Bible
urges us to embrace a different sentiment. True, we are not
told explicitly that God directed men in the beginning to wor-
ship him in this way : but the nature and design of the ser-
vice are declared, and are found to be such as to forbid all
thought of its having sprung from any other source than the
express appointment of the Most High. And what is thus in-
directly discovered, with almost irresistible evidence, is still
farther confirmed by the historical account, so far as it reaches,
which we have of ancient sacrifices. All along, before the a_r
of Moses, we find them constantly employed by the people of
God as an essential part of true religion, and honoured and ac-
cepted, and in certain cases ordered, of the Lord himself, us
being not mere indifferent rites, but acts of piety of the first
importance, and peculiarly well pleasing in his sight : all which
would be strange indeed, if they had originally started out of
human will-worship, and had no respect at all in their design
at that time to the GREAT SACRIFICE to come, (as on such a
supposition it must be believed,) but were used altogether ac-
cording to some different view that led at first to the practice
of them, which view must necessarily be considered at the
same time to have been mistaken and false. But we are not
left with the mere information that these early sacrifices were
in use, to imagine that they might have been offered with a
view altogether different from what was most particularly con-
templated afterwards in those that were prescribed by the
Jewish law. We have satisfactory evidence, that before, as
well as after, the introduction of that law, the shedding of blood
in sacrifice was regarded as an expiatory rite, having reference
to guilt, and signifying that without atonement there could b
no forgiveness or Divine favour bestowed upon the sinner.
That such was the fact, is abundantly manifest from the no-
tion found to have been entertained among heathen nations in
every age, that the anger of H >aven was to be appeased by
bl<Mxly sacrifices, and that they could avail to do away tho of-
feii.-ive guilt of injury and crime; for these heathen sacritk-es,
that have been common in every quarter of the world, were
not borrowed in any measure from those of 'he Jews, but had
their origin much farther back from those tl it were in use ID
the earliest times, when the family >f man was not yet multi
356 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
plied into different nations, or scattered over the fa of tb
earth. Besides all this, toe, we are expressly informed that
the patriarch Job, who was accustomed to worship God with
these ancient sacrifices, offered them with a special reference
to sin ; and that the Lord himself required bumt-offerinejs
from his three friends, to make expiation for their offence, and
to turn away his wrath, that was kindled against them. (Job
i. 5, xlii. 7 9.) It being clear, therefore, that while sacri-
fices, before the time of Moses, were held to be an essential
part of religious worship, they were regarded to be such, es-
pecially on account of their expiatory meaning, the same by
which they were so remarkably distinguished under the law,
we aie furnished with very conclusive evidence that they were
suggested and enjoined from the first, by no other than that
God who formed the design of the True Atonement, before the
foundaticn of the world, and employed them so extensively and
systematically, to shadow forth its mystery in the Ceremonial
system of the Jews.
This conclusion, so far it rests on historical grounds, becomes
still clearer when we go backward under the guidance of reve-
lation, and find this service in use, not merely before the flood,
(as appears from the distinction of animals thus early into
clean and unclean, and also by Noah's sacrifice when he came
out of the ark. that was so acceptable to the Lord,) but in the
faniih of Adam himself, in the earliest age of the earth. Wo
read of Cain and Abel offering sacrifices; and it is so men-
tioned as to leave the impression that such worship was not a
new thing in this case : it had been practised undoubtedly be-
fore that, if not by these brothers themselves, yet at leat. by
their father. But can it for a moment be imagined, thct
Adam should, of his own accord, have conceived the notion,
directly after the fall- that God wo ild be pleased with having
the blood of peaceful animals pouivd out before him in solemn
offering, when, as yet, the liberty of using their flesh in any
'way for food had not been granted? Are we not rather, in
order to account for his practice in this respect, driven to the
conclusion, that God himself, immediately after his ruin, when
He revealed even then the promise of the New Covenant, ap-
pointed sacrifice to be a standing pledge of its grace, and the
special means by which faith should be enabled to lay hold
upon its blessings, until the fulness of time should conn- for
the full manifi'sUition of that great Real Atonement, on whick
the whole plan of mercy was to be builded and secured '( Thus,
while the institution became a continual monument of guilt
ii, 1 death, introduced by sin, ever calling them into
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 857
orance, it was ordained to be at the same time a rare sign of
salvation and life a SACRAMENTAL MEMORIAL as one hae
expressed it, xhwciny forth the. Lord's death until he came, by
the believing use of which, the full benefit of that death might
be secured to the soul. In this way our first father, it seems,
was instructed to exercise his faith and find spiritual encou
ragement, when there was yet none but himself and his guilty
partner in the world. It has been supposed, with much proba-
bility, that the animals whose skins were employed at first to
make garments for them, were slain and offered up as sacri-
fices by the direction of God. What was thus required to be
observed by the first man, as a necessary part of acceptable re-
ligious worship, was appointed at the same time to be observed
by his posterity, and it became his duty accordingly to acquaint
his immediate descendants with its meaning and obligation, so
as to have the use of it handed down from generation to gene-
ration. Thus it was made a solemn duty to worship the Lord
by this method to make penitent acknowledgment of sinful-
ness and desert of death in the symbolic substitution of an un-
offending victim to bleed at the altar, and to show at the same
time a believing confidence in the Divine plan for taking away
guilt, though it was not yet understood, by loosing in this
way, with simple obedience, for reconciliation and acceptance.
To make use of sacrifice, then, according to the command-
ment of God, and with the temper that has just been men-
tioned, was in any case an evidence of piety and faith. Thus
did Abel bring an offering of the best of his flock, and pre-
sented it as a bloody sacrifice to the Lord : and hence he is
commended to our notice as an example of faith, by which, it
is said, his sacrifice was nnuv acceptable on this occasion than
that of his brother Cain. (Hob. xi. 4.) This faith clearly sup-
poses a Divine appointment, to which if had respect, and in the
end of which it had full confidence, showing lx>th by a simple
obedience to the direction that had been given, in the whole
manner of its service. Cain, on the other hand, evinced no such
faith : he offered a sacrifice, but there was something in the
service that was wrong not in conformity with the Divine di-
rection, and accordingly it was not accepted. Now if wo in-
quire wherein this wait of faith particularly was found, it sceus
by no means an unlikely answer that has boon given, tli.it <'i
wv/s in rt'fitxhxj to ff< r <t Mtxtt/y snrrijin; tin (!inl /UK/ nijitln-ii,
antt thus ifiari-i/iin/iii;/ all tlif liii/li and ,../< inn </ si'/iis fur
wkirh tin institution mis (tj>ji<>i'n/> </. He seems to have fol-
lowed his own reason, rather than the OMtmoiufoMti of ll<n
ven t and, because he could discern no propriety in the slay inp
858 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES
of an animal as an act of religious worship, to have pe-uadd
himself that an offering without blood was the most suitable
to be presented to a God who was infinitely merciful and good.
Thus he made no account of his own sinfulness, and slighted
the blood of atonement, presumptuously pretending to come
before the Holy One, as if he had never offended, and the Tay
had been free of all hinderance to the throne of mercy.
It has been generally believed, that the way in which God
discovered his acceptance of Abel's sacrifice, was by causing
%e to descend in a miraculous manner, and consume it, while
that of Cain received no such mark of regard. It is clear that
tome open and striking sign of his approbation was given, that
was easy to be understood ; and it must be acknowledged alto-
gether probable, that it was no other than this, which was in
certain cases made such a token, we know, in later times.
Thus the Lord test ified of his yifts, and showed himself well
pleased with the piety that presented them, while those of
Cain were left without approbation and without notice. We
find, in subsequent history, repeated instances in which the
Divine acceptance of sacrifices wr^s testified in this same way.
Thus the Lord answered David and Elijah, and thus he fur-
nished the altar with holy fire, directly after the consecration
of the tabernacle first, and afterwards of the temple. (Lev.
ix. 24, Judg. vi. 21, 1 Kings xviii. 38, 1 Chron. xxi. 26,
2 Chron. vii. 1.) Whence it is reasonable to suppose, that
the same token was given also in other cases, where God is
Baid to have accepted the service, though it is not expressly
mentioned ; and it is by no means unlikely, that all along
from the beginning, such displays of heavenly approbation
were often granted, for the encouragement of faith, and to put
honour upon the Divine institution of Sacrifice.
As God's people are sometimes Ji</uriifu-rly, not properly,
represented to be pri /, so the various kinds of spiritual ser-
vice with which thy honour him are not unfrequently, in
the same figurative way, spoken of as sacrifices. As among
the Jews, offerings of this sort entered so very extensively into
their whole system of worship, and were in their nature ex-
pressive of different pious feelings, unaccompanied by which
they had no worth, it was altogether natural, that the language
of piety should borrow from their use a great number of
images, and mingle in its habitual phraseology a great variety
of terms derived from the altar and its solemn rites. Thug,
accordingly, we find it all through the sacred volume. The
Psalms, especially, and the writings of the prophets, abound
with this sort of imagery and allusion. We meet with it alsr
BIMLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 359
repeatedly in the New Testament : we are urged to present
our bodies a living sacrifice, holy and acceptable unto CW, to
offer continually the sacrifice of praise, &c. ; so we hear Paul
speaking of his ministry among the Gentiles as a priestly
work, and of their conversion as an offering, rendered through
bis instrumentality, to the Lord; and again, of his life being
poured out as a drink-offering upon the sacrifice and servic*
of their faith. (Rom. xii. 1, xv. 16, Phil. ii. 17, 2 Tim. iv. 6,
Hub. xiii. 15, 16, 1 Pet. ii. 5.)
CHAPTER VI.
SACRED TIMES AND SOLEMNITIES.
As certain places were more holy than others in the Jewish
economy, and were honoured with special regard, so there were
certain hours and days aud seasons, considered in like manner
more sacred than other times, and distinguished accordingly
by particular religious observances. These now call for our
notice, and will lead us to contemplate in order the regular
public worship of the sanctuary ; as this, of course, was de-
termined to such stated times from year to year.
SECTION I.
THE DAILY SERVICE.
THERE was a regular public service required to be performed
every morning and every evening. Each altar was to smoke
so often, at least, with its appropriate offering, presented in
behalf of the whole nation. (Ex. xxix. 38 42, xxx. 7, 8.)
The hours at which these sacrifices were regularly performed,
came naturally to be considered as somewhat sacred and art
prnpriate in a peculii.r manner for the business of devotion.
The law prescribed no precise time for the service af the
morning, but directed that the offering of the second lamb
should take place brtwi-i-n the lim <///* /m/s. It is not rlrar.
however, whether the lirst evening began originally, according
to the way of reckoning that was used in later ages, som*- time
b-fvre the going down of the sun, and with it, gave place U
the second ; or whether it only commenced itself at suiuet
BoO BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
and yielded to the other at dusk. Of the particular manner,
moreover, of either service before the captivity, we ha\n no
account. Tn later times, though confoimed as far as there
was knowledge to ancient usage, it was no doubt in many
respects different from what it had originally been, especially
by reason of various vain ceremonies added to it, such as were
so abundantly multiplied during the second temple, in every
part of the national religion. The Daily Service, as it was
thus found in the age of our Saviour, is described with suffi-
cient fulness in the Jewish writings, according to the very
ancient tradition of their ancestors. The following is a brief
summary of the account of it that has been collected from
this quarter.
The priests who were on duty at the temple had their chief
place of residence, when not immediately engaged in their
public work, in the north-west corner of the Court of Israel.
Here was a very large building, having a great room in the
middle of it, with four others of leas size, that opened into this,
and were placed around it, one at each corner. This central
hall was styled the House of lm ruin;/, because a fire was kept
constantly in it, in cold weather, by which the priests might
warm themselves during the day, when chilled in their work,
and be kept comfortable through the night. Here the princi-
pal one of their three particular guards, or watches, was con-
tinually stationed. Such as were not required to continue
awake in this service sought sleep for themselves on benches
round about the room, or, if they were of the younger class,
on the naked floor itself. Having thus passed the night, they
were required to have themselves in readiness here, very earlj
in the morning, for going forth, according to order, to engag*
in the business of the day. This readiness consisted in being
bathed and dressed in their sacred garments. No one, it was
held, might go into the Court where he was to serve, until he
had washed his whole body in water; and, accordingly, they
had several rooms fitted up as bathing-places for this purpose.
After this first washing, it was not commonly necessary to
wash again during the day, more than the hands and the feet:
that, however, was to be done every time any one came into
the Court of the priests, after having gone out, no matter how
frequently this might be.
Thus ready, they waited till one styled the Pn-s!<1,-nt came,
according to his office, to lead them forth, and assign them
their duties. When he was come, they all passed together out
into the Court, with candles in their hands, and there, dividing
themselves into two companies, began solemnly to move round
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIK* 3<>J
tls temple, half taking to the right, and the other half to the
left Having met on the oppo;,ite side, the inquiry was madr,
/* all safe and icdl? and the answer returned, Yr*, nil in well;
and then immediately the pastry-man, who had his chamber
in that quarter, was called upon to get ready the cakes for the
high-priest's daily meat-offering. After this, they all with-
drew to a particular room, in a building of considerable sixe,
th:it stood at the south-east corner of the court, for the purpose
of having it determined by lot, who should perform the first
duties of the day. This was done by the president.
The first lot designated the one who should cleanse the altar
of burnt-offering; and as soon as it was made known, he went
out and set about his work. His particular part, however, was
merely to make a beginning in this service, which was re-
garded as an honourable privilege, and not by himself to carry
it through; as soon as he had so done, other priests came to
his assistance, and separating any pieces that might be left of
the last day's evening sacrifice to the one side, scraped to-
gether the ashes, and had them in a short time carried away,
so as to leave the altar fit for new employment. These ashes
were borne to a place without the city, where the wind could
not easily scatter them, and no person might ever put them to
any use whatever. The cleansing of the altar in this way was
begun, on common days, at the dawn of day; but during the
three great festivals, much sooner, and on the day of atmu-
ment, as early as midnight itself. The work was concluded
by putting the fire in order, and placing in it any pieces that
were left of the last offered victim, so as to have them com-
pletely consumed.
This first service over, the priests withdrew again to the
room where the lot was given, and had a second class of duties
distributed among thirteen of their number. One of these
duties was to kill tJie mornin<j ri< tim; another, to */<///</./< ,ts
blood; a third, to dregs l/ie altar of incense, &c. Half of them
were merely to carry certain particular portions of the sacrifice,
after the lamb was slain and cut up, to the rise of the altar,
where it was usual to lay them down to be salted.. There
were two more lots, a little after this; one for the service of
presenting the incense in the Holy Place, and the other for
that of taking up the pieces of the sacrifice where they were
first laid down, and bearing them to the top of the altar to be
burned.
The lamb was slain as soon as it was fairly day. It was
considered a matter of importance, however, that it should
never be killed earlier than this, and care was taken to hav?
Si
362 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
it well ascertained beforehand, that day-light was truly come.
(', (the President was accustomed to say,) ami fee. MtCfa 1 /:
le lime to kill the sacrifice. Some one immediately went up
to the top of one of the buildings about the court, and when
he saw it to be decidedly day, gave the word aloud, It in fair
dy. But is the heaven bright c(l nj> to Hi-hron ? (the
President would ask.) Yes. Go then, (he would say,) on//
briny ttie lamb out of the lamb-room. The lamb-room was one,
of those that were in the great building that has been men-
tioned, at the north- vrest corner of the court, in the middlo
hall of which, most of the priests were accustomed to pass the
night. There were always as many as six lambs kept in it,
ready for sacrifice. When the victim was brought to the
altar, although it had been well examined before, it was again
diligently searched all over with the light of candles, to be
sure that it was perfectly free from imperfection and Memi>h.
Those whose business it was, then proceeded to kill it, and
dispose of it according to the common manner of sacrifice.
In the mean time, the gates of the court had been thrown
open, the trumpets sounded to call the Levites and others to
their attendance, and the front door of the temple itself solemn-
ly unfoldeu. It was just as this last thing was done, that the
person who had to kill the victim, having every thing ready,
applied the instrument of death to its throat. While the
work of sprinkling the blood, cutting up the flesh, and carrying
it to the altar then went rapidly forward without, the two men
on whom it had fallen to dref* the golden altar and the candle-
stick were found at their business in the Holy Place. All
that he did who cleaused this altar was merely to brush off
the ashes and coals that were on it into a golden dish kept for
the purpose, which he then left standing by its side. The
priest who dressed the lamps examined them, lighted such -is
were gone out, supplied them with oil, &c.
All these duties being accomplished, the whole company ol
priests betook themselves again to the room of lots, and th< re
united in offering up a short prayer to God, rehearsing the ten
commandments, and saying over the Shema* as it was styled
a religious form consisting of certaia passages of the law.
which was regarded as particularly sacrea, and necessary to
le repeated on a variety of occasions. The Shema was so
jailed because that was the won! with which it always began,
meaning, in English, Hear ; for the passage that was first said
over was Deut. vi. 4 9, which begins, "Hear, O Israel,'*
&c. And the other passages that belonged to it were Deuf
xi. 13 21, and Num. xv. 3 7 41. Not only werj the prie-
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 363
iu he temple required to say over this Shema, but every Jew.
it was held, was bound to do the same thing, wherever he
might be, every morning and every evening. This s< r\ i. <
over in the case before us, the lot was once more employe I
to determine the persons that should perform the next duties,
when they immediately returned to the court of the sanctuary,
to carry forward the morning work.
Then, while the pieces of the slaughtered lamb lay duly
Baited upon the rise of the altar, and ready to be carried to its
top, the offering of incense was solemnly presented in the Holy
Place. Two person.? were always employed to perform the
duty : one took in his hand a silver dish, in which was a cen-
ser full of frankincense, and the other carried, in a proper
vessel, some burning coals from the summit of thu brazen
altar, and thus together they passed into the temple, before
they entered, however, they caused the great sounding instru-
ment, that was provided for the purpose, to ring its loud note
of warning, which directly brought the priests that might be
out of the court, and any of the Levite musicians that hap-
pened to be away, to their proper places, and, at the same
time, gave all the people notice, that they should be realy to
put up their prayers with the incense that was to be offVn !.
The two priests, also, who had been in a short time before to
dress the candlestick and the altar, now went in a set >n 1
time, just before the other two that have been mentioned : but
they came out directly again, bringing with them their vessels
of service, which they had the first time left standing in the
Holy Place ; and quickly after them, the one who took in the
censer of coals, having placed them upon the altar, came out
in like manner, leaving his companion, who had to offer the
incense, alone in the sacred apartment. There Jv. waited, till
the President without willed to him, with a loud voice, OJT> r :
at which signal he caused the incense to kindle upon tli<-
golden hearth ; when, all at once, the sanctuary was tilled with
its cloud, and its fragrant odour diffused itself all over the
consecrated hill, while the multitude without united in solemn,
silent prayer; and oftentimes, no doubt, there went up from
hearts, like those of Simeon and Anna, the breathings of truo
and fervent devotion, more acceptable to the Almighty, f'.ir,
than all the sweetest tribute of the altar.
- MMMft tt tliis offering of incense and prayer was concluded,
the person whose lot it was to lay the pieces of the laml) up MI
tne altar top, with as much despatch as possible, committed
them to the sacred (ire. Then, while the dark smoke ascended
toward heaven, some of the priests, especially those win- had
864 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
just been in the Holy Place, took their station upon the flight
of steps that led up to the entrance of the Porch ; and, lifting
their hands on high, solemnly blessed the people ; one of them
(who, as it would seem from Luke i. '21, 22, was alwajs t!u
same that offered the incense,) taking the lead, aud pnv-
uouncing the words first, and the others falling in and h:ivin^
them over all along just after him, so as to make together one
united benediction. The form of words which they used wa.i
the one, so beautiful and expressive, that is found in Num vi.
24 26; and in answer t<i it, as soon as it was uttered, tlm
people returned aloud, Mcwif l>< tin- h>r<l (lo<1, the (<! >,f
Israel, from ewrlastiny to <<< rlxtin</ .' After this blessing,
the meat-offering of the whole eon pv Cation was jm-sentr I.
then that of the high-priest, ami last of all, the regular drink-
offering; when, immediately, the Levites lifted on high their
song of sounding praise, after the manner that has been
already described, and so concluded the morning worship
It was r.ot till about the third hour, or the middle of the fore-
noon, that the whole service was thus finished, and hence the
Jews were not accustomed to eat or drink before that time of
day, holding it improper to do so, until after this stated season
of sacrifices and prayer was over. (Acts ii. 15.)
The Evening Service began about the ninth hour, or the
middle of the afternoon. (Acts iii. 1.) It differed only in
some few points, of no importance, from that of the morning,
and needs not, therefore, any separate consideration. Gene-
rally, the particular duties were performed, severally, by the
same persons that did them in the morning, HO that no new
casting of lots was required.
These were the stated sen-ices of every day ; whatever other
duties might be required on some other extraordinary days,
these were not allowed in any case to be omitted. Between
the sacred seasons of the morning and the evening worship,
there was no particular regular course of employment in thu
temple : yet the interval was not unoccupied with acts of re-
ligion ; it was then, that other common sacrifices, presented
by individuals, were brought forward, from time to time, to
the altar, of whatever sort they might be.
Ye shall reverence my sanctuary, was a holy commandment
of the Lord himself, and all-reasonable it certainly was, that
*o solemn a place, especially in the time of public worship,
should not be profaned by impious or thoughtless folly. The
Jews did not. therefore, at any time, manifest a too careful
regard to this point, however solicitous they showed them-
wjlvcs, in a certain way, to have it secured in the smallest
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIK8. 365
thing* But their zeal was not sound or consistent withal.
It became, in some particulars, trifling and superstitious, while
in others, it showed a marvellous indifference to the whole
honour of God's House; here, as in many other cases, it
strained out a ynat, and noallowed a camel. Thus, it was
held unlawful to go out of the Court of Israel by the same
gate that one came in by; or to retire, when their worship
was over, any other way than walking backwards, lest it
should seem disrespectful to the altar and the sanctuary, to
turn the back upon them; while yet, all manner S worldly
traffic was allowed to be carried on in the outer court, without
scruple or shame. In their care, too, of outward forms, they
lost, in general, all concern about the inward temper, which
God especially regards. Still, much of this attention to out-
ward carriage and appearance was altogether highly becoming,
since true reverence toward God requires this, as well as a
right spirit in the soul, and it is not to be doubted that tin;
want of it must be truly offensive in his sight. No person
was allowed to enter the ground of the temple with a staff in
Ms hand, or with his scrip on, or with money in his purse, as
if he were coming to a place of worldly business; neither
might be go in with dust on his feet, but must wash or wipe
them beforehand; nor might he spit upon the sacred pavement
anywhere, nor might he pass across it, when going to sonib
other place, because it happened to be the nearest way ; all
which things would have been disrespectful. Nor was any
light or careless behaviour, such as laughing, scoffing, or idle
talking, allowed to be indulged, as being unseemly and irre-
verent, in such a place : but those who came to worship were
required to go to the proper place, with leisure and sober step,
and there to stand during the service, each with his feet close
uigether, his face turned toward the sanctuary, his eyes bended
downward to the ground, and his hands laid one over the other
upon his breast, having no liberty, in any case, to sit down,
or lean, or throw his body into any careless posture whatever.
What a pity it is that such a regard to reverence, in outward
carriage, is found in so small a measure in most Christian
churches ! How little sense, alas ! do the great multitude of
those that visit the sanctuary now, seem to have of God's pre-
sence, oven in his own house, as they come with light and
careless movement into its solemn courts, and as they attend
with all manner of outward indifference upon its sacred er-
vices bearing on all their looks the image of a worldly spirit,
and in their whole deportment showing more regard to them-
n-lves than to their Maker! Especially, what n gpctncle <>'
31*
360 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITI18.
irreverence is often displayed in the time of prayer : whal
.oving of the eye, indicative of roving thought within whal
.show of listless languor and weariness, that denotes a mind
empty of all interest in the business of the place what un-
seemliness of posture and manner, such as xittiiuj without
necessity, lea ni'nt/ this way and that way, lolllny in every self-
indulgent attitude, chan</!n</ positions with continual impa-
ir nee. \c., all evincing the little impression that is felt of the
liiuli Milemnity and importance of the duty, and the little
jij.jin 'lu-^rtion that is entertained of the presence and the ma-
ji" . v and the infinite glory of the Being that is worshipped,
lefi>re whom the seraphim are represented as standing, with
their faces and their feet covered, as they cry, in continual
atl.mitlon, HoLY, HOLY, HOLY, IS TIIK Lulll) o* HOSTS.
.SECTION II.
THE SABBATH.
