.. .... .... I I ," 
 
 SYNOPSIS Ol- !HI::, 
 
 ANATOMY, 
 
 PH YSi O LOGY AN H I STO-C H EM I STR Y 
 OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
 
 B e:. N s o N 
 
SYNOPSIS 
 
 OF A 
 
 COURSE OF LECTURES 
 
 ON THE 
 
 ANATOMY, 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY AND HISTO-CHEMISTRY 
 OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 JOHN A. BENSON, M. D., COLUMB. 
 
 Professor of Physiology College of Physicians and Surgeons, 
 
 CHICAGO, ILL. 
 
 CHICAGO: 
 
 E. H. COLEGROVE & COMPANY, 
 
 1895- 
 
COPYRIGHTED 1895. 
 E. H. COLEGROVE & COMPANY, 
 CHICAGO. 
 
317 
 
 Respectfully Inscribed 
 
 to 
 S>r. 5>an'l 1R. Grower. 
 
PART I. 
 Biological Introduction. 
 
 The determining- characteristics of living things. Barriers 
 separating animate and inanimate worlds. The Cell 
 peri-nuclear portion, the nucleus, nucleolus, etc. 
 Properties of Protoplasm. Observations of Authori- 
 ties, to- wit: Schwann, Dujardin, etc., to the present 
 time. Karyokinesis. 
 
 Unicellular fi/ants-~ < 'Toru\a.," "Protococcus pluvialis." 
 
 Unicellular animals "Proteus animalcule." 
 
 Parasitic organisms "Pencillium glaucum," "Mucor mu- 
 cedo," "Bacteria." 
 
 Unicellular animals with differentiation of structure 
 "Vorticella." 
 
 Multicellular organisms "Hydra viridis," "Hydra fusca." 
 
 Formation of a nervous system Beginning of differentia- 
 tion of nervous from other elements, as illustrated in 
 simpler forms of life. Formation of reflex loop. Higher 
 arrangement of ganglia and fibres. Ratio of fusion of 
 nerve cells and strands to integration of function. 
 Functions of the nervous system in associating different 
 parts of the same body; in bringing the living being 
 into relation with the external world. 
 
 Reproduction Embryonic growth and development with 
 special reference to the nervous system. 
 
 The law of periodicity, or rhythm in nature Examples, 
 etc. 
 
 The law of habit Application, examples. 
 
 The origin of the forms of life The doctrine of Evolu- 
 tion; progressive integration of structure and function, 
 with passage from the single or uniform to the multiple 
 
 (4) 
 
or multiform; from the simple to the complex; and from 
 the general to the special. Physiological division of 
 labor, or specialization of function and differentiation of 
 structure. 
 
 Origin of life Two principal views: "The theory of 
 creation," and the "theory of descent with modification." 
 Teachings of Charles Darwin. The survival of the 
 fittest. Sexual selection. 
 
 Arrangement of evidence I, Morphology; 2, Embryology; 
 3, Mimicry; 4, Rudimentary organs; 5, Geographical 
 distribution; 6, Paleontology; 7, Fossil and existing 
 species; 8, Progression; 9, Domesticated animals. (Mills). 
 
 T/ie American school Teachings of Cope and of Hyatt. 
 Investigations and observations of Rev. Dr. J. A. 
 Zahm. Neo-Lamarckianism. Weismann's teachings. 
 Theories of Brooks. Darwin's hypothesis of "pangen- 
 esis." Vines' equivalent of "parthenogenesis." St. 
 George Mivart's doctrine of "extraordinary births." 
 Romane's idea of "physiological selection." Applica- 
 tion to the consideration of diathesis, idiosyncrasy. 
 Observations of Herbert Spencer. 
 
 Man s place in the animal kingdom No longer in zoology 
 placed in a separate group by himself, man now classed 
 with the "primates" along with the anthropoid apes 
 (gorilla, etc.), the simians of the old and new worlds 
 and the lemurs. Structural resemblances between man 
 and the other primates very great. More difference 
 between the structure of the most widely separated 
 members of the group than between certain of the 
 anthropoid apes and man. Points of greatest resem- 
 blance between man and the anthropoid apes are: The 
 same number of vertebrae; the same general shape of 
 the pelvis; a brain distinguishing them from other 
 mammals; and posture, being bipeds. Distinctive 
 characters are: Size, rather than form of the brain, 
 
 (5) 
 
that of man being more than twice as large; a relatively 
 larger cranial base, by which, together with the greater 
 size of the jaws, the face becomes prominent, the earlier 
 closure of the sutures of the cranium arresting the 
 growth of the brain; more developed canine teeth and 
 difference in the order of eruption of the permanent 
 teeth; the more posterior position of the foramen 
 magnum; the relative length of the limbs to each other 
 and to the rest of the body; minor differences in the 
 hands and feet, especially the greater freedom and 
 power of apposition of the great-toe. Greatest distinc- 
 tion between man and his closest allies among the apes 
 is the development to a higher degree of his intellectual 
 and moral nature, corresponding to the differences in 
 weight and structure of the human brain, and associated 
 with the use of spoken and written language; 
 experience of previous generations, not only registered 
 in the organism (heredity), but also in a form more 
 quickly available (books, etc. ). The greatest structural 
 difference between the races of men are referable to the 
 cranium, since all interbreed freely, must be considered 
 varieties of one species. Ethnological and anthro- 
 pological observations. Teachings of Wesley Mills, 
 etc. Cuvier's law of the conservation of the species. 
 Nature detests hybrids. Tendencies to pass from 
 higher to lower planes. 
 
 Methods of Examination of Nervous Tissues. 
 
 A. Defibering The methods of Ruysch and of Vicq d'Azyr. 
 of Reil, of J. Stilling. Uncertainty of these plans. 
 
 B. The preparation of section series Stilling's method. 
 Apparatus of John C. Dalton. Hardening the tissues. 
 Fixing media. Section cutting. Microtomes, various 
 kinds. Gudden's, Reichert's sledge, Weigert's modifi- 
 cation of the diving microtome of Schanze. Roy's 
 
 (6) 
 
machine. Celloidin method. Staining- methods of Ger- 
 lach, of Hoyer, of Loewenthal. Nuclear stains Alum- 
 Hsematoxylin. Csoker's method. Grenacher's method. 
 Medullary sheath stains Exner's perosmic acid method. 
 Palladium and gold. Weigert's and Pal's methods. 
 Axis cylinder stains Carmine. Freud's method. 
 Other methods of coloring . Impregnating with metals, 
 etc. Golgi's sublimate coloring. Adamkiewicz' stain- 
 ing in saffronin. Glycerin mounting. Oblique illumin- 
 ation in microscopical view. Flesch's artifice in the use 
 of colored lights. 
 
 C. Investigation of central nervous system in embryonic 
 and pathological conditions Flechsig's observations 
 on nerve myelination. Secondary degeneration. Obser- 
 vations of Rokitansky and Tuerck. Wallerian law. 
 Histogeny and nutrition of nerves. Gudden's method. 
 
 D. Comparative method Relation of organic functional 
 importance to anatomical prominence. Edinger's com- 
 bination of comparative and historical methods. Mey- 
 nert's observations. 
 
 E. Physiological method Vivisection. Irritation and 
 ablation of nerves ; of cord ; of brain, etc. Electrotonus. 
 Experimental irritation and ablation compared with 
 pathological processes, lesions, etc. Value of physio- 
 logical experiments to be estimated only in careful 
 association with anatomical data. 
 
 Histo-Chemistry of the Nervous System. 
 
 Classification of Nerve organs. Gray and white matters. 
 Cells and fibers. Neurilemma. Axis cylinder. Schwann's 
 medullary tube. Axilemma. Medulemma. Proteids of 
 nervous tissues. Importance of thorough study of the 
 proteids. Their peculiar place, and the necessity of our 
 giving to them exceptional treatment, for they alone 
 are never absent from the active living cells, which we 
 
 (7) 
 
recognize as the primordial structures of animal and 
 vegetable organisms. The material substratum of the 
 animal organism is proteid, and it is through the agency 
 of structures essentially proteid in nature that the 
 chemical and mechanical processes of the body are 
 effected. Proteids are indispensable constituents of 
 every living, active, animal tissue, and are indissolubly 
 connected with every manifestation of animal activity. 
 Neurokeratin. Its properties and mode of separation. 
 Nuclein, analysis and amount. Phosphorized con- 
 stituents of nervous tissues Protagon. Discovery by 
 Liebrich ; mode of preparation and properties. Hypo- 
 theses of Diaconow, of Hoppe-Seyler, of Thudicum. 
 Method of Blankenhorn and Arthur Gamgee. Results 
 of analysis. Stability. Researches on products of 
 decomposition. Lecithin. Observations of Gobling, 
 Hoppe-Seyler and Diaconow. Formation of com- 
 pounds. How separated from brain tissue. Analysis. 
 Products of decomposition, to wit: glycerin-phosphoric 
 acid and neurin or cholin. Other phosphorized bodies 
 Kephalines, Myelins and Lecithins. N on-phosphorized 
 bodies of unknown constitution Cerebrin or cere- 
 brins. Mueller's researches. Modes of preparation as 
 used by Geoghagan of Dublin, and Gamgee. Pseudo- 
 cerebrin. Researches as to its decomposition. Cetylid. 
 Thudicum's researches. Cerebrin, phrenosine and 
 kerasine. Monad-alcohol Cholestrine, preparation, 
 properties, compounds and derivatives. Observations 
 of Austin Flint. Cholestrsemia. Extractives common 
 to nervous and other tissues Organic and inorganic 
 constituents. Comparative analysis of gray and white 
 matters. Review and examination of the chemical 
 processes connected with the activity and death of 
 nervous tissues. Observations of Gscheidlen, Liebrich 
 and Funke. Chemical history of certain of the peri- 
 
 (8) 
 
pheral terminations of the nervous system and of the 
 accessory structures connected with them, to wit: the 
 tissues and media of the ear and eye. Tissues and 
 media of the ear Perilymph and endolymph. Otoliths, 
 lapilli or otoconia. Membranous labyrinth, etc. 
 
 Tissues and media of the eye Cornea, analysis of. 
 Presence of myosin. Sclerotic. Aqueous humor; 
 physical properties and chemical constituents. Crystal- 
 line lens, analysis, chemical constituents, changes in 
 cataract. Vitreous body and choroid. Retina, sub- 
 division into layers. Particular description of the visual 
 epithelium (retinal epithelium). Tapetum. Variations 
 of retinal structures in different regions or areas and in 
 different species of animals. v General chemistry of the 
 retina. Chemical structure of inner and outer limbs of 
 rods and cones. Solubility of outer limbs in bile. 
 Chromophanes or coloring matters of cones; chloro- 
 phanes, xanthophane, rhodophane. Rkodopsin, or 
 visual purple of rods. Historical Distribution in the 
 retina. Mode of separation. Optical characters. 
 Spectrum. Effects of light of different wave lengths. 
 Influence of temperature. Action of re-agents. Effects 
 of loss of water. Optograms, retinal photography. 
 Chemical facts. Myeloidin. Fat. Lipochrin. Fuscin. 
 Action of light on visual purple in living eye. Visual 
 yellow. Regeneration. Vision without visual purple. 
 
 Morphology of the Central Nervous System. 
 
 Macroscopic demonstrations. Leuhossek's and Schwalbe's 
 methods. Histogeny. Development of ganglionic 
 rudiments. Neuroblasts and spongioblasts. Observa- 
 tions of His on embryonic growth. Neurogleia cells. 
 Myelin cells. Development of spinal and cranial 
 nerves. Development of the brain. The velum inter- 
 positum. The cerebral vesicles. Fore-brain, 'tween- 
 
 (9) 
 
brain, mid-brain, hind-brain and after-brain. Develop- 
 ment of cortex and stem. Encephalo-spinal axis. 
 Intermediate gray matter of the crural system. Con- 
 nections of the nucleus caudatus with the rind of the 
 frontal and tempero-sphenoidal lobes. Formation of 
 the ventricles. 
 