THE origin of the Sabbath is known to every one that ha*
read the first three verses of the second chapter of Genesis,
or learned to repeat the fourth commandment. It did noi
take its rise, like other sacred days and seasons, that are s-ion
to be mentioned, with the Jewish system of worship, that was
to pass away ; nor was it instituted for any ceremonial reason,
such as we have seen had place in the case of sacrifices, and
of the priestly office, from their earliest appointment. Nay,
so remote was its nature from any such character as this, that
it was originally set apart for the use of beings altogether in-
nocent and holy; for the seventh day was sanctified, or de-
clared more holy than other days, In-fore our first parents were
become sinful and lost : even in paradise, where all days were
so full of the worship of God, this of the Sabbath was to be
distinguished as peculiarly sacred, and to be observed as a
continual memorial of his goodness and power displayed in the
great work of creation.
Wo have no express mention made of it again, in the his-
tory of the time that followed before and after the flood, till
the age of Moses, (Ex. xvi. 22 30;) which is not to be
wondered at, when we consider how very brief that history is
There is, nevertheless, sufficient evidence, that it was not for-
gotten among the people of God, nor altogether among those
that departed fiom the true religion. Noah, we find, reckoned
Mine by periods of seven days, and from him some tradition of
THRLICAL ANTIQUITIES 367
tbe Sabbath and of the week passed down among the various
tribes and nations of his descend xnts, in every part of the
world, as has been more particularly in n'i'm.'d already, when
taking notice of the ancient manner of dividing time, in a
former p;irt of this work.
When God formed his covenant with the Israelitish nation,
the ancient appointment of the Sabbath was solemnly called
to remembrance, and clothed with fresh authority. Jehovah
himself, from the midst of the awful darkness, uttered the
commandment, in the hearing of all the people. (Ex. xx.
8 11.) It was .still uttered, too, as in the beginning, not as
a precept designed for a single dispensation merely, but as a
statute of universal and perpetual obligation : it was given as
one of the ten commant/ments, which comprehended the whole
nwral law, and were proclaimed to the ancient church, as the
original and fundamental rule of God's moral government,
that was never to be lost sight of, while the world should stand.
At the same time, however, the Sabbath was made to bear
something of a peculiar character, also, in the Jewish economy,
such as it hod not before, and was not designed to retain after-
wards. It was invested with a certain ceremonial sacredness,
in addition to that which it had of a purely moral sort. At
least, it was required to be kept with a peculiar kind of out-
ward observance, that belonged only to that system of carnal
ordinances which was imposed on the Israelitish church till
the time of reformation. Hence, the apostle reckons the
Jewish Sabbath among other ceremonial institutions, that
were, he says "a shadow of things to come." (Col. ii. 16, 17.)
Still, the original and more essential nature of this institution
was never suffered to pass out of sight ; but may be found to
have been, all along, distinctly recognised, in the peculiarly
solemn authority with which its obligation was enforced, and
in the moral and spiritual character of the observance with
which it was enjoined to be kept, as well as of the reasons still
assigned for its sacredness. (Ex. xxxi. 13 17, Lev. xix. 30.
Isa. Iviii. 13, Jer. xvii. 21 27.) To tie Israelites it was
urged as an additional motive for them to remember the rest
of the Sabbath, according to its ancient appointment, that the
Lord, whose day it was, had redeemed them, in his mercy and
by his mighty power, from the bondage of Egypt. (Deut.
v. 15.) And because it was given, from the beginning, to be
a memorial of God's sovereignty, as the Creator and Governor
of the world, and was designed to be religiously observed, in
pious acknowledgment of this supreme dominion, it was re-
garded as a *iyn of the covenant that \va ; funned between hitt
368 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
and their nation, which had been taken out of the ido!atrMi8
world, to be his peculiar people; and hence, accordingly, when
they neglected the Sabbath, it was considered to be a profano
violation of the covenant itself, and a rejection of the original
sovereign authority of God, that had in it the nature of idol.'itrj
outright. (Ex. xxxi. 13 17, Ezek. xx. 20.) The punish-
ment for profaning the Sabbath day, like that of idolatry, wan
nothing less than death. (Ex. xxxv 2, Num. xv. 82 8(5 )
The law required a rigid observante of the sacred day. All
the common employments of life, lawful on other days, were
forbidden to be attended to on this. It was unlawful even to
make a fire ; and a man, on one occasion, was put to death for
gathering sticks during its time of rest. The Jews, however,
carried their regard to its outward observance, in this way, in
later times, to a superstitious length. While they honoured
it with little or no genuine regard in their spirits, they affected
a most scrupulous care of offending against the letter of the
commandment, in their actions : and yet, even in this case,
they showed great inconsistency, sometimes strain in;/ out a
gnat, and at other times swallowing a camel. The Pharisees,
especially in the days of our Saviour, laid claim to great con-
gcientiousness on this point, and often found fault with him
for disregarding, according to their notion, the sacredness of
God's day; though, all the while, it was not difficult to be
perceived, that their hatred to Jesus, far more than their zeal
for the Sabbath, called forth their censures and complain:-.
Our Lord exposed their malevolence and inconsistency, and
taught the true nature of the sacred day. (Matt. xii. 1 !.">,
Luke xiii. 1017, John v. 16, vii. 22, 23, ix. 14, 16.)
In the sanctuary, there was no rest on the Sabbath from
the labour of other days; but, on the contrary, an increase of
work. Besides the daily offerings, two other victims were re-
quired still to smoke on that day upon the altar, (Num
xxviii. 9, 10;) and regularly, as we have seen, the old shew-
bread was to be removed, and a new supply put in its place.
Thus, the priests in the temple profaned the Sabbath, or spent
it in work, and yet were blameless. (Matt. xii. 5.) It was
meet that the public service of God should not be diminished,
but increased upon his own day.
It was usual to make some preparation for the Sabbath
toward the close of the sixth day. (Mark xv. 42.) According
to the Jews, it was customary to cease from labour on that
day at the time of the Evening Sacrifice ; and from that hour
till the sun went down, all busied themselves to get completely
ready for the holy season that was at hand. Victuals wore
BIBLICAL ANTIQLITIES. 809
pref\red, (for hem might be no cooking on the Sabbath,) and
all things attended to that were needful for orderly and decent
appearance, such as washing the face, hands, and feet, trim-
ming the beard, &c. that the day of rest might be entered upon
without confusion, and in a manner of reverence and respect.
A little before sunset, the Sabhath candle was lighted in each
house, in token of gladness at the approach of God's day. A I
dark, they spread upon the table, from the provisions previous-
ly made ready, a supper, rather better than common ; when the
master of the family, taking a cup of wine in his hand, re-
peated the words in Gen. ii. 1 3, blessed God over the wine,
said over a form of words to hallow the Sabbath, and raising
the cup to his lips, drank off its contents; after which, the
rest of the family did the same ; and then, having washed
their hands, they all joined in the domestic meal. Thus be-
gaa the observance of the seventh day. On the next morning,
they resorted to their synagogues : or, if they lived at Jerusa-
lem, and felt an inclination to attend the temple, they might
go and worship there. After breakfast, they either went to
some school of divinity, to hear the traditions of the elders ex-
plained, or employed the time in religious duties at home, till
the hour of taking dinner. About the middle of the afternoon,
they again betook themselves to the synagogue or the temple,
for worship. The day was afterwards closed with something
of the same sort of ceremony with which it had been introduced.
In this way, if we may believe Jewish tradition, the Sabbath
was kept under the second temple.
How the Sabbath was spent before the captivity, when there
were no synagogues, we are not informed. Those who lived
nigh the Sanctuary might attend its worship. Parents might
instruct their children in the knowledge of the law, as, no
doubt, many did with care, regarding the Lord's repeated in-
junction. It seems, also, to have been common to visit the
prophets on that day, to receive their instruction and counsel.
(2 Kings iv. 23.)
Our Saviour, who was Lord of the Sabbath, caused it to be
changed from the seventh to the first day of the week, that it
might be, till the end of time, a memorial of his resurrection
from the dead ; while, boing still unaltered in its essential na
turc, it should continue to answer, also, as before, all the our
)f its iriginal institution.
BIBLICAL ANTIQ' ITII.8,
SECTION III.
NEW MOONS AND FEAST OF TRUMPETS.
EVERY New Moon, or the first day of e>ery month, WM
distinguished by a certain degree of sacredness from other or-
dinary days. From Amos viii. 5, we learn that it was not
considered lawful to transact worldly business on such days .
When will (he New Moon fa ;/'"', the wicked are represented
as saying, Uiat we may tell corn f an<1 tin' .V/A/WA, t/mt ire may
set forth wheat f Like the Sabbath, also, thoy were deemed
fit times for visiting the propheta to receive instruction, and
these holy men, it seems, were accustomed to appropriate them
regularly to the sacred employment of giving direction and
counsel to all, of every class, that were disposed to seek it
from their lips. (2 Kings iv. 23.) At the Sanctuary, the
New Moons were observed with particular sacrifices, over and
above the daily sacrifices; viz. two bullocks, a ram, and seven
lambs, with their meat-offering and drink-offering, for a public
holocaust or whole burnt-offering, and a goat, besides, for a
sin-offering. (Num. xxviii. 11 15.) These sacrifices were
attended with the blowing of the sacred silver trumpets. (Num.
x. 10.)
There was one New Moon, however, distinguished in point
of importance above all the rest. This was the first day of
the seventh month,- Tishri, and so, of course, the first day of
the civil year, which always, as we have seen, commenced with
that month. It was more sacred than other New Moons,
being especially set apart as a Sabbath or day of rest from all
common work ; for the law did not forbid such work in the
case of the others, although it was considered to have made it,
to a certain extent at least, improper and wrong, as has just
been stated, by the religious regard with which it distinguished
them in other respects. The return of this day, which ushered
in the ancient year, was required to be announced and pro-
claimed with a special blowing of trumpets ; whence it was
called "the. day of trumpet blmrini/," and also " the memorial
of blowing of trumpets." It was honoured at the Sanctuary
by peculiar offerings : the law prescribing for it, in addition to
the sacrifices presented on other New .Moons, a bullock, a HUD,
and seven lambs, for a burnt-offering, and a second goat, as it
would seem, for a sin-offering. (Lev. xxiii. 25, Num. xxix
1-6.)
Thus, the montlis and the year were sanctified, as it were,
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 37J
by having the first-fruits of their time still consecrated to thf
Lord : thus, the Israelite was continually reminded that his
days, as well as his cattle and his crop, were all given to him
from his Maker, and could not be employed too unreservedly
in his service and for his glory. It were well, if the recollcc
*ion of this fact could be habitually pressed upon the soul, m
every age. It were well, if Christians could be brought to
feel as they ought that they are, in every respect, but stew-
ards for God, under obligations to use all that they have in the
way that may be most for his praise, and for the advanc-'in ut
of his kingdom ; and, that if they are not themselves their
own, but are bound to glorify God with body and with spirit,
as altogether his, it must be strangely inconsistent to look upon
their property, or their time, as less absolutely sacred for his
use, (even if these things were not essentially joined together,)
or to waste or misapply them, or to withhold them from his
service, without a feeling of responsibility, or a single serious
thought of the reckoning that is surely to take place with
every servant, for the manner in which he shall have improved
eacn single talent given him to occupy not for himself, but
for his Lord. (Matt. xxv. 14 30.)
These New Moons differed from the Sabbath in having
only a ceremonial sac-redness, while that, as we have seen, was,
in its original institution, altogether of moral character. With
the close of the Jewish dispensation, accordingly, they lost all
their distinction in this respect: (Gal. iv. 10, Col. ii. 16:)
whereas the Sdbbath, to this day, retains the whole of ite
assential nature, and the full measure of its earliest authority.
Still, there can be no impropriety in setting apart such days,
even now, for particular religious employment, as being
naturally suited for profitable use in this way, if it be done
voluntarily, for the sake of pious improvement, and not through
any superstition. And certainly a special propriety there is,
that the first day of the year should be observed publicly and
privately after such a manner. How much more becoming
ami rational, thus to recognise thefliyht of time, so big with
awful interest, than to colebrate it memorial with tr.e shout
of revelry, the boisterous laugh of folly, or the light ;ttruv
lance of festivity and mirth !
372 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
SECTION IV.
THE THREE GREAT FESTIVALS.
THREE times every year, all the males of the Jewish nation
who were of sufficient age were required to make their ap-
pearance at the Sanctuary, (the tabernacle at first, and after-
wards the temple,) for the solemn worship of God. "Three
times in a year," was the commandment, "shall all thy males
appear before the Lord thy God, in the place which he shall
choose; in the feast of unleavened bread, and in the feast <>f
weeks, and in the feast of tabernacles ; and they shall not ap-
pear before the Lord empty ; every man shall give as he is
able, according to the blessing of the Lord thy God, which he
hath given thee." (Ex. xxiii. 14 17, Deut. xvi. 16, 17.)
The feast of weeks lasted only for one day ; the feast of un-
leavened bread continued as many as seven, and that of taber-
nacles, eiyht, though only the first and last, in each case, were
considered especially sacred, being set apart from all common
work, except such as was needed for the preparation of food.
(Ex. xii. 16.)
It was on these occasions, that the second sort of first-fruits,
firstlings, and tithes, noticed in the last chapter, were pre-
sented before the Lord, and then converted, according to his
direction, into offcrinij-feaxts of sacred gratitude and joy.
Free-will offerings, also, were presented more abundantly at
these times than through all the year besides, and made use
of in the same way; for those who lived at a distance still
kept such offerings till they were called to attend some one
of the festivals, and then brought all their different gifts to-
gether to the House of God. Thus, all came furnished with
presents, and no one appeared before the Lord empty ; so that
the most liberal provision was secured for the religious enter-
tainments with which the feasts were celebrated. These
entertainments it is to be remembered, were required to be
widely social, ax.i to be made free, especially to the destitute
and the unfortunate. In this way, the people rejoiced to-
gether in the presence of their God, acknowledging his wonder-
ful mercies, and showing forth his praise ; while, at the same
time, they were drawn with kindly regard toward each other,
and led to mingle their hearts in general benevolence and
friendship, as forming, altogether, only a single happy family,
and having all a common interest in the kind care of the sauu,
bountiful and com passionate Father. During these festival-;,
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 378
ilso, thtf public service of the Sanctuary was increased with
additional offerings, over and above the daily sacrifices, pre-
sented each day, in the name of the whole congregation.
Thus, with public and private sacrifices together, the altar
found no rest, and the flowing of blood was not stayed from
morning to night.
THE PASSOVER.
The feast of unleavened bread was so called because, while
it lasted, no leaven whatever was allowed to be made use of,
but unleavened bread alone was eaten by all the people. It
was called, also, the Passover, because it was instituted in
memory of that night of mercy, when the Lord passed over
the families of his people, while he carried the terror of death
into every household of Egypt. We have a full account of its
original appointment, in Exod. xii. 1 28. Income circum-
stances, indeed, that first celebration which was required in
Egypt was not imitated in those that were observed after-
wards ; but, in all essential points, the example of it was ever
after followed. The festival lasted from the 15th to the 21st
of the month Abib or Nisan, the first of the sacred year. It
always fell, accordingly, in the time of our month April,
though it came in some years several days sooner than it did
in others, as we have seen, when considering the Jewish man-
ner of reckoning time. Sometimes, the 14th of the month
was termed thejirst day of unleavened bread, because on that
day, before evening, all leaven was carefully removed from the
houses, by way of preparation for the festival week.
The principal solemnity of the season was the sacred supper
with which it was introduced ; and this, more especially and
properly, was that which had the name of the PASSOVER ; the
rest of the feast being called so from it, on account of ite
primary importance. This supper was required to be prepared
by every family, unless is cases where they were small, when
two might join and prepare it together. Nor were any who
might be found unconnected with families allowed to neglect
it; such had either to find admission into some domestic
society for the occasion or to form themselves into companies
of proper size, and so keep the feast by themselves,
itupper, it was directed, should consist of a whole lamb or kid,
a mule of the first year, without blemish, roasted whole, (thai
i.s, without being cut up after it was butchered and dressed )
and served up with unleavened bread, and a salad of bitter
herbs. The victims were to be selected on the 10th day of
the month, and slain on the evening of the 14th, a hort tiin
874 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
before the 15th began to be reckoned ; with the commoner
tnent of which, at night, the passover suppers were made rva<U
and eaten. In the case of the first celebration of the feast, the
lamb of each family or company was killed at home, and its
blood sprinkled upon the posts of the door ; but afterwards,
they were all required to be slain at the Sanctuary, and tho
blood and fat, as in the case of other sacrifices, appropriated tc
the altar. (Deut. xvi. 1 7.) The people were ordered to cat
the first passover in haste, with their loins girded, and in a
condition of full readiness for an immediate journey ; this
manner, however, which expressed the quick and sudden de-
parture which they were compelled to make out of Egypt,
seems not to have been observed in succeeding time, at lea.-t
not in the latter age of the nation. If any of the flesh of
these sacrifices was not eaten on the night of the feat, it was
to be burned the next morning.
Various ceremonies were attached to the celebration of the
Passover, in latter times, of which no mention is made in the
ancient law. The following is a brief account of the manner
in which it was observed in the time of our Saviour, according
to the tradition of the Jews.
Individuals might bring their lambs with them to Jeru-
salem : but it was more common to purchase them at the tem-
ple itself, from the priests, who always hud a large supply of
suitable ones, ready to be disposed of on the occasion ; being
accustomed, it would seem, to select with care beforehand,
(probably on the 10th day of the month,) from the general
market which they encouraged to bo held in the outer court at
these seasons, such as were every way free from blemish, and
to have them in readiness for as miny as wanted to buy, so
that tb ' might have more security in getting their victims
that they were altogether sound and perfect, as the law re-
quired, than they could have, if left to look for them tln-m-
selves in the market, after they had arrived at the city. It
was a regulation, that no lamb should be used for less than
ten persons : each family, therefore, or company, was required
to have at least that number of members; generally they had
more, and sometimes as many as twenty. They were all de-
termined and fixed before the victims were brought to be slain.
Women were not directly bound to appear, as the males were,
at any of the three Great Festivals; yet it was held, that imti-
rectly the law made it their duty to attend, as far as circum-
stances might allow: especially were they under obligation, it
*as maintained, to be present at the Passover, inasmuch as it
wa* written, " The tc/tofe assemb/y of the congregation of Israel
BIRT.ICAL ANTIQUITIES. 37t>
jhall kill it." (Ex. xii. 6.) They were accustomed, thervfore,
to come up to the feast regularly, in its season, with their hus-
bands or fathers. Thus, whole families attended together,
acd most of the paschal societies were composed of one or
more of them, husbands, wives, children, and servants, united
to celebrate the sacred supper. In other cases, the companies
were formed as convenience or inclination directed.
It is easy to conclude, that every room in Jerusalem that
was large enough would be wanted on these occasions, to ac-
commodate the vast multitude that assembled to keep the feast
The Jews have a tradition, that the houses of the city were all
at such times regarded as common property, and were opened
to admit as many as they could conveniently receive, without
any charge whatever ; so that strangers, when they came up
from any part of the nation, might make use of any one they
pleased that had room for them, free of all expense, and as a
matter of right. Some have thought, that the inquiry of our
Lord's disciples, " Where wilt thou that we prepare the pass-
over ?" proceeded upon the fact of such a usage ; and inti-
mates, that it might have been made ready anywhere he thought
proper ; and hence, also, it is to be accounted for, they imagine,
that the man to whom they were directed, so readily gave them
the use of his guest-chamber as soon as they asked for it.
(Mark xiv. 12 16.) The tradition, however, like various
other pretty stories that are told about the holy city, t*eems to
have but a feeble claim to credit : and certainly it is not needed
to explain the case now referred to ; since the question of the
disciples does not necessarily imply any such thing ;us it affirms;
and it was as easy for our Saviour to control the mind of the
man whose guest-chamber he wanted, even if we suppose him
to have been altogether unacquainted with him, as it was for
him to make the owners of the colt content when it was said
V> them, The Master hath need of him, or to rule the spirits of
the powerful and the prmd, as well as the affronted ttvlin.r>
of a company of unprinu'pled rogues, when twice he overturned
the tables of the money changers, and drove from the tomplu
those that profaned il with their worldly traffic.
Exceedingly great care was taken to have every particle of
leaven cleared from the houses before the time of the passovrr
began. The law on this subject was very strict, and to make
sure a proper observance of it, the most diligent pains \\
considered necessary. As early as the beginning of the 14t!i
day. that is, the night before the feast, there was a gen>.-nl
search made all over every house with lighted candles, n >l
living unuxamincd the smallest corner or hole where it w
376 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
possible for leaven in any shape to be lodged. The next morn,
ing before noon, all that could be found was carefully burned,
or thrown into the water, or scattered to the wind ; and every
one, as he thus put it away, was accustomed to repeat the es-
tablished form of execration, "AH tin' Imn-ii tint is u-it/iin iin
pouessivn, ir/iirk I have seen or irhich I haw nt >/<, 11 -hii-h 1
have cast out or which I have nut <-u.t out, be it as tltmnjh it
were not! be it as the dust of the earth!" Thus was every
house purged for the celebration of the passover ; and after
this it was not considered proper even so much as to make use
of the word leaven, lest the thought of it should pollute t la-
mind. The unleavened bread, which was now prepared for
use, was baked in the form of thin cakes, full of holes, to keep
them from the slightest fermentation, unseasoned with salt,
and made only with water, without any sort of oil : in some
cases, the higher class of the people had them nridbfed with
sugar and eggs, though even such bread was not allowed on
the first day of the feast, but only on those that followed.
The lambs were all slain, as other sacrifices, in the Court of
the priests. It was a great work to kill and dress so many as
were necessary for the occasion, and required a considerable
part of the afternoon of the 14th day for its execution. The
Evening Sacrifice accordingly, on that day, was offered before
the middle of the afternoon, and the rest of the day, from that
time to the end of it, was occupied altogether with this pre-
paration for the passover. Though only one person of each
family or society entered into the court with the lamb that be-
longed to it, it needs not to be remarked, that it was still im-
possible for all these to go in at once. They were accordingly
divided into three large companies, which were admitted one
at a time in succession. When one of these companies bail
entered, thr gates were closed, and immediately the owners of
the lambs, or those who brought them in, began to assist each
other in killing them, taking off their skins, and removing the
entrails and fat. The blood was handed to the priests, to be
sprinkled on the altar and poured out at its bottom, and the
common portions of fat to be burned upon its top ; these stand-
ing all along in rows from the slaughtering places to the altar,
:iml p.tssing the articles from one to another continually to
where it stood. Meanwhile, the Levites sang over, once, twice,
ur three times the 113th, 114th, 115th, 110th, 117th, ami
118th Psalins. These were denominated, when taken tn<_ r eth. i,
the /A////-/, or hymn of praise, and sometimes the Lrsmr Hull' I,
lo distinguish it from another that was in use, styled the
Veater Hallel. As soon as the first company had their work
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 377
iloue, they went out, and the second Ijok their place, going
over the same business in the same style : so in their turn, the
third one tilled the court ; after which it was all washed over
with water, as we may well suppose it needed to be, after such
an immense slaughter. (2 Chron. xxxv. 1 19.)
The laiul thus butchered were carried away to the several
houses where they were to be eaten, and immediately made
ready for roasting, by being thrust through from one end to
the other, by a wooden spit or stake, and so placed before a
large fire. According to the commandment, each was allowed
to be thus exposed, till it was roasted in a perfectly thorough
manner. Soon after it became dark, that is, with the com-
mencement of the 15th day, the passover-table was spread,
and surrounded by its little company, in all the houses of
Jerusalem.
The supper commenced with the ceremony of drinking a
small cup of wine mingled with water, after having given
thanks over it to God the Giver of all blessings. Every one
had a separate cup poured out, but only one uttered the thanks-
giving in the name of all. This was the Jirst cup. Then fol-
lowed the washing of hands, after the manner of the purifying
of the Jews, accompanied with another short form of thanks-
giving to God. The table, having been till this time un-
furnished, was now supplied with its provisions, viz. the cakes
of unleavened bread, the bitter salad, the lamb roasted whole,
with its legs, heart, liver, &c., and, besides, some other meat-
prepared from the flesh of common peace-offerings, that had
been presented during the day, and a dish of thick sauce, com-
posed of dates, figs, raisins, vinegar, &c.
The table thus furnished, the leading person, and all the
rest after him, took a small quantity of the salad, with another
thanksgiving, and ate it. After which, immediately, all the
dishes were removed from the table, and a second cup of wine
placed before each of the company, as at first. This strange
way of beginning the meal was designed to excite the curiosi-
ty of the children, that they might be led to inquire what it
meaned, according to what is said in Ex. xii. 26. When the
inquiry was made, (for if there was no child present, the wife
or some other person brought it forward,) the person who pre
sided began, and told how their fathers had all been servant*
MI Egypt, and how with many signs and wonders the Lord had
redeemed them from their cruel bondage, and brought them
forth from the place of their oppression, with a mighty hand
and an outstretched arm. As he concluded the interestnii;
story of Jehovah's is ;rcies, the dishes that had boen rennni-.i
32*
37S BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
were again placed upon the table; whereupon he said, Thi* it
'/! paxsorrr ir/n'i/i irr nit. l,n;u,*i- llint tin Lnnl y^/.sW >,i n
the houses of our fath- ra in h'</yj>t ; and then holding up the
salad, and after it the unleavened bread, he stated their design,
riz. that the one represented the />iff> -r/n-ss of the Egyptian
bondage, and the other the sudden redemption which tin- Lonl
wrought on their behalf, when he smote the first-born of their
oppressors, ao that they urged his people to depart without
delay. Then he repeated the 113th and 114th J'salms, a;>l
closed with this prayer: " Ji/iwd I,, -than, O L<>r<l our (>'>l,
Kimj MlvateutAyl who hast //,/,,////// n*, <ul rln<l our
fathers out of Eijypt, and bromjht us to tin* n'ujht to cat un-
Icdwucd bread <m</ bilh-r /n //>.<:" which being uttered, all the
company drank the wine that had been standing for some time
before them. This was the Second < up.