 General Anatomy and Consideration of the Intimate Structure 
 of the Brain and Bulb. 
 
 1. The after-brain Bulbar region. 
 
 2. The hind-brain Surface, lobes, Flocculus, Vermis. 
 The Medullary centre. Arbor-vitae. Nucleus of the 
 roof. Cerebellar peduncular systems. Floor of the 
 fourth ventricle. Sinus Rhomboidalis. Vela medul- 
 laria. Foramen of Magendie. 
 
 j. The mid-brain Sulcus lateralis mesencephali. Rela- 
 tions of great cerebral peduncles. Inter-peduncular 
 space. Corpora quadrigemina. Brachia, etc. Teg- 
 ment. Substantia nigra. Semilunar sections of crusta. 
 Nerves in this region. 
 
 4. The 'tween-brain Optic . thalamus. Corpora geni- 
 culata. Optic tracts and corpora mamillaria. Pulvinar. 
 Cavity of the 'tween-brain, or third ventricle. Aditus ad 
 aquaeductum sylvii. Recessus infundibuli. Striae 
 corneae. Ansa intergenicularis. Taenia thalami. 
 Ganglion habenulee. Conarium. Posterior commis- 
 sure. Structures in ventral aspect. 
 
 5. The great brain The hemispheres. The brain-mantle. 
 The basal ganglia. Caudate nucleus. Lentiform 
 body. Globus pallidus primus and secundus. The 
 Putamen. External capsule. Claustrum. Capsula ex- 
 trema. The thalami. Regio sub-thalamica. Centrum 
 semi-ovale Vieussenii. Internal capsule. Corpus 
 callosum. Septum pellucidum. Fifth ventricle. Pedun- 
 culus septi pellucidi. Fornix, fimbria, crura fornicis. 
 
 (10) 
 
Gray matter. Bundle of Vicq d'Azyr. Verga's ven- 
 tricle. Anterior commissure, torsion of fibres in its 
 course. Base of the fore-brain in front of the optic 
 chiasm. Lamina cribrosa. Olfactory tract. Gray floor 
 commissure. Lamina terminalis. Sulcus medius sub- 
 stantise perforate anterioris. 
 
 6. Ventricles of the great-brain How formed. Topog- 
 raphy. Connections, relations, etc. Ontogenetic study 
 of the ventricles. Their morphological relations to the 
 central nervous system. Rima transversa. Tela choro- 
 idea superior. Plexus choroideus lateralis. The Glo- 
 mus. Sulcus choroideus. Plexus choroideus medialis. 
 Third ventricle- Two portions, horizontal and vertical. 
 The aditus. Floor. Recessus chiasmatis. Foramen of 
 Monro. Sulcus Monroi. The psalterium. Spatium 
 supra-choroideum. Ventricle of Verga. Venae striae 
 corneae. Lateral ventricles Cella media, roof, walls, 
 floor. Anterior horn, walls, etc. Posterior horn, 
 tapetum, forceps posterior corporis callosi. Calcar avis. 
 Fasciculus longitudinalis inferior. Inferior horn. Hip- 
 pocampal fissure. Nucleus amygdaleus. Subiculum 
 cornu ammonis. Substantial reticularis Arnoldi. Fascia 
 dentata. Fimbria. Pes hippocampi majoris. Eminentia 
 collateralis Meckelii. Fissura collateralis. Fissura 
 subiculi interna. Relations of gyrus fornicatus, the 
 indusium griseum, nervi Lancisii. Tuberculum fasciae 
 dentatae. The callosal gyri. 
 
 7. Topography of the brain-mantle Lobes, lobules, sulci, 
 gyri on the surface of the hemispheres. Insular con- 
 volutions. Varieties and anomalies of the convolutions. 
 
 Vascular Supply of the Cerebro-Spinal Axis. 
 
 i. Spinal arteries, etc. Spinal branches, course, distribu- 
 tion, etc. Anterior and posterior spinal arteries. Nu- 
 tritive arteries of the cord. Distribution in both gray 
 and white matters. 
 
 00 
 
2. Bulbar, pontine and cerebellar arteries. Vertebral, basi- 
 lar, etc. Nutritive vessels of bulb and pons and 
 ramifications and distribution as seen on section of neu- 
 ral tissues. Vascular supply of the cerebellum. 
 
 3. Arteries of the cerebrum. Main branches, distribution 
 
 and ramifications. The cortical system and the gang- 
 lionic system. 
 
 Relations of Different Parts of the Encephalo-Spino-Neural System 
 
 to the Skeleton. 
 
 Relation of cord and nerves to the bony column of the spine. 
 Relations of cerebral gyri and sulci to the skull. Top- 
 ography of the external surface of the skull. Definite 
 landmarks of the skull's external surface. Primary and 
 secondary areas of the skull. Contents of the respective 
 areas. Topographical relations of the periphery of the 
 body to the subdivisions of the cerebro-spinal axis. 
 
 Histological Elements of the Central Nervous System. 
 
 A. NERVOUS CONSTITUENTS: i, FIBRES; 2, CELLS. 
 
 B. NON-NERVOUS CONSTITUENTS: I, VESSELS; 2, EPITHELIA; 3, SUP- 
 PORTING TISSUES, TO-WIT: (A) MESOBLASTIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE, 
 
 (B) EPIBLASTIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE. 
 
 A. Nervous constituents 
 
 i. Nerve fibres Various kinds found; minute 
 structure; axis cylinder; primitive fibrillae; spongioplasm, 
 hyaloplasm; Fromann's stripes; axilemma; medullary 
 sheath; myelin forms; cones of Lanterman; incisures of 
 Schmidt; MacGowan's rods; nodes of Ranvier; 
 myelemma; neurilemrna; nuclei; nerve corpuscles; 
 demilunes of Adamkiewicz. Histological subdivision of 
 fibres: Primitive fibrillse; naked axis cylinders; axis 
 cylinders surrounded by neurilemrna; axis cylinders 
 surrounded by medullary tube; medullated fibres with 
 neurilemma. Histological variations and developement 
 
 (12) 
 
of medulla: Pathological changes; degenerations in 
 medullated and non-medullated fibres; partial hyper- 
 trophy of cylinders; calcification. 
 