Another washing of the hands now took place, when the
person who presided, taking up the unleavened broad, brake
one of the cakes in two, again gave thanks to God, and then,
with the rest, began to eat; each first making use of a piece
of the bread, with some of the salad, and the thick sauce, then
partaking of the peace-offering meat, and last of all of the
paschal lamb, with a separate thanksgiving still pronounced
before each dish. Every one was required to eat at least as
much of the lamb as was equal to the size of an olive. The
meal thus over, they all washed again, according to the usage
of common meals, and then united in drinking another cup of
wine and water. This was the third cup. and was called, by
way of distinction, "the cup of Waring" because while it stood
before them ready to be drunk, the leader was accustomed to
return thanks over it in a particular manner, for the blessing
of the sacred supper, and for all the goodness of the Lord.
There was yet another cup made ready a little time atter, just
before the company rose from the table. It was denominated
the cup of the llallel; because it was the custom to repeat, in
connection with it, the principal part of the hymn of Lesser
llallel : for as it was begun )/ the rehearsal of its first two
psalms, the 113th and the 114th, ovir the second cup, (as we
have seen,) so it was now finished by being carried on through
the following four. In all common cases, this fourth cup
closed the celebration of the feast. It was held to be a duty
absolutely incumbent upon all who took part in the supper,
men or women, old or young, rich or poor, to make use of all
the four cups that have been mentioned.
In the account of the institution of the Lord's Supper,
Luke xxii. 15 20, mention is made of two different cups.
B.BLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 379
which appear to have been the last two of the four that have
now been noticed. Having given thanks over '.he third one,
and refused to drink it himself, our Saviour took some of the
bread that was left of the fcust, and gave thanks, and brake it,
in representation of his broken body, and then made use of
the cup offer supper, or the fourth one, to represent, in like
manner, the shedding of his blood, after which, as Matthew
tells us, they sang a hymn, and so finished the solemn enter-
tainment. Others, however, suppose, that the t/iird cup was
the one which was used in the appointment of this holy sacra-
ment; because they think it clear, from its being said that
while they were eatiny Jesus took bread and brake it for this
purpose, that it must have been done before the use of that
cup, and not after it, as the other opinion presumes.
The day thus entered upon with the paschal supper was
holy : till the going down of the next sun, it was not lawful
to attend to any common work. At the same time it abounded
with sacrifices : every male, the Jews tell us, was under obli-
gation to appear in the temple-court, during the course of it,
with a burnt-offering and a double peace-offering. These par-
ticular peace-offerings were called the Ifnyiyah, and were con-
sidered to be altogether more important than the common
peace-offerings that it was usual to present on other days of
the festival. Hence the feast in which they were on that day
employed, according to the manner of such sacrifices, seems to
have been sometimes styled simply by itself, the jvissover ;
though that name properly belonged only to the paschal sup-
per of the evening before. Thus, in John xviii. 28, we arc
told, that the Jews went not into Pilate's judgment-hall, lest
they should be defiled; but that they mlyht eat iftejMMMMP;
while, at the same time, it is clearly stated in the gospel his-
tory, that the celebration of the true passover supper had taken
place the preceding night. In this way, also, John xix. 14
may be explained; unless it be supposed, that tin- f>n /mnititm
of the Passover mentioned there, means simply the Piissuver
prc}Hir<itinn (/uy, or that particular preparation day, (as every
Friday, or day before the Sal jath, was called,) which fell in
the week of the Passover. It is certain, that from the first,
other sacrifices, besides those of the paschal lahibs, were re-
quired at the paschal solemnity, which are spoken of also, a
making a part of tlie Pas&tver with them. (Dout. xvi. 2,
2 Chron. xxxv. 7, 8.) These, according to the Jewish notion,
were all along made use of as peace-offerings for the If<i</i;/<i/i t
i sacred feast that took place on the morrow after the cele-
tion of the paschal supper. It must be acknowledged,
380 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
indeed, that there is no direct evidence that this Hagigah wa
ever denominated by itself the. J'lxxon-r ; and that the most
minimi way of understanding the language of John in the
passage just noticed, would be as referring to the supper com
monly so called. Not a few, accordingly, and these not lightly
learned, have maintained, that our Saviour celebrated the
passover a day sooner than the usual time. But this notion
whatever plausibility it may seem at first glance to derive from
these passages and John xiii 1, inasmuch as it is confirmed
by no other tolerable evidence whatever, and is accompanied
irith all manner of difficulty, ought not to be deemed worthy
of much respect. The first day of the Passover was, it is true,
a most unsuitable time for the confusion and care of a public
trial and execution, having, in a good measure, the same holi-
ness as the Sabbath itself; but envy and malice overleap evcrj
consideration of this sort; and it was not hard for Jewish z<-aJ
to forget all its affected rigour, when an opportunity was found
to destroy the hated Prophet of Galilee.
Ou the second day of the Passover, or the morrow after the
Sabltath, (as its first day was called,) a sheaf of barley wa?
waved before the Lord, as an offering of the first-fruits of the
harvest, in the name of the whole people: a ceremony which
was required to be accompanied with a special sacrifice, and
that was necessary to intrixhice the harvest of every year.
(Lev. xxiii. 10 14.) On every day of the pax-hal wee!;,
besides all the peace-offerings and other sacrifices of individuals,
there were regular public sacrifices peculiar to the festival,
over and above the daily sacrifice. (Num. xxviii. 1(5 25.)
The Passover, it is plain, might begin on any day of the
week, being regulated altogether by the moon. When the
14th day of the month happeneu to be the regular Sabbath.
the great work of killing the lambs was still performed as it it
had been a common day; *>r sanctuary work was held to be
no profanation, in any case, of its sacred rest. In a case of
this sort, however, it was not allowed to carry the lambs home
till the Sabbath was over; the people waited with them in the
courts of the temple until it gave place, toward dark, to the
second day of the week. Presumptuously to neglect the
passover, in its season, brought most dangerous guilt upon the
soul ; but if uncleanness or other unavoidable cause prevented
any one fr jm keeping it at the proper time, he might keep it
in the month following, and be accepted. (Num. ix. (i 13.)
The sacrifice of the passover had a special reference to the
death of Christ. This the gospel teaches us, when it says in
the Scripture, "A bone of him shall not be b-oken," irhich wa
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 381
so carefully concerning the paschal lamb, had its fuU
filment when the soldiers brake nut the legs of the Saviour
upon the cross. (Ex. xii. 46, John xix. 36.) The same thing
the Apostle Paul teaches, when he expressly calls Christ n,ir
/itiwuer sacrificed for us, and represents the happy condition
into which Christians are brought by his death, as a passover
fi'<ist, (not occasional and transient like those of the Jews, but
of perpetual continuance,) which ought to be kept, not with
"the leaven of malice and wickedness, but with the unleavened
bread of sincerity and truth." (1 Cor. v. 7, 8.) The whole
transaction of the first passover in Egypt strikingly prefigured
the saving efficacy of the Redeemer's sufferings. The sprink-
ling of blood upon the door-posts was only a picture of the
atoning blood of Jesus, the Lamb of God, applied to the sin-
ner's soul : as that was made essential to deliverance and safety,
when the angel of destruction passed through the land; so
this is needed to secure a far greater redemption, availing,
wherever it is found, to save from hell itself; while, where it
is not found, there can be no escape from eternal wrath; it is
only "the sprinkling of the blood of Jesus Christ," that can
ever turn away the sword of infinite justice from the guilty
spirit, or shield it from the touch of harm when the Lord arises
to his holy and terrible judgment. (Heb. xii. 24, 1 Pet. i. 2.)
In every succeeding Passover, there was a memorial of this same
transaction in Egypt ; and so, of course, an ultimate reference
to the Great Redemption, of which that transaction was ordered
to be so expressively an image and type : thus, while the in-
stitution looked backward, it looked at the same time yet more
significantly forward, sh ring -forth the Lord's death before
it took place, as the Christian sacrament of the Supper has
been appointed to do ever since. There was in it not only a
symbolic prefiguration of the ransom secured by this death of
the Saviour, but a signal also of all the living benefit which
his people continually derive from him by faith, in consequence
of his amazing sacrifice ; inasmuch as while the blood of the
paschal lamb was sprinkled to make atonement, its Jlesh waa
converted into a solemn peace-offering feast, in token of friendlj
covenant with God, and joyful participation of his grace, which
are secured only by that believing reception of Christ which
he himself speaks of when he says, " Except ye eat the flt-^li
)f the Son of man and drink his blood, ye ha\e no life in yoi '
'John vi 5156.)
882 BIHLICAL
THE FEAST OF WEEKS.
The feast of weeks was celebrated at the close of harvest, &
a festival oi' thanks for its blessings. It was required to be
always observed at the end of seven weeks from the second
day of the Passover, on which the sheaf of first-fruits was of-
fered, as an introduction to the harvest, and lasted only for
one day. It was because its return was determined by reckon-
ing a week of weeks in this way, that it was denominated the.
feast of weeks; as it was called also /'/,/< roxf, or the fiftieth
day, because this reckoning of weeks comprehended, of course,
a period of forty-nine days. Aa it celebrated the goodness of
God in giving the fruits of harvest, (whence it was named
sometimes the feast of harvest,) it was distinguished by a first-
fruit offering of two loaves of the new flour, presented in the
name of the whole congregation. This offering was accompa-
nied with several bloody sacrifices; and there was, besides, a
great public offering of such sacrifices prescribed for tin- ilr.v,
which had no connection with this, all over and above the regu-
lar daily service. (Lev. xxiii. 15 20, Num. xxviii. 26 31.)
There were at the same time many private free-will offerings
presented on the occasion, and converted into sacred entertain-
ments. (Deut. xvi. 9 12.) During the public sacrifices that
have been mentioned, it was usual, the Jews tell us, to sing
over the Hallel.
As the Passover was instituted in commemoration of the
wonderful night of redemption, in which the Israelites left
Egypt, so it has been imagined that the Pentecost was de-
signed to be a memorial of the giving of the law from Mount
Sinai, which appears to have been just about fifty days later.
Of such a design, however, we have no intimation in the Bible.
The day of Pentecost has been ren lered especially memora-
ble, in Christian history, by the remurkable event of which we
have an account in the second chapter of Acts. By selecting
such an occasion for the descent of the Holy Ghost upon his
disciples, our Lord caused this unanswerable vindication of his
truth and power to have the most extensive notoriety; for
always, at that time, there were dwelling at Jrrmmlrm, ./'</,
devout, men, out of every nation under heaven, gathered for tho
celebration of the joyful solemnity.
THE FEAST OF TABERNACLES.
The third great annual festival prescribed by the law was
3alled the feast of Tabernacles; because, during its solemnity,
the people were required to dwell in booths, or teraporarj
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES 383
habitations, constructed of the boughs of trees, such as were
made use of in the journey through the wilderness, in memory
of which it was appointed to be kept. It was celebrated from
the 15th to the 23d of the seventh month, Tishri, with which
the civil year had its commencement; the first and the last,
as in the case of the Passover, being considered more particu
larly sacred and important. Besides the design just noticed,
viz. to be a memorial of the journey through the wilderness,
its appointment had respect to the season of vintage and ga-
thering of fruits, at the close of which it was observed ; so that
it was intended at the same time to be a festival of thanks for
these, or rather for all the produce of the year now gathered
from the field, as the feast of weeks was for harvest, which is
spoken of as the first-fruits of all. Hence it is called thef'-u*t
if ingathering. (Ex. xxiii. 16, Lev. xxiii. 34 44, Neh. viii.
1418.)
A great number of public sacrifices were required to be of-
fered during this festival ; an account of which may be found
in Num. xxix. 12 38. The season was also distinguished,
as the other great festivals were, with private peace-offerings
of various sorts, in daily abundance. (Deut. xvi. 13 15.)
Under the second temple, certain peculiar ceremonies were
introduced into the celebration of the feast of tabernacles, in
addition to those that belonged to it, originally, by Divine ap-
pointment. The Jews pretend, indeed, that intimations of
their use, before the captivity, are found in the Old Testament;
but what they show for such have no appearance of the sort,
except by fanciful interpretation. Such were these that follow.
1. In the law it was commanded " Ye shall take you, on
the first day, the boughs of goodly trees, branches of palm
trees, and the boughs of thick trees, and willows of the brook ;
and ye shall rejoice before the Lord your God seven days.'*
(Lev. xxiii. 40.) These boughs, the Sadducees rightly main-
tained, were designed to be employed in making booths ; but
the Pharisees insisted they were designed to be carried by
every individual, in his hand, in token of joy; and they far-
ther asserted, that, by the expression translated, the bonyhs of
goodly trees, 'which means, literally, the fruit of;/'**//// trtes^
was to be understood nothing else than apples of the citron
tree, which, accordingly, were appointed to be carried in the
same manner. This was established, therefore, as the common
usage. On the first day of the feast, every person provided
himself with a small bunch of branches of palm and willow
nd myrtle, ^nd was seen carrying it about, wherever he went,
all the day long On the foll wing days it was not thus coo-
884 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
stantly carried, but only when individuals went up to the tem-
ple : each day, however, all were required to visit the temple,
with their bunches in their right hands, and every one a citron
in his left, and thus pass around the altar, crying aloud. //<>-
gnu mi, (which means, save now!) and repeating also the whole
LJoth verse of Psalm cxviii., while all the time the sacred trum-
pets were sounding without restraint. On the seventh day
this ceremony was repeated seven times, in memory of the con-
quest of Jericho.
2. There was a still more remarkable rite, which consisted
in the drawhiy of water, ami x/i nm/i/ y/o// //// It out UJ#>H tltt
altar. Every morning, during the feast, when the parts of the
morning sacrifice were laid upon the altar, one of the priests
went to the fountain of Siloam, and filled a golden vessel,
which he carried in his hand, with its water. This he then
brought into the court, and, having first mingled it with s-iim.-
wine, poured it out, as a drink-offering, on the top of the altar.
And still, as this ceremony was performed each day, the Le-
vites began their music, and sung over the Hallel ; while at
times, especially when the 118th Psalm was sung, the people
all shook the branches which they held in their hands, to ex-
press the warm assent of their feelings to the sentiments
breathed in the sacred hymn. The meaning of the ceremony
is not clear : some of those who mention it, say it was signifi-
cant of the blessing of rain, which was thus invoked from < J<><1 ;
others tell us, it was a sign merely of the jot/ that belonged to
the occasion ; others, that it was a symbol of the outpouring
of the Holy Spirit, according to what is said in Isa. xii. i>,
" With joy shall ye draw water out of the wells of salvation,"
which, it is pretended, was spoken in allusion to the usage in
question, and so evinces, at once, its antiquity and its sense.
3. Every night, we are told, there was a most extraordinary
exhibition of joy, styled the rejoicimj for the dnncimj of imti /.
When the water was offered, in the morning, the solemnity of
the worship then on hand would not admit the extravagance
of this ceremony ; so it was put off till all the service of the
day was over, when it began, without moderation, and occupied
quite a considerable portion of the night. The scene of it was
the Court of the Women, which, for the occasion, was furnishrd
with great lights, mounted upon four huge candlesticks that
overtopped all the surrounding walls in height. Here, while
the women occupied the balconies round about, above, as spec-
tators, the Levites, taking their station on the steps that led
up into the Court of Israel, at the west end, began to unite
their instruments and voices, in loud music, and a general
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. S8
.lance was started all over the square. It was, withal, a wild
and tumultuous dance, without order, dignity, or grace; every
one brandishing in his hand u flaming torch, leaping and ca-
pering with all his might, and measuring the worthiness of his
service by its extravagance and excess. What made the ex-
hibition still more extraordinary in its appearance, was the
high and grave character of the persons that were accustomed
to engage in it; for it was not the common people that joined
in this dance, but only those that were of some rank and im-
portance, such as the members of the Sanhedrim, rulers of the
synagogues, doctors of the law, &c. It was not until the night
was far spent, that the strange confusion came to an end ; and
then only to be renewed with like extravagance on the next
evening, (unless when it was particularly holy, as the eve that
began the Sabbath,) as long as the feast lasted. //'- that ni-vnr
xuw the rejoicing of tlu- drntrinij of water, runs a Jewish uy-
ing, never saw r<ji< imj hi tl /t/'.s life.
Some have thought, that the whole manner in which our
Saviour was met, the last time he came up to Jerusalem, was
borrowed from the usage, that has been noticed, of carrying
branches in the hand, and shouting Hoxanna, in the temple,
on the feast of tabernacles ; and that the use of the ceremony,
at this time, was designed to intimate, that what the prayer in
Psalm cxviii. 25, then so much used, had respect to, viz. the
Doming of the Messiah, was now truly accomplished; and that
Jesus of Nazareth was no other than this glorious personage,
the Son of David, the Redeemer of Israel, that should come
into the world : whence it was cried, at the same time, in the
language that begins the next verse of the same Psalm
" Blessed is he that coiueth in the name of the Lord !" (Matt.
xxi. 8, 9, 15, John xii. 12, 13.) The use of palm branches
on this occasion, as well as all the show of honour that was
made, seems rather to have been taken from the general an-
cient manner of celebrating triumphs, or public entries of
kings into cities; but there can be no doubt, that the minds of
the people were carried, at the same time, by natural associa-
tion, to the usage, so familiar, of their great feast, and that their
acclamations, accordingly, were really derived from that quarter.
A reference to the ceremony of drawing and pouring out water
also, is discovered in the gospel history : our Lord, it seems evi-
dent, had allusion to it, when, on the last day of the feast, he
istood in the temple, and cried, " If any man thirst, let him
come unto me and drink ! He that believeth on me, as the
Scripture hath said, out of his belly shall flow rivers of living
water." It was in this way, he was continually in the habit of
83
386 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIKB.
taking advantage of earthly objects and circumstances wound
him, to draw attention to .spiritual truths, and to convey the
most salutary instruction in a clear and impressive manner; in
the case beforo us, we are told, <; that he spake of the Spirit,
which they that believe on him should receive." 'John vii. 37
39.)
SECTION V.
THE GREAT DAY OF ATONEMENT.
THERE was no day in all the year so important and solemn,
in the Ceremonial System, a.- the 10th of Tishri, which fell,
of course, not quite a week before the feast of tabernacles.
This was the Day of Atonement, when guilt was called to re-
membrance in such a way as it was at no other time, and a
service of expiation performed in behalf of the whole nation,
altogether extraordinary and peculiar. It was required to be
observed, therefore, not merely as a Sabbath of complete rest,
but as a day of rigid fasting also, and general humiliation or
affliction f s/>iil, on account of sin. The atonement that wa>-
made had respect to all the sins of all the people, from the high-
est to the lowest, committed throughout the preceding year:
and was des gned to clear away, as it were, by one general ex-
piation, the vast array of guilt that was still left, after all the
ordinary offerings for sin, resting with awful weight upon the
nation. It comprehended in itself, in fact, the vitality and
chief essence of the whole system of ceremonial expiation,
and required for its accomplishment, accordingly, the service
of the high-priest himself, in whom was concentrated the vir-
tue of the entire priesthood, and an entrance with blood int.i
the Holy of Holies, where all the life and glory of the Sanc-
tuary were appointed to reside.
We have a full account of the manner of this atonement in
the 16th chapter of Leviticus. We are there told how the
high-priest was required to make himself ready, by wa>hin^.
and putting on his plain linen garments, in place of the rieliei
apparel he usually wore ; how he came before the Sanctuary
with a bullock, as a sin-offering for himself and his family,
and two goats for the whole congregation; how he selected .ne
of the goats by lot, for a sin-offering, and sot apart rlie other
for a scape-goat into the wilderness; how he killed the bullock
for himself, and afterwards 'lie goat for the poople; how h.-
first earriod a center of coals, with some incense, into the M< w
BIBLICA J ANTIQUITIES. 3S7
Holj P\a/*e, and there cau jed a fragrant cloud instantly to spread
over the morcy-seat, and fill the apartment; how he then brought
the blood of the bullock and the blood of the goat into the
same awful place, and sprinkled them upon the mercy a ,
and seven times upon the floor in front of it; how, when he
came out into rhe Holy Place, he applied them also to the horns
of the golden altar, and sprinkled them upon it seven times;
how he afterwards placed his hands upon the head of the liv-
ing goat, confessed over it all the iniquities of the children of
Israel, and all their transgressions in all their sins, and then
sent it away, thus loaded, as it were, with the people's guilt,
into the wilderness; and how, after all was over, he again
wa-hnl himself in the Holy Place, put on his splendid dress,
and offered a burnt-offering for himself and for the people,
while the whole bodies of the bullock and the goat, whose
blood had been carried into the Sanctuary, were sent away to
oe burned without the camp, as altogether polluted and un-
clean.
It was an awful thing to come before the throne of God as
the high-priest did this day; and no doubt the duty was often
performed with fear and trembling. The greatest care was
needful to attend to every part of the service in a proper man-
ner, and with becoming reverence, lest the anger of the Lord
should suddenly display itself, to crush him with destruction.
It was necessary that he should be free, at the time, from
every sort of ceremonial defilement ; and it became his duty,
accordingly, to guard himself with the utmost diligence, from
every kind of contamination, for some time beforehand. In
later times, if the Jews are to be believed, he used to retire from
his own house a whole week before the solemnity, taking up
his residence for that time, altogether in a chamber of the tem-
ple, that he might the better be in readiness for his great duty;
f br which he was accustomed to prepare himself by practice,
in various ways, and by reading over, or having read to him,
repeatedly, the order and manner of the service he would have
to go through.
In the law, it is said, that the scape-goat should be let go in
the vrildi'riH'ss, to carry clear away, as it were, the iniquity that
was laid upon it, and it would seem that it was always allowed
.[>e with life; but under the second temple, a different in-
terpretation of the direction gained place, and it came to be
li'-M f-i-i'-ntial that the animal should be destroyed. This was
always done, accordingly, by precipitating it from a certain rack,
about twelve miles off from Jerusalem, to which it was led
away directly from the temple. The rock was very lofty and
f8S BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
steep, so that when the unhappy beast caine to the bottom, it
was dashed to pieces.
There were particular public sacrifices prescribed for the dav
of atonement, besides those that were connected with the great
expiation. (Num. xxix. 8 11.) These, the Jews say. were
offered directly after the regular morning sacrifice, before that
solemn service commenced. They tell us, too, that no one but
the high-priust might do any of the prie.-tly work that belonged
to these or to any other offerings of this day ; but that he was
required to perform himself, in his rich dress, all the morning
service, and all that was connected wi:h these additional offer-
ings; then to change his garment?*, and go through the work
of atonement ; and afterwards, in his common apparel again,
having first offered the two burnt-offering rams, one for him-
self and the other for the people, to conclude all with the
duties of the evening sacrifice.
The great aim mil uttmement, embodying in itself, as we
have seen, the essential virtue of the whole Jewish system of
expiatory sacrifices, was, of course, the most perfect picture
which the ceremonial dispensation had, of the (rue Atom m- ni
that was afterwards to appear. The whole institution of sa-
crifice was a shadowy representation of the Redeemer's death,
and the whole priestly service had respect to his mediatorial
work ; they presented, in common cases, however, only some
particular features of these mysteries in any single view, with-
out bringing the scattered sketches at any time together, or
supplying, even in this separate way, all that were wanting
for filling up the general representation. But, in the BMH
before us, there was, as it were, an orderly and complete con-
centration of typical images, into a single, full, and striking
exhibition of the whole at once; such as, the more narrowly
it is contemplated, cannot fail to excite the higher admiration,
and to display the more convincingly, in all i<s colouring, the
inimitable touches of a divine pencil.
Here was a symbolic representation of Christ's voluntary
iK-riJice for the sins of the world, and of his all -pre vail ing iittrr-
caxion in the presence of the Father, by which his people arc
made partakers of righteousness and eternal life. The Mo(
Holy Place was a figure of heaven, where God dwells in etern J
glory. As the high-priest entered in*o the one to intercede
^ith incense for the Israelitish nation, so Jesus has ascended into
the other to intercede for the whole congregation of his church,
gathered out of all the kingdoms of the world. Hut as the inter-
i-ev-ion, in the first case, could not be admitted, except as it
come recommended by blood of expiation, previously sh-sd, o,
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 38*>
also, without shedding of blood, there could be no such inter-
cession of any avail, in the second ; wherefore, our Loru appear-
ed not before the infinite Majesty on high, tor this purpose, till
he had first offered an adequate sacrifice, on the merit of which
he might found his mediation. He gave his blood for the re-
mission of sins, and then presented himself in the presence of
Uml, with the atonement as it were in his hands, to make re-
conciliation with it for guilt, and to plead its virtue in favour of
all who apply to him for life. In the typical transaction, there
trafi not, indeed, an entire correspondence throughout with the
mystery it represented : it was not possible, in the nature of
things, that it should be so. Thus, in the type, the high-priesi
and the victim were altogether distinct, whil in the true trans-
action they were found in one and the same person; Christ
was himself the sacrifice and the priest : he <>ff<'reA himself, of
his own accord, as a victim for sin, (as he says in Johu x. 17, 18,
and in that plea of his prayer for his disciples, " For their sakea
/ xuiictify myself;") OMWredL in his own person, all the suffering
of an expiatory death ; and then passed, in the power of an all-
sufficient High-Priest, into the Holy of Holies on high, to
sprinkle the mercy-seat, as it were, with his own blood, and
obtain eternal redemption for his church. In the type, more-
over, there was, besides the offering for the people, a separate
sacrifice for the high-priest and his family, inasmuch as he
himself was encumbered with personal guilt, and needed atone-
ment for his own sins, before he could come acceptably before
God, to make intercession for the people : but the sacrifice of
Christ was single, and had respect altogether to the sins of
his people he himself being holy, harmless, undefiled, and
separate from sinners. In the type, at the same time, besides
the sin-offering sacrifice, there was a scape-goat appointed to
bear away, symbolically, the sins of the nation ; both these
figures, however, were answered at once in the death of Jesus
Christ. They presented only two different aspects of the gene-
ral nature of the atonement it accomplished ; the one shadow-
ing the transaction itself and its influence in heaven ; while
the other expressed, in significant emblem, its full efficacy to
purge the conscience from all guilt, and to remove the trans-
us of all that make application for its benefit, so that
they shall not }JG remembered in the way of judgment any more
for ever. The apostle Paul dwells upon this subject in his
epistle to the Hebrews ; representing the whole priestly office
and the whole sacrificial system as typical of the mystery of
redemption, but more particularly directing attention to the
gn ;it service of the high-priest on the day of atonement, a*
390 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
that which comprehended in itself, more especially; ii. ..*
perfect and expressive image. "Christ being come," L^ ujlis
us, "a High-Priest of good things to come, by a greater and
more perfect tabernacle, not made with hands, that is to say,
not of this building ; neither by the blood of goats and calves
but by his own blood, he entered in once into the holy place,
having obtained eternal redemption tor us. For Christ," he
adds in another place, " is not entered into the holy places made
with hands, which are the figures of the true ; but into heaven
itself, now to appear in the presence of God for us : nor yd
that he should offer himself often, as the high-priest etiterrth
into the holy place every year with blood of others; for the i
must he often have suffered since the foundation of the world :
but now once, in the end of the world, hath he appeared, to
put away sin by the sacrifiW of himself." (Heb. ix. 11, 1'2,
24260
SECTION VI.
SACRED YtARS.
THE SABBATIC YEAR. Still more to impress the minds of
his people with the great truth, that their time, as well as
their property, was not their own ; and to carry out still more
completely the ceremonial scheme, God set apart every seventh
year, also, in addition to the days that have been already
noticed, to be, in some measure, sacred and free from the
labours of other years. It was not required, indeed, that it
should be all kept after the manner of a Sabbath, or solemn
festival, by a continual attendance upon religious duties. We
hear of no extraordinary public sacrifices appointed for it, and
the people seem to have been left to occupy the time in a
worldly or religious way, according to their own choice, about
as much as in ordinary years. The land, however, enjoyed a
complete rest : the fields were not allowed to be tilled, nor the
vineyards to be dressed ; and whatever they yielded without
culture, was required to be regarded as conmon, for all to
make use of as they needed, without being reaped or gathered.
^l^ev. xxv. 2 7, Ex. xxiii. 11.) The inquiry might naturally
BUggest itself, how the nation could be secure from the distress
of poverty and famine, in the observance of such an institution ;
but God himself silenced fear on this account : " If ye shall
say, What shall we eat the seventh year ? behold, we shall not
aow, noi gather in our increase : Then T will command uiy
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 39l
.>sing upon you in the sixth year, and it shall bring forth
fruit for three years. And ye shall sow the eighth year, and
eat yet of old fruit, until the ninth year." (L<:v. xxv. 20 2:2.)
As ao produce was gathered from the soil, it was made a law,
also, that no debts should be collected during the Sabbat ica!
year; and it was, at the same timo, solemnly enjoined, that
no person should be moved by this consideration, to refuse
lending to such aa were in want, when it was at. li.-.inl. The
year was called, on this account, the year of release. S^ine
have entertained the opinion, that this release required uot
merely, that debts should be allowed to lie over, without being
exacted, till the eighth year, but that they should be alto-
gether canceled and never again called for: which, however,
as it seems not easy in itself to be received, so it cannot be
positively established from the language of the law. (Deut.
xv. 1 11.) The Sabbatical year, we must believe, had its
beginning with Tishri, the first month of the civil year, when
the produce of the land was all gathered in, and before the
time of sowing for another crop.
During the feast of tabernacles this year, the whole law was
to be publicly read over at the Sanctuary. How important
such a regulation was, when copies of the sacred writings were,
of necessity, extremely scarce, needs not to be observed. (Deut.
xxxi. 1013.)
THE YEAR OF JUBILEE. There was another year of peculiar
and extraordinary character, appointed to be observed, in the
Jewish economy. Its return was still at the end of every
seventh sabbatical year, that is, only once in 50 years. The
law directed that it should commence on the great, day of
atonement, and that it should then be ushered in with the
sounding of trumpets, through all the laud.
This Year of Julti !<<, as it was called, was to be, in all re-
spects, as much as the common sabbatical years, a year of rest
to the land, in which there might be neither seed-time, har-
vest, or vintage. It enjoyed, however, additional distinctions,
exclusively its own. It was a year of reslitutinn. when tho
whole state of society was to be, in some measure, re-organized,
and brought back, as far as possible, to its original posture.
It was ordained, that on even" return of the Jubilee, all ser-
vants of Hebrew origin should obtain their freedom ; and that
inheritances, which had been sold or given up, in the way of
mortgage or pledge for debts, and not previously redeemed,
should return, all over the land, to the families to which they
at first belonged. A particular account of these regulations,
nd of the manner in which they were to be understood and
392 BIBLICAL AHTIQUITIE8.
regarded, as well as of the institution of the year of Jubilee in
general, is found in the 25th chapter of Leviticus.
We may well conceive, that the return of the Jubilee would
be hailed through the land, not merely with the sound of
trumpets, but with much gladness of heart and general mani-
festation of joy. It commenced, we may suppose, on tho
evening of the day of atonement, after its great solemnities
were over; and so brought with it, as it were, a proclamation
of peace and forgiveness, in answer to the deep humiliation, and
ihe expiation so awful, with which the season had been dis-
tinguished. And truly, an interesting spectacle it must have
beofl, and such as might well excite the most pleasant emotions,
even in those who had no direct personal concern in the privi-
leg s of the time, to behold the gladsome change that was all at
once accomplished throughout the nation ; when the bond and
the poor found themselves restored to freedom and a home ;
ivlien the unfortunate were raised from distress, and brought
back, each to his ancient patrimony and the dwelling-place <>r'
his fathers; when the obscure were seen suddenly rising into
notice and importance; and when the whole face of the com-
munity, in short, was moulded by an almost instantaneous
transformation into something of the same general semblance
of order and arrangement that it carried fifty years before.
The whole formed a lively emblem of the joyful blessings,
holy and spiritual, that are brought to men by the gospel of
Jesus Christ, wheiever it is received by faith ; and hence,
accordingly, it is said of the .Messiah in prophecy, with alliiM- n
to the proclamation of the Jubilee, that he should come to
preach or prodnim the acceptable y^ar of the Lord. (Isa. Ixi. '2,
Luke iv. 19.)
SECTION VII.
SACLEB SEASONS OF HUMAN INSTITUTION.
Tc the sacreJ times which God himself appointed in the
law, to be remembered and observed by his people, there were
added, in later ages, some others, that rested, so far as we know
any thing about them, on mere human authority. These
remain to be briefly noticed.
ANNUAL FAST-DAYS. From the beginning, the Jewish
nation was accustomed to observe public fas.ts on occasion*
of general calamity or danger; yet they had not, in the earlier
periods of their history, any stated yearly day foi fasting, nx
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 393
the great day of atonement, that has been already con-
sidered. During the captivity, however, no less than four
additional days of this sort were established, whicli continued
to be observed in all subsequent times. These were, first, The
fast of the fourth month, in memory of the capture of Jeru-
salem. (Jer. lii. 6, 7.) Second, The fast of the fifth month,
in memory of the burning of the temple. (Jer. lii. 12, 18.1
Third, The fast of the seventh month, in memory of the death
of Gedaliah. (Jer. xli. 1 4.) Fourth, The fast of the tenth
month, in memory of the commencement of the attack upon
Jerusalem. (Jer. lii. 4.) Mention is made of all these in the
book of Zechariah, vii. 3, 5, viii. 19.
THE FEAST OF PURIM. This festival, as we have the account
of its origin in Esther ix. 17 32, was instituted to keep up
the memory of that great deliverance which the Jews had frum
the wicked plot of Hainan, in the days of Mordecai and Esther.
It was celebrated about the middle of Adar, the twelfth, and
regularly, the last month of the year, and had its name from
the word Pur, which means a lot, because Haman had made
use of the lot, in some way of idolatrous superstition, to de-
termine the time when the massacre of the Jewish nation
might be undertaken with the best success. (Esth. iii. 6, 7.)
Two days, viz. the 14th and 15th of the month, were set apart
to be observed ; though it was usual to confine the principal
celebration to the first, while it became the practice to keep a
preparatory fast on the 13th, in memory of that in Shushan,
on account of the decree that had gone forth for the destruction
of the nation. The manner of celebrating this festival became,
in time, very extravagant and licentious, and so it has con-
tinued to be down to this day. A principal service has been,
to read over all the book of Esther, in the synagogues, and for
all present, even the children, at every mention of the name
of Haman, to clap with their hands, and stamp with their feet,
and strike with mallets upon the benches, in token of deep ab-
horrence, crying out at the same time, Let his memory penAt
The part of the time that is not required to be spent in the
synagogue is occupied with all manner of festivity and mirth;
whicli it has not been unusual to carry to a length not meivly
of ridiculous folly, but of downright intemperance, indecency,
and outrageous revelry.
THE FEAST OF DEDICATION. This feast was instituted by
Judas Maccabeus, ujt more than 164 years before Christ, to l>c
A memorial of the new dedication of the Sanctuary, tha* 'lu'ii
took place, after it had been profaned by that wicked watch
Autiocbus Epiphanes This monarch had get himself, wit.lj
8!>4 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
all his might, to crush the Jewish religion, and introduce ido'*
try in its room. He ordered the service of tie temple u
cease ; Sabbaths and festivals to be entirely neglected ; altars,
groves, and chapels of idols to be set up through the land ;
sacrifices of swine and other unclean beasts to be offered, and
incense to be burned at the doors of houses and in the streets ;
the whole law, in short, to be disregarded, and the whol
Sanctuary polluted ; thus requiring the people to " make their
souls abominable, with all manner of iincleanness and profana-
tion, to the end they might forget the law, and change all the
ordinances." The Bible was hunted with diabolical persecu-
tion, to be torn in pieces and burned; and it was made an aw
ful law, that whosoever was found with the sacred volume in
his possession should be put to death. Among other things,
the tyrant himself " entered proud i/ into the Sanctuary, and
took away the golden altar, and the candlestick of light, and
nil the vessels thereof, and the table of .-he\v-liread," with every
precious vessel of the place, and carried them off into his own
land ; and afterwards he proceeded so far in his malice and
profanity as to cause an image of Jupiter, the chief god of the
heathnn, to be placed in the temple, the Sanctuary itself, and
its courts to be sprinkled with broth of swine's flesh, and a
BOW to be offered in sacrifice upon the altar of burnt-offering.
At length, however, God gave his people deliverance. Judos
Maccabeus prevailed over the oppressor in war; liberty \va-
recovered to the land; the worship of God was rescued from
restraint and persecution. Whereupon, immediately, it was
held necessary to make a public purification of the Sanctuary,
and to dedicate it anew, as having been stripped of its sanctity
by the wickedness of the heathen. New holy vessels were
made for its service, and a new altar also erected, in room of
the old one, which it was thought best to pull down, lest it
should be a reproach to them, because the heathen had defiled
it. Then was it dedicated with appropriate sacrifices, and with
bongs, and with instruments of music, all the people rejoicing
and praising the God of heaven. The solemnity was con-
tinued for eight days; and it was at the same time ordained,
that a festival of so many days should afterwards be celebrai. >1
from year to year, with mirth and gladness, in commemoration
of the interesting and joyful occasion. Ever since, accordingly,
such a festival has been observed among the Jews. The dedi-
cation of the altar took place ou the 25th of the ninth month,
which answered in part to our December, and so the feast
came to have its commencement ever after still with that day,
falling of couise in the season of winter. (John x. 22.) Ac
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 39o
account of the profanati >n of the temple may be found in th
first chapter of the first book of the Maccabees ; and in tho
latter part of the fourth chapter of the same is contained a
history of the dedication now mentioned, and a notice withal,
of the original institution of this festival to which it gave riso
CHAPTER VII.
MEMBERS OP THE JEWISH CHURCH.
HAVING considered the Sanctuary, its ministers, and its ser
vice, it now becomes us to take some notice of the church at
large; to glance at the manner of its organization, and the prin-
ciples that were appointed to unite and regulate its general
system.
The Jewish church had its origin in the person of the patri
arch Abraham. From the midst of a world rapidly falling
into the deep darkness of idolatry, God called him to become
the Head of a chosen people, with whom his truth and pro-
mises might be deposited and preserved, till the fulness of tiuu
should come for the introduction of the gospel; and entered.
accordingly, into a gracious covenant with him, to be, not only
his God, but the God also of his seed after him, and t:i take
them for a peculiar nation, consecrated to himself, out of all
the families of the earth. That it might be a continual sign
and seal of this covenant, he instituted the rite of cln- um< i*;<,u,
and required it to be observed with the greatest care. It be-
came, therefore, a perpetual regulation, never to be dispensed
with, that every male child among the Jews, arrived at the
age of eight days, whether born in an Israelitish hou.se, 01
bought with money of any stranger, should be circiimei>ed.
(Gen. xvii. 7 14.) The covenant thus solemnly entered into
with Abraham, was afterwards renewed with his posterity at
Mount Sinai. (Ex. xix. 3 8.)
Every descendant of Abraham, then, was a member of tho
Jewish church : his birth made him heir to all its privileges,
and subjected him to all its authority. He had no liberty e\ cr
to withdraw himself from the relation, if he might even have
been inclined to do so. IJ nee, the whole nation was compre-
hended within the pale of the visible church, and was spoken
of as a kofy people a kiinj<l<m t>/j>n'<*ts, in covenant with God,
and interested in his special favour and care. The whoh na-
tion, accordingly, carried the sign of God's covenant in th<:i
396 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES
Besh, and all its members were required to confirm their assent
to it, year after year, by solemnly observing the passover sup-
per, aiid the various other institutions which the law ordained ;
while they were, at the same time, consult-in! c|iially par-
takers of all its earthly advantages, and equally concerned in
all the public worship of the Sanctuary with which it was con-
nected.
Still, there were certain qualifications of a ceremonial kind
required, in order to a full and free participation, at any lime,
of the outward privileges of the church. When t hese were
wanting, individuals were removed, in some measure, fr.mi the
advantageous state which the rest of the community enjoyed
in this respect: they were not at once excluded, indeed, from
their relation to God, as members of his visible family, but
only shut out for a time from the common liberty of its
society; yet, if the disqualification under which they laboured
was wilfully allowed to continue when it might be put out
of the way, it caused them to be, in the end, entirely cut off
from the sacred household and from the commonwealth of
Israel, as transgressors of Jehovah's covenant and despisers
of its glorious promises. To have part in the outward privi-
leges of the church, or to engage acceptably in its outward
worship, it was necessary, not only that a man should first of
all have submitted to the rite of circumcision, but that he
bhould be, at the time itself, ceremonially clran. Hereby, in
that shadowy and symbolical system, it was signified, that
moral purity is the first thing required for drawing near, ac-
ceptably, to the Most High, in any spiritual service, and that
without holiness no one can ever see the Lord in peace, or
find admission into the happy family of heaven.
Ceremonial uncleanness was contracted in a variety of ways,
as may be seen by reading the llth, l'2th, 13th, 14th, and
15th chapters of Leviticus. Its necessary duration also varied
in different cases; in some instances, continuing only till sun-
set ; in others, for a whole week ; and in a few others for a
btill longer period. While it lasted, it was attended with con-
siderable inconvenience; for it not only shut out the subject
of it from the privileges of the Sanctuary, but cut him off, at
the same time, from all free intercourse with his friends and
?ieighbours; since, for any other person to touch one that was
thus defiled, was to make himself in like manner unclean ; and
he was bound, therefore, to let his condition be known, and to
keep clear of his acquaintances. The most distressing of all
defilements a that which the leprosy gave rise to. We
have been called to notice already how the unhappy victim of
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 397
tfiis disease, in addition to all the sufferings directly occasional
by hia malady, was required to separate himself from society
altogether, and to live a solitary outcast in the midst of the
community, (unless he found some like himself, with whom to
associate in melancholy fellowship,) all the days that his plague
lasted upon him.
Uncleanness, however, though in most cases made nccegsary
only for a limited and short period, did not, in any case, pass
away of itself, without some ceremony of purification, under-
gone by the persons on whom it rested. In most cases, all
that was required of such a person was to bathe his body and
wash his clothes in water. In other instances, when the de-
gree of defilement was considered to be greater, a more solemn
purification was demanded. Thus, when one had become un-
clean by the touch of a dead body, or a sepulchre, or a single
bone of any dead person, in which case the defilement could
not be removed till a week was past, it was necessary that he
should get some person that was clean to sprinkle him, on the
third and seventh days, by means of a bunch of hyssop, with
the sacred icatcr of separation ; after which, on the last day, ho
bathed and washed his clothes, as in ordinary cases, and so be-
came clean at evening. (Num. xix. 11 22.) The purifica-
tion of persons recovered from the leprosy was accomplished
with a form of rites altogether peculiar, of which we have an
account in the 14th chapter of Leviticus.
The water of separation, just mentioned, was pure fresh
water, mixed in a vessel with some of the ashes of a red heifer,
burned with particular solemnity for the purpose. An account
of the singular manner in which it was burned may be found
in the first part of the 19th chapter of Numbers. A supply
of these ashes was always kept on hand, for the use of such
as might need them for purification; for still, as the quantity
furnished by one victim came near to be exhausted, an addi-
tional stock was provided, by selecting a new one and destroy-
ing it in the appointed way. As very little of the ashes was
needed to make the water of separation in any case, the quan-
tity supplied by one heifer lasted a great number of years j so
that, according to the Jews, there were only eight burned for
the purpose during the whole time of the second temple.
They tell us also, that the one burned in the time of Moses,
without any other, served the people as long as till the cupti
vity; but in this, their tradition is not entitled to any oredit
As the service of burning the red heifer returned ?o seldom,
it naturally came to be regarded as a solemnity of great inte-
rest; and, in later times, accordingly, was burned with
398 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
share of tb .< general encumbrance of unmeaning and supcrst*
tii us ceremonies, which tradition then contrived to hang, with
HO much industry and zeal, about the whole ancient syr.tcm of
worship. In the first place, the mo>t scrupulous < -arc was em-
I 1 >\cd in making choice of the animal; for it was held, that
if only two hairs could be found upoa it of white or black
colour, it could not be fit for this use. Then the priest win
was to burn it was shut up seven days beforehand, lest he
might suffer some defilement by touching a grave or a dead
body: for the purpose of preventing which, also, when he
passed with a company of elders and other priests, from the
temple to the place of killing the victim, a great causeway was
raised upon arches, clear across the valley of Kidron, from
the eastern gate of the outer court, in such a way that no grave
could possibly hide in secret under the ground, and so pollute
the procession, as it moved over it to the spot of its destination.
This spot, which was arched underneath in like manner for the
same purpose, was on the Mount of Olives, directly over against
the front of the temple. When the company arrived there with
the heifer, the person who had the principal service to perform
was required to bathe himself in a chamber erected there for
the purpose; vhile the other priests made ready the wood, tied
the animal, and laid it upon the pile. The person just men-
tioned then came forward, applied the instrument of dcatb to
its throat with his right hand, received the blood into a vessel
in his left, and immediately sprinkled it, with solemn silem <.
seven times, toward the front of the Sanctuary. The next
thing was to set fire to the pile, and to throw into it, as it \\a>
burning, some cedar wood, some hyssop, and some scarlet wool:
first showing each of the articles, however, to the company
around, and saying of it three times over in succession, '/'///.
is cellar wootl, or hyssop, or scarlet wool, as the <-a-< might be;
to which, in each case, they with great gravity replied, Will,
wM, well. After the burning was finished, the ashes were care-
fully collected, pounded, sifted, and laid up for use.
The red heifer, though not presented directly at the altar,
had in it, notwithstanding, the nature of an offering for sin ;
as is manifest from the use that was required to be made of its
blood, and from the fact that, like the bodies of those beasts
whose blood was carried into the sanctuary, it polluted those
who were concerned with the burning of it, as being itself a
polluted thing, by reason of the guilt of the people that was
supposed to be laid upon it. Its ushe*, therefore, had a puri-
fying efficacy, on the same principle that made iUtml to be re-
gardnd, in other cases, as making atonement for the soul: they
BIBLICAL ANTIQYITIES. 399
Comprehended, as it were, the essential virtues of the ejrpiatoiy
leath, by which they had been pr*>cureu; aud,'when applied
to the unclean, were designed to signify, properly, an applica-
tion of the merit of that death, as having, in its nature, power
to cleanse them from defilement. " Thus the whole institution
pointed, with peculiar emphasis, to the death of Jesus Christ,
aid expressively represented its availing virtue to purge away
the guilt of all sin from the conscience, as well as to procure
complete deliverance from its pollution and power. The Apos-
tle Paul, accordingly, teaches us, that its shadowy and sym-
bolical efficacy, like that of the sin-offerings presented on the
great day of atonement, found the actual -reality, of which it
was the figure, only in the blood of Calvary : for as the sprink-
ling of the water of separation upon such as were defiled ren-
dered them ceremonially clean, and so fitted them to come before
God in the solemn service of the sanctuary, from which thej
had been shut out; so this blood, wherever its virtue is applied,
cleanses the soul from real guilt, and qualities it to approach
the living God, in an acceptable manner, with a service altoge-
ther spiritual, for which, until thus purged, it is found totally
unfit, and can have no liberty whatever. " If the blood of bulls
and of goats," the apostle argues, "and the a.-Jies of a heifer
sprinkliny the unclean, sauctiheth to the purifying of the flesh,
how much more shall the blood of Christ, who, through the
eternal Spirit, offered himself without spot to (jrod.jiurye your
:oniicieiice from dead works to strce the l.ivuiy Gm.1?"
PROSELYTES.
To be descended regularly from Abraham, the father of the
chosen raee, was accounted a distinction of the highest sort, and
such as elevated every person to whom it belonged far above
all others of the human family. (John viii. 33 59, 2 Cor. xi.
22, Phil. iii. 5.) Still, the Gentiles, who were destitute of
this advantage, were not ut',erly shut out from the possibility
of becoming united with the Jewish church, and obtaining a
part in its sacred privileges. IJy renouncing idolatry and every
false religion, and consenting to embrace the faith and follow
the worship of Israel, they might find admission into the holy
family, and become adopted, with all their posterity, into tlw
same highly favoured state that its other members enjoyed in
virtue (if their descent from its original head. Such as at any
time made use of the opportunity thus afforded were called
,
There were some Gentiles who became convinced that the
Jewish religion was true, and renounced all idolatry tor lic *<r
fl)0 BIBLICAL ANTIQITITIE8.
ship ot the one living and true God of the Bib! 3, and yet wcr
aot willing to take upon themselves the rite of circumcisiou.