 2. Nerve cells. Relation to fibres; how to define. 
 Varieties. Histology. Behavior to reagents. Isola- 
 tion of cells. Characteristics of axial cylinder processes. 
 Living cells. Granules. Homologies of granules. 
 Nerve corpuscles. Histological meaning of nerve cells. 
 Differences between motor and sensory cells. Golgi's 
 views. Forel's views. Ehrlich's observations. Patho- 
 logical changes. Atrophy. Fatty degeneration. Fatty 
 pigmentary degeneration. Granular degeneration. 
 Vacuole degeneration. Colloid change. Depigmenta- 
 tion. Hypertrophy. Calcification. Nuclear division. 
 Cell division. Observations of Robinson, Ceccherelli, 
 Fleischl. 
 B. Non-nervous constituents 
 
 1. Vessels. Structure. Arteries, endothelium, 
 membrana fenestrata. Coats. Limiting membrane. 
 Adventitial lymph space. Space of Virchow-Robin; of 
 His. Differences. Pericellular spaces. Veins and 
 capillaries. Fat and pigment. Pathological changes in 
 small vessels of the brain. Melanin. Fatty degenera- 
 tion and calcification of vessels. Hypertrophy of walls. 
 Pseudo-hypertrophy. Aneurysms. Corpuscles in adven- 
 titial spaces. Neoplastic elements. Coagula. 
 
 2. Epithelium Difficulty of study in the adult 
 human central nervous system. Study in the lower 
 animals. In human animal best studied in central canal 
 of the cord, floor of the fourth ventricle and aqueduct of 
 Sylvius. Ependyma. Observations of Herms. 
 
 3. Supporting tissues: (a) Mesoblastic con- 
 nective tissue; how to demonstrate; network of cells; 
 fibres in the ependyma; pathology of this form of con- 
 nective tissue; sclerosis; inflammatory processes, etc. 
 
 (13) 
 
(/$) Epiblastic connective tissue or neurogleia. Inter- 
 cellular substance. Boll's interfibrillar granules, etc. 
 
 4. Other tissue elements. Fat granule cells. 
 Amyloid bodies. Observations of Rindfleisch. Leber's 
 corpuscles of Vincenti. Morbific micro-organisms. Ne- 
 oplastic elements. 
 
 Peripheral Connections and Terminations of Nerves. 
 
 In the skeletal muscular system. In smooth muscle. In the 
 cardiac musculature. In glandular structures, etc. 
 Terminations of sensory nerves. Touch corpuscles of 
 Wagner and Meissner. Vater's or Pacini's corpuscles. 
 Krause's end bulbs. Genital corpuscles. Articulation 
 nerve corpuscles. Tactile or touch corpuscles of 
 Merkel, or corpuscles of Grandry. Herbst's corpuscles. 
 Other modes of termination, as in the cornea, etc., in 
 hair follicles, in tendons. Structure of the organ of 
 smell. Regio olfactoria. Olfactory bulb, etc., Jacob- 
 sen's organ. Peripheral terminations of optic; of audi- 
 tory nerves, etc. 
 
 Hinute Structure of the Spinal Cord. 
 
 Structural features common to all the central nervous organs. 
 Elements found, ground tissue, general arrangement of 
 the cells and fibres. Causes of difference in color of 
 the nervous structures. Subdivisions of gray matter 
 in the central nervous system, to-wit: 
 
 i, the brain-mantle covering the surface of the secondary 
 fore-brain; 2, rind of the cerebellum; 3, gray masses of 
 the cord and corresponding portions of the brain from 
 whence cranial nerves arise; inner lining of the third 
 ventricle; 4, central ganglia. Topographical subdi- 
 vision of white matter: i, homodesmotic fibres; 2, 
 heterodesmotic fibres. Nerve tracts in cord, compari- 
 son. Simplest scheme of connections of nerves and 
 
 (H) 
 
nuclei. Explanation of term "nerve root." Nuclei of 
 
 nerves which function symmetrically. Connections of 
 
 nuclei which function symmetrically. Connections of 
 nuclei with one another. Homologies of nuclei. 
 
 Histology of the Cord. 
 
 Of the white sheath. Periphery. Sustentacular framework. 
 Direction of fibres. Size of fibres. Groups of visceral 
 fibres. Distinction in gray matter. Arrangement of 
 root fibres. Size and physical characteristics of cells in 
 different locations in gray matter. Substantia spon- 
 giosa. Substantia gelatinosa. Its development. Cen- 
 tral canal. Commissures of the cord. 
 
 Topography of the Cord. 
 
 Views on section, fissures, commissures, white and gray 
 matter, cornua, etc. Arrangement of the cells. Ante- 
 rior and posterior roots. Sections at different levels. 
 Areas in cross sections. Course of the fibres in the 
 cord. Relations of the posterior roots to the cord. 
 Connections of the anterior roots. Origin of the poste- 
 rior roots. Fibres which join those to Lockhart Clark's 
 column. Do posterior roots join cells or plexus? Fun- 
 iculi in white matter. Short and long tracts. Myeli- 
 nation of white matter. Connections of pyramidal col- 
 umns. Statistics of degeneration. Cerebral visceral 
 fibres. Degeneration of Coil's column. Fibres of the 
 anterior commissure. Histogeny of the white columns. 
 
 Topographical Examination of the Brain. 
 