These were not, of course, received as full members of the
Israelitish church, and might not have part in its more im-
portant privileges; still they were regarded with considerable
favour, aud were spoken of as pious persons. They were accus-
tomed to frequent the synagogues in company with circumcised
Israelites, and used often to visit the temple also; they were
not bound, of course, to bring their sacrifices there, when they
wished to offer any ; but as they were allowed to do so, they
generally embraced the privilege, aud had them presented at
the altur of the sanctuary. They were not suffered, however,
to offer sacrifices there of any other sort than bmmtrofferings ;
and it scarce needs to be mentioned, that they could not accom-
pany their victims into the court where the altar stood, but
were uuder the necessity of having them presented altogether
through the priests. This class of persons, we are told, were
denominated Proselytes of the, Gate.
ouch as came fully into the Jewish commonwealth and church,
by submitting to the rite of circumcision, aud taking upon
themselves the obligation of the whole ceremonial law, were
called Prostdytcs of nMUeOMMMM. These were completely
grafted into the Israelitish stock, and mingled with the origi-
nal brunches, in the full and lasting participation of all its ad-
vantages. In latter times, the Jews, especially the Pharisees,
exerted themselves with much zeal to bring other JKTSOIIS to
embrace their religion; though, according to the declaration of
our Saviour, it was to no good purpose.
CHATTER VIII.
SYNAGOGUES.
SACRIFICES could be offered nowhere else than at the sanc-
tuary, the great centre of the whole Ceremonial Service; but
other exercises of religious worship might be performed in any
place. The law, however, did not prescribe any other mamiei
of public worship than that of the tabernacle and temple, and
we are not informed that any regular meetings of the pc'pie
for social prayer and praise, and for the purpose of receiving
religious instruction, were in use, at any time, before the cap-
tivity. There were schools of the prophets, indeed, where youu^
jieu were trained up with every advantage of this sort, tor the
Synagogue
p. 403.
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. -101
service of God ; and it was not uncommon, it seems, for per-
aons that desired such a benefit, to betake them wives, on Sib-
baths and new moons, to places where prophets resided, th.xt
they might be instructed from their lips; but all this brought
only a small portion of the community under the direct influ-
ence of such religious privileges, and fell far short of any thing
like a general system of regular meetings through the nation,
of the sort that has been mentioned. Some have been confi-
dent that such a system of regular weekly social worship was
actually in use, and have pretended to bring evidence for their
opinion from the Bible; but the evidence they produce is not
satisfactory, and we are left at last to a mere conjecture, in sup-
port of the notion; that is, we find it, whether it be false or
true, without historical notice. But of the state of things in
this respect, under the second temple, we are not thus igno-
rant. After the captivity, social meetings, held weekly, for
religious worship, became common all over the land. They
were styled SfinaooytHi.
Of the origin of synagogues, we have in history no account.
They seem, however, to have come into use, if not at an ear-
lier period, at least immediately after the nation returned from
its captivity. One opinion on the subject is, that Ezra, acting
under the direction of God, caused them to be established for
the purpose of securing among the people generally a familiar
acquaintance with the law, thus guarding them in the most
effectual manner against the evil of idolatry; for Ezra had a
commission from Heaven to restore the Jewish church, and
re-organize its worship, after the confusion into which it had
been thrown by the captivity, so that he has always been re-
garded by the Jews as another Moses, and styled, accordingly,
The second fbwdbp 'if the Law. There can be no doubt that
the institution, in whatever way it originated, was admirably
adapted to answer the end that has been mentioned, and that
it did actually operate with the most salutary influence, in this
way, during all the period of the second temple.
The word Synagogue, means, properly, a meeting or congrega-
tion ; it came naturally, however, to be used also as the name
of the place or house where a congregation was wont to assem-
ble. At first, synagogue-meetings appear to have been held
either in the open air or in private houses ; but after some
time, the idea of erecting buildings of a public kind, expressly
for such use, was conceived and carried into practice. These
soon rose wherever, in any country, a settlement of Jews was
found, as well as over all their own land. Originally, we are
told, it was usual to erect them in fields, some distance ofl
S4"
J02 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
from other houses; but afterwards they were put up in
and it was required that they should always stand in the high-
est places, and should exeeed in height all the house's ahoir
tliein. To build a synagogue was considered a deed of piety,
greatly acceptable in the eye of God, as to build a church has
ot'ten been esteemed in Christian countries. Hence it is nut
to be wondered at, that they were exceedingly multiplied in
some, places, far more than the necessity of the people called
for. Jewish tradition assures us that there were 110 less than
four htnnlrnl >un/ <'!<jhty of them in the single city of Jerusa-
lem : a lying statement, we may well suppose; but such as in its
exaggeration leaves no room to doubt that the number must
have been very great. Any person, a Gentile as well as a Jew,
might build a synagogue ; for the holiness of the place was
supposed to result altogether from its consecration, after it was
put up, without being affected at all by any previous circum-
stances. ( Luke vii. 4, 5.) This consecration was merely by
prayer, with very little ceremony or formality. We are told by
Jewish tradition, that the general form of synagogues was always
the same. They consisted, in some measure, of two parts : one
of which was called the temple, and was designed to have somt
correspondence with the Most Holy Place of the Sanctuary,
being, like it, retired in the back part of the building, and fur-
nished also with an ark or chest, made after the model of the
ark of the covenant, in which was kept a copy of the law foi
the service of the place ; the other, which occupied the princi-
pal body of the house, was appropriated for the use of the peo-
ple, when they assembled for worship, and was provided accord-
ingly, with ranges of seats or pews, for their accommodation.
Before the place where the ark was kept, and toward the mid-
dle of the synagogue, was erected a low pulpit or platform,
with a desk in front, where the law was read and expounded
before the congregation. A few seats were placed behind this
pulpit, on which those that were called elders were accustomed
to sit, with their backs turned toward the ark, and their face*
directed toward the rest of the people, who were all arranged
found about in front of the reader, facing the end of the build-
ing in which the sacred chest of the law had its retreat. Tho>e
seats which were farthest up toward the pulpit, and the place
^vhere the nrk was deposited, particularly the seats on which
the elders sat, seem to have been the chlif v,if.< of the syna-
gogue, which it was considered honourable to occupy, ami
which, we are told, the hypocritical Pharisees were accustomed
o much to covet on that account. (Matt, xxiii. 6.) The women,
it is said, did not sit among the men, but in a sort of balcony
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. K'S
or gallery that was raised along one side, .*roni which rnej
eouid see into the body of the house, and hear all the xtrvice
<>f the place without being themselves much exposed to view
There is a different plan of building synagogues in use, at the
present day, in the Kast, more completely accommodated to the
manner of the ancient temple at Jerusalem. They are made to
consist of a court with porches round about; a <-li<ijl in the
middle of it, (answering to the Sanctuary in the Court of tin;
Israelites,) which is supported simply upon four columns, au-1
has within it the desk on which the law is spread out and rra<l ;
and a covered hall near this last, furnished with seats, for the
people to occupy when the weather happens to be stormy or
cold. It has been imagined by some, that the ancient syna-
gogues were constructed upon this plan ; but since the New
Testament leaves us without any hint to determine the matter,
it becomes us rather to acquiesce in the general tradition upun
the subject, and to adopt as correct the representation already
given. It was a rule, we are told, that no place might have a
synagogue erected in it, unless it contained at least as many
as ten persons of some learning and respectability, who were
in such easy worldly circumstances that they could always have
leisure to take care of its affairs and devote some attention to
the study of the law. A congregation, it was supposed, might
not consist of any number smaller than this ; though there
was no limit, other than convenience, to the greatness it might
have ; and in this way, accordingly, it was secured, that so
many, at least, should be found in every assembly gathered
for religious worship : for it was the duty of the ten men se-
lected for the purpose to take care that their synagogue should
never suffer a defect in its service in this respect. These select
men seem always to have sustained the dignity of e<rg, (which
title had respect not so much to their aye as to their yrm-Iti,
and authority,) and to have had their place, accordingly, OD
the seals that were fixed behind the pulpit. There is auothei
opinion, however, respecting these ten men of leisure, as they
were called, not without considerable reason in its favour, which
represents them to have been only common persons hired to
be always present at the synagogue, when worship was to be
performed, that there might be a certainty of having, at all
times, a sufficient congregation for the purpose. It is a Jewish
Baying, that the Divine M<ij<s/// "''^ ""t '/"''// amony less tlutu
li a, that is, that God will not meet graciously with a less uuin
ber assembled foi public worship ; and he is represented a
turning away in anger from a synagogue that should happen t<
be found without that complement : but our Suviou- iuculcab
tUl BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
a very different doctrine, for the encouragement of the pioiii
in every age : "If two of you shall agree mi earth as touching
any thing that they shall ask, it shall be done fnr them of my
Father which is in heaven : for when- tu-<> or //// an- gathered
together in iny name, there am I in the midst of them." [.Mutt,
xviii. 19, 20.)
Every synagogue had its officer* appointed to manage itt
government and conduct its religious services. The suprenift
direction of its affairs was committed to the (are of a cnnm-H
of elders, and one styled tin', ruler of the xyiiajfKjm-, who suti-
tained among them the place of a president. These elders
were persons of respectahle and intitieiitial character in society,
and such as had more than ordinary acquaintance with the law,
so as to be qualified to take part with their president, and
*ssist him with their counsel, in the government of the eongre
gation. It seems, that, on account of their authority in this
way, (hey also, at times, were called ///., <>f tin- .y/"",'/".'/'"'
though the title properly belonged only to the oflicer just men-
tioned, who was placed at their head. (Acts xiii. 15.) Then,
besides its presiding ruler and its company of elders, eacii
synagogue had its tltr<,n*, or collectors of alms, whose busi-
ness it was to receive the charitable contributions of the
congregation from week to week, and distribute them am MIL'
the poor, as they might happen to be found in need of such
assistance. It was usual, we are told, to have always three
persons appointed to manage this business; who, although
they acquired some considerable authority from the nature of
their charge, were yet completely under the control of the
superior officers just noticed, and could never dispose of the
alms that were put into their hands in any way which these
might refuse to sanction with their approbation. There were
tlso certain ////'// /*/< r.s, or attendants, of a still more subordinate
character, who had particular employment assigned to them
connected with the general care of the synagogue and its
service ; one, especially, whose business it was to take the book
of the law out of the chest in which it was kept, and give it
to the person who was called upon to read, and afterwards to
receive it from him again and restore it to its place ; who wag
intrusted, moreover, as it seems, with the charge of having
the house in order for worship, took care that it should be
swept, wh?n necessary, and kept clean, and still opened the
doors and closed them before and after the times of meeting.
< Luke iv. 20.)
It was the duty of the ruler of the synagogue to preside in
11 its meetings, and to superintend and direct the whole of its
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 401
worship. It was not considered necessary, however, that he
should himstlf, or that some one of the elders associated with
him, should always take the lead personally in every rr.ligioun
exercise; though the whole right of doing this was vested
altogether in their body; and the exercise of it, accoidinglj,
as well as its responsibility, seemed naturally to devolve upon
them alone : it was held to be sufficient, notwithstandiug, if it
proceeded merely under their immediate direction atd over-
sight; so that other persons might, by their order or per-
mission, perform such service with perfect propriety ; and
hence it was actually the custom, to have it performed, to a
considerable extent, in this way altogether. Thus in every
meeting, different individuals, who had nothing to do with the
direction and government of the synagogue, used to take part
in conducting its public exercises of worship, under the eye
of the president and elders. One of these exercises was to
lead in the prayers of the congregation : another, to read a
particular portion of the Scriptures; another, to address the
people. The person who performed the first mentioned ser-
vice used to be denominated the angel of the synagogue, that
is, its (fi-b'gate, or representative, appointed to address the throne
of God in the name, and on the behalf, of the whole assembly.
It was usual to iiave some one appointed to officiate in this
character with regular and stated duty; and it was a maxim
at the same time, that the individual selected for the purpose
should be one of the greatest dignity and worth, eminent above
most others in the congregation for wisdom and virtue, and, if
possible, clothed with the venerable solemnity of age and the
experience of a multitude of days. In' some cases, however,
the angel of the synagogue was constituted merely for a single
occasion, and the person chosen to officiate sustained the cha-
racter no longer than the particular service lasted which he
wa called upon to perform. The other exercises that have
been mentioned were not appropriated, in any case, as stated
services, to any particular individuals to the exclusion of others;
but different persons were in the habit of officiating on different
occasions, as they were invited to come forward by the pnui-
dent, either to read or to speak, or as they received his appro-
bation when they presented themselves of their own accord tor
the purpose, and he found no reason to deny them the liberty.
The privilege of addressing the people, however, WHS COP-
Mdered much more important than that of reading, and was,
Moordingly, allowed with much less freedom : it was, in fact.
as it appears, eotifined in a considerable measure to those who
had the supreme direction, the president either exercising tlio
406 BIBTICAL ANTIQUITIES.
right himself, or yielding place only to some one of the jow-
puny of elders of which he was the head ; and, so far as it wa*
not thus confined, (for it was still not uncommon to allow it to
persons who held no office in the Synagogue,) it seems to have
been a principle that no one should be suffered to teach in this
way who was not in a more than ordinary degree versed in tho
knowledge of the law, and so entitled to rank among the wist
men, as such used to be styled, by way of distinction from the
common unlettered multitude.
As those who ruled the synagogue and superintended its
regular service were called predtyt<-rs or > />/</>, so they were
denominated, (especially, as it would seem, the president and
such of the others as were accustomed to take part in teachiny,)
by a figure familiar to the east, pastors or dbepfordbj and had
the title also of bisiwps, or, to use a different word of the same
meaning, overseers, in reference to the watchful care and au-
thority which it was their duty to employ in the government
of the congregation for its general welfare and the right >rder
of its public worship.
We find no express mention in the New Testament of pub-
lic worship in the synagogues, on any other day of the week
than the Sabbath. Jewish tradition, however, asserts that it
was common anciently, as well as in more modern times, to
have it regulaily celebrated also on the second and fifth days,
(our Monday and Thursday,) and on all festival days besides,
such as new moon, &c. We are told too, that it was usual to
assemble on these days as many as three several times, viz. in
the morning, in the afternoon, and at night : but on the week
days the service was short, consisting chiefly of prayers, with
the reading of only a small portion of the Scriptures; and on
the Sabbath, the principal service was that of the morning,
when there was a full reading of Scripture, and an address
made to the congregation; while the afternoon and evening
meetings were occupied more particularly with prayers and
singing. Prayer, presented in public worship, was held to be
more acceptable than prayer offered up in private; so that as
many as made any pretensions to piety were still disposed to
resort to the synagogues, on its meeting-days, for the per-
formance of their morning and evening devotions, just as it
was customary for serious persons who lived near the temple
r x> go up to its courts at the times of the daily sacrifices. And
it appears, that the synagogue was considered an advantageous
place for individuals to present their stated prayers even on
days when thof was no public service to be attended; as we
read that the Pharisees, to make an ostentatious show of re-
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 407
hgion lovid to repeat their private prayers standing in ties*
churches ; w hich at other times they did not scruple to d j even
iu the most public places of the streets, pretending that whet
the seasons for this duty arrived, their consciences wou!d not
allow them to neglect it a moment, wherever they might be
found, but all, in fact, to be seen of men, and to obtain the
praise of uncommon godliness among the multitude of the
world. (Matt. vi. 5.)
When the congregation was collected together for worship
on the morning of the Sabbath, the angel of the synagogue
I'egau the services of the occasion with an ascription of glory
to God, and a regular address of prayer toward his holy throne
Then the portion of the law which belonged to that day was
read, and the reading of it closed with another doxology
chanted to the praise of the Most High ; after which followed
the reading of the appointed portion from the prophets. Next
came the address to the people, and afterwards another prayer,
which concluded the exercises of the meeting. Such appears
to have been the general order observed in the ancient sen-ice
of the synagogue, as well as it can be gathered from the occa-
sional hints of the New Testament compared with the manifold
traditions of the Jews ; which, it is to be presumed, compre-
hend much correct information relative to the whole original
manner of the institution, though it be so confounded with
rubbish derived from more modern usage, as to be in no small
degree difficult to be ascertained.
At the close of the prayers the whole congregation were
accustomed to say, Amen, in token of their concurrence with
him that uttered them, in the feelings of thankfulness or sup-
plication which they expressed. So did they respond, also,
when the priest pronounced the solemn benediction, according
to the form in Num. vi. 24 20. It was usual, we are told,
when this was to be pronounced, for all the priests that were
in the house, if there happened to be more than one, to take
their station on the pulpit, and repeat it after the manner that
was practised in the daily service of the Sanctuary. Lf there
was no priest present, the angel of the synagogue used to re-
peat it, still introducing it in some such way as this : Our God
and the God of our fatliers bless us now with that three-fold
benediction appointed in tin- lav to [ ji/-<>i/i/i>i;(/ l,y tiie sont
of Aaron, according as it is said, " The Lord bless thee, &c."
The people, however, were instructed to withhold in such a
case their customary response of Amen. So goes the tradition ;
and it idds that this pronouncing of the benediction was toward
408 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
the end of the principal prayer, though not altogether at the
close of it.
It was the custom to have the whole law, that is, the five
books of Moses, read over in the synagogues, every year.
Hence, for the sake of convenience and certainty, it was nil
di /ided into fifty-four sections, as nearly equal in length a
they could be made without serious injury to the sense, which
were appointed to be read in regular succession, one every
week, till the whole was gone over. It was thought proper to
have as many as fifty-four, because the longest years consisted
of that number of weeks, and it was desired to leave no Sab-
bath in such a case without its particular portion ; but as the
common years were made up of fewer weeks, they used in the
course of these to join certain shorter sections, so as to make
one out of tvo, in order to bring the reading regularly out
with the end of year ; for it was held absolutely necessary to
have the whole read over without any omission, 1> I'.n- it was
commenced in course again, as it still was on the first Sabbath
after the feast of tabernacles. The copy of the law used for
this purpose, which, like all books of ancient time, was in the
form of a roll, was written with great care, and generally with
much elegance. It was not usual, we are told, for a single
person to read over the whole section for any day, in the syna-
gogue . but several individuals, according to the Jewish repre-
sentation exactly seven, were called upon to read in succession ;
whence it became the practice to have each of the sections di-
vided again into several smaller portions for their accommoda-
tion. Any male person, who was not a servant, a tatter-
demalion, or a fool, and was able to read with ease and distinct
utterance, might be invited to bear a part in the exercise:
only it was the custom to call upon some of the more honour-
able individuals present in the congregation, to take the lead
in reading the first two or three portions of the section, par-
ticularly it was thought proper to have the first portion read
by a priest, if any was in the house, and the second by a
Levite. It is not clear, however, that this partieiilar manner,
Chough found prevailing at a later period, was all observed in
this part of the synagogue service in the time of our Saviour.
The reading of the prophets, which followed the reading of
the law, was not practised in the synagogues from their first
institution, but had the origin of its use in the time of Antio-
chus Kpiphanes. We have already, not long since, had occa-
sion to mention the persecution which that wicked n-jnster
waged against the worship and the truth of the God of Israel.
The rolls of the sacred law of Moses, whenever they could be
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 409
discovered, were destroyed, and the punishment of death was
denounced against every individual with whom a copy -f it
should be found. In this predicament, those of the nation who
still adhered to the religion of their fathers were led to make
choice of particular portion* out of some of the other books
of Scripture, (which, because they had not been in common
a-e, like the books <if Moses, in the public worship of the peo-
ple, had not fallen under the same tyrannic condemnation,)
and substitute them in room of the ordinary lessons from the
law, in the service of the synagogue. In this way a new set
of lessons was introduced, which ever afterwards continued in
use ; for although when the storm of that persecution had rolled
away, the original reading of the law was restored as it had
been in the beginning, it was still thought proper not to lay
aside these other portions of Scripture, but to have them read
also, in regular order as before, so that it became a perpetual
rule to have TWO lessons, one out of the law, and one from
the prophets, repeated in this way every Sabbath. The Jews
reckoned, in that class of their sacred books which they deno-
minated the prophets, not only such as are actually prophetical
in their character, but the chief of those also which are merely
historical, such as Joshua, Jm/yi-x, tfamurl, A7//*, ami C'ftrn-
nicles : whence the second series of lessons comprehended por-
tions from these last, as well as from Isaiah, Jeremiah, Eze-
kiel, &c. : and these were not connected in any sort of order
with each other, but had been selected independently, just as
they were thought to have some particular correspondence with
the sections of the law, to which they answered in the order of
their course. As they were quite short, in comparison with
the other lessons, they were not divided in the same way for
several readers, but each used to be read altogether by a single
person.
As the Jews, after the captivity, made use of a language
materially different from that of their ancestors, in which their
sacred books were written, it became necessary still to have the
lessons of the synagogue interpreted, as they were read, into
the common tongue. It seems that even in the time of Ezra,
immediately on the return of the nation to their own country,
something of this sort was found necessary, when that holy
man caused the law to be publicly read in the hearing of the
people. (Neh. viii. 8.) In later times, however, especially from
the age of the Maccabees, it became still more needful, and waa
secured, as it appears, with more systematic arrapgement.
There is reason to believe, that the idea of distributing the
Scriptures into verses was conceived, and put into practice, ori-
410 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
ginally, f >r the sake of convenience and order in the interpre-
tation of the synagogue lessons. As it was necessary for th
reader to pause overy few moments, till the interpreter beside
him turned what he read into the common tongue, it was natu-
ral to think of breaking the whole into little portions of -uita
ble length, so that he might not be at a loss where to stop, or
so liable to interrupt and confound the sense by injudicious
division, as he must have been, if left in every case to cut it up
according to his own pleasure : and when verses w.Te thus in-
troduced into the sacred rolls of the synagogue, 't was not
etrange that they should, in time, become established through-
out the whole Jewish Bible, as we have them handed down to
our own time, and still everywhere in use. The ancwrt tra-
dition of the Jews is, that these, as well as the fifty-four greater
sections into which the law wax divided, had their origin from
no less a source than the inspired authority of Ki.ni himself.
The chapters into which we find all the Bible now distributed,
it may be here remarked, were invented more than 12M \r;,i -
after the time of our Saviour, and the verses of the New Tes-
tament at a period considerably Inter still. Nor was it again,
until some time after the whole Bible was thus divided and
sub-divided, that the plan of .separating the verses into distinct
little paragraphs, as they are now found in our common copies
of the sacred volume, came into practice ; the original plan hav-
ing been, to let them still follow each other, like common sen-
tences in other writings, in regular order acco r ding to the sense
(as all Hebrew Bibles are still printeJ.) nnd to place all th<-
figures, when the practice of numbering them was adopted
down along the margin, altogether out ot the text itself. Ana
truly it is much to be lamented, that God's holy word shoulo
ever have been allowed to be so cut up and broken into pieces
as it has now come to be in our common Bibles, by having th
Chapters and verses all completely separated throughout ; as il
the Spirit that inspired it had given it for use in that style
whereas the whole has been the contrivance of man, and tend*
only to darken the meaning of the sacred page from beginning
to end.
Much of our Saviour's teaching was performed in the synv
gogues. We are told that " he went about all the cities and
villages, teaching in their synayoyues, and preaching the gos-
pel of the kingdom." It appears, that before he entered upon
his public ministry, while he lived as a common man in the
tow n of Nazareth, he regularly attended the synagogue of the
place, as one of its members, and used often to bear part as a
reader in its stated services : and we find him, directly after he
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 411
bud assumed bis official character, clothed with the power of the
Holy Ghost, addressing the same congregation as a prearhtr ;
in which capacity he continued afterwards to giv< instruction
in these Jewish churches all over Galilee, and in other parts of
Juil M, wherever he came. (Luke iv. 1444.) As it is not to
be supposed that he taught in this way, in any case, without
the consent of the rulers of the synagogues, if not by their
express invitation, it has seemed strange to some, that a per-
scu so much disliked as he was, by the religious leaders of his
country, should have been suffered, to such an extent, to enjoy
this great advantage for the dissemination of his doctrine
among the people : but we are to remember, that he was not
only a Jew himself, of fair and unblemished character, and
strioly attentive to all the requirements of the law, but a man
at ti, : same time of acknowledged wisdom and deep skill in the
knowledge of religion, who had full claim to the title of Rabbi
or Dot-tor ; and that he was a prophet withal, " mighty in deed
and word before God, and all the people," held in honour and
ylon'jied by the general multitude, notwithstanding the hum-
ble style in which he lived, and the weight of reproach that
was flung upon him by the groat and the learned of the land:
so that there was no reason or room whatever to hinder him
from speaking in the synagogues ; and those who had the direc-
tion of them, even if they had been otherwise disposed in theii
own hearts, could not refuse to allow the privilege, where the
riykt was so universally acknowledged, out of the respect which
they were constrained to exercise toward popular sentiment.
The apostles, who were also endowed with the highest ability
to teach, made use of the same opportunity for preaching- to
the people ; and for a time, the Gospel uttered its loudest sound,
week after week, from the pulpit of the synagogue : but it soon
became too offensive to Jewish prejudice and pride to be quietly
endured, and was accordingly expelled, to seek for itaelf a
separate accommodation, in some different quarter. We have
on record a full exhortation delivered on one occasion by Paul
ia the synagogue of Antioch, in Pisidia, which may give us
some idea of the style in which he was accustomed to improve
such opportunity for proclaiming the glorious doctrines of the
cross. (Acts xiii. 1441.)
It has been already intimated, that it was the business of
tbo-! who had the supreme direction of the synagogue, not
uiy to superintend and direct ite public worship, but U> exer-
cise some sort of yovernment, also, over the congregation that
belonged to it. They were invested with authority to take
sognisauce of particular offends, and 'nflict discipline upor
*12 HIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
such <,f their society as were found guilty of them Th'-j
might employ, it seems, private repntof and public r<l<uk* t
and when the offence was held particularly grievous, or 'li-jsc
milder means proved unavailing to bring the offender to re-
pentance and amendment, the more terrible penalty of c.r <rm-
mnnicati/m was at their disposal. This, we are told, might b*
either pnrtfnf, in which case the person on whom it fell wa*
cut off from the liberty of free intercourse with every person
out of his own family for the space of thirty days, though he
was still allowed to enter the synagogue, provided he came
not within four cubits of anybody that was in it; and this was
the LESSER EXCOMMUNICATION : or it was complete, excluding
him from all the privileges of the synagogues entirely, am
cutting him off, as a heathen man, from the worshipping
assemblies of his people; and then it was denominated the
GREATER EXCOMMUNICATION. The design of each was, to
produce in the offender humiliation and sorrow for his conduct,
and to bring about a reformation of temper and practice, in
whatever respect he had been found guilty; whence it was
common to inflict the heavier sentence only after the other
had been made use of once or twice without accomplishing
its purpose. It is not clear that these two sorts of excommu-
nication were so distinctly recognised in the time of our Saviour
as they came to be at a later period; but we have sufficient
notice that the punishment itself was in general use, and, as
it seems, under its most severe form, so as to be held in uni-
versal dread by the people. The malice of our Saviour's ene-
mies took advantage of the power which was thus lodged in
their hands, to hinder the influence of his doctrine : they
agreed, and caused it to be understood, that if any man did
confess that he was Christ, he should I*- put out of the *ynn-
goyue ; and many, we are told, even such as stood high in
society, were deterred, by this consideration, from making such
a confession, though they were convinced of his true character;
for they loved the praise of men more than the praise of God.
(John ix. 22, 34, xii. 42, 43.) The rulers of the synagogue
had power to inflict, also, when it was deemed proper, the
punishment of srouryiny, which, as we have already seen,
might consist of any number of stripes under forty, but was in
no case allowed to exceed that amount. Though full enough
of severity and shame, it was not reckoned so disgraceful 01
terrible, by any means, as excommunication. Our Saviour
warned his disciple? to expect the one as well as the other.
(^Matt. x. 17, John xvi. 2.)
The Jewish synagogue is entitled to our careful attention
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIER. 413
m its own account, as an institution full of wisdom in all its
general arrangement, to which the true religion has been
greatly indebted in ancient time : but it derives a still stronger
claim upon our interests and regard, from the consideration
that our Lord was pleased to have it used as a model or pattern
in the original constitution of the Christian Church; so that
both in its service and in its government, as all who have
thoroughly examined the matter are agreed, the latter became
u lively image of the former ; and though in certain respectu
altered, of course, to a somewhat different aspect, was made to
exhibit, on the whole, the general outline of its features, with
clear and striking resemblance. Hence, a familiar acquaintance
with the order and usages of the synagogue cannot fail to
contribute much to a right understanding of what we find
written in the New Testament relative to the manner of the
early churches; and even the most general information on the
subject sheds light, in this way, on such points, and is adapted
to guard the mind from error, and help it to a fair conception
of truth, when it attempts to interpret the language of reve-
lation concerning them. As the synagoguges had their presi-
dents, their companies of elders, and their deacons, so had the
churches; and as an evidence that the officers of one were
considered as corresponding in every respect with those of the
other, we find the names, as well as the general powers, with
which they were distinguished in the Jewish congregations,
faithfully appropriated to them in the assemblies of the Chris-
tians. (Acts vi. 1 6, xx. 17, 28, Phil. i. 1, 1 Tim. iii.
113, v. 17, Tit. i. 5, 7, Heb. xiii. 7, 17, 1 Pet. v. 14.)
We find, too, as far as we have any information on the subject,
the same mode of worship, in a great degree, with that of the
lynagogues, practised in the early churches ; only those who
had the direction of it, in the latter case, were not accustomed
to employ other persons to take the lead in religious exercises,
under their eye, and in their stead, in the same way as the
rulers of the synagogues used to do ; but in almost all cases
exercised, themselves, in this respect, the right, for the use
of which they were responsible. Thus there was no such a
person in the churche* as the angel of the synayoyw., who,
without any official character, was employed to go before the
^ongregation in their prayers : the presiding elder, or bi&hup {
himself, discharged this duty, as well as that of addressing the
people with religious instruction ; on which account, as it
seems, he was sometimes distinguished by the appellation of
the aiujel of the. church, as we find the bishops of the seven
ehurches of Asia severally denominated in the second and
414 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
third chapters of the book of Revelation.* It may be remarked,
also, that the Lord's Supper, which was regularly eeletntod
in the Christian churches every week, was an institution alto-
gether peculiar to their worship, to which there was nothing
that corresponded, in any way whatever, in the services of the
synagogue.
CHAPTER IX.
RELIGIOUS SECTS.
THE Jews, before the time of Christ, had become very ex-
ten*ively dispersed. Various causes had contributed to scatter
them into every country of the civilized world, and they did
not fail to make proselytes to their religion wherever they
happened to reside. Thus God was pleased, in his sovereign
wisdom , to prepare the way for the dissemination of the light
of the gospel among all nations; for, not only was some
knowledge of the first principles of all true religion diffused
abroad by this means, but an opening was secured for the
introduction of Christianity into every part of the Roman
empire ; since, in every important place to which the apostles
came, they found those that professed the Jewish religion ;
and being Jews themselves, were always allowed at tirst to
preach in the synagogues. These Jews, dispersed among
the Gentiles, (John vii. 35,) carefully preserved themselves,
wherever they dwelt, separate from other people, and still con-
tinued to cherish, with religious fidelity, their connection with
the temple of Jerusalem; not only paying for its use the
yearly half-shekel tax, as regularly as their brethren in Pales-
tine, but making it their practice, also, to visit it personally,
for the celebration of their great festivals, as often as circum-
stances would allow ; or, when this could not be done, to send
gifts by the hands of others. (Acts ii. 5 11.) In Egypt,
indeed, where a great number of them resided, they had
erected, about 150 years before the time of our Saviour, a
"The only question respecting these angflt, or bithopt of the churchet, is, whether,
they were patUrrt qf tingle ctiurchrt, or dincetun bithopt, who xuperintended all the
churche* within a certain district, and who were .superior, by their office, to presby-
ters We are not dinpoted to enter into a dincuaaion of this controverted point. It
Ljanifostly does not relate to the vital principles of Christianity. Let every in in
investigate thin subject for himxelf. and be fully persuaded in his own mind. And
t not the geet bond of brotherly love be severed by JifMwcsri of opinion r
peeling potuU f external crder and government"
BIBLICAL ANTIQIMTI- S. 41")
uew temple, exactly after the plan of that which was at Jeru-
salem, and established in it a sepai'-it-- >y-f in of public worship,
under the care of Levites and regular priests of the family of
Aaroi., justifying the measure Dy a wrong interpretation of
Isaiah xix. 18, 19 ; but still the superiority of the temple at
Jerusalem was acknowledged, and the privilege of being con-
nected with it, by no means relinquished : so that the Jews of
Palestine, although somewhat dissatisfied at first, were content
in ihe end to wink at the irregularity, and keep up still a
friuidly correspondence with this important branch of their
church. Such Jews as spoke the Greek language were called
//:l f i'Hi)i(x, or Grecians. These were found not only in Greece,
through Asia Minor, and in Egypt, but in various other coun-
tries of the Roman empire, (so extensive was the use of that
language become,) and even to some extent, as we learn from
Acts vi. 1, in Palestine itself. (Acts 5x. 29, xi. '20.) The
whole church, though joined together in general harmony as
a. single body when its relation to th-j r;:st'of the world was
in question, was, nevertheless, not free from sectarian divisions
and disputes. Three regular sects arose un ler the second
temple, and continued to flourish till the destruction of the
state, which differed widely in their religious sentiments, and
charged one another with the most serious errors which, in
each several case, no doubt was done not without reason. The
precise time when they took their rise is not known ; but we
are assured that they were all flourishing in the age of the
Maccabees, 150 years before Christ, and must refer their
origin, therefore, to a more remote period. We will now
proceed to give some account of the principles and character
of each of them in order, after which it will be proper to
notice, also, the Samariteau, whose religious faith and wor-
ship, being derived altogether from the Jewish church, give
them a natural claim to our attention in connection with the
Jewish sects.
SECTION I.
THE PHARISEES.
THE PHARISEES borrowed their name from a word which
means to separate, because they affected to be more strictly
religiouu than other people, and to be distinguished from the
common multitude, not only for their superior acquaintance
with the Divine will, but also by reason of their "Xjcu'.iar into
rest in the friendship and favour of God.
416 BIBLICAL AiNTIQUITJKS.
They believed, we arc told, in the existence of an^rel* :n
in the resurrection of the dead. (Act* xxiii. S, U.) At the
gillie time, we learn, that they held the doctrine of the (rant
migration of souls, so important in certain systems of heathen
philosophy, which pretends that they pass after death into other
bodies, and so, completely forgetful of all their former condi-
tion, continue to act a part upon the theatre of life, while, tb)
frames in which they once resided lie mouldering in the dust.
They held it not, however, m the same broad extent with which
it has been received in these systems : they did not admit that a
human soul might ever pass into the body of a dumb animal,
'0 as to put any person in danger of destroying his grandfather
when he might venture to kill a calf or a chicken ; and they
did not allow that all souls were appointed to re-appear in suc-
cessive lives after this fashion. It was considered a privilege,
it seems, which only the comparatively righteous were allowed
to enjoy, after being rewarded for a time in their separate state,
while the spirits of the wicked were doomed to go away into
everlasting torments. It has been supposed, that there is a re-
ference to this sentiment in that question which was put to our
Saviour by his disciples, concerning the blind man of whom
we have an account in the ninth chapter of the Gospel of John
Master, who did sin, ^/i/'.s man or It /.s />un ///x, that hr ;/<<.>
Ifjrn blind? for it is not easy to understand how the birth of
any one could be imagined to be thus unfortunate on account
of his own sinfulncss, unless under the idea of a previous life
enjoyed by the soul in some other body. How this doctrine
of transmigration was made to accommodate itself to the doc
trine of the resurrection, which it has just been intimated wan
entertained by the same sect, is not by any means clear. Some
have thought, that they were not really different doctrines at
all, but that the resurrection which the Pharisees taught was
nothing more than this transmigration itself, which brought
such as were not notoriously wicked once more back among the
inhabitants of the earth. Perhaps there was some diversity
of sentiment among themselves in relation to the future fate
of souls; in which case it might be that opinions which were
uever held actually at the same time in all their length and
breadth by the same persons, but were only different notions
of different classes belonging to the general body, have been
improperly joined together as entering alike into the common
faith of the whole sect.
The Pharisees have been charged with holding the doctrine
of fate. But the doctrine of fate is, that all things take place
*)j such a continual and inflexible necessity as le-iv,-* no
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 41?
foi the action of free causes, and makes it certain that an event
will come to pass, as it does in the end come to pass, whether
preparatory means, which in fact bring ahout its result, be put
into previous ofteration or not an absurd doctrine that carries
its destruction in its own bosom ; whereas, the great Jewisk
historian assures us that this sect, while they held the absolute
and unalterable certainty of all things according to the eterna.
determination of God, yet insisted that the will of man waa
free, and that its influence in the great machinery of action
which fills the world, mighty and constant as it is, proceed!
with unrestrained and continual liberty. On this point, there-
fort-, though these notions of theirs have seemed to some as
incompatible as the two doctrines of transmigration and the
resurrection, the Pharisees appear to have entertained, in the
main, the same sentiment that is taught in the New Testament,
ami the only one which sound reason can approve Admitting
the self-evident proposition, that nothing can occur except in
accordance with the plan of Infinite Wisdom, which stretches
t/t'.-:i : />i through all the system of creation, and explores at one
glance, from beginning to end, the whole order of its innume-
rable changes, they embraced at the same time the clear dictate
of universal consciousness, that every man chooses or refuses
in all he does according to his own pleasure, without any other
constraint whatever, so as to be altogether accountable for every
thing that is wrong ; rightly concluding, that it is as easy for
God to make events certain which depend on human will with-
out interfering with its freedom, as it is for him to make cer-
tain those that depend on the operations of the material world
without hindering their regular and natural order; since we
must allow, unless we would represent man to be the empty
plaything of chance, that there is as much order and law in
the manner of all the changes that take place in his mind aa
there is in the endless succession of changes which follow each
other as causes and effects in the system of mere matter, though
the nature of these laws and the way of their action be dif-
ferent in either case, according to the different quality of the
subjects, vis. mind and matter, to which they respectively be-
long.
A primary article in the creed of the Pharisees, and one
(,hat became a most frightful source of evil in their character
and conduc* was, that in addition to the >m'ffi >i law found in
the Hible, and for the purpose of explaining and completing
its otlierwi-e dark and defective system, <;.>d had Jvt-n also an
ji-al law, to be handed down, without being OOOUUtted to writ-
ing, by mere tradition, from generation to generation ; and thf
418 BIBLICAL ANTIQL1TIES.
this, accordingly, had full as much obligation upon men a the
utlier, and was to be deemed in fact even more important, inas-
much as without it the whole law, it was maintained, would
Lave been without light, without order, and comparatively with-
out use. It is needless to say, that the traditions of which this
law consisted were altogether of human authority, and that
(hey had not all taken their rise at once, but were introduced
gradually from the usages and opinions of different ages, still
gathering new accession to their mass as it rolled forward, till
it acquired that monstrous size which it had in the end. It
serins to have been only about a hundred years before the time
of Christ that they came to be regarded as of such high im-
portance, that the written law itself was less in honour and
regard; and the neglect of them was counted impious as the
worst infidelity. The traditionary law, however, claimed for
itself, of course, a far more honourable history, and since it
aspired to equal authority with the true law of God given of
old to Mosed in the wilderness, referred its origin to the same
antiquity, and to the same high and holy source. The Lord,
it pretended, had uttered it all in the ear of his servant on
Mount Sinai, that it might serve to interpret and explain the
other law which was committed to writing. Then Moses, when
be came down into his tent, had repeated it all over, tirst to
Aaron alone, next to his two sons in his presence, then to the
seventy elders, and lastly, while all these still listened, to the
whole assembled congregation of Israel ; so that when he went
out, Aaron, having heard it four times recited, was able to say
it over in his turn, then his sous, after he withdrew, could re-
peat it again ; and on the departure of these, the seventy elders
found no difficulty in rehearsing the whole still another time
before the people by which means everybody gave it four
bearings, and was able to go home and repeat it tolerably well
to his family, while the priests and elders had it so fixed iu
their minds that it was not possible for a particle of it to be
(ost. Afterwards, Moses again carefully said it over, just lie-
fore he died, tc Joshua. Joshua delivered it to the care of 1 he
elders. The elders handed it down to the prophets. The
nrophets left it finally to the charge of the wise doctors who
flourished under the second temple, and so it came down iu all
the perfection of its original revelation to the latest period of
the Jewish state. Thus the oral law made out its goodly title
to respect and veneration, and presumptuously challenged for
itself a right to control at pleasure the meaning of God's writ-
ten word. The Pharisees discovered great zeal in the support
'>f its claims, and employed it in many cases to counteract the
BIBLIC\L ANTIQUITIES. 419
true spirit of the Bible, actually making the word of Gcxl, nf
our Saviour said, of no tffect by their traditions. (Mark vii. 1
13.) These traditions led them to observe a multitude of
ui-.c uiimunded ceremonies, as foolish oftentimes as they were
useless, and loaded their religion with a weight of formality and
superstition under which it was hardly possible for a single
-ight principle of piety to avoid being crushed and destroyed
Itogether.
Thus the washing of hands before meals, which had a very
good reason for its practice in the manner that they were an-
ciently made use of in eating, was converted at length into a
solemn religious duty, and the omission of it was looked upon
as a crime of the most offensive sort, that merited no less a
punishment than death itself. So other washings, as of cup?
and pots and tables, came to be established as sacred duties.
In similar style, they added other precepts, without end, to
the divine law ; and clothed indifferent or unmeaning practices
with the highest solemnity of religion.
In all this zeal which they showed in favour of the traditions
of the elders, the Pharisees affected a character of extraordinary
piety ; such as was not content to conform itself merely to the
letter of the law, but sought, for its direction, a higher and
more difficult rule. They measured the worth of their religion
by the multitude of its outward observances, however empty
and idle most of them might be, and fancied themselves inure
righteous than others in proportion as they outstripped them
in the mere show of devotion ; though beneath it might be
nothing but hypocrisy and pride. It was not strange, accord-
ingly, that hypocrisy and pride should actually characterize the
sect, and that, since they looked upon mere external rites and
appearances, such as strike the attention of the world, as hav-
ing in themselves the nature of righteousness and highest
merit, they should indulge the most selfish passions, always so
congenial to the human heart, even while they seemed to others
and to themselves to be continual patterns of the most rigorous
piety. The religion which they used, though in many respects
it was severe and hard to be complied with, had nevertheless
tico attractions which would have made it welcome to the car-
nal mind, if it had been attended with yet far more difficulty;
it was in its whole nature o*t< nitit!nx, and adapted to secure
worldly admiration for the gratification of pride ; and it was at
the same time highly i i*f-riyhtto-u*j elevating the man to whom
it. belonged, according to its own representation, to the highest
degree of earthly holiness ; and giving him assurance, on ac-
count of his merit in this respect, of the m-jat unbounded favour
420 BIBLICAL ANTIQLITIEs.
of God all, too, without any restraint upon the inward mai*.
which might still rankle with all manner of corruption like the
cavern of a whited sepulchre, 'and without any regard to tht
weightier matters of the law, such as judgment, mercy, and
faith, which might still be disregarded with contempt, and
wantonly trampled under foot. It is not to be wondered at.
therefore, that the Pharisees though they distinguished them
selves from others as more excellent and holy than they, and
were looked upon by the world as the most righteous of the
earth though they made many long prnyrrx in the syna-
gogues and in the streets though they f<i*tl with a >ad eoui.-
tenancr, on the second and fifth days of every week though
they washed with the most scrupulous care day after da}', and
were so afraid of being contaminated, that they would not so
much as eat with Gentiles and those whom they counted sin-
ners, such as publicans and harlots though thev paid tithes
of all they possessed, so care-fully that not even the smallest
garden herbs, mint, anise, and cummin, were neglected though
they affected the most rigid respect to the Sabbath, and to
every form of worship in the temple and the synagogue though
they made the bonler-fri nyes of their garments large and their
phylacteries broad in token of their piety and though they
professed the greatest veneration for the ancient prophets, and
builded the tombs and garnished the sepulchres of the righteous
dead it is not to be wondered at, 1 say, that the Pharisees,
with all this show of religion, were full of the most worldly
spirit, and under the dominion of the most shameful principles
that they prayed and fasted and did all their deeds of piety
to be seen of men that they courted every sort of distinction,
the uppermost rooms at feasts, the chief seats in the synagogue,
and respectful greetings and titles of honour in public places
that they neglected in a great measure altogether the practice
of the highest moral virtues and that many of them indulged
all manner of secret iniquity in their hearts, and under the
tloak of extraordinary piety were full of the vilest extortion
and excess; while yet, all the time, they were blinded to the
hollow worthlessness of their character, and really imagined,
that, on account of their multiplied duties of outward religion,
and the strictness of their formality, they stood high in the
favour of Heaven is truly as they procured for themselves the
Admiration and applause of men. (Matt. vi. 1, 2, 5, 16, xii.
114, xiii. 114, xxiii. 131, Luke xviii. 914.) We
are not to suppose, however, that all who belonged to the sect
were thus egivgiously inconsistent and hypocritical; though
the general body was undoubtedly corrupt, there were not
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES 421
waiting in it persons of truly excellent and upright character,
whose principles of virtue wen- laid IIJKHI a deeper foundation,
and whose morality acknowledged a more cu lightened and com-
prehensive rule.
Though we are told that those of them who occupied the
seat of Moses, and undertook to explain the duties of religion,
used to inculcate a more difficult arid laborious lesson than they
were willing themselves to practise, binding heavy burdens on
other men's shoulders, to which they refused to apply one of
their own fingers, (Matt, xxiii. 2 4,) it is yet certain, that,
according to their own system of righteousness, which made
the reality and merit of religion to consist especially in out-
ward observances, the Pharisees, as a sect, were remarkably
strict and severe. They are styled by the apostle Paul tht
most sfrntfffif *( of the Jewish religion, (Acts xxvi. 5;) and
the occasional notices, that are scattered through the Gospels,
of their minute and careful attention to the wearisome and
burdensome forms of their own superstition, are enough to
convince us that the character which they had in this respect
was not without reason in their general manner of life. Thai
they had much of a certain sort of righteousness, which, though
false and hollow in the eye of God, was nevertheless wrought
out with exceedingly great care and pains, far surpassing the
common diligence of men in this matter, is intimated also in
that declaration of our Lord, " I say unto you, that except
your righteousness shall exceed the righteousness of the Scribes
and Pharisees, ye shall in no case enter into the kingdom of
heaven." (Matt. v. 20.) The reputation and influence which
they acquired by reason of this eminent character for religion
was very great, and made them altogether the most powerful
party in the state an advantage which their pride and ambi-
tion were ever prone to abuse, and which was actually employed,
from time to time, only to disturb the order and tranquillity
of the country.
But while the religion of this sect professed to take for itself
the strictest rule, and affected to do even more than the letter
of the written law required, it not only gave indulgence to tho
worst feelings and passions of the heart, a? we have already
K>ticed, but proceeded also to pervert the true meaning of the
word of God, and to erect a different standard of Humility, less
at variance with the natural temper of the human mind. Thus,
us it added to the truth of Heaven in one quarter, it secretly
took away from it in another; loaiHiiy it with the dreams of
a self-righteous superstition, while it sought to strip it of itf
.ative spirituality -aid power, in order that it might seem t
422 BiLLICAL ANTIQUITIES
accord completely with that defective and carnal, (hot^b
highly imposing scheme of piety which they held up to ihc
admiration of the world. In some cases, they pervrted the
spirit of Scripture, by exalting mere civil statute* into the place
of moral rules, or insisting, that whatever the law of Mosea
allowed must needs be in its own nature right and safe, under
all circumstances ; not making a proper discrimination between
principles of public government and principles of private mo-
rality ; and forgetting that without a continual miracle exerted
to control the minds of men, some things must be permitted,
on account of the hardness of the people's hearts, in the con-
stitution of every civil society, which are not in themselves
proper, nor may at all be adopted as safe maxims tor individual
conduct. In this way, they derived some countenance from
the Bible to maxims that were selfish and unjust, and contrary
to the whole general tenor of the Scriptures. (Matt. v. #1 \'l.
xix. 3 9.) At other times, they adhered too closely to the
verj letter of the law, or rather attached to the letter too nar-
row a sense, which was altogether at variance with its true
spirit. Thus they limited the obligation of the law, which
required them to love every man his neighbour, to the narrow
compass of their own friends around them, or at least their
own people, and considered themselves at liberty to despise
others, and to hate their enemies, as much as they pleased.
(Matt. v. 43, 44, Luke x. 29 37.) By attaching, also, an
undue importance to ceremonial precepts and ovfward obser-
vances, or looking upon them as if they comprehended the
greatest piety in their mere forms, they lost sight, in many
cases, of true morality ; and brought themselves to be indif-
ferent about that spiritual service which the Lord requires in
all who worship him, and without which the most diligent ami
laborious show of religion can have no worth whatever in his-
sight. In this way they verified, in a remarkable manner, the
old proverb which we find applied to them by our Saviour :
Blind guides ! which Strain nut a ;/nnf, and xtrulhur a cmnif !
They made clean the outside of the cup and Hie platter, but
gave themselves no concern about the much n-ore serious de-
filement that lodged within; so that, while it was counted a
sin of dark enormity to neglect an appointed washiny of the
hands, anger and malice and every impure affection were
allowed and indulged with little or no sense of their offensive
nature; and it was even taught, that the commandments of
God had respect only to the grosser forms of the evils they
condemned, as if the secret workings of the soul came not
equally under the eye of the Almighty, or the fountains <./
LIBL1CAL ANTIQUITIES. 423
;uiquity might have less odiousness in his sijjht than thn
streams that carried their pollution abroad. (Matt. v. 21 24,
27 oO. xi. . 7, xv. 1 14, Luke vi. 7 11.)