 Horizontal and vertical sections. Meynert's axis of section. 
 Continuation of white and gray matter of the cord into 
 bulbar regions. Changes produced by the pyramids. 
 Displacement of the gray matter. Lateral columns in 
 the bulb. Crossing of the fillet. Clava, etc. The 
 
olives and the fibrse arcuatae. Opening- up of the cen- 
 tral canal of the cord into the sinus rhomboidalis. Floor 
 of the fourth ventricle. Posterior longitudinal bundle. 
 Fillet. Roots of the VHIth pair. Section of the 
 pons. Roots of the abducens. Corpus trapezoides. 
 Three limbs of the facial root. Large cells in the teg- 
 mental region. Roots of the Vlth pair. Substantia 
 ferruginea. Gray matter of the cerebellum. Origin 
 of the trochlearis. Nucleus of this pair. Vestiges of 
 ganglia in the Illrd and IVth. Substantia nigra. 
 Description of area viewed in section through the 
 mid-brain. Front of the mid-brain. Nuclei of the 
 Illrd. Corpora geniculata, opening of the iter a tertii 
 ad quartum ventriculum, and its relations to the cavity 
 of the 'tween-brain. Sections of the great-brain. Re- 
 lations of the basal ganglia. Nuclei of the 'tween-brain 
 ganglia. Corpus subthalamicum. Ansa peduncularis. 
 Front of the 'tween-brain. 
 
 Course of the Fibres of the Encephalo-Spino-Neural System, with 
 
 their Relations, through the Bulbar and Pontine Planes, 
 
 and in the Cord, Caudalwards and Brainwards. 
 
 Longitudinal fibres of the pedal system. Scheme of the 
 pyramidal tracts. Proportion of fibres contained in 
 them. Crural fibres for the cranial nerves. Constituents 
 of the crusta. Fibres of the pontine planes. Transi- 
 tion of the crusta into the internal capsule. Connections 
 of the posterior roots with the brain. Longitudinal 
 fibres of the tegmental system. Nomenclature of the 
 fillet. Constituents and degeneration of the fillet. 
 Corpus restiforme and constituents. Fibres connected 
 with the olives. Connections of the lateral cerebellar 
 tract. Upper termination of Gower's tract. The rest 
 of the anterior and lateral columns. Posterior longitudi- 
 nal fasciculus. Decussation of fibres in the mid-brain. 
 
 (16) 
 
Schemes or Projections of the Nervous System. 
 
 That of Luys, of Meynert, of Alex. Hill, of Aeby, of 
 Flechsig. 
 
 The Cranial Nerves. 
 
 I. Nervus olfactorius. Comparison of this apparatus in 
 man and lesser animals. Olfactory bulb. Its ventricle 
 and minute anatomy. Homology of retina, olfactory 
 bulb and spinal ganglia, nuclei, granules and ganglion 
 cells. Olfactory tract, relation to anterior commissure. 
 Connections of the tract: Gudden's experiments. Cor- 
 tical centres of olfaction. Comparative anatomy. 
 Relation of the temporal lobe to olfaction. General 
 consideration of the great limbic arch in this connection. 
 Function of the first pair. 
 
 II. Nervus opticus. Divisions of the optic tract. Chiasm. 
 Course of the fibres. Mesial root, etc. Fibres in the 
 chiasm. The commissure of Gudden. Cortical visual 
 areas. The corpora geniculata. Histology of the 
 quadrigeminal bodies. Connections of the nates. Func- 
 tions of the Ilndpair. 
 
 III. Nervus oculomotor ius. Origin of root bundles for 
 eye muscles. Nucleus. Course of fibres, their relation 
 to the nucleus. Association of eye-muscle nuclei. Cor- 
 tical centres. Peripheral distribution. Functions of 
 the Illrd pair. 
 
 IV. Nervus trochlearis Origin, course and distribution 
 of fibres. Connections with other nerves. Functions 
 of the IVth pair. 
 
 V. Nervus trigeminus Central origin. Convolutio 
 trigemini. Course and exit from pons. Connections, 
 portio-major, etc. Ascending root. Lateral addition. 
 Median fibres. Descending root. Middle root. Cortical 
 connections. Peripheral distribution. Physiological 
 properties. Effects of division. Painful affections. 
 Influence on the special senses. 
 
 (17) 
 
VI. Nervus abducens Nucleus of origin. Course and 
 distribution of fibres. As to its relation with the facialis. 
 Functions of the Vlth pair. 
 
 VII. Nervus facialis Primary centre. Course, relations 
 and distribution of fibres. Genu. Connections. Physi- 
 ological properties. Effects of irritation and of division 
 or ablation on the muscles of the face, eyes, nostrils, 
 lips and ears. Pathology of facial paralysis. Crossed 
 action. Sensibility. Communications, in the aqueduct 
 of Fallopius. Effects of division on taste. Fibres of 
 the IXth and their relation to chorda tympani. Obser- 
 vations of Sir Chas. Bell. Study of expression. 
 
 VIII. -Nerviis audit or tus. Constituents of the VHIth 
 pair: Nervus cochlear. Nervus vestibuli. Relations 
 to the nervus intermedius Wrisbergi. Two peripheral 
 roots. Nuclei of origin: i, chief nucleus ; 2, large 
 celled nucleus ; 3, accessory nucleus. Tuberculum 
 acusticum. Relation of roots to nuclei : i, lateral root ; 
 2, mesial root. Cortical connections. Plan of brain con- 
 nections. Strise medullares and conductor sonorus. 
 Connections of the corpus trapezoides. Relations to 
 posterior corpus quadrigeminum and mesial genicu- 
 late body. Observations of Baginski. Physiological 
 properties. 
 
 IX. Nervus glosso-pharyngeits Conjoined nucleus of the 
 IXth, Xth, and the Xlih. Course, relations, connec- 
 tions and distribution of fibres. Homologies of spinal 
 and cranial nerves as exemplified in the IXth. Serial 
 homology of cranial nerves. Respiratory bundle or 
 funiculus solitarius. Physiological attributes. 
 
 X. Nervus vagus, seu pneumogastricus Nuclei. Deep 
 and superficial origin of fibres. Course, relations, con- 
 nections and distribution. Physiological properties. 
 Connection \vith respiration. Protection of the glottis. 
 Connection with the voice, with deglutition, with gastric 
 digestion. Influence on the heart, etc. 
 
 (18) 
 
m. Nervus Accessorius Spinal and bulbar portions. 
 
 Origin, course and distribution of fibres. Connections. 
 
 Physiological properties. 
 XII. Nervus hypoglossalis Origin. Nucleus. Course 
 
 and distribution of fibres. Passage through the forma- 
 
 tio reticularis. Relation to the inferior olivary system. 
 
 Function of the Xllth pair. 
 Pathological observations in connection with the preceding 
 
 subject matter. Diseases of the brain-stem. 
 
 The Cerebellum. 
 
 Central nuclei. Medullary substance. Components of the 
 brachiu.m conjunctivum. Fibres in cerebellum. Com- 
 missures and connections. Elements of the cortex. 
 Connections and central processes of the cellular ele- 
 ments of Purkinje. Distribution of the protoplasmic 
 processes. Plane in which processes branch. Ultimate 
 fate of processes. Tangential striation of molecular layer. 
 Distribution of layers in lower vertebrates. Histogeny 
 of cerebellum. Plan of the cerebellar cortex. Patho- 
 logical observations in their relations to structural 
 arrangement. 
 
 The Cerebrum. 
 
 Intermediate gray matter of the crural system. Intimate 
 structure and connections and relations with other parts 
 of the brain. 
 
 Thalamus opticus Structure. Middle commissure. Fas- 
 ciculus retroflexus. Pedunculi conarii. Thalamic con- 
 nections. The peduncular systems. 
 
 Corpora Striata Structure. Connections. Ansa lenticu- 
 laris. The nuclei considered individually. Substantia 
 nigra Soemmeringi. 
 
 The medullary centres of the great-brain. Classification 
 of fibres in the centrum semi-ovale. Corona radiata. 
 
 (19) 
 
The fornix. Corpora mammillare. Commissural fibres 
 of the cerebrum. The corpus callosum, its meaning-. 
 The anterior commissure. Association fibres; fasciculus 
 uncinatus, fasciculus longitudinalis inferior. Cingulum. 
 Perpendicular occipital fasciculus of Wernicke. 
 
 Cortex cerebri Intimate "structure and physical character* 
 istics. Layers. Gennari's stripe. Baillarger's lines. 
 Pyramidal cells. Processes. Methods for showing 
 fibres in the cortex. Meynert's five layers. Plan of 
 cortex structure, Histological areas of the cortex. 
 Special subdivisions of the cortex. Margin. Imper- 
 fectly developed parts. Cornu ammonis, its structure, 
 etc. The fascia dentata and relation to the rind. His- 
 togeny of the cortex. 
 
 The pineal body Choroid plexus forms roof of the inter- 
 brain. Farther back it becomes elongated into a tube, 
 which is directed forward the tube of the epiphysis. 
 In some selacians, and in many reptiles, this passes 
 through an opening in the skull to an organ of special 
 sense, which strikingly resembles an eye. A cornea and 
 a lens can be recognized, a retina and a pigmentary 
 layer lying in and under the latter, in this "parietal eye." 
 Discovered by Graaf and Spencer. In other vertebrates 
 no relation can be detected between the epiphyseal tube 
 and the organ of special sense, in the adult animal. 
 The tube has disappeared in the depths of the skull, and 
 the parietal eye, as is shown by transitional forms in 
 amphibians and reptiles, is so completely lost that no 
 trace of it can be found in birds or mammals. The blunt, 
 knotted end of the tube remains as a nodule, the pineal 
 gland, in front of the mid-brain. 
 
 Hypophysis cerebri Appendix to base of brain about size 
 of a cherry. Two parts; a prolongation of the floor of 
 the ventricle (lobus infundibuli), which is not proven to 
 consist of nerve-substance; and a tuft of epithelial 
 
 (20) 
 
tubules attached to the lobus infundibuli, and derived 
 from the mucous membrane of the pharynx. Intimate 
 structure. Observations of Flesch, Darkschewitsch and 
 others. 
 Pathological processes in their relation to anatomical data. 
 
 flembranes or Envelopes of Brain and Cord. 
 
 Contained material. Liquor cerebro-spinalis. Composition. 
 How formed. Uses. 
 
 1, Meninx fibrosa, or dura mater; structure and re- 
 lations; peri vascular spaces; pathological observations. 
 
 2, Meninx serosa, or arachnoid; structure and rela- 
 tions; pacchionian bodies; pathological observations. 
 
 3, Meninx vasculosa, or pia mater; structure and 
 relations; pathological observations. 
 
 Relations of tela choroideae and plexus choroidese. Pathol- 
 ogy. Special consideration of the anatomy and pathol- 
 ogy of the vascular apparatus of the great-brain. 
 
 Rotation of the great-brain during process of development, 
 and observations in comparative anatomy. 
 
 The Sympathetic Nerve considered Anatomically, Histologically 
 
 and Physiologically. 
 
 General distribution. Structure, ganglia, etc. Observations 
 of F. Byron-Robinson. Vaso-motor, vaso-dilator, vis- 
 cero-motor, inhibitory nerves, etc. Relation of sympa- 
 thetic fibres to spinal fibres. Schema. Expansion of 
 visceral or splanchnic divisions of certain spinal nerves. 
 Observations of Michael Foster. Splanchnic fibres out- 
 side of the sympathetic. "Vascular" nerves in and out 
 of the sympathetic. 
 
 Functions and subdivisions: i, independent; 2, dependent: 
 (a) cervical and cranial subdivisions, (b] thoracic, 
 abdominal and pelvic. 
 
 Comparative anatomy. Historical resume. 
 
 (21) 
 
PART II. 
 
 Physiology of the Nervous System. 
 
 Functional classification of nerves. 
 
 I. Centrifugal or efferent A, motor; B, secretory; C, 
 
 trophic; D, inhibitory; E, thermic; F, electrical. 
 Gaskell's classification 
 
 A Nerves to vascular muscles: I, vaso-motor; 
 2, vaso-inhibitory. 
 