Though all the Pharisees maintained a general feeling of re-
gard for each other, as members of one and the same sect, they
were not at the same time without differences of sentiment and
practice among themselves, such as divided them into various
subordinate parties. Tradition tells us, that there were as
many as seven regular classes of them, which were distinguished
from each other with no inconsiderable unlikeness, and aimed
at very various degrees of perfection. Mention has already
been made, in a different part of this work, of the 6r'//A'<..s,
who sprung, in a great measure, out of this sect about the
twelfth year of our Saviour's life : they became a separate sect,
distinguished more for their notions about government, or rather
for their violence in urging into practice the general notion of
the Pharisees on this subject, than for any thing else.
SECTION II.
THE SADDUCEES.
ACCORDING to the common account of its origin, this sect
took its rise between two and three hundred years before the
birth of Jesus Christ. It derived its name, it is said, from
one Sadoc, a disciple of one of the most celebrated teachers of
the age, who fell into what became afterwards its principal
error, by mistaking or abusing the sense of a particular doc-
trine incviiated by his master. That distinguished man had
taught tl'Pt the service of God and the practice of virtue
ought to be disinterested, as being in their own nature excellent
and reasonable in the highest degree ; and that it was not pro-
per, accordingly, to employ mercenary considerations, as he
represented them, the fear of future p mishment, or the hope
of future reward, as motives to persuaue men to a life of piety.
He did not say. however, or mean at all, that rewards and pun-
ishments were not to be expected in a future state : but Sadoo
and another of his scholars carried out his doctrine to the full
point of this pernicious consequence, and publicly maintained.
in their subsequent career, that the idea of a world to come
was a dr am, and that the soul was destined to sink int an
eternal sleep with the ruin of the body if sou/ it might b
(jailed, which was not allowed to have any independent exist
i;uce, or U> be capable of separation from the material
424 blBMCAL ANTIQUITIES.
ration to which it belonged. Contrary as the infidel sontin ot
wan to the word of God, it did not fail to find some consi ar-
able reception, and to perpetuate itself a* a principal article
in the creed of a distinct and important sect, even while the
Scriptures were as universally as ever acknowledged to be of
Divine original and authority : for what inconsistency and extra-
vagance will not the human mind, in its depravity, consent to,
for the purpose of covering from its sight the awfulm-ss of
tiuth and shielding its impenitent slumbers from interruption
within the dark and thickly embowered refuges of error?
The wealthy, the honourable, and the fashionable of the world
who, in every age, are tempted to seek for themselves an x easy
and genteel religion, that will agree to tolerate with widest
liberality the manners and spirit of the earth, and to administer
withal encouragement and (juiet to the unregenerate conscience
gazing forward upon the future were not displeased, of course,
with the doctrine of Sadoc ; and still as the number of his fol-
lowers multiplied, and Motored to themselves some name and
reputation among men, it assumed, in their eyes, a more rea-
sonable and engaging aspect, and was found to bring upon their
hearts arguments irresistible in its favour, till at length the
wealthy, the great, and the fashionable of the land were, in a
large measure, gathered into the sect of the Sadducees.
Because of the worldly importance, therefore, of most of its
members, though in point of numbers it bore no comparison
with that of the Pharisees, it was a sect of considerable in-
fluence in the state. It does not appear, however, that they
took, generally, much part in the public affairs of the nation :
the Pharisees had an influence among the people, which always
secured to their sect the chief authority in the government,
ana against which it was vain to contend; and, at the same
time, the .Sadducces seem to have been, to a considerable ex-
tent, of the opinion that life might be enjoyed, on the whole,
full a.s well, if not better, in the easy luxury of a private con-
dition, crowded with all manner of worldly pleasures, as amid
the cares of office and the drudgery of public service. Still,
they were not excluded, by any means, nor did they withdraw
themselves altogether, from places of trust and power : some
of their number occupied, at times, the highest offices in the
Htatc ; yea, more than once, the mitre of the high-priest
itself was allowed to encircle the brow of an infidel Sadducee '
In such cases, however, they were under the necessity of coin
plying, in a great measure, with the views and wishes of the
Pharisees, since they would not otherwise have beeu tolerated
jy the people.
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 425
We fiiiQ the great error of the sect noticed in the Now Tcs-
.uncut; they maintained, we are told, "that there is uo re.
uirrection, neither angel nor spirit." (Matt. xxii. 1*3, Act?
ixiii. 8.) From other authority we learn, that they erred also
on the subject of the overruling providence of God : they
thought that the doctrine of the Pharisees, which represented
all events to be certain, as much before they come to pass as
they are afterwards, according to the wise and eternal determi-
nation of Hin? who contrived, constructed, and continually sus-
tains the vast machinery of the universe, was not compatible
with that freedom of will and action of which every moral
being is conscious ; and they professed to believe, accordingly,
that no such certainty exists ; but that the affairs of the world,
at least so far as they are connected directly or indirectly with
the actions of men, proceed in a way of liberty so absolute as
to be entirely uninfluenced by Divine will, and utterly inde-
pendent of Divine direction. Thus, in their zeal to escape the
dogma of fatal necessity, and while they attempted to com-
mit the reins of every man's destiny as much as possible into
his own hands, they thrust God, in their doctrine, from the
throne of the universe, divested him in part of his glorious:
perfections, and delivered the whole order of the world to the
government of chance if <>rd<-r that might be called, which
reason or rule could have none, but must, according to the idea
of its highest perfection, unfold its series of events from day
to day, altogether without determinate principle, and uncon-
strained by a single fixed or systematic influence.
If, in the points that have been mentioned, the ciccd of the
Sadducees was sadly erroneous, when compared with that of
the Pharisees, it was greatly to be preferred to it in the re-
spect which it showed for the written word of God. It rejected
altogether the authority of that oral law of which the Phari
made so wicked a use, and rightly insisted that the Scrip
tures, of themselves, were abundantly sufficient to direct the
faith and practice of men ; that they ought to be received as
the only infallible revelation of God's will; and that to allow
any tradition whatever an equal sacr jdncss, was presumptuous
and profane. It has been suspected by some, that while it
thus laudably trampled under foot the traditions of the elders,
:t covered the merit of that zeal with shame as great by pro-
ceeding yet farther to disclaim a large part of the Bible itself;
refusing to acknowledge as the word of God any thing more
than the pcntateuch, or five books of Moses, after the manner
of the Samaritai.s, with whom Sadoc, it is said, took refuge t'<>>
a time, to escape the displeasure of his own couulryuieu,
420 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
he first l>egan to publish his doctrine. This idea, it vaunt bt
acknowledged) semis to have no small weight of probability
ill its favour, from the consideration that tin-re is ,-ueh eleai
Contradiction to the leading .sentiment of the Saddneee sect,
in other parts of Scripture, as it is hard to see how they conlii
get along with it at all, unless by rejecting the 'vhole ; and it
Appears, moreover, to derive indirect confirmation from tin;
f.ict, that our Saviour, when he urged the authority of God'*
word against their doctrine, on a certain occasion, drew his
argument only from the pentateuch, when he might have
b.-ought more direct and explicit testimony, as it would seem,
from other portions of revelation, if all the Jewish Bible had
been received by those whom he undertook to convince of
i rn>r. (Matt. xxii. 31, 32.) Still, it is an idoa unsupported
by any positive evidence whatever ; and, more than this, it is
pretty clearly discovered to be erroneous, from the use that is
found, out of the Jewish writings, to have been made in con-
troversy with the Sadducees, of other books of the Old Testa-
ment, besides those of Moses, and even by the sect itself, in
support of its own opinions, while no charge of rejecting any
part of revelation is ever urged against them.
The Sadducees are represented to have been characterized,
in general, by a selfish and unsociable spirit. Without much
sectarian interest to knit them in friendly union among them-
selves, they felt still less regard for other members of the
community; and as, according to their system, the man who
secured for himself the greatest amount of personal enjoyment
in this present world was supposed to make the best use of
life, they appear to have contracted the sympathies of their
nature within a narrow compass, and to have made it tlieir
great concern to fill their own houses with comfort and pleasure
and to shut out from them the Bound of sorrow, deliberately
closing their hearts against all the gentle powers of charity,
and leaving all the rest of the world to their fortune, evil 01
happy, with cold and careless indifference. The poor, and
especially the unfortunate, were excluded from their favourable
regard : they overlooked them with unfeeling neglect. It
may be, however, that calumny has flung a darker colouring
over the picture of the Sadducee character, in this respect,
than the original ever gave reason for.
The sect of the Sadducees, it seems, did not retain much of
its importance long after the destruction of the temple and
the state. It shrunk at last into insignificance, and expired ;
while that of the Pharisees continually diffused and strengthened
tin authority of its creed, till in the end, though its name hat
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 4*27
a out of use, it* *?/////< ///> have become the almost unani-
mous faith of the whole Jewish people. There is still, how-
over, a little sect a very little one that dares to dissent
from the general body, and rejeet, like the Sadducees of old,
the whole system of traditions, acknowledging only the written
irord to be of supreme and Divine authority, in every (juestinn
of religious faith or practice. It has been imagined by some,
that it ought to be regarded as the feeble remnant of the
ancieut sect of Sadoc itself, still struggling to sustain it
after so many centuries, amid the triumphs of it.s rival; but
since it disclaims altogether the Sadducee infidelity, admitting
the existence of angels, and allowing the reality of a future
state, there seems to be no good reason to derive it from so
foul an original. The sect of the Caraites (for so they are
called) has been in existence more than a thousand years, all
along bearing witness for the true word of God, against the
overwhelming influence of the Ritltlthiisls, as the party that
embraces the Pharisee doctrine of traditions has come to be
denominated, and endeavouring to retain, in their little body,
some image of the ancient faith of Israel, amid the melancholy
rubbish of superstition and corruption that is Dithered upon
the ruins of their national religion.
SECTION III.
THE ESSENES.
THE Exsenes are not noticed in the New Testament: for
although their sect was in as flourishing a state in the days of
our Saviour as it ever was at any time, yet their manner of
life separated them in a great measure from the scenes of his
ministry, and cut them off from all connection with the in-
teresting events of his history. All our knowledge of this
remarkable class of Jews, accordingly, is derived from other
sources j not, however, through the streams of uncertain tra-
dition, as in some other cases we ale compelled to derive in-
formation from the distant region of antiquity, but by the
testimony of authentic history, conveyed in sure and regulai
channels over all the intervening waste of time.
The Essenes lived together in separate societies of their
own, withdrawing tin mselves altogether from public cares,
refusing to participate in the general employments and interest*
of the world, and adopting for their habitual use a system of
principles and manners so utterly diverse from all the coimnor
28 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
plan of life around them, that it became completely impract*
a-able for them to mingle in any free intercourse with the H-M
of the nation: they constituted, in short, an order of monks;
were led, by religious feeling, to tear themselves away from
the whirlpool of society, so full of danger to the soul, and so
fatal to almost all that move within its sweep, and to work out
in retirement, with rigorous diligence, the great and arduoui
preparation for a world to come, for which, supremely, the
tri;il of human life is allowed to every child of Adam. They
considered the business of piety so important, that it called
for the continual, and as far as possible for the r /<///. -/>. caro
of every person that hoped to secure its blessings ; and they
looked upon the world, at the same time, as so contrary, in all
its influence, to the spirit of devotion and upon the constitu-
tion of the human heart, as so disposed through moral de-
rangement to yield to tins influence, and so almost inevitably
liable to lead to ruin and death, when allowed to proceed in
any measure according to its natural operation, that it seemed
to them the wisest and the only safe course to seek security
by Jfi/ini/, as far as it was in their power, from the vantage-
ground of the enemy, and by making it the painful toil of life
to extinguish or eradicate, by self-denial and mortification of
the body, the treacherous principles of evil that lodged in their
own bosoms. It was the same way of thinking, which, in later
times, carried many a Christian hermit away from the tumult
of society, to take up his lonely dwell'ng in the wilderness or
the mountain cave, and in the end erected the monastery and
the nunnery in every district of the church.
It has been conjectured, that this third Jewish sect had its
origin in Egypt, where so large a body of the nation came to
be settled under the second temple : an idea that gathers some
plausibility from the consideration, that the climate of that
country has always been peculiarly adapted to create and
cherish such a temper of mind as disposes persons to the sort
of feeling and the manner of life that monkery requires. At
any rate, a very considerable proportion of the s< et, which
altogether, of course, wits quite small, was found in Egypt;
mil it was that part of it, too, which carried to the most rigor-
ous extreme the principles of its constitution. They had some
little societies also in other countries, into which the Jews
were dispersed : but still their chief strength was at last in
Palestine itself, where, we are told, about four thousand of
them resided, principally upon the western shore of the Dead
Sea. These last were in several respects less rigid than their
brethren of Egypt, not thinking it necessary to retire 90 com-
BIBLICAL AXTIQUIT.'ES. 420
pUtely from the midst of ordinary life, and not caring to cut
themselves olT, to the same extent, from its common pursuits.
Ileuce tne sect consisted properly of two classes of members,
viz. the practical Essenes, who were found for the most par*
iu Palestine; and t\ie*cont>-injiftitice Essencs, who had their
resilience especially in Egypt. The name h'ssents was appro
priated, in a great measure, altogether to the practical clasa
iu Judea, while those in Egypt were styled Tfterapeutca ; the
last name, however, is only the first one translated into Greek,
and both mean Physicians ; a title which the sect assumed,
not so much on account of any acquaintance with the art of
healing bodily diseases, which some of them might have hud,
as because they made the health of the soul their great care,
and professed to cure its infinitely more dangerous maladies.
The Essenes of Palestine, although they deemed it advi.-al>lo
to keep at a distance from large cities, had no objection to liv-
ing in towns and villages, and were accustomed not only to
pay some attention to agriculture, but to practise certain arts
alo, taking care only to avoid such as contribute in any way
to the purposes of war and mischief. They held all their pro-
perty in common, living, wherever they were found, in societies
by themselves, uniting the fruits of their labour in one stock,
and all receiving out of it whatever they needed for the support
and comfort of life. Their wants, at the same time, were not
such as were very difficult to be supplied : their clothing was
all of the plainest kind, and no one thought of having more
than a single suit at once, which he wore till it was worn "ii: :
their food was at all times simple in the extreme, a pure of
bread and a plate of soup being the ordinary portion of every
individual, at their principal meal : their houses were humble,
and altogether without ornament : their whole manner of lite,
in short, was after the most frigal and unrefined style; for it
was their opinion, that only th real wants of nature should be
regarded in the provision that is made for the accommodation
of our bodies in this world; and that every sort of luxury aii-1
pleasure of mere sense, being suited only to strengthen the baser
principles of our nature, and to hinder the soul iu its attempt
to emancipate itself from the dominion of the flesh, ought t<
be dreaded and avoided with the most anxious care. Com
ni'-ree, aeeordingly, as designed to minister only to the unnatural
and unreasonable appetites of m n, they eon.sideivd altogether
an unlawful employment. They made no use of wine: they
held war to lie in all eases .-infnl, and every art also that w;i
designed i<> lie siibsenieni to its interests; \et when they tra-
velled, th;y thought it not impruuer to carry weapons, iuorde.r
430 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
protect themselves from the robbers that abounded through the
I'lintry : they held slavery under any form to be contrary to
nature and reason ; they did not approve of oaths, and made
no use of them, except when they became members of the socic
ty ; on which occasion, having previously lived on trial for the
space of two years, every one who joined them was required to
bind himself in the most solemn manner to love and worship
Hod, to deal justly with all men, to abstain from doing harm
to any creature, &c. ; and yet they were remarkable for their
strict regard to truth in all the conceins <if life ; insomuch that
the word of an Essene was allowed by all that had any know-
ledge of them, to be worth full as much as the with of another
man. They did not think it wrong to marry, and some of them,
accordingly, consented to make the experiment of wedlock ; but
it was considered to have so much hazard in it that a single
state was esteemed to be more desirable. In their religious
duties they were remarkably strict and regular: in the morn-
ing, they never uttered a word about common business before
the rising of the sun, (the sun never found any of them in bed
of course,) but occupied themselves till that time with their
prayers: after this duty of devotion, they all went to their
several employments : about eleven o'clock, they left their
work, washed themselves with cold water, retired for a while to
their several cells, or apartments, and then assembled in their
dining room to partake of their plain meal of bread and soup;
the afternoon called them again t/< their work, and when it was
over, brought them a second tin s round their common table,
spread with a supper of the most frugal sort, after which each
withdrew to attend to his evening prayers : at the commence-
m jnt and the close of every meal a short prayer was addressed
to God, as the author of the blessing. The !Sabbath they kept
BO carefully that they would not so much as move a dish in the
house during the whole of it, lest it should be a violation of its
holy rest ; and besides attending to private religious duties, they
regularly met on that day for public worship in synagogues,
which they had of their own, where the Scriptures were read,
ind explained by such among them as by reason of age and un-
derstanding were best qualiiied for the task. When any mem
her was found guilty of gross crime, or unfaithful to his profes-
sion, they cut him off entirely from their society.
The Therapeutae of Egypt differed from the Essenes of Pa
lestine only in being more rigidly severe in their manner of
life. They withdrew from the midst of the common world
Altogether, and gave themselves up almost entirely to solitude
and contemplation TUose who joined thorn did not bring
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 431
their property along with them and put it into the common
stock, as was usual with the Essenes, but leaving it all to their
friends whom they felt it their duty utterly to forsake, they
came into the society unburdened with a particle of ita care.
Marriage was not in use among them at all. Their diet wa*
merely coarse bread and salt, accompanied sometimes with a
little hyssop, and the only drink they allowed themselves wa
water; nor did they indulge themselves with even this scanty
fare, except in the most sparing manner, making it their daily
practice not to taste any food before sunset, because they
thought the day should all be appropriated to the cultivation
of the soul by meditation and study, aud that the night alone
ought to be employed in satisfying the necessities of the body
and little enough even of that was needed for this purpose in
their self-denying and abstemious manner of life ; some of
them, it is said, used to become so absorbed in their contem-
plations, and so engrossed with their pursuit of wisdom, that
they forgot to take their food even at the close of the day, and
at times for as much as three whole days together yea, in
some instances, a whole week was passed almost without eating
at all so wonderfully did the entertainment with which the
mind was fed in the banqueting house of Philosophy, enable
them to dispense with the grosser aliment that is appointed to
invigorate and sustain our animal nature ! The women for
there were such belonging to the society never came into
company with the men, (who themselves, in fact, lived every
one separate from the rest almost all the week,) except on the
Sabbath, when they assembled with them in the synagogue,
though in a distinct part of the house, cut off by a wall of
some height from that which the rest of the congregation occu-
pied ; and also at the common table which it was the custom
to spread on the evening of that sacred day for their whole
company to partake together. In their worship, they made
much of hymns, and on certain occasions joined in sacred
dances.
The whole sect agreed with the Pharisees in their belief of
the existence of spirits and the immortality of the human
0oul, aud seem also to have entertained the sa;ne general idea
of God's sovereign providence in the government of the world.
They denied, however, the resurrection of the body ; and a&
thvy looked upon it as the ohief hiuderance to virtue and wis-
dom in this present state, and made it, accordingly, their jrreai
care to mortify all its natural appetites while lodged in it*
fleshly prison, it did not seem to them desirable at all to have
it recovered from its ruius ; or rather the thought of shutting
482 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
ap the emancipated spirit a second time within its walls wui;
utterly at variance with their whole notion of the blesi.ednes.-
of that future state to which they looked forward. They did
not receive, it seems, the trn<liti>nniri/ law .f the Pharisees;
but, while they acknowledged the written word of (IIK! to In-
the only infallible rule of religion, they made use of a fain it'u!
sort of interpretation ill explaining it, which subjected it, after
all, to the authority of human opinions, and opened a door foi
the introduction of all manner of error: they held that the
Scriptures, besides the direct and natural sense of their language,
have a deeper and more important meaning, mystically buried
in that first one, which alone constitutes the true heavenly
wisdom of their pages, and merits the continual study of all
that aspire after the perfection to which they are appointed to
guide the soul; and this meaning, accordingly, their teachers
pretended to search out and bring forward, in their use of the
eacred volume, turning it all into allegory, and so constraining
it to speak, under the powerful control of fancy, whatever
mystic sense they pleased. They did not bring *<tcriji<->x to
the temple, as the law required ; and the Therapeutic, it seems,
disapproved of bloody sacrifices altogether; the !;>- n s of Pa-
lestine, however, admitted the propriety of such offerings, and
used to present them from time to time, in a solemn manner,
among themselves; but with peculiar rites, altogether different
from those which the law appointed. They were presented,
it appears, on the occasions of their great solemnities, in th(
/<//</, after the day had first been observed as a fast, and were
always wfwlty burned, together with much hney and wim'. It
is not improbable that the strange rites which they made use
of occasioned their separation from the temple ; since, even if
they had been disposed to offer sacrifices in their way at that
place, it would have been wrong for the priests to give then?
permission.
SECTION IV.
THE SAMARITANS.
THE SAMARITANS, though accounted as little better than
idolaters outright by the Jews, and though actually cut off
from the sacred commonwealth of Israel, may, nevertheless,
be looked upon as, in some sense, a Jewish sect; since they not
only had their origin, in some degree, from the holy stock, but
received the law of Moses as the rule of all their religion, and
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 433
looked forward to the hopes of the Jewish church with all the
confidence that was cherished by any of its tribes.
We have an account of their origin in the 17th chapter of
the second book of Kings. The king (if Assyria, according to
the cruel policy of that ar.cient age, carried the great body of
the ten tribes away into a distant land, and settled their coun-
try with a colony of heathen strangers a mixed multitude
from (Juthah, Ava, Uamath, and Sepharvairn, on the other
side of the Euphrates. These gradually amalgamated with
each other, and with such of the Israelites as were still left in
the land, so as to form a single people, who came to be called,
from the name of their principal city, Samm-itim*. At first,
they worshipped only the false gods of their native countries,
but being chastised by the Lord in a remarkable way, they
were led to desire some knowledge of the God of Israel and
the manner of his worship, and gladly received to instruct
them one of the captive priests of Israel whom the Assyrian
king sent back from Babylon for the purpose : but they had
no idea still of giving up entirely their old idols; they fool-
ishly thought that every country had its particular gods ; that
the God of Israel was only one of the multitude among whom
the earth was divided ; and that, although it was unsafe to
neglect him altogether in his own territory, there could be no
impropriety, having now learned the manner of his worship,
and being careful to show hiir. respect and fear according to
his appointed way, in showing honour, at the same time, to
other deities, and in mingling with their new religion, as they
might please, the miserable idolatry of their fathers ; so they
/eared tlie Lord after their own notion, and served their idol
gods at the same time. In time, however, a more correct no-
tion of religion began to gain ground ; and at length, after the
Jewish captivity, idolatry disappeared from among them alto
gether.
When the Jews, on their return, began to rebuild their tem-
ple, the Samaritans sought to associate themselves with them
in the work ; but that people would not consent at all to the
proposal, perceiving that they were actuated by no good mo-
tives in urging it, and that, notwithstanding their fair profes-
sions, they had still little regard for the true religion, and were
still in love with their idolatry. This refusal filled the Samari-
tans with rage, and led them to use every means in their powei
to hinder the building of the temple ; in which attempts they
were so successful, that the work was interrupted directly aftei
ite commencement, with a delay of full fifteen years. (Ezra,
4th, 5th, and O'th chapters.) The minds of the Jews wer.
87
434 BIBLICAL ANTIQt IT1ES.
of crmise, gieatly embittered against them by this opposition,
mid the enmity was still more increased by the malicious arts
which they afterwards employed to prevent Nehemiah from re-
storing tlif walls of Jerusalem. (Neh. 4th and Gth chapters.)
\Vlirn Nehemiah undertook to reform the abuses that existed
among the Jews, and among other things, required them to
put away their strange wives, Manas,seh, the son of the high-
priest who had married a daughter of Sanhallat, prince of the
Samaritans, refused to comply with the order, and being com-
pelled to quit his own people, sought refuge with his father-in-
law. (Neh. xiii. 28.) Sanballat, taking that advantage of the
circumstances which he t IK night would be most offensive to
the Jews, obtained permission from the Persian monarch,
erected a NEW TUMPLK on mount Geriziln, and constituted his
son-in-law the father of its priesthood. Thus a regular system
of national worship, corresponding in all respects to that of
the true people of God, was established, and every vestige of
the former idolatry became obliterated from the land. After
this, it wa.s usual for such Jews as In-came exposed to punish-
ment in their own country for violating its laws, or wer*>
excommunicated for their offences from religious and socia)
privileges, to betake themselves, for security or relief, to th?
Samaritans, among whom they were received without difficulty
In this way, the jealousy and enmity of the two people, instead
of wearing away with time, gathered continually fresh encou
ragement and renewed vigour. During the persecution ol
Antiochus Epiphanes that enemy of all righteousness and
truth the Samaritans, caring more for their worldly advan
fcage than for their religion, secured themselves from the deso
lating storm, by abandoning altogether their national worship
they complied with all the wishes of the tyrant, cousecrateu
their temple to Jupiter, the chief of the heathen gods, ana leu'
their aid in the war that was carried on against the Jews, to
reduce them to the same apostasy. (1 Maccabees in. 10.)