 B Nerves to visceral muscles: I, viscero-motor; 
 2 , viscero-inhibitory. 
 
 C Glandular nerves: anabolic and katabolic 
 nerves. 
 
 Examples and pathological observations. 
 II. Centripetal or afferent nerves A, sensory; B, special 
 sense; C, reflex-motor, reflex-secretory, reflex-inhibitory. 
 III. Intercentral nerves. 
 
 Physiology of Nerves. 
 
 Excitability of nerves. Exhibition of function. Stimuli: 
 mechanical, thermal, chemical, electrical, physiological. 
 Effects of currents. Tetanus. Unequal excitability. 
 Diminution of excitability, fatigue, recovery. Degener- 
 ation. Wallerian law. Regeneration of nerves. Suture 
 of nerves. Transplantation of and union of nervous 
 tissue. Ritter-Valli law. Excitable points. Death of 
 a nerve. 
 
 Electro-physiology Physics of the question. Instruments. 
 Electrical currents in resting muscle and nerve. Skin 
 
 (22) 
 
currents. Rheoscopic limb. Action currents. Retinal 
 and eye currents. Electrotonus. 
 
 Theories of muscle and nerve currents Molecular, or pre- 
 existence theory. Difference, or alteration theory. 
 Transmission of nervous impulses. Double conduction 
 in nerves. Electrical nerves. Electrical charging of 
 the body. Comparative. Electrical fishes, etc. 
 
 Historical Observations of Richer, Walsh, J. Davy, 
 Becquerel, Brechet, Matteuci, von Humboldt, de 
 Sauvages, A. Galvani, Volta, Pfaff, Bunzen, du Bois 
 Reymond, Ranvier, Marey, Sanderson, Gotch and 
 Ewart, among others. 
 
 Functions of the Spinal Cord. 
 
 The spinal nerves, functions. Effects of division or ablation. 
 Effects of irritation. The ganglia, etc. 
 
 The spinal cord As a conductor; results of hemi- 
 section; of section; experiments of Ludvig and Woros- 
 chiloff, of Dalton, etc.; centrifugal and centripetal paths; 
 the muscular sense. 
 
 The cord as a collection of centres, or an inde- 
 pendent centre. Reflex action. Inhibition of reflex 
 action. Spinal co-ordination. Observations on the 
 lower animals. Robin's experiments on guillotined 
 criminals. Muscle tonus. Vaso-motor tonus. Trophic 
 centres. Observations on their function. Heat centres. 
 Tabulation of reflexes. General conclusions. The 
 question of consciousness. Pathological observations in 
 their relations to physiological data. 
 
 Functions of the Bulb. 
 
 Motor and sensory tracts. Centres; deglutition, respiration, 
 cardiac, vaso-motor, pressor and depressor nerves. Le- 
 sions of the medulla oblongata. General resume and 
 conclusions. 
 
 (23) 
 
Functions of the riesencephalon and Cerebellum. 
 
 i. Maintenance of equilibrium Three factors: i, system of 
 afferent nerves and organs; 2, Co-ordinating centre; 3, 
 Efferent tracts in connection with the muscular apparatus 
 in action. Erect posture. Goltz' balancing experiments. 
 Huxley's observations. Illustrations, etc. 
 
 The afferent apparatus consists of: A, Organs for 
 the reception and transmission of tactile or common 
 sensory impressions; influence of tactile impressions; 
 Volkman's and Heydt's observations; pathology. B, 
 Organs for the reception and transmission of visual 
 impressions; influence of visual impressions; the blind; 
 sight in connection with motor adjustments regulation; 
 disturbances by unusual movements in the field of 
 vision; Cyon's observations. C, Semicircular canals of 
 the internal ear and the afferent nerves; influence of 
 labyrinthine impressions; experiments of Flourens; 
 division of the semicircular canals; lesions of the same; 
 mechanism of labyrinthine impressions. 
 
 II. Co-ordination of locomotion Factors concerned in co- 
 ordination. Locomotor ataxia. General considerations 
 and conclusions. 
 
 III. Instinctive or emotional expression Resemblances 
 between animals deprived of their cerebral hemispheres 
 and anaesthetized human subjects. Psychological obser- 
 vations, etc. 
 
 Functions of the Corpora Quadrigemina. 
 
 Relations to the special senses. Effects of destructive 
 lesions. Effects of irritative experimentation. Obser- 
 vations of David Ferrier. Remarks on the phenomena. 
 General deductions. 
 
 (24) 
 
Functions of the Cerebellum. 
 
 Experiments of Flourens, those of David Ferrier, etc. 
 Effects of destructive lesions. Symptoms of cerebellar 
 disease. Irritative and destructive lesions compared. 
 Localized lesions. Electrical excitability. Results of 
 applications of electrical stimuli in various animals. 
 Gajvanization of the head. Mechanism of cerebellar 
 co-ordination. Relative development of the cerebellum. 
 Owen's observations on cerebellar development in the 
 cyclostome and plagiostome cartilaginous fishes; Myxine, 
 lamprey and shark, etc. Recovery from cerebellar 
 lesions. Afferent relations of the cerebellum; relations 
 to common sensory tracts. Relation to the labyrinth; 
 to the eyes. Efferent relations of the cerebellum; to the 
 cerebrum; visceral relations. Pathological observations, 
 case of Alexandrine Labrosse reported by Combette. 
 Shuttleworth's case of congenital cerebellar atrophy. 
 
 Functions of the Cerebrum. 
 
 Methods of investigation. Views of Flourens. Excitability 
 of the cortex. Methods of stimulation. Conduction of 
 electrical currents. Excitability of medullary fibres as 
 compared with that of the brain-mantle. - Observations 
 of David Ferrier, John C. Dalton, etc. 
 
 Phenomena of electrical irritation of the cortex i, experi- 
 ments on monkeys, convolutions of the simian brain; 2, 
 experiments on dogs; 3, experiments on various other 
 animals. Electrical stimulation of the basal ganglia, 
 corpora striata and the optic thalami. 
 