After the persecution was over, they returned again 10 the
religion of Moses; but their polluted sanctuary was no*
allowed to stand much longer: John Hyrcanus, the tiiumph-
ant Jewish prince, about l.'!0 years before the time oi Christ.
turned his arms against their country, subdued it completely,
and destroyed, in anger, that proud temple of Saubahat.
All this, of course, had no tendency to remove the old
hatred which each of the countries cherished for tbe other ; it
struck its root still deeper, and flourished in yet greater and
more active luxuriance. So bitter and rancorous did t'.i
mutual '.'iiniity become, that all intercourse between the two
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES 43ft
oat' HIS was brought to an end the Jews ha<i no dealings tcffh
hf S<im<iritan* and it was even counted somewhat unsafe
for persons of either country to travel through the territories
>f the other; or at least it was found -so extremely inconvenient,
by reason of the inhospitable treatment they were sure to meet
with, that it was generally preferred to avoid it, though at the
expense t f making a considerable circuit out of the direct way ;
whence it was usual for the Jews, in going from Galilee to
Jerusalem, on the contrary, to cross the Jordan, and pass along
through (jilead, on the east side, rather than go through Sa-
maria, which lay directly between. We ought not to be sur-
prised, therefore, at the question of the Samaritan woman,
whom our Lord, oppressed with weariness and thirst, asked to
give him some water at Jacob's well : " How is it that thou,
being a Jew, askest drink of ine, which am a woman of Sa-
maria?" (John iv. 4 9.) Nor should it seem strange, that,
when Jesus, on another occasion, passing through that country,
sent messengers before him to a certain v'.iage, to secure en-
tertainment for the night, the inhabit- its utterly refused to
receive him, " because his face was t\., though he would go to
Jerusalem." (Luke ix. 51 5(5.) It appears, however, that
the same prejudice was not cherished to such an extent among
all the Samaritans ; for we are told that he went to another
village, where the people seem to have made no objection to
his presence ; anil it was the common custom of our Saviour
to pass through their country with his disciples, i. his jour-
neys to and from Jerusalem ; so that he must have still been
able to procure among them such accommodations as his hum-
ble style of life required. There is reason to believe, in fact,
that there was, at this time, altogether more of bitterness and
malignity on the part of the Jews than on that of the Samari-
tans in the mutual hatred of the two people, (John viii. 48,)
and that the Samaritan enmity, though it was deeply settled,
did not, nevertheless, so thoroughly as the Jewish, crush every
sentiment of generous humanity. under its weight: this our
Lord seems to intimate in that parable which he employed, on
a certain occasion, to answer the inquiry, " Who is my neigh-
bour ?" (Luke x 31 37) The readiness with which the
inhabitants of Sychar, as we have account in the 4th chapter
>f John, laid aside all prejudice, honestly attended to the
doctrine of Christ, and yielded to the evidence with Miieh it
was accompanied, is truly worthy of our admiration : and it
nught to be remembered, that, wh^n ten lepers were, on me
ccas'on, all healed at once, while obeying the direction >f
136 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES.
the Saviour, the only one of all their number who came back
with an overflowing heart, to express his gratitude, and to
give glory to God for the amazing benefit, was a Samaritan
(Luke xvii. 12 19.)
The Samaritans still continued, after the destruction of tin 11
temple, to worship on Mount Gerizim, and to insist as strcnu
ously as ever, that no other plaee in the world had so good a
claim to this distinction. For they had been accustnm< d,
since the days of Sanballat, to challenge for the place of their
sanctuary, the highest measure of sacredness : they were not
content to sustain its title to reverence on any thing short of
a divine consecration, nor disposed at all to seek any compro-
mise with the pretensions of Moriah ; but allowing with the
Jews themselves, that God had made choice of only one place
for his public worship, and that no other, accordingly, ought
ever to be acknowledged, they boldly maintained that their
own Gerizim had been, from the first, distinguished with the
honour of this ct ice, and that the contrary claim which
Jerusalem urged in ? ivour of her celebrated hill was alto-
gether unfounded and 'also. Here, they contended, altars
were erected, and sacrifices offered by Abraham and Jacob,
(Gen. xii. 6, 7, xxxiii. 18 20,) and on t'.iis account, they said,
the hill was afterwards appointed by God himself, to be the
place of blessing, when the Israelites entered the promised
land, and they were required to -build an altar upon it, and to
present burnt-offerings and peace-offerings there, before the
Lord by which direction, it was affirmed, God clearly signified
that he had chosen Mount Gerizim to be the place where,
according to his promise, he would set his name, and actually
consecrated it by a solemn appointment, to be the seat of his
worship in all future time. The great objection to this argu-
ment is, that when we consult the 27th chapter of Deuteronomy,
in which we have the Divine direction relative to this matter
recorded, we find the altar was ordered to be set up, not on
Gerizitn, but on Mount E/*al, which stood directly over against
it, (with the city of Sheckrm, Sichem, or Sychar, in the valley
between,) and was appointed to be on the same occasion the
hill of cursing. But in the Samaritan Bible and they main-
tain their argument, of course, on no other authority the
diffic'ilty is not found; for instead of the word tidal, in the
fourth verse, it reads C/V/-/r/w, and thus at once alters the
whole case. It seems, that the controversy about the plaee ut
worship was never allowed to sleep, but was that which, at
til times, most naturally presented itself, when the quarre!
BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIES. 43":
that existed between the two nations came under consideration;
*nd we find, accordingly, that the woman of Sychar, when she
perceived that Jesus was a prophet, and then wished to give
tin- conversation a turn that might seem to be religious, while
it' should not continue the disturbance which she begun to
feel in her conscience, without ceremony brought forward this
subject of dispute : Our fathers worsfu'pperf in fJiis mountain,
said she, pointing to Gerizim close at hand, and ye, say that
in Jerusalem is the place where men owjht to worship. Our
Saviour, while he assured her that the true church and worship
of God w<?re found among the Jews, directed her attention to
that new dispensation which he was about to introduce, in
which the pomp and form of the ceremonial system should
pass altogether away, and worship would be deemed acceptable,
not at all as it should rise from Jerusalem, or the summit of
Gerizim, or any other particular place, but only as it should
carry on high the spiritual service of the heart, in whatever
part of the world it might be found.
It may seem strange to some, that the Samaritans should
have considered the whole controversy about the place of
worship decided in the single passage of Deuteronomy just
inentioiHMl, and should have not felt themselves confounded
at all by various other passages of Scripture that clearly de-
cide the question in favour of the Jews : but it is to be recol-
lected that their Bible comprehended no more than the five
books of Moses, and they paid no respect, accordingly, to any
testimony whatever that might be brought forward from
other parts of the sacred volume.
There is still a very small remnant of the Samaritan race
found in their ancient country. Their principal residence is in
that .same valley, at the foot of the sacred mountain, in which,
of old, the city of Shechem or Sichem, denominated in later
times Sychar, ( by the Jews, perhaps, in malignant derision
for Sychar means i/nm/.-i'ii,) had its beautiful retreat; and in
that same city, too, though greatly altered for the worse, likt
the whole face of Palestine, from its ancient state, and divested
entirely of its original appellation, instead of which it now bears
the name of Napolose or Nablous. Though reduced to insig-
nificance, for their whole number, it is said, does not exceed
forty, they still preserve themselves separate from the rest of
the world around them, and adhere with the greatest constancy
and zeal to the faith of their fathers; inveterate as ever in their
opposition to the Jews, and jealous, as of old, for the honour of
Gerizim, on which they have a synagogue, 01 rather a sort of
m*
138 BIBLICAL ANTIQUITIBi
a temple, of long standing, and which they All insist is th
place where men ought to worship ; though they have not them-
Belves been allowed, of late years, by their Turkish masters, to
Visit ite summit for that purpose..
APPENDIX.
Lift of the Principal Writers who have treated on the Antiqui-
ties of the Scriptures.
The Antiquities of the Hebrew Republic. By Thomas Lewis,
M.A. 8vo, 4vols. London, 1724-5.
This is a laborious compilation, from the most distinguished
writers, whether Jews or Christians, on the manners and law?
of the Heb'rews.
Jewish, Oriental, and Classical Antiquities ; containing Illus-
trations of the Scriptures and Classical Records, from Oriental
Sources. By the Rev. Daniel Guildford Wait, LL. B., F. A. S.
Vo! I. Cambridge, 1823. 8vo.
The object of this elaborate work is to illustrate Biblical
and Classical Antiquities from the oriental writings. This first
volume is exclusively devoted to a demonstration of the coinci-
dence which subsists between these different department* of
study ; and that coincidence the author has satisfactorily shown
by various examples. The subsequent volumes are announced
to contain disquisitions on detached subjects, and elucidations
of the text, and assertions of those Greek writers who have
treated of Eastern History, or alluded to eastern customs. Mr.
Wait has long been known to biblical students as the author
of numerous valuable articles on sacred criticism, which haw
appeared in different volumes of the Classical Journal
Various treatises on Sacred Antiquities have been written
by different authors: of these the following are the most
valuable.
The Manners of the Ancient Israelites, containing an ac-
count of their peculiar Customs, Ceremonies, Laws, Polity
Religion, Sects, Arts, ard Trades, &c. &c P r Claude Fleurv
Svo. London, 1801.
439
*() APPENDIX.
For (bis third and best edition, the public arc indebted to
Pr. Adam Clarke, who has enlarged the original work with
much valuable- information, from the principal writers on Jew-
ish Antiquities. The Abbe Fleury's work was translated
many years since by Mr. Farnworth. The late excellent
bishop of Norwich, (Dr. Home,) has rcconiunnded it in the
following terms : " This little book contains a oncise, plca>ing,
and just account of the manners, customs, laws, policy, and
religion of the Israelites. It is an excellent introduction to the
reading of the Old Testament and should be put into the hands
of every young person."
Jewish Antiquities, or a Course of Lectures on the Three
Brst books of Godwin's Moses and Aaron. To which is an-
nexed a Dissertation on the Hebrew Language. By Jhvid
.Jennings, D. D. 8vo. 2 vols. London, 1760; Perth, 1808;
and London, 1823, in one volume, 8vo.
This work has long held a distinguished character for its ac-
curacy and learning, and has been often reprinted. " The
Treatises of Mr. Lowman on the Ritual (8vo. London, 1748,)
and on the Civil Government of the Hebrews, (8vo. London,
1740,) may properly accompany these works."
The most elaborate system of Jewish antiquities, perhaps,
that is extant, is Godwin's Moses and Aaron ; a small quarts
volume, now rather scarce : it was formerly in great request
as a text book, and passed through many editions : the latest,
we believe, is that of 1678. Numerous other treatises ou
Hebrew antiquities are to be found in the 34th volume of Ugo-
lini's Thesaurus Antiquitatum Hebroearum.
Jahn's Biblical Archaeology : An elaborate compendium of
biblical antiquities, abridged from the author's larger work, on
the same subject, in the German language, (in four large 8vo
volumes,) and arranged under the three divisions of domestic,
political, and ecclesiastical antiquities. At the end of the vo-
lume are upwards of sixty pages of questions, framed upon
the preceding part of the work j the answers to which are to be
ijiven by students. A faithful English translation of " Jahn s
Biblical Archaeology, was published at Andover, (Massachu-
setts,) in 18'23, by T. C. Upham, (assistant teacher of Hebrew
and Greek in the Theological Seminary at that place. ^ with
valuable additions and corrections, partly the result of a colla
tion of Jahn's Latin work with the original German treatise
ud partly derived from other sources.
APPEMHX. 441
The Antiquities of the Jews, carefully compiled from au-
thentic sources, and tlicir ''ustoras illustrated, l>v Modern
Travels. By W. Brown, D. D. London, 18'20, 2 "voJs. 8vo
-Also, Philadelphia, W. W. Woodward, 1823.
This work is exceedingly rich in one department viz. that
of Jewish and Rabbinical traditions. No book is more full in
regard to the whole routine of the *emple service, as under-
stood by the Jews. It is also remarkably adapted to con-
tinuous perusal, though it must be owned the texture of th*
work is careless, and the style homely.
Calinet's Dictionary of the Holy Bible Historical, Criti-
.al, Geographical, and Etymological in five vols. quarto.
The same, abridged by Rev. E. Robinson, D. D. 1 vol.
royal 8vo.
A Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature, edited by John Kitto,
D. D., F. S. A., &c. Illustrated with numerous engravings.
XV* York. Mark H. Newman. 2 vols. 8vo, 1846.
Tais work is at once learned, convenient, and interesting
illy rich in embellishments. It is, however, the work
of many hands, in Great Britain and some even in Germany ;
an i "f ihege, some are very loose in their opinions. The
work is, therefore, to be used with great discrimination
Illustrations of the Holy Scriptures, in three parts. By the
R;v. George Paxton. Edinburgh, 1819, 2 vols. 8vo. Re-
oriuted. at Philadelphia, 1821, 2 vols. 8vo.
Scripture Costume, exhibited in a series of Engravings, re-
pr- -; Mting the principal Personages mentioned in the Sacred
Writings. Drawn under the superintendence of the late Ben-
jamin West. Esq., P. R. A., by R. Satchwell ; with Biogra-
pliic&l Sketches and Historical Remarks on the Manners and
Customs of Eastern Nations. London, 1819. Elephant 4to.
Observations on divers Passages of Scripture, placing many
of them iu a light altogether new, by means of cir-
cumstances mentioned in Books of Voyages and Travels into the
Ka?t. By the Rev. Thomas Harmer. London, 1816, 4 volg
Bvo, best edition.
Ac books of voyages and travels are, for the most part, vo
luiii 'nous, the late reverend and learned Thomas Harmer formed
rlu- 'ic.sign, which he happily executed, of perusing the work?
of oriental travellers, with the view of extracting from thcu>
442 / PPENDIX.
whatever might illustrate the rites and customs mentioned in
the Scriptures. His researches form four volumes iu 8vo, and
VfCif. published at different times towards the close (if the la.-l
century. The best edition is that above noticed, and is edited
by Dr. Adam Clarke, who has newly arranged the whole, and
made many important additions and corrections. In this work
numerous passages of Scripture are placed in a light altogether
new ; the meanings of others, which are not discoverable by
the methods commonly used by interpreters, are satisfactorily
ascertained; and many probable conjectures are offered to the
biblical student.
The Oriental Guide to the Interpretation of the Holy Scrip-
tures. Two Discourses preached at Christ Church, Newgate
street, with Illustrative Notes, and an Apprndix, containing a
general and descriptive catalogue of the best writers on the
subject. By the Rev. Samuel Burder, A. M. London, 1823,
8v-..
Oriental Customs; or, an Illustration of the Sacred Scrip-
tures, by an explanatory application of the Customs and .Man-
nets of the Eastern Nations. By the Rev. S. Burder, Oth edi-
tion, 1 822. 2 vols. 8vo.
This is a useful abridgment of Harmer's Observations,
with many valuable additions from recent voyagers and tra-
vehers, arranged in the order of the books, chapters, and verses
of the Bible. It was translated into German by Dr. E. F. C.
Rosenmiiller, (5 vols. 8vo, Leipsic, 1819,) with material cor-
rections, and much new matter. Such of these as were addi-
tions to the articles contained in the " Oriental Customs," have
been translated and inserted in the sixth edition above noticed
But those articles which are entirely new, being founded on
texts not before brought under Mr. Burder's consideration, are
translated and inserted in
Oriental Literature applied to the Illustration of the Sacred
Scriptures ; especially with reference to Antiquities, Traditions,
and Manners, collected from the most celebrated Writers and
Travellers, both ancient and modern ; designed as a Sequel to
Oriental Customs. By the Rev. Samuel Burder, A M. Lon-
uon. 1822, 2 vols. 8vo.
The Eastern Mirror; an Illustration of the Sacred Scrip-
tu"?^ ; io which the Customs of Or icn f :;l N ,:!">ns arc clearly de-
reioped by the Writings ot the most celebraied Travellers. By
the Rev. W. Fowler. 8vo. Exeter, 1814.
APPENDIX. 4i&
An Abridgment of Banner's Observations, and the earlier
editions of Burder's Oriental Customs, with a few unimportant
additions.
*,* The mode of illustrating Scripture from oriental voyages and
travels, first applied by Harmer, has been successfully followed bj
the laborious editor of the " Fragments," annexed to the quarto edi-
tion? of Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible, and also by Mr. Vansittart
in his "Observations on Select Places of the Old Testament, founded
On a perusal of Parsons's Travel)) from Aleppo to Bagdad." 8vo.
Oxford and London, 1812.
Josephus's Antiquities of the Jews. 1 vol. 8vo.
Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the
Holy Scriptures. By Thomas Hartwell Home. 4 vols. 8vo.
Various editions.
Popular Introduction to the Study of the Holy Scriptures.
By William_Carpenter. 1 vol. 8vo.
The Union Bible Dictionary ; or, Complete Biblical Cyclo
paedia. With maps and several hundred illustrations. Con-
taining an explanation of all the words used in the Bible
which are not self-explained, or the force and meaning of
which may not be learned from a common Dictionary. Am**-
rican Sunday-school Union. 1 vol. 8vo, and 18 mo.
The Natural History of the Bible. By Francis A. Ewing,
M. D. American Sunday-school Union. 1 vol. 18mo, with
numerous illustrations.
Scripture Illustrations of the Agriculture, Dwellings,
Meals, Books, Tents, Sacred Utensils, Altars, Customs of
War, Worship, &c. 4 vols. 18mo. American Sunday-school
Union.
Hebrew Customs. 18mo. American Sunday-school (Jniou
Evening Recreations. A series of dialogues, embracing :
The Geography and General Description of Palestine. His-
tory of the Patriarchs and their Families. History of the Is-
raelites in Egypt; their deliverance from bondage; and an
account of their laws. The Jewish Service ; the Conquest of
Canaan ; and its Division among the Tribes. 4 vols. 18m<v
American Sunday-school Union.
444 APPENDIX.
ON THE DIVISIONS OCCURRING IN THE BIBLE.
The OH Te.-tinnent resolves itself into two grand divisions
the Cnnuiii'-iil n\\\\ Apocryphal hunks: the former were written
under the guidance of Divine inspiration; are part of the rule
if faith and conduct of Christians ; and have ever been undis-
puted as regards their authority : the latter are of no Divine
authority, and are only useful as historical documents. The
books of the Maccabees are of considerable value, as helping
to till up the history of that interval of time which elapsed
between the ceasing of prophecy and the advent of the >!>-
siah. It is to be regretted that some of the Apocryphal book"
contain gross and palpable perversions of truth, and some de-
tails of an indelicate nature.
The Jewish church divided the canonical books into three
classes, under which form they were generally referred to and
quoted. These were denominated THE LAW, THE PROPHETS,
and the HAGIOORAPHA, or holy writings. THE LAW contained
the five books of Moses, frequently called the /'< >itufi-u<-h, i. e.
'.he five books. THE PROPHETS comprised the whole of the
wri trigs now termed prophetical from Isaiah to Malaehi in-
i-lusively and also the books of Job, Joshua, Judges, Ruth,
Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther; these
books having been either written or revised by prophets pro-
bably the former. THE HAOIOORAPHA included the Psalms,
Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon. It is pro-
bable that our Saviour alluded to this division of the Old Tes-
tament when he said, " All things must be fulfilled which are
written in the law of Moses, and in the Prophets, and in the
Psalms, concerning me," (Luke xxiv. 44;) for the />T/?.J.I
standing first in this collection of books, gave its name to the
division.
Since the completion of the canon of the entire Scriptures,
the general or principal division adopted is that of the O(<t mid
New Testament. The books included under each of these divi-
sions are too familiar to every reader to need repetition here.
It must be observed, however, that the order of the books, aa
placed in our translation, is not according to the times in which
they were written, or the course of the history to which they
relate. Tne several bx)ks stand as unconnected and indepen-
dent documents.
The division into chapter and verse is a modern invention
which it is tu be regretted should ever have assumed a higher
character than convenient divisions for the purposes of refer-
ence and quotation. They should be totally disregarded ir
residing the Bible.
APPENDIX 44.1
OF THE BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTA MKNT.
The books of the New Testament are divisible into thn-
jlasscs HISTORICAL, DOCTRINAL, and PROPHETICAL. The
first embraces the four Gospels and the Acts of the Ap<tl<-- .
the second includes the Apostolic Epistles ; and the last, the
book of Revelation. We do not mean, however, that eithei
of these classes excludes the subjects of the other : like all
the other sacred books, those of the New Testament are of a
mixed nature, and contain /u'xtory, prophecy, and doctrine.
In the second and third centuries the New Testament was
divided into two parts the Gospels and the Epistle*, or Go*-
l:l and Apristles. Other divisions have obtained in subse-
quent ages, with which it is unnecessary to trouble the r-;i<l'T.
THE NEW TESTAMENT is called in the Greek, H KAINH
AIA0HKH,(e Kaine Diatheke,) the New fbtOMCHfOf f '"nmnii,
a title which was early borrowed by the Church from the Scrip-
tures, ("Matt. xxvi. 28, Gal. iii. 17, Heb. viii. 8, ix. 15, 20,)
and authorized by the apostle Paul, 2 Cor. iii. 14. The word
bioO^x*!, in these passages, denotes a cocen<int ; and in this
view THE NEW COVENANT signifies, " A book containing the
tenns of the new covenant between God and man." But, ac-
cording to the meaning of the primitive church, which adopted
this title, it is not altogether improperly rendered NEW TES-
TAMENT; as being that wherein the Christian's inheritance is
sealed to him as a son and heir of God, and wherein the death
of Christ as a testator (Heb. ix. 16, 17) is related at large
and applied to our benefit. As this title implies that in the
gMftel unspeakable gifts are bequeathed to us, antecedent to
all conditions required of us, the title of TESTAMENT may be
retained, though that of COVENANT is more exact and proper.
The term GOSPEL, which is more generally applied to the
writings of the four Evangelists, comprising a history of the
;ransactions of our Lord Jesus Christ, is not unfrequently used
in a more extended sense, as including the whole of the New
Testament scriptures, and also that system of grace and mercy
which they unfold. This word, which exactly answers to the
Greek term KvayyfXiov, is derived from the Saxon word, God,
(Good.) and gpel, (speech or tidings,) and is evidently intended
to denote the good message, or the " glad tidings of great joy"
which God has sent to all mankind, " preaching peace by Jesus
Christ, who is Lord of all," Acts x. 36.
Concerning the order of the New Testament books, biblical
writers are by no means agreed. The following table is com-
piled from Mr. Townsend's Chronological Arrangement, where
the conflicting opinions of chionologists huve been considered
ir.d drcidcd upon with groat cart- anl judgment :
<40
APPENDIX.
Book.
Author.
Place at whifh it
wot written.
/br wHott ute pri-
marily intended
A.D
Gospel of Mat-
thew
Murk
Matthew
Mark
Judea
Rome and Je-
rusalem
Jews in Judea
Gentile Chris-
tians
37
4-1
Acts of the Apos-
tles
Luke
_
Epistle to the Ga-
latians
Paul
Thessalonica
51
First to the Thes-
salonians
Corinth
Second to the
Thessalonians
Epistle to Titus
First to the Cor.
First Epistle to
Timothy
Second Epistle to
the Corinth.
Epistle to the Ro-
mans
62
63
66
66 or b\
68
Nicopolis
Ephesus
Macedonia
Philippt
Corinth
to the Ephes.
to the Philip
Rome
Jewish Chris-
61
62
to the Colos
to Philemon
of James
James
Jerusalem
tians
Epistle to the He-
brews
Gospel of St.
Luke
Paul
Luke
Italy
Achaia
Jews
Gentile con-
verts
G4
Second Epistle !o
Timothy
First Epistle of
Peter
Paul
Peter
Jews and Gen-
65 or Of
tile converts
Second Epistle of
Peter
Italy or Rome
Jewish & Gen-
tile Chris-
tians of the
Epistle to Jude
Book of Revela-
tion
Three Epistles of
John
Qf>Buel according
to John
Jude
John
Probably
Syria
Asia Minor
Dispersion
General
66
96
96 tc lOt
i
APPENDIX. *41
That all the books which convey to us the history of evente
ander the New Testament, were written and immediately pub-
lished by perrons contemporary with the events, is fully proved
by the testimony or an unbroken series of authors, reaching
f rom the days of the Evangelists to the present times; by the
concurrent belief of Christians of all denominations, and by
the unreserved confession of avowed enemies to the gospel
In this point of view the writings of the ancient Fathers of
the Christian Church are invaluable. They contain not only
frequent references and allusions to the books of the New
Testament, but also such numerous professed quotations from
them, that it is demonstrably certain, that these books existed
in their present state a few jears after the conclusion of our
Saviour's ministry. No unbeliever in the Apostolic age, in
the age immediately subsequent to it, or indeed in any age
whatever, was ever able to disprove the facts recorded in these
books ; and it does not appear that in the early times any such
attempt was made. The facts therefore related in the New
Testan-cnt, must be admitted to have really happened ; and
these abundantly prove the divine mission of Christ, and the
aa..ed origin and authority of the Christian religion.
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