 The Hemispheres Considered Physiologically. 
 
 A. General functional value of the cortical rind, 
 Physiological topography of the hemispheres. 
 
 (25) 
 
B. The sensory centres. I, the visual centres ; 2, the 
 auditory centres ; 3, the olfactory centres : 4, the 
 gustatory centres ; 5, the tactile centres. 
 
 C. The motor centres. Topography of the motor areas 
 Psycho motor paralysis. Bilateral association. Func- 
 tional compensation. Consideration of sensory relations. 
 The sense of effort. Muscular discrimination. The 
 frontal motor centres. Anatomical relations of the 
 frontal centres. 
 
 Physiology of the Senses. 
 
 Olfaction, vision, audition, taste, sensory an d tactile sensation. 
 Varieties. Law of peripheral perception. Pressure 
 points, pain spots, tickling spots. Sense of locality. 
 Pressure sense. Temperature sense. Common sensa- 
 tion. Pain. Muscular sense. The reproductive instinct. 
 
 (26) 
 
PART III. 
 The Hemispheres Considered Psychologically. 
 
 Brain and mind. Conditions of perception. Feelings and 
 emotions. Appetites and desires. Motives to volition. 
 Ideation. Conflict of motives. Acquisition of speech. 
 Aphasia. Word-blindness and word-deafness. Control 
 of ideation. Attention. Substrata of attention. Phe- 
 nomena of cerebral activity. Phenomena, genesis, 
 growth, development and perturbations of sensibility. 
 Genesis and evolution ^of memory. Psycho-intellectual 
 activity. Evolution of sensorial impressions. The 
 judgment, etc. Lessons taught by pathology and 
 experimentation. Psychological definition of person- 
 ality. Hypothesis of the ego. Genesis and develop- 
 ment of the ego. Experimental psychology. The 
 hypotheses concerning the nature of consciousness. 
 Psychic and nervous activities. Psychometric researches- 
 Observations of Maudsley and Herzen, of Ribot. 
 Preyer's notes on brain metabolism in connection with 
 psychic activity. Sleep. Observations of Despine, of 
 Hartmann. Organic conditions of personality. The 
 principle of individuation. Cce.naesthesis. Remarks 
 of Louis Peisse, of Coudillac, etc. The basic feeling of 
 organic life. Its elements. Contributions on the part 
 of the various vital functions; organic sensations attached 
 to respiration, those from the alimentary canal, those 
 connected with the state of nutrition, general and local 
 circulation. Organic sensations arising from the state 
 of the muscles; associations with the special senses. 
 Organic sensations of the genital apparatus. Compre- 
 hension of the physical bases of personality. Their 
 
 (27) 
 
relation to the higher forms of mental life. Extra- 
 physiological variations and centripetal stimuli as setio- 
 logical factors in dream production. Does physical 
 personality exist in nature? Comparison between the 
 higher and lower forms of life. Variations of personality 
 in the normal state; euphory. Exaltation and depres- 
 sion. Borderland between the normal and the abnormal. 
 Reductions constituting pathological states. Double 
 personality. Personality of double montrosities ; of 
 twins. Emotions in their relation to personality. 
 Metamorphosis of personality. Normal and abnormal 
 sexual characters, hermaphrodites, eunuchs, sexual 
 perverts. Pathological phenomena in their relation to 
 psychological data. Dissolution of personality. Com- 
 parative psychology. Evolution of zoological individ- 
 uality. Hypnotism, etc. 
 
 (28) 
 
LABORATORY MANUAL 
 
 -OF 
 
 Elementary Chemical Physiology 
 
 AND URINE ANALYSIS. 
 
 BY JOHN H. LONG, M. S., Sc. D. 
 
 Professor of Chemistry and Director of the Chemical Laboratories in the Schools of 
 Medicine and Pharmacy of Northwestern University. 
 
 NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS . 
 
 Long's Manual of Elementary Chemical Physiology and Urine Analysis is a 
 book written for students of medicine as a laboratory guide, with reference also to 
 the needs of practitioners as a work of reference. It contains 366 pages about 
 equally divided between the subjects of chemical physiology and analysis of the 
 urine. The first part contains full discussions of methods of blood examination, 
 tests of the gastric juice, use of spectroscope and polariscope and several other 
 subjects of increasing practical interest to the physician, while the second part is 
 devoted to the details of chemical and microscopic examination of the urine, the 
 more important parts of which are treated at considerable length. This portion of 
 the book is very full in the description of practical tests employed in the detection of 
 traces of pathological constituents, and also in quantitive measurements. It contains 
 minute directions for the preparation of the various test solutions employed in qual- 
 itative and quantitative urine analysis, and a selection has been made of those which 
 have been found the most satisfactory in practice. 
 
 In all cases the clinical significance of each substance under discussion is 
 pointed out, making the book something more than a laboratory guide in the per- 
 formance of tests. 
 
 Attention should be called also to the chapters on the microscopic examination 
 of urine, in which the subjects of collecting, preserving and examining sediments are 
 fully explained. 
 
 PRICE $2. SO NET. 
 
 E. H. COLEGROVE & CO. 
 
 Medical Publishers and Booksellers, 
 Randolph Street. CHICAGO. 
 
EXPERIMENTAL 
 
 -AND- 
 
 ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 
 
 BY JOHN H. LONG, M. S., Sc. D. 
 
 SOQ PAGES. 
 
 PRICE, $3.00 NET. 
 
 ELEMENTARY TECHNIQUE 
 
 -IN- 
 
 HISTOLOGY AND BACTERIOLOGY 
 
 BY E. B. HOAG AND H. KAHN. 
 
 RRICE, $1OO NET. 
 
 E. H. COLEGROVE & CO. 
 
 Medical Publishers and Booksellers, 
 Randolph Street. CHICAGO. 
 
DATE DUE SLIP 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA MEDICAL SCHOOL LIBRARY 
 
 lm-7/32